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Who in the singing Jackson family appeared in Different Strokes?	tc_922	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Jackson_5.txt", "Diff'rent_Strokes.txt" ], "title": [ "The Jackson 5", "Diff'rent Strokes" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Jackson 5, or Jackson Five, also known as The Jacksons in later years, is an American popular music group. Formed in 1963 under the name the Jackson Brothers, the founding members were Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon. Michael would join one year later. After participating in talent shows and the chitlin' circuit, they entered the professional music scene in 1967, signing with Steeltown Records and releasing ten singles. In 1969, they left Steeltown Records in order to sign with Motown.\n\nThe Jackson 5 is one of the first groups of black American performers to attain a crossover following, preceded by the Supremes, the Four Tops, and the Temptations. Scoring 17 top forty singles on the Hot 100, after continuing with further hits such as \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" and \"Dancing Machine\", most of the group with the exception of Jermaine, left Motown for Epic Records in 1975. At that time, with brother Randy taking Jermaine's place, they released five albums between 1976 and 1981, including the hit albums, Destiny (1978) and Triumph (1980), and the hit singles, \"Enjoy Yourself\", \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" and \"Can You Feel It\". In 1983, Jermaine reunited with the band to perform on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever and subsequently released the Victory album the following year. After the end of their tour to promote the album, Michael and Marlon Jackson promptly left the group. The remaining four released the poorly received 2300 Jackson Street album in 1989 before being dropped from their label.\n\nInducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999, the Jacksons reunited in 2001 on Michael's 30th anniversary television special. Following the death of Michael Jackson in 2009, the four eldest of the brothers embarked on their Unity Tour in 2012. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly years\n\nThe five Jackson brothers' interest in music began in Gary, Indiana, bolstered by their father, Joe Jackson. In 1964, Joe caught Tito playing with his guitar after a string broke. Upon fixing the string, threatening punishment, Tito's father had him play and was impressed enough to buy the boy his own guitar. Tito, Jermaine and Jackie showed an interest in singing and formed their own group with their father, naming them \"The Jackson Brothers,\" with six-year-old Michael playing congas and childhood buddies Reynaud Jones and Milford Hite playing keyboards and drums, respectively. Marlon, then seven years old, eventually joined, playing the tambourine. In August 1965, before a show at Gary's Tiny Tots Jamboree held on Michael's seventh birthday, Evelyn LaHaie suggested the group rename themselves \"The Jackson Five Singing Group\", later shortened simply to \"The Jackson Five\".\n\nIn 1966, the group won a talent show at Gary's Theodore Roosevelt High School, where Jermaine performed several Motown numbers, including The Temptations' \"My Girl\" and Michael performed Robert Parker's \"Barefootin'\", winning the talent show instantly. Johnny Jackson and Ronnie Rancifer eventually replaced Milford Hite and Reynaud Jones. After several more talent show wins, Joe Jackson booked his sons to perform at several respected music venues of the chitlin' circuit, including Chicago's Regal Theater and Harlem's Apollo Theater, winning the talent competitions on both shows in 1967. After they won the Apollo contest on August 13, 1967, singer Gladys Knight sent a tape of the boys' demo to Motown Records, hoping to get them to sign, only to have their tape rejected and sent back to Gary. In November 1967, Joe Jackson signed the group's first contract with Gordon Keith, an owner and producer of Steeltown Records, and the Jackson Five recorded and released two singles, \"Big Boy\" and \"We Don't Have to Be Over 21\". During early 1968, the group also performed at strip clubs on Joe's behest to earn extra income.\n\nWhile performing a week-long run of shows at the Regal Theater as the opening act for Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers, an impressed Taylor sent the Jacksons to Detroit to help with their Motown audition, which was set for July 23 at Motown's headquarters on Woodward Avenue. Following the taped audition, which was sent to CEO Berry Gordy's office in Hollywood, Gordy originally turned them down again, since he had Stevie Wonder in his spotlight, but later changed his mind, and had requested the group to be signed, with final negotiations completed by early 1969, leading to the group to be signed on March 11. Following initial recordings at Detroit's Hitsville USA studio, Berry Gordy sent the Jacksons to Hollywood in July, hiring Suzanne de Passe to become a mentor of the brothers.\n\nStarting in August, the Jackson Five performed as the opening act for The Supremes, whose lead singer Diana Ross was planning to leave for a solo career at the end of the year. After performing at the Daisy in Los Angeles and at the Miss Black America Pageant in New York, the group recorded their first single, \"I Want You Back\", written by a newly assembled Motown team called The Corporation, which consisted of three composers and songwriters Freddie Perren, Deke Richards and Alphonzo Mizell with Gordy as a fourth partner. In October, their first single for Motown was released and the group promoted it while performing at the Hollywood Palace with Ross hosting. In December, the brothers made their first appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show. Afterwards, their debut album, Diana Ross Presents the Jackson 5, was released that same month.\n\nJacksonmania\n\nIn January 1970, \"I Want You Back\" topped the Billboard Hot 100. Led by the Corporation, the Jackson 5 released two more number-one singles, \"ABC\" and \"The Love You Save\". A fourth single, \"I'll Be There\", co-written and produced by Willie Hutch, became the band's fourth number-one single, making them the first recording act to have their first four singles reach the top of the Hot 100. All four singles were almost as popular in other countries as they were in the United States. Releasing a succession of four albums in one year, the Jackson 5 replaced The Supremes as Motown's best-selling group. They continued their success with singles such as \"Mama's Pearl\", \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" and \"Sugar Daddy\", giving them a total of seven top ten singles within a two-year period.\n\nAs the Jackson Five became Motown's main marketing focus, the label capitalized on the group's youth appeal, licensing dozens of products, including the J5 heart logo located on Johnny Jackson's drum set, the group's album covers, stickers, posters and coloring books, as well as a board game and a Saturday morning cartoon series produced by Rankin/Bass. In view of their lack of covers on otherwise predominantly white teen-oriented magazines including Tiger Beat and Seventeen, a black publication, Right On!, began in 1971 and initially focused heavily on the Jackson 5, with at least one of the five members adorning a single cover between January 1972 and April 1974. In addition, the Jackson 5 appeared in several television specials including Diana Ross' 1971 special, Diana!. Later that September, they starred on their first of two Motown-oriented television specials, Goin' Back to Indiana; their second, The Jackson 5 Show, debuted in November of the following year. During the Vietnam War period, the group was often joined by Bob Hope on USO-benefited performances to support military troops.\n\nIn order to continue increasing sales, Motown launched Michael Jackson's solo career in 1971, with the single, \"Got to Be There\", released in November of that year. Following several top 40 follow-ups, Jackson's 1972 song, \"Ben\", became his first to top the charts. Jermaine Jackson was the second to release a solo project; his most successful hit of the period was a cover of the doo-wop song, \"Daddy's Home\".\n\nDecline and exit\n\nBy 1972, despite Michael and Jermaine's solo successes, the Jackson 5's own records began plummeting on the charts. Partially credited to the changing musical landscape, The Corporation, which had produced most of their hit singles, split up in 1973. Focusing their attention on the emerging disco scene, the brothers recorded the charted song, \"Get It Together\", followed immediately afterwards by their hit, \"Dancing Machine\", their first to crack the top ten since \"Sugar Daddy\" nearly three years before. Despite those successes, most of the Jackson 5's follow-ups were not as successful and by 1973, Joe Jackson had grown tired of Motown's uneasiness to continue producing hits for the brothers. Jackson began producing a nightclub act around his sons and daughters, first starting in Las Vegas and spreading throughout the states.\n\nBy 1975, most of the Jacksons opted out of recording any more music for Motown desiring creative control and royalties. Learning that they were earning only 2.8% of royalties from Motown, Joe Jackson began negotiating to have his boys sign a lucrative contract with another company, settling for Epic Records, which had offered a royalty rate of 20% per record, signing with the company in June 1975. Absent from the deal was Jermaine Jackson, who decided to stay in Motown, followed by his marriage to Berry's daughter Hazel. Randy Jackson formally replaced him. After initially suing them for breach of contract, Motown allowed the group to record for Epic, as long as they changed their name, since the name The Jackson 5 was owned by Motown. The brothers renamed themselves, simply, The Jacksons.\n\nThe Jacksons CBS/Epic Records\n\nIn November 1976, following the debut of the family's weekly variety series, the Jacksons released their self-titled Epic debut under the Philadelphia International subsidiary, produced by Gamble & Huff. Featuring \"Enjoy Yourself\" and \"Show You the Way to Go\", the album went gold but failed to generate the sales the brothers had enjoyed while at Motown. A follow-up, Goin' Places, fizzled. Renewing their contract with Epic, the Jacksons were allowed full creative control on their next recording, Destiny, released in December 1978. Featuring their best-selling Epic single to date, \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\", written by Michael and Randy, the album sold over a million copies. Its follow-up, 1980's Triumph, also sold a million copies, spawning hits such as \"Lovely One\" and \"Can You Feel It\". In 1981, they released their fifth album, a live album that eventually sold half a million copies. The live album was culled from recordings of performances on their Triumph Tour. In between the releases of Destiny and Triumph, Michael Jackson released the best-selling solo effort, Off the Wall. Its success led to rumors of Jackson's alleged split from his brothers. After Triumph, Jackson worked on his second Epic solo release, which was released in November 1982 as Thriller, which later went on to become the best-selling album of all time.\n\nIn March 1983, with Jermaine, the Jacksons performed on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, the same show where Michael debuted the moonwalk during a solo performance of \"Billie Jean\". Following the success of the reunion, all six brothers agreed to record a sixth album for Epic, later released as Victory in 1984. Their biggest-selling album to date, it included their final top ten single, \"State of Shock\". The song was actually a duet between Michael and Mick Jagger and didn't feature participation from any other Jackson. Most of the album was produced in this way, with each brother essentially recording solo songs. Another hit was the top 20 single, \"Torture\", a duet between Michael and Jermaine, with Jackie singing several parts. In July 1984, the Jacksons launched their Victory Tour, but the tour was overshadowed by Jackie's leg injury, ticket issues, friction between the brothers, and shakeup in the promotion and marketing team, initially headed by Don King, who was later fired. Michael announced he was leaving the group after their final performance at Dodger Stadium that December, followed by the success of his album Thriller. The following January, Marlon Jackson also announced he was leaving the group to pursue a solo career. In 1989, five years after their last album, the remaining quartet of Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Randy released the ill-fated 2300 Jackson Street, which performed badly on the charts. After a brief promotional tour, the band went into hiatus and never recorded another album together.\n\nLater years\n\nIn September 2001, nearly 17 years after their last performance together, all six Jackson brothers reunited for two performances at Madison Square Garden for a 30th anniversary special commemorating Michael's solo career, which aired in November. In early 2009, the four elder brothers began filming a reality show to make their attempt on reuniting the band, later debuting in December 2009 as The Jacksons: A Family Dynasty. During the middle of the project, Michael had announced his concert comeback in London. Michael died that same year in June, putting efforts on halt.\n\nLater in 2009, following the death of brother Michael, the surviving Jacksons recorded background vocals for a previously unreleased song, \"This Is It\" (the theme for the movie of the same name), which had originally been a demo. The radio-only single was released in October of that same year. The song did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100, but charted at number nineteen on Billboards Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks. \"This Is It\" returned the Jacksons to the chart. The surviving members of the Jacksons were in talks of planning a reunion concert tour (which was to be served as a tribute to Michael) for 2010, and were in talks in working on their first new studio album in over 20 years. However, neither plan was put into action.\n\nThe Jacksons: Unity Tour\n\nIn September 2010, Jermaine Jackson held his own \"tribute\" concert to Michael in Las Vegas. In 2011, Jackie Jackson released a solo single to iTunes, while Jermaine released his first solo album in 21 years, I Wish U Love. Following the release of one solo album, Marlon Jackson quit the music business in 1989 and invested in real estate. Randy Jackson hasn't been active in the industry since he disbanded the group Randy & The Gypsys in 1991.\n\nIn August 2011, there appeared to be a discord between the brothers concerning a tribute concert dedicated to Michael. While Jackie, Tito and Marlon were present alongside mother Katherine and sister La Toya for a tribute concert in Cardiff at the Millennium Stadium for a press conference concerning the tour, a couple of days after the press conference, both Randy and Jermaine issued a statement denouncing the tribute tour as the date of it occurred around the time of Conrad Murray's manslaughter trial in relation to Michael's death. The show carried on with Jackie, Tito and Marlon performing without Jermaine. In April 2012, Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon announced that they would reunite for several United States concerts for their Unity Tour. Thirty-eight dates were announced, however, eleven shows in the U.S. were canceled. The tour started at Casino Rama in Rama, Canada on June 20 and ended on December 9 in Osaka, Japan. \n\nLegacy\n\nIn 1980, the brothers, under their \"Jacksons\" moniker, were honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. As \"The Jackson 5\" they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999.George, p. 50–51 Two of the band's recordings (\"ABC\" and \"I Want You Back\") are among The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll, while the latter track also included in the Grammy Hall of Fame. On September 8, 2008, the Jacksons were honored as BMI Icons at the annual BMI Urban Awards. \n\nIn 1992, Suzanne de Passe, Jermaine Jackson, and Jermaine's then common-law wife Margaret Maldonado, worked with Motown to produce The Jacksons: An American Dream, a five-hour television miniseries broadcast based on the history of The Jackson family in a two-part special on ABC.\n\nInfluenced by The Temptations, The Supremes, James Brown, Frankie Lymon & The Teenagers and Sly & The Family Stone, the group eventually served as the inspiration for several generations of boy bands, including New Edition, Menudo, New Kids on the Block, NSYNC, the Jonas Brothers, Backstreet Boys, One Direction, and many more.\n\nThe rise of the Jackson 5 in the 1960s and 1970s coincided with the rise of a very similar musical family, The Osmonds. The Osmonds had risen to fame as regular performers on The Andy Williams Show; Jay Osmond would later note: \"Michael had a unique sense of humor about him, and told us he was so tired of watching The Osmonds on The Andy Williams Show. He explained this was something their father had them do, and Michael joked he became really tired of it!\" The song \"One Bad Apple\", written by George Jackson, who had the Jackson Five in mind when he wrote it, was originally presented to Motown Record's Chairman of the Board Berry Gordy for the group to record, but he turned it down. It was then presented to MGM Records for The Osmonds. \"One Bad Apple\", which the Osmonds recorded in a similar style to the songs of the Jackson 5 at the time, reached number one and began a string of several hits for the Osmonds. Both bands followed a similar career trajectory: a string of several hits as a group, which eventually led to a breakout star (Michael for the Jacksons, Donny for the Osmonds) becoming a solo artist, a little sister not originally part of the group also rising to fame (Janet Jackson and Marie Osmond respectively), and eventual decline as a smaller group in the 1980s. The two groups' members eventually became friends, despite public perception of a rivalry between the two and allegations that the Osmonds, white Mormon brothers from Utah, were an imitation of the black Jackson 5.\n\nThe highly anticipated new official Jacksons website [http://www.TheJacksons.live www.TheJacksons.live] was launched on May 1, 2016. Showcasing the group's history, legacy and music, the website has been well received by fans and critics alike.\n\nMembers\n\nColor key:\n\nDiscography\n\n;Motown releases (as The Jackson 5)\n Diana Ross Presents The Jackson 5 (1969)\n* ABC (1970)\n* Third Album (1970)\n* Jackson 5 Christmas Album (1970)\n* Maybe Tomorrow (1971)\n* Goin' Back to Indiana (1971)\n* Lookin' Through the Windows (1972)\n* Skywriter (1973)\n* The Jackson 5 in Japan (1973)\n* G.I.T.: Get It Together (1973)\n* Dancing Machine (1974)\n* Moving Violation (1975)\n* Joyful Jukebox Music (1976)\n* Boogie (1979)\n* Live at the Forum (2010)\n\n; CBS/Epic releases (as The Jacksons)\n* The Jacksons (1976)\n* Goin' Places (1977)\n* Destiny (1978)\n* Triumph (1980)\n* The Jacksons Live! (1981)\n* Victory (1984)\n* 2300 Jackson Street (1989)\n* The Jacksons: An American Dream (1992)\n\nTours\n\n* The Jacksons Tour (1977) (May 19, – May 24, 1977) \n* Goin' Places Tour (1978) (January 22 – May 13, 1978) \n* Destiny Tour (1979–1980) (January 22, 1979 – September 26, 1980) \n* Triumph Tour (1981) (July 8 – September 26, 1981) \n* Victory Tour (1984) (July 6 – December 9, 1984) \n* Unity Tour (2012)\n\nTV Performances\n\nThe Jackson 5\n\nMiss Black America Pagaent:\nDate: 22-08-1969\nSongs: It's", "Diff'rent Strokes is an American sitcom that aired on NBC from November 3, 1978, to May 4, 1985, and on ABC from September 27, 1985, to March 7, 1986. The series stars Gary Coleman and Todd Bridges as Arnold and Willis Jackson, two black boys from Harlem who are taken in by a rich white Park Avenue businessman and widower named Phillip Drummond (Conrad Bain) and his daughter Kimberly (Dana Plato), for whom their deceased mother previously worked. During the first season and first half of the second season, Charlotte Rae also starred as the Drummonds' housekeeper, Mrs. Garrett (who ultimately spun off into her own successful show, The Facts of Life).\n\nThe series made stars out of child actors Gary Coleman, Todd Bridges, and Dana Plato and became known for the \"very special episodes\" in which serious issues such as racism, illegal drug use, hitchhiking, kidnapping and child sexual abuse were dramatically explored. The lives of these stars were later plagued by legal troubles and drug addiction.\n\nHistory\n\nIn pre-production, the original proposed title was 45 Minutes From Harlem. The series was originally devised as a joint vehicle for Maude co-star Conrad Bain (after Maude had abruptly finished production in 1978), and child actor Gary Coleman, who had caught producers' attentions after appearing in a number of commercials.\n\nThe sitcom starred Coleman as Arnold Jackson and Todd Bridges as his older brother, Willis. They played two children from a poor section of Harlem whose deceased mother previously worked for rich widower Philip Drummond (Conrad Bain), who eventually adopted them. They lived in a penthouse with Drummond, his daughter Kimberly (Dana Plato), and their maid.\n\nThere were three maids during the show's run: Edna Garrett (Charlotte Rae), Adelaide Brubaker (Nedra Volz), and Pearl Gallagher (Mary Jo Catlett). They lived in the Penthouse Suite at 697 Park Avenue in New York City. As Arnold, Coleman popularized the catchphrase \"What'chu talkin' 'bout, Willis?\" The ending often varied, depending on whom he was addressing. Early episodes addressed typical issues in a family. Later episodes at times though focused on drug abuse, alcoholism, hitchhiking, crime, among other issues.\n\nSeasons 1–4 (1978-1982)\n\nIn Season 1, Charlotte Rae appeared in every episode as Edna Garrett, but she departed the show partway through the second season to star in her own spin-off, The Facts of Life. Following Rae's departure, Nedra Volz took over as the housekeeper, Adelaide Brubaker. Although she was not part of the official main cast and not added to the opening credits, Volz appeared as a frequent semi-regular character.\n\nSeasons 5–6 (1982-1984)\n\nIn Season 5, Mary Jo Catlett portrayed Pearl Gallagher, the last of the three maids, and joined the cast as a series regular. Pearl appeared in almost every episode until the final season. Midway through Season 6, Dana Plato became pregnant and approached the producers of the show to include her pregnancy. Initially they agreed to add it, but they later decided not to add the pregnancy, with Plato's publicized brushes with substance abuse contributing to this decision, resulting in her dismissal from the series.\n\nPlato's character, Kimberly, was written out of the story lines with the explanation that she moved to Paris to study for a couple of years. Plato did not appear as a regular cast member in the final two seasons of the series, but she made several guest appearances.\n\nAt the same time, ratings were beginning to fall, so new characters were added to open up future storylines. Dixie Carter and Danny Cooksey portrayed recently divorced television aerobics instructor Margaret \"Maggie\" McKinney, and her son, Sam McKinney. Carter was introduced midway into the sixth season; after she left for California, Drummond and the family took off after her, during a two-part trip in February 1984, a storyline which also introduced Sam.\n\nPhillip proposed to Maggie, and they married. Several past characters attended the wedding ceremony including Dudley, Aunt Sophia, Adelaide, and Mrs. Garrett.\n\nSeason 7 (1984-1985)\n\nIn the seventh season, Dixie Carter and Danny Cooksey were added to the opening credits (with Carter getting special \"and\" billing, last in the order), and many new areas and ideas were explored in the storylines, as viewers now got to see Philip as happily married. Dana Plato was no longer appearing as a main cast member, because of her pregnancy in real life. The producers felt that the pregnancy wouldn't be acceptable, so she was dropped from the show and returning for the season finale A Special Friend as a guest star. Also, since there was a new fresh-faced kid in the house with Sam, Arnold now had his own little sidekick and was happy to be a \"big brother\" for a change, and with Willis being dropped into the background slightly, this new brotherly duo took center stage for many storylines. In the season, Todd Bridges was continuing the show as a main cast member, but developed absences in several episodes. Additionally, stories focusing on Arnold's school life (featured occasionally in many previous seasons) were delved into much more. The ratings did not improve to NBC's hopes. Dixie Carter departed at the end of the seventh season and was replaced with Mary Ann Mobley in the eighth season.\n\nSeason 8 (1985-1986)\n\nIn the spring of 1985, NBC canceled the series because of poor ratings. ABC picked up the series for an eighth season, and aired it Friday nights. In this season, which turned out to be the last, Mary Ann Mobley replaced Dixie Carter as Maggie McKinney Drummond. Mobley, who had previously played an unrelated, one-off love interest of Drummond's in the second season episode \"Teacher's Pet\", had originally been a contender for the role but was not chosen due to the obvious age disparity between her and Conrad Bain. However, producers later had second thoughts about Carter's casting, and with ratings falling, decided to cast Mobley for the role of Maggie Drummond. \n\nABC canceled the series after 19 episodes, and aired its final episode on March 7, 1986. The show returned to ABC's schedule in June for three months of summer reruns, which ended on August 30, 1986. The final season ranked 76th out of 106 shows, and averaged an 11.5 household rating.\n\nCast\n\n* Conrad Bain as Phillip Drummond\n* Gary Coleman as Arnold Jackson\n* Todd Bridges as Willis Jackson\n* Dana Plato as Kimberly Drummond (1978–1984, 1985–1986 recurring)\n* Charlotte Rae as Edna Garrett (1978–1979)\n* Nedra Volz as Adelaide Brubaker (1980–1984)\n* Janet Jackson as Charlene DuPrey (1980–1984 recurring)\n* Dody Goodman as Aunt Sophia (1981–1984 recurring)\n* Shavar Ross as Dudley Johnson (1980–1986 recurring)\n* Le Tari as Ted Ramsey (1980–1984 recurring)\n* Mary Jo Catlett as Pearl Gallagher (1982–1986)\n* Rosalind Chao as Miss Chung (1981–1983 recurring)\n* Steven Mond as Robbie Jason (1980–1985 recurring)\n* Nikki Swasey as Lisa Hayes (1982–1986 recurring)\n* Dixie Carter as Maggie McKinney Drummond #1 (1984–1985)\n* Mary Ann Mobley as Maggie McKinney Drummond #2 (1985–1986) and as Ms. Osbourne \n* Danny Cooksey as Sam McKinney (1984–1986)\n* Jason Hervey as Charlie (1985–1986 recurring)\n\nPhillip Drummond is the only character to appear in every episode of the series. Arnold Jackson missed five episodes. Two from the 1981-1982 season, \"First Day Blues\" and \"The Team\". He then missed three episodes from the 1984-1985 season, \"The Gymnasts\", \"Sam Adopts a Grandparent\" and \"Baseball Blues\".\n\nSupporting characters\n\nOutside of the Drummond household, there were a large number of supporting characters seen over the years. Phillip's slightly dotty sister Sophia (Dody Goodman) was regularly seen in the fourth season, playing matchmaker for her brother in hopes of getting Philip to marry again. Dudley Johnson (Shavar Ross) was Arnold's new best friend, who, like Arnold, was also adopted, with whom he shared many memorable childhood scrapes. Some of these were important or serious storylines under the \"very special episode\" heading, which Diff'rent Strokes popularized (see below). Ted Ramsey (Le Tari) was Dudley's adoptive father, who turned up occasionally.\n\nIn the third season, Janet Jackson played Willis's girlfriend Charlene DuPrey. She was a frequent recurring character until Season 6, when Charlene and Willis decided to break up, but remain friends.\n\nOther classmates and friends of Arnold seen over time included Robbie Jason (Steven Mond) and snobby Lisa Hayes (Nikki Swasey), who initially was sweet on Arnold, but later came to despise him, leading to hatred between the pair and many squabbles. Miss Chung (Rosalind Chao) was Arnold's teacher. In the fall of 1985, when the series moved to ABC, Arnold, Dudley and Lisa entered high school, where they gained a new friend in Charlie (Jason Hervey).\n\nAn oft-mentioned character, spanning the entire show's run, was \"The Gooch\", a notorious bully at Arnold's school. First mentioned in the first season episode \"The Fight\", which revolves around his bullying of Arnold, his name is mentioned in numerous episodes (and his bullying of Arnold returned as the center of several plots), with Arnold's frequent descriptions of him to be of a burly, troublesome brute, forever looking for trouble but not very intelligent, but the character actually never appeared on screen.\n\nBroadcast history\n\nEpisodes\n\nVery special episodes\n\nDiff'rent Strokes was also known for its many \"very special episodes\", most notably an anti-drug episode (\"The Reporter\", in Season 5) that featured First Lady Nancy Reagan, who promoted her \"Just Say No\" campaign, and a two-part episode that guest starred Gordon Jump as a pedophile who lures Arnold and Dudley into his bicycle shop and attempts to molest them.\n\nAnother episode involved a con artist (played by Whitman Mayo) posing as a relative of Arnold and Willis in an attempt to get access to the inheritance they were left by a former neighbor. Another episode involved Kimberly's new boyfriend Roger not allowing his sister to go to their school's costume ball with Willis because he is African-American.\n\nIn an episode on the dangers of hitchhiking, Kimberly and Arnold (who were out in the cold weather and didn't have money for cab or bus fare) were abducted by a serial kidnapper-rapist (played by Woody Eney), who initially acted as a good Samaritan by giving the two of them a ride, and inviting them to his apartment. After the man's true nature became known, Arnold escaped to look for help and the man nearly raped Kimberly before the police arrived to arrest him. At the end of the episode, Conrad Bain (in an out of character PSA) spoke about what to do if real life situations as the one portrayed on the show were to occur.\n\nIn the final season (when the show moved from NBC to ABC), the one-hour season opener revolved around Sam being kidnapped by a bereaved father (played by Royce D. Applegate) hoping to replace his own dead son.\n\nIn other notable episodes, the family discovered that Kimberly was suffering from bulimia. In another episode, Arnold and Sam met Karen, a street performer. After a performance, she has an epileptic seizure, and Sam is scared thinking she's dying. The boys then feel uncomfortable around her, and when they begin making jokes about her seizures, they find out that housekeeper Pearl herself has epilepsy, but unlike Karen controls her seizures by taking medication.\n\nSpin-off and crossovers\n\nThe Facts of Life (1979–1988) is a spin-off of Diff'rent Strokes featuring Drummond's former maid Mrs. Garrett (Charlotte Rae), who had accepted a job as the house-mother for a dormitory at an all-girls private school that Kimberly was attending. In a late first season episode of Strokes (which served as the \"backdoor pilot\" of Facts), Mrs. Garrett took Kimberly to the school with the intent of helping her sew costumes for a school play. While there, Mrs. Garrett met Kimberly's classmates and was offered the job as \"dorm mother\". She declines in this episode, but come fall, clearly had a change of heart. The Diff'rent Strokes cast appeared in the first episode of The Facts of Life (at one point, Drummond asks Mrs. Garrett \"Are you sure we can't change your mind to come back to us?\"). The success of the spinoff led to several Strokes/Facts crossovers in the ensuing years.\n\nWhile not a spin-off, Hello, Larry (1979–1980) had a connection to Strokes as it was established in a crossover episode that Philip Drummond and Larry Alder (McLean Stevenson) were old army buddies, and Mr. Drummond had bought the company that owned the radio station Larry worked at as a talk show host.\n\nAdditionally, Arnold appeared on the Silver Spoons episode \"The Great Computer Caper\" and the Amazing Stories episode \"Remote Control Man\".\n\nLater appearances as the characters\n\nIn 1994, Coleman appeared in an episode of Married... with Children, playing a building code inspector whom Al Bundy called to report an illegal driveway. When Kelly recognizes him, he denies any connection to Arnold Jackson, but utters his catchphrase to Al, \"What'chu talkin' about, Bundy?\". Also, in 1996, Coleman and Bain reprised their roles for the series finale of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air entitled \"I, Done Part 2\". In their scene, they reference Willis by name before meeting Will Smith's character, leading to Coleman uttering a variation of his catchphrase, \"What'chu talkin' about, Willis?\".\n\nAdditional catchphrase references and appearances in pop culture\n\nIn 2004, Gary Coleman appeared on the second season of The Surreal Life and is pressured to quote his famous catchphrase by Vanilla Ice. He also guest-starred as himself on The Wayans Bros., The Ben Stiller Show, Drake & Josh, The Jamie Foxx Show, The Parkers, Robot Chicken, and The Simpsons.\n\nAfter Diff'rent Strokes ended\n\nFollowing the cancellation of Diff'rent Strokes, Gary Coleman, Todd Bridges, and Dana Plato encountered difficulty in obtaining acting jobs. All three experienced various legal problems while Bridges and Plato also struggled with drug addictions, all of which were documented in the press. The press and fans of the series blamed the cast's personal problems and faltering careers on what was eventually dubbed the \"curse of Diff'rent Strokes\" by various tabloids. \n\nGary Coleman\n\n \nThree years after the series ended, Gary Coleman sued his parents and his former manager over misappropriation of his trust fund. Although he was awarded over $1,000,000 in the decision, he filed for bankruptcy in 1999.\n\nIn 1998, Coleman was charged with assault after he punched a woman while working as a security guard at a shopping mall. In 2001, Coleman (still working as a security guard) was videotaped trying to stop a vehicle from entering the mall. The driver ridiculed him, and released the tape to be broadcast on numerous television shows. In 2007, Coleman was cited for disorderly conduct in Provo, Utah, for having a \"heated discussion\" with a woman. \n\nOn May 26, 2010, Coleman, who had battled health problems since childhood caused by congenital kidney disease, was admitted to Utah Valley Regional Medical Center in Provo after falling and hitting his head after suffering a seizure. Coleman was then placed on life support after suffering an intracranial hemorrhage, and died on May 28, 2010, from complications of his injury at the age of 42. \n\nDana Plato\n\nDuring Season 6, Dana Plato became pregnant and her character was written out of the series (Plato would go on to make guest appearances for the final two seasons). In 1984 she married the father of her child, musician Lanny Lambert, but the couple divorced in 1990. Due to financial difficulties and her growing addiction to drugs and alcohol, Plato relinquished custody of her son, Tyler, to her ex-husband.\n\nIn an attempt to boost her faltering career, Plato posed for Playboy in June 1989 but her appearance in the magazine did not help her land acting jobs. By 1990, Plato was living in Las Vegas. Despite having made $25,000 an episode while on the series, she was often broke and was working as a cashier at a dry cleaning store. \n\nIn February 1991, she was arrested after robbing a Las Vegas video store armed with a pellet gun. She was arrested the following year for forging prescriptions for Valium. \nIn 1997, she appeared in a softcore pornographic film entitled Different Strokes: The Story of Jack & Jill... and Jill, which was intended to capitalize on her Diff'rent Strokes fame. After her arrests, Plato publicly admitted that she struggled with an addiction to drugs and alcohol. \n\nShe died of a drug overdose in 1999 at the age of 34. Her death was ruled a suicide. \n\nTodd Bridges\n\nAfter the series ended, Todd Bridges developed an addiction to cocaine. In February 1988, he was arrested and charged with the attempted murder of a drug dealer at a crack house in South Central Los Angeles. He was acquitted in November 1989. Bridges was also arrested on a concealed weapon charge and possession of cocaine. In 1994, he was arrested after allegedly ramming someone's car after an argument. \n\nAfter years of battling his drug addiction, Bridges became sober in the early 1990s. He now travels across the United States, touring schools and discussing the dangers of drug use. \n\nBridges has continued acting in films and television. His more high-profile role was as Monk, a shell-shocked Vietnam veteran, conspiracy theorist, and nephew of Chris' boss Doc on the sitcom Everybody Hates Chris. \n\nDocudramas\n\nTwo unofficial docudramas were produced about the show:\n* In 2000, Fox broadcast a one-hour television movie, After Diff'rent Strokes: When the Laughter Stopped. This film, which starred unknown actors, focused on Dana Plato's life after the show, leading to her death. Todd Bridges guest starred in this film as a drug dealer who sold drugs — to a younger Todd Bridges. \n* On September 4, 2006, NBC aired a television drama titled Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Diff'rent Strokes. The film, which chronicles the rise and decline of the sitcom's child stars, also features recent interview clips with Coleman and Bridges. The two also star in the movie as themselves (briefly) in the final scene, standing by Plato's grave. \n\nDVD releases\n\nSony Pictures Home Entertainment has released Seasons 1 and 2 of Diff'rent Strokes on DVD in Region 1 & 4. Season 1 was also released in Regions 2 & 5 on October 6, 2008. On September 29, 2009, a \"Fan Favorites\" DVD was released. This is a one disc compilation consisting of eight episodes from Season 2. \n\nOn April 6, 2012, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series; they subsequently released the third season on DVD on July 17, 2012. Season 4 was released on November 20, 2012. It is unknown if the remaining four seasons will be released.\n\nOn August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library, including Diff'rent Strokes. They subsequently re-released the first and second seasons on DVD on July 15, 2014." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Janet (disambiguation)", "Janet", "Janeth" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "janeth", "janet disambiguation", "janet" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "janet", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Janet" }
What was the first spin-off from The Beverly Hillbillies called?	tc_923	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Beverly_Hillbillies.txt" ], "title": [ "The Beverly Hillbillies" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Beverly Hillbillies is an American sitcom originally broadcast on CBS for nine seasons, from September 26, 1962, to March 23, 1971. The show had an ensemble cast which features Buddy Ebsen, Irene Ryan, Donna Douglas, and Max Baer Jr. as a poor backwoods family who move to Beverly Hills, California, after striking oil on their land. The show was produced by Filmways and was created by writer Paul Henning. It was followed by two other Henning-inspired country-cousin series on CBS: Petticoat Junction, and its spin-off Green Acres, which reversed the rags-to-riches model of The Beverly Hillbillies.\n\nThe Beverly Hillbillies ranked among the top 20 most-watched programs on television for eight of its nine seasons, twice ranking as the number one series of the year, with a number of episodes that remain among the most-watched television episodes of all time. It accumulated seven Emmy nominations during its run. The series remains in syndication on MeTV, and its ongoing popularity spawned a 1993 film remake by 20th Century Fox. \n\nIn 1997, the episode \"Hedda Hopper's Hollywood\" was ranked number 62 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. \n\nPremise\n\nThe Beverly Hillbillies is the first in the \"fish out of water\" genre of television shows. The series starts as Jed Clampett, an impoverished mountaineer, is living alongside an oil-rich swamp with his daughter and mother-in-law. A surveyor for the OK Oil Company realizes the size of the oil field, and the company pays him a fortune for the right to drill on his land. Patriarch Jed's cousin Pearl prods him to move to California after being told his modest property could yield $25 million. His family moves into a mansion in wealthy Beverly Hills, California, next door to his banker Milburn Drysdale. They bring a moral, unsophisticated, and minimalistic lifestyle to the swanky, sometimes self-obsessed and superficial community. Double entendres and cultural misconceptions are the core of the sitcom's humor. Plots often involve the outlandish efforts Drysdale makes to keep the Clampetts in Beverly Hills and their money in his bank. The family's periodic attempts to return to the mountains are often prompted by Granny's perceiving a slight from one of the \"city folk\".\n\nGranny frequently mentions that she was born and raised around Limestone, Tennessee, near Greenville, but the state from which the Clampetts move to California is never revealed. Various, sometimes conflicting, clues can be found in certain episodes. In season 5, episode 17, it is claimed that they come from the town of \"Bug Tussle\" in an unspecified state. There is a Bugtussle, Kentucky, about 230 mi from Limestone.\n\nCast\n\nBuddy Ebsen as J. D. \"Jed\" Clampett, the widowed patriarch\nIrene Ryan as Daisy May (\"Granny\") Moses, Jed's mother-in-law\nDonna Douglas as Elly May Clampett, Jed's tomboy daughter \nMax Baer Jr. as Jethro Bodine, the brawny, half-witted son of Jed's cousin Pearl\nRaymond Bailey as Milburn Drysdale, Jed's greedy, unscrupulous banker \nNancy Kulp as \"Miss\" Jane Hathaway, Drysdale's scholarly, \"plain Jane\" secretary\nHarriet E. MacGibbon as Margaret Drysdale, Mr. Drysdale's ostentatious wife \nBea Benaderet as Jed's cousin Pearl (season 1)\n\nEpisodes\n\nCharacters\n\nJ.D. \"Jed\" Clampett\n\nAlthough he had received little formal education, Jed Clampett (Buddy Ebsen) has a good deal of common sense. Jed is the son of Luke Clampett and his wife, and has a sister called Myrtle. A principal character of the show, Jed is a good-natured man; he is the apparent head of the family. Jed's wife (Elly May's mother) died, but is referred to in the episode \"Duke Steals A Wife\" as Rose Ellen. Jed is shown to be an expert marksman and is extremely loyal to his family and kinfolk. The huge oil pool in the swamp he owned was the beginning of his rags-to-riches journey to Beverly Hills. Although he longs for the old ways back in the hills, he makes the best of being in Beverly Hills. Whenever he has anything on his mind, he sits on the curbstone of his mansion and whittles until he comes up with the answer. His catchphrase is, \"Welllllll, doggies!\" Jed was one of the three characters to appear in all 274 episodes of the series.\n\nGranny\n\nDaisy May Moses (Irene Ryan), called \"Granny\" by all (relatives or not) is Jed's shotgun-toting mother-in-law and a true daughter of Dixie. Paul Henning, the show's creator/producer, quickly disposed of the idea of Granny being Jed's mother, which would have changed the show's dynamics, making Granny the matriarch and Jed subordinate to her. Granny can be aggressive, but is often overruled by Jed. She is a Confederate to the core, defending President Jefferson Davis, the Stars and Bars, and the simple life. Short-fused and easily angered, Granny fancies herself a \"dunked\" (not \"sprinkled\") Christian with forgiveness in her heart. She abhors \"revenuers\" and blue-coat Yankees. A self-styled \"M.D.\" — \"mountain doctor\" — she claims to have an edge over expensive know-nothing city physicians. In lieu of anesthesia, Granny uses her \"white lightning\" brew before commencing on painful treatments such as leech bleeding and yanking teeth with pliers.\n\nShort and scrappy, Granny often wields a double-barreled, 12-gauge shotgun and fires it numerous times during the run of the show (in a first-season episode, she chases Milburn Drysdale with it when she finds out his mother's family had a feud with her family back in the hills). She fires it once at the front lawn when Jed is witching for water and several times on the skeet-shooting range. During the mock Indian invasion, she believed she was shooting live shells, though Milburn Drysdale had removed the buckshot to protect the actors portraying the Indians. She fires rock salt and bacon rind at a crow during the \"Happy Valley\" episode, and again at the back of an armored truck in which Milburn Drysdale was taking refuge. She fires at (and hits in the posterior) Milburn Drysdale with rock salt, believing he is the ghost of \"Lady Clemintine\" ending their second visit to \"Clampett Castle\" in Kent, England which was filmed at Penshurst Place. \n\nGranny also fires \"Lady Fingers\" (which Elly had baked for Jethro to take to the Army Reserve) into the posterior of an actor portraying Gen. Ulysses S. Grant during \"The Battle of Culpepper Plantation\".\n\nShe is also able to tell the precise time by a sundial and the weather by a beetle (\"Granny Versus the Weather Bureau\"). Without her glasses, Granny is extremely nearsighted — once in a crossover with the Petticoat Junction show, Granny mistakes a dog for a baby child and a coffee pot for a telephone. Two of Granny's phobias are \"Injuns\" (she actually buys wigs so the Clampetts will not be \"scalped\") and the \"cement pond\" (swimming pool–she has a fear of water). In a long story arc in season nine, Elly May dates a U.S. Navy frogman, which confuses Granny: After seeing the frogman climb out of the pool in his skin-diving wear, she thinks that anyone who swims in the pool will be turned into a frog. She also has a peculiar way of retelling the War Between The States, in which she thinks the South has won and Jefferson Davis is the president, while calling Sherman's March \"Sherman's Retreat to the Sea\". She even set Jethro straight on the subject of slavery: \"We fought a war to make the Yankees stop that foolishness!\" Any attempts to correct her meet with failure. She is also known for slicing off switches to use on Jethro, mainly whenever he goes too far with his idiotic schemes.\n\nReferences are given to Granny growing up in the Smoky Mountains of Tennessee. From episode 9: \"When I was a girl back in Tennessee, I set so many boys' hearts on fire that they took to calling that neck of the woods 'The Smoky Mountains'.\" In season 9, episode 23, she says she is from Limestone, Tennessee. Likewise in a Flatt and Scruggs guest episode, her favorite song is \"My Little Girl of Tennessee\".\n\nGranny's full name, Daisy Moses, is allegedly an homage to the popular and dearly loved folk artist Anna Mary Robertson, known to the world as Grandma Moses. (Grandma Moses died in 1961, a year before The Beverly Hillbillies made its television debut.) Granny is frequently referred to as \"Granny Clampett\" in a number of episodes, but technically she is a Moses. Granny appears in all 274 episodes.\n\nElly May Clampett\n \nElly May (Donna Douglas in all 274 episodes), the only child of Jed and Rose Ellen Clampett, is a mountain beauty with the body of a pinup girl and the soul of a tomboy. She can throw a fastball as well as \"rassle\" most men to a fall, and she can be as tender with her friends, animals, and family as she is tough with anyone she rassles. She said once that animals could be better companions than people, but as she grew older, she saw that, \"fellas kin be more fun than critters.\" Elly is squired about by eager young Hollywood actors with stage names such as \"Dash Riprock\" and \"Bolt Upright\". Other boyfriends for Elly include Sonny Drysdale, Beau Short, accountant Fred Penrod, beatnik Sheldon Epps, and Mark Templeton, a Navy frogman.\n\nElly's most notable weakness, often mentioned when she is being \"courted\", is her lack of kitchen skills. Family members cringe when, for plot reasons, Elly takes over the kitchen. Rock-like donuts and cookies, for example, are a plot function in an episode featuring Wally Cox as bird-watching Professor Biddle. On one of the family's visits back to the hills, a miller bought a cake baked by Elly May at a fair because he needed a new grindstone for his flour mill.\n\nElly is briefly considered for film stardom at the movie studio owned by Jed. In one episode, hearing Rock Hudson and Cary Grant are both single, Granny asks that Elly be introduced to them.\n\nDuring the final season, Elly May takes a job as a secretary at the Commerce Bank after Jed and Granny persuade her that it would be a good way to \"meet a husband\".\n\nIn addition to the family dog, Duke (an old Bloodhound), a number of animals lived on the Clampett estate thanks to animal-lover Elly. These animals were collectively known as her \"critters\". The most prominent pets were chimpanzees, but other animals (from typical dogs and cats to less-traditional house pets, such as deer, opossums, bobcats, bears, goats, raccoons, and kangaroos) were also occasionally featured.\n\nIn the 1981 TV movie of The Beverly Hillbillies, Elly May is head of a zoo.\n\nJethro Bodine\n\nJethro (Max Baer Jr. in 272 episodes) is the son of Jed's cousin, Pearl Bodine (though he addresses Jed as his uncle). He drove the Clampett family to their new home in California and stayed on with them to further his education. The whole family boasts of Jethro's \"sixth-grade education\", but nevertheless feels he is a bit of an idiot. Jethro is simply naive in the first season of the show, but becomes incredibly ignorant and pompous as the series progresses. He often shows off his cyphering abilities with multiplication and \"go-zin-tas\", as in \"five gozinta five one time, five gozinta ten two times\", etc. The tallest student in his class in the town of Oxford because of his age, he is often impressing others that he graduated \"highest in his class at Oxford\". The punch line (\"6 foot 2\") would be given after a character expressed surprise in the claim. In Beverly Hills, he decides to go to college. He manages to enroll late in the semester at a local secretarial school due to his financial backing and earns his diploma by the end of the day because he did not understand what was going on in class and was too disruptive. This was an ironic in-joke – in real life, Max Baer Jr. has a bachelor's degree in business administration, minoring in philosophy, from Santa Clara University.\n\nMany stories in the series involve Jethro's endless career search, which include such diverse vocations as a millwright, a brain surgeon, street car conductor, double-naught spy, telephone lineman, soda jerk, chauffeur, short-order cook, sculptor, restaurant owner (with Granny's cooking), and once as a bookkeeper for Milburn Drysdale's bank; a Hollywood agent for \"cousin\" Bessie and \"Cousin Roy\": {see below}; Hollywood Producer {a studio flunky remarks Jethro has the \"right qualifications\" for being a producer: a sixth-grade education and an uncle who owns the studio; this in-joke gag as a movie producer was replayed in the 1981 movie}. More often than not, his overall goal in these endeavors is to obtain as many pretty girls as humanly possible. A running gag is that as usual Jethro fails catching girls – for example, a girl he had known from the hills became a successful actress, yet when she tries to talk to Jethro, he always hangs up on her.\n\nOf all the Clampett clan, he is the one who makes the most change from \"country bumpkin\" to \"city boy\". Another running gag is that Jethro is known as the \"six-foot stomach\" for his ability to eat: in one episode, he eats a jetliner's entire supply of steaks; in another, Jethro tries to set himself up as a Hollywood agent for cousin \"Bessie\" the chimpanzee – with a fee of 10,000 bananas for Bessie and 1,000 bananas for Jethro. At one time, Jed mentions Jethro was the only baby he knew born with a full set of teeth \"just like a beaver\". Jethro does not appear in the third- or second-to-last episodes, but Baer remains billed in the title credits.\n\nWith the January 2015 death of co-star Donna Douglas, Baer is the only surviving cast member. \n\nThe Drysdales\n\nMilburn (Raymond Bailey in 247 episodes), Margaret (Harriet E. MacGibbon; 55 episodes in 1962–69), and Sonny (Louis Nye): The Drysdales are the Clampetts' next-door neighbors. Milburn is the Commerce Bank's tightwad president and the friendly bumpkins' confidant. The haughty Mrs. Drysdale boasts of a heritage that traces back to the Mayflower, but Milburn's concerns are strictly monetary. When suffering an anxiety attack, Milburn sniffs a stack of money and is quickly revived. Another time, Miss Hathaway discovered that whenever Jed Clampett took money out of his pocket, Drysdale's blood pressure would either go up or down depending on whether Jed was going to spend the money or not. Whenever Drysdale gets a taste of Granny's \"Tennessee Tranquilizer\" (moonshine), his face turns red. In the interest of keeping the Clampetts' account at all costs, Mr. Drysdale is prone to appease them, and says that anything they do is unquestionably right. He often forces others, especially his secretary, to placate the Clampetts by granting their unorthodox requests. A running gag is that Drysdale-as President of the Commerce bank of Beverly Hills-is in a feud with a rival bank President {of the Merchant Bank of Beverly Hills} as to \"who\" will have custody of Jed Clampett's millions.\n\nAlthough wife Margaret, a blue-blooded Bostonian, has obvious disdain for the \"peasant\" and \"dreadful\" hillbillies, she tacitly agrees to tolerate them (rather than Milburn lose their ever growing account—which is $96,000,000 in 1969, equal to $ today). Margaret loathes all four \"vagabonds\", but her most heated rivalry is with Granny, with whom she occasionally has some \"scraps\". Margaret's aged father has gambled away most of their money. Mrs. Drysdale's son—and Milburn's stepson—is Sonny (played by Louis Nye), who is introduced as a 35-year-old collegian who does not believe in working up a sweat and is an insufferable mama's boy. Finding Elly May a lovely, naive Pollyanna, he courts her until she literally tosses him. Sonny only appears in four episodes, three in 1962 and a final appearance in 1966.\n\nJane Hathaway\n\nJane Hathaway (Nancy Kulp in 246 episodes), whom the Clampetts address as \"Miss Jane\", is Drysdale's loyal and efficient secretarial assistant. Though she always carries out his wishes, she is inherently decent and is frequently put off by her boss's greed. When she is annoyed with him, as is often the case, especially when one of Drysdale's schemes goes too far, she usually and forcefully says, \"Chief!\" Jane is genuinely fond of the family (to the Clampetts, she is considered family; even Granny, the one most dead-set against living in California, likes her very much); Jane actually harbors something of a crush on Jethro for most of the series' run. At first, she mistakes the Clampetts as servants until Drysdale told her who they really are (which almost costs her her job).\n\nMiss Hathaway frequently has to \"rescue\" Drysdale from his idiotic schemes, receiving little or no thanks for her efforts. In one episode, Granny and she, disguised as \"geisha girls\", finally have enough and \"crown\" Drysdale and Jethro, who have made one too many comments about women serving men. Jane is loyal to Drysdale, as well, despite her misgivings toward his avarice and greed. In one episode, the Clampetts, feeling money has corrupted them, give all of their money to Virginia \"Ginny\" Jennings (Sheila Kuehl), a college student. While Drysdale moans the loss of the money, Jane immediately tells him to stop thinking about the Clampetts and start trying to get the Jennings account. Eventually, everyone discovered Jennings' real motives, and she was gone, with the Clampetts getting their money back, and things were as they were before. In one episode, it is established that Miss Jane sacrificed her job as the top secretary of the top executive of the top insurance company to join Mr. Drysdale at the Commerce Bank. Miss Jane was a Vassar graduate. In 1999, TV Guide ranked Jane Hathaway number 38 on its \"50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time\" list. \n\nRecurring\n\nPearl Bodine (portrayed by Bea Benaderet; 22 episodes in season 1) is Jethro's widowed mother. In the last season, Granny mentions that Pearl's husband, Fred Bodine, drowned in a fishing accident when Jethro was just a baby (although, in an earlier episode, Jethro shared some memories of his father with a psychiatrist). Pearl is a generally well-meaning mother to Jethro. She was also a popular character, often used as a foil for Granny, and became a regular part-way through the first season (the end credits were even refilmed to include Pearl with the other family members). The character disappeared after the first year because Benaderet had become the star of another Paul Henning series, Petticoat Junction. She is the daughter of Amos Clampett, Jed's uncle. Like Elly May, Pearl's name came from that of a character (Pearl Lester) in the popular rural-life novel, play, and film Tobacco Road. In the episodes \"The Clampetts Get Psychoanalyzed\" and \"The Psychiatrist Gets Clampetted\", Herbert Rudley plays the psychiatrist Dr. Eugene Twombley. In the episodes, Pearl is enamored with Dr. Twombley; Benaderet's real-life husband was named Eugene Twombly. The role of Pearl was first offered to Shirley Collie. In season six, she makes a cameo appearance in the episode \"Greetings From The President\".\nJethrine Bodine (played by Baer, but voiced by Linda Kaye Henning; 11 episodes in season 1): Jethrine is Pearl's king-sized daughter, Jethro's twin. Jethrine appears in the first season; she moves with her mother to the Clampett mansion later that season, but occasionally is not seen in episodes during her stay in California. Jethrine is upset to leave the hills as it means separation from her \"sweetie\", traveling salesman Jasper \"Jazzbo\" Depew. Late in the season, it was explained in an episode that Jethrine had returned home to marry Depew, although the wedding was never seen in the series (nor was Jethrine ever seen again, although she was occasionally referenced). Jethro and Jethrine rarely appeared in the same scene in any of the programs, and then they were never on-camera at the same time, except for the rare back-of-the-head shot using a double. (Jethrine also appears in the 1993 movie version.)\nDash Riprock (played by Larry Pennell; 10 episodes in seasons 3–7) is a handsome Hollywood actor employed by Jed's movie studio. Elly May and he meet while she is working as an extra at the studio. When Dash sees the beautiful Elly in her bathing suit, he is smitten with her. The two have an on-and-off relationship. In one episode, Mr. Drysdale forces Dash into courting Elly May by threatening to put him in a television show called Crabman. Elly initially liked Dash and enjoyed being with him on dates; Jethro, however, was quite enamored with Dash because of his playboy persona. Riprock was a send-up of the blatantly fake screen names employed by a number of movie actors of the period. Riprock's real name (before being changed by Hollywood moguls) was \"Homer Noodleman\", and he was from Peoria, Illinois.\nLowell Redlings Farquhar (played by Charles Ruggles; three episodes in seasons 4 and 5) is the elderly father of Mrs. Drysdale. Granny considers him a potential beau.\nLester Flatt and Earl Scruggs (as themselves in seven episodes, 1963–68) are longtime friends of the Clampetts \"back home\" (Kimberling City, Missouri), who visit with the Clampetts when they are on tour in California. The duo had a number-one Billboard country single with the show's \"The Ballad of Jed Clampett\" (although the song is actually performed in the credits by Jerry Scoggins to Flatt and Scruggs' instrumental). (Actress Joi Lansing played Flatt's wife, Gladys, in five episodes, 1963–68.)\nJohn Brewster (played by Frank Wilcox; 14 episodes, 1962–1966), is the president and CEO of the OK Oil Company, headquartered in Tulsa, who purchases the oil rights to the gusher on the Clampett home back in the hills. The Clampetts are quite fond of him, and his wife occasionally visits them in California.\nJanet Trego (played by Sharon Tate; 15 episodes, 1963–65) is a beautiful secretary at the Commerce Bank. (Tate was later murdered by Charles Manson's \"family\" just before the start of season 8.)\nSam Drucker (played by Frank Cady; 10 episodes in 1968–70) owns the general store in Hooterville. Granny is constantly under the impression Sam wants to marry her, but Sam has no intention of doing so. Cady also starred as Sam Drucker in Petticoat Junction and Green Acres. Cady reprised the role of Sam Drucker for the 1990 Green Acres reunion movie Return to Green Acres.\nHelen Thompson (played by Danielle Mardi; 17 episodes in 1969–71) is a beautiful British secretary at the Commerce Bank. Helen takes over Jane Hathaway's job as Mr. Drysdale's secretary after Miss Hathaway resigned. She is one of the ringleaders of the protest group the secretaries of the Commerce Bank create: GRUN (Girls Resist Unfair Neglect). She, along with many other secretaries, as well as Elly and Granny, live with Miss Hathaway for a short time in her apartment.\nShorty Kellums (played by Shug Fisher; 17 episodes in seasons 8 and 9) is Jed's longtime buddy from back home, with whom Jed reunites in 1969 when the Clampetts go back for an extended period to the Hills. Shorty is a wiry little man who is crazy about voluptuous girls half his age. Shorty later moves into the Clampett mansion in Beverly Hills for a period. \nElverna Bradshaw (played by Elvia Allman; 13 episodes, 1963–70) is Granny's longtime rival back in the Hills, a gossip second to none. Referenced as early as episode 3, she makes a brief appearance in a 1963 episode when the Clampetts go back to the Hills to fetch Pearl to California, but is not seen again until 1969, when the Clampetts return to their native land for an extended visit. However, both Granny and Jed referred to the character in several episodes throughout the series' run. Elverna and Granny rekindle their feud in a match to see who will be first wed, Elverna's daughter or Elly May. For reasons not really explained, Elverna also moves into the Clampett Beverly Hills mansion during the same period Shorty does; both of them, however, are gone from the estate for the final 1970–71 season, presumably having returned home.\nMatthew and Mark Templeton (brothers played by actor Roger Torrey, who had auditioned for the part of Jethro; three episodes in season 8 as Matthew; 9 in season 9 as Mark) Matthew is the preacherman Granny tags as a prospective husband for Elly. Unfortunately, Granny learns Matthew is married. Just a year later back in California, Elly meets Matthew's brother, Mark Templeton, who is a marine biologist, a frogman, whom Granny believes is actually part frog. The Mark Templeton storyline played out for nine episodes and was abruptly dropped, although advance publicity for the show indicated Elly May and Mark would be marrying during the season; however, the show was canceled at the end of that season as part of the CBS Rural Purge.\nCousin Roy (played by Roy Clark; three episodes in seasons 6 and 7) was the Clampetts' cousin, who came from \"The Hills\" to Hollywood; he appeared in three episodes as an aspiring country singer. In furtherance of the running gag of Jethro Bodine's continuing failure to succeed, Jethro turned down the chance to be Cousin Roy's agent, who actually succeeded in Hollywood.\n\nTheme music\n\nThe show's theme song, \"The Ballad of Jed Clampett\", was written by producer and writer Paul Henning and originally performed by bluegrass artists Flatt and Scruggs. The song is sung by Jerry Scoggins (backed by Flatt and Scruggs) over the opening and end credits of each episode. Flatt and Scruggs subsequently cut their own version of the theme (with Flatt singing) for Columbia Records; released as a single, it reached number 44 on Billboard Hot 100 pop music chart and number one on the Billboard Hot Country chart (the lone country chart-topper for the duo).\n\nThe six main cast members participated on a 1963 Columbia soundtrack album, which featured original song numbers in character. Additionally, Ebsen, Ryan, and Douglas each made a few solo recordings following the show's success, including Ryan's 1966 novelty single, \"Granny's Miniskirt\".\n\nThe series generally features no country music beyond the bluegrass banjo theme song, although country star Roy Clark and the team of Flatt and Scruggs occasionally play on the program. Pop singer Pat Boone appears in one episode as himself, under the premise that he hails from the same area of the country as the Clampetts, although Boone is a native of Jacksonville, Florida.\n\nThe 1989 film UHF featured a \"Weird Al\" Yankovic parody music video, \"Money for Nothing/Beverly Hillbillies\", combining \"The Ballad of Jed Clampett\" and English rock band Dire Straits' 1985 hit song \"Money for Nothing\".\n\nCrossovers \n\nSeason seven (1968–69) was packed with strategically placed, multi-episode crossover stories in which the fictional worlds of all three Paul Henning series overlap. The Clampett family makes several trips to Hooterville, Sam Drucker visits Beverly Hills, and Granny (Irene Ryan) does two guest appearances on Petticoat Junction. In season eight (1969–70), the Clampett family visits Hooterville one last time for a two-part episode.\n\n\"Granny Goes to Hooterville\" (season 7: episode 6) - Granny leaves for Hooterville upon hearing distant cousin Betty Jo Bradley (Linda Henning) just had a baby. The only Petticoat Junction cast members are Sam Drucker (Frank Cady) and Uncle Joe (Edgar Buchanan) seen talking to Granny on the phone. (The story continues on the Petticoat Junction episode \"Granny, the Baby Expert\".) \"The Italian Cook\" (7:7) wraps up the three-episode Hooterville story arc featuring Betty Jo, her husband Steve Elliott (Mike Minor), and Sam Drucker.\n\n\"The Thanksgiving Story\" (7:10) - The Clampetts visit Hooterville and mingle with the Petticoat Junction cast. This includes a silent, split-second insert of Eddie Albert and Eva Gabor of Green Acres. Jethro pretends to be a Hollywood producer and tries to romance Billie Jo (Meredith MacRae) and Bobbie Jo (Lori Saunders) Bradley. This arc continues in the next episode, \"The Courtship of Homer Noodleman\" (7:10), with the Clampetts leaving for home following Eb Dawson's (from Green Acres) falling for Elly May.\n\n\"The Week Before Christmas\" (7:13) - The crossover aspect is limited to two scenes in Sam Drucker's general store with the Bradley sisters and Drucker talking to Granny over the phone. The same broadcast week, Petticoat Junction aired \"A Cake from Granny\" with shots of Granny and Jane Hathaway (Nancy Kulp) in Beverly Hills baking a cake. \"Christmas in Hooterville\" (7:14) reunites the Clampett family with the Petticoat Junction cast. The follow-up episode, \"Drysdale and Friend\" (7:15), has appearances by Sam Drucker and Green Acres regular Fred Ziffel (Hank Patterson).\n\n\"Sam Drucker's Visit\" (7:23) - The final season seven crossover with Sam Drucker dropping in on the Clampetts in Beverly Hills. Drucker and Betty Jo share one scene set in his Hooterville General Store.\n\nIn season eight, \"Buzz Bodine, Boy General\" (8:15) and \"The Clampett-Hewes Empire\" (8:16) comprise the last two-part crossover of the series. The Clampetts return to Petticoat Junction in a story featuring Steve Elliott, Betty Jo, Sam Drucker, and a rare Hooterville visit by Miss Hathaway and Mr. Drysdale (Raymond Bailey).\nDuring season nine, after the cancellation of Petticoat Junction, Lori Saunders appeared in three episodes playing a new recurring character, Elizabeth Gordon.\n\nReception\n\nThe Beverly Hillbillies received poor reviews from some contemporary critics. The New York Times called the show \"strained and unfunny\"; Variety called it \"painful to sit through\". Film professor Janet Staiger writes that \"the problem for these reviewers was that the show confronted the cultural elite's notions of quality entertainment.\" The show did receive a somewhat favorable review from noted critic Gilbert Seldes in the December 15, 1962 TV Guide: \"The whole notion on which The Beverly Hillbillies is founded is an encouragement to ignorance... But it is funny. What can I do?\" \n\nRegardless of the poor reviews, the show shot to the top of the Nielsen ratings shortly after its premiere and stayed there for several seasons. During its first two seasons, it was the number one program in the U.S. During its second season, it earned some of the highest ratings ever recorded for a half-hour sitcom. The season-two episode \"The Giant Jackrabbit\" also became the most watched telecast up to the time of its airing, and remains the most-watched half-hour episode of a sitcom, as well. The series enjoyed excellent ratings throughout its run, although it had fallen out of the top 20 most-watched shows during its final season.\n\nNielsen ratings\n\n \n\nCancellation\n\nSeason nine, during the 1970–71 TV season placed 33rd out of 96 shows. Despite the respectable ratings, the show was canceled in the spring of 1971 after 274 episodes. The CBS network, prompted by pressure from advertisers seeking a more sophisticated urban audience, decided to refocus its schedule on several \"hip\" new urban-themed shows and, to make room for them, all of CBS's rural-themed comedies were simultaneously cancelled. This action came to be known as \"the Rural Purge\". Pat Buttram, who played Mr. Haney on Green Acres, famously remarked, \"It was the year CBS killed everything with a tree in it.\" \n\nReunions\n\n1981 CBS movie\n\nIn 1981, a Return of the Beverly Hillbillies television movie, written and produced by series creator Henning, was aired on the CBS network. Irene Ryan had died in 1973, and Raymond Bailey had died in 1980. The script acknowledged Granny's passing, but featured Imogene Coca as Granny's mother. Max Baer decided against reprising the role that both started and stymied his career, so the character of Jethro Bodine was given to another actor, Ray Young.\n\nThe film's plot had Jed back in his old homestead in Bug Tussle, having divided his massive fortune among Elly May and Jethro, both of whom stayed on the West Coast. Jane Hathaway had become a Department of Energy agent and was seeking Granny's \"White Lightnin'\" recipe to combat the energy crisis. Since Granny had gone on to \"her re-ward\", it was up to Granny's centenarian \"Maw\" (Imogene Coca) to divulge the secret brew's ingredients. Subplots included Jethro playing an egocentric, starlet-starved Hollywood producer, Jane and her boss (Werner Klemperer) having a romance, and Elly May owning a large petting zoo. The four main characters finally got together by the end of the story.\n\nHaving been filmed a mere decade after the final episode of the original series, viewer consensus was that the series' original spirit was lost to the film on many fronts, chief of which being the deaths of Ryan and Bailey and Baer's absence, which left only three of the six original cast members available to reprise their respective roles. Further subtracting from the familiarity was the fact that the legendary Clampett mansion was unavailable for a location shoot as the owners' lease was too expensive. Henning himself admitted sheer embarrassment when the finished product aired, blaming his inability to rewrite the script due to the 1981 Writers Guild strike. \n\n1993 special\n\nIn 1993, Ebsen, Douglas, and Baer reunited onscreen for the only time in the CBS-TV retrospective television special, The Legend of the Beverly Hillbillies, which ranked as the fourth-most watched television program of the week—a major surprise given the mediocre rating for the 1981 TV movie. It was a rare tribute from the \"Tiffany network\", which owed much of its success in the 1960s to the series, but has often seemed embarrassed by it in hindsight, often down-playing the show in retrospective television specials on the network's history and rarely inviting cast members to participate in such all-star broadcasts.\n\nThe Legend of The Beverly Hillbillies special ignored several plot twists of the TV movie, notably Jethro was now not a film director, but a leading Los Angeles physician. Critter-loving Elly May was still in California with her animals, but Jed was back home in the Hills, having lost his fortune, stolen by the now-imprisoned banker Drysdale. Nancy Kulp had died in 1991 and was little referred to beyond the multitude of film clips that dotted the special. The special was released on VHS tape by CBS/Fox Video in 1995 and as a bonus feature on the Official Third Season DVD Set in 2009.\n\nSyndication\n\nThe Beverly Hillbillies is still televised daily around the world in syndication. In the United States, the show is broadcast currently on MeTV, Retro TV, MyFamily TV, and was previously on Nick at Nite, The Hallmark Channel, and WGN America. A limited number of episodes from the earlier portions of the series run have turned up in the public domain and as such are seen occasionally on many smaller networks.\n\nMeTV Network airs The Beverly Hillbillies weekdays at 8:00 a.m. and 8:30 a.m. ET. \n\nThe show is distributed by CBS Television Distribution, the syndication arm of CBS Television Studios and the CBS network. It was previously distributed by CBS Films, Viacom Enterprises, Paramount Domestic Television, and CBS Paramount Domestic Television (all through corporate changes involving TV distribution rights to the early CBS library). The repeats of the show that debuted on CBS Daytime on September 5–9, 1966, as \"Mornin' Beverly Hillbillies\" through September 10, 1971 and on September 13–17, 1971 as \"The Beverly Hillbillies\" lasted up to winter 1971–72. It aired at 11:00–11:30 am Eastern/10:00-10:30 am Central through September 3, 1971, then moved to 10:30–11:00 am Eastern/9:30–10:00 am Central for the last season on CBS Daytime.\n\nMedia\n\nA three-act stage play based on the pilot was written by David Rogers in 1968. \n\nFifty-five episodes of the series are in the public domain (all 36 season-one episodes and 19 season-two episodes), because Orion Television, successor to Filmways, neglected to renew their copyrights. As a result, these episodes have been released on home video and DVD on many low-budget labels and shown on low-power television stations and low-budget networks in prints. In many video prints of the public domain episodes, the original theme music has been replaced by generic music due to copyright issues.\n\nBefore his death, Paul Henning, whose estate now holds the original film elements to the public domain episodes, authorized MPI Home Video to release the best of the first two seasons on DVD, the first \"ultimate collection\" of which was released in the fall of 2005. These collections include the original, uncut versions of the first season's episodes, complete with their original theme music and opening sponsor plugs. Volume 1 has, among its bonus features, the alternate, unaired version of the pilot film, The Hillbillies Of Beverly Hills (the version of the episode that sold the series to CBS), and the \"cast commercials\" (cast members pitching the products of the show's sponsors) originally shown at the end of each episode.\n\nWith the exception of the public domain episodes, the copyrights to the series were renewed by Orion Television. However, any new compilation of Hillbillies material will be copyrighted by either MPI Media Group or CBS, depending on the content of the material used.\n\nFor many years, 20th Century Fox, through a joint venture with CBS called CBS/Fox Video, released select episodes of Hillbillies on videocassette. After Viacom merged with CBS, Paramount Home Entertainment (the video division of Paramount Pictures, which was acquired by Viacom in 1994) took over the video rights.\n\nIn 2006, Paramount announced plans to release the copyrighted episodes in boxed sets through CBS DVD later that year. The show's second season (consisting of the public domain episodes from that season) was released on DVD in Region 1 on October 7, 2008 as \"...The Official Second Season\". The third season was released on February 17, 2009. Both seasons are available to be purchased together from major online retailers. On October 1, 2013, season four was released on DVD as a Walmart exclusive. It was released as a full retail release on April 15, 2014. On April 26, 2016, CBS/Paramount released the complete first season on DVD for the very first time. \n\nFeature film\n\nIn 1993, a movie version of The Beverly Hillbillies was released starring Jim Varney as Jed Clampett and featuring Buddy Ebsen in a cameo as Barnaby Jones, the lead character in his long-running post-Hillbillies television series.\n\nComputer game \n\nBased on The Beverly Hillbillies movie, a PC computer adventure game for operating system MS-DOS was developed by Synergistic Software, Inc. and published in 1993 by Capstone Software." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Shady Rest Hotel", "Kate Bradley", "Homer Bedlow", "J. Homer Bedloe", "Petticoat Junction", "Homer Bedloe", "J. 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Which series was a spin off from the Golden Girls spin-off, Empty Nest?	tc_924	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Golden_Girls.txt", "Empty_Nest.txt" ], "title": [ "The Golden Girls", "Empty Nest" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Golden Girls is an American sitcom created by Susan Harris that originally aired on NBC from September 14, 1985, to May 9, 1992. An ensemble cast, the show stars Beatrice Arthur, Betty White, Rue McClanahan, and Estelle Getty, as four older women who share a home in Miami, Florida. It was produced by Witt/Thomas/Harris Productions, in association with Touchstone Television, and Paul Junger Witt, Tony Thomas, and Harris served as the original executive producers.\n\nThe Golden Girls received critical acclaim throughout most of its run and won several awards, including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series twice. It also won three Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy. Each of the four stars received an Emmy Award (from multiple nominations during the series' run), making it one of only three sitcoms in the award's history to achieve this. The series also ranked among the top ten highest-rated programs for six out of its seven seasons. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Golden Girls No. 54 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time. In 2014, the Writers Guild of America placed the sitcom at No. 69 in their list of the \"101 Best Written TV Series of All Time\".\n\nPremise\n\nThe series revolves around four older, single women (three widows and one divorcée) sharing a house in Miami, Florida. The owner of the house is a widow named Blanche Devereaux (McClanahan), who was joined by fellow widow Rose Nylund (White) and divorcée Dorothy Zbornak (Arthur) after they both responded to a room-for-rent ad on the bulletin board of a local grocery store a year prior to the start of the series. In the pilot episode, the three were joined by Dorothy's 80-year-old mother, Sophia Petrillo (Getty), after the retirement home where she lived burned down. \n\nPilot\n\nThe pilot episode was to feature a gay character named Coco (played by Charles Levin) who worked as a cook for the women, but the role was eliminated from the series before the beginning of the first season. The writers observed that in many of the proposed scripts, the main interaction between the women occurred in the kitchen while preparing and eating food and decided that a separate cook would distract from that friendship. In addition, the character of Sophia had originally been planned as an occasional guest star, but Estelle Getty had tested so strongly with preview audiences that the producers decided to make Sophia a regular character which made Coco obsolete. \n\nFinale\n\nAfter six consecutive seasons in the top 10, and a seventh season at No. 30, The Golden Girls came to an end when Bea Arthur chose to leave the series. In the hour-long series finale, which aired in May 1992, Dorothy meets and marries Blanche's Uncle Lucas (Leslie Nielsen), and moves to Hollingsworth Manor in Atlanta, Georgia. Sophia was to join her, but in the end, Sophia stays behind with the other women in Miami, leading into the spin-off series, The Golden Palace. The series finale was watched by 27.2 million viewers. As of 2010, the episode ranked at No. 17 of most-watched finales. \n\nEpisodes\n\nCast and characters\n\nMain\n\n* Beatrice Arthur as Dorothy Zbornak, a substitute teacher\nBorn in Brooklyn, New York City, to Sicilian immigrants Sophia and Salvadore Petrillo, Dorothy became pregnant while still in high school, resulting in a marriage to Stanley Zbornak in order to legitimize the baby. Stan and Dorothy eventually moved to Miami, but divorced after 38 years when Stan left her for a young flight attendant. The marriage produced children. According to the timeline presented, Dorothy and Stan would have had three children, with their oldest son or daughter near 40 by the beginning of the series. However, due to a lack of continuity in the writing, it is implied they had three children but sometimes stated they only had two. Michael and Kate were repeatedly shown as being in their 20s during the run of the show, thus not being old enough to be the child Dorothy got pregnant with in high school. In the series' finale episode, Dorothy marries Blanche's uncle, Lucas Hollingsworth, and relocates to Atlanta, Georgia. Arthur also played Dorothy's grandmother, Sophia's mother, in a flashback episode to when they lived in Brooklyn.\n\n* Betty White as Rose Nylund, a Norwegian American from the small farming town of St. Olaf, Minnesota\nKnown for her humorously peculiar stories of life growing up in her hometown, Rose was happily married to Charlie Nylund, with whom she had five children. Upon Charlie's death, she moved to Miami. She eventually found work at a grief counseling center, though she later ended up as the assistant to a consumer reporter (\"Enrique Mas\") at a local TV station. In later seasons, Rose became romantically involved with college professor Miles Webber. During season six, Miles was placed into the Witness Protection Program, but returned later in the season. Their relationship continued throughout the series, and shortly into the sequel series, The Golden Palace. In season one it is stated that Rose is 55.\n\n* Rue McClanahan as Blanche Devereaux, a Southern belle employed at an art museum\nBorn into a wealthy family, Blanche grew up as the apple of her father's eye on a plantation outside of Atlanta, Georgia, prior to her relocation to Miami, where she lived with her husband, George, until his death. Their marriage produced six children: four sons and two daughters. A widow, Blanche was portrayed as man-hungry, and she clearly had the most male admirers—and stories detailing various sexual encounters—over the course of the series.\n\n* Estelle Getty as Sophia Petrillo, Dorothy's mother\nBorn in Palermo, Sicily, Sophia moved to New York after fleeing an arranged marriage to Guido Spirelli. She later married Salvadore Petrillo, with whom she had three children: Dorothy, Gloria, and Phil, a cross-dresser, who later dies of a heart attack (episode \"Ebbtide's Revenge\"). Initially a resident in the Shady Pines Retirement Home after having a stroke prior to the start of the series, she moved in with Blanche, Rose and Dorothy following a fire at the institution. During the series' run, Sophia married Max Weinstock, but they soon separated. Throughout the series, she held a few part-time jobs, mostly involving food, including fast-food worker and entrepreneur of spaghetti sauce and homemade sandwiches.\n\nRecurring\n\n* Herbert Edelman as Stanley Zbornak, Dorothy's cheating, freeloading ex-husband who first appears in the second episode of season one, and appears in 26 episodes total throughout the series. He also appears in a later episode of The Golden Palace, in which he fakes his death due to troubles with the IRS.\n* Harold Gould as Miles Webber (aka Nicholas Carbone, Samuel Plankmaker), Rose's professor boyfriend who appears in 14 episodes, starting in season five. Gould also guest-starred in episode three in the first season as Arnie Peterson, Rose's first serious boyfriend after her husband Charlie's death. He also appears in two episodes of The Golden Palace.\n* Debra Engle as Blanche's daughter Rebecca Devereaux, who has a baby girl by artificial insemination and appears in three episodes (seasons 5–6). Shawn Schepps played Rebecca in season three, when Rebecca returns from a modeling career in Paris, overweight and engaged to a verbally abusive man. (Debra) also appears in the series finale of The Golden Palace, in which she is called upon by Blanche for an ovum.\n* Monte Markham as Blanche's brother Clayton Hollingsworth in two episodes, first when he comes out in season four and later to introduce his boyfriend in season six.\n* Sheree North as Virginia Hollingsworth Wylde, Blanche's sister who appears in two episodes, first in season one, then again in season five.\n* Sid Melton as Salvadore Petrillo, Sophia's late husband, usually seen in dreams or flashback sequences who appears in eight episodes. He also appears as Don the Fool, a waiter at a medieval restaurant in season six.\n* Nancy Walker as Angela Grisanti Vecchio, Dorothy's aunt and Sophia's sister, with whom Sophia frequently fought, appears in two episodes in season two.\n* Bill Dana as Sophia's brother and Dorothy's uncle Angelo Grisanti who appears in seven episodes (seasons 3–7). Dana also appears as Sophia's father in a season four episode.\n* Doris Belack as Gloria Mayston, Dorothy's younger sister who, in season one, is married to a wealthy man in California and wants Sophia to move in with her. She later loses all of her money and returns in season seven for a two-part episode played by Dena Dietrich and upsets Dorothy, as she becomes romantically involved with Dorothy's ex-husband, Stan.\n* Scott Jacoby as Dorothy's aimless musician son Michael Zbornak who appears in three episodes from seasons two to five.\n* Lynnie Greene (credited as Lynn Greene) as a younger Dorothy in flashbacks in four episodes.\n* Steve Landesberg as Stan’s psychiatrist, Dr. Richard Halperin, appearing in three episodes in season seven.\n\nProduction\n\nCreation\n\nIdeas for a comedy series about older women emerged during the filming of a television special at NBC's Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California, in August 1984. Produced to introduce the network's 1984–85 season schedule, two actresses appearing on NBC shows, Selma Diamond of Night Court and Doris Roberts of Remington Steele, appeared in a skit promoting the upcoming show Miami Vice as Miami Nice, a parody about old people living in Miami, Florida. NBC senior vice president Warren Littlefield was among the executive producers in the audience who were amused by their performance, and he envisioned a series based on the geriatric humor the two were portraying.\n\nShortly afterward, he met with producers Paul Junger Witt and Tony Thomas, who were pitching a show about a female lawyer. Though Littlefield nixed their idea, he asked if they would be interested in delivering a pilot script for Miami Nice instead. Their regular writer declined, so Witt asked his wife, Susan Harris, who had been planning to retire after the conclusion of their ABC series Soap. Fortunately, she found the concept interesting, as \"it was a demographic that had never been addressed,\" and she soon began work on it. Though her vision of a sitcom about women in their 60s differed from NBC's request for a comedy about women around 40 years old, Littlefield was impressed when he received her pilot script and subsequently approved production of it. The Cosby Show director Jay Sandrich, who had previously worked with Harris, Witt and Thomas on Soap, agreed to direct. \n\nThe pilot included a gay houseboy, Coco (Charles Levin), who lived with the girls. Levin had been suggested by then-NBC president Brandon Tartikoff based on Levin's groundbreaking portrayal of a recurring gay character, Eddie Gregg, on NBC's Emmy-winning drama Hill Street Blues. After the pilot, the character of Coco was eliminated from the series. \n\nCasting\n\nHired to film the pilot, director Sandrich would also become instrumental in the casting process for the series. Both Rue McClanahan and Betty White came into consideration as the series Mama's Family, in which the two co-starred, had been canceled by NBC. Originally producers wanted to cast McClanahan as Rose and White as Blanche. The thinking for this was based on roles they previously played; White portrayed man-hungry Sue Ann Nivens on The Mary Tyler Moore Show, while McClanahan co-starred as sweet but scatter-brained Vivian Harmon in Maude. Eager not to be typecast, they took the suggestion of Sandrich and switched roles last-minute.\n\nThough Harris had created the character of Dorothy with a \"Bea Arthur type\" in mind, Littlefield and the producers initially envisioned actress Elaine Stritch for the part. Stritch's audition flopped, however, and under the impression that Arthur didn't want to participate, Harris asked McClanahan if she could persuade Arthur, with whom she worked previously on the CBS sitcom Maude, to take the role. Arthur flipped upon reading the script, but felt hesitant about McClanahan's approach as she didn't \"want to play (their Maude characters) Maude and Vivian meet Sue Ann Nivens.\" She reconsidered, however, after hearing that McClanahan and White had switched roles.\n\nEstelle Getty, who was younger than both Bea Arthur and Betty White, was the last to be cast as the elderly mother of Arthur's character. Tony Thomas spotted her playing the mother role on Broadway in Torch Song Trilogy, and asked her to audition. Getty, who went through a three-hour transformation to become Sophia, wore heavy make-up, thick glasses and a white wig to look the part. The character of Sophia was thought by the creators to enhance the idea that three retirement age women could be young. Disney's Michael Eisner explains, \"Estelle Getty made our three women into girls. And that was, to me, what made it seem like it could be a contemporary, young show.\" As surprising as it may sound, Estelle Getty's continuously battled her fear of stage fright. During an interview in 1988, Getty's commented on her phobia and expressed how working with major stars, such as Arthur and White, made her even more nervous. There were times where she even froze on camera while filming. \n\nBea Arthur and Betty White were personally distant when not working. This never came across publicly in press, and both acted as consummate professionals on set as each knew the importance of the other to the overall success of the show. It also didn't dull the experience or the enjoyment of doing the show for either one. Betty White has always expressed nothing but love and admiration for Bea Arthur. It was only after Arthur's death in 2009 that she revealed their differences were real and due to a fundamental personality clash with Arthur becoming easily irritated by White's positive, perky demeanor. \n\nWriting and taping\n\n \nThe show was the second television series to be produced by The Walt Disney Company under the Touchstone Television label, and was subsequently distributed by Buena Vista International, Inc. (which owns as the former affiliate of Disney Channel Asia, now Disney–ABC Television Group). \n\nCreator Susan Harris went on to contribute another four episodes to the first season, but became less involved with the sitcom throughout its run; she would, however, continue reading all scripts and remained familiar with most of the storylines. Kathy Speer and Terry Grossman were the first head writers of the series and wrote for the show's first four seasons. As head writers, Speer and Grossman along with Mort Nathan and Barry Fanaro—who won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing the first season—gave general ideas to lower staff writers, and personally wrote a handful of scripts each season. \n\nIn 1989, Marc Sotkin, previously a writer on Laverne & Shirley and a producer on fellow Witt/Thomas series It's a Living, assumed head-writing responsibilities, and guided the show (to varying degrees) during what would be its final three seasons. Richard Vaczy and Tracy Gamble, previously writers on 227 and My Two Dads, also assumed the roles of producers and head writers. Beginning in 1990, Marc Cherry served as writer and producer, years before going on to create Desperate Housewives, which ran on ABC from 2004 to 2012. Mitchell Hurwitz also served as writer for the show in its last two seasons. Hurwitz would later go on to create Arrested Development for Fox and later revived for Netflix.\n\nExterior and interior sets\n\nThe house's address was mentioned as being 6151 Richmond Street, Miami. The outside model used in the shots of the house in the series was part of the backstage studio tour ride at Disney's Hollywood Studios. This façade—along with the Empty Nest house—was among those destroyed in mid-2003, as Disney bulldozed the houses of \"Residential Street\" to make room for its \"Lights, Motors, Action!\" attraction. A hurricane that damaged the sets earlier also contributed to this decision. The façade is based on a real house in Brentwood, California, located at 245 N. Saltair Ave. and was used in the exterior shots during the first season of the show. Later, the producers built a new model at Walt Disney World in Florida.\n\nThe kitchen set seen on The Golden Girls was originally used on an earlier Witt/Thomas/Harris series, It Takes Two, which aired on ABC from 1982 to 1983. However, the exterior backdrop seen through the kitchen window changed from the view of Chicago high-rises to palm trees and bushes for the Miami setting.\n\nFormat\n\nThe Golden Girls was shot on videotape in front of a live studio audience. Many episodes of the series followed a similar format or theme. For example, one or more of the women would become involved in some sort of problem, often involving other family members, men, or an ethical dilemma. At some point, they would gather around the kitchen table and discuss the problem, sometimes late at night and often while eating cheesecake or some other dessert. One of the other girls would then tell a story from her own life, which somehow related to the problem (though Rose would occasionally regale a nonsense story that had nothing to do with the situation, and Sophia would tell outrageous made-up stories). Some episodes featured flashbacks to previous episodes, flashbacks to events not shown in previous episodes or to events that occurred before the series began. Though the writing was mostly comical, dramatic moments and sentimental endings were included in several episodes. One of the actresses on the show, Bea Arthur, actually hated cheesecake. \n\nReception\n\nCritical reception\n\nAn immediate runaway hit, The Golden Girls became an NBC staple on Saturday nights. The show was the anchor of NBC's Saturday line-up, and almost always won its time slot, as ABC and CBS struggled to find shows to compete against it, the most notable being ABC's Lucille Ball sitcom Life With Lucy in the beginning of the 1986–87 season. The Golden Girls was part of a series of Brandon Tartikoff shows that put an end to NBC's ratings slump, along with The Cosby Show, 227, Night Court, Miami Vice, and L.A. Law.\n\nThe show dealt with many topical issues, such as coming out and same-sex marriage, elder care and homelessness, AIDS and discrimination against people with HIV, US immigration policy, death and assisted suicide. \n\nWriter and producer Linda Bloodworth-Thomason created a sitcom with this kind of image as a \"four women\" show, which it turns a hit, Designing Women, that compete with The Golden Girls in rankings, but CBS pushed up to Monday night line-up.\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nDuring its original run, The Golden Girls received 68 Emmy nominations, 11 Emmy awards, four Golden Globe Awards, and two Viewers for Quality Television awards. All the lead actresses won Emmy Awards for their performances on the show. The Golden Girls is one of four shows, along with All in the Family, The Simpsons and Will & Grace, where all the principal actors have won at least one Emmy Award.\n\nAs a tribute to the success of The Golden Girls, all four actresses were later named Disney Legends. \n\nDistribution\n\nSyndication\n\nIn 1989, American syndicated reruns began airing, distributed by Buena Vista Television (now Disney-ABC Domestic Television), the syndication arm of Disney, whose Touchstone Television division produced the series.\n\nIn March 1997, the Lifetime cable network acquired the exclusive rights to repeat the episodes of The Golden Girls in the US for over a decade, until March 1, 2009. The last episode aired on Lifetime, February 27, 2009. Many episodes were edited to allow more commercials and for content. The Hallmark Channel and WE tv began airing re-edited episodes of The Golden Girls in March 2009. As of February 2013, We TV's rights expired and Viacom networks' TV Land, home to Betty White's current series Hot in Cleveland, purchased them and Logo TV. It currently airs on the Hallmark Channel.[http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/09/22/monday-cable-ratings-nfl-football-wins-night-love-hip-hop-hollywood-sportscenter-monday-night-raw-more/470489/]\n\nIn Australia, the show airs every day on Fox Classics.\n\nIn Canada, CanWest's digital specialty channel, DejaView, airs reruns of The Golden Girls.\n\nIn South East Asia, Rewind Networks began airing reruns of The Golden Girls on its HD channel, HITS, in 2013.\n\nHome media release\n\nBuena Vista Home Entertainment has released all seven seasons of The Golden Girls on DVD in Region 1 and Region 4 with the first four being released in Region 2. On November 9, 2010, the studio released a complete series box set titled The Golden Girls: 25th Anniversary Complete Collection. The 21-disc collection features all 180 episodes of the series as well as all special features contained on the previously released season sets; it is encased in special collectible packaging, a replica of Sophia's purse. On November 15, 2005, Warner Home Video released The Golden Girls: A Lifetime Intimate Portrait Series on DVD which contains a separate biography of Arthur, White, McClanahan and Getty, revealing each woman's background, rise to stardom and private life, which originally aired on Lifetime network. \n\nSpin-offs\n\nUpon the success of The Golden Girls creator Susan Harris later devised Empty Nest as a spin-off from The Golden Girls with some character crossovers. Nurses was later spun off from Empty Nest, and the shows would occasionally have special episodes in which characters from one show made appearances in the others. \n\nThe Golden Palace\n\nAfter the original series ended, White, McClanahan, and Getty reprised their characters in the CBS series The Golden Palace, which ran from September 1992 to May 1993, and also starred Cheech Marin and Don Cheadle (Bea Arthur guest starred once reprising her role as Dorothy). The show never approached the popularity or acclaim of the original, and ranked 66th in the annual ratings. Reportedly a second season was approved before being canceled the day before the network announced its fall schedule.\n\nLifetime, which held the rights to The Golden Girls at the time, aired reruns of The Golden Palace in the summer of 2005, and again in December of that year. This was the first time since 1993 that The Golden Palace was seen on American television. Until April 2006, Lifetime played the series as a virtual season eight, airing the series in between the conclusion of the final season and the syndicated roll-over to season one.\n\nEmpty Nest\n\nCapitalizing on the popularity of The Golden Girls, creator Susan Harris decided to develop a spin-off, centering on the empty nest syndrome. The initial pilot was aired as the 1987 Golden Girls episode \"Empty Nests\" and starred Paul Dooley and Rita Moreno as George and Renee Corliss, a married couple living next to the Golden Girls characters, who face empty nest syndrome after their three adult daughters moved out. When that idea wasn't well-received, Harris retooled the series as a vehicle for Richard Mulligan and the following year Empty Nest debuted, starring Mulligan as pediatrician Harry Weston, a widower whose two adult daughters moved back home. Characters from both shows made occasional guest appearances on the other show, with the four Girls guesting on Empty Nest and Mulligan, Dinah Manoff, Kristy McNichol, David Leisure and Park Overall appearing on The Golden Girls in their Empty Nest roles. After the end of The Golden Palace, Getty joined the cast of Empty Nest, making frequent appearances as Sophia in the show's final two seasons.\n\nMulligan and Manoff were alumni from one of Susan Harris' earlier shows, Soap.\n\nNurses\n\nEmpty Nest launched its own spin-off in 1991 set in Miami in the same hospital where Dr. Weston worked. The series starred Stephanie Hodge and a set of other young female and male nurses and follows their daily slumbers during worktime. As one of the few times in television history that three shows from the same producer, set in the same city, aired back-to-back-to-back on a single network in the same night, the three shows occasionally took advantage of their unique circumstances to create storylines that carried through all three series, such as \"Hurricane Saturday.\" Starring actress Hodge left the show after two seasons. David Rasche joined the cast at the start of the second season and Loni Anderson was added as the new hospital administrator for the third season.\n\nAdaptations\n\nStage\n\nThe Golden Girls: Live! was an Off-Broadway show that opened in the summer of 2003 in New York City at Rose's Turn theater in the West Village, and ran until November of that year. The production ended because the producers failed to secure the rights and received a cease and desist order by the creators of the original television show. Featuring an all-male cast in drag, The Golden Girls: Live! consisted of two back-to-back episodes of the sitcom: Break-In (season 1, episode 8) and Isn't It Romantic? (season 2, episode 5).\n\nForeign versions\n\n* Chile: Los Años Dorados: In 2015 a Chilean remake called Los Años Dorados (The Golden Years) was produced by UCVTV in agreement with Disney, starring famous Chilean actresses Gloria Münchmeyer, Carmen Barros, Ana Reeves and Consuelo Holzapfel, who lives their retirement in the city of Viña del Mar. It was a success for the channel, so there are plans to do the second season in 2016. \n* Greece: Chrysa Koritsia: In 2008, Greek broadcaster ET1 premiered a Greek remake entitled Chrysa Koritsia (, \"Gold[en] Girls\"), which features the four women in Greece. Each of the characters has been Hellenized to suit the culture and modern setting. Names were only slightly changed but more for cultural reasons, as Sophia (whose first name was unchanged, as it is Greek), Bela (Blanche), Dora (Dorothy), Fifi (Rose), and Panos (Stan). The series began airing in mid-January, and features many similar plots to the original. ET1 aired a rerun of the show in the summer of 2008 and managed to take a place in the top 10 rates chart, presented by AGB Nielsen Media Research. The Greek edition features Mirka Papakonsantinoy as Dora, Dina Konsta as Sofia, Eleni Gerasimidou as Fifi and Ivonni Maltezoy as Bela.\n* Netherlands: Golden Girls: A Dutch remake for the RTL 4 network stars Loes Luca as Barbara (Blanche), Beppie Melissen as Els (Dorothy), Cecile Heuer as Milly (Rose), and Pleuni Touw as Toos (Sophia). The show premiered in fall 2012, using essentially the same plots as the U.S. version, along with a Dutch-language version of the original theme song, \"Thank You for Being a Friend.\" \n* Philippines: 50 Carats, O Di Ba? A Philippine version of The Golden Girls (spin-off) aired during the early 90's by IBC 13. Starred Nida Blanca, Charito Solis and Gloria Romero. \n* Russia: Bolshie Devochki: A Russian remake was broadcast in 2006, entitled Bolshie Devochki (), which in English can literally be translated to: \"Big Girls.\" The series featured renowned Russian actresses Galina Petrova as Irina (Dorothy), Olga Ostroumova as Nadejda (Blanche), Valentina Telechkina as Margarita (Rose), and Elena Millioti as Sofya (Sophia). However, the concept never caught on with the Russian viewers and the show was canceled after only thirty-two episodes. \n* Spain: Juntas pero no revueltas/Las chicas de oro: In 1996, TVE launched a Spanish remake entitled Juntas pero no revueltas (Together, but not mixed) with Mercedes Sampietro as Julia (Dorothy), Mónica Randall as Nuri (Blanche), Kiti Manver as Rosa (Rose), and Amparo Baró as Benigna (Sophia). Low ratings made it disappear after one season. In 2010, another remake with the title Las chicas de oro (The Golden Girls) was announced, again on TVE, this time produced by José Luis Moreno and with Concha Velasco as Doroti (Dorothy), Carmen Maura as Rosa (Rose), Lola Herrera as Blanca (Blanche) and Alicia Hermida as Sofía (Sophia). The series premiered on September 13, 2010 with success. However, after only 26 episodes, the series was eventually discontinued after the end of the first season after receiving generally bad reviews and following dropping ratings. \n* United Kingdom: The Brighton Belles: In 1993, ITV premiered Brighton Belles, a British version of the American sitcom. The show, starring Sheila Hancock, Wendy Craig, Sheila Gish, and Jean Boht was nearly identical to Girls except for character name changes and actor portrayals. The 10-episode series was canceled after six weeks due to low ratings, with the final four episodes airing more than a year later.", "Empty Nest is an American sitcom that originally aired on NBC from 1988 to 1995. The series was created as a spin-off of The Golden Girls by creator and producer Susan Harris. For its first three seasons, Empty Nest was one of the year's top 10 most-watched programs. It was produced by Witt/Thomas/Harris Productions in association with Touchstone Television. \n\nThe show concept borrowed some elements from the British comedy series Father, Dear Father, also featuring a father living with his two daughters and large dog. However, unlike that series (in which the daughters are still teenagers and the ex-wife and her new husband are both conspicuously present), the two daughters in Empty Nest are self-supporting adults, and the lead character is a widower.\n\nEmpty Nest was part of NBC's Saturday night block of programming, and during its first four seasons it aired at 9:30pm ET, directly following The Golden Girls.\n\nTwo of the cast were alumni from one of Susan Harris' earlier shows, Soap; Mulligan was (briefly) Manoff's father-in-law in Soap.\n\nHistory\n\nAn incarnation of the series initially appeared in the 1987 Golden Girls episode \"Empty Nests.\" In the episode, George and Renee Corliss (played by Paul Dooley and Rita Moreno, respectively) were introduced as the Girls' neighbors, a middle-aged couple suffering from empty nest syndrome. In this version, George was a busy doctor and Renee had been an actress, a profession she intended to pursue again now that their children had left home. Their teenage daughter Jenny (Jane Harnick) visited from college, and Renee's brother Chuck (Geoffrey Lewis), who suffered from multiple personality disorder, also appeared. The set of the Corliss house was exactly the same as the one that later became the Weston residence, and the Corlisses also had an annoying neighbor played by David Leisure (although theirs was named Oliver). The \"Empty Nests\" episode screened as the Season Two finale of The Golden Girls and was intended to act as a backdoor pilot for the spin-off, which was to begin during the fall 1987 TV season. However, the series did not go ahead as planned, and the premise was later extensively revamped before Empty Nest appeared on screens in 1988.\n\nPlot\n\nThe show revolved around pediatrician Dr. Harry Weston (Richard Mulligan), whose life was turned upside down when his wife, Libby, died and two of his adult daughters moved back into the family home in Miami. Early episodes established that The Golden Girls were neighbors of the Westons (Bea Arthur, Rue McClanahan, and Betty White all guest-starred as their Golden Girls characters, and vice versa), while Estelle Getty eventually became a regular on the series. \n\nEldest daughter Carol (Dinah Manoff) was a neurotic, high-strung recent divorcée, while middle daughter Barbara (Kristy McNichol) was a tough undercover police officer. The two sisters frequently bickered and vied for the attention of their father, whom they called \"Daddy.\" (Harry occasionally expressed regret at never having had a son.) The Westons' large dog Dreyfuss was also prominently featured.\n\nIn 1992, Kristy McNichol left the show and the youngest Weston daughter, Emily (Lisa Rieffel), joined the cast. Her character had not been seen before, but had been mentioned as being away at college. Rieffel left after one season, and for the show's final two seasons only Carol remained of the Weston children. McNichol returned for the series finale in 1995.\n\nAnother main character was the Westons' neighbor, Charley Dietz (David Leisure), a womanizing cruise ship employee who frequently barged into the house unannounced to borrow food or make sexist comments. Charley had a father-son relationship with Harry and a love-hate relationship with Carol. \n\nHarry's job was another major focus for the show. For the first five seasons he worked at a hospital, where he was assisted by wisecracking Southern nurse Laverne (Park Overall). In season six Harry retired, eventually going to work for a struggling inner-city medical clinic run by the tough-talking Dr. Maxine Douglas (Marsha Warfield). Laverne, having been fired by Dr. Weston's replacement, came to work there as well.\n\nOther characters who later joined the cast were Carol's boyfriend, Patrick (Paul Provenza), an artist who was almost as eccentric as she. Patrick convinced the Westons to let him use their empty garage as his new painting studio and, when his relationship with Carol became serious, he eventually moved in altogether. Their romantic bliss was short-lived, as they broke up at the beginning of season six. However, this was not before Carol became pregnant with Patrick's child; their son, Scotty, was born in November 1993, and Carol chose to raise the baby on her own. Estelle Getty reprised her Golden Girls character Sophia Petrillo during Empty Nest's final two seasons (after the cancellation of The Golden Palace). It was explained that Sophia had moved back into the nearby Shady Pines retirement home.\n\nCast\n\n* Richard Mulligan as Dr. Harry Weston\n* Dinah Manoff as Carol Weston\n* Kristy McNichol as Barbara Weston (1988–1992, 1995)\n* David Leisure as Charley Dietz\n* Park Overall as Laverne Todd\n* Estelle Getty as Sophia Petrillo (1993–1995)\n* Paul Provenza as Patrick Arcola (1992–1993)\n* Lisa Rieffel as Emily Weston (1993)\n* Marsha Warfield as Dr. Maxine Douglas (1993–1995)\n* Bear the Dog as Dreyfuss\n\nNotable guest stars\n\n* Don Adams\n* Diana Muldaur\n* Loni Anderson\n* Mayim Bialik\n* Eddie Bracken\n* Garth Brooks\n* Patricia Crowley\n* Angie Dickinson\n* Stephen Dorff\n* Morgan Fairchild\n* Zsa Zsa Gabor\n* Marla Gibbs\n* Bobcat Goldthwait\n* Lee Grant\n* Pat Harrington\n* Phil Hartman\n* Earl Holliman\n* Shirley Jones\n* Gordon Jump\n* Carol Kane\n\n* Joey Lawrence\n* Mark Linn-Baker\n* Jane Lynch\n* Barbara Mandrell\n* Audrey Meadows\n* Edie McClurg\n* Jerry Orbach\n* Luke Perry\n* Matthew Perry\n* Geraldo Rivera\n* Doris Roberts\n* Debra Jo Rupp\n* Peter Scolari\n* Liz Sheridan\n* Yeardley Smith\n* Renée Taylor\n* Jeffrey Tambor\n* Danny Thomas\n* Adrian Zmed\n\nNielsen ratings \n\n# 1988–89: #9 (19.2) \n# 1989–90: #9 (18.9) \n# 1990–91: #7 (16.7)\n# 1991–92: #23 (14.3)\n# 1992–93: #48 (10.8)\n# 1993–94: #62 \n# 1994–95: #118 \n\nProduction notes\n\nIn 1991, Empty Nest spawned its own spinoff, Nurses, a sitcom about a group of nurses working in the same hospital as Dr. Weston. The three series (Empty Nest, The Golden Girls and Nurses) represented one of the few times in American television history that three shows from the same producer, all taking place in the same city and explicitly set up with the characters knowing each other from the very beginning, aired on the same network in one night. On at least two occasions, Harris wrote storylines which carried through all three series as fictional crossovers.\n\nTheme song\n\nThe show's theme song was \"Life Goes On\", written by John Bettis and George Tipton and performed by Billy Vera. For the first three seasons, the song was presented in a slower, more melancholy yet comical arrangement. The original opening titles sequence showed Harry Weston taking Dreyfuss for a walk around town, with still images of the other regular cast members shown as they were credited.\n\nWhen the third season began, a new opening sequence debuted, made up of footage from series episodes showing each of the regular cast members. For the final four seasons the theme song was presented in a higher, more upbeat arrangement with female backup singers; the titles sequence style introduced in the third season remained.\n\nCrossovers\n\nThe following is a list of Empty Nest episodes featuring characters from The Golden Girls or Nurses.\n;Season One\nEpisode 4: \"Fatal Attraction\" – Blanche Devereaux from The Golden Girls\nEpisode 10: \"Libby's Gift\" – Sophia Petrillo from The Golden Girls\nEpisode 14: \"Strange Bedfellows\" – Rose Nylund from The Golden Girls\nEpisode 17: \"Dumped\" – Dorothy Zbornak from The Golden Girls\n;Season Two\nEpisode 6: \"Rambo of Neiman Marcus\" – Rose Nylund from The Golden Girls\n;Season Four\nEpisode 8: \"Windy\" – Sophia Petrillo from The Golden Girls\nEpisode 20: \"Dr. Weston and Mr. Hyde\" – Rose Nylund from The Golden Girls\n;Season Five\nEpisode 20: \"Love and Marriage\" – Jack Trenton from Nurses\n;Season Six\nEpisode 2: \"Bye-Bye, Baby... Hello: Part 1\" – Casey MacAfee from Nurses\nEpisode 7: \"Mother Dearest\" – Casey MacAfee from Nurses\n\nSyndication\n\nThe series ran in syndication from September 1993 to September 2000, shortly before the death of star Richard Mulligan. During this time, Empty Nest aired on TBS from September 16 to December 6, 1996, and on WGN from September 16, 1996 to March 26, 1999, with both stations airing the series as part of the regular syndication run (both TBS and WGN were superstations). In the subsequent decade, the series did not air on American television. Hallmark Channel, which also owns the rights to The Golden Girls, picked up the rights to the show in early 2011 and aired it from February 26 to June 26 of that year, but eventually removed it altogether.\n\nUpon its launch on April 15, 2015, the new digital sub channel Laff began airing the series.\n\nIn Canada, the series was rerun by CBC during the 1990s.\n\nAwards\n\nIn 1989, Richard Mulligan won both the Emmy Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. The series received a number of other Emmy and Golden Globe Award nominations over the years, especially for Mulligan and for Park Overall, who was nominated three times for a Golden Globe Award." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nurxing", "Nursing", "Staff nurse", "Nurses", "Flightnurse", "Nursing science", "Staff Nurse", "Nursing skills", "Nursing Officer", "Nursing unit", "Practice of nursing", "Nursing Student", "Nursing staff", "Nursing Science", "Nursing History", "Nursing practice", "Nursed", "Nurse", "Adult nursing", "Nursing care" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "nursing staff", "nursing care", "flightnurse", "nursing officer", "adult nursing", "nursing practice", "nursing", "practice of nursing", "nursing unit", "staff nurse", "nursing student", "nursing history", "nurxing", "nurses", "nursing skills", "nursing science", "nursed", "nurse" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nurses", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nurses" }
Which character did Burt Reynolds play in Evening Shade?	tc_928	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Burt_Reynolds.txt", "Evening_Shade.txt" ], "title": [ "Burt Reynolds", "Evening Shade" ], "wiki_context": [ "Burton Leon \"Burt\" Reynolds (born February 11, 1936) is an American actor, director and producer. He starred in many films, such as Deliverance, The Longest Yard, Smokey and the Bandit and Boogie Nights.\n\nEarly life\n\nReynolds is the son of Fern H. (née Miller; 1902–92) and Burton Milo Reynolds (1906–2002). He has English, Scottish, Scots-Irish and Dutch ancestry, and is also said to have Cherokee roots. In his 2014 book, But Enough About Me, Reynolds said his mother was Italian. Reynolds was born in Lansing, Michigan, on February 11, 1936, and in his autobiography stated that is where his family lived when his father was drafted into the United States Army. Reynolds, his mother and sister joined his father at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, and lived there for two years. When Reynolds' father was sent to Europe, the family moved to Lake City, Michigan, where his mother had been raised. In 1946, the family moved to Riviera Beach, Florida. His father became Chief of Police of Riviera Beach, which is adjacent to the north of West Palm Beach, Florida. During 10th grade at Palm Beach High School, Reynolds was named First Team All State and All Southern as a fullback, and received multiple scholarship offers. After graduating from Palm Beach High in West Palm Beach, he attended Florida State University on a football scholarship and played halfback. While at Florida State, Reynolds became roommates with now notable college football broadcaster and analyst Lee Corso. Reynolds hoped to be named to All-American teams and to have a career in professional football, but he was injured in the first game of his sophomore season, and a car accident later that year worsened the injury. With his university football career over, Reynolds considered becoming a police officer, but his father suggested that he finish university and become a parole officer. To keep up with his studies, he began taking classes at Palm Beach Junior College (PBJC) in neighboring Lake Worth. In his first term at PBJC, Reynolds was in an English class taught by Watson B. Duncan III. Duncan pushed Reynolds into trying out for a play he was producing, Outward Bound. He cast Reynolds in the lead role based on having heard Reynolds read Shakespeare in class. Reynolds won the 1956 Florida State Drama Award for his performance in Outward Bound, and called Duncan his mentor and the most influential person in his life. While at Florida State, he became a brother of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. \n\nCareer\n\nStage\n\nThe Florida State Drama Award included a scholarship to the Hyde Park Playhouse, a summer stock theater, in Hyde Park, New York. Reynolds saw the opportunity as an agreeable alternative to more physically-demanding summer jobs, but did not yet see acting as a possible career. While working there, Reynolds met Joanne Woodward, who helped him find an agent and was cast in Tea and Sympathy at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City. After his Broadway debut Look, We've Come Through, he received favorable reviews for his performance and went on tour with the cast, driving the bus and appearing on stage. After the tour, Reynolds returned to New York and enrolled in acting classes. His classmates included Frank Gifford, Carol Lawrence, Red Buttons, and Jan Murray. After a botched improvisation in acting class, Reynolds briefly considered returning to Florida, but he soon got a part in a revival of Mister Roberts, in which Charlton Heston played the starring role. After the play closed, the director, John Forsythe, arranged a film audition with Joshua Logan for Reynolds. The film was Sayonara. Reynolds was told that he could not be in the film because he looked too much like Marlon Brando. Logan advised Reynolds to go to Hollywood, but Reynolds did not feel confident enough to do so. He worked in a variety of different jobs, such as waiting tables, washing dishes, driving a delivery truck and as a bouncer at the Roseland Ballroom. While working as a dockworker, Reynolds was offered $150 to jump through a glass window on a live television show. \n\nTelevision and film\n\nReynolds guest-starred in the Pony Express episode, \"The Good Samaritan\", which aired in 1960 on the centennial of the famed mail route. He used television fame to secure leading roles for low-budget films, like Operation C.I.A. (1965) and played the titular role in Navajo Joe. He later disparaged the series, telling Johnny Carson that Dan August had \"two forms of expression: \"mean and meaner\". Reynolds appeared on ABC's The American Sportsman hosted by outdoors journalist Grits Gresham, who took celebrities on hunting, fishing and shooting trips around the world. Saul David considered Reynolds to star in Our Man Flint, but Lew Wasserman rejected him. Albert R. Broccoli asked Reynolds to play James Bond, but he turned the role down, saying \"An American can't play James Bond. It just can't be done.\" The role went to George Lazenby. While filming Shark!, Sam Fuller disowned the rough cuts. Reynolds later starred in Skullduggery (1970). His breakout performance in Deliverance (1972) made him a star, and he gained notoriety when he posed naked in the April (Vol. 172, No. 4) issue of Cosmopolitan. Reynolds claims the centerfold in Cosmopolitan hurt the chances for the film and cast to receive Academy Awards. In 1977, Reynolds and Nick Nolte declined the role of Han Solo in the Star Wars franchise, which went to Harrison Ford. Later that year, he worked as a guest color analyst on CBS Sports' telecast of the Sun Bowl, teaming with Pat Summerall and Tom Brookshier. Reynolds starred with Jerry Reed, Jackie Gleason and Sally Field in Smokey and the Bandit, and later took the lead role in Stroker Ace (1983), a decision which, he later claimed, was a turning point in his career from which he never recovered. Reynolds tried his hand at producing two shows with friend Bert Convy, including Win, Lose or Draw. As a celebrity gameplayer, he appeared with Justine Bateman, Debbie Reynolds and Loretta Swit. Another show they produced was titled 3rd Degree, and like Win, Lose, or Draw, Reynolds appeared on a few episodes as a panelist from 1989 to 1990. He also played Wood Newton in the CBS sitcom, Evening Shade, and won a Golden Globe Award and an Emmy Award. For Paul Thomas Anderson's Boogie Nights (1997), Reynolds won another Golden Globe and was nominated for his first Academy Award. In USA Network's Burn Notice, he played ex-CIA agent Paul Anderson, who is pursued by a team of Russian assassins who wanted to kidnap, interrogate and kill him.\n\nOther roles\n\nIn 1973, Reynolds released the album Ask Me What I Am and sang along with Dolly Parton in The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas. On March 15, 1978, Reynolds earned a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and in the same year built a dinner theatre in Jupiter, Florida followed by other franchise locations of the Reynolds Celebrity Dinner Theater including the Beacham Theater in Orlando. His celebrity was such that he drew not only big-name stars to appear in productions, but also to sell-out audiences. He sold the venue in the early 1990s, but a museum highlighting his career still operates nearby. From 1977 to 1981, Reynolds topped the Quigley Publications poll of movie exhibitors, who voted him the top box-office attraction in the country. Only Bing Crosby won the poll more consecutive years. Despite much success, Reynolds' finances expired, and he filed for bankruptcy, due in part to an extravagant lifestyle, a divorce from Loni Anderson and failed investments in some Florida restaurant chains in 1996. Gary Eng Walk (07 October1998), \"[http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,83772,00.html Burt Reynolds closes the book on Chapter 11]\", Entertainment Weekly The filing was under Chapter 11, from which Reynolds emerged two years later. Reynolds co-authored the children's book Barkley Unleashed A Pirate, a \"whimsical tale [that] illustrates the importance of perseverance, the wonders of friendship and the power of imagination\". In early 2000, he created and toured for Burt Reynolds' One-Man Show. On video games, he voiced Avery Carrington in Grand Theft Auto: Vice City and himself in Saints Row: The Third as the mayor of Steelport. He starred in the audiobook version of The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook. In May 2006, Reynolds appeared in the Miller Lite beer commercial.\n\nPersonal life\n\nRelationships\n\nReynolds was good friends with Dom DeLuise, Jerry Reed, Charles Nelson Reilly, Inger Stevens, Tammy Wynette, Lucie Arnaz, Adrienne Barbeau, Susan Clark, Lorna Luft, Tawny Little, Dinah Shore and Chris Evert. \n\nReynolds married Judy Carne from 1963 to 1965, and Loni Anderson from 1988 to 1993, with whom he adopted a son, Quinton. In the late 1970s, he had a relationship with Sally Field. \n\nAtlanta nightclub\n\nIn the late 1970s, Reynolds opened Burt's Place, a nightclub restaurant in the Omni International Hotel in the Hotel District of Downtown Atlanta. \n\nSports team owner\n\nIn 1982, Reynolds became a co-owner of the Tampa Bay Bandits, a professional American football team in the USFL, whose nickname was inspired by the Smokey and the Bandit trilogy and Skoal Bandit, a primary sponsor for the team as a result of also sponsoring Reynolds' race team. Reynolds also co-owned a NASCAR Winston Cup team, Mach 1 Racing, with Hal Needham, which ran the #33 Skoal Bandit car with driver Harry Gant.\n\nHealth\n\nWhile filming City Heat, Reynolds was struck in the face with a metal chair, which broke his jaw and had temporomandibular joint dysfunction. He lost thirty pounds from not eating, with the painkillers prescribed leading to an addiction, which took several years to break. Reynolds underwent back surgery in May 2009 and a quintuple heart bypass in February 2010.\n\nFinancial problems\n\nOn August 16, 2011, Merrill Lynch Credit Corporation filed foreclosure papers, claiming Reynolds owed $1.2 million on his home in Hobe Sound, Florida. Reynolds owned the Burt Reynolds Ranch, where scenes for Smokey and the Bandit were filmed and which once had a petting zoo, until its sale during bankruptcy. In April 2014, the 153-acre rural property was rezoned for residential use and the Palm Beach County school system could sell it to residential developer K. Hovnanian Homes. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nVideo games\n\nSingles\n\nAccolades\n\nOther honors\n\n1978: Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6838 Hollywood Blvd. \n2000: Children at Heart Award \n2003: Atlanta IMAGE Film and Video Award", "Evening Shade is an American television sitcom that aired on CBS from September 21, 1990 to May 23, 1994. The series stars Burt Reynolds as Wood Newton, an ex-professional football player for the Pittsburgh Steelers, who returns to rural Evening Shade, Arkansas, to coach a high school football team with a long losing streak. Reynolds personally requested to use the Steelers as his character's former team, because he is a fan. \n\nThe general theme of the show is the appeal of small town life. Episodes ended with a closing narration by Ossie Davis, as his character Ponder Blue, summing up the events of the episode, always closing with \"... in a place called Evening Shade.\" The opening segment included clips from around Arkansas, including the famous McClard's Bar-be-que, which is situated on Albert Pike Blvd. and South Patterson St. in Hot Springs National Park.\n\nSummary\n\nA former pro football player for the Pittsburgh Steelers who quit due to injury, Wood Newton has settled down to a quiet life as the coach of the Evening Shade high school football team - a position that is slightly controversial as the team is notorious for losing every game. He and his wife, Ava, whom he married when she was only 18 (a frequently voiced grievance by her father, Evan Evans, the owner of the local newspaper), are devoted to one another despite the age difference. Ava is an ambitious and successful practicing lawyer who in the first season is elected District Attorney while pregnant with their fourth (unintended) child, Emily. Among Wood's and Ava's closest friends are the somewhat older Harlan Eldridge, the town doctor, and his trusting wife, Merleen, who is always eager to believe the best of people.\n\nThe show's plots focus on the various difficulties that Wood faces in living a much different life than he'd ever expected, as well as the obvious family pressures of two jobs and four children. Additional tensions come from Ava's Aunt Frieda, Evan's perennially discontented sister, who especially disapproves when Evan begins dating Fontana Beausoleil, who works as a stripper and who discovers in season two that she is the long-lost daughter Merleen gave up for adoption when she was 15. Evan and Fontana get married in a three-part episode in season two, and have a child in season three. The show also gets mileage out of the incongruity of the decidedly unathletic assistant coach Herman Stiles, the most the school can afford due to budgetary pressures. Herman is well-meaning and intensely eager to learn the job. In the course of the first season he catches the eye of the somewhat prim and proper high school principal, Margaret, and they begin dating.\n\nOn July 13 and 20, 1993, CBS aired two parts of an hour-long pilot, Harlan & Merleen, as a proposed spin-off from the series. The pilot saw the Eldridges open their home to young pregnant women who needed help (one of whom was also played by Leah Remini). The pilot did not make it to series status.\n\nCharacters\n\nMain\n\nWoodrow \"Wood\" Newton (Burt Reynolds)\nAva Evans Newton (Marilu Henner)\nEvan Evans (Hal Holbrook)\nPonder Blue (Ossie Davis)\nDr. Harlan Eldridge (Charles Durning)\nHerman Stiles (Michael Jeter)\nTaylor Newton (Jay R. Ferguson)\nMolly Newton (Melissa Renée Martin) (1990–1991), (Candace Hutson) (1991–1994)\nWill Newton (Jacob Parker)\nNub Oliver (Charlie Dell)\nFrieda Evans (Elizabeth Ashley)\nMerleen Eldridge (Ann Wedgeworth)\nFontana Beausoleil (Linda Gehringer)\nMargaret Fouch (Ann Hearn)\n\nRecurring\n\nDorothy (Jane Abbott)\nVirgil (Burton Gilliam)\nAlvin (Billy Bob Thornton) (1991) Wood's newly released jailbird cousin.\nAndrew Phillpot (David A.R. White), Taylor Newton's best friend.\nNeal \"Thor\" Heck (Pepper Sweeney) (1991–93)\nAimee Thompson (Hilary Swank) (1991–1992), (Ari Meyers) (1992–1993), Taylor's girlfriend.\nIrma Wallingsford (Alice Ghostley) (1992–1994)\nDaisy (Leah Remini) (1993), Taylor's girlfriend after his break-up with Aimee. Transplanted from New York.\nWanda (Wanda Jones) (1993–94), waitress at Blue's Barbeque Villa.\n*Emily Newton (Alexa Vega) (1993–94), youngest child of Wood and Ava, who begins appearing as a five-year old in the final season.\n\nNielsen ratings/Broadcast history\n\nThe series enjoyed strong ratings during its entire run, hitting its peak in season two with a #15 Nielsen ranking. At the time, this was a notably higher position than The Cosby Show, which had recently fallen from a five-year streak as TV's number one program. Evening Shade was still a Top 30 performer when CBS cancelled the show in the spring of 1994. Skyrocketing production costs, mainly attributed to the large salaries of the show's top-caliber, all-star cast, were the primary reason given for the cancellation (which was confirmed by Marilu Henner in her September 1994 appearance on Charlie Rose). However, some have speculated that the show's ending was a decision made by producer/star Reynolds, rather than CBS, as his recent marriage troubles with ex-wife Loni Anderson (from whom he was divorced in 1993) were thought to have impacted his work. Yet, Reynolds was blindsided by the cancellation and said he would then focus on his feature career.\n\nProduction\n\nThe show's production company, Mozark Productions, was a joint venture by creator Linda Bloodworth-Thomason of Missouri and her husband, Arkansas native, Harry Thomason, which concurrently produced another successful show set in the South, Designing Women. Hal Holbrook's Designing Women character was killed off to free the actor to star in the newer program. The series was produced in association with CBS Productions (now CBS Television Studios), Burt Reynolds Productions, and MTM Enterprises (now 20th Century Fox Television). CBS retained full ownership of the series while MTM syndicated the series in the United States. CBS DVD/Paramount Home Entertainment has released the entire first season on DVD, albeit with music changes and rescoring.\n\nEpisode list" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Wood Newton" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "wood newton" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "wood newton", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Wood Newton" }
Which comedian starred in the ABC sitcom Chicken Soup?	tc_929	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Chicken_Soup_(TV_series).txt" ], "title": [ "Chicken Soup (TV series)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Chicken Soup is an American sitcom that aired on ABC, starring Jackie Mason and Lynn Redgrave.\n\nOverview\n\nThe series focuses on the interfaith relationship of a middle-aged Jewish man, Jackie (Mason), and an Irish Catholic woman, Maddie (Redgrave). Episodes centered around humorous situations and obstacles caused by the couple's different religions.\n\nControversy and cancellation\n\nChicken Soup was scheduled after the number one primetime series Roseanne, but was canceled because it could not hold a large enough percentage of the audience from its lead-in and because of controversy over inflammatory remarks by Mason during the New York City Mayoral elections. \n\nCast\n\nEpisodes\n\n* Unknown" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Goldberg - P.I.", "Jackie Mason Freshly Squeezed", "Jackie Goldberg: Private Dick", "Jackie Mason", "Jackie Mason, The Ultimate Jew", "Yacov Moshe Maza", "Jacky Mason", "Jacob Maza" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "jacob maza", "jackie goldberg private dick", "jackie mason", "yacov moshe maza", "jacky mason", "jackie mason ultimate jew", "jackie mason freshly squeezed", "goldberg p i" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "jackie mason", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Jackie Mason" }
Who did Debbie play in The Debbie Reynolds Show?	tc_930	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Debbie_Reynolds_Show.txt" ], "title": [ "The Debbie Reynolds Show" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Debbie Reynolds Show is an American situation comedy which aired on the NBC television network during the 1969-70 television season. The series was produced by Filmways.\n\nSynopsis\n\nDebbie Reynolds portrayed Debbie Thompson, a housewife married to Jim, a successful sportswriter for the Los Angeles Sun. Jim was portrayed by actor Don Chastain, his boss by longtime television actor Tom Bosley. Reynolds' attempts to amuse herself were regarded as being reminiscent of those of Lucille Ball on Here's Lucy.\n\nCreator/producer Jess Oppenheimer was the original producer and co-creator of I Love Lucy. The show also employed Bob Carroll, Jr., and Madelyn Davis, two longtime Lucy writers.\n\nThe series only lasted one season because NBC was selling ad-time to cigarette commercials against Reynolds' wishes. Because Reynolds signed a two-year contract with NBC and owned half of the program, she was unable to be fired so she walked away from the show instead. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nMonty Python's Flying Circus spoofed the series in a sketch primarily written by John Cleese and Graham Chapman entitled \"The Attila the Hun Show\". It pokes fun at The Debbie Reynolds Show (the opening title sequence in particular), as well as American comedy in general." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Debbie Thompson" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "debbie thompson" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "debbie thompson", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Debbie Thompson" }
Dorothy, Rose, Sophia and who else formed the Golden Girls?	tc_933	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Dorothy_Zbornak.txt", "Sophia_Petrillo.txt", "The_Golden_Girls.txt" ], "title": [ "Dorothy Zbornak", "Sophia Petrillo", "The Golden Girls" ], "wiki_context": [ "Dorothy Zbornak (née Petrillo) is a fictional character from the TV series The Golden Girls, portrayed by Bea Arthur for 7 years and 183 episodes. Dorothy was the strong, smart, sarcastic, sometimes intimidating, and arguably most grounded of the four women in the house. Though tough, she is very friendly, polite and does geniunely care for the other girls. In the 1000th issue of Entertainment Weekly, Dorothy Zbornak was selected as the Grandma for \"The Perfect TV Family.\" \n\nFamily\n\nDorothy Petrillo was born in New York, New York, and was the daughter of Italian immigrants Sophia (Estelle Getty, who was actually a year younger than Arthur) and Salvadore Petrillo. Dorothy states in one episode that she is a Leo (born in July or August). In the season three episode, \"Nothing to Fear But Fear Itself\" (1987), Sophia says Dorothy was conceived in 1931, after Sophia's and Salvadore's first argument as newlyweds. In the show's final season in 1992, Dorothy's age is stated as 60.\n\nDorothy was nicknamed \"Pussycat\" by her mother, and \"Spumoni Face\" by her father. Dorothy has two younger siblings: brother Phil, a cross-dresser, who died later in the show's run; and a sister, Gloria, who was nicknamed \"Kitten\" and married into money, and with whom Dorothy was sometimes estranged. In the fourth season episode Foreign Exchange, Dorothy wondered whether she is the biological daughter of the Petrillos, since Dominic and Philomena Bosco claimed that the hospital switched babies. However, in the third season episode \"Mother's Day,\" Sophia Petrillo's mother is also played by Bea Arthur, so it is implied that Dorothy and Sophia are biologically related (though in one episode Dorothy states that her grandmother was 94 when she was only 6, though it is never made clear if it is her paternal or maternal grandmother. However she also states that she was in a wheelchair, which her maternal grandmother was.). In that episode and three others which took place in Dorothy's young adulthood, Dorothy Zbornak was portrayed by a tall, dark-haired actress named Lynnie Greene. In the episode \"Clinton Avenue Memoirs,\" Dorothy was shown as a young child (played by Jandi Swanson) jealous of the attention that her parents were giving to her baby brother Phil, until her father tells her that he loves her very much.\n\nShe was a \"bookworm\", and an over-achiever in high school. Yet, she suffered from low self-esteem, in part because one previous boyfriend was emotionally abusive, while another one supposedly stood her up on the night of her prom (he later returns as a character played by Hal Linden). In reality, he did show up, but was disrespectful toward Sophia, who did not like the way he was dressed or his attitude, and turned him away, without telling Dorothy. Dejected, she later accepted a date with Stanley Zbornak (Herb Edelman) because she \"felt she couldn't do any better\". She became pregnant while still in high school, resulting in a shotgun wedding to Stan possibly in 1946 (however, in the Season 5 episode titled \"An Illegitimate Concern,\" Dorothy states that her wedding date was June 1, 1949). The marriage produced two children: Michael and Kate, who both appeared on the show.\n\nStan and Dorothy eventually moved to Miami, but divorced after 38 years when Stan fell for a stewardess named Chrissy and ran off to Maui with her. In the first season episode \"The Return of Dorothy's Ex,\" Stan mentions how they bought property together when honeymooning in Miami. Dorothy and Stan were frequently mentioned to have been married for 38 years at the time of their divorce, which occurred some time shortly before the show's 1985 premiere; However, in the episode \"An Illegitimate Concern\" Dorothy specifically mentions June 1, 1949 as her wedding date, making it impossible that she and Stan were married for 38 years. They would eventually make several attempts to reconcile, but never ultimately got back together.\n\nCareer\n\nDorothy worked as a high school substitute teacher of English and American History (her major in college). She also taught a night-school course for adults wishing to complete their high school equivalency.\nDorothy also had summer and part-time jobs, which included tutoring and working alongside Blanche at the museum and as a writer for the \"Mister Terrific Show\" at the television station that employed Rose Nylund.\n\nCharacteristics\n\nWhile often mocked as a manly and sexually unattractive woman by her two roommate friends due to her height, deep voice and somewhat severe features, Dorothy is also in possession of many talents. In one episode, she is able to upstage Blanche at the latter's favorite bar, the Rusty Anchor, with her singing, winning the admiration of Blanche's many suitors. At another point, remembering how funny she could be in high school, Dorothy tries her hand at doing stand-up comedy, in the end winning over her audience by poking fun at her own life and bringing up such subjects as menopause with its hot flashes.\n\nShe is often very humble, and it is usually rare that she ever brags about herself. Dorothy can be comedically sarcastic, especially towards her less-than-sophisticated roommate, Rose, and man-obsessed Blanche. They can laugh at each other's remarks without hurt feelings, much of the time. Dorothy's mother Sophia has a tendency to \"borrow\" money from her, often without Dorothy's permission. Dorothy regards her roommates as family. She is very comforting and loving to them, giving them good advice. However, there are times when Rose and Blanche are scared of her, specifically when she gets angry. Blanche once reminded Rose of the time the latter had lost Dorothy's keys, to which Rose responded that Dorothy had \"uprooted a mighty sequoia.\" When Blanche considered that she and Rose should defy Dorothy, she made a list of questions, such as \"Can she intimidate us?\" and several other possibilities. Rose replied, \"Blanche, she can do all those things!\" Dorothy, who had a no-nonsense personality, was quick to make sarcastic remarks if someone (especially Rose) made a dumb comment; this tension between Dorothy and Rose was a natural byproduct of Arthur's and White's real-life personalities, and the two often struggled to get along offscreen. \n\nDuring the run of the show, it is implied that Dorothy is likely a Democrat due in part to her liberal views, although she never announces her party affiliation. She has a Michael Dukakis bumper sticker (covering a Walter Mondale bumper sticker) and planned to confront then-President George H.W. Bush when he visited Miami, ignoring warnings from her mother and friends. When Bush did come, she was so shocked at actually meeting him that she couldn't say anything.\n\nMajor events\n\nAfter her divorce from Stanley Zbornak, in which she kept her married surname, Dorothy Zbornak moved into a house in Miami, Florida, with widows Blanche Devereaux (owner / co-owner (all the girls decided that they should all own the house in one episode due to the building codes) of the house, played by Rue McClanahan) and Rose Nylund (Betty White). Shortly thereafter, Dorothy's mother, Sophia Petrillo, moved in after her nursing home, Shady Pines, burned down. This was a running gag during the show's run, where Sophia would often refer to Shady Pines as a prison, and Dorothy would defend it as a lovely retirement village. Other times, when Dorothy would become exasperated with her mother or try to get Sophia to listen to her, Dorothy would threaten \"Shady Pines, Ma!\", after which Sophia would immediately fall in line. Dorothy shared a unique relationship with her roommates, one often laced with her famously sardonic comments; the four shared a home for seven years, and in more than one episode it was pointed out that, despite a lack of blood ties, they were as much a family as any other household.\n\nDorothy and Stan had been married for 38 years, with the 'cause' of their marriage was the fact that Stan had gotten Dorothy pregnant late in their high school years. During the course of the show, Dorothy saw both of her children get married: Kate, to a podiatrist named Dennis, and Michael to a woman named Lorraine, a singer in his band, whom he had gotten pregnant. Lorraine was African American and several years older than Michael; this initially did not sit well with Dorothy because she felt Lorraine was far too old for Michael, quipping that Lorraine was nearly \"twice\" Michael's age, as Lorraine was 44 and Michael was 23. Lorraine's family, on the other hand, didn't want her to marry Michael because he was white. Kate's husband, Dennis, cheated on her at one point, but she ultimately forgave him, almost causing Dorothy and Kate to stop speaking (Dorothy believed Kate should not have taken Dennis back), but they also quickly reconciled. Lorraine left Michael later in the series, and there was no specific mention of his child with Lorraine (Dorothy's grandchild) thereafter. Before Lorraine, Michael had previously slept with Rose's daughter Bridget. Although it is mentioned that Dorothy did have grandchildren, it was never specified whether they were Michael's or Kate's children.\n\nLike the other women living in the house, Dorothy had her fair share of romances, with her love life often coming into criticism by her mother. Ex-husband Stanley made regular attempts throughout the series to \"win her back,\" and at one point nearly remarried Dorothy, though she called it off after Stanley and his lawyer, the famed Marvin Mitchelson, presented her with a pre-nuptial agreement to sign.\n\nSome of Dorothy's suitors turned out to have less-than-virtuous characters. Elliot Clayton, a respected doctor, made a pass at Blanche, and when Blanche told Dorothy about it, Dorothy accused Blanche of making it all up, and wanting Elliot for herself. Blanche, deeply hurt that Dorothy would believe Elliot's word over hers, announced she was kicking Dorothy out of the house, and this would have ended their friendship for good had Rose not exposed Elliot for the liar he was on the day Dorothy was set to move out. During the battle, one of Dorothy's classic lines was: \"It's not enough that you've had half of the men in Dade County, you have to have everyone else's men, it's PATHETIC!\"\n\nYet another incident which put her at odds with Blanche was when she dated Stan's brother, Ted (McLean Stevenson). She was so angered that Blanche didn't want to see anyone but herself happy, she angrily told Blanche, \"Blanche, have you seen the latest ad campaigns? Join the Navy, see the world, sleep with Blanche Devereaux; Join the Army, be all you can be, and sleep with Blanche Devereaux; the Marines are looking for a few good men who have NOT slept with Blanche Devereaux!\"\n\nAnother suitor turned out to be a married man, Glen O'Brien (portrayed by Alex Rocco in the first season); Dorothy broke off the relationship when she remembered how much it had hurt to be cheated on by Stanley. She dated Glen again a few years later (this time portrayed by Jerry Orbach) when he was divorced, but she broke off with him again because she felt that the only reason he wanted to be with her was that he didn't like being divorced and alone. Yet another prospect, named Eddie (John Fiedler), was the best lover Dorothy ever had, but Dorothy broke up with Eddie as well because their relationship never progressed past the physical stage. Her high-school teacher, Mr. Malcolm Gordon (James T. Callahan), whom she'd had a crush on, came back into her life many years later, only to plagiarize and take credit for an article that she had written. Stan's brother, Ted Zbornak(McLean Stevenson), told her that he had had a crush on her since they were young. They then \"spent the night\" together, nearly destroying her friendship with Blanche, who had gone out with Ted earlier that night. Later, Ted asked Dorothy to baby-sit the children of a stewardess that he wanted to date (Dorothy was under the impression that Ted was going to ask her to marry him), making Dorothy feel humiliated. However, Dorothy got her revenge when she announced to everyone in the restaurant they were dining at that he was impotent.\n\nA few other suitors were portrayed by well-known actors, including Dick Van Dyke and Leslie Nielsen. Leslie Nielsen played Lucas Hollingsworth, Blanche's uncle (her father's brother), whom Dorothy later married. Blanche was excited to hear that he was coming to visit her in Miami, but, because of a previous engagement (a supposedly very important tennis date), she pawned him off on Dorothy. The date was rather dull, and both Dorothy and Lucas were angered with Blanche for her inconsiderate attitude. To get even with her, Dorothy and Lucas decided to fake an engagement. They played it up for weeks, angering and annoying Blanche. However, during the ruse, Dorothy and Lucas fell in love for real, he proposed, and she accepted. Despite Stan's hope to derail the marriage, he took her to the church in style (in a limo), and although he wanted to say something, he didn't. With that, Dorothy moved to Hollingsworth Manor in Atlanta, and moved on with her life. At first, Sophia was to move with her, but she decided to remain in Miami with Blanche and Rose (they all later opened a hotel named The Golden Palace, and a spin-off was also named The Golden Palace).\n\nIn spite of her strengths, Dorothy does have phobias, namely hospitals and flying. She eventually manages to conquer these fears, however, with help from her friends.\n\nThe series showed a social awareness in various episodes. A two-part episode involved Dorothy suffering from extreme exhaustion, which was ultimately determined to be Chronic Fatigue Syndrome; Susan Harris, the show's co-writer, also suffered from the then largely unrecognized condition. In an earlier episode, Dorothy's lesbian friend, Jean (portrayed by former Miss America semifinalist Lois Nettleton), came to Miami for a visit and struck up a friendship with Rose, with whom Jean suspected she was falling in love. Dorothy was also shown to have a recurring gambling problem that eventually caused her to seek help through Gamblers Anonymous. She started smoking cigarettes again after quitting many years earlier, because of stress from her job and her mother's remarriage. Presumably, she was able to kick the habit, since we never see her with a cigarette again.\n\nIn the episode Stan Takes A Wife, Dorothy states that she is a Leo during a conversation. This information, combined with her birth year of 1929, means that she is 56 when the first season begins and 63 when the final season of The Golden Girls goes off the air.\n\nDorothy also appeared in the two-part episode of The Golden Palace, \"Seems Like Old Times\"; she is revealed to still be married to Lucas, who does not appear, although Dorothy is shown speaking to him on the telephone. She appeared in one episode of Empty Nest, entitled Dumped, in which her favorite nephew Jim dumps Barbara (Kristy McNichol).\n\nAccording to the episode Mary Has A Little Lamb, Dorothy's childhood nickname was \"Moose.\"\n\nAdditional appearances\n\nOutside The Golden Girls, Dorothy appears in the Empty Nest episode \"Dumped\" and the two-part Golden Palace episode \"Seems Like Old Times\".\n\nCasting \n\nElaine Stritch was reportedly considered for the role of Dorothy Zbornak while The Golden Girls was in development, under the assumption that Arthur (the series was originally conceived with \"a Bea Arthur type\" in mind) would not consider returning to a regular television series. As Stritch related in her show Elaine Stritch at Liberty, she \"blew her audition\". Rue McClanahan, who had been cast as Blanche and had co-starred with her on Maude, convinced Arthur to take the role. (Coincidentally, Stritch and Arthur had appeared together on the short-lived 1956 TV series Washington Square.)", "Sophia Petrillo; legally Sophia Petrillo-Weinstock, is a fictional character from the TV series The Golden Girls, and its spin-offs The Golden Palace and Empty Nest and one episode of the series, Blossom. She was portrayed by Estelle Getty for 10 years and 259 episodes. Bea Arthur, who played her daughter Dorothy Zbornak on the show, was in real life a year older than Getty. \n\nEarly history\n\nSophia Petrillo (nee' Grisanti) was most likely born in April 1906 in Palermo, Sicily. She had a sister Angela, a sister Regina, a brother Angelo, and she mentioned another brother, but he was unnamed and only spoken of a few times. Dorothy mentions an uncle Vito in Season 2. It is revealed in the season 2 episode \"A Piece of Cake\" that her 50th birthday was in April 1956, placing her date of birth in April 1906. However, in another season 2 episode, \"And Then There Was One,\" Sophia claims she had been \"walking since 1904.\" In the first episode of The Golden Palace (1992) it is revealed that Sophia was 87. However, in several episodes, she is revealed to be between the ages of 80 and 85. In her many flashbacks to life in Sicily, she frequently places herself as being a young woman (having romantic affairs) in dates between 1914 and 1920. These discrepancies may be due to either continuity errors or dramatic license on the part of Sophia.\n\nWhile in Sicily, as a teenager she was briefly engaged to a young man from her village Augustine Bagatelli, she also claims that she was once engaged to her brother. Later, she became engaged to Giuseppe Mangiacavallo, who jilted her at the altar. She moved to New York after she annulled her arranged first marriage to Guido Spirelli when she was 14. She has no accent left to show that she grew up speaking the Sicilian language. Instead, she sports a Brooklyn accent with a fast speaking pace, which often contributed to the humor in her one-liners.\n\nSophia Spirelli then married Salvadore \"Sal\" Petrillo (played by Sid Melton in flashback), and had three children with him: Dorothy, a divorced substitute teacher; Phil (an unseen character), a cross-dresser with a wife named Angela, a welder, and several children in a trailer park in Newark, New Jersey who later died of a heart attack during the series; and Gloria (played by Doris Belack and Dena Dietrich), who lived in California and married into money and later lost her husband to some unknown cause. She remained with Salvadore until his death from a heart attack.\n\n1985–92\n\nIn her later years, Sophia suffered a stroke (the effects of which are said to be a partial explanation for Sophia's blunt, uncensored, and brazen remarks) and was subsequently placed in Shady Pines retirement home by Dorothy. After Shady Pines was damaged in a fire, Sophia moved in with Dorothy. Sophia did not have many good things to say about \"the home\", alluding to poor treatment by the staff many times, and Dorothy sometimes threatened to send her back there to check Sophia's behavior.\n\nWhile living in Miami, Sophia had many suitors but does not date any for a substantial amount of time. She did remarry once more though to Max Weinstock (Jack Gilford). Max was her late husband's long-time business partner whom Sophia had long blamed for ruining the business, although it was later revealed Sal was responsible. Sophia and Max forgave each other after the latter reveals the truth, and the two quickly became close and got married. The newlyweds realize their romance would not work out, and they part ways as friends. However, both remained legally married, as divorce would have gone against her Roman Catholic beliefs.\n\nDue to Sophia's Sicilian descent, there were regular hints in the series that she and her family have some mafia connections; she has made reference to several vendettas. It is even hinted that Sophia herself has done mob work; she once stated that no one in her family had \"ever left a body to be found\". Sophia also claimed to have been present at the 1929 St. Valentines Day Massacre, to which she then took back stating, \"Oh yeah, I was at the movies that day. All day.\"\n\nSophia believed strongly in ancient Sicilian custom and traditions, and in the power of a \"Sicilian curse.\" The list of people she claims to have cast curses on include: Shelley Long, the Baltimore Colts, the New York Jets, Giuseppe Mangiacavallo (the boy who stood her up at the altar), and Leonard Barton (the girls' next door neighbor who expressed disdain for Italians, played by Gordon Jump). She has threatened to cast a curse on Dorothy (before she found that it was prohibited by another arcane custom), and on Stan Zbornak. In the final season, Sophia spent two episodes doing odd tasks in order to save Dorothy from an ancient curse from a Sicilian strega, or witch.\n\nIn the series finale of The Golden Girls, Sophia, after initially deciding to follow the now-married Dorothy out of the house, turns back and decides to stay with Rose and Blanche, which sets up the transition to The Golden Palace. When Rose, Blanche and Sophia invest in a hotel, Sophia is installed as one of the two chefs, specializing in Italian cuisine while the hotel's previous chef, Chuy Castillos (Cheech Marin), handles Mexican food. Sophia begins to show signs of senile dementia, usually in comical situations (for instance, she is shown to be standing still and apparently unconscious while attempting to operate a vacuum cleaner) and her bluntness is toned down to a certain extent. In the episode \"One Angry Stan\" she is the only one to witness Stanley Zbornak after he fakes his death to avoid tax troubles; the fact that no one else sees Stan in these episodes (he ducks out of sight whenever someone else enters the room), coupled with Sophia's increased senility, make it unclear whether or not Stan is really alive or if Sophia is hallucinating Stan's appearance.\n\nAfter the events of The Golden Palace (which ended without a series finale), Sophia returns to the Shady Pines nursing home, joining the cast of Empty Nest.\n\nRelationships\n\nSophia is best known for her wisecracks, put-downs and brazen remarks, often commenting on Dorothy's unmarried state, Blanche's promiscuity, and Rose's cluelessness. However, despite her sharp criticism of her daughter and roommates, she loves and cares for them deeply; she even sees Rose and Blanche as surrogate daughters. The other women usually seek Sophia out for advice, which Sophia is all too willing to share, usually beginning with her catchphrase, \"Picture it…\"\nLike Rose's tall tales, Sophia's parables often end with a moral, from which advice can be gleaned. These stories usually also involved historical figures, with Sophia claiming to have had trysts with Pablo Picasso, Sigmund Freud, and Winston Churchill, amongst others. She also claims to have befriended many famous people including Golda Meir, Mama Celeste, and accidentally claimed that Robert Frost was always \"nipping at my nose\" (she was confused with Jack Frost).\n\nMembers of Sophia's family who have appeared on the program include: Her sister, Angela (Nancy Walker for 2 episodes in Season 2); her brother, Angelo, and her father (both roles were played by Bill Dana); her daughter, Gloria; her husband, Sal (in flashbacks and in dream sequences); and Sophia's own mother (Bea Arthur in a dual role who also didn't have a Sicilian accent), who also appeared exclusively in flashbacks; and even Dorothy at a younger age (played by Lynnie Greene).\n\nIt is unclear whether Sophia moved to the United States alone or with her family, as her sister and mother had both eventually lived in New York as well. Sophia and her sister Angela were estranged for decades after a misunderstanding at a Christmas party in 1955; Angela then became a widow and she moved back to Sicily for 30 years until they reconciled and she moved back to the U.S. Sophia's brother Angelo (initially a priest, then a layman) remained in Sicily and moved to the United States only in season six.\n\nProbably one of the most notable continuity goofs in Golden Girls with Sophia is when her mother is mentioned. In an early episode, Sophia's brother stated that their mother died seventy-two years earlier just as Angelo was about to become a priest (which he didn't do). In later episodes, Dorothy, as a young woman, brought Sophia's mother to visit (she was played by Bea Arthur). In an episode not long after this one, Dorothy mentioned that her grandmother (Sophia's mother) died when Dorothy was six years old.\n\nAppearance\n\nIn her younger years, Sophia apparently had always been short, with reddish-brown hair (Estelle Getty's natural color), but in one episode she says she was \"a tall voluptuous blonde with a butt like granite\" when she was younger (though this statement was likely a by-product of her penchant for telling tall tales).\n\nDuring the series' run, Sophia resembled the archetypal \"old lady\" in looks: White-haired, small stature, wrinkles, and large-framed eyeglasses. Sophia owned a tan bamboo handbag which became her personal trademark, as she carried the purse everywhere, even around the house (including the bathroom). Sophia's sister Angela displayed these traits as well.\n\nAppearances in others series\n\nOutside The Golden Girls, Sophia appears on two episodes of Empty Nest (\"Libby's Gift\" and \"Windy\") before becoming a regular for the final two seasons. She also appears on the Blossom episode \"I Ain't Got No Buddy\" and the Nurses episode \"Temporary Setbacks\".", "The Golden Girls is an American sitcom created by Susan Harris that originally aired on NBC from September 14, 1985, to May 9, 1992. An ensemble cast, the show stars Beatrice Arthur, Betty White, Rue McClanahan, and Estelle Getty, as four older women who share a home in Miami, Florida. It was produced by Witt/Thomas/Harris Productions, in association with Touchstone Television, and Paul Junger Witt, Tony Thomas, and Harris served as the original executive producers.\n\nThe Golden Girls received critical acclaim throughout most of its run and won several awards, including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series twice. It also won three Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy. Each of the four stars received an Emmy Award (from multiple nominations during the series' run), making it one of only three sitcoms in the award's history to achieve this. The series also ranked among the top ten highest-rated programs for six out of its seven seasons. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Golden Girls No. 54 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time. In 2014, the Writers Guild of America placed the sitcom at No. 69 in their list of the \"101 Best Written TV Series of All Time\".\n\nPremise\n\nThe series revolves around four older, single women (three widows and one divorcée) sharing a house in Miami, Florida. The owner of the house is a widow named Blanche Devereaux (McClanahan), who was joined by fellow widow Rose Nylund (White) and divorcée Dorothy Zbornak (Arthur) after they both responded to a room-for-rent ad on the bulletin board of a local grocery store a year prior to the start of the series. In the pilot episode, the three were joined by Dorothy's 80-year-old mother, Sophia Petrillo (Getty), after the retirement home where she lived burned down. \n\nPilot\n\nThe pilot episode was to feature a gay character named Coco (played by Charles Levin) who worked as a cook for the women, but the role was eliminated from the series before the beginning of the first season. The writers observed that in many of the proposed scripts, the main interaction between the women occurred in the kitchen while preparing and eating food and decided that a separate cook would distract from that friendship. In addition, the character of Sophia had originally been planned as an occasional guest star, but Estelle Getty had tested so strongly with preview audiences that the producers decided to make Sophia a regular character which made Coco obsolete. \n\nFinale\n\nAfter six consecutive seasons in the top 10, and a seventh season at No. 30, The Golden Girls came to an end when Bea Arthur chose to leave the series. In the hour-long series finale, which aired in May 1992, Dorothy meets and marries Blanche's Uncle Lucas (Leslie Nielsen), and moves to Hollingsworth Manor in Atlanta, Georgia. Sophia was to join her, but in the end, Sophia stays behind with the other women in Miami, leading into the spin-off series, The Golden Palace. The series finale was watched by 27.2 million viewers. As of 2010, the episode ranked at No. 17 of most-watched finales. \n\nEpisodes\n\nCast and characters\n\nMain\n\n* Beatrice Arthur as Dorothy Zbornak, a substitute teacher\nBorn in Brooklyn, New York City, to Sicilian immigrants Sophia and Salvadore Petrillo, Dorothy became pregnant while still in high school, resulting in a marriage to Stanley Zbornak in order to legitimize the baby. Stan and Dorothy eventually moved to Miami, but divorced after 38 years when Stan left her for a young flight attendant. The marriage produced children. According to the timeline presented, Dorothy and Stan would have had three children, with their oldest son or daughter near 40 by the beginning of the series. However, due to a lack of continuity in the writing, it is implied they had three children but sometimes stated they only had two. Michael and Kate were repeatedly shown as being in their 20s during the run of the show, thus not being old enough to be the child Dorothy got pregnant with in high school. In the series' finale episode, Dorothy marries Blanche's uncle, Lucas Hollingsworth, and relocates to Atlanta, Georgia. Arthur also played Dorothy's grandmother, Sophia's mother, in a flashback episode to when they lived in Brooklyn.\n\n* Betty White as Rose Nylund, a Norwegian American from the small farming town of St. Olaf, Minnesota\nKnown for her humorously peculiar stories of life growing up in her hometown, Rose was happily married to Charlie Nylund, with whom she had five children. Upon Charlie's death, she moved to Miami. She eventually found work at a grief counseling center, though she later ended up as the assistant to a consumer reporter (\"Enrique Mas\") at a local TV station. In later seasons, Rose became romantically involved with college professor Miles Webber. During season six, Miles was placed into the Witness Protection Program, but returned later in the season. Their relationship continued throughout the series, and shortly into the sequel series, The Golden Palace. In season one it is stated that Rose is 55.\n\n* Rue McClanahan as Blanche Devereaux, a Southern belle employed at an art museum\nBorn into a wealthy family, Blanche grew up as the apple of her father's eye on a plantation outside of Atlanta, Georgia, prior to her relocation to Miami, where she lived with her husband, George, until his death. Their marriage produced six children: four sons and two daughters. A widow, Blanche was portrayed as man-hungry, and she clearly had the most male admirers—and stories detailing various sexual encounters—over the course of the series.\n\n* Estelle Getty as Sophia Petrillo, Dorothy's mother\nBorn in Palermo, Sicily, Sophia moved to New York after fleeing an arranged marriage to Guido Spirelli. She later married Salvadore Petrillo, with whom she had three children: Dorothy, Gloria, and Phil, a cross-dresser, who later dies of a heart attack (episode \"Ebbtide's Revenge\"). Initially a resident in the Shady Pines Retirement Home after having a stroke prior to the start of the series, she moved in with Blanche, Rose and Dorothy following a fire at the institution. During the series' run, Sophia married Max Weinstock, but they soon separated. Throughout the series, she held a few part-time jobs, mostly involving food, including fast-food worker and entrepreneur of spaghetti sauce and homemade sandwiches.\n\nRecurring\n\n* Herbert Edelman as Stanley Zbornak, Dorothy's cheating, freeloading ex-husband who first appears in the second episode of season one, and appears in 26 episodes total throughout the series. He also appears in a later episode of The Golden Palace, in which he fakes his death due to troubles with the IRS.\n* Harold Gould as Miles Webber (aka Nicholas Carbone, Samuel Plankmaker), Rose's professor boyfriend who appears in 14 episodes, starting in season five. Gould also guest-starred in episode three in the first season as Arnie Peterson, Rose's first serious boyfriend after her husband Charlie's death. He also appears in two episodes of The Golden Palace.\n* Debra Engle as Blanche's daughter Rebecca Devereaux, who has a baby girl by artificial insemination and appears in three episodes (seasons 5–6). Shawn Schepps played Rebecca in season three, when Rebecca returns from a modeling career in Paris, overweight and engaged to a verbally abusive man. (Debra) also appears in the series finale of The Golden Palace, in which she is called upon by Blanche for an ovum.\n* Monte Markham as Blanche's brother Clayton Hollingsworth in two episodes, first when he comes out in season four and later to introduce his boyfriend in season six.\n* Sheree North as Virginia Hollingsworth Wylde, Blanche's sister who appears in two episodes, first in season one, then again in season five.\n* Sid Melton as Salvadore Petrillo, Sophia's late husband, usually seen in dreams or flashback sequences who appears in eight episodes. He also appears as Don the Fool, a waiter at a medieval restaurant in season six.\n* Nancy Walker as Angela Grisanti Vecchio, Dorothy's aunt and Sophia's sister, with whom Sophia frequently fought, appears in two episodes in season two.\n* Bill Dana as Sophia's brother and Dorothy's uncle Angelo Grisanti who appears in seven episodes (seasons 3–7). Dana also appears as Sophia's father in a season four episode.\n* Doris Belack as Gloria Mayston, Dorothy's younger sister who, in season one, is married to a wealthy man in California and wants Sophia to move in with her. She later loses all of her money and returns in season seven for a two-part episode played by Dena Dietrich and upsets Dorothy, as she becomes romantically involved with Dorothy's ex-husband, Stan.\n* Scott Jacoby as Dorothy's aimless musician son Michael Zbornak who appears in three episodes from seasons two to five.\n* Lynnie Greene (credited as Lynn Greene) as a younger Dorothy in flashbacks in four episodes.\n* Steve Landesberg as Stan’s psychiatrist, Dr. Richard Halperin, appearing in three episodes in season seven.\n\nProduction\n\nCreation\n\nIdeas for a comedy series about older women emerged during the filming of a television special at NBC's Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California, in August 1984. Produced to introduce the network's 1984–85 season schedule, two actresses appearing on NBC shows, Selma Diamond of Night Court and Doris Roberts of Remington Steele, appeared in a skit promoting the upcoming show Miami Vice as Miami Nice, a parody about old people living in Miami, Florida. NBC senior vice president Warren Littlefield was among the executive producers in the audience who were amused by their performance, and he envisioned a series based on the geriatric humor the two were portraying.\n\nShortly afterward, he met with producers Paul Junger Witt and Tony Thomas, who were pitching a show about a female lawyer. Though Littlefield nixed their idea, he asked if they would be interested in delivering a pilot script for Miami Nice instead. Their regular writer declined, so Witt asked his wife, Susan Harris, who had been planning to retire after the conclusion of their ABC series Soap. Fortunately, she found the concept interesting, as \"it was a demographic that had never been addressed,\" and she soon began work on it. Though her vision of a sitcom about women in their 60s differed from NBC's request for a comedy about women around 40 years old, Littlefield was impressed when he received her pilot script and subsequently approved production of it. The Cosby Show director Jay Sandrich, who had previously worked with Harris, Witt and Thomas on Soap, agreed to direct. \n\nThe pilot included a gay houseboy, Coco (Charles Levin), who lived with the girls. Levin had been suggested by then-NBC president Brandon Tartikoff based on Levin's groundbreaking portrayal of a recurring gay character, Eddie Gregg, on NBC's Emmy-winning drama Hill Street Blues. After the pilot, the character of Coco was eliminated from the series. \n\nCasting\n\nHired to film the pilot, director Sandrich would also become instrumental in the casting process for the series. Both Rue McClanahan and Betty White came into consideration as the series Mama's Family, in which the two co-starred, had been canceled by NBC. Originally producers wanted to cast McClanahan as Rose and White as Blanche. The thinking for this was based on roles they previously played; White portrayed man-hungry Sue Ann Nivens on The Mary Tyler Moore Show, while McClanahan co-starred as sweet but scatter-brained Vivian Harmon in Maude. Eager not to be typecast, they took the suggestion of Sandrich and switched roles last-minute.\n\nThough Harris had created the character of Dorothy with a \"Bea Arthur type\" in mind, Littlefield and the producers initially envisioned actress Elaine Stritch for the part. Stritch's audition flopped, however, and under the impression that Arthur didn't want to participate, Harris asked McClanahan if she could persuade Arthur, with whom she worked previously on the CBS sitcom Maude, to take the role. Arthur flipped upon reading the script, but felt hesitant about McClanahan's approach as she didn't \"want to play (their Maude characters) Maude and Vivian meet Sue Ann Nivens.\" She reconsidered, however, after hearing that McClanahan and White had switched roles.\n\nEstelle Getty, who was younger than both Bea Arthur and Betty White, was the last to be cast as the elderly mother of Arthur's character. Tony Thomas spotted her playing the mother role on Broadway in Torch Song Trilogy, and asked her to audition. Getty, who went through a three-hour transformation to become Sophia, wore heavy make-up, thick glasses and a white wig to look the part. The character of Sophia was thought by the creators to enhance the idea that three retirement age women could be young. Disney's Michael Eisner explains, \"Estelle Getty made our three women into girls. And that was, to me, what made it seem like it could be a contemporary, young show.\" As surprising as it may sound, Estelle Getty's continuously battled her fear of stage fright. During an interview in 1988, Getty's commented on her phobia and expressed how working with major stars, such as Arthur and White, made her even more nervous. There were times where she even froze on camera while filming. \n\nBea Arthur and Betty White were personally distant when not working. This never came across publicly in press, and both acted as consummate professionals on set as each knew the importance of the other to the overall success of the show. It also didn't dull the experience or the enjoyment of doing the show for either one. Betty White has always expressed nothing but love and admiration for Bea Arthur. It was only after Arthur's death in 2009 that she revealed their differences were real and due to a fundamental personality clash with Arthur becoming easily irritated by White's positive, perky demeanor. \n\nWriting and taping\n\n \nThe show was the second television series to be produced by The Walt Disney Company under the Touchstone Television label, and was subsequently distributed by Buena Vista International, Inc. (which owns as the former affiliate of Disney Channel Asia, now Disney–ABC Television Group). \n\nCreator Susan Harris went on to contribute another four episodes to the first season, but became less involved with the sitcom throughout its run; she would, however, continue reading all scripts and remained familiar with most of the storylines. Kathy Speer and Terry Grossman were the first head writers of the series and wrote for the show's first four seasons. As head writers, Speer and Grossman along with Mort Nathan and Barry Fanaro—who won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing the first season—gave general ideas to lower staff writers, and personally wrote a handful of scripts each season. \n\nIn 1989, Marc Sotkin, previously a writer on Laverne & Shirley and a producer on fellow Witt/Thomas series It's a Living, assumed head-writing responsibilities, and guided the show (to varying degrees) during what would be its final three seasons. Richard Vaczy and Tracy Gamble, previously writers on 227 and My Two Dads, also assumed the roles of producers and head writers. Beginning in 1990, Marc Cherry served as writer and producer, years before going on to create Desperate Housewives, which ran on ABC from 2004 to 2012. Mitchell Hurwitz also served as writer for the show in its last two seasons. Hurwitz would later go on to create Arrested Development for Fox and later revived for Netflix.\n\nExterior and interior sets\n\nThe house's address was mentioned as being 6151 Richmond Street, Miami. The outside model used in the shots of the house in the series was part of the backstage studio tour ride at Disney's Hollywood Studios. This façade—along with the Empty Nest house—was among those destroyed in mid-2003, as Disney bulldozed the houses of \"Residential Street\" to make room for its \"Lights, Motors, Action!\" attraction. A hurricane that damaged the sets earlier also contributed to this decision. The façade is based on a real house in Brentwood, California, located at 245 N. Saltair Ave. and was used in the exterior shots during the first season of the show. Later, the producers built a new model at Walt Disney World in Florida.\n\nThe kitchen set seen on The Golden Girls was originally used on an earlier Witt/Thomas/Harris series, It Takes Two, which aired on ABC from 1982 to 1983. However, the exterior backdrop seen through the kitchen window changed from the view of Chicago high-rises to palm trees and bushes for the Miami setting.\n\nFormat\n\nThe Golden Girls was shot on videotape in front of a live studio audience. Many episodes of the series followed a similar format or theme. For example, one or more of the women would become involved in some sort of problem, often involving other family members, men, or an ethical dilemma. At some point, they would gather around the kitchen table and discuss the problem, sometimes late at night and often while eating cheesecake or some other dessert. One of the other girls would then tell a story from her own life, which somehow related to the problem (though Rose would occasionally regale a nonsense story that had nothing to do with the situation, and Sophia would tell outrageous made-up stories). Some episodes featured flashbacks to previous episodes, flashbacks to events not shown in previous episodes or to events that occurred before the series began. Though the writing was mostly comical, dramatic moments and sentimental endings were included in several episodes. One of the actresses on the show, Bea Arthur, actually hated cheesecake. \n\nReception\n\nCritical reception\n\nAn immediate runaway hit, The Golden Girls became an NBC staple on Saturday nights. The show was the anchor of NBC's Saturday line-up, and almost always won its time slot, as ABC and CBS struggled to find shows to compete against it, the most notable being ABC's Lucille Ball sitcom Life With Lucy in the beginning of the 1986–87 season. The Golden Girls was part of a series of Brandon Tartikoff shows that put an end to NBC's ratings slump, along with The Cosby Show, 227, Night Court, Miami Vice, and L.A. Law.\n\nThe show dealt with many topical issues, such as coming out and same-sex marriage, elder care and homelessness, AIDS and discrimination against people with HIV, US immigration policy, death and assisted suicide. \n\nWriter and producer Linda Bloodworth-Thomason created a sitcom with this kind of image as a \"four women\" show, which it turns a hit, Designing Women, that compete with The Golden Girls in rankings, but CBS pushed up to Monday night line-up.\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nDuring its original run, The Golden Girls received 68 Emmy nominations, 11 Emmy awards, four Golden Globe Awards, and two Viewers for Quality Television awards. All the lead actresses won Emmy Awards for their performances on the show. The Golden Girls is one of four shows, along with All in the Family, The Simpsons and Will & Grace, where all the principal actors have won at least one Emmy Award.\n\nAs a tribute to the success of The Golden Girls, all four actresses were later named Disney Legends. \n\nDistribution\n\nSyndication\n\nIn 1989, American syndicated reruns began airing, distributed by Buena Vista Television (now Disney-ABC Domestic Television), the syndication arm of Disney, whose Touchstone Television division produced the series.\n\nIn March 1997, the Lifetime cable network acquired the exclusive rights to repeat the episodes of The Golden Girls in the US for over a decade, until March 1, 2009. The last episode aired on Lifetime, February 27, 2009. Many episodes were edited to allow more commercials and for content. The Hallmark Channel and WE tv began airing re-edited episodes of The Golden Girls in March 2009. As of February 2013, We TV's rights expired and Viacom networks' TV Land, home to Betty White's current series Hot in Cleveland, purchased them and Logo TV. It currently airs on the Hallmark Channel.[http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/09/22/monday-cable-ratings-nfl-football-wins-night-love-hip-hop-hollywood-sportscenter-monday-night-raw-more/470489/]\n\nIn Australia, the show airs every day on Fox Classics.\n\nIn Canada, CanWest's digital specialty channel, DejaView, airs reruns of The Golden Girls.\n\nIn South East Asia, Rewind Networks began airing reruns of The Golden Girls on its HD channel, HITS, in 2013.\n\nHome media release\n\nBuena Vista Home Entertainment has released all seven seasons of The Golden Girls on DVD in Region 1 and Region 4 with the first four being released in Region 2. On November 9, 2010, the studio released a complete series box set titled The Golden Girls: 25th Anniversary Complete Collection. The 21-disc collection features all 180 episodes of the series as well as all special features contained on the previously released season sets; it is encased in special collectible packaging, a replica of Sophia's purse. On November 15, 2005, Warner Home Video released The Golden Girls: A Lifetime Intimate Portrait Series on DVD which contains a separate biography of Arthur, White, McClanahan and Getty, revealing each woman's background, rise to stardom and private life, which originally aired on Lifetime network. \n\nSpin-offs\n\nUpon the success of The Golden Girls creator Susan Harris later devised Empty Nest as a spin-off from The Golden Girls with some character crossovers. Nurses was later spun off from Empty Nest, and the shows would occasionally have special episodes in which characters from one show made appearances in the others. \n\nThe Golden Palace\n\nAfter the original series ended, White, McClanahan, and Getty reprised their characters in the CBS series The Golden Palace, which ran from September 1992 to May 1993, and also starred Cheech Marin and Don Cheadle (Bea Arthur guest starred once reprising her role as Dorothy). The show never approached the popularity or acclaim of the original, and ranked 66th in the annual ratings. Reportedly a second season was approved before being canceled the day before the network announced its fall schedule.\n\nLifetime, which held the rights to The Golden Girls at the time, aired reruns of The Golden Palace in the summer of 2005, and again in December of that year. This was the first time since 1993 that The Golden Palace was seen on American television. Until April 2006, Lifetime played the series as a virtual season eight, airing the series in between the conclusion of the final season and the syndicated roll-over to season one.\n\nEmpty Nest\n\nCapitalizing on the popularity of The Golden Girls, creator Susan Harris decided to develop a spin-off, centering on the empty nest syndrome. The initial pilot was aired as the 1987 Golden Girls episode \"Empty Nests\" and starred Paul Dooley and Rita Moreno as George and Renee Corliss, a married couple living next to the Golden Girls characters, who face empty nest syndrome after their three adult daughters moved out. When that idea wasn't well-received, Harris retooled the series as a vehicle for Richard Mulligan and the following year Empty Nest debuted, starring Mulligan as pediatrician Harry Weston, a widower whose two adult daughters moved back home. Characters from both shows made occasional guest appearances on the other show, with the four Girls guesting on Empty Nest and Mulligan, Dinah Manoff, Kristy McNichol, David Leisure and Park Overall appearing on The Golden Girls in their Empty Nest roles. After the end of The Golden Palace, Getty joined the cast of Empty Nest, making frequent appearances as Sophia in the show's final two seasons.\n\nMulligan and Manoff were alumni from one of Susan Harris' earlier shows, Soap.\n\nNurses\n\nEmpty Nest launched its own spin-off in 1991 set in Miami in the same hospital where Dr. Weston worked. The series starred Stephanie Hodge and a set of other young female and male nurses and follows their daily slumbers during worktime. As one of the few times in television history that three shows from the same producer, set in the same city, aired back-to-back-to-back on a single network in the same night, the three shows occasionally took advantage of their unique circumstances to create storylines that carried through all three series, such as \"Hurricane Saturday.\" Starring actress Hodge left the show after two seasons. David Rasche joined the cast at the start of the second season and Loni Anderson was added as the new hospital administrator for the third season.\n\nAdaptations\n\nStage\n\nThe Golden Girls: Live! was an Off-Broadway show that opened in the summer of 2003 in New York City at Rose's Turn theater in the West Village, and ran until November of that year. The production ended because the producers failed to secure the rights and received a cease and desist order by the creators of the original television show. Featuring an all-male cast in drag, The Golden Girls: Live! consisted of two back-to-back episodes of the sitcom: Break-In (season 1, episode 8) and Isn't It Romantic? (season 2, episode 5).\n\nForeign versions\n\n* Chile: Los Años Dorados: In 2015 a Chilean remake called Los Años Dorados (The Golden Years) was produced by UCVTV in agreement with Disney, starring famous Chilean actresses Gloria Münchmeyer, Carmen Barros, Ana Reeves and Consuelo Holzapfel, who lives their retirement in the city of Viña del Mar. It was a success for the channel, so there are plans to do the second season in 2016. \n* Greece: Chrysa Koritsia: In 2008, Greek broadcaster ET1 premiered a Greek remake entitled Chrysa Koritsia (, \"Gold[en] Girls\"), which features the four women in Greece. Each of the characters has been Hellenized to suit the culture and modern setting. Names were only slightly changed but more for cultural reasons, as Sophia (whose first name was unchanged, as it is Greek), Bela (Blanche), Dora (Dorothy), Fifi (Rose), and Panos (Stan). The series began airing in mid-January, and features many similar plots to the original. ET1 aired a rerun of the show in the summer of 2008 and managed to take a place in the top 10 rates chart, presented by AGB Nielsen Media Research. The Greek edition features Mirka Papakonsantinoy as Dora, Dina Konsta as Sofia, Eleni Gerasimidou as Fifi and Ivonni Maltezoy as Bela.\n* Netherlands: Golden Girls: A Dutch remake for the RTL 4 network stars Loes Luca as Barbara (Blanche), Beppie Melissen as Els (Dorothy), Cecile Heuer as Milly (Rose), and Pleuni Touw as Toos (Sophia). The show premiered in fall 2012, using essentially the same plots as the U.S. version, along with a Dutch-language version of the original theme song, \"Thank You for Being a Friend.\" \n* Philippines: 50 Carats, O Di Ba? A Philippine version of The Golden Girls (spin-off) aired during the early 90's by IBC 13. Starred Nida Blanca, Charito Solis and Gloria Romero. \n* Russia: Bolshie Devochki: A Russian remake was broadcast in 2006, entitled Bolshie Devochki (), which in English can literally be translated to: \"Big Girls.\" The series featured renowned Russian actresses Galina Petrova as Irina (Dorothy), Olga Ostroumova as Nadejda (Blanche), Valentina Telechkina as Margarita (Rose), and Elena Millioti as Sofya (Sophia). However, the concept never caught on with the Russian viewers and the show was canceled after only thirty-two episodes. \n* Spain: Juntas pero no revueltas/Las chicas de oro: In 1996, TVE launched a Spanish remake entitled Juntas pero no revueltas (Together, but not mixed) with Mercedes Sampietro as Julia (Dorothy), Mónica Randall as Nuri (Blanche), Kiti Manver as Rosa (Rose), and Amparo Baró as Benigna (Sophia). Low ratings made it disappear after one season. In 2010, another remake with the title Las chicas de oro (The Golden Girls) was announced, again on TVE, this time produced by José Luis Moreno and with Concha Velasco as Doroti (Dorothy), Carmen Maura as Rosa (Rose), Lola Herrera as Blanca (Blanche) and Alicia Hermida as Sofía (Sophia). The series premiered on September 13, 2010 with success. However, after only 26 episodes, the series was eventually discontinued after the end of the first season after receiving generally bad reviews and following dropping ratings. \n* United Kingdom: The Brighton Belles: In 1993, ITV premiered Brighton Belles, a British version of the American sitcom. The show, starring Sheila Hancock, Wendy Craig, Sheila Gish, and Jean Boht was nearly identical to Girls except for character name changes and actor portrayals. The 10-episode series was canceled after six weeks due to low ratings, with the final four episodes airing more than a year later." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Blanch", "Blenches", "Blanched", "Blanching", "Blanch (disambiguation)", "Blenched", "Blenching", "Blanches" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "blenched", "blanch", "blanched", "blanches", "blenching", "blanch disambiguation", "blenches", "blanching" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "blanch", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Blanch" }
Who first funded Sesame Street?	tc_934	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Sesame_Street.txt" ], "title": [ "Sesame Street" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sesame Street is a long-running American children's television series created by Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett. The program is known for its educational content, and images communicated through the use of Jim Henson's Muppets, animation, short films, humor, and cultural references. The series premiered on November 10, 1969, to positive reviews, some controversy, and high viewership; it has aired on the U.S.'s national public television provider (PBS) since its debut, with its first run moving to premium channel HBO on January 16, 2016. \n\nThe show has undergone significant changes throughout its history. The format of Sesame Street consists of a combination of commercial television production elements and techniques which have evolved to reflect the changes in American culture and the audience's viewing habits. With the creation of Sesame Street, producers and writers of a children's television show used, for the first time, educational goals and a curriculum to shape its content. It was also the first time a show's educational effects were studied.\n\nShortly after creating Sesame Street, its producers developed what came to be called the \"CTW model\" (named for the show's production company, the Children's Television Workshop), a system of television show planning, production, and evaluation based on collaborations between producers, writers, educators, and researchers. The show was initially funded by government and private foundations but has become somewhat self-supporting due to revenues from licensing arrangements, international sales, and other media. By 2006, there were independently produced versions, or \"co-productions\", of Sesame Street broadcast in twenty countries. In 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of various international versions of Sesame Street, and by the show's 40th anniversary in 2009, it was broadcast in more than 140 countries.\n\nBy its 40th anniversary in 2009, Sesame Street was the fifteenth-highest rated children's television show in the United States. A 1996 survey found that 95% of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old. In 2008, it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children. As of 2014, Sesame Street has won 159 Emmy Awards and 8 Grammy Awards—more than any other children's show.\n\nHistory\n\nSesame Street was conceived in 1966 during discussions between television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and Carnegie Foundation vice president Lloyd Morrisett. Their goal was to create a children's television show that would \"master the addictive qualities of television and do something good with them\", such as helping young children prepare for school. After two years of research the newly formed Children's Television Workshop (CTW) received a combined grant of US$8 million ($ million in dollars) from the Carnegie Foundation, the Ford Foundation, and the U.S. Federal Government to create and produce a new children's television show. The program premiered on public television stations on November 10, 1969. It was the first preschool educational television program to base its contents and production values on laboratory and formative research. Initial responses to the show included adulatory reviews, some controversy, and high ratings. By its 40th anniversary in 2009, Sesame Street was broadcast in over 120 countries, and 20 international versions had been produced.\n\nSesame Street has evolved from its initial inception. According to writer Michael Davis, by the mid-1970s the show had become \"an American institution\". The cast and crew expanded during this time, with emphasis on the hiring of women crew members and the addition of minorities to the cast. The show's success continued into the 1980s. In 1981, when the federal government withdrew its funding, CTW turned to, and expanded, other revenue sources, including its magazine division, book royalties, product licensing, and foreign broadcast income. Sesame Streets curriculum has expanded to include more affective topics such as relationships, ethics, and emotions. Many of the show's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff, cast, and crew, most notably, the 1982 death of Will Lee—who played Mr. Hooper—and the marriage of Luis and Maria in 1988.\n\nIn recent years Sesame Street has faced societal and economic challenges, including changes in viewing habits of young children, competition from other shows, the development of cable television, and a drop in ratings. After the turn of the 21st century, Sesame Street made major structural changes. For example, starting in 2002, its format became more narrative and included ongoing storylines. After its thirtieth anniversary in 1999 and due to the popularity of the Muppet Elmo, the show also incorporated a popular segment known as \"Elmo's World\". Upon its fortieth anniversary in 2009, the show received a Lifetime Achievement Emmy at the 36th Daytime Emmy Awards.\n\nOn August 13, 2015, as part of a five-year programming and development deal, Sesame Workshop announced that first-run episodes of Sesame Street would move to premium television service HBO beginning with season 46, which premiered on January 16, 2016. HBO will hold first-run rights to all newer episodes of the series, after which they will air on PBS member stations following a nine-month exclusivity window, with no charge to the stations for airing the content. The agreement also gives HBO exclusive rights to stream past and future Sesame Street episodes on HBO Go and HBO Now – assuming those rights from Amazon Video and Netflix; on August 14, Sesame Workshop announced that it would phase out its in-house subscription streaming service, Sesame Go, as a standalone service; the service will remain in operation, likely with its offerings reduced to a slate content available for free or serving as a portal for Sesame Streets website. The deal came in the wake of cutbacks that had affected the series in recent years, the changing viewer habits of American children in the previous ten years, and Sesame Workshop's dependence upon revenue from DVD sales. \n\nFormat\n\nFrom its first episode, Sesame Street has structured its format by using \"a strong visual style, fast-moving action, humor, and music,\" as well as animation and live-action short films. When Sesame Street premiered, most researchers believed that young children did not have long attention spans, therefore the new show's producers were concerned that an hour-long show would not hold their audience's attention. At first, the show's \"street scenes\"—the action taking place on its set—consisted of character-driven interactions and were not written as ongoing stories. Instead, they consisted of individual, curriculum-based segments which were interrupted by \"inserts\" consisting of puppet sketches, short films, and animations. This structure allowed the producers to use a mixture of styles and characters, and to vary the show's pace. By season 20, research had shown that children were able to follow a story, and the street scenes, while still interspersed with other segments, became evolving storylines.\n\nUpon recommendations by child psychologists, the producers initially decided that the show's human actors and Muppets would not interact because they were concerned it would confuse young children. When the CTW tested the appeal of the new show, they found that although children paid attention to the shows during the Muppet segments, their interest was lost during the \"Street\" segments. The producers requested that Henson and his team create Muppets such as Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch to interact with the human actors, and the Street segments were re-shot. Sesame Streets format remained intact until the show's later decades, when the changing audience required that producers move to a more narrative format. In 1998 the popular segment \"Elmo's World\", a 15-minute long segment hosted by the Muppet Elmo, was created. Starting in 2014, during the show's 45th season, the producers introduced a bonus half-hour version of the program. The new version, which complemented the full-hour series, was both broadcast weekday afternoons and streamed on the internet.\n\nEducational goals\n\nAs author Malcolm Gladwell has stated, \"Sesame Street was built around a single, breakthrough insight: that if you can hold the attention of children, you can educate them\". Gerald S. Lesser, the CTW's first advisory board chair, went even further, saying that the effective use of television as an educational tool needed to capture, focus, and sustain children's attention. Sesame Street was the first children's show to structure each episode, and the segments within them, to capture children's attention, and to make, as Gladwell put it, \"small but critical adjustments\" to keep it. According to CTW researchers Rosemarie Truglio and Shalom Fisch, Sesame Street was one of the few children's television programs to utilize a detailed and comprehensive educational curriculum, garnered from formative and summative research.\n\nThe creators of Sesame Street and their researchers formulated both cognitive and affective goals for the show. Initially, they focused on cognitive goals, while addressing affective goals indirectly, in the belief that doing so would increase children's self-esteem and feelings of competency. One of their primary goals was preparing very young children for school, especially children from low-income families, using modeling, repetition, and humor to fulfill these goals. They made changes in the show's content to increase their viewers' attention and to increase its appeal, and encouraged \"co-viewing\" to entice older children and parents to watch the show by including more sophisticated humor, cultural references, and celebrity guest appearances.\n\nAfter Sesame Streets first season, its critics forced its producers and researchers to address more overtly such affective goals as social competence, tolerance of diversity, and nonaggressive ways of resolving conflict. These issues were addressed through interpersonal disputes among its Street characters. During the 1980s, the show incorporated the real-life experiences of the show's cast and crew, including the death of Will Lee (Mr. Hooper) and the pregnancy of Sonia Manzano (Maria) to address affective concerns. In later seasons, Sesame Street addressed real-life disasters such as the September 11 terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina.\n\nThe show's goals for outreach were addressed through a series of programs that first focused on promotion and then, after the first season, on the development of educational materials used in preschool settings. Innovative programs were developed because their target audience, children and their families in low-income, inner-city homes, did not traditionally watch educational programs on television and because traditional methods of promotion and advertising were not effective with these groups.\n\nFunding\n\nAs a result of Cooney's initial proposal in 1968, the Carnegie Institute awarded her an $8 million ($ million in dollars) grant to create a new children's television program and establish the CTW, renamed in June 2000 to Sesame Workshop (SW). Cooney and Morrisett procured additional multimillion-dollar grants from the U.S. federal government, The Arthur Vining Davis Foundations, CPB, and the Ford Foundation. Davis reported that Cooney and Morrisett decided that if they did not procure full funding from the beginning, they would drop the idea of producing the show. As Lesser reported, funds gained from a combination of government agencies and private foundations protected them from the economic pressures experienced by commercial broadcast television networks, but created challenges in procuring future funding.\n\nAfter Sesame Streets initial success, its producers began to think about its survival beyond its development and first season and decided to explore other funding sources. From the first season, they understood that the source of their funding, which they considered \"seed\" money, would need to be replaced. The 1970s were marked by conflicts between the CTW and the federal government; in 1978, the U.S. Department of Education refused to deliver a $2 million check until the last day of CTW's fiscal year. As a result, the CTW decided to depend upon licensing arrangements with toy companies and other manufacturers, publishing, and international sales for their funding.\n\nIn 1998, the CTW accepted corporate sponsorship to raise funds for Sesame Street and other projects. For the first time, they allowed short advertisements by indoor playground manufacturer Discovery Zone, their first corporate sponsor, to air before and after each episode. Consumer advocate Ralph Nader, who had previously appeared on Sesame Street, called for a boycott of the show, saying that the CTW was \"exploiting impressionable children\".\n\nProduction\n\nResearch\n\nProducer Joan Ganz Cooney has stated, \"Without research, there would be no Sesame Street\". In 1967, when Cooney and her team began to plan the show's development, combining research with television production was, as she put it, \"positively heretical\". Shortly after creating Sesame Street, its producers began to develop what came to be called \"the CTW model\", a system of planning, production, and evaluation that did not fully emerge until the end of the show's first season.See Gikow, p. 155, for a visual representation of the CTW model. According to Morrow, the CTW model consisted of four parts: \"the interaction of receptive television producers and child science experts, the creation of a specific and age-appropriate curriculum, research to shape the program directly, and independent measurement of viewers' learning\".\n\nCooney credited the show's high standard in research procedures to Harvard professors Gerald S. Lesser, whom the CTW hired to design the show's educational objectives, and Edward L. Palmer, who was responsible for conducting the show's formative research and for bridging the gap between the show's producers and researchers. The CTW conducted research in two ways: in-house formative research that informed and improved production, and independent summative evaluations, conducted by the Educational Testing Service (ETS) during the show's first two seasons, which measuring its educational effectiveness. Cooney stated, \"From the beginning, we—the planners of the project—designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers, researchers, and television producers collaborating as equal partners\". Cooney also described the collaboration as an \"arranged marriage\".\n\nWriting\n\nSesame Street has used many writers in its long history. As Dave Connell, one of Sesame Streets original producers, has stated, it was difficult to find adults who could identify a preschooler's interest level. Fifteen writers a year worked on the show's scripts, but very few lasted longer than one season. Norman Stiles, head writer in 1987, reported that most writers would \"burn out\" after writing about a dozen scripts. According to Gikow, Sesame Street went against the convention of hiring teachers to write for the show, as most educational television programs did at the time. Instead, Cooney and the producers felt that it would be easier to teach writers how to interpret curriculum than to teach educators how to write comedy. As Stone stated, \"Writing for children is not so easy\". Long-time writer Tony Geiss agreed, stating in 2009, \"It's not an easy show to write. You have to know the characters and the format and how to teach and be funny at the same time, which is a big, ambidextrous stunt\".\n\nThe show's research team developed an annotated document, or \"Writer's Notebook\", which served as a bridge between the show's curriculum goals and script development. The notebook was a compilation of programming ideas designed to teach specific curriculum points, provided extended definitions of curriculum goals, and assisted the writers and producers in translating the goals into televised material. Suggestions in the notebook were free of references to specific characters and contexts on the show so that they could be implemented as openly and flexibly as possible.\n\nThe research team, in a series of meetings with the writers, also developed \"a curriculum sheet\" that described the show's goals and priorities for each season. After receiving the curriculum focus and goals for the season, the writers met to discuss ideas and story arcs for the characters, and an \"assignment sheet\" was created that suggested how much time was allotted for each goal and topic. When a script was completed, the show's research team analyzed it to ensure that the goals were met. Then each production department met to determine what each episode needed in terms of costumes, lights, and sets. The writers were present during the show's taping, which for the first twenty-four years of the show took place in Manhattan, and after 1992, at the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens to make last-minute revisions when necessary.Most of the first season was filmed at a studio near Broadway, but a strike forced their move to Teletape Studios. In the early days, the set was simple, consisting of four structures (Gikow, pp. 66–67). In 1982, Sesame Street began filming at Unitel Studios on 57th Street, but relocated to Kaufman Astoria Studios in 1993, when the producers decided they needed more space (Gikow, pp. 206–207).\n\nMedia\n\nEarly in their history Sesame Street and the CTW began to look for alternative funding sources and turned to creating products and writing licensing agreements. They became, as Cooney put it, \"a multiple-media institution\". In 1970, the CTW created a \"non-broadcast\" division responsible for creating and publishing books and Sesame Street Magazine. They decided that all materials their licensing program created would \"underscore and amplify\" the show's curriculum. In 2004, over 68% of Sesame Streets revenue came from licenses and products such as toys and clothing. By 2008, the Sesame Street Muppets accounted for between $15 million and $17 million per year in licensing and merchandising fees, split between the Sesame Workshop and The Jim Henson Company.\n\nJim Henson, the creator of the Muppets, owned the trademarks to those characters, and was reluctant to market them at first. He agreed when the CTW promised that the profits from toys, books, computer games, and other products were to be used exclusively to fund the CTW and its outreach efforts. Even though Cooney and the CTW had very little experience with marketing, they demanded complete control over all products and product decisions. Any product line associated with the show had to be educational and inexpensive, and could not be advertised during the show's airings. As Davis reported, \"Cooney stressed restraint, prudence, and caution\" in their marketing and licensing efforts.\n\nDirector Jon Stone, talking about the music of Sesame Street, said: \"There was no other sound like it on television\". For the first time in children's television, the show's songs fulfilled a specific purpose and supported its curriculum. In order to attract the best composers and lyricists, the CTW allowed songwriters like Sesame Streets first musical director Joe Raposo to retain the rights to the songs they wrote, which earned them lucrative profits and helped the show sustain public interest. By 1991, Sesame Street and its songwriters had received eight Grammys.\n\nSesame Street used animations and short films commissioned from outside studios, interspersed throughout each episode, to help teach their viewers basic concepts like numbers and letters. Jim Henson was one of the many producers to create short films for the show. Shortly after Sesame Street debuted in the United States, the CTW was approached independently by producers from several countries to produce versions of the show at home. These versions came to be called \"co-productions\". By 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of all international versions of Sesame Street, and in 2006, there were twenty co-productions around the world. By the show's 40th anniversary in 2009, Sesame Street was broadcast in more than 140 countries. In 2005, Doreen Carvajal of The New York Times reported that income from the co-productions and international licensing accounted for $96 million.\n\nCast, crew and characters\n\nShortly after the CTW was created in 1968, Joan Ganz Cooney was named its first executive director. She was one of the first female executives in American television. Her appointment was called \"one of the most important television developments of the decade\". She assembled a team of producers, all of whom had previously worked on Captain Kangaroo. Jon Stone was responsible for writing, casting, and format; Dave Connell took over animation; and Sam Gibbon served as the show's chief liaison between the production staff and the research team. Cameraman Frankie Biondo worked on Sesame Street from its first episode.\n\nJim Henson and the Muppets' involvement in Sesame Street began when he and Cooney met at one of the curriculum planning seminars in Boston. Author Christopher Finch reported that Stone, who had worked with Henson previously, felt that if they could not bring him on board, they should \"make do without puppets\". Henson was initially reluctant, but he agreed to join Sesame Street to meet his own social goals. He also agreed to waive his performance fee for full ownership of the Sesame Street Muppets and to split any revenue they generated with the CTW. As Morrow stated, Henson's puppets were a crucial part of the show's popularity and it brought Henson national attention. Davis reported that Henson was able to take \"arcane academic goals\" and translate them to \"effective and pleasurable viewing\". In early research, the Muppet segments of the show scored high, and more Muppets were added during the first few seasons. Morrow reported that the Muppets were effective teaching tools because children easily recognized them, they were stereotypical and predictable, and they appealed to adults and older siblings.\n\nAlthough the producers decided against depending upon a single host for Sesame Street, instead casting a group of ethnically diverse actors, they realized that a children's television program needed to have, as Lesser put it, \"a variety of distinctive and reliable personalities\", both human and Muppet. Jon Stone, whose goal was to cast white actors in the minority, was responsible for hiring the show's first cast. He did not audition actors until Spring 1969, a few weeks before the five test shows were due to be filmed. Stone videotaped the auditions, and Ed Palmer took them out into the field to test children's reactions. The actors who received the \"most enthusiastic thumbs up\" were cast. For example, Loretta Long was chosen to play Susan when the children who saw her audition stood up and sang along with her rendition of \"I'm a Little Teapot\". As Stone said, casting was the only aspect of the show that was \"just completely haphazard\". Most of the cast and crew found jobs on Sesame Street through personal relationships with Stone and the other producers.\n\nAccording to the CTW's research, children preferred watching and listening to other children more than to puppets and adults, so they included children in many scenes. Dave Connell insisted that no child actors be used, so these children were nonprofessionals, unscripted, and spontaneous. Many of their reactions were unpredictable and difficult to control, but the adult cast learned to handle the children's spontaneity flexibly, even when it resulted in departures from the planned script or lesson. CTW research also revealed that the children's hesitations and on-air mistakes served as models for viewers. According to Morrow, this resulted in the show having a \"fresh quality\", especially in its early years. Children were also used in the voice-over commentaries of most of the live-action films the CTW produced.\n\nReception\n\nRatings\n\nWhen Sesame Street premiered in 1969, it aired on only 67.6% of American televisions, but it earned a 3.3 Nielsen rating, which totaled 1.9 million households. By the show's tenth anniversary in 1979, 9 million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily. According to a 1993 survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, out of the show's 6.6 million viewers, 2.4 million kindergartners regularly watched it. 77% of preschoolers watched it once a week, and 86% of kindergartners and first- and second-grade students had watched it once a week before starting school. The show reached most young children in almost all demographic groups.\n\nThe show's ratings significantly decreased in the early 1990s, resulting from changes in children's viewing habits and in the television marketplace. The producers responded by making large-scale structural changes to the show. By 2006, Sesame Street had become \"the most widely viewed children's television show in the world\", with 20 international independent versions and broadcasts in over 120 countries. A 1996 survey found that 95% of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old. In 2008, it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children. By the show's 40th anniversary in 2009, it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children's show on television.\n\nInfluence\n\nAs of 2001, there were over 1,000 research studies regarding Sesame Streets efficacy, impact, and effect on American culture. The CTW solicited the Educational Testing Service (ETS) to conduct summative research on the show. ETS's two \"landmark\" summative evaluations, conducted in 1970 and 1971, demonstrated that the show had a significant educational impact on its viewers. These studies have been cited in other studies of the effects of television on young children. Additional studies conducted throughout Sesame Streets history demonstrated that the show continued to have a positive effect on its young viewers.\n\nLesser believed that Sesame Street research \"may have conferred a new respectability upon the studies of the effects of visual media upon children\". He also believed that the show had the same effect on the prestige of producing shows for children in the television industry. Historian Robert Morrow, in his book Sesame Street and the Reform of Children's Television, which chronicled the show's influence on children's television and on the television industry as a whole, reported that many critics of commercial television saw Sesame Street as a \"straightforward illustration for reform\". Les Brown, a writer for Variety, saw in Sesame Street \"a hope for a more substantial future\" for television.\n\nMorrow reported that the networks responded by creating more high-quality television programs, but that many critics saw them as \"appeasement gestures\". According to Morrow, despite the CTW Model's effectiveness in creating a popular show, commercial television \"made only a limited effort to emulate CTW's methods\", and did not use a curriculum or evaluate what children learned from them. By the mid-1970s, commercial television abandoned their experiments with creating better children's programming. Other critics hoped that Sesame Street, with its depiction of a functioning, multicultural community, would nurture racial tolerance in its young viewers. It was not until the mid-1990s when a children's television educational program, Blue's Clues, used the CTW's methods to create and modify their content. The creators of Blue's Clues were influenced by Sesame Street, but wanted to use research conducted in the 30 years since its debut. Angela Santomero, one of its producers, said, \"We wanted to learn from Sesame Street and take it one step further\".\n\nAs critic Richard Roeper has stated, perhaps one of the strongest indicators of the influence of Sesame Street has been the enduring rumors and urban legends surrounding the show and its characters, especially those concerning Bert and Ernie.\n\nCritical reception\n\nSesame Street was praised from its debut in 1969. Newsday reported that several newspapers and magazines had written \"glowing\" reports about the CTW and Cooney. The press overwhelmingly praised the new show; several popular magazines and niche magazines lauded it. In 1970, Sesame Street won twenty awards, including a Peabody Award, three Emmys, an award from the Public Relations Society of America, a Clio, and a Prix Jeunesse. By 1995, the show had won two Peabody Awards and four Parents' Choice Awards. In addition, it was the subject of retrospectives at the Smithsonian Institution and the Museum of Modern Art.\n\nSesame Street was not without its detractors, however. In May 1970, a state commission in Mississippi, the state Henson was actually from, voted to ban Sesame Street because of its \"highly integrated cast of children\" which \"the commission members felt ... Mississippi was not yet ready for\". According to Children and Television, Lesser's account of the development and early years of Sesame Street, there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere, but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season. Historian Robert W. Morrow speculated that much of the early criticism, which he called \"surprisingly intense\", stemmed from cultural and historical reasons in regards to, as he put it, \"the place of children in American society and the controversies about television's effects on them\".\n\nAccording to Morrow, the \"most important\" studies finding negative effects of Sesame Street were conducted by educator Herbert A. Sprigle and psychologist Thomas D. Cook during its first two seasons. Social scientist and Head Start Program founder Urie Bronfenbrenner criticized the show for being too wholesome. Psychologist Leon Eisenberg saw Sesame Streets urban setting as \"superficial\" and having little to do with the problems confronted by the inner-city child. Head Start director Edward Zigler was probably Sesame Streets most vocal critic in the show's early years.\n\nIn spite of their commitment to multiculturalism, the CTW experienced conflicts with the leadership of minority groups, especially Latino groups and feminists, who objected to Sesame Streets depiction of Latinos and women. The CTW took steps to address their objections. By 1971, the CTW hired Hispanic actors, production staff, and researchers, and by the mid-1970s, Morrow reported that \"the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members, films about Mexican holidays and foods, and cartoons that taught Spanish words\". As The New York Times has stated, creating strong female characters \"that make kids laugh, but not...as female stereotypes\" has been a challenge for the producers of Sesame Street. According to Morrow, change regarding how women and girls were depicted on Sesame Street occurred slowly. As more female Muppets performers like Fran Brill, Pam Arciero, Carmen Osbahr, Stephanie D'Abruzzo, Jennifer Barnhart, and Leslie Carrara-Rudolph were hired and trained, stronger female characters like Rosita and Abby Cadabby were created.\n\nIn 2002, Sesame Street was ranked No. 27 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. It also won another Peabody Award in 2009 for sesamestreet.org. In 2013, TV Guide ranked the series No. 30 on its list of the 60 Best Series. As of 2016, Sesame Street has received 167 Emmy Awards, more than any other television series." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Children’s Television Workshop", "The Children's Television Workshop", "Sesame Workshop", "Sesame Street Merchandise", "Sesame Workshop funding sources", "Children's Television Workshop", "Children's Computer Workshop" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "sesame workshop", "sesame street merchandise", "children s computer workshop", "sesame workshop funding sources", "children s television workshop" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "children s television workshop", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Children's Television Workshop" }
In Family Affair what was the butler called?	tc_936	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Family_Affair.txt", "Butler.txt" ], "title": [ "Family Affair", "Butler" ], "wiki_context": [ "Family Affair is an American sitcom that aired on CBS from September 12, 1966 to March 4, 1971 (Repeats were broadcast through September 9.) The series explored the trials of well-to-do engineer and bachelor Bill Davis (Brian Keith) as he attempted to raise his brother's orphaned children in his luxury New York City apartment. Davis' traditional English gentleman's gentleman, Mr. Giles French (Sebastian Cabot), also had adjustments to make as he became saddled with the responsibility of caring for 15-year-old Cissy (Kathy Garver) and the 6-year-old twins, Jody (Johnny Whitaker) and Buffy (Anissa Jones). \n\nFamily Affair ran for 138 episodes in five seasons. The show was created and produced by Edmund Hartmann and Don Fedderson, also known for My Three Sons and The Millionaire.\n\nStoryline\n\nWilliam \"Bill\" Davis, originally of Terre Haute, Indiana, is a successful civil engineer who develops major projects all over the world. A wealthy bachelor often dating socialites, he lives in a large apartment on east 62nd Street off of Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and has a quintessential gentleman's gentleman, Giles French, for a valet. His quiet lifestyle is turned upside-down when his two nieces and nephew move in.\n\nBill's brother Bob and sister-in-law Mary had died in an automobile accident a year prior to the premiere episode (the DVD collection's notes mistakenly state \"tragic plane accident\"). Their children—teenaged Cissy and her young twin siblings, Buffy and Jody—had been dispersed among relatives in Terre Haute for that year, but none of them wanted to continue raising the children, so they all attempt to give the responsibility to Bill. \"Uncle Bill\" is not keen on the idea at first, but the children endear themselves to him. First, comes Buffy, followed by Jody and, finally, Cissy. Initially mortified by the situation is Mr. French, who effectively becomes the children's nanny, on top of his valet duties. As time passes they all become a family, albeit an accidental one.\n\nWhen Sebastian Cabot became ill, Giles' brother, Nigel \"Niles\" French (John Williams) was introduced, working for the Davis family for nine episodes in 1967 while Giles is said to be touring with the Queen in the Commonwealth countries. In the last season, Bill hires a part-time housekeeper, Emily Turner (Nancy Walker) to assist Mr. French.\n\nVarious other characters were also seen regularly, including several acquaintances of Mr. French who are in service (most notably Miss Faversham, played by Heather Angel), colleagues of Bill and friends of Cissy.\n\nProduction\n\nLike Don Fedderson's other program, My Three Sons, Family Affair used a sixty-day production schedule for Brian Keith. All of his scenes for the season would be shot in two thirty-day blocks, while his co-stars would fill in after the actor's work was completed. This enabled Fedderson to harness actors like Keith and Fred MacMurray into television commitments, while still enabling each to make motion pictures. As a result, each season had a single director for each of the thirty-odd scripts.\n\nDue to the popularity of the series with girls, Buffy's doll, \"Mrs. Beasley\" (which she often carried with her) was marketed as a Mattel talking toy in the United States. Mattel also went on to produce two other dolls, patterned after Buffy: the \"Tutti\"-sized Buffy and larger \"Small Talk Buffy\" (talking doll), both of which featured accompanying miniature Mrs. Beasley dolls.\n\nCast\n\n* Brian Keith as William Sean Roger \"Uncle Bill\" Davis\n* Sebastian Cabot as Giles French \n* Kathy Garver as Catherine Allison Rachael \"Cissy\" Patterson Davis \n* Johnny Whitaker as Jonathan Joshua \"Jody\" Patterson Davis\n* Anissa Jones as Ava Elizabeth \"Buffy\" Patterson Davis \n* Heather Angel as Miss Faversham, Mr. French’s friend (seasons 1–5)\n* John Williams as Nigel \"Niles\" French (season 1)\n* Nancy Walker as Emily Turner (season 5)\n* John Hubbard as Theodore \"Ted\" Gaynor, Bill’s business partner (season 1)\n* Betty Lynn as Miss Lee, Bill’s secretary (seasons 1 & 2) \n* Sherry Alberoni as Sharon James, Cissy’s girlfriend (seasons 1–3) \n* Gregg Fedderson (producer Don Fedderson's son) as Gregg Bartlett, Cissy’s boyfriend (seasons 2–5) \n* Karl Lukas as Scott \"Scotty\" Parker, the doorman (seasons 1–3)\n\nNotable guest stars\n\nJohn Agar (episode 1.28)\nHerbert Anderson (episode 4.1)\nDana Andrews (episode 4.2)\nJoan Blondell (episode 2.13)\nLynn Borden\nRichard Bull as the apartment manager\nVeronica Cartwright (episode 3.27)\nJackie Coogan (episode 2.7)\nHenry Corden (episode 1.8)\nBrian Donlevy (episode 1.15)\nJamie Farr (episode 3.27) as a hippie\nPaul Fix (episode 4.15)\nLeif Garrett (episode 5.15)\nLinda Kaye Henning (episode 5.9)\nKathy Hilton (episode 5.20)\nSterling Holloway (episode 1.19) as Mr. Frack, the window-washer\nJames Hong\nClint Howard (episode 5.10)\nMartha Hyer (episode 2.14)\nKym Karath\nAndrea King (episode 1.17)\nPatric Knowles (episode 2.3)\nAnna Lee (episode 2.3)\nJune Lockhart (episode 3.5)\nMyrna Loy (episode 1.20) as a maid candidate\nKeye Luke (episode 1.18)\nIda Lupino\nAnn McCrea\nLee Meriwether\nErin Moran\nButch Patrick (episode 3.2)\nEve Plumb (episode 3.7) as Eve, a terminally-ill girl\nRobert Reed (episode 1.14) as professor Julian Hill\nPippa Scott (episode 2.30)\nDoris Singleton (episode 2.29)\nAnn Sothern (episode 2.17)\nVic Tayback as a police officer\nJoyce Van Patten (episode 5.11)\n\nRatings\n\nPost-series\n\nFrom Monday September 7, 1970 to Friday January 12, 1973, \"The Family Affair Morning Show\" Debuted on CBS-TV Daytime at 10:30-11:00 AM Eastern and the title's used through September 10, 1971 (1 Day After The Nighttime Show Cancelled) airs the best of the 5-Season Period from 1966 to 1969 are for Monday Nights at 9:30-10:00 PM Eastern and from 1969 to 1971 are for Thursday Nights at 7:30-8:00 PM Eastern and for the last CBS-TV Daytime Season in 1972-1973, The Show Placed at 4:00-4:30 PM Eastern and others used either the 9:00-9:30 AM or 1:00-1:30 PM Time Slots because of its own deadly slot for CBS-TV Stations to air it and being replaced by The Vin Scully Show. As discussed by Kathy Garver on the final season’s DVD features, the show’s cast suffered several deaths. Anissa Jones died of a drug overdose in 1976 at age 18. Sebastian Cabot died of a stroke in 1977 at age 59. In 1997, two months after the suicide of his daughter, and having lived with cancer for some time, Brian Keith committed suicide by gunshot at age 75. \n\nDVD releases\n\nMPI Home Video has released all five seasons of Family Affair on DVD in Region 1 by MPI Home Video (under license from the Don Fedderson estate).\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nRevival series\n\nA revival of Family Affair by Sid and Marty Krofft aired on THE WB from September 12, 2002 to March 13, 2003. This version was produced by Sid & Marty Krofft Pictures, Pariah Films and Turner Television and lasted for 16 episodes (14 of the 16 were aired). It was filmed in the same CBS Studio City lot as was the original series. Although the one-hour pilot had good ratings, the subsequent episodes declined against competition such as Friends. Johnny Whitaker and Kathy Garver appeared in the Christmas episode.\n\nRevival cast\n\n* William Lloyd \"Bill\" Davis – Gary Cole\n* Mr. Giles French – Tim Curry\n* Sigourney \"Sissy\" Davis – Caitlin Wachs\n* Jonathan \"Jody\" Davis – Jimmy \"Jax\" Pinchak\n* Elizabeth \"Buffy\" Davis – Sasha Pieterse\n* Jonathan \"Jody\" Davis (pilot) – Luke Benward\n\nAppearances in other media\n\nIn the pilot of the television show The Critic, film critic Jay Sherman reviews the (fictional) movie adaption of the show. In the starring role was Marlon Brando, who was \"paid 8 million dollars\" for the film.\n\nGold Key Comics, an imprint of Western Publishing, published four issues of a Family Affair comic book series from January to October 1970. \n\nMerchandising efforts centered on Anissa Jones' \"Buffy\" character. Several books were published, including\nthe 1970 hardback Family Affair: Buffy Finds A Star by Gladys Baker Bond and Buffy's Cookbook. There were dolls (Mattel's \"Small Talk Buffy\" and Mrs. Beasley, Buffy's doll on the show) and various other toys. \n\nA Mrs. Beasley doll, with her glasses missing, appears in the music video for the song California Tuffy by the Geraldine Fibbers.\n\nIn Police Academy 2: Their First Assignment, the character of Zed (Bobcat Goldthwait) is seen watching the show in one scene, but ultimately turns it off after stating it's a \"re-run\".", "A butler is a domestic worker in a large household. In great houses, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the dining room, wine cellar, and pantry. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and housekeepers caring for the entire house and its appearance. A butler is usually male, and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, and in charge of female servants. Traditionally, male servants (such as footmen) were rarer and therefore better paid and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the senior male servant, has the highest servant status. He can also be sometimes used as a chauffeur.\n\nIn older houses where the butler is the most senior worker, titles such as majordomo, butler administrator, house manager, manservant, staff manager, chief of staff, staff captain, estate manager and head of household staff are sometimes given. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, but perhaps, more importantly in line with the requirements of the individual employer. In the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler.\n\nBackground\n\nThe word \"butler\" comes from Anglo-Norman buteler, variant form of Old Norman butelier, corresponding to Old French botellier \"officer in charge of the king's wine bottles\", derived of boteille \"bottle\", Modern French bouteille, itself from Gallo-Romance BUTICULA \"bottle\". The role of the butler, for centuries, has been that of the chief steward of a household, the attendant entrusted with the care and serving of wine and other bottled beverages which in ancient times might have represented a considerable portion of the household's assets.\n\nIn Britain, the butler was originally a middle-ranking member of the staff of a grand household. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the butler gradually became the senior, usually male, member of a household's staff in the very grandest households. However, there was sometimes a steward who ran the outside estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household, and who was senior to the butler in social status into the 19th century. Butlers used always to be attired in a special uniform, distinct from the livery of junior servants, but today a butler is more likely to wear a business suit or business casual clothing and appear in uniform only on special occasions.\n\nA silverman or silver butler has expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware and other paraphernalia for use at military and other special functions. See also Silver (household).\n\nTo Butler (verb): To butler, to dispense wines or liquors; to act as a butler. (simple past and past participle butlered)\n\nOrigin and history\n\nThe modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages.\n\nAncient through medieval eras\n\nFrom ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.\n\nThe biblical book of Genesis contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew Joseph interpreted a dream of Pharaoh's שקה (shaqah) (literally \"to give to drink\"), which is most often translated into English as \"chief butler\" or \"chief cup-bearer\". \n\nIn ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the Medieval Era the pincerna, usually a serf, filled the role within the noble court. The English word \"butler\" itself comes from the Middle English word bo(u)teler (and several other forms), from Anglo-Norman buteler, itself from Old Norman butelier, corresponding to Old French botellier (\"bottle bearer\"), Modern French bouteiller, and before that from Medieval Latin butticula. The modern English \"butler\" thus relates both to bottles and casks.\n\nEventually the European butler emerged as a middle-ranking member of the servants of a great house, in charge of the buttery (originally a storeroom for \"butts\" of liquor, although the term later came to mean a general storeroom or pantry). While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title but in service to the Crown enjoyed a position of administrative power and were only minimally involved with various stores.\n\nElizabethan through Victorian eras\n\nThe Steward of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged. Gradually, throughout the 19th century and particularly the Victorian era, as the number of butlers and other domestic servants greatly increased in various countries, the butler became a senior male servant of a household's staff. By this time he was in charge of the more modern wine cellar, the \"buttery\" or pantry (from French pan from Latin panis, bread) as it came to be called, which supplied bread, butter, cheese, and other basic provisions, and the ewery, which contained napkins and basins for washing and shaving. In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties. Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management, a manual published in Britain in 1861, reported:\t \n\nThe number of the male domestics in a family varies according to the wealth and position of the master, from the owner of the ducal mansion, with a retinue of attendants, at the head of which is the chamberlain and house-steward, to the occupier of the humbler house, where a single footman, or even the odd man-of-all-work, is the only male retainer. The majority of gentlemen's establishments probably comprise a servant out of livery, or butler, a footman, and coachman, or coachman and groom, where the horses exceed two or three. \n\nButlers were head of a strict service hierarchy and therein held a position of power and respect. They were more managerial than \"hands on\"—more so than serving, they officiated in service. For example, although the butler was at the door to greet and announce the arrival of a formal guest, the door was actually opened by a footman, who would receive the guest's hat and coat. Even though the butler helped his employer into his coat, this had been handed to him by a footman. However, even the highest-ranking butler would \"pitch in\" when necessary, such as during a staff shortage, to ensure that the household ran smoothly, although some evidence suggests this was so even during normal times. \n\nThe household itself was generally divided into areas of responsibility. The butler was in charge of the dining room, the wine cellar, pantry, and sometimes the entire main floor. Directly under the butler was the first footman (or head footman), although there could also be a deputy butler or under-butler who would fill in as butler during the butler's illness or absence. The footman—there were frequently numerous young men in the role within a household—performed a range of duties including serving meals, attending doors, carrying or moving heavy items, and they often doubled as valets. Valets themselves performed a variety of personal duties for their employer. Butlers engaged and directed all these junior staff and each reported directly to him. The housekeeper was in charge of the house as a whole and its appearance. In a household without an official head housekeeper, female servants and kitchen staff were also directly under the butler's management, while in smaller households, the butler usually doubled as valet. Employers and their children and guests addressed the butler (and under-butler, if there was one) by last name alone; fellow servants, retainers, and tradespersons as \"Mr. [Surname]\".\n\nButlers were typically hired by the master of the house but usually reported to its lady. Beeton in her manual suggested a GBP 25–50 (USD 2,675–5,350) per-year salary for butlers; room and board and livery clothing were additional benefits, and tipping known as vails, were common. The few butlers who were married had to make separate housing arrangements for their families, as did all other servants within the hierarchy.\n\nButlers in early America\n\nFrom the beginning of slavery in America, in the early 17th century, African Americans were put to task as domestic servants. Some eventually became butlers. Gary Puckrein, a social historian, argues that those used in particularly affluent homes authentically internalised the sorts of \"refined\" norms and personal attributes that would reflect highly upon the social stature of their masters or mistresses. One of the first books written and published through a commercial U.S. publisher by an African American was by a butler named Robert Roberts. The book, The House Servant's Directory, first published in 1827, is essentially a manual for butlers and waiters, and is called by Puckrein \"the most remarkable book by an African American in antebellum America\". The book generated such interest that a second edition was published in 1828, and a third in 1843. \n\nEuropean indentured servants formed a corps of domestic workers from which butlers were eventually drawn. Although not the victims of institutionalised slavery, many of them had not volunteered for domestic service, but were forced into it by indebtedness or coercion. As with African American slaves, they could rise in domestic service, and their happiness or misery depended greatly on the disposition of their masters.\n\nThe modern butler\n\nBeginning around the early 1920s (following World War I), employment in domestic service occupations began a sharp overall decline in western European countries, and even more markedly in the United States. Even so, there were still around 30,000 butlers employed in Britain by World War II. As few as one hundred were estimated to remain by the mid-1980s. Social historian Barry Higman argues that a high number of domestic workers within a society correlates with a high level of socio-economic inequality. Conversely, as a society undergoes levelling among its social classes, the number employed in domestic service declines. \n\nFollowing varied shifts and changes accompanying accelerated globalisation beginning in the late 1980s, overall global demand for butlers since the turn of the millennium has risen dramatically. According to Charles MacPherson, President of Charles MacPherson Associates and owner of The Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers, the proximate cause is that the number of millionaires and billionaires has increased in recent years, and such people are finding that they desire assistance in managing their households. MacPherson emphasises that the number of wealthy people in China has increased particularly, creating in that country a high demand for professional butlers who have been trained in the European butlering tradition. There is also increasing demand for such butlers in other Asian countries, India, and the petroleum-rich Middle East. \n\nHigman additionally argues that the inequality/equality levels of societies are a major determinant of the nature of the domestic servant/employer relationship. As the 21st century approached, many butlers began carrying out an increasing number of duties formerly reserved for more junior household servants. Butlers today may be called upon to do whatever household and personal duties their employers deem fitting, in the goal of freeing their employers to carry out their own personal and professional affairs. Professional butler and author Steven M. Ferry states that the image of tray-wielding butlers who specialise in serving tables and decanting wine is now anachronistic, and that employers may well be more interested in a butler who is capable of managing a full array of household affairs—from providing the traditional dinner service, to acting as valet, to managing high-tech systems and multiple homes with complexes of staff. While in truly grand houses the modern butler may still function exclusively as a top-ranked household affairs manager, in lesser homes, such as those of dual-income middle-class professionals, they perform a full array of household and personal assistant duties, including mundane housekeeping. Butlers today may also be situated within corporate settings, embassies, cruise ships, yachts, or within their own small \"Rent-a-Butler\" business or similar agency. \n\nAlong with these changes of scope and context, butlering attire has changed. Whereas butlers have traditionally worn a special uniform that separated them from junior servants, and although this is still often the case, butlers today may wear more casual clothing geared for climate, while exchanging it for formal business attire only upon special service occasions. There are cultural distinctions, as well. In the United States, butlers may frequently don a polo shirt and slacks, while in Bali they typically wear sarongs. \n\nIn 2007, the number of butlers in Britain had risen to an estimated 5,000. \n\nThe period drama, Downton Abbey, has been credited as the reason for a sudden upsurge in the demand for 'properly trained butlers'. \n\nTraining\n\nButlers traditionally learned their position while progressing their way up the service ladder. For example, in the documentary The Authenticity of Gosford Park, retired butler Arthur Inch (born 1915) describes starting as a hall boy. While this is still often the case, numerous private butlering schools exist today, such as The British Butler Institute, and top graduates can start at US$50,000–60,000 (£25,350–30,400). Additionally, major up-market hotels such as the Ritz-Carlton offer traditional butler training, while some hotels have trained a sort of pseudo-butler for service in defined areas such as \"technology butlers\", who fix guests' computers and other electronic devices, and \"bath butlers\" who draw custom baths. In addition to formal training, a few books have been published to assist butlers in their duties, including Arthur Inch's and Arlene Hirst's 2003 Dinner is Served. Moreover, websites, as well as a news publication, Modern Butlers' Journal, help butlers to network and keep abreast of developments within their field.\n\nGender and butlering\n\nButlers have traditionally been male, and this remains the norm. Probably the first mention of a female butler is in the 1892 book Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses by Horace Smith. In it Smith quotes a certain Sydney Smith who had apparently run into lean times: \n\nA man servant was too expensive, so I caught up a little garden girl, made like a milestone, christened her Bunch, put a napkin in her hand, and made her my butler. The girls taught her to read, Mrs. Sydney to wait, and I undertook her morals. Bunch became the best butler in the country. \n\nToday, female butlers are sometimes preferred, especially for work within Middle and Far Eastern families where it may be religiously problematic for males to work closely with females in a household. Western female celebrities may also prefer a female butler, as may households where the wife is driving the decision to hire a butler. In 2004, Buckingham Palace announced it was actively recruiting females for the position. Despite these trends, the Ivor Spencer School asserts that female butlers are not easily placed, on the whole.\n\nThe Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers reports that 40% of the students admitted into its program are women. The school goes onto report that the labour market still has a preference for male butlers, however, the market is becoming more progressive and increasing numbers of female butlers are being hired. \n\nIn ancient times, the roles precursive to butlering were reserved for chattel or those confined within heredity-based class structures. With the advent of the medieval era, butlering became an opportunity for social advancement—even more so during Victorian times. Although still based upon various antecedent roles as manifested during different eras, butlering today has frequently taken over many of the roles formerly reserved for lower-ranking domestic servants. At the same time it has become a potentially lucrative career option. \n\nHistorically important butlers\n\nEugene Allen, White House butler who served under eight U.S. presidents\nGrant Harrold, butler to Charles, Prince of Wales and etiquette expert, founder of Nicholas Veitch Limited\nPaul Burrell, butler to Diana, Princess of Wales\nIvor Spencer, toastmaster and etiquette specialist, head of the Ivor Spencer International School for Butler Administrators/Personal Assistants and Estate Managers\nLeslie Bartlett, butler, toastmaster and founder of The London School of British Butlers\nAlonzo Fields, White House chief butler from 1932–1953\n\nIn visual art\n\nButlers have been occasionally depicted in visual art. A famous painting, Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants (c. 1758), is unique among such works. In it, the 18th-century English artist William Hogarth depicted his household servants, each surrounding the butler. In showing the group in a close-knit assemblage rather than in the performance of their routine household duties, Hogarth sought to humanise and dignify them in a manner akin to wealthy-class members, who were the normal subjects of such portraits. While this was a subversive act that certainly raised many eyebrows in his day—Hogarth conspicuously displayed the work in his estate home in full view of guests—at the same time he had painted his servants' facial expressions to convey the sincerity and deference expected of servant-class members. \n\nIn contemporary art, \"The Butler's in Love\" series by U.S. artist Mark Stock is especially poignant. In the series, Stock portrays the butler as sick with love, but the possibility of fulfillment is hopeless: the love is a forbidden love, perhaps felt for the lady of the house, and so it must be suffered alone in silent concealment. In addition to the ongoing mannerisms and facial expressions of the butler, a seated lady once appearing in a curtained room and a recurring lipstick-stained absinthe glass over which the butler obsesses provide the interpretive clues. In selecting a butler as his subject, Stock sought to provide a \"universal character\", a pathos-laden figure that could be widely related to and that could depict the universality of loneliness felt by someone who can only look in from the outside. Stock began the series in 1985 to express his difficult feelings during a personal experience of unrequited love. One of the paintings was inspiration for a 3-D short film, \"The Butler's in Love\" by actor/director David Arquette, shot in 2008 at San Francisco's historic Westerfield Mansion. \n\nIn fiction\n\nThe real-life modern butler attempts to be discreet and unobtrusive, friendly but not familiar, keenly anticipative of the needs of his or her employer, and graceful and precise in execution of duty. The butler of fiction, by contrast, often tends to be larger than life and has become a plot device in literature and a traditional role in the performing arts. Butlers may provide comic relief with wry comments, clues as to the perpetrators of various crimes, and are represented as at least as intelligent and moral as their “betters,” or even more so. They are often portrayed as being serious and expressionless and in the case that the wealthy hero is an orphan—such as Batman, Chrono Crusade's Satella Harvenheit, or Tomb Raider's Lara Croft—may be a father figure to said hero. Regardless of the genre in which they are cast, butlers in fiction almost invariably follow the \"British butler\" model and are given an appropriate-sounding surname. The fictional butler tends to be given a typical Anglo-Celtic surname and have an English accent. The Asian, African American, or Caribbean houseboy is a variant, but even these major-domos are based on the British icon.\n\nToday, butlers are usually portrayed as being refined and well-spoken. However, in 19th century fiction such as Dracula, butlers generally spoke with a strong Cockney or other regional accent.\n\n\"The butler\" is integral to the plot of countless potboilers and melodramas, whether or not the character has been given a name. Butlers figure so prominently in period pieces and whodunits that they can be considered stock characters in film and theatre, where a catchphrase is \"The butler did it!\"\n\nThe best-known fictional manservant, and the prototype of the quintessential British butler, is himself not a butler at all. Reginald Jeeves, the iconic creation of author P. G. Wodehouse is a \"gentleman's gentleman\" and general factotum. Probably the best-known fictional butlers are Alfred from the Batman comic and films; Hudson of Upstairs, Downstairs television fame; Mr Carson from the Downton Abbey television series; and Crichton from J. M. Barrie's The Admirable Crichton. Lesser-knowns include Mr. Belvedere from the novel Belvedere, which was adapted into a feature film with sequels and later a television series; Lurch, from the television series The Addams Family, based on Charles Addams' The New Yorker cartoons; Beach, from the Wodehouse series about Blandings Castle; Niles, the butler at the Sheffield house in American sitcom The Nanny, and Benson from the two series Soap and Benson.\n\nNot all fictional butlers portray the \"butler stereotype\", however. Alan Bates, who played the butler Jennings in the film Gosford Park, was coached in brooding detail by Arthur Inch, a longtime real-life butler. Mr. Stevens, the butler played by Anthony Hopkins in the film Remains of the Day, was also acted with remarkable realism. A female butler, Sarah Stevens, is the principal character in Linda Howard's 2002 Dying to Please, a murder/romance novel. Howard gives detailed and generally accurate descriptions of butlering in the work. \n\nExamples\n\nAlfred Pennyworth, Bruce Wayne's butler from Batman\nEdwin Jarvis, Tony Stark's butler from Iron Man\nGeoffrey Butler, the butler for the Banks Family on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\nRonove, the demon butler and highest-ranking furniture of the Golden Witch; Beatrice and the Endless Sorcerer, Battler from Umineko no Naku Koro ni\nAngus Hudson, from the television show Upstairs, Downstairs\nBenson DuBois, the Tate butler in the hit 1970's sitcom, Soap\nEdmund Blackadder, butler to Prince George the Prince Regent, in the TV Series Blackadder the Third\nNestor, the butler of Marlinspike Hall in The Adventures of Tintin\nNiles the butler in the TV Series The Nanny\nSebastian Michaelis, a demon disguised as a man bound by contract to his master in the Black Butler manga and anime series\nSebastian Beach, from the Blandings Castle stories by P. G. Wodehouse, frequently conspires with the clever Gally Threepwood\nSmithers, Veronica Lodge's fictional butler\nHugh Edgar, butler, The Edwardian Country House, 2002 British historical recreation TV series\nCharles Carson, butler to the Crawley family in Downton Abbey\nJohn Lawless, a central character in the 1967 Sherman Brothers' musical movie The Happiest Millionaire played by 60 teen idol Tommy Steele.\nWadsworth, the protagonist in the movie Clue\nMr. Stevens, the protagonist of Kazuo Ishiguro's Booker Prize-winning novel, The Remains of the Day and movie of the same name\nSpencer, butler in Power Rangers Operation Overdrive\nCadbury, butler to Richie Rich\nHiggins, from the sitcom Our Man Higgins and the radio comedy on which it was based, It's Higgins, Sir\nUnderling, the butler in the 2006 Broadway Musical The Drowsy Chaperone\nThe titular protagonist of Hayate the Combat Butler; Hayate Ayasaki\nButler, the butler for Prince Salde Canarl Shellbrick III off of the puzzle game Puyo Puyo Fever 2\nGiles, the butler for ABC's Whodunnit? TV series\nSubaru Konoe, the female butler of Kanade Suzutsuki who is disguised as a male in the Mayo Chiki! anime, manga and light novel\n*Domovoi Butler, butler to Artemis Fowl in Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl book series." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Français", "Francaise", "The French", "Frenchness", "French", "Francais", "French (disambiguation)", "Frrench" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "french disambiguation", "french", "frenchness", "francaise", "francais", "frrench", "français" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "french", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "French" }
In the Addams Family, what is Gomez's octopus called?	tc_939	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Octopus.txt" ], "title": [ "Octopus" ], "wiki_context": [ "The octopus ( or; plural: octopuses, octopodes or octopi; see below) is a cephalopod mollusc of the order Octopoda. It has two eyes and four pairs of arms and, like other cephalopods, it is bilaterally symmetric. It has a beak, with its mouth at the center point of the arms. It has no internal or external skeleton (although some species have a vestigial remnant of a shell inside their mantles), allowing it to squeeze through tight places. Octopuses are among the most intelligent and behaviorally diverse of all invertebrates.\n\nOctopuses inhabit diverse regions of the ocean, including coral reefs, pelagic waters, and the ocean floor. They have numerous strategies for defending themselves against predators, including the expulsion of ink, the use of camouflage and deimatic displays, their ability to jet quickly through the water, and their ability to hide. They trail their eight arms behind them as they swim. All octopuses are venomous, but only one group, the blue-ringed octopus, is known to be deadly to humans. \n\nAround 300 species are recognized, which is over one-third of the total number of known cephalopod species. The term 'octopus' may also be used to refer specifically to the genus Octopus.\n\nEtymology and pluralization \n\nThe scientific Latin term octopus was derived from Ancient Greek ὀκτώπους (oktōpous, \"eight-footed\"), a compound form of ὀκτώ (oktṓ, “eight”) + πούς (poús, “foot”). Related to the word \"octopus\" are the terms \"Octopoda\" (the taxonomic order of cephalopod molluscs that comprises the octopuses) and the adjectival octopoid (with the suffix -oid, which signifies a resemblance to, but distinction from, something).\n\nThe standard pluralized form of \"octopus\" in the English language is \"octopuses\", although the Ancient Greek plural \"octopodes\", has also been used historically. The alternative plural \"octopi\" — which misguidedly assumes it is a Latin \"-us\"-word — is considered grammatically incorrect. It is nevertheless used enough to make it notable, and was formally acknowledged by the descriptivist Merriam-Webster 11th Collegiate Dictionary and Webster's New World College Dictionary. The Oxford English Dictionary (2008 Draft Revision) lists \"octopuses\", \"octopi\", and \"octopodes\", in that order, labelling \"octopodes\" as rare and noting that \"octopi\" derives from the apprehension that octōpus comes from Latin. In contrast, New Oxford American Dictionary (3rd Edition 2010) lists \"octopuses\" as the only acceptable pluralization, with a usage note indicating \"octopodes\" as being still occasionally used but \"octopi\" as being incorrect.\n\nBiology \n\nOctopuses are characterized by their eight arms, usually bearing suction cups. The arms of octopuses are often distinguished from the pair of feeding tentacles found in squid and cuttlefish. Both types of limb are muscular hydrostats.\n\nOctopuses can be divided into two suborders, the Incirrina (or Incirrata) and the Cirrina (or Cirrata). The incirrate octopuses are distinguished from the cirrate octopuses by their absence of \"cirri\" filaments (found with the suckers), as well as by the lack of paired swimming fins on the head. Unlike most other cephalopods, the majority of octopuses – those in the Incirrina – have almost entirely soft bodies with no internal skeleton. They have neither a protective outer shell like the nautilus, nor any vestige of an internal shell or bones, like cuttlefish or squid. The beak, similar in shape to a parrot's beak, and made of chitin, is the only hard part of their bodies. This enables them to squeeze through very narrow slits between underwater rocks, which is very helpful when they are fleeing from moray eels or other predatory fish. The octopuses in the less-familiar Cirrina suborder have two fins and an internal shell, generally reducing their ability to squeeze into small spaces. These cirrate species are often free-swimming and live in deep-water habitats, while incirrate octopus species are found in reefs and other shallower seafloor habitats.\n\nOctopuses have a relatively short life expectancy, with some species living for as little as six months. Larger species, such as the giant pacific octopus, may live for up to five years under suitable circumstances. However, reproduction is a cause of death: males can live for only a few months after mating, and females die shortly after their eggs hatch. They neglect to eat during the (roughly) one-month period spent taking care of their unhatched eggs, eventually dying of starvation. In a scientific experiment, the removal of both optic glands after spawning was found to result in the cessation of broodiness, the resumption of feeding, increased growth, and greatly extended lifespans. \n\nOctopuses have three hearts. Two branchial hearts pump blood through each of the two gills, while the third is a systemic heart that pumps blood through the body. Octopus blood contains the copper-rich protein hemocyanin for transporting oxygen. Although less efficient under normal conditions than the iron-rich hemoglobin of vertebrates, in cold conditions with low oxygen pressure, hemocyanin oxygen transportation is more efficient than hemoglobin oxygen transportation. The hemocyanin is dissolved in the plasma instead of being carried within red blood cells, and gives the blood a bluish color. The octopus draws water into its mantle cavity, where it passes through its gills. As molluscs, octopuses have gills that are finely divided and vascularized outgrowths of either the outer or the inner body surface.\n\nIntelligence \n\nOctopuses are highly intelligent, possibly more so than any other order of invertebrates. The exact extent of their intelligence and learning capability is much debated among biologists, but maze and problem-solving experiments have shown evidence of a memory system that can store both short- and long-term memory. It is not known precisely what contribution learning makes to adult octopus behavior. Young octopuses learn almost no behaviors from their parents, with whom they have very little contact. \n\nAs stated above, even the octopuses that have the longest lifespan (the Giant Pacific Octopus) simply doesn't live long enough after the young are born to teach them very much. Approximately 6 weeks after mating, the female lays 20,000–100,000 eggs over the course of several days on the inner side of her rocky den. For the next 5–8 months she tends the eggs, carefully cleaning and aerating them until they hatch. The female does not leave her brood, even to eat, and will die within weeks or months after they hatch, gradually becoming weaker as she dies of starvation. The male dies shortly after mating. The typical life span of the octopus is between 3–5 years.\n\nThe octopus has a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localized in its brain. Two-thirds of an octopus's neurons are found in the nerve cords of its arms, which have limited functional autonomy. Octopus arms show a variety of complex reflex actions that persist even when they have no input from the brain. Unlike vertebrates, the complex motor skills of octopuses are not organized in their brain using an internal somatotopic map of its body, instead using a nonsomatotopic system unique to large-brained invertebrates. Despite this delegation of control, octopus arms do not become tangled or stuck to each other because the suction cups have chemical sensors that recognize octopus skin and prevent self-attachment. Some octopuses, such as the mimic octopus, will move their arms in ways that emulate the shape and movements of other sea creatures.\n\nIn laboratory experiments, octopuses can be readily trained to distinguish between different shapes and patterns. They have been reported to practice observational learning, although the validity of these findings is widely contested on a number of grounds. Octopuses have also been observed in what some have described as play: repeatedly releasing bottles or toys into a circular current in their aquariums and then catching them. Octopuses often break out of their aquariums and sometimes into others in search of food. They have even boarded fishing boats and opened holds to eat crabs.\n\nTool use \n\nThe octopus has been shown to use tools. At least four specimens of the veined octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus) have been witnessed retrieving discarded coconut shells, manipulating them, and then reassembling them to use as shelter. \n\nProtective legislation\n\nDue to their intelligence, octopuses in some countries are on the list of experimental animals on which surgery may not be performed without anesthesia, a protection usually extended only to vertebrates. In the UK from 1993 to 2012, the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) was the only invertebrate protected under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. In 2012, this legislation was extended to include all cephalopods in accordance with a general EU directive. \n\nDefense \n\nThe octopus's primary defense is to hide or to disguise itself through camouflage and mimicry.Hanlon, R.T. & J.B. Messenger 1996. Cephalopod Behaviour. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Octopuses have several secondary defenses (defenses they use once they have been seen by a predator). The most common secondary defense is fast escape. Other defenses include distraction with the use of ink sacs and autotomising limbs.\n\nMost octopuses can eject a thick, blackish ink in a large cloud to aid in escaping from predators. The main coloring agent of the ink is melanin, which is the same chemical that gives humans their hair and skin color. This ink cloud is thought to reduce the efficiency of olfactory organs, which would aid evasion from predators that employ smell for hunting, such as sharks. Ink clouds of some species might serve as pseudomorphs, or decoys that the predator attacks instead. \n\nThe octopus's camouflage is aided by certain specialized skin cells which can change the apparent color, opacity, and reflectivity of the epidermis. Chromatophores contain yellow, orange, red, brown, or black pigments; most species have three of these colors, while some have two or four. Other color-changing cells are reflective iridophores, and leucophores (white). This color-changing ability can also be used to communicate with or warn other octopuses. The highly venomous blue-ringed octopus becomes bright yellow with blue rings when it is provoked. Octopuses can use muscles in the skin to change the texture of their mantle to achieve a greater camouflage. In some species, the mantle can take on the spiky appearance of seaweed, or the scraggly, bumpy texture of a rock, among other disguises. However, in some species, skin anatomy is limited to relatively patternless shades of one color, and limited skin texture. It is thought that octopuses that are day-active and/or live in complex habitats such as coral reefs have evolved more complex skin than their nocturnal and/or sand-dwelling relatives.\n\nWhen under attack, some octopuses can perform arm autotomy, in a manner similar to the way skinks and other lizards detach their tails. The crawling arm serves as a distraction to would-be predators. Such severed arms remain sensitive to stimuli and move away from unpleasant sensations. \n\nA few species, such as the mimic octopus, have a fourth defense mechanism. They can combine their highly flexible bodies with their color-changing ability to accurately mimic other, more dangerous animals, such as lionfish, sea snakes, and eels. \n\nReproduction \n\nWhen octopuses reproduce, the male uses a specialized arm called a hectocotylus to transfer spermatophores (packets of sperm) from the terminal organ of the reproductive tract (the cephalopod \"penis\") into the female's mantle cavity.Young, R.E., M. Vecchione & K.M. Mangold 1999. [http://tolweb.org/accessory/Cephalopoda_Glossary?acc_id\n587 Cephalopoda Glossary]. Tree of Life web project. The hectocotylus in benthic octopuses is usually the third right arm. Males die within a few months of mating. In some species, the female octopus can keep the sperm alive inside her for weeks until her eggs are mature. After they have been fertilized, the female lays about 200,000 eggs (this figure dramatically varies between families, genera, species and also individuals).\n\nCohabitation \n\nPacific striped octopuses share food and habitation but most other octopuses are solitary outside of mating. \n\nSenses \n\nOctopuses have keen eyesight. Like other cephalopods, they can distinguish the polarization of light. Color vision appears to vary from species to species, being present in O. aegina but absent in O. vulgaris. Attached to the brain are two special organs, called statocysts, that allow the octopus to sense the orientation of its body relative to horizontal. An autonomic response keeps the octopus's eyes oriented so the pupil slit is always horizontal.\n\nOctopuses also have an excellent sense of touch. The octopus's suction cups are equipped with chemoreceptors so the octopus can taste what it is touching. The arms contain tension sensors so the octopus knows whether its arms are stretched out. However, it has a very poor proprioceptive sense. The tension receptors are not sufficient for the brain to determine the position of the octopus's body or arms. (It is not clear whether the octopus brain would be capable of processing the large amount of information that this would require; the flexibility of the octopus's arms is much greater than that of the limbs of vertebrates, which devote large areas of cerebral cortex to the processing of proprioceptive inputs.) As a result, the octopus does not possess stereognosis; that is, it does not form a mental image of the overall shape of the object it is handling. It can detect local texture variations, but cannot integrate the information into a larger picture. \n\nThe neurological autonomy of the arms means the octopus has great difficulty learning about the detailed effects of its motions. The brain may issue a high-level command to the arms, but the nerve cords in the arms execute the details. There is no neurological path for the brain to receive proprioceptive feedback about just how its command was executed by the arms; the only way it knows just what motions were made is by observing the arms visually, i.e. exteroception.\n\nOctopuses might use the statocyst (a sac-like structure containing a mineralised mass and sensitive hairs) to register sound. The common octopus can hear sounds between 400 Hz and 1000 Hz, and hears best at a frequency of 600 Hz. \n\nLocomotion \n\nOctopuses move about by crawling or swimming. Their main means of slow travel is crawling, with some swimming. Jet propulsion is their fastest means of locomotion, followed by swimming and walking. \n\nThey crawl by walking on their arms, usually on many at once, on both solid and soft surfaces, while supported in water. In 2005, some octopuses (Adopus aculeatus and Amphioctopus marginatus under current taxonomy) were found to walk on two arms, while at the same time resembling plant matter. This form of locomotion allows these octopuses to move quickly away from a potential predator while possibly not triggering that predator's search image for octopus (food). A study of this behavior conducted by the Weymouth Sea Life Centre led to the suggestion that the two rearmost appendages may be more accurately termed 'legs' rather than 'arms'. Some species of octopus can crawl out of the water for a short period, which they may do between tide pools while hunting crustaceans or gastropods or to escape predators. \n\nOctopuses swim by expelling a jet of water from a contractile mantle, and aiming it via a muscular siphon.\n\nDiet \n\nBottom-dwelling octopuses eat mainly crabs, polychaete worms, and other molluscs such as whelks and clams. Open-ocean octopuses eat mainly prawns, fish and other cephalopods. They usually inject their prey with a paralysing saliva before dismembering it into small pieces with their beaks. Octopuses feed on shelled molluscs either by using force, or by drilling a hole in the shell, injecting a secretion into the hole, and then extracting the soft body of the mollusc. \n\nLarge octopuses have also been known to catch and kill some species of sharks. Seabirds have also been documented as prey. \n\nSize \n\nThe giant Pacific octopus, Enteroctopus dofleini, is often cited as the largest known octopus species. Adults usually weigh around 15 kg (33 lb), with an arm span of up to 4.3 m (14 ft). The largest specimen of this species to be scientifically documented was an animal with a live mass of 71 kg (156.5 lb). The alternative contender is the seven-arm octopus, Haliphron atlanticus, based on a 61 kg (134 lb) carcass estimated to have a live mass of 75 kg (165 lb). However, a number of questionable size records would suggest E. dofleini is the largest of all known octopus species by a considerable margin;Norman, M. 2000. Cephalopods: A World Guide. ConchBooks, Hackenheim. p. 214. one such record is of a specimen weighing 272 kg (600 lb) and having an arm span of 9 m (30 ft). \n\nRelationship to humans \n\nAncient peoples of the Mediterranean were aware of the octopus, as evidenced by certain artworks and designs of prehistory. For example, a stone carving found in the archaeological recovery from Bronze Age Minoan Crete at Knossos (1900 – 1100 BC) has a depiction of a fisherman carrying an octopus. \n\nIn classical Greece, Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) commented on the colour-changing abilities of the octopus, both for camouflage and for signalling, in his Historia animalium:Aristotle (c. 350 BC). Historia Animalium. IX, 622a: 2–10. Cited in Borrelli, Luciana; Gherardi, Francesca; Fiorito, Graziano (2006). A catalogue of body patterning in Cephalopoda. Firenze University Press. ISBN 978-88-8453-377-7. [http://www.fupress.com/scheda.asp?IDV\n487 Abstract]\n\nOctopuses were often depicted in the art of the Moche people of ancient Peru, who worshipped the sea and its animals. \n\nIn mythology \n\nThe Gorgon of Greek mythology has been thought to have been inspired by the octopus or squid, the octopus itself representing the severed head of Medusa, the beak as the protruding tongue and fangs, and its tentacles as the snakes. \n\nThe Kraken are legendary sea monsters of giant proportions said to dwell off the coasts of Norway and Greenland, usually portrayed in art as a giant octopus attacking ships.\n\nThe Hawaiian creation myth relates that the present cosmos is only the last of a series, having arisen in stages from the wreck of the previous universe. In this account, the octopus is the lone survivor of the previous, alien universe.\n\nAkkorokamui is a gigantic octopus-like monster from Ainu folklore, which supposedly lurks in Funka Bay in Hokkaidō and has been sighted in several locations including Taiwan and Korea since the 19th century. \n\nIn Japanese mythology and folklore there is a yokai called the tako no nana ashi, that is an octopus with seven tentacles.\n\nIn literature \n\nThe octopus has a significant role in Victor Hugo's book Travailleurs de la mer (Toilers of the Sea). \nIan Fleming's 1966 short story collection Octopussy and The Living Daylights, and the 1983 James Bond film partly inspired by Hugo's book.\n\nIn John Steinbeck's novella Sweet Thursday, the marine biologist \"Doc\" is studying what the denizens of Cannery Row call \"devilfish\". Doc's study of octopuses to ascertain whether their behavior displays emotional responses similar to humans, such as apoplexy, is a major plot device in the novella. \n\nEd Ricketts, the marine biologist who was Steinbeck's friend and inspiration for the character Doc, had an octopus as a trademark for products sold by his Pacific Biological Laboratories.\n\nRingo Starr wrote a 2014 children's book based on his 1969 song \"Octopus's Garden\". The book is illustrated by Ben Court. \n\nAs a metaphor \n\nDue to having numerous arms that emanate from a common center, the octopus is often used as a metaphor for a group or organization that is perceived as being powerful, manipulative or bent on domination. Use of this terminology is invariably negative and employed by the opponents of the groups or institutions so described. \n\nAs food \n\nOctopus is eaten in many cultures. They are a common food in Mediterranean and Asian sea areas. The arms and sometimes other body parts are prepared in various ways, often varying by species or geography.\n\nLive octopuses are eaten in several countries around the world, including the US. Animal welfare groups have objected to this practice on the basis that octopuses can experience pain. In support of this, since September 2010, octopuses being used for scientific purposes in the EU are protected by EU Directive 2010/63/EU which states \"...there is scientific evidence of their [cephalopods] ability to experience pain, suffering, distress and lasting harm. In the UK, this means that octopuses used for scientific purposes must be killed humanely, according to prescribed methods (known as \"Schedule 1 methods of euthanasia\"). \n\nAs pets \n\nThough octopuses can be difficult to keep in captivity, some people keep them as pets. They often escape even from supposedly secure tanks, due to their problem-solving skills, mobility and lack of rigid structure.\n\nThe variation in size and lifespan among octopus species makes it difficult to know how long a new specimen can naturally be expected to live. That is, a small octopus may be just born or may be an adult, depending on its species. By selecting a well-known species, such as the California two-spot octopus, one can choose a small octopus (around the size of a tennis ball) and be confident it is young with a full life ahead of it.\n\nClassification \n\nCephalopods have existed for around 500 million years, although octopus ancestors were in the Carboniferous seas around 300 million years ago. The oldest octopus fossil, Pohlsepia, can be found at the Field Museum in Chicago.\n\n* Class Cephalopoda\n Subclass Nautiloidea: nautilus\n Subclass Coleoidea\n* Superorder Decapodiformes: squid, cuttlefish\n* Superorder Octopodiformes\n** Family †Trachyteuthididae (incertae sedis)\n Order Vampyromorphida: vampire squid\n Order Octopoda\n* Genus †Keuppia (incertae sedis)\n* Genus †Palaeoctopus (incertae sedis)\n* Genus †Paleocirroteuthis (incertae sedis)\n* Genus †Pohlsepia (incertae sedis)\n* Genus †Proteroctopus (incertae sedis)\n* Genus †Styletoctopus (incertae sedis)\n* Suborder Cirrina: finned deep-sea octopus\n** Family Opisthoteuthidae: umbrella octopus\n** Family Cirroteuthidae\n** Family Stauroteuthidae\n* Suborder Incirrina\n** Superfamily Octopodoidea\n*** Family Amphitretidae: telescope octopus\n*** Family Bolitaenidae: gelatinous octopus\n*** Family Octopodidae: benthic octopus\n**** Genus Enteroctopus: giant octopus\n**** Genus Octopus\n*** Family Vitreledonellidae: glass octopus\n** Superfamily Argonautoidea\n*** Family Alloposidae: seven-arm octopus\n*** Family Argonautidae: argonauts\n*** Family Ocythoidae: tuberculate pelagic octopus\n***** Family Tremoctopodidae: blanket octopus" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Αριστοτέλης", "Philosophy of Aristotle", "Aristotelis", "MrAristotle", "Aristutalis", "Aristole", "Artistotle", "Aristotole", "Aristotel", "Aristotle's", "The Stagirite", "Aristotles", "Aristotles theories", "Artisole", "The Stagyrite", "Stagirite", "Arystoteles", "It is the mark of", "Aristotele", "Aristotelo", "Aristoteles", "Aristotle of Stagira", "Aristotle", "Aristotelean philosophy" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "aristotelis", "aristotele", "aristotelean philosophy", "aristotles", "αριστοτέλης", "mraristotle", "aristotelo", "aristotle of stagira", "arystoteles", "aristoteles", "aristutalis", "artisole", "stagirite", "artistotle", "aristotel", "philosophy of aristotle", "aristotles theories", "aristole", "aristotole", "aristotle s", "stagyrite", "aristotle", "it is mark of" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "aristotle", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Aristotle" }
Which character did Betty White play in The Betty White Show?	tc_942	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Betty_White_Show.txt" ], "title": [ "The Betty White Show" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Betty White Show is an American sitcom which aired on CBS from September 12, 1977, to January 2, 1978. Fourteen episodes were broadcast. The series was produced by MTM Enterprises. Note: This program should not be confused with two earlier television programs that had the same title—a daytime talk show that ran on NBC February 8, 1954 – December 31, 1954, and a prime-time comedy variety show that ran on ABC February 5, 1958 – April 30, 1958. \n\nSynopsis\n\nJoyce Whitman (Betty White), a middle-aged actress, lands the lead in a fictitious police series, Undercover Woman (a parody of Angie Dickinson's Police Woman). Joyce is thrilled with the show, but less pleased to learn that the director is her ex-husband, John Elliot (John Hillerman), whom she unfondly refers to as \"old pickle puss\". He responds in kind, supplying his star with an oversized male double named Hugo (Charles Cyphers), a sexy, much younger onscreen sidekick (Caren Kaye), and dialogue not nearly as sharp as her tongue. Also on hand are Joyce's best friend, Mitzi Maloney (Georgia Engel), co-star actor Fletcher Huff (Barney Phillips) and network penny-pincher Doug Porterfield (Alex Henteloff).\n\nReception\n\nThe series was scheduled opposite ABC's Monday Night Football and The NBC Monday Movie and failed to generate viewers. The show was canceled after fourteen episodes. \n\nCast\n\nEpisodes\n\nSyndication\n\nThe Betty White Show was briefly rerun on Nick at Nite and TV Land in the 1990s." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Joyce Whitman" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "joyce whitman" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "joyce whitman", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Joyce Whitman" }
During the series Roseanne changed her name to Arnold from what?	tc_943	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Roseanne.txt", "Roseanne_Barr.txt" ], "title": [ "Roseanne", "Roseanne Barr" ], "wiki_context": [ "Roseanne is an American sitcom that was broadcast on ABC from October 18, 1988, to May 20, 1997. Starring Roseanne Barr, the show revolved around the Conners, an Illinois working-class family. The series reached #1 in the Nielsen ratings becoming the most watched television show in the United States from 1989 to 1990, and remained in the top four for six of its nine seasons, and in the top twenty for eight seasons, TV Guide rated \"Roseanne\" as one of the greatest shows of all time.\n\nIn 1993, the episode \"A Stash from the Past\" was ranked #21 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time. In 2002, Roseanne was ranked #35 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2013, it was ranked #32 on TV Guide's 60 Best Series of All Time. \n\nBackground and development\n\nIn coming up with ideas for new shows, Marcy Carsey and Tom Werner of Carsey-Werner Productions decided to look into the concept of the working mother as a central voice. Up until that point, there had been shows with working mothers, but only as an adjunct to the father in the family. Werner had suggested that they take a chance on Barr whom they had seen on The Tonight Show. This was because he saw the unique \"in your face\" voice that they were looking for, and he contacted her agent and offered her the role. Barr's act at the time was the persona of the \"domestic goddess\", but as Carsey and Werner explains, she had the distinctive voice and attitude for the character and she was able to transform her into the working class heroine they envisioned. \n\nPremise\n\nThe show is centered on the Conners, an American working-class family struggling to get by on a limited household income in the fictional town of Lanford, Illinois. Lanford was nominally located in Fulton County, but other on-air references over the years suggest the town is in the vicinity of Aurora, Elgin, and DeKalb, which are much closer to Chicago. The family consisted of outspoken Roseanne, married to husband Dan, and their 3 children, Becky, Darlene, and DJ. Later in the series, Roseanne becomes pregnant again and giving birth to a boy named Jerry Garcia Conner.\n\nMany critics considered the show notable as one of the first sitcoms to portray a blue-collar American family with two parents working outside the home, as well as lead characters who were noticeably overweight without their weight being the target of jokes. \nRoseanne was successful from its beginning, ranking #1 in the Nielsen ratings its second season, becoming the most watched television program in the United States from 1989 to 1990, and spending its first six seasons among the Nielsen ratings' top five highest-rated shows; the finale attracted 16 million viewers.\n\nEstablishing shots were photographed in Evansville, Indiana, the hometown of first-season producer Matt Williams. Exterior shots of the Conner household were based on a real home located in Evansville, located at 619 Runnymede Ave, a few blocks from William's alma mater, University of Evansville.\n\nBarr's real-life brother and sister are gay, which inspired her to push for introducing gay characters and issues into the show and was part of the reason for her fallout with former executive producer Matt Williams, who protested making the character Nancy a lesbian. \"My show seeks to portray various slices of real life, and homosexuals are a reality,\" said Barr. \n\nCharacters\n\nLecy Goranson appeared in only four episodes of the fifth season, and Sarah Chalke took over the role a third of the way through the sixth season until the end of the show, with both actresses sharing the role in Season 8. Both actresses appeared together in one episode.\n\nSeason synopses\n\nStory arcs occasionally spanned several episodes or an entire season.\n\nSeason 1\n\nRoseanne (Roseanne Barr) is a line worker at Wellman Plastics, along with her sister Jackie (Laurie Metcalf) and friend Crystal (Natalie West). Jackie has a brief relationship with Booker (George Clooney), the foreman at Wellman. Dan (John Goodman) finds sporadic work as a construction contractor and faces a strained relationship with his irresponsible and womanizing father (Ned Beatty). Roseanne's parents, Beverly (Estelle Parsons) and Al (John Randolph), consider moving to Lanford, but eventually decide against it. Tomboy Darlene (Sara Gilbert) struggles with her femininity as she enters puberty and gets her first period. Becky (Lecy Goranson) faces dating problems with her first boyfriend Chip (Jared Rushton), who is introduced in the \"Lover's Lane\" episode. Season one also finds the Conners experiencing, and surviving, a tornado. In the \"Death and Stuff\" episode a door-to-door salesman dies in the Conners' kitchen, and in the season finale, Roseanne stands up to a new foreman (Fred Thompson), when she leads Jackie, Crystal, and other coworkers as they quit Wellman Plastics. DJ is played by Sal Barone in the pilot episode and by Michael Fishman for the remainder of the series. There is a running gag in this season where they use the word \"corn\" in every episode. \n\nOther notable guest stars during the season include Bill Sadler as Dwight, Dan's friend, Robert Harper as Chip's father, Andrea Walters as Chip's mother, and Tony Crane as \"The Tongue Bandit\", Becky's other boyfriend. Bill Pentland, Roseanne's first husband, made a cameo as one of Dan's friends in the \"Saturday\" episode.\n\nSeason 2\n\nNow that they've quit Wellman Plastics, Roseanne and Jackie must find new jobs. Jackie decides to become a police officer. Roseanne cycles through a variety of menial jobs including telemarketer, secretary for Dan's boss, bartender, cashier at a fast-food restaurant, and, finally, sweeping floors at a beauty parlor. At home, Dan's poker buddy Arnie (Tom Arnold) makes a startling debut when he plants a passionate kiss on Roseanne. The Conners celebrate an outrageous Halloween that becomes an annual feature of the series. Roseanne wants 10 minutes to herself in the bathroom; this turns into a bizarre dream sequence which has the entire cast singing parodies of songs from musical comedies. Later, at Thanksgiving dinner, Dan takes wary notice of a growing romance between his father and Crystal. Jackie gets serious with new boyfriend Gary (Brian Kerwin). Becky repeatedly rebels against Roseanne and Dan's parental authority such as staying out late and breaking into the liquor cabinet with her friend Dana and getting drunk when Dan and Roseanne are out of town for the day. The reappearance of old biker buddy Ziggy (Jay O. Sanders) reminds Roseanne and Dan of their own rebellious past. Darlene first proves her talent for writing when she wins recognition for her poetry. Roseanne's own writing talents are given a boost when her family fixes up a basement room to serve as a writer's den. This is the first season where we hear Roseanne thinking out loud. \n\nOther notable guest stars during the season include Stephen Dorff as Becky's boyfriend Jimmy, Jenny Lewis as Becky's friend Diane, Stephen Root as Roseanne's lawyer Peter, and Bert Parks as a judge. Ann Wedgeworth played Dan Conner's mother in the Thanksgiving episode.\n\nSeason 3\n\nThe season opens with the Conner women confronting the issue of pregnancy: Roseanne takes a pregnancy test that turns up negative. Roseanne takes on a job as waitress in the restaurant at Rodbell's Department Store, where she meets Leon (Martin Mull) and Bonnie (Bonnie Sheridan). Jackie gets injured on the job, which results in her breaking up with her boyfriend Gary. Becky begins dating Mark Healy (Glenn Quinn); when her parents forbid her to see him, she temporarily moves in with Jackie. Dan is floored to learn his father Ed and Crystal plan to marry; Crystal is pregnant with Ed's baby. Roseanne locks horns with snooty new neighbor Kathy (Meagen Fay). Nana Mary (Shelley Winters) makes her first appearance at a family barbecue. In the season finale, Ziggy reappears, proposing to open a motorcycle repair shop with Dan and Roseanne. While they are in the process of getting the business off the ground, Ziggy decides to leave because he doesn't want to feel responsible if the business fails. However, he leaves enough money for Dan to open it by himself. We never hear about him again. \n\nOther notable guest stars during the season include Dann Florek as Principal Hiller, Leonardo DiCaprio as Darlene's classmate, Brad Garrett as Doug, Judy Gold as Amy, Alyson Hannigan as Becky's friend Jan, and Tobey Maguire as Jeff.\n\nSeason 4\n\nThe opening credits of Season 4 change from Season 3 in that the show now stars \"Roseanne Arnold\" instead of \"Roseanne Barr\".\n\nThe season starts with Becky surprising Roseanne by asking for birth-control pills. Dan and Roseanne begin their new motorcycle repair shop business, Lanford Custom Cycle, while Roseanne continues to work at Rodbell's Department Store. Darlene meets David Healy (Johnny Galecki). (In his first appearance, the character was known as Kevin Healy.) After a brief stint working at a perfume counter, Jackie decides to become a truck driver. Nancy (Sandra Bernhard) is introduced as Arnie's fiancee. After a night of heavy drinking, Jackie discovers she slept with the newly engaged Arnie. Darlene undergoes a personality shift into a sullen goth teen. Booker makes a surprise appearance at a Halloween party. Roseanne's neighbor Kathy moves back to Chicago. Roseanne gets breast reduction surgery. Crystal gives birth to Dan's new half-brother, \"Little Ed.\" Roseanne and Dan accompany Arnie and Nancy to their wedding in Las Vegas. At the end of the season, Lanford Custom Cycle fails, and Rodbell's Luncheonette closes. Nancy is left alone after Arnie is \"abducted by aliens\". \n\nNotable guest stars during the season include Bob Hope as himself, Jena Malone as little girl on Santa's lap, Wayne Newton as himself, David Crosby as Duke, Bonnie Sheridan as Roseanne's coworker Bonnie, Neil Patrick Harris as Dr. Doogie Howser, and Rick Dees as Ken.\n\nSeason 5\n\nAfter the bike shop closes, Mark decides to move to Minnesota. Becky decides to go with him, and they elope. Jackie and Roseanne each get a check for $10,000 from their mother after she and their father divorce. They, along with Nancy, decide to open a diner but can only get the money they need after Bev agrees to become a partner as well. Nancy comes out as a lesbian. The Tildens, a single father and his two daughters around Becky and Darlene's ages (Wings Hauser, Mara Hobel, Danielle Harris), move in next door. Jackie dates Fisher (Matt Roth), a much younger man. When Roseanne discovers he is physically abusive, Dan confronts him, beats him up, and is arrested. Roseanne and Jackie's father dies, and Roseanne confronts his longtime secret mistress. Roseanne's rich, estranged cousin Ronnie (Joan Collins) visits and persuades Darlene to get her GED and apply to art school. David applies as well. Darlene asks her parents if David can move in, because his mother is moving away and they want to stay together. Roseanne and Dan initially refuse, but when Roseanne sees David's mother being verbally and emotionally abusive, she decides to let him stay because it reminded her of her own troubled childhood with her equally abusive father. Roger (Tim Curry) offers Dan a deal to renovate and sell a small fixer-upper house, then runs off before the deal is complete; Jackie decides to buy the house, saving Dan from financial ruin. David gets a rejection letter from art school, while Darlene gets an acceptance. At the end of the season, Roseanne fears Darlene will run away to school, although Darlene has already decided not to go. Realizing she was wrong, Roseanne persuades Darlene to not give up on her goals just to stay with David. \nDuring this season, there is a running gag in which each of the Conners (save Becky) appears in a different scene in the same long-sleeved, egg-printed shirt with a large chicken on the front.\n\nNotable guest stars during the season include Wings Hauser as Ty Tilden, Danielle Harris as Molly Tilden, Mara Hobel as Charlotte Tilden, Loretta Lynn as herself, Morgan Fairchild as Nancy's girlfriend Marla, Bill Maher as Bob, Ed Begley, Jr. as Principal Alexander, Blake Clark as Vic, Red Buttons as Bev's lover Jake, Sally Kirkland as Mark and David's mother Barbara, Tim Curry as Nancy's lover Roger, Joseph Gordon-Levitt as DJ's friend George, Joan Collins as Roseanne and Jackie's cousin Ronnie, Matt Roth as Jackie's boyfriend Fisher, Steve Jones as a threatening diner patron, and in a very brief cameo, Chris Farley as a customer trying on a too-small leather jacket.\n\nSeason 6\n\nUnder pressure from Roseanne to leave the Lanford Lunch Box, Bev sells her share in the restaurant to Leon to get back at them. David proposes marriage to Darlene, but she refuses. Dan and Roseanne discover an old stash of marijuana and smoke it in their bathroom. Roseanne's past as an abuse victim arises when she reacts violently to DJ after he joyrides and wrecks her car. Becky (now played by Sarah Chalke) and Mark return home and move into the Conners' house. Mark goes to trade school but drops out. Jackie gets pregnant as a result of a one-night stand and later develops a relationship with the baby's father, Fred (Michael O'Keefe). Roseanne and Dan discover David has secretly moved in with Darlene at school. Roseanne visits a gay bar with Nancy, where she receives a surprise kiss from Nancy's girlfriend. Jackie gives birth to a son, Andy. Dan confronts his mother's history of mental illness. The season concludes with Fred and Jackie's wedding. \n\nNotable guest stars during the season include Michael O'Keefe as Fred, the father of Jackie's baby; Sandra Bernhard as Nancy, Roseanne and Jackie's co-worker; Mariel Hemingway as Sharon, Nancy's girlfriend; Vicki Lawrence as Phyllis, Dan's old flame; Florence Henderson as Flo, a woman with whom Roseanne networks at a women's business club meeting; Genie Francis and Anthony Geary as General Hospitals Luke and Laura Spencer; Ahmet Zappa as Roy, Mark's roommate; and Fabio as himself.\n\nSeason 7\n\nThe opening credits of Season 7 change from previous seasons in that the show now stars \"Roseanne\" instead of \"Roseanne Arnold\".\nOn the September 21, 1994 Season 7 premier; In celebrating Roseanne's divorce and dropping her last name... All credits (Opening and closing) only included the cast and crew's first names only. This was the only time this ever occurred in an episode during its run.\n\nSeason seven begins with Roseanne's unexpected pregnancy and goes on to tackle such issues as abortion, alcoholism, drug abuse, sexual dysfunction, and racial prejudice. Darlene and David break up after briefly maintaining an open relationship. They both date other people, but eventually, they reunite. Due to tension in the household, Mark and Becky move into a trailer. DJ plays a bigger role this season, most notably in an episode wherein he refuses to kiss a black girl in his school play. Episode 19 is a special 45-minute show that recounts all the previous seasons with Roseanne being \"welcomed\" by other sitcom moms.\n\nNotable guest stars during the season include Sharon Stone as a trailer-park resident, Ellen DeGeneres as Jackie and Fred's psychologist, Danny Masterson as Darlene's boyfriend Jimmy, and Traci Lords as Lanford Lunch Box busperson Stacy. In the season finale, a tribute is made to Sherwood Schwartz. Uncredited appearances at the end of the episode have Gilligan's Island cast members playing Roseanne characters. These include Dawn Wells, Bob Denver, Tina Louise, and Russell Johnson, as well as Sherwood Schwartz. Also, Isabel Sanford, Alley Mills, Barbara Billingsley, June Lockhart, and Pat Crowley star as themselves.\n\nSeason 8\n\nSeason eight addresses Roseanne's baby shower and the subsequent arrival of her son, Jerry Garcia Conner. (In a continuity error, the baby had been revealed to be a girl in season seven. Roseanne explains: although originally the show baby was going to be a girl, she subsequently got pregnant in real life and, when they discovered it was going to be a boy, they changed the show baby to a boy.) The season starts when Dan decides to leave the security of his city job to help build the new prison being constructed outside of Lanford. With the pension, final check, and retirement money he receives for leaving his job he decides to give his family the vacation they never had and takes everyone, including Mark, David, and Roseanne's mother, along to Walt Disney World. It is later revealed that one of the nights the clan was at Disney was also the night Darlene got pregnant. Darlene quickly decides she and David want to have the baby. The season climaxes with a very rushed wedding for Darlene. Immediately after the ceremony, realizing how much has been changing, Dan suffers a heart attack. In the next episode it is revealed that he survives, as DJ saved his life. The season concludes with Dan and Roseanne having a bitter fight after Dan refuses to stick to his diet and exercise plan, rehashing many of the buried personality clashes of the entire series. They end up wrecking their living room in the process. The credits fade as Roseanne walks out on Dan. Other subjects are DJ's Thanksgiving pageant, Darlene's wedding, and Dan's heart attack. \n\nNotable guest stars during the season include Fred Willard as Leon's husband Scott, Ed McMahon as himself, John Popper (with Blues Traveler) as an old friend of Dan's, Pat Harrington, Jr. as himself, Jenna Elfman as hitchhiker Garland, Shecky Greene as Bar Mitzvah guest Uncle Saul, Norm Crosby as Reverend Crosley, June Lockhart as Leon's mother, the cast of Stomp as Lanford Lunch Box patrons, Eric Dane as a Disney World bellhop, and Tony Curtis as ballroom-dance instructor Hal.\n\nSeason 9\n\nThe opening credits of Season 9 still say the show stars \"Roseanne\", but the first episode said \"Roseanne Barr Pentland Arnold Thomas\".\n\nThe ninth and final season features many changes. In previous seasons, the original theme song was played on saxophone, accompanied by drums and other instruments. For this final season, the theme was re-recorded and performed by Blues Traveler with a distorted harmonica — one of the band's staples — playing in place of the saxophone. Lyrics were also added and sung into the theme by the band's lead vocalist John Popper. Episodes in this season exhibit a much more surreal style. Additionally, the 'daily struggle' theme of previous episodes is abandoned, and the season focuses primarily on bringing the characters full-circle emotionally.\n\nThe Conners win the state lottery jackpot of $108 million; Dan ponders the meaning of life, Jackie meets her prince, DJ finds love and Darlene, after some trouble, gives birth. John Goodman is absent for most of the season as he was busy filming The Big Lebowski; in later episodes, Goodman resembles his \"Lebowski\" character Walter Sobchak.\n\nIn the season's final episode, Roseanne reveals the entire series itself is actually a story written by Roseanne Conner about her life. To cope, Roseanne twisted major elements of her life for the story, which the audience does not discover until the final moments of the series. In reality, Dan's heart attack near the end of Season 8 was fatal and the Conner family did not win the lottery. Also, Jackie is a lesbian and Beverly is straight. Scott is a probate lawyer that Roseanne befriended, and set up with Leon—who she claims isn't very hip like she wrote him to be. Another difference is that Mark and Darlene were a couple all along, as were David and Becky, rather than the opposite (Becky with Mark and Darlene with David).\n\nNotable guest stars during the season include Edward Asner as Lou Grant, Dann Florek as Doctor Rudmen, Jim Varney as Jackie's boyfriend Prince Carlos, Tammy Faye Bakker as Roseanne's makeup consultant, Dina Merrill as Doris, Joanna Lumley as Patsy Stone, and Jennifer Saunders as Edina Monsoon (reprising their roles from Absolutely Fabulous), Arianna Huffington as Estree, Marlo Thomas as Tina, James Brolin as Roseanne's business partner/love interest Edgar Wellman, Jr., and Ann Wedgeworth and Debbie Reynolds as Dan's mother Audrey, as well as Rainer Hahn, Hugh Hefner, Milton Berle, Robin Leach, Todd Oldham, Moon Unit and Ahmet Zappa, Tony Robbins, Kathleen Sullivan, Steven Seagal, and Jerry Springer as themselves.\n\nSpinoff\n\nDuring the show's final season, Barr was in negotiations with Carsey-Werner Productions and ABC executives to continue playing Roseanne Conner in a spinoff. However, ABC withdrew from negotiations with Carsey-Werner and Barr after failed discussions with CBS and Fox. Barr and Carsey-Werner agreed to discontinue the negotiations. \n\nIn the fall of 2008, Barr commented on what the current whereabouts of the Conners would be. \"I've always said now that if they were on TV, DJ would have been killed in Iraq and [the Conners] would have lost their house\". When asked for more details on where the rest of the Conners (Dan, Jackie, Becky, Darlene, David, and Mark) would be, Barr responded: \"Your question is intellectual property that may be developed later, so I don't want to get into that\". She added, \"No preview, absolutely not\". On December 20, 2009, Barr posted an entry on her website regarding what a possible Roseanne reunion would be like, which includes: DJ's being published, Mark's dying in Iraq; David's leaving Darlene for a woman half his age, Darlene coming out of the closet and meeting a woman and having a test tube baby with her, Becky's working at Walmart, Roseanne and Jackie's opening the first medical marijuana dispensary in Lanford, Arnie's becoming the best friend of the Governor of Illinois and remarrying Nancy, Bev's selling a painting for $10,000, Jerry and the grandsons forming a music group similar to the Jonas Brothers, Dan's reappearing alive after faking his death, and Bonnie's being arrested for selling crack. \n\nRatings\n\nRoseanne consistently ranked in the Top 20 of the Nielsen for eight of its nine seasons. The series reached #1 in its second season, becoming the most watched television show in the United States, narrowly beating out The Cosby Show. \n \nThe following table lists the ranking for each season.\n\nSyndication\n\nRoseanne was put into off-network syndication beginning in September 1992.\n\nTBS aired reruns of Roseanne from 1996 through 2004. Cable channel Nick at Nite aired reruns of the show from the fall of 2003 until 2009; it has since moved to TV Land's TV Land Prime schedule. Oxygen has aired reruns since 2005. The show returned to Nick@Nite's lineup on October 5, 2009, replacing Family Matters and The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air in its late night timeslot. As of January 2010, Nick at Nite has once again taken Roseanne from its time slot. In Australia, the show is seen on the channel 111 Hits, and Eleven.\n\nWE tv and CMT both began airing the series in September 2012. The show also airs on Logo TV. A collection of 50 episodes from seasons 6 and 7 are currently available through Netflix in the U.S.\n\nBroadcast history\n\nTuesday at 8:30-9:00 PM on ABC: October 18, 1988—February 21, 1989\nTuesday at 9:00-9:30 PM on ABC: February 28, 1989—May 24, 1994 (Most frequent time slot)\nWednesday at 9:00-9:30 PM on ABC: September 21, 1994—March 29, 1995\nWednesday at 8:00-8:30 PM on ABC: May 3, 1995—May 24, 1995\nTuesday at 8:00-8:30 PM on ABC: September 19, 1995—May 20, 1997\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nIn 1993, Roseanne Barr and Laurie Metcalf both won Emmy Awards for their performances in the series, Barr for Outstanding Lead Actress and Metcalf for Outstanding Supporting Actress. Metcalf also won in 1992 and 1994. In 1993, Roseanne Barr and John Goodman both won Golden Globe Awards, Barr for Best Actress and Goodman for Best Actor. The series won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy.\n\nThe series won a Peabody Award in 1992 and a People's Choice Award for Favorite New Television Comedy Program in 1989. Barr won five additional People's Choice Awards for Favorite Female Performer in a New TV Program (1989), Favorite Female All Around Entertainer (1990), and Favorite Female TV Performer (1990, 1994, and 1995).\n\nIn 2008, the entire cast (except for Metcalf) reunited at the TV Land Awards to receive the Innovator Award. In their acceptance speech, they honored the late cast member Glenn Quinn.\n\nPeabody Award \n\n 1992 Excellence in Television Broadcasting (won)\n\nEmmy Awards\n\n* 1989 Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1990 Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1991 Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1992 Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1992 Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1992 Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (Laurie Metcalf, won)\n* 1993 Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1993 Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1993 Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (Sara Gilbert)\n* 1993 Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (Laurie Metcalf, won)\n* 1994 Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1994 Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1994 Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (Sara Gilbert)\n* 1994 Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (Laurie Metcalf, won)\n* 1995 Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1995 Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1995 Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (Laurie Metcalf)\n\nThe show also received several nominations in Editing, Art Direction, Music, Lighting Direction, Writing and Hairstyling.\n\nGolden Globe Awards\n\n* 1989 Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy\n* 1989 Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (John Goodman)\n* 1989 Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1990 Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (John Goodman)\n* 1991 Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (John Goodman)\n* 1991 Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1992 Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1993 Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy (won)\n* 1993 Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (John Goodman, won)\n* 1993 Best Actress Television Series – Musical or Comedy (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1993 Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television (Laurie Metcalf)\n* 1994 Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy\n* 1994 Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1995 Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television (Laurie Metcalf)\n\nScreen Actors Guild Awards\n\n* 1994 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series (John Goodman)\n* 1994 Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series (Roseanne Barr)\n\nPeople's Choice Awards\n\n* 1989 Favorite New Television Comedy Program (won)\n* 1989 Favorite Female Performer in a New TV Program (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1990 Favorite All-Around Female Entertainer (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1990 Favorite Female TV Performer (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1994 Favorite Female TV Performer (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1995 Favorite Female TV Performer (Roseanne Barr, won)\n\nTV Land Award\n\n* 2008 Innovator Award (won)\n\nAmerican Comedy Awards\n\n* 1989 Funniest Male Leading Performer in a Television Series (John Goodman, won)\n* 1989 Funniest Female Leading Performer in a Television Series (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1990 Funniest Male Leading Performer in a Television Series (John Goodman, won)\n* 1993 Funniest Female Leading Performer in a Television Series (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1996 Funniest Female Leading Performer in a Television Series (Roseanne Barr)\n\nNickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards\n\n* 1992 Favorite Television Actress (Roseanne Barr, won)\n* 1995 Favorite Television Actress (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1996 Favorite Television Actress (Roseanne Barr)\n* 1997 Favorite Television Actress (Roseanne Barr)\n\nHome releases\n\nAnchor Bay Entertainment (quietly named Starz Home Entertainment resulting in some DVD packaging bearing this name) released all nine seasons on DVD in Region 1 (2005–2007) and Region 2. The first season was issued with shorter, syndicated versions of the episodes because Anchor Bay was unable to obtain permission to release the original broadcasts. In the company's eighth and ninth season DVDs, some scenes have been altered to avoid disputes over music rights, including substituting some closing credit scenes with a black screen. As of 2010, the Region 1 releases have been discontinued and are out of print.\n\nOn May 4, 2011, Mill Creek Entertainment announced that they had acquired the rights to re-release the series uncut on DVD in Region 1. They have subsequently re-released all nine seasons and a complete series set. \n\nIn Germany, Universum Film has released the entire series on DVD, and released a complete series box set on July 3, 2009. Unlike the Anchor Bay releases, these were fully unedited.\n\nIn Australia and New Zealand, Magna Pacific has released all nine seasons on DVD in Region 4. Unlike the Anchor Bay releases, Magna Pacific's first season DVDs include the full-length original broadcast episodes.", "Roseanne Cherrie Barr (born November 3, 1952) is an American actress, comedian, writer, television producer, director, and 2012 presidential nominee of the California-based Peace and Freedom Party. Barr began her career in stand-up comedy at clubs before gaining fame for her role in the classic sitcom Roseanne. The show was a hit and lasted nine seasons, from 1988 to 1997. She won both an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for her work on the show. Barr had crafted a \"fierce working-class domestic goddess\" persona in the eight years preceding her sitcom and wanted to do a realistic show about a strong mother who was not a victim of patriarchal consumerism.Barr, R. (May 15, 2011) [http://nymag.com/print/?/arts/tv/upfronts/2011/roseanne-barr-2011-5/ \"And I Should Know\"] New York Magazine\n\nThe granddaughter of immigrants from Europe and Russia, Barr was the oldest of four children in a working-class Jewish Salt Lake City family; she was also active in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). In 1974, she married Bill Pentland, with whom she had three children, before divorcing in 1990 and marrying comedian Tom Arnold for four years. Controversy arose when she sang \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" off-key at a 1990 nationally aired baseball game, followed by grabbing her crotch and spitting.\n\nAfter her sitcom ended, she launched her own talk show, The Roseanne Show, which aired from 1998 to 2000. In 2005, she returned to stand-up comedy with a world tour. In 2011, she starred in an unscripted TV show, Roseanne's Nuts, that lasted from July to September of that year, about her life on a Hawaiian farm.\n\nIn early 2012, Barr announced her candidacy for the presidential nomination of the Green Party. Barr lost the nomination to Jill Stein. She then sought the presidential nomination of the Peace and Freedom Party, which she won on August 4, 2012. Barr received 61,971 votes in the general election, placing sixth overall. \n\nEarly life\n\nBarr was born in Salt Lake City, to a working-class Jewish family. She is the oldest of four children born to Helen (née Davis), a bookkeeper and cashier, and Jerome Hershel \"Jerry\" Barr, who worked as a salesman. Her father's family were Jewish immigrants from Russia, and her maternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary and Lithuania, respectively. Her paternal grandfather changed his surname from \"Borisofsky\" to \"Barr\" upon entering the United States.\n\nHer Jewish upbringing was influenced by her devoutly Orthodox Jewish maternal grandmother. Barr's parents kept their Jewish heritage secret from their neighbors and were partially involved in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Barr has stated, \"Friday, Saturday, and Sunday morning I was a Jew; Sunday afternoon, Tuesday afternoon, and Wednesday afternoon we were Mormons\". When Barr was three years old, she got Bell's palsy on the left side of her face. Barr said, \"[so] my mother called in a rabbi to pray for me, but nothing happened. Then my mother got a Mormon preacher, he prayed, and I was miraculously cured\". Years later Barr learned that Bell's palsy was usually temporary and that the Mormon preacher came \"exactly at the right time\". At six years old, Barr discovered her first public stage by lecturing at LDS churches around Utah and even was elected president of a Mormon youth group.\n\nAt 16, Barr was hit by a car that left her with a traumatic brain injury. Her behavior changed so radically that she was institutionalized for eight months at Utah State Hospital. In 1970, when Barr was 18 years old, she moved out by informing her parents she was going to visit a friend in Colorado for two weeks, but never returned.\n\nCareer\n\nStand-up comedian: 1980–1986\n\nWhile in Colorado, Barr did stand-up gigs in clubs in Denver and other Colorado towns. She later tried out at The Comedy Store in Los Angeles and went on to appear on The Tonight Show in 1985. In 1986, she performed on Late Night with David Letterman and the following year had her own HBO special called The Roseanne Barr Show, which earned her an American Comedy Award for the funniest female performer in a television special. Barr was offered the role of Peg Bundy in Married... with Children but turned it down. In her routine she popularized the phrase, \"domestic goddess,\" to refer to a homemaker or housewife. The success of her act led to her own series on ABC, called Roseanne.\n\nRoseanne sitcom, film, books, and talk show: 1987–2004\n\nIn 1987, The Cosby Show executive producers Marcy Carsey and Tom Werner wanted to bring a \"no-perks family comedy\" to television. They hired Cosby writer Matt Williams to write a script about factory workers and signed Barr to play Roseanne Conner. The show premiered on October 18, 1988 and was watched by 21.4 million households, making it the highest-rated debut of that season. \n\nBarr became outraged when she watched the first episode of Roseanne and noticed that in the credits, Williams was listed as creator. She told Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly, \"We built the show around my actual life and my kids. The 'domestic goddess', the whole thing\". In the same interview, Werner said, \"I don't think Roseanne, to this day, understands that this is something legislated by the Writers Guild, and it's part of what every show has to deal with. They're the final arbiters.\" During the first season, Barr sought more creative control over the show, opposing Williams' authority. Barr refused to say certain lines and eventually walked off set. She threatened to quit the show if Williams did not leave. ABC let Williams go after the thirteenth episode.\n\nRoseanne ran for nine seasons from 1988 to 1997. Barr won an Emmy, a Golden Globe, a Kids Choice Award, and three American Comedy Awards for her part in the show. For the final two seasons, Barr earned $40 million, making her the second-highest-paid woman in show business at the time, after Oprah Winfrey. \n\nBarbara Ehrenreich called Barr a working-class spokesperson representing \"the hopeless underclass of the female sex: polyester-clad, overweight occupants of the slow track; fast-food waitresses, factory workers, housewives, members of the invisible pink-collar army; the despised, the jilted, the underpaid,\" but a master of \"the kind of class-militant populism that the Democrats, most of them anyway, never seem to get right.\" Barr refuses to use the term \"blue collar\" because it masks the issue of class. \n\nDuring Roseannes final season, Barr was in negotiations between Carsey-Werner Productions and ABC executives to continue playing Roseanne Conner in a spin-off. However, after failed discussions with ABC, and later CBS and Fox, Carsey-Werner and Barr agreed not to go on with the negotiations. \n\nBarr gave Amy Sherman-Palladino and Joss Whedon their first writing jobs on Roseanne. She released her autobiography in 1989, titled Roseanne—My Life As a Woman. That same year, she made her film debut in She-Devil, playing Ruth. Film critic Roger Ebert gave her a positive review saying, \"Barr could have made an easy, predictable and dumb comedy at any point in the last couple of years. Instead, she took her chances with an ambitious project – a real movie. It pays off, in that Barr demonstrates that there is a core of reality inside her TV persona, a core of identifiable human feelings like jealousy and pride, and they provide a sound foundation for her comic acting\". \n\nIn 1991, she voiced the baby, Julie, in Look Who's Talking Too. She was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress. She appeared three times on Saturday Night Live from 1991 to 1994, co-hosting with then-husband Tom Arnold in 1992. In 1994, she released a second book, My Lives. That same year, Barr became the first female comedian to host the MTV Video Music Awards on her own. She remained the only to have done so until comedian Chelsea Handler hosted in 2010. In 1997, she made guest appearances on 3rd Rock from the Sun and The Nanny.\n\nIn 1998, she portrayed the Wicked Witch of the West in a production of The Wizard of Oz at Madison Square Garden. That same year, Barr hosted her own talk show, The Roseanne Show, which ran for two years before it was canceled in 2000. In the summer of 2003, she took on the dual role of hosting a cooking show called Domestic Goddess and starring in a reality show called The Real Roseanne Show about hosting a cooking show. Although 13 episodes were in production, a hysterectomy brought a premature end to both projects. In 2004, she voiced Maggie, one of the main characters in the animated film Home on the Range.\n\nReturn to stand-up, television guest appearances, and radio: 2005–2010\n\nIn 2005, she returned to stand-up comedy with a world tour. In February 2006, Barr performed her first-ever live dates in Europe as part of the Leicester Comedy Festival in Leicester, England. The shows took place at De Montfort Hall. She released her first children's DVD, Rockin' with Roseanne: Calling All Kids, that month. Roseanne's return to the stage culminated in an HBO Comedy Special Roseanne Barr: Blonde N Bitchin, which aired November 4, 2006, on HBO. Two nights earlier, Roseanne had returned to primetime network TV with a guest spot on NBC's My Name Is Earl, playing a crazy trailer park manager. In April 2007, Barr hosted season three of The Search for the Funniest Mom in America on Nick at Nite. \n\nIn March 2008, she headlined an act at the Sahara Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. From 2009 to 2010, she hosted a politically themed radio show on KPFK. Since 2008, she and partner Johnny Argent have hosted a weekly radio show on Sundays, on KCAA in the Los Angeles area, called \"The Roseanne and Johnny Show\". On March 23, 2009 it was announced that Barr would be returning to primetime with a new sitcom, wherein she would once again play the matriarch. Jim Vallely of Arrested Development had been tapped to pen the series. She later stated on her website that the project had been canceled.\n\nOn April 15, 2009, Barr made an appearance on Bravo's 2nd Annual A-List Awards in the opening scenes. She played Kathy Griffin's fairy godmother, granting her wish to be on the A-List for one night only. Barr headlined the inaugural Traverse City Comedy Arts Festival in February 2010, a project of the Traverse City Film Festival, founded by filmmaker Michael Moore. Moore developed the comedy fest with comedian Jeff Garlin. In 2010, Barr appeared in Jordan Brady's documentary about stand-up comedy, I Am Comic.\n\nReality television, third book, sitcom pilot, politics and Comedy Central Roast: 2011–present\n\nBarr released her third book, Roseannearchy: Dispatches from the Nut Farm, in January 2011. She appeared in 2011 on a Super Bowl XLV commercial for Snickers along with comedian Richard Lewis. It was the most popular ad based on the number of TiVo users rewinding and watching it over. Roseanne's Nuts, a reality show featuring Barr, boyfriend Johnny Argent, and son Jake as they run a macadamia nut and livestock farm in Big Island, Hawaii was broadcast by Lifetime Television in July 2011, and cancelled in September of that year. \n\nIn August 2011, it was reported that Barr was working on a new sitcom with 20th Century Fox Television tentatively titled Downwardly Mobile. Steven Greener, who also executive produced her reality show Roseanne's Nuts, will also executive produce the sitcom. Eric Gilliland is attached as co-creator, writer and executive producer; Gilliland was also a writer on Barr's previous sitcom Roseanne. The show will be set in a mobile home community and use a multiple-camera setup. In October 2011, NBC picked up the show. A pilot was filmed but initially ended up being shelved by the network. Barr blames her \"Progressive politics\" as being the sole reason behind the pilot's rejection. Barr states that she was notified that the show would not be picked up due to its being labeled \"too polarizing\" by network executives. In an interview with Politicker, Barr revealed that the show had been axed only to announce three hours later that she had just received a phone call saying that NBC had not given up on the project completely. The show could end up as an NBC midseason replacement. Barr hopes she's given the opportunity to retool the show. \n\nBarr was \"roasted\" by Comedy Central in August 2012. Barr's former spouse, Tom Arnold, had claimed that he would not be appearing, but he ended up doing so. \n\nIn the summer of 2014 Barr joined Keenen Ivory Wayans and Russell Peters as a judge on Last Comic Standing on NBC.\n\nOn November 28, 2014, Barr's series, Momsters: When Moms Go Bad debuted on the Investigation Discovery cable network, a network that she says she's a 'little obsessed with.' Barr hosts the show as herself.\n\nControversy\n\nNational Anthem\n\nOn July 25, 1990, Barr performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before a baseball game between the San Diego Padres and Cincinnati Reds at Jack Murphy Stadium. As she later claimed, she was initially having trouble hearing herself over the public-address system, so she was singing as loudly as possible, and her rendition of the song sounded \"screechy\". Following her rendition, she mimicked the often-seen actions of players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. Barr claimed she had been encouraged by baseball officials to \"bring humor to the song\". The song and the closing routine received heavy media attention and offended many, including President George H. W. Bush, who called her rendition \"disgraceful.\" Barr would revisit this incident during her Comedy Central Roast in 2012, wherein she once again belted out the last few bars of the national anthem, without screeching. \n\nZimmerman tweet \n\nIn 2014, the parents of George Zimmerman, a neighborhood watch coordinator who is known for fatally shooting Trayvon Martin but was later acquitted of second degree murder and manslaughter, filed a lawsuit against Barr for tweeting their home address and phone number on March 29, 2012. Barr allegedly tweeted \"At first I thought it was good to let ppl know that no one can hide anymore ... If Zimmerman isn't arrested I'll rt his address again- maybe go 2 his house myself.\" Zimmerman's parents allege that Barr sought to \"cause a lynch mob to descend\" on their home. The Seminole County Circuit Court complaint sought more than $15,000 for emotional distress and invasion of privacy. In August 2015, summary judgment was granted in favor of Barr. \n\n2012 Presidential campaign\n\nOn August 5, 2011, Barr appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and announced her candidacy for president in the 2012 presidential election, running on the \"Green Tea Party\" ticket. Her candidacy mixed attention to economics, personal health and meditation. \nShe also said that she is running for Prime Minister of Israel. In an interview with The Jewish Daily Forward she invoked tikkun olam in her support of bringing women into politics and religion. On September 19, 2011, she appeared at the Occupy Wall Street protests and spoke in support of the protestors. She further stated that any \"guilty\" Wall Street bankers should be forced to give up any income over $100 million, be sent to re-education camps, or be executed by beheading if they resisted. Barr filed with the Federal Election Commission as a Green Party presidential candidate in January 2012. She formally announced her candidacy for the party's 2012 presidential nomination on February 2, 2012. \n\nOn July 14, 2012, Barr came in second, losing the nomination to Jill Stein. Stein chose Cheri Honkala as her running-mate despite suggestions that she could choose Barr. Barr was given a prime speaking role at the Green Party National Convention in Baltimore, Maryland, but decided to instead send a surrogate (Farheen Hakeem) to speak on her behalf. Barr's surrogate reportedly chided the Party for not respecting Barr's candidacy. A shouting match in a hallway reportedly ensued. Barr repeatedly criticized Jill Stein after losing the Green Party nomination, and caused controversy by using alleged transphobic words in statements about Stein on Twitter. \n\nShortly after losing the Green Party nomination, Barr [http://www.peaceandfreedom2012.org/posts/category/barr announced] she would run on the Peace and Freedom Party ticket with activist Cindy Sheehan as a running mate. On August 4, 2012, Barr won the 2012 presidential nomination of the Peace and Freedom Party. Barr's running mate, Cindy Sheehan, immediately had disagreements with Barr, from Barr's views on policy, to Barr's desire to only campaign online, and Barr's treatment of Green Party nominee Jill Stein, leading Sheehan to request her name taken off the Peace and Freedom Party ticket. Sheehan was told it was too late to have her name removed, so she instead announced that she was simply leaving the campaign. \n\nBarr finished her campaign with nearly 50,000 votes nationwide, placing sixth overall with considerably less than 0.1% of the popular vote; Stein placed far ahead of her in fourth place with roughly 0.3% of the popular vote and 469,501 votes. Barr was followed by a film crew throughout her entire campaign, with documentarian Eric Weinrib directing, leading to questions about the sincerity of her campaign. Over 300 hours were filmed and were released as a film called Roseanne for President!. Despite questions of her sincerity regarding her campaign, Barr and her family have insisted her desire to run for President was \"very real.\" \n\nEndorsements\n\nGreen Party Black Caucus\nNational Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws\nCynthia McKinney, 2008 Green Party nominee \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1970, when she was 17, Barr had a child whom she placed for adoption; they were later reunited. On February 4, 1974, Barr married Bill Pentland, a motel clerk she met while in Colorado. They had three children: Jessica, Jennifer, and Jake. Pentland and Barr divorced on January 16, 1990. Four days later, on January 20, 1990, Barr married fellow comedian Tom Arnold and became known as Roseanne Arnold during the marriage. Barr had met Arnold in 1983 in Minneapolis, where he opened for her stand-up comedy act. In 1988, Barr brought Arnold onto her sitcom, Roseanne, as a writer. \n\nBarr has a lesbian sister, Geraldine Barr, and a gay brother, Ben Barr, both of whom inspired her to introduce gay characters into her sitcom. Barr has stated that she supports gay marriage. Geraldine was also Barr's manager while performing in comedy clubs and at the start of her sitcom. Geraldine claimed that Arnold tried to dominate Barr \"for his own reasons\". After being fired by Roseanne, Geraldine filed a $70.3 million breach of contract lawsuit in Superior Court of Los Angeles County on December 18, 1991. She said Barr promised her half the earnings from the Roseanne show for helping invent the \"domestic goddess\" character in 1981, serving as \"writer, organizer, accountant, bookkeeper and confidante\". Since it was six months past the statute of limitations, the suit was thrown out.\n\nIn a 1991 interview with People, Barr described herself as an \"incest survivor\", accusing both of her parents of physical and sexual abuse, claims which they and Geraldine publicly denied. Melvin Belli, her parents' lawyer, said that they had passed a lie detector test \"with flying colors\". Barr was even part of an incest recovery group, something she said her parents knew about but for which they were \"in denial\". On February 14, 2011, Barr and Geraldine appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show where Barr admitted that the word \"incest\" could have been the wrong word to use and should have waited until her therapy was over before revealing the \"darkest time\" in her life. She told Oprah, \"I was in a very unhappy relationship and I was prescribed numerous psychiatric drugs... to deal with the fact that I had some mental illness... I totally lost touch with reality... (and) I didn’t know what the truth was... I just wanted to drop a bomb on my family\". She added that not everything was \"made up\", saying, \"Nobody accuses their parents of abusing them without justification\". Geraldine said they did not speak for 12 years, but had recently reconciled.\n\nBarr filed for divorce from Tom Arnold on April 18, 1994 in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County, citing irreconcilable differences. Their efforts to have children were unsuccessful. On February 14, 1995, Barr married Ben Thomas, her one-time personal security guard, at Caesars Tahoe with a reception at Planet Hollywood. In November 1994, she became pregnant through in-vitro fertilization and they had a son named Buck. The couple stayed together until 2002. \n\nIn the mid-1990s, Barr had multiple cosmetic surgeries performed, such as a breast reduction, tummy tuck, and a nose job. During the late 1990s she had gastric bypass surgery.\n\nIn 2002, Barr met Johnny Argent online after running a writing competition on her blog and began dating him in 2003, after a year of phone conversations. They live on a 46-acre macadamia nut farm located on the Big Island of Hawaii. Barr purchased the property in 2007 for $1.78 million. Barr has studied Kabbalah at the Kabbalah Centre and frequently comments on the discipline.\n\nIn 2015, Barr revealed she has been diagnosed with both macular degeneration and glaucoma, and thus is gradually losing her eyesight and expects to eventually go blind; she is consuming medical marijuana to fight the raised intraocular pressure that is a feature of these diseases. \n\nFilmography \n\nFilm\n\nTelevision (Acting)\n\nTelevision (Hosting/Reality)\n\nAwards\n\nRoseanne Barr has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on the north side of the 6700 block of Hollywood Blvd. \n\nBibliography\n\n\n\n" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Barr", "Barr (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "barr disambiguation", "barr" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "barr", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Barr" }
Which hotel sitcom was based on the British series Fawlty Towers?	tc_944	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Fawlty_Towers.txt" ], "title": [ "Fawlty Towers" ], "wiki_context": [ "Fawlty Towers is a BBC television sitcom that was first broadcast on BBC2 in 1975 and 1979. 12 episodes were made (two series, each of six episodes). The show was written by John Cleese and Connie Booth, who both also starred in the show; they were married at the time of series 1 but divorced before recording series 2.\n\nThe series is set in Fawlty Towers, a fictional hotel in the seaside town of Torquay, on the \"English Riviera\". The plots centre on tense, rude and put-upon owner Basil Fawlty (Cleese), his bossy wife Sybil (Prunella Scales), comparatively normal chambermaid Polly (Booth), and hapless Spanish waiter Manuel (Andrew Sachs), showing their attempts to run the hotel amidst farcical situations and an array of demanding and eccentric guests.\n\nIn a list drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted by industry professionals, Fawlty Towers was named the best British television series of all time.\n\nOrigins\n\nIn May 1970 the Monty Python team stayed at the Gleneagles Hotel (which is referred to in \"The Builders\" episode) in Torquay whilst filming on location. John Cleese became fascinated with the behaviour of the owner, Donald Sinclair, whom Cleese later described as \"the rudest man I've ever come across in my life.\" This behaviour included Sinclair throwing a timetable at a guest who asked when the next bus to town would arrive; and placing Eric Idle's briefcase (put to one side by Idle while waiting for a car with Cleese) behind a wall in the garden on the suspicion that it contained a bomb (Sinclair explained his actions by claiming the hotel had 'staff problems'). He also criticised the American-born Terry Gilliam's table manners for not being \"British\" (that is, he switched hands with his fork whilst eating). Cleese and Booth stayed on at the hotel after filming, furthering their research of the hotel owner. Cleese later played a hotel owner called Donald Sinclair in the 2001 movie Rat Race.\n\nAt the time, Cleese was a writer on the 1970s British TV sitcom Doctor in the House for London Weekend Television. An early prototype of the character that became known as Basil Fawlty was developed in an episode (\"No Ill Feeling\") of the third Doctor series (titled Doctor at Large). In this edition, the main character checks into a small town hotel, his very presence seemingly winding up the aggressive and incompetent manager (played by Timothy Bateson) with a domineering wife. The show was broadcast on 30 May 1971. Cleese parodied the contrast between organisational dogma and sensitive customer service in many personnel training videotapes issued with a serious purpose by his company, Video Arts.\n\nCleese said in 2008 that the first Fawlty Towers script, written with then-wife Connie Booth, was rejected by the BBC. At a 30th-anniversary event honouring the show, Cleese said,\n\nCleese was paid £6,000 for 43 weeks' work and supplemented his income by appearing in television advertisements.[http://www.newsvine.com/_news/2009/05/06/2782020-john-cleese-recalls-golden-age-of-fawlty-towers \"John Cleese recalls golden age of 'Fawlty Towers'\"] Newsvine / Newsvine, 6 May 2009\n\nBill Cotton, the BBC's Head of Light Entertainment in the mid-1970s, said after the first series was produced that the show was a prime example of the BBC's relaxed attitude to trying new entertainment formats and encouraging new ideas. He said that when he read the first scripts he could see nothing funny in them but trusting that Cleese knew what he was doing, he gave the go-ahead. He said that the commercial channels, with their emphasis on audience ratings, would never have let the programme get to the production stage on the basis of the scripts.\n\nProduction\n\nAlthough the series is set in Torquay in Devon, no part of it was shot in south west England. For the exterior filming, the Wooburn Grange Country Club in Buckinghamshire was used instead of a hotel. In several episodes of the series (notably \"The Kipper and the Corpse\", \"The Anniversary\" and \"Basil the Rat\") the entrance gate at the bottom of the drive states the real name of the location. This listed building later served as a nightclub named \"Basil's\" for a short time after the series ended before being destroyed by a fire in March 1991. The remnants of the building were demolished and a housing estate was built on the site. Other location filming was done mostly around Harrow, notably the 'damn good thrashing' scene in \"Gourmet Night\" where Basil loses his temper and attacks his car with a tree branch which was filmed at the T-junction of Lapstone Gardens and Mentmore Close ().\n\nIn the episode \"The Germans\", the opening shot is of Northwick Park Hospital. In the episode \"Gourmet Night\", the exterior of Andre's restaurant was filmed on Preston Road in the Harrow area (). The launderette next door to the restaurant still exists today and Andre's is now a Chinese and Indian restaurant called \"Wings\".\n\nCleese and Booth were husband and wife at the time of the first series. By the second, they had been divorced for almost a year, having ended their ten-year marriage in 1978. \n\nBoth Cleese and Booth were keen on every script being perfect, and some episodes took four months and required ten drafts until they were satisfied.\n\nThe first series was produced and directed by John Howard Davies; the second was produced by Douglas Argent and directed by Bob Spiers.\n\nThe series theme music was written by Dennis Wilson and was inspired by Ludwig van Beethoven's Minuet in G major.\n\nPlot directions and examples\n\nThe series focuses on the exploits and misadventures of short-fused hotelier Basil Fawlty and his wife Sybil, as well as their employees, porter and waiter Manuel, maid Polly, and (in the second series) chef Terry. The episodes typically revolve around Basil's efforts to succeed in 'raising the tone' of his hotel and his increasing frustration at the numerous complications and mistakes, both his own and those of others, which prevent him from doing so. Much of the humour comes from Basil's overly aggressive manner, engaging in angry but witty arguments with guests, staff and in particular his formidable wife, whom he addresses (in a faux-romantic way) with insults such as \"that golfing puff adder\", \"my little piranha fish\" and \"my little nest of vipers\". Despite this, he frequently feels intimidated, she being able to stop him in his tracks at any time, usually with a short, sharp cry of \"Basil!\" At the end of some episodes, Basil succeeds in annoying (or at least bemusing) the guests and frequently gets his comeuppance.\n\nThe plots are occasionally intricate and always farcical, involving coincidences, misunderstandings, cross-purposes and meetings both missed and accidental. The innuendo of the bedroom farce is sometimes present (often to the disgust of the socially conservative Basil) but it is his eccentricity, not his lust, that drives the plots. The events test what little patience Basil has to the breaking point, sometimes causing him to have a near total breakdown by the end of the episode.\n\nThe guests at the hotel are typically comic foils to Basil's anger and outbursts. Each episode's one-shot guest characters provide a different characteristic that he cannot stand (including promiscuity, or being working class or foreign). Requests both reasonable and impossible test his temper. Even the afflicted seem to annoy him, with the episode \"Communication Problems\" revolving around the havoc caused by the frequent misunderstandings between the staff and the hard-of-hearing Mrs Richards. By the end, Basil faints just at the mention of her name. This episode is typical of the show's careful weaving of humorous situations through comedy cross-talk. The show also uses mild black humour at times, notably when Basil is forced to hide a dead body and in Basil's comments about Sybil (\"Did you ever see that film, How to Murder Your Wife? ... Awfully good. I saw it six times.\") and to the guests (\"May I suggest that you consider moving to a hotel closer to the sea? Or preferably in it.\").\n\nBasil's physical outbursts are primarily directed at the waiter Manuel, an emotional but largely innocent Spaniard whose confused English vocabulary causes him to make elementary mistakes. At times, Basil beats Manuel with a frying pan and smacks his forehead with a spoon. (The violence towards Manuel caused rare negative criticism of the show.) Sybil, on the other hand, is always condescending towards Manuel, excusing his behaviour to guests with \"He's from Barcelona.\"\n\nBasil often displays blatant snobbishness in order to climb the social ladder, frequently expressing disdain for the \"riff-raff\", \"cretins\" and \"yobbos\" that he believes to regularly populate his hotel. His desperation is readily apparent, as he makes increasingly hopeless manoeuvres and painful faux pas in trying to curry favour with those he perceives having superior social status. Yet, he finds himself forced to serve those individuals that are \"beneath\" him. As such, Basil's efforts tend to be counter-productive, with guests leaving the hotel in disgust and his marriage (and sanity) stretching to breaking point.\n\nCharacters\n\nBasil Fawlty\n\nBasil Fawlty, played by John Cleese, is a cynical and snobbish misanthrope who is desperate to belong to a higher social class. He sees a successful hotel as a means of achieving this (\"turn it into an establishment of class...\") yet his job forces him to be polite to people he hates.\n\nHe is intimidated by his wife Sybil Fawlty. He yearns to stand up to her, but his plans frequently conflict with her demands. She is often verbally abusive (memorably describing him as \"an ageing, brilliantined stick insect\") but although he towers over her, he often finds himself on the receiving end of her temper, verbally and physically (as in \"The Builders\").\n\nBasil usually turns to Manuel or Polly to help him with his schemes, while trying his best to keep Sybil from discovering them. However, Basil occasionally laments the time when there was passion in their relationship, now seemingly lost. Also, it appears that he still does care for her, and actively resists the flirtations of a French guest in one episode. The penultimate episode, \"The Anniversary\", is about his efforts to put together a surprise anniversary party, involving their closest friends. Things go wrong as Basil pretends the anniversary date doesn't remind him of anything though he pretends to have a stab at it by reeling off a list of random anniversaries, starting with the battle of Agincourt, for which he receives a slap from Sybil, who becomes increasingly frustrated and angry. He continues guessing even after Sybil is out of ear shot, and mentions other anniversaries (none of which happened on 17 April), including the battle of Trafalgar and Yom Kippur, just to enhance the surprise. Sybil believes he really has forgotten, and leaves in a huff. In an interview in the DVD box set, Cleese claims that this episode deliberately takes a slightly different tone from the others, fleshing out their otherwise inexplicable status as a couple (as well as saying that, if a third series had been made, there would have been similar episodes).\n\nIn keeping with the lack of explanation about the marriage, not much is revealed of the characters' back-stories. It is known that Basil served in the British Army and saw action in the Korean War, possibly as part of his National Service. (John Cleese was only 13 when the Korean War ended.) Basil exaggerates this period of his life, proclaiming to strangers: \"I killed four men.\" To this Sybil jokes that \"He was in the Catering Corps. He used to poison them.\" Basil is often seen wearing a military tie, and his moustache seems to betray an Army background. He also claims to have sustained a shrapnel injury to his leg; it tends to flare up at suspiciously convenient times. The only person Basil consistently exhibits tolerance and good manners towards is the old and senile Major Gowen, a veteran officer of one of the World Wars (which one is never specified) who permanently resides at the hotel. When interacting with Manuel, Basil displays a rudimentary ability with Spanish (Basil states that he \"learned classical Spanish, not the strange dialect he [Manuel] seems to have picked up\"); this ability is also ridiculed, as in the first episode where a guest, whom Basil has immediately dismissed as working-class, communicates fluently with Manuel in Spanish after Basil is unable to do so.\n\nCleese described Basil as thinking that \"he could run a first-rate hotel if he didn't have all the guests getting in the way\", and as being \"an absolutely awful human being\", but says that in comedy, if an awful person makes people laugh, people unaccountably feel affectionate toward him. Indeed, he is not entirely unsympathetic. The \"Hotel Inspectors\" and \"Gourmet Night\" episodes feature guests who are shown to be deeply annoying with constant, and unreasonable demands. In \"Gourmet Night\", the chef gets drunk and is unable to cook dinner, leaving Basil to scramble in an attempt to salvage the evening. Much of the time, Basil is an unfortunate victim of circumstance.\n\nSybil Fawlty\n\nSybil Fawlty, played by Prunella Scales, is Basil's wife. Energetic and petite, she prefers a working wardrobe of tight skirt suits in shiny fabrics and sports a tower of permed hair augmented with hairpieces and wigs and necessitating the use of overnight curlers. She is often a more effective manager of the hotel, making sure Basil gets certain jobs done or stays out of the way when she is handling difficult guests. Despite this, she rarely participates directly in the running of the hotel; during busy check-in sessions or meal-times, while everyone else is busy working, she is frequently talking on the phone to one of her friends with her phrase \"Oohhh, I knoooooooow\", or chatting to customers. She has a distinctive conversational tone and braying laugh, which her husband compares to \"someone machine-gunning a seal\". Being his wife, she is the only regular character who refers to Basil by his first name. When she barks his name at him, he flinchingly freezes in his tracks.\n\nBasil refers to her by a number of epithets, occasionally to her face, including \"that golfing puff-adder\", \"the dragon\", \"toxic midget\", \"the sabre-toothed tart\", \"my little kommandant\", \"my little piranha fish\", \"my little nest of vipers\", and \"you rancorous, coiffured old sow\". Despite these less than complimentary nicknames, Basil is terrified of her. There is only one time that he loses patience and snaps at her (Basil: \"Shut up, I'm fed up.\" Sybil: \"Oh you've done it now.\").\n\nSybil and Basil Fawlty married on 17 April 1962 and opened their hotel in 1964. Prunella Scales speculated in an interview for The Complete Fawlty Towers DVD box set that Sybil married Basil because his origins were of a higher social class than hers.\n\nPolly Sherman\n\nPolly Sherman, played by Connie Booth, is a waitress and general helper at the hotel. She is the most competent of the hotel's staff and the voice of sanity during chaotic moments, but is frequently embroiled in ridiculous masquerades as she loyally attempts to aid Basil in trying to cover a mistake or keep something from Sybil.\n\nIn \"The Anniversary\" she snaps and refuses to help Basil out when he wants her to impersonate Sybil in semi-darkness in front of the Fawltys' friends, Basil having dug himself into a hole by claiming Sybil was ill instead of admitting that she had stormed out earlier. Polly only finally agrees on condition that he lends her money to purchase a car, which he has previously refused to do.\n\nPolly is generally good-natured but sometimes shows her frustration, and has odd moments of malice. In \"The Kipper and the Corpse\", the pampered shih-tzu dog of an elderly guest bites Polly and Manuel. As revenge Polly laces the dog's sausages with black pepper and Tabasco sauce (\"bangers a la bang\"), making it ill.\n\nDespite her part-time employment (during meal times), Polly is frequently saddled with many other duties, including manager in \"The Germans\" when Sybil and Basil are both incapacitated. In the first series Polly is said to be an art student who, according to Basil, has spent three years at university. In \"Gourmet Night\", she is seen to draw a sketch (presumably an impressionistic caricature) of Manuel, which everyone but Basil immediately recognises. Polly is not referred to as a student in the second series, although in both series she is shown to have a flair for languages, displaying ability in both Spanish and German. In \"The Germans\" Basil alludes to Polly's polyglot inclination by saying that she does her work \"while learning two oriental languages\". Like Manuel, she has a room of her own at the hotel.\n\nManuel\n\nManuel, a waiter played by Andrew Sachs, is a well-meaning but disorganised and confused Spaniard from Barcelona with a poor grasp of the English language and customs. He is verbally and physically abused by his boss. When told what to do, he often answers, \"¿Qué?\" (\"What?\"). Manuel's character is used to demonstrate Basil's instinctive lack of sensitivity and tolerance. Every episode involves Basil becoming enraged at Manuel's confusion at his boss's bizarre demands and even basic requests. Manuel is afraid of Fawlty's quick temper and violent assaults, yet often expresses his appreciation for being given employment. He is relentlessly enthusiastic and is proud of what little English he knows.\n\nDuring the series, Sachs was twice seriously injured while playing Manuel. Cleese describes using a real metal pan to knock him unconscious in \"The Wedding Party\", although he would have preferred to use a rubber one. The original producer/director, John Howard Davies, explains that he made Basil use a metal one and that he was responsible for most of the violence on the show, which he felt was essential to the type of comical farce that they were creating. Later, when his clothes were treated to give off smoke after he escapes the burning kitchen in \"The Germans\", the corrosive chemicals ate through them and gave Sachs severe burns. \n\nManuel's exaggerated Spanish accent is part of the humour of the show. The actor Andrew Sachs's original language is German; he emigrated to Britain as a child. \n\nThe character's nationality was switched to Italian (and the name to Paolo) for the Spanish dub of the show, while in Catalonia Manuel is a Mexican. \n\nOther regular characters and themes\n\n* Terry Hugh, played by Brian Hall, is the sly, somewhat shifty Cockney chef at Fawlty Towers. Terry's cooking methods are somewhat casual, which frustrates and worries the neurotic Basil. He appears in only the second series of episodes. Terry used to work in Dorchester (not at The Dorchester, as believed by a guest). In \"The Anniversary\" Terry and Manuel come to blows since he doesn't like anyone else cooking in his kitchen, and he proceeds to sabotage the paella Manuel is making for Sybil, leading to fisticuffs at the end of the episode. Cleese himself told actor Hall to portray Terry as if he were on the run from the police.\n* Major Gowen, played by Ballard Berkeley, is a slightly senile, amiable old soldier who is a permanent resident at the hotel. He is one of the few guests whom Basil seems to like. This is because of his former military status, making him a symbol of the establishment status that Basil craves. He is often introduced as their \"oldest resident\", and in the episode \"Waldorf Salad\", Basil reveals the Major has lived there for seven years. He enjoys talking about the world outside, especially the cricket scores and workers' strikes (the frequent strikes at British Leyland during the time of the series' original transmission were often mentioned), and is always on the lookout for the newspaper. In the episode \"The Germans\", he shows that he has trouble forgiving the Germans because of the wars; the best he can say is that German women make good card players. In the same episode, he also demonstrates his outdated racial attitudes when he comments about the ethnic difference between \"wogs\" and \"niggers\" — but in a manner innocent of malice or bigotry. Despite his good intentions, the Major can cause Basil's plans to go awry, notably in the episode \"Communication Problems\", when Basil tries his best to keep the money he won in a bet a secret from Sybil.\n* Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby, played by Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts respectively, are the other two permanent residents. Seemingly inseparable, these sweet-natured, dotty spinsters appear to have taken a fancy to Basil, feeling that they need to take care of him. In response Basil vacillates between superficial charm and blunt rudeness during his conversations with them. \n* Audrey has one on-screen appearance in \"The Anniversary\". Audrey is Sybil's lifelong best friend, and is mostly acknowledged during gossipy telephone calls to Sybil. Talking with Audrey is a refuge for Sybil. When times get tough (Audrey has a dysfunctional relationship with her husband George), Sybil will offer solutions and guidance, often resulting in the catchphrase \"Ohhh, I knowwww...\" when she tries to commiserate with Audrey's problems. In Audrey's one on-screen appearance she is played by actress Christine Shaw.\n* The Paperboy, though rarely seen, is revealed to be the prankster who rearranges the letters on the \"Fawlty Towers\" sign to sometimes crude phrases. The shot of the hotel's sign appears at the beginning of every episode except \"The Germans\", when a hospital exterior is used as an establishing shot.\n\nGuest characters\n\nEpisodes\n\nThe first edition of Fawlty Towers was originally broadcast on 19 September 1975. The 12th and final show was first shown on 25 October 1979. The first series was directed by John Howard Davies, the second by Bob Spiers. Both series had their premieres on BBC2.\n\nWhen originally transmitted, the individual episodes had no on-screen titles. The ones in common currency were first used for the VHS release of the series in the 1980s. There were working titles, such as \"USA\" for \"Waldorf Salad\", \"Death\" for \"The Kipper and the Corpse\", and \"Rat\" for \"Basil the Rat\", which have been printed in some programme guides. In addition, some of the early BBC audio releases of episodes on vinyl and cassette included other variations, such as \"Mrs. Richards\" and \"The Rat\" for \"Communication Problems\" and \"Basil the Rat\" respectively.\n\nIt has long been rumoured that a thirteenth episode of the series was written and filmed, but never progressed further than a rough cut. Lars Holger Holm, author of the book Fawlty Towers: A Worshipper's Companion, has made detailed claims about the episode's content, but he provides no evidence of its existence and it is most likely a hoax or fan fiction.\n\nOn the subject of whether more episodes would be produced, Cleese revealed (in an interview for the complete DVD box set, which was republished in the book, Fawlty Towers Fully Booked) that he once had the genesis of a feature-length special – possibly sometime during the mid-1990s. The plot (which was never fleshed out beyond his initial idea) would have revolved around the chaos that a now-retired Basil typically caused as he and Sybil flew to Barcelona to visit their former employee Manuel and his family. Of the idea, Cleese said:\n\nWe had an idea for a plot which I loved. Basil was finally invited to Spain to meet Manuel's family. He gets to Heathrow and then spends about 14 frustrating hours waiting for the flight. Finally, on the plane, a terrorist pulls a gun and tries to hijack the thing. Basil is so angry he overcomes the terrorist and when the pilot says, \"We have to fly back to Heathrow\", Basil says, \"No, fly us to Spain or I'll shoot you\". He arrives in Spain, immediately arrested and spends the entire holiday in a Spanish jail. He is released just in time to go back on the plane with Sybil.\n\nIt was very funny, but I couldn't do it at the time. Making Fawlty Towers work at 90 minutes was a very difficult proposition. You can build up the comedy for 30 minutes, but at that length there has to be a trough and another peak. It doesn't interest me. I don't want to do it.\n\nCleese may also have relented because of the lack of Connie Booth's involvement. She had practically retreated from public life after the show finished (and had been initially unwilling to collaborate on a second series, which explains the four-year gap between productions).\n\nThe decision by Cleese and Booth to quit before a third series has often been lauded, as it ensured the show's successful status wouldn't be weakened with later, lower-quality work. Subsequently, it has inspired the makers of other shows to do likewise. Most notably, Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant refused to make a third series of either The Office or Extras, citing Fawlty Towers short lifespan. Rik Mayall, Ben Elton and Lise Mayer, the writers behind The Young Ones, which also ran for only two series (each with six episodes), used this explanation too. Victoria Wood also indicated this influenced her decision to limit Dinnerladies to just 16 episodes over two series.\n\nThe origins, background and eventual cancellation of the series would later be humorously referenced in The Secret Policeman's Third Ball in 1987, in a sketch where Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry present Cleese (who they comically misname \"Jim Cleese\") with a Dick Emery Lifetime Achievement Award (\"Silver Dick\") for his contributions to comedy, but then launch into a comical series of questions regarding the show, including Cleese's marriage and divorce from Booth, innocently ridiculing Cleese and reducing him to tears, to the point that he gets on his knees and crawls off the stage while crying.\n\nSeries 1 (1975)\n\n* \n\nSeries 2 (1979)\n\nThe second series was transmitted three and a half years later, with the first episode being broadcast on 19 February 1979. In the second series the anagrams were created by Ian McClane, Bob Spier's assistant floor manager.\n\nReception\n\nCritical reaction\n\nThe series was not held in as high esteem on its original broadcast as it later was. The Daily Mirror review of the show in 1975 had the headline \"Long John Short On Jokes\". Eventually though, as the series began to gain popularity, critical acclaim soon followed. Clive James writing in The Observer said the second episode had him \"retching with laughter\". By the time the series had ended, it was an overwhelming critical success.\n\nOne critic of the show was Richard Ingrams, then television reviewer for The Spectator. Cleese got his revenge by naming one of the guests in the second series 'Mr Ingrams', who is caught in his room with a blow-up doll. \n\nIn an interview for the \"TV Characters\" edition of Channel 4's 'talking heads' strand 100 Greatest (in which Basil placed second, between Homer Simpson and Edmund Blackadder), TV critic A. A. Gill theorised that the initially muted response may have been caused by Cleese seemingly ditching his label as a comic revolutionary – earned through his years with Monty Python – to do something more traditional.\n\nIn a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, Fawlty Towers was placed first. It was also voted fifth in the \"Britain's Best Sitcom\" poll in 2004,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/sitcom/winner.shtml Britain's Best Sitcom Top 10]. Retrieved 4 June 2009. and second only to Frasier in The Ultimate Sitcom poll of comedy writers in January 2006. Basil Fawlty came top of the Britain's Funniest Comedy Character poll, held by Five on 14 May 2006. In 1997, \"The Germans\" was ranked No. 12 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. \n\nAwards\n\nThree BAFTAs were awarded to people for their involvement with the series. Both of the series were awarded the BAFTA in the category \"Best Situation Comedy\", the first being won by John Howard Davies in 1976, and the second by Douglas Argent and Bob Spiers in 1980. John Cleese won the BAFTA for \"Best Light Entertainment Performance\" in 1976. \n\nRemakes and reunions\n\nFour attempted remakes of Fawlty Towers were started for the American market, with three making it into production. The first, Chateau Snavely starring Harvey Korman and Betty White, was produced by ABC for a pilot in 1978, but the transfer from coastal hotel to highway motel proved too much and the series was never produced. The second, also by ABC, was Amanda's starring Bea Arthur, notable for switching the sexes of its 'Basil' and 'Sybil' equivalents. It also failed to pick up a major audience and was dropped. A third remake called Payne (produced by and starring John Larroquette) was also produced, but was cancelled shortly after. A fourth remake titled Over the Top was made in 1997 starring Tim Curry and Annie Potts (with Steve Carell in an early-career role as the Manuel character). Twelve episodes were produced, but only three ever aired on American television (though the complete run was broadcast overseas). A German pilot based on the sitcom was made in 2001, named Zum letzten Kliff, but further episodes were not made.\n\nThe popular sitcoms 3rd Rock from the Sun and Cheers (in both of which Cleese has appeared) have cited Fawlty Towers as an inspiration, especially regarding its depiction of a dysfunctional \"family\" in the workplace. Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan have cited Fawlty Towers as a major influence on their sitcom Father Ted. Guest House on Pakistan's PTV also resembled the series.\n\nSeveral of the characters have made other appearances, as spin-offs or in small cameo roles. In 1981, in character as Manuel, Andrew Sachs recorded his own version of the Joe Dolce cod-Italian song \"Shaddap You Face\" (with the B-side \"Waiter, There's a Spanish Flea in My Soup\"). However, the record was not released after Joe Dolce took out an injunction; he was about to issue his version in Britain.[ Fawltysite.net] . Retrieved 13 December 2006. Sachs also portrayed Manuel (or a Manuel-like character) in a series of British TV advertisements for life insurance. Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts, who played Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby in the series, reprised the roles in a 1983 episode of Only Fools and Horses. In 2006, Cleese played Basil Fawlty for the first time in 27 years, for an unofficial England 2006 World Cup song, \"Don't Mention the World Cup\", taking its name from the phrase, \"Don't mention the war\", which Basil famously used in \"The Germans\". In 2007, Cleese and Sachs reprised their roles for a six-episode corporate video for Norwegian oil company Statoil. In the video, Fawlty is running a restaurant called \"Basil's Brasserie\", while Manuel owns a Michelin Starred restaurant in London. In the 2008 gala performance We Are Most Amused, Cleese breaks into character as Basil for a cameo appearance by Sachs as an elderly Manuel.\n\nIn November 2007, Prunella Scales returned to the role of Sybil Fawlty in a series of sketches for the BBC's annual Children in Need charity telethon. The character was seen taking over the management of the eponymous hotel from the BBC drama series Hotel Babylon, interacting with characters from that programme as well as other 1970s sitcom characters. The character of Sybil was used by permission of John Cleese. \n\nIn 2007, the Los Angeles Film School produced seven episodes of Fawlty Tower Oxnard, starring Robert Romanus as Basil Fawlty. \n\nIn 2016 Cleese reprised his role as Basil Fawlty in a series of TV adverts for High Street optician chain Specsavers. \n\nFawlty Towers: Re-Opened\n\nIn 2009, Tiger Aspect Productions produced a two-part documentary for digital comedy channel Gold, called Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened. The documentary features interviews with all four main cast members, including Connie Booth, who had refused to talk about the series for 30 years. John Cleese confirmed at the 30-year reunion in May 2009 that they will never make another episode of the comedy because they are \"too old and tired\", and expectations would be too high. In a television interview (shown in Australia on Seven Network and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation) on 7 May 2009, Cleese also commented that he and Connie Booth took six weeks to write each episode. \n\nOverseas\n\nIn 1977 and 1978 alone, it was sold to 45 stations in 17 countries and was the BBC's best selling overseas programme for that year. Fawlty Towers became a huge success in almost all countries where it was aired. Although it was initially a flop in Spain, because of the portrayal of the Spanish waiter Manuel, it was successfully resold, with Manuel's nationality changed to Italian. In the Catalan region of Spain, however, Manuel was Mexican. To show how badly it translated, Clive James picked up a clip containing Manuel's \"¿Qué?\" phrase to show on Clive James on Television in 1982. The series was also briefly broadcast in Italy in the 90s on the satellite channel Canal Jimmy, in the original English with Italian subtitles.\n\nIn Australia the show was originally broadcast on ABC Television. The first series in 1977 and the second series in 1980. The show was then sold to the Seven Network where it has been repeated numerous times. Today the show is repeated on Seven's digital channel 7TWO.\n\nThe series is still shown in the United States on at least two PBS member stations. Maryland Public Television, which covers the state of the same name and the surrounding area, airs all episodes in order on Tuesday afternoons (4:00 pm ET) and Saturday nights (11:00 pm ET), along with other BBC sitcoms, and East Tennessee PBS channels WETP and WKOP show one episode a week on Saturday nights (9:30 pm ET). \n\nHome video releases and merchandise\n\nFawlty Towers was originally released by BBC Video in 1984, with 3 episodes on each of 4 tapes. Each tape was edited with the credits from all three episodes put at the end of the tape.\n\nA Laserdisc containing all episodes spliced together as a continuous episode was released in the US on 23 June 1993.\n\nIt was re-released in 1995 unedited and digitally remastered. It was re-released in 1998 with a special interview with John Cleese.\nFawlty Towers – The complete series was released on DVD on 16 October 2001, available in regions 1, 2 and 4. A \"Collector's Edition\" is available in region 2.\n\nSeries one of the show was released on UMD Video for PSP.\n\nIn July 2009, BBC America announced a DVD re-release of the Fawlty Towers series. The DVD set was released on 20 October 2009. The reissue, titled Fawlty Towers Remastered: Special Edition, contains commentary by John Cleese on every episode as well as remastered video and audio.\n\nAll episodes were also available as streamed video-on-demand via Netflix and Amazon Instant Videos. Both series are also available for download on iTunes.\n\nAustralian video releases\n\n* Fawlty Towers: The Complete First Series VHS\n* Fawlty Towers: The Complete Second Series VHS\n* Fawlty Towers: The Complete Third Series VHS\n* Fawlty Towers: The Complete Fourth Series VHS\n* The Complete Fawlty Towers VHS Box Set\n* The Complete Fawlty Towers – 19 November 2001\n* Fawlty Towers Volume 1: Basil The Rat (3 episodes, 94 minutes) – 31 July 2007\n* Fawlty Towers Volume 2: The Psychiatrist (3 Episodes, 94 minutes) – 6 September 2007\n* Fawlty Towers Volume 3: The Kipper And The Corpse (3 Episodes, 93 minutes) – 2 October 2007\n* Fawlty Towers Volume 4: The Germans (3 Episodes, 93 minutes) – 7 November 2007\n* Fawlty Towers: The Complete Collection – Remastered (3 DVD set, all 12 episodes, 374 minutes) – 3 November 2009\n* Fawlty Towers – Series 1: Episodes 1–3 (Comedy Bites) (3 Episodes, 94 minutes) – 4 March 2010\n* Fawlty Towers: The Complete First Series VHS - New Zealand Translation by Denzil\n\nComputer game\n\nA Fawlty Towers game was released on PC in 2000 and featured a number of interactive games, desktop customizing content and clips from the show. \n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Amanda's" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "amanda s" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "amanda s", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Amanda's" }
In which year did Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form Tanzania?	tc_950	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Tanganyika.txt", "Zanzibar.txt", "Tanzania.txt" ], "title": [ "Tanganyika", "Zanzibar", "Tanzania" ], "wiki_context": [ "Tanganyika was a sovereign state that existed from 1961 until 1964. It was situated between the Indian Ocean and the African Great Lakes of Lake Victoria, Lake Nyasa and Lake Tanganyika. It gained independence from the United Kingdom as a Commonwealth realm on 9 December 1961, becoming a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations exactly a year later, on 9 December 1962. From 1962 to 1964 it was officially called the Republic of Tanganyika. On 26 April 1964, Tanganyika joined with the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, a new state that changed its name to the United Republic of Tanzania within a year.\n\nHistory\n\nTanganyika originally consisted of the Tanganyika Territory, the British share of German East Africa, which the British took under a League of Nations Mandate in 1922, and which was later transformed into a United Nations Trust Territory after World War II. The other parts of German East Africa were taken into Belgian trusteeship, eventually becoming present-day Rwanda and Burundi.\n\nThe Tanganyika Independence Act 1961 transformed the United Nations trust territory into the independent sovereign Commonwealth realm of Tanganyika. The British monarch Elizabeth II remained head of state and Tanganyika shared the Sovereign with the other Commonwealth realms. The monarch's constitutional roles were mostly delegated to the Governor-General of Tanganyika. The royal succession was governed by the English Act of Settlement of 1701.\n\nTanganyika adopted a new constitution in 1962 that abolished the monarchy. Tanganyika became a republic within the Commonwealth.", "Zanzibar (; Zanjibār), is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25 - off the coast of the mainland, and consists of many small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar) and Pemba. The capital is Zanzibar City, located on the island of Unguja. Its historic centre is Stone Town, which is a World Heritage Site.\n\nZanzibar's main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism. In particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzania's Mafia Island, are sometimes called the Spice Islands (a term also associated with the Maluku Islands in Indonesia). Zanzibar is the home of the endemic Zanzibar red colobus monkey, the Zanzibar servaline genet, and the (possibly extinct) Zanzibar leopard.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe word Zanzibar comes from Arabic Zanjibār (), which is in turn from Persian Zang-bār (), a compound of Zang (, \"Black\") + bār (, \"coast\"). \n\nHistory \n\nBefore 1498\n\nThe presence of microlithic tools suggest that it has been home to humans for at least 20,000 years, which was the beginning of the Later Stone Age.\n\nA Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, mentioned the island of Menuthias (), which is probably Unguja. Little is known about the history of Zanzibar between the time of the Periplus and the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. From that point forward, wars in Asia and increasing trade motivated Persians, Arabs, and Indians to visit or migrate to Zanzibar.\n\nPersian traders used Zanzibar as a base for voyages between the Middle East, India, and Africa. Unguja, the larger island, offered a protected and defensible harbor, so although the archipelago offered few products of value, the Persians settled at what became Zanzibar City (\"Stone Town\") a convenient point from which to trade with the Swahili Coast towns. They established garrisons on the islands and built the first Zoroastrian fire temples and mosques in the Southern Hemisphere. \n\nThe impact of these traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture is uncertain. During the Middle Ages, Zanzibar and other settlements on the Swahili Coast were advanced. The littoral contained a number of autonomous trade cities. These towns grew in wealth as the Bantu Swahili people served as intermediaries and facilitators to local, Arab, Persian, Indonesian, Malaysian, Indian, and Chinese merchants. This interaction contributed in part to the evolution of the Swahili culture, which developed its own written language. Although a Bantu language, Swahili as a consequence today includes some elements that were borrowed from other civilizations, particularly Arabic loanwords. With the wealth that they had acquired through trade, some of the Arab traders also became rulers of the coastal cities. \n\nVasco da Gama's visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. In 1503 or 1504, Zanzibar became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain Ruy Lourenço Ravasco Marques landed and demanded and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace. Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor general. Around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique. It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar. The first English ship to visit Unguja, the Edward Bonaventure in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a trade depot where produce was purchased and collected for shipment to Mozambique. \"In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local 'king', the predecessor of the Mwinyi Mkuu of Dunga.\" This hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba around 1635 in response to the Sultan of Mombasa's slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier. Portugal had long considered Pemba to be a troublesome launching point for rebellions in Mombasa against Portuguese rule.\n\nThe precise origins of the sultans of Unguja are uncertain. However, their capital at Unguja Kuu is believed to have been an extensive town. Possibly constructed by locals, it was composed mainly of perishable materials.\n\nSultanate of Zanzibar\n\nThe older settlements are quite distinct from the later lordship of Oman and Maskat. When the Portuguese arrived in 1498 they found on the coast a series of independent towns, peopled by Arabs, but not united to Arabia by any political tie. Their relations with these Arabs were mostly hostile, but during the sixteenth century they firmly established their power, and ruled with the aid of tributary Arab sultans. This system lasted till 1631, when the Sultan of Mombasa massacred the European inhabitants. In the remainder of their rule[,] the Portuguese appointed European governors, who were apparently most distasteful to the natives, for they invited the Arabs of Oman, who now appear on the scene for the first time, to assist them in driving the foreigners out. \n\nIn 1698, Zanzibar fell under the control of the Sultanate of Oman. \n\nIn 1832, or 1840 (the date varies among sources), Said bin Sultan moved his capital from Muscat, Oman to Stone Town in Zanzibar City. After Said's death in June 1856, two of his sons, Thuwaini bin Said and Majid bin Said, struggled over the succession. Said's will divided his dominions into two separate principalities, with Thuwaini to become the Sultan of Oman and Majid to become the first Sultan of Zanzibar. The brothers quarrelled about the will, which was eventually upheld by Lord Charles Canning, Great Britain's Viceroy and Governor-General of India.\n\nUntil around 1890, the sultans of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the Swahili Coast, known as Zanj, which included Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. Beginning in 1886, Great Britain and Germany plotted to obtain parts of the Zanzibar sultanate for their own empires. \nIn October 1886, a British-German border commission established the Zanj as a 10 nmi strip along most of the African Great Lakes region's coast, an area stretching from Cape Delgado (now in Mozambique) to Kipini (now in Kenya), including Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. Over the next few years, however, almost all of these mainland possessions were lost to European imperial powers.\n\nThe sultans developed an economy of trade and cash crops in the Zanzibar Archipelago with a ruling Arab elite. Ivory was a major trade good. The archipelago, also known as the Spice Islands, was famous worldwide for its cloves and other spices, and plantations were developed to grow them. The archipelago's commerce gradually fell into the hands of traders from the Indian subcontinent, whom Said bin Sultan encouraged to settle on the islands.\n\nDuring his 14-year reign as sultan, Majid bin Said consolidated his power around the local slave trade. Malindi in Zanzibar City was the Swahili Coast's main port for the slave trade with the Middle East. In the mid-19th century, as many as 50,000 slaves passed annually through the port.\n\nMany were captives of Tippu Tib, a notorious Arab slave trader and ivory merchant. Tib led huge expeditions, some 4,000 strong, into the African interior, where chiefs sold him their villagers for next to nothing. These Tib used to caravan ivory back to Zanzibar, then sold them in the slave market for large profits. In time Tib became one of the wealthiest men in Zanzibar, the owner of multiple plantations and 10,000 slaves. \n\nOne of Majid's brothers, Barghash bin Said, succeeded him and helped abolish the slave trade in the Zanzibar Archipelago and largely developed Unguja's infrastructure. Another brother of Majid, Khalifa bin Said, was the third sultan of Zanzibar and furthered the archipelago's progress toward abolishing slavery.\n\nBritish protectorate\n\nControl of Zanzibar eventually came into the hands of the British Empire; part of the political impetus for this was the 19th century movement for the abolition of the slave trade. Zanzibar was the centre of the Arab slave trade, and in 1822, the British counsel in Muscat put pressure on Sultan Said to end the slave trade. The first of a series of anti-slavery treaties with Britain was signed by Said which prohibited slave transport south and east of the Moresby Line, from Cape Delgado in Africa to Diu Head on the coast of India. Said lost the revenue he would have received as duty on all slaves sold, so to make up for this shortfall he encouraged the development of the slave trade in Zanzibar itself. Said came under increasing pressure from the British to abolish slavery, and in 1842 the British government told the Zanzibari ruler it wished to abolish the slave trade to Arabia, Oman, Persia, and the Red Sea. \n\nShips from the Royal Navy were employed to enforce the anti-slavery treaties by capturing any dhows carrying slaves, but with only four ships patrolling a huge area of sea, the British navy found it hard to enforce the treaties as ships from France,Spain, Portugal, and the United States continued to carry slaves. In 1856, Sultan Majid consolidated his power around the African Great Lakes slave trade, and in 1873 Sir John Kirk informed his successor, Sultan Barghash, that a total blockade of Zanzibar was imminent, and Barghash reluctantly signed the Anglo-Zanzibari treaty which abolished the slave trade in the sultan's territories, the closing of all slave markets and the protection of liberated slaves. \n\nThe relationship between Britain and the German Empire, at that time the nearest relevant colonial power, was formalized by the 1890 Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, in which Germany agreed to \"recognize the British protectorate over ... the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba\". \n\nIn 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. This status meant it continued to be under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position:\nThe condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilised races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self-esteem, gives them more career as public officials, and spares of unnecessary contact with white men. \n\nFrom 1890 to 1913, traditional viziers were in charge; they were supervised by advisors appointed by the Colonial Office. However, in 1913 a switch was made to a system of direct rule through residents (effectively governors) from 1913. The death of the pro-British Sultan Hamad bin Thuwaini on 25 August 1896 and the succession of Sultan Khalid bin Barghash, whom the British did not approve of, led to the Anglo-Zanzibar War. On the morning of 27 August 1896, ships of the Royal Navy destroyed the Beit al Hukum Palace. A cease fire was declared 38 minutes later, and to this day the bombardment stands as the shortest war in history. \n\nBritish Protectorate ended, self-government, and subsequent merger with Tanganyika\n\nOn 10 December 1963, the Protectorate that had existed over Zanzibar since 1890 was terminated by the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom did not grant Zanzibar independence, as such, because the UK had never had sovereignty over Zanzibar. Rather, by the Zanzibar Act 1963 of the United Kingdom, the UK ended the Protectorate and made provision for full self-government in Zanzibar as an independent country within the Commonwealth. Upon the Protectorate being abolished, Zanzibar became a constitutional monarchy under the Sultan. However, just a month later, on 12 January 1964 Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah was deposed during the Zanzibar Revolution. The Sultan fled into exile, and the Sultanate was replaced by the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. In April 1964, the republic merged with mainland Tanganyika. This United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar was soon renamed, blending the two names, as the United Republic of Tanzania, within which Zanzibar remains a semi-autonomous region.\n\nDemography\n\nThe 2002 census is the most recent census for which results have been reported. The total population of Zanzibar was 984,625 – with an annual growth rate of 3.1 percent. The population of Zanzibar City, which was the largest city, was 205,870.\n\nAround two thirds of the people, 622,459, lived on Unguja (Zanzibar Island), with most settled in the densely populated west. Besides Zanzibar City, other towns on Unguja include Chaani, Mbweni, Mangapwani, Chwaka, and Nungwi. Outside of these towns, most people live in small villages and are engaged in farming or fishing.\n\nThe population of Pemba Island was 362,166. The largest town on the island was Chake-Chake, with a population of 19,283. The smaller towns are Wete and Mkoani.\n\nMafia Island, the other major island of the Zanzibar Archipelago but administered by mainland Tanzania (Tanganyka), had a total population of 40,801. \n\nEthnic origins and languages \n\nThe people of Zanzibar are of diverse ethnic origins. The first permanent residents of Zanzibar seem to have been the ancestors of the Bantu Hadimu and Tumbatu, who began arriving from the African Great Lakes mainland around AD 1000. They belonged to various mainland ethnic groups and on Zanzibar, lived in small villages, and did not coalesce to form larger political units.\n\nZanzibar is today inhabited mostly by ethnic Swahili, a Bantu population. There are also a number of Arabs as well as some Indians. \n\nZanzibaris speak Swahili (Kiswahili), a Bantu language that is extensively spoken in the African Great Lakes region. Alongside English, Swahili is one of the two official languages of Tanzania. Many local residents also speak French and/or Italian. \n\nReligion \n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook, Zanzibar's population is almost entirely Muslim. with a small Christian and indigenous minority.\n\nThe Catholic minority is served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Zanzibar\n\nGovernment \n\nAs a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, Zanzibar has its own government, known as the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar. It is made up of the Revolutionary Council and House of Representatives.\n\nThe House of Representatives has a similar composition to the National Assembly of Tanzania. 50 members are elected directly from electoral constituencies to serve five-year terms; 10 members are appointed by the President of Zanzibar; 15 special seats are for women members of political parties that have representation in the House of Representatives; 6 members serve ex officio, including all regional commissioners and the attorney general. Five of these 81 members are then elected to represent Zanzibar in the National Assembly. \n\nUnguja has three administrative regions: Zanzibar Central/South, Zanzibar North and Zanzibar Urban/West. Pemba has two: Pemba North and Pemba South. \n\nConcerning the independence and sovereignty of Zanzibar, Tanzania Prime Minister Mizengo Pinda said on 3 July 2008 that there was \"nothing like the sovereignty of Zanzibar in the Union Government unless the Constitution is changed in future\". Zanzibar House of Representatives members from both the ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi, and the opposition party, Civic United Front, disagreed and stood firmly in recognizing Zanzibar as a fully autonomous state. \n\nPolitics \n\nZanzibar has a government of national unity, with the current president of Zanzibar being Ali Mohamed Shein, since 1 November 2010.\n\nThere are many political parties in Zanzibar, but the most popular parties are the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) and the Civic United Front (CUF). Since the early 1990s, the politics of the archipelago have been marked by repeated clashes between these two parties.\n\nContested elections in October 2000 led to a massacre on 27 January 2001 when, according to Human Rights Watch, the army and police shot into crowds of protestors, killing at least 35 and wounding more than 600. Those forces, accompanied by ruling party officials and militias, also went on a house-to-house rampage, indiscriminately arresting, beating, and sexually abusing residents. Approximately 2,000 temporarily fled to Kenya. \n\nViolence erupted again after another contested election on 31 October 2005, with the CUF claiming that its rightful victory had been stolen from it. Nine people were killed. \n\nFollowing 2005, negotiations between the two parties aiming at the long-term resolution of the tensions and a power-sharing accord took place, but they suffered repeated setbacks. The most notable of these took place in April 2008, when the CUF walked away from the negotiating table following a CCM call for a referendum to approve of what had been presented as a done deal on the power-sharing agreement. \n\nIn November 2009, the then-president of Zanzibar, Amani Abeid Karume, met with CUF secretary-general Seif Sharif Hamad at the State House to discuss how to save Zanzibar from future political turmoil and to end the animosity between them. This move was welcomed by many, including the United States. It was the first time since the multi-party system was introduced in Zanzibar that the CUF agreed to recognize Karume as the legitimate president of Zanzibar.\n\nA proposal to amend Zanzibar's constitution to allow rival parties to form governments of national unity was adopted by 66.2 percent of voters on 31 July 2010. \n\nGeography \n\nZanzibar is one of the Indian Ocean islands. It is situated on the Swahili Coast, adjacent to Tanganyika (mainland Tanzania).\n\nThe northern tip of Unguja island is located at 5.72 degrees south, 39.30 degrees east, with the southernmost point at 6.48 degrees south, 39.51 degrees east. The island is separated from the Tanzanian mainland by a channel, which at its narrowest point is across. The island is about 85 km long and 39 km wide, with an area of 1464 km2. Unguja is mainly low lying, with its highest point being 120 m. Unguja is characterised by beautiful sandy beaches with fringing coral reefs. The reefs are rich in marine biodiversity. \n\nThe northern tip of Pemba island is located at 4.87 degrees south, 39.68 degrees east, and the southernmost point is located at 5.47 degrees south, 39.72 degrees east. The island is separated from the Tanzanian mainland by a channel some 56 km wide. The island is about 67 km long and 23 km wide, with an area of 985 km2. Pemba is also mainly low lying, with its highest point being 95 m. \n\nClimate \n\nThe heat of summer (corresponding to the Northern Hemisphere winter) is often cooled by strong sea breezes associated with the northeast monsoon (known as Kaskazi in Kiswahili), particularly on the north and east coasts. Being near to the equator, the islands are warm year round. Rains occur in November but are characterised by brief showers. Longer rains normally occur in March, April, and May in association with the southwest monsoon (known locally as Kusi in Kiswahili). \n\nWildlife \n\nUnguja\n\nThe main island of Zanzibar, Unguja, has a fauna reflecting its connection to the African mainland during the last Ice Age. \n\nEndemic mammals with continental relatives include the Zanzibar red colobus, one of Africa's rarest primates, with perhaps only 1,500 existing. Isolated on this island for at least 1,000 years, the Zanzibar red colobus (Procolobus kirkii) is recognized as a distinct species, with different coat patterns, calls, and food habits than related colobus species on the mainland. The Zanzibar red colobus live in a wide variety of drier areas of coastal thickets and coral rag scrub, as well as mangrove swamps and agricultural areas. About one third of them live in and around Jozani Forest. The easiest place to see the colubus are on farm land adjacent to the reserve. They are accustomed to people and the low vegetation means they come close to the ground.\n\nRare native animals include the Zanzibar leopard, which is critically endangered and possibly extinct, and the recently described Zanzibar servaline genet. There are no large wild animals in Unguja. Forested areas such as Jozani are inhabited by monkeys, bush-pigs, small antelopes, civets, and, rumor has it, the elusive leopard. Various species of mongoose can also be found on the island. There is a wide variety of birdlife and a large number of butterflies in rural areas.\n\nPemba\n\nPemba Island is separated from Unguja island and the African continent by deep channels and has a correspondingly restricted fauna, reflecting its comparative isolation from the mainland. The island is home to the Pemba flying fox.\n\nStandard of living and health \n\nConsiderable disparities exist in the standard of living for inhabitants of Pemba and Unguja, as well as the disparity between urban and rural populations. The average annual income is US$250. About half the population lives below the poverty line.\n\nDespite a relatively high standard of primary health care and education, infant mortality in Zanzibar is 54 out of 1,000 live births, which is 10.0 percent lower than the rate in mainland Tanzania. The child mortality rate in Zanzibar is 73 out of 1,000 live births, which is 21.5 percent lower than the rate in mainland Tanzania. \n\nIt is estimated that 12% of children on Zanzibar have acute malnutrition. \n\nLife expectancy at birth is 57 years, which is significantly lower than the 2010 world average of 67.2.\n\nThe general prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the sexually active population of Zanzibar is 0.6 percent, with the rate slightly higher in females (0.7 percent) than males (0.5 percent). The rate for divorced women, however, is 10 percent and is even higher for injecting drug users (16 percent), men who have sex with men (MSM) (12.3 percent), and female sex workers (10.8 percent). Among MSM, 13.9 percent reported injecting drugs within the previous three months, 77.5 percent reported being paid for sex within the previous year, and 71.2 percent reported having female sex partners within the previous year. \n\nEconomy \n\nAncient pottery implies trade routes with Zanzibar as far back as the time of the ancient Assyrians. Traders from the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf region of modern-day Iran (especially Shiraz), and west India probably visited Zanzibar as early as the 1st century. They used the monsoon winds to sail across the Indian Ocean to land at the sheltered harbor located on the site of present-day Zanzibar City.\n\nThe clove, originating from the Moluccan Islands (today in Indonesia), was introduced in Zanzibar by the Omani sultans in the first half of the 19th century. Zanzibar, mainly Pemba Island, was once the world's leading clove producer, but annual clove sales have plummeted by 80 percent since the 1970s. Zanzibar's clove industry has been crippled by a fast-moving global market, international competition, and a hangover from Tanzania's failed experiment with socialism in the 1960s and 1970s, when the government controlled clove prices and exports. Zanzibar now ranks a distant third with Indonesia supplying 75 percent of the world's cloves compared to Zanzibar's 7 percent.\n\nZanzibar exports spices, seaweed and fine raffia. It also has a large fishing and dugout canoe production. Tourism is a major foreign currency earner. \n\nThe Government of Zanzibar legalized foreign exchange bureaux on the islands before mainland Tanzania moved to do so. The effect was to increase the availability of consumer commodities. The government has also established a free port area, which provides the following benefits: contribution to economic diversification by providing a window for free trade as well as stimulating the establishment of support services; administration of a regime that imports, exports, and warehouses general merchandise; adequate storage facilities and other infrastructure to cater for effective operation of trade; and creation of an efficient management system for effective re-exportation of goods. \n\nThe island's manufacturing sector is limited mainly to import substitution industries, such as cigarettes, shoes, and processed agricultural products. In 1992, the government designated two export-producing zones and encouraged the development of offshore financial services. Zanzibar still imports much of its staple requirements, petroleum products, and manufactured articles.\n\nThere is also a possibility of oil availability in Zanzibar on the island of Pemba, and efforts have been made by the Tanzanian Government and Zanzibar revolutionary Government to exploit what could be one of the most significant discoveries in recent memory. Oil would help boost the economy of Zanzibar, but there have been disagreements about dividends between the Tanzanian mainland and Zanzibar, the latter claiming the oil should be excluded in Union matters.\n\nIn 2007, a Norwegian consultancy firm went to Zanzibar to determine how the region could develop its oil potential. The firm recommended that Zanzibar follow neo-liberal economist Hernando de Soto Polar's ideas about the formalization of property rights for persons living on ancestral land for which they probably do not have a legal deed. \n\nEnergy \n\nThe energy sector in Zanzibar consists of unreliable electric power, petroleum and petroleum products; it is also supplemented by firewood and its related products. Coal and gas are rarely used for either domestic and industrial purposes.\n\nUnguja (Zanzibar Island) gets most of its electric power from mainland Tanzania through a 39-kilometer, 100-megawatt submarine cable from Ras Kiromoni (near Dar es Salaam) to Ras Fumba on Unguja. The laying of the cable was begun on 10 October 2012 by the Viscas Corporation of Japan and was funded by a US$28.1 million grant from the United States through the Millennium Challenge Corporation. The cable became operational on 13 April 2013. The previous 45-megawatt cable, which was seldom-maintained, was completed by Norway in 1980. \n\nSince May 2010, Pemba Island has had a 75-kilometer, 25-megawatt, subsea electrical link directly to mainland Tanzania. The cable project was financed through a 45 million euro grant from Norway and contributions of 8 million euros from the Zanzibar government and 4 million euros from the Tanzanian national government. The project ended years of dependence on unreliable and erratic diesel generation subject to frequent power cuts. Only about 20 percent of the cable's capacity was being used in January 2011, so it is anticipated that the cable will meet the island's needs for 20 to 25 years. \n\nBetween 70 and 75 percent of the electricity generated is used domestically while less than 20 percent is used industrially. Fuel wood, charcoal and kerosene are widely used as sources of energy for cooking and lighting for most rural and urban areas. The consumption capacity of petroleum, gas, oil, kerosene and industrial diesel oil is increasing annually, going from a total of 5,650 tons consumed in 1997 to more than 7,500 tons in 1999.\n\nFrom 21 May to 19 June 2008, Unguja suffered a major failure of its electricity system, which left the island without electrical service and mostly dependent on diesel generators. The failure originated in mainland Tanzania. Another blackout happened from 10 December 2009 to 23 March 2010, caused by a problem with the submarine cable that formerly supplied electricity from mainland Tanzania. This led to a serious shock to Unguja's fragile economy, which is heavily dependent on foreign tourism.\n\nTransport \n\nRoads\n\nZanzibar has 1,600 kilometres of roads, of which 85 percent are tarmacked or semi-tarmacked. The remainder are earth roads, which are rehabilitated annually to make them passable throughout the year.. Zanzibar, to ensure the roads are passable at all times and are maintained had established a Road Fund Board, situated at maisala which collects funds and disburses to Ministry of Communication, whom is the Road Agency at this time through the Department of Road Maintenance, known as UUB.\n\nThe Road Fund Board, oversees a Performance Agreement entered between the Ministry of Communication and Infrastructure, while all the procurements and maintenances are assumed by the later.\n\nPublic transportation\n\nThere is no government-owned public transportation in Zanzibar. The privately owned Daladala, as it is officially known in Zanzibar, is the only kind of public transportation. The term Daladala originated from the Kiswahili word DALA or five shillings during the 1970s and 1980s when public transport cost five shillings.\n\nPorts\n\nThere are five ports in the islands of Unguja and Pemba, all operated and developed by the Zanzibar Ports Corporation.\n\nThe main port at Malindi, which handles 90 percent of Zanzibar's trade, was built in 1925. The port was rehabilitated between 1989 and 1992 with financial assistance from the European Union. The Italian contractor, Salini Impregilo S.p.A., was supposed to build wharves that lasted 60 years; however, the wharves lasted only 11 years before crumbling and degenerating because the company deviated from the specifications. After a long legal battle, the company was required in 2005 by the International Court of Arbitration to pay Zanzibar US$11.6 million in damages. The port was again rehabilitated between 2004 and 2009 with a 31 million euro grant from the European Union. The contract was awarded to M/S E. Phil and Sons of Denmark. The then-director of the contractor suggested that the rehabilitation would last a minimum of 50 years. But the port is again facing problems, including sinking.\n\nFerry accidents\n\nThe MV Faith, which began its final journey at the port of Dar es Salaam, sank in May 2009 shortly before docking at the port of Malindi. Six of the 25 people aboard lost their lives. \n\nThe MV Skagit, which also began its final journey at the port of Dar es Salaam, capsized in rough seas near Chumbe island on 18 July 2012. The ferry had 447 passengers, with 81 dead, 212 missing and presumed drowned, and 154 rescued. The ferry left port despite warnings from the Tanzania Meteorological Agency for ships not to attempt the crossing from Dar es Salaam to Unguja island because of the rough seas. A presidential commission reported in October 2012 that overloading was the cause of the disaster. \n\nWorst maritime disaster in Tanzanian history\n\nThe MV Spice Islander I sank on 10 September 2011 after departing from Unguja island for Pemba Island. In a report to the Zanzibar House of Representatives on 14 October 2011, Zanzibar's Second Vice President, Ambassador Seif Ali Iddi, said that 2,764 people were missing, 203 bodies had been recovered, and 619 passengers were rescued. It was the worst maritime disaster in Tanzanian history. A presidential commission, however, reported three months later that 1,370 people were missing, 203 bodies had been recovered, and 941 passengers survived. Severe overloading caused the ferry to sink. \n\nAirport\n\nZanzibar's main airport, Zanzibar International Airport, can handle large passenger planes since 2011, which has resulted in an increase in passenger and cargo inflows and outflows. Since another increase in capacity by the end of 2013, it can serve up to 1.5 million passengers per year. The island can be reached by flights operated by Auric Air, Kenya Airways, Qatar Airways, FlyDubai and Coastal Aviation \n\nCulture \n\nZanzibar's most famous event is the Zanzibar International Film Festival, also known as the Festival of the Dhow Countries. Every July, this event showcases the best of the Swahili Coast arts scene, including Zanzibar's favorite music, Taarab. \n\nImportant architectural features in Stone Town are the Livingstone house, The Old dispensary of Zanzibar, the Guliani Bridge, Ngome kongwe (The Old fort of Zanzibar) and the House of Wonders. The town of Kidichi features the Hamamni Persian Baths, built by immigrants from Shiraz, Iran during the reign of Barghash bin Said.\n\nZanzibar also is the only place in Eastern African countries to have the longest settlement houses formally known as Michenzani flats which were built by the aid from East Germany during the 1970s to solve housing problems in Zanzibar.\n\nMedia and communication\n\nIn 1973, Zanzibar introduced the first colour television in sub-Saharan Africa. Because of longstanding opposition to television by President Julius Nyerere, the first television service on mainland Tanzania was not introduced until 1994. The broadcaster in Zanzibar called Television Zanzibar (TVZ) had recently changed name to Zanzibar Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC). following an enactment of an act to make it a public corporation, monitored under the Ministry of Finance by the treasurer registrar Among the famous reporters of TVZ during the 1980s and 1990s were the late Alwiya Alawi 1961–1996 (the elder sister of Inat Alawi, famous Taarab singer during the 1980s), Neema Mussa, Sharifa Maulid, Fatma Mzee, Zaynab Ali, Ramadhan Ali, and Khamis.\n\nZanzibar has one AM radio station and 21 FM radio stations. \n\nIn terms of landline communications, Zanzibar is served by the Tanzania Telecommunications Company Limited and Zantel Tanzania.\n\nAlmost all mobile and Internet companies serving mainland Tanzania are also available in Zanzibar.\n\nEducation \n\nIn 2000 there were 207 government schools and 118 privately owned schools in Zanzibar. There are also two universities and one college: Zanzibar University, the State University of Zanzibar (SUZA) and the Chukwani College of Education. \n\nSUZA was established in 1999, and is located in Stone Town, in the buildings of the former Institute of Kiswahili and Foreign Language (TAKILUKI). It is the only public institution for higher learning in Zanzibar, the other two institutions being private. In 2004, the three institutions had a total enrollment of 948 students, of whom 207 were female. \n\nThe primary and secondary education system in Zanzibar is slightly different from that of the Tanzanian mainland. On the mainland, education is only compulsory for the seven years of primary education, while in Zanzibar an additional three years of secondary education are compulsory and free. Students in Zanzibar score significantly less on standardized tests for reading and mathematics than students on the mainland. \n\nIn the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, national service after secondary education was necessary, but it is now voluntary and few students volunteer. Most choose to seek employment or attend teacher's colleges.\n\nSports \n\nFootball is the most popular Sport in Zanzibar, overseen by the Zanzibar Football Association. Zanzibar is an associate member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF), but not of FIFA. This means that the Zanzibar national football team is not eligible to enter national CAF competitions, such as the African Nations Cup, but Zanzibar's Football Clubs get representation at the CAF Confederation Cup and the CAF Champions League.\n\nThe national team participates in non-FIFA Football tournaments such as the FIFI Wild Cup, and the ELF Cup. Because Zanzibar is not a member of FIFA, their team is not eligible for the FIFA World Cup.\n\nThe Zanzibar Football Association also has a Premier League for the top clubs, which was created in 1981.\n\nSince 1992, there has also been Judo in Zanzibar. The founder, Mr. Tsuyoshi Shimaoka established a strong team which participates in national and international competitions. In 1999, Zanzibar Judo Association (Z.J.A.) was registered and became an active member of Tanzania Olympic Committee and [http://www.intjudo.eu/MembersCurrent International Judo Federation].\n\nMarch 2013 the Zanzibar Shotokan Karate (ZASHOKA) has joined the International Shotokan Karate Federation (ISKF).\n\nNotable people \n\n* Freddie Mercury (born Farrokh Bulsara) of the rock band Queen was born in Stone Town, Zanzibar.\n* Farouque Abdillahi, who was Princess Diana's designer \n\nGallery \n\nFile:ZanzibarBeach.jpg\|A Zanzibar beach\nFile:Zanzibar from sea.jpg\|Stone Town\nFile:Zanzibar sultan palace.jpg\|Stone Town with Sultan's Palace\nFile:Zanzibar Red Colobus Monkey.jpg\|The red colobus of Zanzibar (Procolobus kirkii), taken at Jozani Forest, Zanzibar, Tanzania.\nFile:Cloves-spice.jpg\|Cloves have played a significant role in the history of Zanzibar's economy\nFile:Zanzibarsultanpalace22.JPG\|House of Wonders\nFile:Zanzibar east coast pristine beach.JPG\|Zanzibar East Coast beach\nFile:Red-Knobbed_Starfish_Nungwi.jpg\|Red-knobbed starfish on the beach in Nungwi, northern Zanzibar\nFile:TipputipPortrait.jpg\|Zanzibari slave trader Tippu Tip\nFile:ZanzibarOmaniRuler.jpg\|Omani Sultan of Zanzibar\nFile:View of ferry docked at Zanzibar Old Town's Ferry Terminal.JPG\|View of ferry docked at the Zanzibar Ferry Terminal", "Tanzania,This approximates the Kiswahili pronunciation. However, is also heard in English. officially the United Republic of Tanzania (), is a large country in Eastern Africa within the African Great Lakes region. Parts of the country are in Southern Africa. It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north; Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south; and by the Indian Ocean to the east. Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania.\n\nTanzania's population of 51.82 million (2014) is diverse, composed of several ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. Tanzania is a presidential constitutional republic, and since 1996, its official capital city has been Dodoma, where the President's Office, the National Assembly, and some government ministries are located. Dar es Salaam, the former capital, retains most government offices and is the country's largest city, principal port, and leading commercial centre. \n\nEuropean colonialism began in mainland Tanzania during the late 19th century when Germany formed German East Africa, which gave way to British rule following World War I. The mainland was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction. Following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. \n\nEtymology\n\nThe name \"Tanzania\" was created as a clipped compound of the names of the two states that unified to create the country: Tanganyika and Zanzibar. \n\nThe name \"Tanganyika\" is derived from the Swahili words tanga (\"sail\") and nyika (\"uninhabited plain\", \"wilderness\"), creating the phrase \"sail in the wilderness\". It is sometimes understood as a reference to Lake Tanganyika. \n\nThe name of Zanzibar comes from \"zengi\", the name for a local people (said to mean \"black\"), and the Arabic word \"barr\", which means coast or shore. \n\nHistory\n\nPre-colonial\n\nThe indigenous populations of eastern Africa are thought to be the click speaking Hadza and Sandawe hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. \n\nThe first wave of migration was by Southern Cushitic speakers, who are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge and who moved south from Ethiopia into Tanzania. Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have been two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago, originating from north of Lake Turkana.\n\nArchaeological evidence supports the conclusion that Southern Nilotes, including the Datoog, moved south from the present-day South Sudan / Ethiopia border region into central northern Tanzania between 2,900 and 2,400 years ago.\n\nThese movements took place at approximately the same time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika areas. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the primary staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania between 2,300 and 1,700 years ago. \n\nEastern Nilotic peoples, including the Maasai, represent a more recent migration from present day South Sudan within the past 1,500 to 500 years. \n\nThe people of Tanzania have been associated with the production of iron and steel. The Pare people were the main producers of highly demanded iron for peoples who occupied the mountain regions of northeastern Tanzania. The Haya people on the western shores of Lake Victoria invented a type of high-heat blast furnace, which allowed them to forge carbon steel at temperatures exceeding 1820 C more than 1,500 years ago. \n\nTravellers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and India have visited the east African coast since early in the first millennium A.D. Islam was practised by some on the Swahili Coast as early as the eighth or ninth century A.D. \n\nColonial\n\n \nIn 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama visited the Tanzanian coast. Later, in 1506, the Portuguese succeeded in controlling most of the Southeast African littoral. In 1699, the Portuguese were ousted from Zanzibar by Omani Arabs.\n\nClaiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Arab slave trade. Between 65% and 90% of the population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. One of the most infamous slave traders on the East African coast was Tippu Tip, who was himself the grandson of an enslaved African. The Nyamwezi slave traders operated under the leadership of Msiri and Mirambo. According to Timothy Insoll, \"Figures record the exporting of 718,000 slaves from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, and the retention of 769,000 on the coast.\" \n\nIn the late 19th century, Imperial Germany conquered the regions that are now Tanzania (minus Zanzibar) and incorporated them into German East Africa. The post–World War I accords and the League of Nations charter designated the area a British Mandate, except for the Kionga Triangle, a small area in the southeast that was incorporated into Portuguese East Africa (later Mozambique).\n\nDuring World War II, about 100,000 people from Tanganyika joined the Allied forces and were among the 375,000 Africans who fought with those forces. Tanganyikans fought in units of the King's African Rifles during the East African Campaign in Somalia and Abyssinia against the Italians, in Madagascar against the Vichy French during the Madagascar Campaign, and in Burma against the Japanese during the Burma Campaign. Tanganyika was an important source of food during this war, and its export income increased greatly compared to the pre-war years of the Great Depression Wartime demand, however, caused increased commodity prices and massive inflation within the colony. \n\nIn 1954, Julius Nyerere transformed an organisation into the politically oriented Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). TANU's main objective was to achieve national sovereignty for Tanganyika. A campaign to register new members was launched, and within a year TANU had become the leading political organisation in the country. Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960 and continued as prime minister when Tanganyika became independent in 1961.\n\nPost-colonial\n\nBritish rule came to an end on 9 December 1961, but for the first year of independence, Tanganyika had a governor general who represented the British monarch. On 9 December 1962, Tanganyika became a democratic republic under an executive president.\n\nAfter the Zanzibar Revolution overthrew the Arab dynasty in neighbouring Zanzibar, which had become independent in 1963, the archipelago merged with mainland Tanganyika on 26 April 1964. On 29 October of the same year, the country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania (\"Tan\" comes from Tanganyika and \"Zan\" from Zanzibar). The union of the two hitherto separate regions was controversial among many Zanzibaris (even those sympathetic to the revolution) but was accepted by both the Nyerere government and the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar owing to shared political values and goals.\n\nIn 1967, Nyerere's first presidency took a turn to the left after the Arusha Declaration, which codified a commitment to socialism as well-as Pan-Africanism. After the declaration, banks and many large industries were nationalised.\n\nTanzania was also aligned with China, which from 1970 to 1975 financed and helped build the 1860 km TAZARA Railway from Dar es Salaam to Zambia. Nonetheless, from the late 1970s, Tanzania's economy took a turn for the worse, in the context of an international economic crisis affecting both developed and developing economies.\n\nFrom the mid-1980s, the regime financed itself by borrowing from the International Monetary Fund and underwent some reforms. Since then, Tanzania's gross domestic product per capita has grown and poverty has been reduced, according to a report by the World Bank. \n\nIn 1992, the Constitution of Tanzania was amended to allow multiple political parties. In Tanzania's first multi-party elections, held in 1995, the ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi won 186 of the 232 elected seats in the National Assembly, and Benjamin Mkapa was elected as president. \n\nGeography\n\nAt 947303 km2, Tanzania is the 13th largest country in Africa and the 31st largest in the world, ranked between the larger Egypt and smaller Nigeria. It borders Kenya and Uganda to the north; Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. Tanzania is located on the eastern coast of Africa and has an Indian Ocean coastline approximately 800 km long. It also incorporates several offshore islands, including Unguja (Zanzibar), Pemba, and Mafia. The country is the site of Africa's highest and lowest points: Mount Kilimanjaro, at above sea level, and the floor of Lake Tanganyika, at 352 m below sea level, respectively.\n\nTanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located. Three of Africa's Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the continent's deepest lake, known for its unique species of fish. To the southwest lies Lake Nyasa. Central Tanzania is a large plateau, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore.\n\nThe Kalambo water falls in the southwestern region of Rukwa are the second highest uninterrupted fall in Africa and are located near the southeastern shore of Lake Tanganyika on the border with Zambia. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibar's largest marine protected area.\n\nClimate\n\nClimate varies greatly within Tanzania. In the highlands, temperatures range between 10 and during cold and hot seasons respectively. The rest of the country has temperatures rarely falling lower than 20 C. The hottest period extends between November and February (25 -) while the coldest period occurs between May and August (15 -). Annual temperature is 20 °C. The climate is cool in high mountainous regions.\n\nTanzania has two major rainfall regimes: one is uni-modal (October–April) and the other is bi-modal (October–December and March–May). The former is experienced in southern, central, and western parts of the country, and the latter is found in the north from Lake Victoria extending east to the coast. The bi-modal regime is caused by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone.\n\nWildlife and conservation\n\nApproximately 38% of Tanzania's land area is set aside in protected areas for conservation. Tanzania has 16 national parks, plus a variety of game and forest reserves, including the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. In western Tanzania, Gombe Stream National Park is the site of Jane Goodall's ongoing study of chimpanzee behaviour, which started in 1960. \n\nTanzania is highly biodiverse and contains a wide variety of animal habitats. On Tanzania's Serengeti plain, white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi) and other bovids participate in a large-scale annual migration. Tanzania is also home to about 130 amphibian and over 275 reptile species, many of them strictly endemic and included in the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red Lists of different countries. Tanzania has developed a Biodiversity Action Plan to address species conservation.\n\nPolitics\n\nGovernment\n\nTanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) party in power. From its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. This changed on 1 July 1992, when amendments to the Constitution and a number of laws permitting and regulating the formation and operations of more than one political party were enacted by the National Assembly. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were last held in October 2010. The CCM holds approximately 75% of the seats in the assembly.\n\nIn October 2015, Tanzania announced that John Pombe Magufuli won the presidential election, securing a two-thirds majority in parliament. \n\nExecutive\n\nThe President of Tanzania and the members of the National Assembly are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for five-year terms. The vice-president is elected for a five-year term at the same time as the president and on the same ticket. Neither the president nor the vice-president may be a member of the National Assembly. The president appoints a prime minister, subject to confirmation by the assembly, to serve as the government's leader in the assembly. The president selects his or her cabinet from assembly members.\n\nLegislature\n\nAll legislative power relating to mainland Tanzania and union matters is vested in the National Assembly, which is unicameral and has a maximum of 357 members. These include members elected to represent constituencies, the attorney general, five members elected by the Zanzibar house of representatives from among its own members, the special women's seats that constitute at least 30% of the seats that any party has in the assembly, the speaker of the assembly (if not otherwise a member of the assembly), and the persons (not more than ten) appointed by the president. The Tanzania Electoral Commission demarcates the mainland into constituencies in the number determined by the commission with the consent of the president.\n\nJudiciary\n\nTanzania's legal system is based on English common law.\n\nTanzania has a four-level judiciary. The lowest level courts on the Tanzanian mainland are the Primary Courts. In Zanzibar, the lowest level courts are the Kadhi's Courts for Islamic family matters and the Primary Courts for all other cases. On the mainland, appeal is to either the District Courts or the Resident Magistrates Courts. In Zanzibar, appeal is to the Kadhi's Appeal Courts for Islamic family matters and the Magistrates Courts for all other cases. From there, appeal is to the High Court of Mainland Tanzania or Zanzibar. No appeal regarding Islamic family matters can be made from the High Court of Zanzibar. Otherwise, the final appeal is to the Court of Appeal of Tanzania. \n\nThe High Court of mainland Tanzania has three divisions – commercial, labour, and land – and 15 geographic zones. The High Court of Zanzibar has an industrial division, which hears only labour disputes. \n\nMainland and union judges are appointed by the Chief Justice of Tanzania, except for those of the Court of Appeal and the High Court, who are appointed by the president of Tanzania.\n\nTanzania is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. \n\nZanzibar\n\nThe legislative authority in Zanzibar over all non-union matters is vested in the House of Representatives (per the Tanzania constitution) or the Legislative Council (per the Zanzibar constitution).\n\nThe Legislative Council has two parts: the President of Zanzibar and the House of Representatives. The President is Zanzibar's head of government and the chairman of the Revolutionary Council, in which the executive authority of Zanzibar is invested. Zanzibar has two vice-presidents, with the first being from the main opposition party in the house. The second is from the party in power and is the leader of government business in the House.\n\nThe President and the members of the House of Representatives have five-year terms.\n\nThe President selects ministers from members of the House of Representatives, with the ministers allocated according to the number of House seats won by political parties. The Revolutionary Council consists of the president, both vice-presidents, all ministers, the attorney general of Zanzibar, and other house members deemed fit by the president.\n\nThe House of Representatives is composed of elected members, ten members appointed by the president, all the regional commissioners of Zanzibar, the attorney general, and appointed female members whose number must be equal to 30% of the elected members. The House determines the number of its elected members with the Zanzibar Electoral Commission determining the boundaries of each election constituency. In 2013, the House has a total of 81 members: fifty elected members, five regional commissioners, the attorney general, ten members appointed by the president, and fifteen appointed female members. \n\nAdministrative subdivisions\n\nIn 1972, local government on the mainland was abolished and replaced with direct rule from the central government. Local government, however, was reintroduced in the beginning of the 1980s, when the rural councils and rural authorities were re-established. Local government elections took place in 1983, and functioning councils started in 1984. In 1999, a Local Government Reform Programme was enacted by the National Assembly, setting \"a comprehensive and ambitious agenda ... [covering] four areas: political decentralization, financial decentralization, administrative decentralization and changed central-local relations, with the mainland government having over-riding powers within the framework of the Constitution.\" \n\nTanzania is divided into thirty regions (mkoa), twenty-five on the mainland and five in Zanzibar (three on Unguja, two on Pemba). 169 districts (wilaya), also known as local government authorities, have been created. Of the 169 districts, 34 are urban units, which are further classified as three city councils (Arusha, Mbeya, and Mwanza), nineteen municipal councils, and twelve town councils. \n\nThe urban units have an autonomous city, municipal, or town council and are subdivided into wards and mtaa. The non-urban units have an autonomous district council but are subdivided into village councils or township authorities (first level) and then into vitongoji.\n\nThe city of Dar es Salaam is unique because it has a city council whose areal jurisdiction overlaps three municipal councils. The mayor of the city council is elected by that council. The twenty-member city council is composed of eleven persons elected by the municipal councils, seven members of the National Assembly, and \"Nominated members of parliament under 'Special Seats' for women\". Each municipal council also has a mayor. \"The City Council performs a coordinating role and attends to issues cutting across the three municipalities\", including security and emergency services. \n\nForeign relations\n\nBilateral relations\n\nApart from its border dispute with Malawi, Tanzania had cordial relations with its neighbours in 2012.\n\nRelations between Tanzania and Malawi have been tense because of a dispute over the countries' Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) border. An unsuccessful mediation regarding this issue took place in March 2014. The two countries agreed in 2013 to ask the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to resolve the dispute should mediation be unsuccessful. Malawi, but not Tanzania, has accepted the compulsory jurisdiction of the ICJ. \n\nRelations between Tanzania and Rwanda deteriorated in 2013 when Tanzanian President Jakaya Kikwete said that if the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) could negotiate with some of its enemies, Rwanda should be able to do the same. Rwandan President Paul Kagame then expressed \"contempt\" for Kikwete's statement. The tension was renewed in May 2014 when, in a speech to the Tanzanian National Assembly, Foreign Affairs Minister Bernard Membe renewed his claim that Rwandans were causing instability in the DRC. Rwandan Foreign Affairs Minister Louise Mushikiwabo responded, \"As for Tanzania's foreign minister whose anti-Rwanda rant in parliament I heard, he would benefit from a lesson in the history of the region.\" \n\nTanzania–China relations have strengthened in recent years as trade between the two countries and Chinese investment in Tanzanian infrastructure have increased rapidly. \n\nRelations with the United States are warm, with President Barack Obama visiting Tanzania in 2013. \n\nTanzania's relations with other donor countries, including Japan and members of the European Union, are generally good, though donors are concerned about Tanzania's commitment to reducing government corruption.\n\nMultilateral relations\n\nTanzania is a member of the East African Community (EAC), along with Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, and Burundi. According to the East African Common Market Protocol of 2010, the free trade and free movement of people is guaranteed, including the right to reside in another member country for purposes of employment. This protocol, however, has not been implemented because of work permit and other bureaucratic, legal, and financial obstacles. \n\nTanzania is also a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The EAC, the SADC, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa agreed in June 2011 to negotiate the creation of a Tripartite Free Trade Area spanning 26 African countries, with a goal to complete the first phase of negotiations within 36 months. \n\nAs of 31 October 2014, Tanzania was contributing 2,253 soldiers and other personnel to various United Nations peacekeeping operations. The Tanzanian military is participating along with South African and Malawian militaries in the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade (MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The United Nations Security Council authorised the force on 28 March 2013 to conduct targeted offensive operations to neutralise groups that threaten peace in the DRC. Tanzania was also participating in peacekeeping missions in the Darfur Region of Sudan (UNAMID); Abyei, control of which is contested between South Sudan and Sudan (UNISFA); the Central African Republic (MINUSCA); Lebanon (UNIFIL); and South Sudan (UNMISS). \n\nMilitary\n\nThe armed forces consists of the army, navy and air force. The current Chief of Defence Forces is General Davis Mwamunyange. The armed forces was engaged in the Uganda–Tanzania War, the Mozambican Civil War and most recently the 2008 invasion of Anjouan.\n\nTanzania is also involved in the following United Nations peacekeeping missions: UNAMID (Sudan), UNIFIL (Lebanon) and Force Intervention Brigade (part of MONUSCO in DR Congo).\n\nEconomy and infrastructure\n\nTanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. , Tanzania's gross domestic product (GDP) was an estimated $43.8 billion, or $86.4 billion on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. Tanzania is a middle-power country, with a per capita GDP of $1,813 (PPP), which was 32% below the average of $2,673 for the 45 sub-Saharan African countries and ranked 23rd among those countries. \n\nFrom 2009 through 2013, Tanzania's per capita GDP (based on constant local currency) grew an average of 3.5% per year, higher than any other member of the East African Community (EAC) and exceeded by only nine countries in Sub-Saharan Africa: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Lesotho, Liberia, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. \n\nTanzania's largest trading partners in 2012 for its US $5.5 billion in exports were South Africa, Switzerland, and China. Its imports totalled US $11.7 billion, with Switzerland, China, and the United Arab Emirates being the biggest partners.\n\nTanzania weathered the Great Recession, which began in late 2008 or early 2009, relatively well. Strong gold prices, bolstering the country's mining industry, and Tanzania's poor integration into global markets helped to insulate the country from the downturn. Since the recession ended, the Tanzanian economy has expanded rapidly thanks to strong tourism, telecommunications, and banking sectors.\n\nAccording to the United Nations Development Program, however, recent growth in the national economy has benefited only the \"very few\", leaving out the majority of the population. Tanzania's 2013 Global Hunger Index was worse than any other country in the EAC except Burundi. The proportion of persons who were undernourished in 2010–12 was also worse than any other EAC country except Burundi.\n\nPoverty\n\nThe level of poverty in Tanzania is very high. Tanzania has made little progress towards reducing extreme hunger and malnutrition. The 2010 Global Hunger Index ranks the situation as “alarming”. Children in rural areas suffer substantially higher rates of malnutrition and chronic hunger, although urban-rural disparities have narrowed as regards both stunting and underweight. Low rural sector productivity arises mainly from inadequate infrastructure investment; limited access to farm inputs, extension services and credit; limited technology as well as trade and marketing support; and heavy dependence on rain-fed agriculture and natural resources.\n\nApproximately 68 percent of Tanzania's 44.9 million citizens live below the poverty line of $1.25 a day and 16 percent of children under 5 are malnourished. The most prominent challenges Tanzania faces in poverty reduction are unsustainable harvesting of its natural resources, unchecked cultivation, climate change and water- source encroachment, according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).\n\nThere are very few resources for Tanzanians in terms of credit services, infrastructure or availability to improved agricultural technologies, which further exacerbates hunger and poverty in the country according to the UNDP. Tanzania ranks 159 out of 187 countries in poverty according to the United Nation’s Human Development Index (2014).\n\nAgriculture\n\nThe Tanzanian economy is heavily based on agriculture, which accounts for 24.5% of gross domestic product, provides 85% of exports, and accounts for half of the employed workforce; The agricultural sector grew 4.3% in 2012, less than half of the Millennium Development Goal target of 10.8%. 16.4% of the land is arable, with 2.4% of the land planted with permanent crops. \n\nMaize was the largest food crop on the Tanzania mainland in 2013 (5.17 million tonnes), followed by cassava (1.94 million tonnes), sweet potatoes (1.88 million tonnes), beans (1.64 million tonnes), bananas (1.31 million tonnes), rice (1.31 million tonnes), and millet (1.04 million tonnes). Sugar was the largest cash crop on the mainland in 2013 (296,679 tonnes), followed by cotton (241,198 tonnes), cashew nuts (126,000 tonnes), tobacco (86,877 tonnes), coffee (48,000 tonnes), sisal (37,368 tonnes), and tea (32,422 tonnes). Beef was the largest meat product on the mainland in 2013 (299,581 tonnes), followed by lamb/mutton (115,652 tonnes), chicken (87,408 tonnes), and pork (50,814 tonnes).\n\nAccording to the 2002 National Irrigation Master Plan, 29.4 million hectares in Tanzania are suitable for irrigation farming; however, only 310,745 hectares were actually being irrigated in June 2011 . \n\nIndustry and construction\n\nIndustry and construction is a major and growing component of the Tanzanian economy, contributing 22.2% of GDP in 2013. This component includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity and natural gas, water supply, and construction. Mining contributed 3.3% of GDP in 2013. The vast majority of the country's mineral export revenue comes from gold, accounting for 89% of the value of those exports in 2013. It also exports sizeable quantities of gemstones, including diamonds and tanzanite. All of Tanzania's coal production, which totalled 106,000 short tons in 2012, is used domestically.\n\nOnly 15% of Tanzanians had access to electric power in 2011. The government-owned Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited (TANESCO) dominates the electric supply industry in Tanzania. The country generated 6.013 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity in 2013, a 4.2% increase over the 5.771 billion kWh generated in 2012. Generation increased by 63% between 2005 and 2012; Almost 18% of the electricity generated in 2012 was lost because of theft and transmission and distribution problems. The electrical supply varies, particularly when droughts disrupt hydropower electric generation; rolling blackouts are implemented as necessary. The unreliability of the electrical supply has hindered the development of Tanzanian industry. In 2013, 49.7% of Tanzania's electricity generation came from natural gas, 28.9% from hydroelectric sources, 20.4% from thermal sources, and 1.0% from outside the country. The government is building a 532 km gas pipeline from Mnazi Bay to Dar es Salaam, with a scheduled completion in 2015. This pipeline is expected to allow the country to double its electricity generation capacity to 3,000 megawatts by 2016. The government's goal is to increase capacity to at least 10,000 megawatts by 2025. \n\nAccording to PFC Energy, 25 to 30 trillion cubic feet of recoverable natural gas resources have been discovered in Tanzania since 2010. Bringing the total reserves to over 43 trillion cubic feet by the end of 2013,. The value of natural gas actually produced in 2013 was US $52.2 million, a 42.7% increase over 2012.\n\nCommercial production of gas from the Songo Songo Island field in the Indian Ocean commenced in 2004, thirty years after it was discovered there. Over 35 billion cubic feet of gas was produced from this field in 2013, with proven, probable, and possible reserves totalling 1.1 trillion cubic feet. The gas is transported by pipeline to Dar es Salaam. As of 27 August 2014, TANESCO owed the operator of this field, Orca Exploration Group Inc., US $50.4 million, down from US $63.8 million two months earlier. \n\nA newer natural gas field in Mnazi Bay in 2013 produced about one-seventh of the amount produced near Songo Songo Island but has proven, probable, and possible reserves of 2.2 trillion cubic feet. Virtually all of that gas is being used for electricity generation in Mtwara.\n\nThe Ruvuma and Nyuna regions of Tanzania have been explored mostly by the discovery company that holds 75% interest, Aminex (AEX), and has shown to hold in excess of 3.5 TCF of natural gas.A pipeline connecting offshore natural gas fields to Tanzania's commercial capital Dar es Salaam was completed at the end of April 2015, but technical setbacks will keep it from going online until November 2015. \n\nTourism\n\nTravel and tourism contributed 12.7% of Tanzania's gross domestic product and employed 11.0% of the country's labour force (1,189,300 jobs) in 2013. The sector is growing rapidly, with overall receipts rising from US $1.74 billion in 2004 to US $4.48 billion in 2013, and receipts from international tourists rising from US $1.255 billion in 2010 to US $1.880 billion in 2013. In 2012, 1,043,000 tourists arrived at Tanzania's borders compared to 590,000 in 2005. The vast majority of tourists visit Zanzibar or a \"northern circuit\" of Serengeti National Park, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tarangire National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, and Mount Kilimanjaro. In 2013, the most visited national park was Serengeti (452,485 tourists), followed by Manyara (187,773) and Tarangire (165,949). According to a 2013 published report, around 600,000 people visit the NCA annually, earning 56 billion Tanzanian shillings in 2012.\n\nBanking\n\nThe Bank of Tanzania is the central bank of Tanzania and is primarily responsible for maintaining price stability, with a subsidiary responsibility for issuing Tanzanian shilling notes and coins. At the end of 2013, the total assets of the Tanzanian banking industry were 19.5 trillion Tanzanian shillings, a 15% increase over 2012. \n\nTransport\n\nMost transport in Tanzania is by road; road transport constitutes over 75% of the country's freight traffic and 80% of its passenger traffic. The 86,500-kilometer road system is in generally poor condition. Tanzania has two railway companies: TAZARA, which provides service between Dar es Salaam and Kapiri Mposhi (in a copper-mining district in Zambia), and Tanzania Railways Limited, which connects Dar es Salaam with central and northern Tanzania. Rail travel in Tanzania often entails slow journeys with frequent cancellations or delays; the railways also have a deficient safety record. Tanzania has four international airports, along with over 100 small airports or landing strips; airport infrastructure tends to be in poor condition. Airlines in Tanzania include Air Tanzania, Precision Air, Fastjet, Coastal Aviation, and ZanAir. Several modern hydrofoil boats provide transportation across the Indian Ocean between Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar.\n\nCommunications\n\nThe communications sector is the fastest growing sector in Tanzania, expanding 22.8% in 2013; however, the sector accounted for only 2.4% of gross domestic product that year.\n\n, Tanzania had 56 mobile telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants, a rate slightly above the sub-Saharan average. Very few Tanzanians have fixed-line telephones. Approximately 12% of Tanzanians used the internet , though this number is rapidly growing. The country has a fibre-optic cable network that recently replaced unreliable satellite service, but internet bandwidth remains very low.\n\nWater supply and sanitation \n\nWater supply and sanitation in Tanzania is characterised by decreasing access to improved water sources in the 2000s (especially in urban areas), steady access to some form of sanitation (around 93% since the 1990s), intermittent water supply and generally low quality of service. Many utilities are barely able to cover their operation and maintenance costs through revenues due to low tariffs and poor efficiency. There are significant regional differences and the best performing utilities are Arusha and Tanga. \n\nThe Government of Tanzania has embarked on a major sector reform process since 2002. An ambitious National Water Sector Development Strategy that promotes integrated water resources management and the development of urban and rural water supply was adopted in 2006. Decentralisation has meant that responsibility for water and sanitation service provision has shifted to local government authorities and is carried out by 20 urban utilities and about 100 district utilities, as well as by Community Owned Water Supply Organisations in rural areas.\n\nThese reforms have been backed by a significant increase of the budget starting in 2006, when the water sector was included among the priority sectors of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty MKUKUTA. The Tanzanian water sector remains heavily dependent on external donors: 88% of the available funds are provided by external donor organisations. Results have been mixed. For example, a report by GIZ notes that \"despite heavy investments brought in by the World Bank and the European Union, (the utility serving Dar es Salaam) has remained one of the worst performing water entities in Tanzania.\" \n\nDemographics\n\nAccording to the 2012 census, the total population was 44,928,923. The under 15 age group represented 44.1% of the population. \n\nThe population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Most people live on the northern border or the eastern coast, with much of the remainder of the country being sparsely populated. Density varies from 12 /km2 in the Katavi Region to 3133 /km2 in the Dar es Salaam Region.\n\nApproximately 70% of the population is rural, although this percentage has been declining since at least 1967. Dar es Salaam (population 4,364,541[http://web.archive.org/web/20131015224549/http://www.nbs.go.tz/sensa/PDF/Census%20General%20Report%20-%2029%20March%202013_Combined_Final%20for%20Printing.pdf 2012 Census General Report]. nbs.go.tz. March 2013) is the largest city and commercial capital. Dodoma (population 410,956), located in the centre of Tanzania, is the capital of the country and hosts the National Assembly.\n\nThe population consists of about 125 ethnic groups. The Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga, and Haya peoples have more than 1 million members each. Approximately 99% of Tanzanians are of African descent, with small numbers of Arab, European, and Asian descent. The majority of Tanzanians, including the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, are Bantu. The Nilotic peoples include the nomadic Maasai and Luo, both of which are found in greater numbers in neighbouring Kenya.\n\nThe population also includes people of Arab, and Indian origin, and small European and Chinese communities. Many also identify as Shirazis. Thousands of Arabs and Indians were massacred during the Zanzibar Revolution of 1964. As of 1994, the Asian community numbered 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans lived in Tanzania. \n\nSome albinos in Tanzania have been the victims of violence in recent years. Attacks are often to hack off the limbs of albinos in the perverse superstitious belief that possessing the bones of albinos will bring wealth. The country has banned witch doctors to try to prevent the practice, but it has continued and albinos remain targets. \n\nAccording to 2010 Tanzanian government statistics, the total fertility rate in Tanzania was 5.4 children born per woman, with 3.7 in urban mainland areas, 6.1 in rural mainland areas, and 5.1 in Zanzibar. For all women aged 45–49, 37.3% had given birth to eight or more children, and for currently married women in that age group, 45.0% had given birth to that many children.\n\nReligion\n\nCurrent statistics on religion are unavailable because religious surveys were eliminated from government census reports after 1967. Religious leaders and sociologists estimate that Muslim and Christian communities are approximately equal in size, each accounting for 30 to 40% of the population, with the remainder consisting of practitioners of other faiths, indigenous religions, and people of \"no religion\".[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90124.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Tanzania]. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (14 September 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\n\nAccording to estimates 35% of the population is Muslim, 30% is Christian, and 35% practice Traditional African religion in the mainland while more than 99% in Zanzibar are Muslim. Of Muslims, 16% are Ahmadiyya, 20% are non-denominational Muslims, 40% are Sunni, 20% are Shia and 4% are Sufi. \n\nThe Christian population is mostly composed of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Among Protestants, the large number of Lutherans and Moravians points to the German past of the country, while the number of Anglicans point to the British history of Tanganyika. Pentecostals and Adventists are also present due to missionary activity. All of them have had some influence in varying degrees from the Walokole movement (East African Revival), which has also been fertile ground for the spread of charismatic and Pentecostal groups. \n\nOn the mainland, Muslim communities are concentrated in coastal areas; there are also some large Muslim majorities in inland urban areas and along the former caravan routes. A large majority of the Muslim population is Sunni. The Muslim population of Dar es Salaam, the largest and richest city in Tanzania, is mainly Sunni.\n\nThere are also active communities of other religious groups, primarily on the mainland, such as Buddhists, Hindus, and Bahá'ís. \n\nLanguages\n\nOver 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa. Among the languages spoken in Tanzania are all four of Africa's language families: Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, and Khoisan. Swahili and English are Tanzania's official languages.\n\nSwahili is used in parliamentary debate, in the lower courts, and as a medium of instruction in primary school; English is used in foreign trade, in diplomacy, in higher courts, and as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher education, although the Tanzanian government plans to discontinue English as a language of instruction altogether. In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili as a means of unifying the country's many ethnic groups. Approximately 10% of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90% speak it as a second language. Most Tanzanians thus speak both Swahili and a local language; many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English. The widespread use and promotion of Swahili is contributing to the decline of smaller languages in the country. Young children increasingly speak Swahili as a first language, particularly in urban areas. Ethnic community languages (ECL, other than Kiswahili) are not allowed as language of instruction, neither are they taught as subject, though they might be used unofficially (illegally) in some cases in initial education. Television and radio programmes in ECL are prohibited, and it is nearly impossible to get a permission to publish a newspaper in ECL. There is no department of local or regional African Languages and Literatures at the University of Dar es Salaam. \n\nThe Sandawe people speak a language that may be related to the Khoe languages of Botswana and Namibia, while the language of the Hadzabe people, although it has similar click consonants, is arguably a language isolate. The language of the Iraqw people is Cushitic. \n\nEducation\n\nBased on 2012 data, the literacy rate in Tanzania for persons aged 15 and over is estimated to be 67.8%. Education is compulsory until children reach age 15. In 2010, 74.1% of children age 5 to 14 years were attending school. The primary school completion rate was 80.8% in 2012.\n\nHealthcare\n\n, life expectancy at birth was 61 years.\n\nThe under-five mortality rate in 2012 was 54 per 1,000 live births. The maternal mortality rate in 2013 was estimated at 410 per 100,000 live births. Prematurity and malaria were tied in 2010 as the leading cause of death in children under 5 years old. The other leading causes of death for these children were, in decreasing order, malaria, diarrhoea, HIV, and measles.\n\nMalaria in Tanzania causes death and disease and has a \"huge economic impact\". There were approximately 11.5 million cases of clinical malaria in 2008. In 2007–08, malaria prevalence among children aged 6 months to 5 years was highest in the Kagera Region (41.1%) on the western shore of Lake Victoria and lowest in the Arusha Region (0.1%).\n\nAccording to the Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 2010, 15% of Tanzanian women have undergone female genital mutilation (FGM) and 72% of Tanzanian men have been circumcised. FGM is most common in the Manyara, Dodoma, Arusha, and Singida regions and nonexistent in Zanzibar. The prevalence of male circumcision was above 90% in the eastern (Dar es Salaam, Pwani, and Morogoro regions), northern (Kilimanjaro, Tanga, Arusha, and Manyara regions), and central zones (Dodoma and Singida regions) and below 50% only in the southern highlands zone (Mbeya, Iringa, and Rukwa regions).\n\n2012 data showed that 53% of the population used improved drinking water sources (defined as a source that \"by nature of its construction and design, is likely to protect the source from outside contamination, in particular from faecal matter\") and 12% used improved sanitation facilities (defined as facilities that \"likely hygienically separates human excreta from human contact\" but not including facilities shared with other households or open to public use). \n\nHIV/AIDS\n\nThe World Health Organization estimated in 2012 that the prevalence of HIV was 3.1%, although the Tanzania HIV/AIDS and Malaria Indicator Survey 2011–12 found that, on average, 5.1% of those tested in the 15 to 49 age group were HIV-positive. Anti-retroviral treatment coverage for people living with HIV was 37% in 2013, compared to 19% in 2011. According to a 2013 report published by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS that compares 2012 with 2001 data, AIDS deaths have decreased 33%, new HIV infections have decreased 36%, and new HIV infections among children have decreased 67%. \n\nCulture\n\nMusic\n\nThe music of Tanzania includes traditional African music, string-based taarab, and a distinctive hip hop known as bongo flava. Famous taarab singers include Abbasi Mzee, Culture Musical Club, Shakila of Black Star Musical Group. Internationally known traditional artists include Bi Kidude, Hukwe Zawose, and Tatu Nane. Tanzania also has its own distinct African rumba music, termed muziki wa dansi (\"dance music\"); important artists include Simba Wanyika, Remmy Ongala, and Orchestra Makassy. Freddie Mercury, of the band Queen, was born in Tanzania.\n\nLiterature\n\nTanzania's literary culture is primarily oral. Major oral literary forms include folktales, poems, riddles, proverbs, and songs. The greatest part of Tanzania's recorded oral literature is in Swahili, even though each of the country's languages has its own oral tradition. The country's oral literature has been declining because of the breakdown of the multigenerational social structure, making transmission of oral literature more difficult, and because increasing modernisation has been accompanied by the devaluation of oral literature.\n\nTanzania's written literary tradition is relatively undeveloped. Tanzania does not have a lifelong reading culture, and books are often expensive and hard to come by. Most Tanzanian literature is in Swahili or English. Major figures in Tanzanian written literature include Shaaban Robert (considered the father of Swahili literature), Muhammed Saley Farsy, Faraji Katalambulla, Adam Shafi Adam, Muhammed Said Abdalla, Said Ahmed Mohammed Khamis, Mohamed Suleiman Mohamed, Euphrase Kezilahabi, Gabriel Ruhumbika, Ebrahim Hussein, May Materru Balisidya, Abdulrazak Gurnah, and Penina O. Mlama.\n\nPainting and sculpture\n\nHistorically, there have been only limited opportunities for formal European art training in Tanzania, and many aspiring Tanzanian artists have left the country to pursue their vocation. One of the most famous African artists – George Lilanga – was born in Tanzania.\n\nTwo Tanzanian art styles have achieved international recognition. The Tingatinga school of painting, founded by Edward Said Tingatinga, consists of brightly coloured enamel paintings on canvas, generally depicting people, animals, or daily life. After Tingatinga's death in 1972, other artists adopted and developed his style, with the genre now being the most important tourist-oriented style in East Africa. Makonde is both a tribe in Tanzania and Mozambique and a sculptural style. It is known for the high Ujamaas (Trees of Life) made of the hard and dark ebony tree.\n\nFood\n\nOne of Tanzania's, and other parts of eastern Africa's, most common dishes is Ugali. It is usually composed of corn and is similar in consistency to a stiff paste or porridge, giving it its second name of corn meal porridge. Mixtures of cassava and millet flours are locally used for ugali. Rice and cooked green bananas are also important staples. Beef, goat meat, beans, yoghurt, and a wide range of fish and green leafy vegetables all add nutrients to the dishes.\n\nSports\n\nFootball is very popular throughout the country. The most popular professional football clubs in Dar es Salaam are the Young Africans F.C. and Simba S.C. The Tanzania Football Federation is the governing body for football in the country.\n\nOther popular sports include netball, boxing, volleyball, athletics, and rugby. \n\nTanzania competes in the Olympic Games, the Commonwealth Games, the All-Africa Games, the Africa Cup of Nations, the CAF Champions League, the African Women's Championship in football, the CAF Confederation Cup, and the African Championships in Athletics." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1964", "one thousand, nine hundred and sixty-four" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "one thousand nine hundred and sixty four", "1964" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1964", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1964" }
In which decade did motor car pioneer Henry Ford die?	tc_951	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Henry_Ford.txt" ], "title": [ "Henry Ford" ], "wiki_context": [ "Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 – April 7, 1947) was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and the sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production.\n\nAlthough Ford did not invent the automobile or the assembly line, he developed and manufactured the first automobile that many middle class Americans could afford. In doing so, Ford converted the automobile from an expensive curiosity into a practical conveyance that would profoundly impact the landscape of the twentieth century. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry. As the owner of the Ford Motor Company, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with \"Fordism\": mass production of inexpensive goods coupled with high wages for workers. Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. His intense commitment to systematically lowering costs resulted in many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system that put dealerships throughout most of North America and in major cities on six continents. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation and arranged for his family to control the company permanently.\n\nFord was also widely known for his pacifism during the first years of World War I, and for having published antisemitic material such as found in the book The International Jew. Ford said he neither wrote nor read the text, and as a result of the controversy surrounding its publication and its influence on Germans, Ford apologized for its publication a month after America entered WWII: \"My sincere hope that now in this country and throughout the world when the war is finished, hatred of the Jews and hatred against any other racial or religious groups shall cease for all time.\"\n\nEarly life\n\nHenry Ford was born July 30, 1863, on a farm in Greenfield Township, Michigan. His father, William Ford (1826–1905), was born in County Cork, Ireland, to a family that was originally from Somerset, England, His mother, Mary Ford (née Litogot) (1839–1876), was born in Michigan as the youngest child of Belgian immigrants; her parents died when she was a child and she was adopted by neighbors, the O'Herns. Henry Ford's siblings were Margaret Ford (1867–1938); Jane Ford (c. 1868–1945); William Ford (1871–1917) and Robert Ford (1873–1934).\n\nHis father gave him a pocket watch in his early teens. At 15, Ford dismantled and reassembled the timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times, gaining the reputation of a watch repairman. At twenty, Ford walked four miles to their Episcopal church every Sunday. \n\nFord was devastated when his mother died in 1876. His father expected him to eventually take over the family farm, but he despised farm work. He later wrote, \"I never had any particular love for the farm—it was the mother on the farm I loved.\" \n\nIn 1879, Ford left home to work as an apprentice machinist in Detroit, first with James F. Flower & Bros., and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm, where he became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine. He was later hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines. During this period Ford also studied bookkeeping at Goldsmith, Bryant & Stratton Business College in Detroit. \n\nMarriage and family\n\nFord married Clara Jane Bryant (1866–1950) on April 11, 1888 and supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had one child: Edsel Ford (1893–1943). \n\nCareer\n\nIn 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company. After his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of a self-propelled vehicle which he named the Ford Quadricycle. He test-drove it on June 4. After various test drives, Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle.[http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/showroom/1896/quad.html The Showroom of Automotive History: 1896 Quadricycle]\n\nAlso in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Edison executives, where he was introduced to Thomas Edison. Edison approved of Ford's automobile experimentation. Encouraged by Edison, Ford designed and built a second vehicle, completing it in 1898.Ford R. Bryan, [http://hfha.org/HenryFord.htm \"The Birth of Ford Motor Company\"], Henry Ford Heritage Association, retrieved August 20, 2012. Backed by the capital of Detroit lumber baron William H. Murphy, Ford resigned from the Edison Company and founded the Detroit Automobile Company on August 5, 1899. However, the automobiles produced were of a lower quality and higher price than Ford wanted. Ultimately, the company was not successful and was dissolved in January 1901.\n\nWith the help of C. Harold Wills, Ford designed, built, and successfully raced a 26-horsepower automobile in October 1901. With this success, Murphy and other stockholders in the Detroit Automobile Company formed the Henry Ford Company on November 30, 1901, with Ford as chief engineer. In 1902, Murphy brought in Henry M. Leland as a consultant; Ford, in response, left the company bearing his name. With Ford gone, Murphy renamed the company the Cadillac Automobile Company.\n\nTeaming up with former racing cyclist Tom Cooper, Ford also produced the 80+ horsepower racer \"999\" which Barney Oldfield was to drive to victory in a race in October 1902. Ford received the backing of an old acquaintance, Alexander Y. Malcomson, a Detroit-area coal dealer. They formed a partnership, \"Ford & Malcomson, Ltd.\" to manufacture automobiles. Ford went to work designing an inexpensive automobile, and the duo leased a factory and contracted with a machine shop owned by John and Horace E. Dodge to supply over $160,000 in parts. Sales were slow, and a crisis arose when the Dodge brothers demanded payment for their first shipment.\n\nFord Motor Company\n\nIn response, Malcomson brought in another group of investors and convinced the Dodge Brothers to accept a portion of the new company. Ford & Malcomson was reincorporated as the Ford Motor Company on June 16, 1903, with $28,000 capital. The original investors included Ford and Malcomson, the Dodge brothers, Malcomson's uncle John S. Gray, Malcolmson's secretary James Couzens, and two of Malcomson's lawyers, John W. Anderson and Horace Rackham. Ford then demonstrated a newly designed car on the ice of Lake St. Clair, driving 1 mi in 39.4 seconds and setting a new land speed record at . Convinced by this success, the race driver Barney Oldfield, who named this new Ford model \"999\" in honor of the fastest locomotive of the day, took the car around the country, making the Ford brand known throughout the United States. Ford also was one of the early backers of the Indianapolis 500.\n\nModel T\n\nThe Model T was introduced on October 1, 1908. It had the steering wheel on the left, which every other company soon copied. The entire engine and transmission were enclosed; the four cylinders were cast in a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs. The car was very simple to drive, and easy and cheap to repair. It was so cheap at $825 in 1908 ($ today) (the price fell every year) that by the 1920s, a majority of American drivers had learned to drive on the Model T. \n\nFord created a huge publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and ads about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in almost every city in North America. As independent dealers, the franchises grew rich and publicized not just the Ford but the concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to encourage exploring the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed—several years posted 100% gains on the previous year. Always on the hunt for more efficiency and lower costs, in 1913 Ford introduced the moving assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous increase in production. Although Ford is often credited with the idea, contemporary sources indicate that the concept and its development came from employees Clarence Avery, Peter E. Martin, Charles E. Sorensen, and C. Harold Wills. (See Ford Piquette Avenue Plant)\n\nSales passed 250,000 in 1914. By 1916, as the price dropped to $360 for the basic touring car, sales reached 472,000. (Using the consumer price index, this price was equivalent to $7,828.08 in 2015 dollars.)\n\nBy 1918, half of all cars in America were Model T's. All new cars were black; as Ford wrote in his autobiography, \"Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black\". Until the development of the assembly line, which mandated black because of its quicker drying time, Model Ts were available in other colors, including red. The design was fervently promoted and defended by Ford, and production continued as late as 1927; the final total production was 15,007,034. This record stood for the next 45 years. This record was achieved in 19 years from the introduction of the first Model T (1908).\n\nPresident Woodrow Wilson asked Ford to run as a Democrat for the United States Senate from Michigan in 1918. Although the nation was at war, Ford ran as a peace candidate and a strong supporter of the proposed League of Nations. Ford was defeated in a close election by the Republican candidate, Truman Newberry, a former United States Secretary of the Navy.\n\nHenry Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over to his son Edsel Ford in December 1918. Henry retained final decision authority and sometimes reversed his son. Henry started another company, Henry Ford and Son, and made a show of taking himself and his best employees to the new company; the goal was to scare the remaining holdout stockholders of the Ford Motor Company to sell their stakes to him before they lost most of their value. (He was determined to have full control over strategic decisions.) The ruse worked, and Henry and Edsel purchased all remaining stock from the other investors, thus giving the family sole ownership of the company. \n\nBy the mid-1920s, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars, which usually included more modern mechanical features and styling not available with the Model T. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan. \n\nModel A and Ford's later career\n\nBy 1926, flagging sales of the Model T finally convinced Henry to make a new model. He pursued the project with a great deal of technical expertise in design of the engine, chassis, and other mechanical necessities, while leaving the body design to his son. Edsel also managed to prevail over his father's initial objections in the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission. \n\nThe result was the successful Ford Model A, introduced in December 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output of more than 4 million. Subsequently, the Ford company adopted an annual model change system similar to that recently pioneered by its competitor General Motors (and still in use by automakers today). Not until the 1930s did Ford overcome his objection to finance companies, and the Ford-owned Universal Credit Corporation became a major car-financing operation. \n\nFord did not believe in accountants; he amassed one of the world's largest fortunes without ever having his company audited under his administration.\n\nLabor philosophy\n\nThe five-dollar wage\n\nFord was a pioneer of \"welfare capitalism\", designed to improve the lot of his workers and especially to reduce the heavy turnover that had many departments hiring 300 men per year to fill 100 slots. Efficiency meant hiring and keeping the best workers. \n\nFord astonished the world in 1914 by offering a $5 per day wage ($ today), which more than doubled the rate of most of his workers. A Cleveland, Ohio newspaper editorialized that the announcement \"shot like a blinding rocket through the dark clouds of the present industrial depression.\" The move proved extremely profitable; instead of constant turnover of employees, the best mechanics in Detroit flocked to Ford, bringing their human capital and expertise, raising productivity, and lowering training costs. Ford announced his $5-per-day program on January 5, 1914, raising the minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for qualifying male workers.\n\nDetroit was already a high-wage city, but competitors were forced to raise wages or lose their best workers. Ford's policy proved, however, that paying people more would enable Ford workers to afford the cars they were producing and be good for the local economy. He viewed the increased wages as profit-sharing linked with rewarding those who were most productive and of good character. It may have been Couzens who convinced Ford to adopt the $5-day. \n\nThe profit-sharing was offered to employees who had worked at the company for six months or more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner of which Ford's \"Social Department\" approved. They frowned on heavy drinking, gambling, and (what today are called) deadbeat dads. The Social Department used 50 investigators, plus support staff, to maintain employee standards; a large percentage of workers were able to qualify for this \"profit-sharing.\"\n\nFord's incursion into his employees' private lives was highly controversial, and he soon backed off from the most intrusive aspects. By the time he wrote his 1922 memoir, he spoke of the Social Department and of the private conditions for profit-sharing in the past tense, and admitted that \"paternalism has no place in industry. Welfare work that consists in prying into employees' private concerns is out of date. Men need counsel and men need help, often special help; and all this ought to be rendered for decency's sake. But the broad workable plan of investment and participation will do more to solidify industry and strengthen organization than will any social work on the outside. Without changing the principle we have changed the method of payment.\" \n\nThe five-day workweek\n\nIn addition to raising the wages of his workers, Ford also introduced a new, reduced workweek in 1926. The decision was made in 1922, when Ford and Crowther described it as six 8-hour days, giving a 48-hour week, but in 1926 it was announced as five 8-hour days, giving a 40-hour week. (Apparently the program started with Saturday being a workday and sometime later it was changed to a day off.) On May 1, 1926, the Ford Motor Company's factory workers switched to a five-day 40-hour workweek, with the company's office workers making the transition the following August.http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ford-factory-workers-get-40-hour-week/print\n\nFord had made the decision to boost productivity, as workers were expected to put more effort into their work in exchange for more leisure time, and because he believed decent leisure time was good for business, since workers would actually have more time to purchase and consume more goods. However, altruistic concerns also played a role, with Ford explaining \"It is high time to rid ourselves of the notion that leisure for workmen is either ‘lost time’ or a class privilege.\"\n\nLabor unions\n\nFord was adamantly against labor unions. He explained his views on unions in Chapter 18 of My Life and Work. He thought they were too heavily influenced by some leaders who, despite their ostensible good motives, would end up doing more harm than good for workers. Most wanted to restrict productivity as a means to foster employment, but Ford saw this as self-defeating because, in his view, productivity was necessary for any economic prosperity to exist.\n\nHe believed that productivity gains that obviated certain jobs would nevertheless stimulate the larger economy and thus grow new jobs elsewhere, whether within the same corporation or in others. Ford also believed that union leaders had a perverse incentive to foment perpetual socio-economic crisis as a way to maintain their own power. Meanwhile, he believed that smart managers had an incentive to do right by their workers, because doing so would maximize their own profits. Ford did acknowledge, however, that many managers were basically too bad at managing to understand this fact. But Ford believed that eventually, if good managers such as he could fend off the attacks of misguided people from both left and right (i.e., both socialists and bad-manager reactionaries), the good managers would create a socio-economic system wherein neither bad management nor bad unions could find enough support to continue existing.\n\nTo forestall union activity, Ford promoted Harry Bennett, a former Navy boxer, to head the Service Department. Bennett employed various intimidation tactics to squash union organizing. The most famous incident, on May 26, 1937, involved Bennett's security men beating with clubs UAW representatives, including Walter Reuther. While Bennett's men were beating the UAW representatives, the supervising police chief on the scene was Carl Brooks, an alumnus of Bennett’s Service Department, and [Brooks] \"did not give orders to intervene.\" The incident became known as The Battle of the Overpass.\n\nIn the late 1930s and early 1940s, Edsel—who was president of the company—thought Ford had to come to some sort of collective bargaining agreement with the unions because the violence, work disruptions, and bitter stalemates could not go on forever. But Henry, who still had the final veto in the company on a de facto basis even if not an official one, refused to cooperate. For several years, he kept Bennett in charge of talking to the unions that were trying to organize the Ford Motor Company. Sorensen's memoir makes clear that Henry's purpose in putting Bennett in charge was to make sure no agreements were ever reached.\n\nThe Ford Motor Company was the last Detroit automaker to recognize the United Auto Workers union (UAW). A sit-down strike by the UAW union in April 1941 closed the River Rouge Plant. Sorensen recounted that a distraught Henry Ford was very close to following through with a threat to break up the company rather than cooperate, but his wife Clara told him she would leave him if he destroyed the family business. In her view, it would not be worth the chaos it would create. Henry complied with his wife's ultimatum, and even agreed with her in retrospect. Overnight, the Ford Motor Company went from the most stubborn holdout among automakers to the one with the most favorable UAW contract terms. The contract was signed in June 1941.\n\nFord Airplane Company\n\nFord, like other automobile companies, entered the aviation business during World War I, building Liberty engines. After the war, it returned to auto manufacturing until 1925, when Ford acquired the Stout Metal Airplane Company.\n\nFord's most successful aircraft was the Ford 4AT Trimotor, often called the \"Tin Goose\" because of its corrugated metal construction. It used a new alloy called Alclad that combined the corrosion resistance of aluminum with the strength of duralumin. The plane was similar to Fokker's V.VII-3m, and some say that Ford's engineers surreptitiously measured the Fokker plane and then copied it. The Trimotor first flew on June 11, 1926, and was the first successful U.S. passenger airliner, accommodating about 12 passengers in a rather uncomfortable fashion. Several variants were also used by the U.S. Army. Ford has been honored by the Smithsonian Institution for changing the aviation industry. 199 Trimotors were built before it was discontinued in 1933, when the Ford Airplane Division shut down because of poor sales during the Great Depression.\n\nWillow Run\n\nPeace and war\n\nWorld War I era\n\nFord opposed war, which he viewed as a terrible waste. Ford became highly critical of those who he felt financed war, and he tried to stop them. In 1915, the pacifist Rosika Schwimmer gained favor with Ford, who agreed to fund a Peace Ship to Europe, where World War I was raging. He and about 170 other prominent peace leaders traveled there. Ford's Episcopalian pastor, Reverend Samuel S. Marquis, accompanied him on the mission. Marquis headed Ford's Sociology Department from 1913 to 1921. Ford talked to President Wilson about the mission but had no government support. His group went to neutral Sweden and the Netherlands to meet with peace activists. A target of much ridicule, Ford left the ship as soon as it reached Sweden. \n\nFord plants in the United Kingdom produced tractors to increase the British food supply, as well as trucks and aircraft engines. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917 the company became a major supplier of weapons, especially the Liberty engine for airplanes, and anti-submarine boats. \n\nIn 1918, with the war on and the League of Nations a growing issue in global politics, President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, encouraged Ford to run for a Michigan seat in the U.S. Senate. Wilson believed that Ford could tip the scales in Congress in favor of Wilson's proposed League. \"You are the only man in Michigan who can be elected and help bring about the peace you so desire,\" the president wrote Ford. Ford wrote back: \"If they want to elect me let them do so, but I won't make a penny's investment.\" Ford did run, however, and came within 4,500 votes of winning, out of more than 400,000 cast statewide. Ford remained a staunch Wilsonian and supporter of the League. When Wilson made a major speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to promote the League, Ford helped fund the attendant publicity. \n\nThe coming of World War II and Ford's mental collapse\n\nFord had opposed America's entry into World War II and continued to believe that international business could generate the prosperity that would head off wars. Ford \"insisted that war was the product of greedy financiers who sought profit in human destruction\"; in 1939 he went so far as to claim that the torpedoing of U.S. merchant ships by German submarines was the result of conspiratorial activities undertaken by financier war-makers. The financiers to whom he was referring was Ford's code for Jews; he had also accused Jews of fomenting the First World War. In the run-up to World War II and when the war erupted in 1939, he reported that he did not want to trade with belligerents. Like many other businessmen of the Great Depression era, he never liked or entirely trusted the Franklin Roosevelt Administration, and thought Roosevelt was inching the U.S. closer to war. However, Ford continued to do business with Nazi Germany, including the manufacture of war materiel. Beginning in 1940, with the requisitioning of between 100 and 200 French POWs to work as slave laborers, Ford-Werke contravened Article 31 of the 1929 Geneva Convention. At that time, which was before the U.S. entered the war and still had full diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany, Ford-Werke was under the control of the Ford Motor Company. The number of slave laborers grew as the war expanded although Wallace makes it clear that companies in Germany were not required by the Nazi authorities to use slave laborers.\n\nWhen Rolls-Royce sought a U.S. manufacturer as an alternative source for the Merlin engine (as fitted to Spitfire and Hurricane fighters), Ford first agreed to do so and then reneged. He \"lined up behind the war effort\" when the U.S. entered in late 1941. His support of the American war effort, however, was problematic.\n\nOnce the U.S. entered the war, Ford directed the Ford Motor Company to construct a vast new purpose-built factory at Willow Run near Detroit, Michigan. Ford broke ground on Willow Run in the spring of 1941, and the first B-24 came off the line in October 1942. At , it was the largest assembly line in the world at the time. At its peak in 1944, the Willow Run plant produced 650 B-24s per month, and by 1945 Ford was completing each B-24 in eighteen hours, with one rolling off the assembly line every 58 minutes.Nolan, Jenny. [http://info.detnews.com/redesign/history/story/historytemplate.cfm?id\n73&categorylocations \"Michigan History: Willow Run and the Arsenal of Democracy.\"] The Detroit News, 28 January 1997. Retrieved: 7 August 2010. Ford produced 9,000 B-24s at Willow Run, half of the 18,000 total B-24s produced during the war.\n\nWhen Edsel Ford died prematurely in 1943, Henry Ford nominally resumed control of the company, but a series of strokes in the late 1930s had left him increasingly debilitated, and his mental ability was fading. Ford was increasingly sidelined, and others made decisions in his name. The company was in fact controlled by a handful of senior executives led by Charles Sorensen, an important engineer and production executive at Ford; and Harry Bennett, the chief of Ford's Service Unit, Ford's paramilitary force that spied on, and enforced discipline upon, Ford employees. Ford grew jealous of the publicity Sorensen received and forced Sorensen out in 1944. Ford's incompetence led to discussions in Washington about how to restore the company, whether by wartime government fiat, or by instigating some sort of coup among executives and directors. Nothing happened until 1945 when, with bankruptcy a serious risk, Edsel's widow led an ouster and installed her son, Henry Ford II, as president. The young man took full control, and forced out Harry Bennett in a purge of the old guard in 1947.\n\nThe Dearborn Independent and antisemitism\n\nIn the early 1920s, Ford sponsored a weekly newspaper that published strongly antisemitic views. At the same time, Ford had a reputation as one of the few major corporations actively hiring black workers, and was not accused of discrimination against Jewish workers or suppliers. He also hired women and handicapped men at a time when doing so was uncommon. \n\nIn 1918, Ford's closest aide and private secretary, Ernest G. Liebold, purchased an obscure weekly newspaper for Ford, The Dearborn Independent. The Independent ran for eight years, from 1920 until 1927, with Liebold as editor. Every Ford franchise nationwide had to carry the paper and distribute it to its customers.\n\nDuring this period, Ford emerged as \"a respected spokesman for right-wing extremism and religious prejudice,\" reaching around 700,000 readers through his newspaper. The 2010 documentary film Jews and Baseball: An American Love Story (written by Pulitzer Prize winner Ira Berkow) states that Ford wrote on May 22, 1920: \"If fans wish to know the trouble with American baseball they have it in three words—too much Jew.\" \n\nIn Germany, Ford's antisemitic articles from The Dearborn Independent were issued in four volumes, cumulatively titled The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem published by Theodor Fritsch, founder of several antisemitic parties and a member of the Reichstag. In a letter written in 1924, Heinrich Himmler described Ford as \"one of our most valuable, important, and witty fighters.\" Ford is the only American mentioned favorably in Mein Kampf, although he is only mentioned once: Adolf Hitler wrote, \"only a single great man, Ford, [who], to [the Jews'] fury, still maintains full independence...[from] the controlling masters of the producers in a nation of one hundred and twenty millions.\" Speaking in 1931 to a Detroit News reporter, Hitler said he regarded Ford as his \"inspiration,\" explaining his reason for keeping Ford's life-size portrait next to his desk. Steven Watts wrote that Hitler \"revered\" Ford, proclaiming that \"I shall do my best to put his theories into practice in Germany,\" and modeling the Volkswagen, the people's car, on the Model T. \n\nHowever, Max Wallace has stated \"History records that...Adolf Hitler was an ardent Anti-Semite before he ever read Ford's The International Jew. \n\nOn February 1, 1924, Ford received Kurt Ludecke, a representative of Hitler, at home. Ludecke was introduced to Ford by Siegfried Wagner (son of the composer Richard Wagner) and his wife Winifred, both Nazi sympathizers and antisemites. Ludecke asked Ford for a contribution to the Nazi cause, but was apparently refused. \n\nWhile Ford's articles were denounced by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), the articles explicitly condemned pogroms and violence against Jews, but blamed the Jews for provoking incidents of mass violence. None of this work was written by Ford, but he allowed his name to be used as author. According to trial testimony, he wrote almost nothing. Friends and business associates have said they warned Ford about the contents of the Independent and that he probably never read the articles (he claimed he only read the headlines). However, court testimony in a libel suit, brought by one of the targets of the newspaper, alleged that Ford did know about the contents of the Independent in advance of publication.\n\nA libel lawsuit was brought by San Francisco lawyer and Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro in response to the antisemitic remarks, and led Ford to close the Independent in December 1927. News reports at the time quoted him as saying he was shocked by the content and unaware of its nature. During the trial, the editor of Ford's \"Own Page,\" William Cameron, testified that Ford had nothing to do with the editorials even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified at the libel trial that he never discussed the content of the pages or sent them to Ford for his approval. Investigative journalist Max Wallace noted that \"whatever credibility this absurd claim may have had was soon undermined when James M. Miller, a former Dearborn Independent employee, swore under oath that Ford had told him he intended to expose Sapiro.\" \n\nMichael Barkun observed:\n\nAccording to Spencer Blakeslee:\n\nWallace also found that Ford's apology was likely, at least partly, motivated by a business that was slumping as result of his antisemitism repelling potential buyers of Ford cars. Up until the apology, a considerable number of dealers, who had been required to make sure that buyers of Ford cars received the Independent, bought up and destroyed copies of the newspaper rather than alienate customers.\n\nFord's 1927 apology was well received. \"Four-Fifths of the hundreds of letters addressed to Ford in July 1927 were from Jews, and almost without exception they praised the industrialist.\", pp. 146–154. In January 1937, a Ford statement to the Detroit Jewish Chronicle disavowed \"any connection whatsoever with the publication in Germany of a book known as the International Jew.\"\n\nAccording to Pool and Pool (1978), Ford's retraction and apology (which were written by others) were not even truly signed by him (rather, his signature was forged by Harry Bennett), and Ford never privately recanted his antisemitic views, stating in 1940: \"I hope to republish The International Jew again some time.\"\n\nIn July 1938, before the outbreak of war, the German consul at Cleveland gave Ford, on his 75th birthday, the award of the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, the highest medal Nazi Germany could bestow on a foreigner. James D. Mooney, vice-president of overseas operations for General Motors, received a similar medal, the Merit Cross of the German Eagle, First Class. \n\nOn January 7, 1942, Ford wrote a letter to Sigmund Livingston as the Founder and National Chairman of the Anti-Defamation League. The purpose of the letter was to clarify some general misconceptions that he subscribed or supported directly or indirectly, “any agitation which would promote antagonism toward my Jewish fellow citizens.” He concluded the letter with “My sincere hope that now in this country and throughout the world when the war is finished, hatred of the Jews and hatred against any other racial or religious groups shall cease for all time.”“Arnstein & Lehr, The First 120 Years”, (Louis A. Lehr, Jr.)(Amazon), p. 32\n\nDistribution of The International Jew was halted in 1942 through legal action by Ford, despite complications from a lack of copyright. It is still banned in Germany. Extremist groups often recycle the material; it still appears on antisemitic and neo-Nazi websites.\n\nTestifying at Nuremberg, convicted Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach who, in his role as military governor of Vienna, deported 65,000 Jews to camps in Poland, stated:\n\nRobert Lacey wrote in Ford: The Men and the Machines that a close Willow Run associate of Ford reported that when he was shown newsreel footage of the Nazi concentration camps, he \"was confronted with the atrocities which finally and unanswerable laid bare the bestiality of the prejudice to which he contributed, he collapsed with a stroke – his last and most serious.\" Ford had suffered previous strokes and his final cerebral hemorrhage occurred in 1947 at age 83.\n\nInternational business\n\nFord's philosophy was one of economic independence for the United States. His River Rouge Plant became the world's largest industrial complex, pursuing vertical integration to such an extent that it could produce its own steel. Ford's goal was to produce a vehicle from scratch without reliance on foreign trade. He believed in the global expansion of his company. He believed that international trade and cooperation led to international peace, and he used the assembly line process and production of the Model T to demonstrate it. \n\nHe opened Ford assembly plants in Britain and Canada in 1911, and soon became the biggest automotive producer in those countries. In 1912, Ford cooperated with Giovanni Agnelli of Fiat to launch the first Italian automotive assembly plants. The first plants in Germany were built in the 1920s with the encouragement of Herbert Hoover and the Commerce Department, which agreed with Ford's theory that international trade was essential to world peace. In the 1920s, Ford also opened plants in Australia, India, and France, and by 1929, he had successful dealerships on six continents. Ford experimented with a commercial rubber plantation in the Amazon jungle called Fordlândia; it was one of his few failures.\n\nIn 1929, in the absence of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Soviet Union, Ford accepted an offer by the Soviet Government to provide technical aid in building the first Soviet automobile plant (GAZ) near Nizhny Novgorod (Gorky). The technical assistance agreement between the Ford Motor Company, VSNKh, and Amtorg (as purchasing agent) was concluded for nine years and was signed in Dearborn on May 31, 1929, by Henry Ford, vice-president of the Ford Motor Company, Peter E. Martin, vice-chairman of VSNKh, Valery I. Mezhlauk, and the president of Amtorg, Saul G. Bron (an additional contract for actual construction of the plant was signed with [http://www.theaustin.com/ The Austin Company] on August 23, 1929). The contract involved the purchase of $30,000,000 worth of knocked-down Ford cars and trucks for assembly during the first four years of the plant’s operation, after which the plant would gradually switch to Soviet-made components. Ford sent his engineers and technicians to the Soviet Union to help install the equipment and train the working force, while over a hundred Soviet engineers and technicians were stationed at Ford’s plants in Detroit and Dearborn “for the purpose of learning the methods and practice of manufacture and assembly in the Company's plants.” Said Ford: “No matter where industry prospers, whether in India or China, or Russia, the more profit there will be for everyone, including us. All the world is bound to catch some good from it.” \n\nBy 1932, Ford was manufacturing one third of all the world's automobiles. It set up numerous subsidiaries that sold or assembled the Ford cars and trucks:\n\nFord of Australia\nFord of Britain\nFord of Argentina\nFord of Brazil\nFord of Canada\nFord of Europe\nFord India\nFord South Africa\nFord Mexico\nFord Philippines\n\nFord's image transfixed Europeans, especially the Germans, arousing the \"fear of some, the infatuation of others, and the fascination among all\". Germans who discussed \"Fordism\" often believed that it represented something quintessentially American. They saw the size, tempo, standardization, and philosophy of production demonstrated at the Ford Works as a national service—an \"American thing\" that represented the culture of the United States. Both supporters and critics insisted that Fordism epitomized American capitalist development, and that the auto industry was the key to understanding economic and social relations in the United States. As one German explained, \"Automobiles have so completely changed the American's mode of life that today one can hardly imagine being without a car. It is difficult to remember what life was like before Mr. Ford began preaching his doctrine of salvation\". For many Germans, Ford embodied the essence of successful Americanism.\n\nIn My Life and Work, Ford predicted that if greed, racism, and short-sightedness could be overcome, then economic and technological development throughout the world would progress to the point that international trade would no longer be based on (what today would be called) colonial or neocolonial models and would truly benefit all peoples. His ideas in this passage were vague, but they were idealistic.\n\nRacing\n\nFord maintained an interest in auto racing from 1901 to 1913 and began his involvement in the sport as both a builder and a driver, later turning the wheel over to hired drivers. He entered stripped-down Model Ts in races, finishing first (although later disqualified) in an \"ocean-to-ocean\" (across the United States) race in 1909, and setting a one-mile (1.6 km) oval speed record at Detroit Fairgrounds in 1911 with driver Frank Kulick. In 1913, Ford attempted to enter a reworked Model T in the Indianapolis 500 but was told rules required the addition of another to the car before it could qualify. Ford dropped out of the race and soon thereafter dropped out of racing permanently, citing dissatisfaction with the sport's rules, demands on his time by the booming production of the Model Ts, and his low opinion of racing as a worthwhile activity.\n\nIn My Life and Work Ford speaks (briefly) of racing in a rather dismissive tone, as something that is not at all a good measure of automobiles in general. He describes himself as someone who raced only because in the 1890s through 1910s, one had to race because prevailing ignorance held that racing was the way to prove the worth of an automobile. Ford did not agree. But he was determined that as long as this was the definition of success (flawed though the definition was), then his cars would be the best that there were at racing. Throughout the book, he continually returns to ideals such as transportation, production efficiency, affordability, reliability, fuel efficiency, economic prosperity, and the automation of drudgery in farming and industry, but rarely mentions, and rather belittles, the idea of merely going fast from point A to point B.\n\nNevertheless, Ford did make quite an impact on auto racing during his racing years, and he was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1996.\n\nLater career and death\n\nWhen Edsel Ford, President of Ford Motor Company, died of cancer in May 1943, the elderly and ailing Henry Ford decided to assume the presidency. By this point in his life, he had had several cardiovascular events (variously cited as heart attacks or strokes) and was mentally inconsistent, suspicious, and generally no longer fit for such immense responsibilities. \n\nMost of the directors did not want to see him as President. But for the previous 20 years, though he had long been without any official executive title, he had always had de facto control over the company; the board and the management had never seriously defied him, and this moment was not different. The directors elected him, and he served until the end of the war. During this period the company began to decline, losing more than $10 million a month ($ today). The administration of President Franklin Roosevelt had been considering a government takeover of the company in order to ensure continued war production, but the idea never progressed.\n\nHis health failing, Ford ceded the company Presidency to his grandson, Henry Ford II, in September 1945 and went into retirement. He died on April 7, 1947, of a cerebral hemorrhage at Fair Lane, his estate in Dearborn, at the age of 83. A public viewing was held at Greenfield Village where up to 5,000 people per hour filed past the casket. Funeral services were held in Detroit's Cathedral Church of St. Paul and he was buried in the Ford Cemetery in Detroit. \n\nPersonal interests\n\nA compendium of short biographies of famous Freemasons, published by a Freemason lodge, lists Ford as a member. The Grand Lodge of New York confirms that Ford was a Freemason, and was raised in Palestine Lodge No. 357, Detroit, in 1894. When he received his 33rd in 1940, he said, \"Masonry is the best balance wheel the United States has.\" \n\nIn 1923, Ford's pastor, and head of his sociology department, Episcopal minister Samuel S. Marquis, claimed that Ford believed, or \"once believed,\" in reincarnation. \n\nFord published an anti-smoking book, circulated to youth in 1914, called The Case Against the Little White Slaver, which documented many dangers of cigarette smoking attested to by many researchers and luminaries. At the time smoking was ubiquitous and was not yet widely associated with health detriment, so Ford's opposition to cigarettes was unusual.\n\nInterest in materials science and engineering\n\nHenry Ford long had an interest in materials science and engineering. He enthusiastically described his company's adoption of vanadium steel alloys and subsequent metallurgic R&D work. \n\nFord long had an interest in plastics developed from agricultural products, especially soybeans. He cultivated a relationship with George Washington Carver for this purpose. Soybean-based plastics were used in Ford automobiles throughout the 1930s in plastic parts such as car horns, in paint, etc. This project culminated in 1942, when Ford patented an automobile made almost entirely of plastic, attached to a tubular welded frame. It weighed 30% less than a steel car and was said to be able to withstand blows ten times greater than could steel. Furthermore, it ran on grain alcohol (ethanol) instead of gasoline. The design never caught on. \n\nFord was interested in engineered woods (\"Better wood can be made than is grown\" ) (at this time plywood and particle board were little more than experimental ideas); corn as a fuel source, via both corn oil and ethanol; and the potential uses of cotton. Ford was instrumental in developing charcoal briquets, under the brand name \"Kingsford\". His brother in law, E.G. Kingsford, used wood scraps from the Ford factory to make the briquets.\n\nIn 1927 Ford partnered with Thomas Edison and Harvey Samuel Firestone (each contributing $25,000) to create the Edison Botanic Research Corp. in Fort Myers, Florida, to look for a native source of rubber.\n\nFord was a prolific inventor and was awarded 161 U.S. patents.\n\nFlorida and Georgia residences and community\n\nFord had a vacation residence in Fort Myers, Florida next to that of Thomas Edison, which he bought in 1915 and used until approximately 1930. It is still in existence today and is [http://www.edisonfordwinterestates.org open as a museum].\n\nHe also had a vacation home (known today as the \"Ford Plantation\") in Richmond Hill, Georgia which is still in existence today as a private community. Henry started buying land in this area and eventually owned 70,000 acres (110 square miles) there. In 1936, Ford broke ground for a beautiful Greek revival style mansion on the banks of the Ogeechee River on the site of a 1730s plantation. The grand house, made of Savannah-gray brick, had marble steps, air conditioning, and an elevator. It sat on 55 acres of manicured lawns and flowering gardens. The house became the center of social gatherings with visitations by the Vanderbilts, Rockefellers, and the DuPonts. It remains the centerpiece of [http://www.fordplantation.com The Ford Plantation] today. Ford converted the 1870s–era rice mill into his personal research laboratory and powerhouse and constructed an underground tunnel from there to the new home, providing it with steam. He contributed substantially to the community, building a chapel and schoolhouse and employing numerous local residents.\n\nPreserving Americana\n\nFord had an interest in \"Americana\". In the 1920s, Ford began work to turn Sudbury, Massachusetts, into a themed historical village. He moved the schoolhouse supposedly referred to in the nursery rhyme, \"Mary Had a Little Lamb\", from Sterling, Massachusetts, and purchased the historic Wayside Inn. This plan never saw fruition. Ford repeated the concept of collecting historic structures with the creation of Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. It may have inspired the creation of Old Sturbridge Village as well. About the same time, he began collecting materials for his museum, which had a theme of practical technology. It was opened in 1929 as the Edison Institute. Although greatly modernized, the museum continues today.\n\nIn popular culture\n\n* In Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932), society is organized on \"Fordist\" lines, the years are dated A.F. or Anno Ford (\"In the Year of our Ford\"), and the expression \"My Ford\" is used instead of \"My Lord\". The Christian cross is replaced with a capital \"T\" for Model-T.\n* Upton Sinclair created a fictional description of Ford in the 1937 novel The Flivver King.\n* Symphonic composer Ferde Grofe composed a tone poem in Henry Ford's honor (1938).\n* Ford is treated as a character in several historical novels, notably E. L. Doctorow's Ragtime (1975), and Richard Powers' novel Three Farmers on the Way to a Dance (1985).\n* Ford, his family, and his company were the subjects of a 1986 biography by Robert Lacey entitled Ford: The Men and the Machine. The book was adapted in 1987 into a film starring Cliff Robertson and Michael Ironside.\n* In the 2005 alternative history novel The Plot Against America, Philip Roth features Ford as Secretary of the Interior in a fictional Charles Lindbergh presidential administration.\n* The British author Douglas Galbraith uses the event of the Ford Peace Ship as the center of his novel King Henry (2007).[http://www.randomhouse.ca/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780436206283 RandomHouse.ca\|Books\|King Henry by Douglas Galbraith]\n* Ford appears as a Great Builder in the 2008 strategy video game Civilization Revolution. \n\nHonors and recognition\n\n* In December 1999, Ford was among 18 included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th Century, from a poll conducted of the American people.\n* In 1928, Ford was awarded the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal.\n* In 1938, Ford was awarded Nazi Germany's Grand Cross of the German Eagle, a medal given to foreigners sympathetic to Nazism. \n* The United States Postal Service honored Ford with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 12¢ postage stamp.\n* He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1946." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Forties", "1940–1949", "%6040s", "1940s", "Nineteen-forties", "1940s literature", "'40s", "1940-1949", "1940's", "1940s (decade)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "forties", "1940–1949", "1940 1949", "1940s", "1940 s", "6040s", "1940s literature", "40s", "nineteen forties", "1940s decade" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1940s", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "1940s" }
Ed Gagliardi, Al Greenwood and Dennis Elliot have all been in which group?	tc_953	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ed_Gagliardi.txt", "Al_Greenwood.txt" ], "title": [ "Ed Gagliardi", "Al Greenwood" ], "wiki_context": [ "Edward John 'Ed' Gagliardi (February 13, 1952 – May 11, 2014) was an American bass guitarist who was the original bass player for the 1970s rock band Foreigner. He was a member of Foreigner from the beginning in 1976. Gagliardi, most notably, played a red Rickenbacker bass guitar, left-handed even though he was naturally right-handed. It is widely known that he did so out of admiration, and devotion to Paul McCartney (most often self-doctored from right handed basses, reengineered and played upside down, by Gagliardi himself). Gagliardi was on the albums Foreigner and Double Vision, but was fired from the group in 1979.\n\nIn 1981, Gagliardi formed the band Spys with former Foreigner keyboardist Al Greenwood, a band that set the tone for much of the 80's synth-rock bands, and received acclaim within the musical community.\n\nIn the early 2000s, Gagliardi worked as a Service Department Writer at Rallye Lexus in Glen Cove, New York.\n\nGagliardi died of cancer on May 11, 2014, after battling cancer for eight years. Friends and family held a private ceremony.", "Alan \"Al\" Greenwood (born October 20, 1951, New York) is an American rock musician who was a founding member and keyboardist of the rock band Foreigner from 1976 to 1980. He performed on the albums Foreigner (1977), Double Vision (1978) and Head Games (1979).\n\nIn 1981, he formed the band Spys with former Foreigner bass player Ed Gagliardi, John Blanco, John Digaudio and Billy Milne and recorded the albums [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29417839?tabdetails Spys] (1982) and [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29436349&referer\nbrief_results Behind Enemy Lines] (1983). \n\nGreenwood played keyboards on one-time Rainbow (and future Yngwie Malmsteen's Rising Force) frontman Joe Lynn Turner's 1985 debut solo album, Rescue You. Greenwood also played keyboards on the song \"Shake, Shake, Shake\" by Sal \"the G-man\" Governale in the late eighties." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Foreigner (novel", "Foreigner (novel)", "Foreigner", "The Foreigner", "Foreigners", "Foreigner (disambiguation)", "Foreigner (album)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "foreigner novel", "foreigner", "foreigner album", "foreigners", "foreigner disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "foreigner", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Foreigner" }
"Which song starts, ""On a dark desert highway?"""	tc_956	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Hotel_California.txt" ], "title": [ "Hotel California" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Hotel California\" is the title track from the Eagles' album of the same name and was released as a single in February 1977. Writing credits for the song are shared by Don Felder (music), Don Henley, and Glenn Frey (lyrics). The Eagles' original recording of the song features Henley singing the lead vocals and concludes with an extended section of electric guitar interplay between Felder and Joe Walsh.\n\nThe song is considered the most famous recording of the band, and its long guitar coda has been voted the best guitar solo of all time. The song was awarded the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1978. The lyrics of the song have been given various interpretations by fans and critics alike, the Eagles themselves described the song as their \"interpretation of the high life in Los Angeles\". In the 2013 documentary History of the Eagles, Henley said that the song was about \"a journey from innocence to experience...that's all\"... \n\nHistory\n\nComposition\n\nThe melody of the song was composed by Don Felder in a rented house on Malibu Beach. He recorded the basic tracks with a Rhythm Ace drum machine and added a 12 string guitar on a four-track recording deck in his spare bedroom, then mixed in a bassline, and gave Don Henley and Glenn Frey each the resulting demo cassette. Felder, who met the Eagles through his high school bandmate Bernie Leadon, said that Leadon advised him to make tapes of songs he wrote for the band so that other band members like Henley, whose forte is in writing lyrics, might work with him on finishing the songs they like. The demos he made were always instrumental, and on every album project he would submit 15 or 16 ideas. The demo he made for Hotel California showed influences from Latin and reggae music, and it grabbed the attention of Henley who said he liked the song that \"sounds like a Mexican reggae or Bolero\", which gave the song its first working title, \"Mexican Reggae\". \n\nFrey and Henley were both interested in the tune after hearing the demo, and discussed the concept for the lyrics. In 2008, Felder described the writing of the lyrics:\n\nHenley decided on the theme of Hotel California, noting how The Beverly Hills Hotel had become a literal and symbolic focal point of their lives at that time. Henley said of their personal and professional experience in LA: \"We were getting an extensive education, in life, in love, in business. Beverly Hills was still a mythical place to us. In that sense it became something of a symbol, and the 'Hotel' the locus of all that LA had come to mean for us. In a sentence, I'd sum it up as the end of the innocence, round one.\"\n\nFrey came up with a cinematic scenario of a person who, tired from driving a long distance in a desert, saw a place for a rest and pulled in for the night, but entered \"a weird world peopled by freaky characters\", and became \"quickly spooked by the claustrophobic feeling of being caught in a disturbing web from which he may never escape.\" In an interview with Cameron Crowe, Frey said that he and Henley wanted the song \"to open like an episode of the Twilight Zone\", and added: \"We take this guy and make him like a character in The Magus, where every time he walks through a door there’s a new version of reality. We wanted to write a song just like it was a movie.\" Frey described the song in an interview with NBC's Bob Costas as a cinematic montage \"just one shot to the next ... a picture of a guy on the highway, a picture of the hotel, the guy walks in, the door opens, strange people.\" Frey continued: \"We decided to create something strange, just to see if we could do it.\" Henley then wrote most of the lyrics based on Frey's idea, and sought inspiration for the writing by driving out into the desert as well as from films and theater.\n\nPart of the lyrics, such as \"Her mind is Tiffany twisted, she got the Mercedes bends / She got a lot of pretty pretty boys she calls friends\", are based on Henley's break-up with his girlfriend Loree Rodkin. According to Glenn Frey's liner notes for The Very Best Of, the use of the word \"steely\" in the lyric, \"They stab it with their steely knives, but they just can't kill the beast,\" was a playful nod to the band Steely Dan, who had included the lyric \"Turn up the Eagles, the neighbors are listening\" in their song \"Everything You Did\". Frey had also said that the writing of the song was inspired by the boldness of Steely Dan's lyrics and its willingness to go \"out there\", and thought that the song they wrote had \"achieved perfect ambiguity.\"\n\nRecordings\n\nThe Eagles recorded the track with Don Henley on lead vocal three different times, twice in Los Angeles and finally in Miami. They first recorded a riff, but when it came to recording the vocal, it was found to be in too high a key for Henley's voice, so Felder progressively lowered the key from E minor, eventually settling on B minor. The second recording however was judged too fast. In Miami the band fine-tuned the instrumentation and the lyrics, recorded several takes, and the best parts were then spliced together to create the released version. According to the producer Bill Szymczyk, there were 33 edits on the two‑inch master. The final section features a guitar battle between Joe Walsh (who had replaced Bernie Leadon who left in 1975) and Felder, which took the two of them sitting together working for around three days to achieve the necessary precision. Walsh and Felder initially started improvising but Henley insisted that the recording should follow the music as first recorded in Felder's demo. \n\nHenley decided that the song should be a single, although Felder had doubts and the record company was reluctant to release it as a single because of the length of song which is over six minutes long, far exceeding the standard length of songs played by radio stations. The band took a stand and refused the label's request to shorten the song. The song was released as the second single from the album after \"New Kid in Town\". The front cover art for some overseas editions of the 45rpm single released was a reworked version of the Hotel California LP cover art, which used a photograph of the Beverly Hills Hotel by David Alexander, with design and art direction by Kosh. \n\nAs \"Hotel California\" became one of the group's most popular songs and a concert staple for the band, live recordings of the song have therefore also been released. The first live recording of the song appeared on the Eagles' 1980 live album, and an acoustic version with an extended intro is a track in the 1994 Hell Freezes Over reunion concert CD and video release. The Hell Freezes Over version is performed using eight guitars and has a decidedly Spanish sound, with Don Felder's flamenco-inspired arrangement and intro. During the band's Farewell 1 Tour-Live from Melbourne, the song was performed in a manner closer to the original 1977 album version, but with a trumpet intro before the actual start of the song.\n\nChart success\n\n\"Hotel California\" first entered the Billboard Hot 100 on chart dated February 26, 1977, and topped the Hot 100 singles chart for one week in May 1977, the band's fourth song to reach No. 1 on that chart. It peaked at number 10 on the Easy Listening chart in April 1977. Billboard ranked it number 19 on its 1977 Pop Singles year-end chart. Three months after its first release, the single was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), representing one million copies shipped. In 2009, the song was further certified Platinum (Digital Sales Award) by the RIAA for sales of one million digital downloads, and has since sold over 3 million downloads.\n\nAccolades\n\nThe Eagles won the 1977 Grammy Award for Record of the Year for \"Hotel California\" at the 20th Grammy Awards in 1978. \n\nThe song is rated highly in many rock music lists and polls; Rolling Stone magazine ranked it number 49 on its list of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". It was named one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. At the induction of the Eagles into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998, all seven former and present members of the band reunited to perform \"Hotel California\". \n\nThe song's guitar solo was voted the best solo of all time by readers of Guitarist magazine in 1998, and was ranked 8th on Guitar Magazines Top 100 Guitar Solos. The song was also included in the music video game Guitar Hero World Tour. It was ranked the number 1 in the list of the best 12-string guitar songs of all times by Guitar World magazine in 2015. \n\nThemes and interpretations\n\nDon Henley has given a number of explanations about the song, ranging from \"a journey from innocence to experience\" to \"a sociopolitical statement\". In an interview with Rolling Stone, Henley said that the song was meant to be \"more of a symbolic piece about America in general\", and added: \"Lyrically, the song deals with traditional or classical themes of conflict: darkness and light, good and evil, youth and age, the spiritual versus the secular. I guess you could say it's a song about loss of innocence.\" \n\nThe song has been described as being \"all about American decadence and burnout, too much money, corruption, drugs and arrogance; too little humility and heart.\" It has also been interpreted an allegory about hedonism, self-destruction, and greed in the music industry of the late 1970s. Don Henley called it \"our interpretation of the high life in Los Angeles\", and later said: \"It's basically a song about the dark underbelly of the American dream and about excess in America, which is something we knew a lot about.\" In the 2013 documentary, History of the Eagles, Henley reiterated:\n\nIn a 2009 interview, The Plain Dealer music critic John Soeder asked Don Henley if he regretted writing the lines \"So I called up the captain / 'Please bring me my wine' / He said, 'We haven't had that spirit here since 1969'\" because wines are fermented while spirits are distilled. Henley responded:\n\nThe \"spirit\" that Hotel California hasn't had since 1969 refers the spirit of social activism of the 1960s, and how disco and the related pop music of mid-1970s had turned away from it.\nConjectures\n\nThe metaphorical character of the story related in the lyrics has inspired a number of conjectural interpretations by listeners. In the 1980s some Christian evangelists alleged that \"Hotel California\" referred to a San Francisco hotel that was purchased by Anton LaVey and converted into his Church of Satan. Other rumors suggested that the Hotel California was the Camarillo State Mental Hospital. \n\nThe term \"colitas\" in the first stanza (\"warm smell of colitas, rising up through the air\") has been interpreted as a sexual slang or a reference to marijuana. \"Colitas\" means \"little tails\" in Spanish; in Mexican slang it refers to buds of the cannabis (marijuana) plant. According to Glenn Frey, the \"warm smell\" is \"colitas...it means little tails, the very top of the plant.\" The Eagles' manager Irving Azoff appears to lend support to the marijuana hypothesis, however, Felder said: \"The colitas is a plant that grows in the desert that blooms at night, and it has this kind of pungent, almost funky smell. Don Henley came up with a lot of the lyrics for that song, and he came up with colitas.\"\n\nOther interpretations of the songs include heroin addiction and cannibalism. On the various interpretations, Henley said: \"Some of the wilder interpretations of that song have been amazing. It was really about the excesses of American culture and certain girls we knew. But it was also about the uneasy balance between art and commerce.\" \n\nHarmonic structure\n\nThe intro and verse's chord pattern counts eight measures, each one assigned to a single chord. Seven different chords are used in the eight measures. As the song opens, it is not until the eighth measure that a chord is repeated. The song is initially in the key of B-minor. \n\nThe chords are played as follows:\n\nBm–F–A–E–G–D–Em–F\n\nor\n\ni–V–VII–IV–VI–III–iv–V\n\nThe eight measure sequence is repeated in the intro, for each verse and in the outro, providing the harmonic framework for the entire extended dual guitar solo at the end of the song. One explanation of the progression is that it is a common flamenco chord progression called the \"Spanish progression\" (i–VII–VI–V in a phrygian context) that is interspersed with consecutive fifths. With its descending ostinato pattern, it could be considered a fandango, a forerunner of the Baroque chaconne form. \n\nThis chord sequence is not a commonly used progression and Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull has pointed out its similarity to his song \"We Used to Know\" from their 1969 album Stand Up, suggesting the Eagles heard it when they toured together. While the Eagles had opened for Jethro Tull in June 1972, Don Felder, who wrote the music, did not join the band until 1974 and would not have been in the audience or backstage. Felder has said that he had never heard \"We Used to Know\", and that he was unfamiliar with Jethro Tull apart from the fact the frontman plays a flute. \n\nThe chorus, or refrain, uses five of the song's seven chords, structured with the melody in a way that shifts the key from B-minor to its relative major of D:\n\nG–D–Em–Bm–G–D–Em–F\nor assuming a key of D:\n\nIV–I–ii–vi–IV–I–ii–III\n\nCover versions and parodies\n\nAl B. Sure! recorded his rendition for his album, Private Times...and the Whole 9! (1990). Gipsy Kings recorded a flamenco version sung in Spanish, which was used in the soundtrack for the film The Big Lebowski. The Orb, under the name of Jam On The Mutha produced a version which charted at No. 62 on the UK chart in 1990. Alabama 3 covered the song for the album, La Peste (2000). The Cat Empire recorded a version sung in French \"L'hotel de Californie\" for Triple J's Like a Version segment, and is included in its 2005 compilation album as well as the band's 2003 live album On the Attack. The Killers and Rhythms del Mundo collaborated their version with Afro-Cuban music for the 2009 Artists' Project Earth charity, and it appeared on the album Rhythms del Mundo Classics. \n\nFrank Ocean released a version sampling the entire instrumental track of \"Hotel California\" with his own vocal and lyrics on his mixtape Nostalgia, Ultra (2011), entitled \"American Wedding\". However, it led to a threatened lawsuit from Don Henley for copyright infringement. \n\nMike Piranha recorded \"Hotel Honolulu\" in 1998, satirizing overdevelopment, crime, and other issues on Oahu, which became a local hit in Hawaii. The Romanian band Vama Veche recorded its version with different lyrics entitled \"\", sung in its native language. \n\nIn 2014 Lydia Lunch and Cypress Grove released a cover of the song Hotel California on their split album Twin Horses. \n\nIn 2016, Norwegian heavy metal singer Jorn Lande released a cover of Hotel California on his album Heavy Rock Radio.\n\nCultural influence\n\n\"Hotel California\" and its lyrics have become absorbed into the wider culture around the world, and have been used by various writers and commentators to reflect on issues ranging from politics to social media and welfare, or as an observation on a particular situation. The lines \"We are programmed to receive / You can check out any time you like / But you can never leave!\" were used by an economist to refer to how the appeal of an attractive \"Hotel California\"-type host country to foreign investors may be countered by the cost of exit on leaving the country. A term \"The Hotel California Effect\" was then used to refer to the negative effect of financial regulations on investment, and the problems foreigner investors faced when getting their money out of China. It has also applied to other ideas such as leaving a service provider or social media network. A book titled Operation Hotel California: The Clandestine War Inside Iraq was written about the clandestine operation named after the song title by CIA–US Special Forces teams in Iraqi Kurdistan in the lead-up to the Iraq War. \n\nAlthough the Eagles have been noted for their reluctance to license their songs for use in shows, the song has been used in a number of films and television shows, such as The Big Lebowski (performed by Gipsy Kings), Absolutely Fabulous, and The Sopranos. Most recently it was used during the final scenes of the premiere episode of American Horror Story: Hotel in October 2015. \n\nPersonnel\n\nDon Henley – lead and backing vocals, drums, percussion\nGlenn Frey – 12-string acoustic guitar, backing vocals\nDon Felder – 12- and 6-string electric guitars, backing vocals\nJoe Walsh – electric guitar, backing vocals\n*Randy Meisner – bass, backing vocals\n\nCharts and certifications\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "On a dark desert highway", "Welcome to the Hotel California", "Hotel California (song)", "Hotel California", "The Hotel California" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "on dark desert highway", "hotel california song", "hotel california", "welcome to hotel california" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "hotel california", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Hotel California" }
What was Rambo's first name?	tc_959	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "First_Blood.txt", "Rambo.txt", "John_Rambo.txt", "The_Rambos.txt" ], "title": [ "First Blood", "Rambo", "John Rambo", "The Rambos" ], "wiki_context": [ "First Blood is a 1982 American action adventure film directed by Ted Kotcheff. It is co-written by and starring Sylvester Stallone as John Rambo, a troubled and misunderstood Vietnam veteran who must rely on his combat and survival senses against the abusive law enforcement of a small town. It is based on David Morrell's 1972 novel of the same name and is the first installment of the Rambo series. Brian Dennehy and Richard Crenna also appear in supporting roles.\n\nThe film was released in the United States on October 22, 1982. Despite initial mixed reviews, the film was a box office success, grossing $47.2 million at the box office. Since its release, First Blood has received reappraisal from critics, with many praising the roles of Stallone, Dennehy, and Crenna, and has been recognized as a cult classic and an influential film in the action genre. The film's success spawned a franchise, consisting of three sequels (all which were co-written by and starred Stallone), an animated series, comic books, and novels. A fifth film, tentatively titled Rambo: Last Stand, was cancelled in January 2016 when Stallone stated that he was retiring the character. \n\nPlot\n\nSeven years after his discharge, Vietnam War veteran John Rambo (Sylvester Stallone) travels by foot to visit one of his old comrades, only to learn upon his arrival that his friend had died from cancer due to Agent Orange exposure during the war.\n\nDistraught, Rambo continues to travel, wandering into the small town of Hope, Washington. He is intercepted by the town's arrogant and abusive Sheriff Will Teasle (Brian Dennehy), who considers him an unwanted nuisance. When Rambo asks for directions to a diner, Teasle drives him out of town and tells him not to return. Rambo does so anyway, so Teasle arrests him on charges of vagrancy, resisting arrest, and possessing a concealed knife.\n\nLed by sadistic chief deputy Art Galt (Jack Starrett), Teasle's officers bully and abuse Rambo, reminding him of the torture he endured as a POW in Vietnam. When they try to dry-shave him with a straight razor, Rambo snaps, overwhelms the police force as he fights his way outside, and flees into the woods. A furious Teasle organizes a search party—complete with automatic weapons, dogs, and a helicopter—to recapture him. During the search, it is learned that Rambo is a former Green Beret who received the Medal of Honor for his service. Galt spots Rambo and resorts to lethal force in defiance of orders, attempting to murder Rambo from the helicopter. He hangs from the outside of the chopper in an attempt to get a better aim at shooting Rambo. Rambo then throws a rock at the helicopter's windshield, fracturing it; the pilot is surprised and his sudden reaction causes Galt to lose his balance and fall out of the chopper to his death.\n\nRambo attempts to persuade Teasle and his men it was an accident and that he wants no more trouble, but the police open fire and pursue him into a wooded area. Rambo disables the deputies non-lethally one by one using his combat prowess, until only Teasle is left. Holding a knife to his throat, Rambo threatens to fight back much harder if he doesn't \"let it go\".\n\nTeasle chooses to press the issue, and the Washington State Patrol and the Washington Army National Guard are called in to assist in the manhunt. At the same time, Rambo's mentor and former commanding officer, Colonel Sam Trautman (Richard Crenna) arrives in Hope. Warning of his former soldier's abilities, Trautman advises that Rambo be given a gap to slip through so he can be recaptured more safely later. Confident that Rambo is hopelessly outnumbered, Teasle refuses.\n\nA National Guard detachment corners Rambo at the entrance of an abandoned mine; against orders, they use a M72 LAW rocket, collapsing the entrance and apparently killing Rambo. However, he survives, finds an alternate way out of the mine, and hijacks a supply truck, which he uses to return to town. To distract his pursuers, he starts a fire at a gas station, blowing it up, shoots out most of the town's power, and destroys a gun store near the police station with a stolen M60 machine gun to distract and locate Teasle.\n\nTeasle, meanwhile, has positioned himself on the roof of his station to search for Rambo, and is spotted there by him in the confusion he created. The two engage in a brief gunfight, which ends with Teasle falling through a skylight, badly injured by Rambo shooting him through the ceiling. Rambo prepares to kill him, but Trautman arrives and warns Rambo that he will be shot if he doesn't surrender. Rambo collapses to the floor in tears where he talks about the things that happened to him in Vietnam and when he returned home. He then suffers a Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder-triggered breakdown before surrendering to Trautman, and he then is put into state custody and driven away as Teasle is sent to the hospital.\n\nCast\n\n* Sylvester Stallone as John Rambo\n* Richard Crenna as Colonel Sam Trautman\n* Brian Dennehy as Sheriff Will Teasle\n* Bill McKinney as Dave Kern\n* Jack Starrett as Art Galt\n* Michael Talbott as Balford\n* Chris Mulkey as Ward\n* John McLiam as Orval \n* Alf Humphreys as Lester\n* David Caruso as Mitch\n* David L. Crowley as Shingleton\n* Don MacKay as Preston\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nShortly after David Morrell's novel was published in 1972, Columbia Pictures bought the filming rights at the behest of producer Laurence Turman for a reported $75,000. Richard Brooks was originally attached to direct. Brooks spent a year on the project, researching it and writing a never completed 115 page script, which was to place more emphasis on the character of the sheriff, and end with an unarmed Rambo being killed. Brooks did not have an actor in mind for Rambo but wanted Lee Marvin or Burt Lancaster to play the sheriff, and Bette Davis to play a psychiatrist who deals with Rambo. However Brooks was not happy with the script and did not want to make the film when Columbia wanted to, and the project fell apart.\n\nJohn Calley at Warner Bros. then spent $125,000 to acquire the project from Columbia. Clint Eastwood and Robert de Niro were discussed for the lead and Martin Ritt agreed to direct from a script by Walter Newman (Newman did three drafts). In this version both Rambo and the sergeant died, and Trautman, \"the true villain of the piece\", according to Ritt, was allowed to live. Ritt says he wanted Bob Mitchum to play the sheriff and Paul Newman to play Rambo. \n\nThe Ritt version was never made. The next director to be attached was Sydney Pollack, who in late 1974 considered doing it with Steve McQueen as Rambo and Burt Lancaster as the sheriff. However ultimately he decided against it. \n\nIn 1975, Martin Bregman became attached and developed the project as a vehicle for Al Pacino. David Rabe was hired to write a script. However Pacino declined to make it. Rabe's script then briefly attracted the attention of Mike Nichols; and for a time Ray Stark and Martin Ritt (again) were interested.\n\nIn 1977, producer William Sackheim became involved and wrote a script with Michael Kozoll. Sackheim wanted to make the film with director John Badham starring John Travolta as Rambo, George C. Scott as Trautman and Gene Hackman or Charles Durning as the sheriff. Sackheim spent eight months on the project but could not get finance.\n\nProducer Carter De Haven then optioned the project from Warner Bros for $25,000 and attached John Frankenheimer as director. Powers Boothe, Nick Nolte and Michael Douglas were considered for Rambo; in the end Brad Davis, coming off Midnight Express, was cast. Cinema Group were to finance and Filmways to distribute. However, before filming started Filmways were taken over by Orion and the movie went into limbo.\n\nCarolco then brought the property from Warner Bros for $375,000 and paid Cinema Group $150,000 for the Sackheim-Kozoll script. They then approached Sylvester Stallone who agreed to play the role.\n\nIt was later estimated there were eighteen versions of the script. A writer who turned down the job was John Milius, who was approached in the late 1970s. However Milius' producer, Buzz Feitshans eventually produced the movie after the original producer, Ed Carlin, died of a heart attack.\n \nTed Kotcheff had been approached with the project in 1976. He only returned to work on First Blood after Mario Kassar and Andrew G. Vajna of Anabasis offered to finance one of his projects. Kotcheff offered the role of John Rambo to Sylvester Stallone, and the actor accepted after reading the script through a weekend.\n\nStallone did an estimated seven revisions of the script. Ted Kotcheff requested further work be done on the script. This was performed by Larry Gross and David Giler.\n\nCasting\n\nLong before Stallone was hired to play Rambo, other actors were being considered for the role such as Clint Eastwood, Robert De Niro, Paul Newman, Nick Nolte, Ryan O'Neal, James Garner, Kris Kristofferson, Terence Hill were all offered the role but rejected it because they considered it \"too violent\". When Al Pacino was considered for the role of John Rambo, he turned it down when his request that Rambo be more of a madman was rejected. Prior to Stallone taking the lead role, Steve McQueen expressed interest in it. \n\nWhen David Morrell wrote the novel in 1972 the producers first considered McQueen but then rejected him because they considered him too old to play a Vietnam veteran from 1975. \n\nFor the role of Sheriff Teasle, the producers approached Academy Award winners Gene Hackman and Robert Duvall but both turned the part down. Lee Marvin, another Oscar winner, turned down the part of Colonel Trautman. Kirk Douglas was eventually hired, but just before shooting began, Douglas quit the role of Colonel Trautman over a script dispute; Douglas wanted the film to end as the book did, with the death of the Rambo character. Rock Hudson was approached but was soon to undergo heart surgery and had to pass up the chance to work with Stallone. Richard Crenna was quickly hired as a replacement; the role of Trautman became the veteran character actor's most famous role, his performance of which received much critical praise.\n\nScreenplay\n\nVarious screenplays adapted from Morrell's book had been pitched to studios in the years since its publication but it was only when Stallone, who at the time had limited success outside of the Rocky franchise (most of his non-Rocky films either barely broke even or were flops altogether), decided to become involved with the project that it was finally brought into production. Stallone's star power after the success of the Rocky films enabled him to rewrite the script, to make the character of John Rambo more sympathetic. While Morrell's book has the Rambo character violently kill many of his pursuers—Kozoll and Sackheim's draft had him killing sixteen people—in the movie version Rambo does not directly cause the death of any police or national guardsmen. Stallone also decided to let Rambo survive the film instead of keeping the book's ending where he dies. A suicide scene was filmed but Kotcheff and Stallone opted to have Rambo turn himself in at Trautman's urging.\n\nShooting\n\nThe film was shot in British Columbia, Canada in the winter. The town scenes in the movie were shot in Hope, while the rest of the movie was shot in Golden Ears Provincial Park and Pitt Lake in Pitt Meadows. The weaponry used in the film had to be imported into Canada. Over 50 of the imported firearms were stolen midway through the filming. \n\nPost-production\n\nThe first rough cut was over three hours, possibly three and a half hours long and according to Sylvester Stallone, it was so bad that it made him and his agent sick. Stallone wanted to buy the movie and destroy it thinking that it was a career killer. After heavy re-editing, the film was cut down to 93 minutes; this version was ultimately released in theaters. \n\nMusic\n\nThe film's score was composed and conducted by Jerry Goldsmith, whose theme \"It's a Long Road\" added a new dimension to the character, and featured in the film's three sequels and animated spin-off. The soundtrack was originally released on LP by the Regency label, although it was edited out of sequence for a more satisfying listen. The album was reissued on CD with one extra track (\"No Power\") twice, first as one of Intrada Records' initial titles, then as an identical release by Varèse Sarabande. The complete score was released by Intrada in a 2-CD set, along with a remastered version of the original album (with the Carolco logo [previously released on La-La Land Records' Extreme Prejudice album] and the Rambo: First Blood Part II trailer music added), on November 23, 2010, as one of their MAF unlimited titles.\n\n;CD 1 – Complete Original Soundtrack\n# \"Theme from First Blood\" (pop orchestra version)\n# \"Home Coming\"\n# \"My Town\"\n# \"Under Arrest\"\n# \"The Razor\"\n# \"A Head Start\"\n# \"Hanging On\"\n# \"Over the Cliff\"\n# \"A Stitch in Time\"\n# \"Mountain Hunt\"\n# \"No Truce\"\n# \"First Blood\"\n# \"The Tunnel\"\n# \"Escape Route\"\n# \"The Truck\"\n# \"No Power/Night Attack\"\n# \"Hide and Seek\"\n# \"It's a Long Road\" (instrumental)\n# \"It's a Long Road (Theme from First Blood)\" (vocal: Dan Hill)\n\n;CD 2 – Original 1982 Soundtrack Album\n# \"It's a Long Road (Theme from First Blood)\" (vocal: Dan Hill)\n# \"Escape Route\"\n# \"First Blood\"\n# \"The Tunnel\"\n# \"Hanging On\"\n# \"Home Coming\"\n# \"Mountain Hunt\"\n# \"My Town\"\n# \"The Razor\"\n# \"Over the Cliff\"\n# \"It's a Long Road\" (instrumental)\n# \"It's a Long Road\" (recording session piano/vocal demo)\n# \"Carolco Logo\"\n# \"Rambo\" (Special Summer 1984 trailer)\n\nRelease\n\nBox office performance\n\nFirst Blood topped the North American box office for three weeks in a row, and its $6,642,005 opening weekend was the best October opening at the time. The film ended as a significant financial success, with a total gross of $47 million domestically, ranking as the 13th highest-grossing film of the year, and $125 million worldwide, against a $14 million budget. \n\nCritical reception and legacy\n\nFirst Blood originally received generally mixed reviews, with several critics noting that the plot lacks any sense of credibility. Variety called the film \"a mess\" and criticized its ending for not providing a proper resolution for the main character. Although Bill Chambers of Film Freak Central praised Stallone's performance, stating that he \"hits his climactic breakdown monologue out of the park\" with a performance that was \"sweet and moving\", he gave the film two stars out of four. He stated \"devotees of Joseph Campbell embrace First Blood because it has clear mythological roots, but recognizable art isn't always valid art\". Leonard Maltin gave the film one-and a half stars out of four, saying that it \"throws all creditability to the winds about the time [Rambo] gets off with only a bad cut after jumping from a mountain into some jagged rocks.\" \nIn 2008, First Blood was named the 253rd greatest film ever by Empire magazine on its 2008 list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. \n\nContemporary and retrospective reviews of the film have been positive, and it is considered by many as one of the best films of 1982. First Bloods release on DVD sparked a series of contemporary reviews, earning it an 87% \"Fresh\" rating from Rotten Tomatoes and a score of 62 (\"generally favorable\") from Metacritic.\n\nThe film's three lead actors received much praise for their performances. In his review, Roger Ebert wrote that he did not like the film's ending, but that it was \"a very good movie, well-paced, and well-acted not only by Stallone... but also by Crenna and Brian Dennehy\". He commented, \"although almost all of First Blood is implausible, because it's Stallone on the screen, we'll buy it\", and rated the film three out of four stars. In 2000, BBC film critic Almar Haflidason noted that Stallone’s training in survival skills and hand-to-hand combat gave the film \"a raw and authentic edge that excited the audiences of the time\". James Berardinelli of ReelViews called the film \"a tense and effective piece of filmmaking\". He noted that the film's darker tone, somber subtext, and non-exploitative violence allowed the viewer to enjoy the film not only as an action/thriller but as something with a degree of intelligence and substance. On Stallone's performance, he wrote \"it seems impossible to imagine anyone other than Stallone in the part, and his capabilities as an actor should not be dismissed\".\n \n\nFirst Blood has received the most positive reception of the Rambo series, whilst the next three sequels received mixed or average reviews. Still they did develop strong cult followings. \n\nIn a 2011 article for Blade Magazine, by Mike Carter, credit is given to Morrell and the Rambo franchise for revitalizing the cutlery industry in the 1980s; due to the presence of the Jimmy Lile and Gil Hibben knives used in the films. In 2003, Blade Magazine gave Morrell an industry achievement award for having helped to make it possible. \n\nHome media\n\nAuthor Morrell recorded an audio commentary track for the First Blood Special Edition DVD released in 2002. Actor Stallone recorded an audio commentary track for the First Blood Ultimate Edition DVD released in 2004. This edition also includes a \"never-before-seen\" alternate ending in which Rambo commits suicide (a brief snippet of which appears in a flashback in the fourth film) and a \"humorous\" ending tacked on afterwards. Lionsgate also released this version on Blu-ray. Both commentary tracks are on the Blu-ray release.\n\nMomentum Pictures released an HD DVD version of First Blood in the United Kingdom in April 2007. Lionsgate also released First Blood as a double feature on February 13, 2007, along with the 2004's The Punisher.\n\nThe film was re-released as part of a 6-disc box set, which contains all four films in the series, on May 27, 2008. However the box set is missing the David Morrell commentary, even though the packaging clearly states it is included. In anticipation of the release, the film was shown back in theaters for one night, May 15, 2008, through Fathom Events; the alternate ending was shown after the main feature.", "Rambo may refer to:\n\n* Rambo (film series), starring Sylvester Stallone, commonly named after the main character\n John Rambo, main character from the Rambo film series, based on the novel First Blood by David Morrell\n First Blood (1982), first of the series, also known as Rambo\n Rambo: First Blood Part II, the 1985 film sequel to First Blood\nRambo III (1988), third of the series\n Rambo (2008 film) (2008), fourth of the series\n Rambo: The Force of Freedom, a 1986 animated series\n Rambo (1985 video game), based on the film series\n Rambo: First Blood Part II (Master System video game), (titled simply Rambo in-game), a 1986 video game\n Rambo (Nintendo Entertainment System game), based on the film series\n Rambo: The Video Game, a 2014 video game\n* John Rambo, character from TV series Guest House\n* Rambo, main character in the film Syndicate Sadists (1975), also known as Rambo's Revenge\n* Rambo (2012 film)\n\nReal people\n\nWith the surname Rambo \n\nBacarri Rambo, American Football Player for the Buffalo Bills\n Buck Rambo, musician of The Rambos\n* Cat Rambo, science-fiction and fantasy author and editor.\n* Dack Rambo, a 20th-century American actor\n* David Rambo, writer, actor and producer\n* Dottie Rambo, Southern Gospel singer and songwriter of The Rambos\n* John Rambo (politician), 17th-18th-century American politician, son of Peter Gunnarsson Rambo\n* John Rambo (athlete), American high jumper\n* Ken-Yon Rambo, American gridiron football player\n* Peter Gunnarsson Rambo, 17th-century Swedish immigrant to the USA, introducer of the Rambo apple\n* Ralph Rambo, historian\n* Reba Rambo-McGuire, Southern Gospel singer, also The Rambos\n* Victor Clough Rambo (1894–1987), American physician\n\nWith the nickname or pseudonym Rambo \n\n* Afzal Khan (actor), Pakistani actor also known as \"John Rambo\"\n* Luc Poirier, a professional wrestler whose professional name is \"Rambo\"\n* Trond Henriksen, Norwegian football manager nicknamed \"Rambo\"\n* Niko Eeckhout, Belgian cyclist whose nickname is \"Rambo\"\n* Rambo Amadeus, Serbian-Montenegrin rock musician\n* Julio César de León, a Honduran Soccer player nicknamed \"Rambo\"\n* Alan McInally, a Scottish former soccer player and male model nicknamed \"Rambo\"\n* Jorge Otero Barreto, known as \"the Puerto Rican Rambo\"\n* Javier Elenes Ruiz, alias \"Rambo\", a Mexican Sinaloa drug cartel kingpin\n* John \"Rambo\" Arias, one of the hip hop trio 1 Life 2 Live\n* Ronald \"Rambo\" Kim, American Counter-Strike player\n\nPlaces\n\n* Rambo, a village in Vindeln Municipality, Sweden\n* Rambo, a hill in Åtvidaberg Municipality, Sweden\n* Rambo, a town in Yatenga Province, Burkina Faso\n* Rambo Department, Burkina Faso\n* RAMBO, Brooklyn, a neighborhood in New York City, U.S.\n\nOther\n\n* Rambo apple, a fruit variety\n* Rambo, a 2011 album by bhangra singer Malkit Singh\n* Icarus F99 Rambo, a Romanian ultralight aircraft\n* R.A.M.B.O., a hardcore punk band.\n* Robust Associations of Massive Baryonic Objects, a theoretical construct in astrophysics", "John Rambo (born July 4, 1947) is a fictional character in the Rambo saga. He first appeared in the 1972 novel First Blood by David Morrell, but later became more famous as the protagonist of the film series, in which he was played by Sylvester Stallone. The portrayal of the character earned Stallone widespread acclaim and recognition. The character was nominated for American Film Institute's list 100 Years…100 Heroes and Villains. The term \"Rambo\" is used commonly to describe a person who is reckless, disregards orders, uses violence to solve problems, enters dangerous situations alone, and is exceptionally tough and aggressive. \n\nPersonality and appearance \n\nIn the novel and first film, Rambo appears as a soldier who suffers from post traumatic stress disorder and has difficulty adjusting to normal life. He is shown to be prone to violence because of the torture he suffered at the hands of North Vietnamese soldiers in the Vietnam War. In the next films and novelizations he is displayed as a man who wants to stay away from conflict but is willing to do anything to save his friends and the people he cares about from any danger. Due to his violent nature, many civil people tend to fear him. However, Colonel Samuel Trautman (who was his commanding officer in Vietnam and is probably his only friend) understands him and the pain and torture he had endured in the war and is the only one able to reason with him when he goes on a rampage in the town of Hope. \n\nRambo has a muscular physique due to his time as a soldier in the army and his intense training regimen. He has a high amount of strength and stamina. Rambo is an expert in surviving in dense forests against a large number of enemies due to his experiences in the Vietnam War. He is also an expert in guerrilla tactics, weapons, and hand-to-hand combat. Rambo has black hair and brown eyes. His height is 5'10\". In the DVD commentary for 'First Blood' Morell remarks that the inspiration for Rambo was World War II hero Audie Murphy.\n\nFictional biography \n\nAccording to the first film First Blood, Rambo's full name is John Rambo. He was born on July 6, 1947 in Bowie, Arizona, to a Navajo father (whose name according to the last film was probably R. Rambo) and an Italian American mother Marie Drago. However, in Rambo: First Blood Part II, Marshall Murdock states that Rambo is of American Indian and German descent. Rambo enlisted in the U.S. Army at the age of 18 on August 6, 1964, although he states in Rambo IV he was \"drafted into Vietnam.\" After he graduated from Rangeford High School in 1965, his military service began in January 1966. Rambo was deployed to South Vietnam in September 1966. He returned to the U.S. in 1967 and began training with the U.S. Army Special Forces at Fort Bragg, North Carolina under Colonel Trautman's tutelage.\n\nIn late 1969, Rambo was re-deployed to Vietnam as member of a SOG brigade. He became part of a Special Forces Long-range reconnaissance patrol unit commanded by Colonel Trautman. Trautman's team received the code name of Baker Team and usually consisted of eight men. Other known members were Delmore Barry (an African American operative who quickly became Rambo's best friend), Joseph \"Joey\" Danforth (another friend of Rambo), Manuel \"Loco\" Ortega, Paul Messner, Delbert Krackhauer, Giuseppe \"Greasy Cunt\" Colletta and Ralph Jorgenson. In an event that would haunt Rambo for the rest of his life, Danforth died in Rambo's arms after being fatally wounded by a rigged shoeshine box while their unit was on rest and recuperation time.\n\nDuring a mission in November 1971 Rambo's unit came under surprise attack by NVA forces. Delmore, Rambo and some other surviving members were captured by North Vietnamese forces near the Chinese-Vietnamese border and held at a POW camp, where many other American POWs were imprisoned and repeatedly tortured. Rambo's unit was decimated during the ordeal, but Delmore and Rambo managed to escape captivity in May 1972. By his own request Rambo was immediately re-deployed afterwards. At some point in his military career he also received training in flying helicopters. Rambo finally received his official military discharge on September 17, 1974. \n\nUpon his return to the United States, Rambo discovered that many American civilians hated the soldiers returning from Vietnam, and he claimed that he and other returning soldiers were subject to humiliation and embarrassment by anti-war \"hippies\" who threw garbage at them, called them \"baby killers\", and excluded them from society. His experiences in Vietnam and back home resulted in an extreme case of post-traumatic stress disorder. At the same time, inner questions of self-identity and reflectiveness had commenced to cause Rambo to lash out at society rather than handling difficult situations in a \"civilized\" manner. First Blood picks up from this point.\n\nFirst Blood \n\nNovel \n\nIn the original novel, Rambo is hitch-hiking in Madison, Kentucky. He is picked up by Sheriff Teasle and dropped off at the city limits. Repeatedly coming back, Rambo is arrested by Teasle and driven to the station. He is charged with vagrancy and resisting arrest, and is sentenced to 35 days in jail. Being trapped inside the cold, wet, small cells gives Rambo a flashback of his days as a POW in Vietnam, and he fights off the cops as they attempt to cut his hair and shave him, beating one man and slashing another with the straight razor, killing him. He flees, steals a motorcycle, and hides in the nearby mountains. He becomes the focus of a manhunt that results in the deaths of many police officers, civilians, and National Guardsmen.\n\nIn a climactic ending in the town where his conflict with Teasle began, Rambo is finally hunted down by Special Forces Captain Sam Trautman and Teasle. Teasle, using his local knowledge, manages to surprise Rambo and shoots him in the chest, but is himself wounded in the abdomen by a return shot. He then tries to pursue Rambo as he makes a final attempt to escape back out of the town. Both men are essentially dying by this point, but are driven by pride and a desire to justify their actions. Rambo, having found a spot he feels comfortable in, prepares to commit suicide by detonating a stick of dynamite against his body; however, he then sees Teasle following his trail and decides that it would be more honourable to continue fighting and be killed by Teasle's return fire.\n\nRambo fires at Teasle and, to his surprise and disappointment, hits him. For a moment he reflects on how he had missed his chance of a decent death, because he is now too weak to light the dynamite, but then suddenly feels the explosion he had expected - but in the head, not the stomach where the dynamite was placed. Rambo dies satisfied that he has come to a fitting end. Trautman returns to the dying Teasle and tells him that he has killed Rambo with his shotgun. Moments after, Teasle dies succumbing to his wounds.\n\nFilm \n\nThe film First Blood takes place in December 1981, and begins with John Rambo (now a homeless, out-of-work drifter) searching for Delmore Barry, an old friend with whom he served in Vietnam. He goes to Barry's home but is told by his mother that he died from cancer due to Agent Orange exposure. This means that Rambo has now become the last surviving member of his Special Forces unit (with unit members Delmore, Westmore, Bronson, Danforth and Ortega now all dead). He then travels to the small town of Hope, Washington (the movie was filmed in Hope, British Columbia, evidenced by the town sign), where he is quickly spotted by the town's arrogant and abusive sheriff, Will Teasle, due to his long, unkempt hair, army jacket and all-around scruffy appearance. Teasle soon picks him up and drives him to the edge of town, refusing to let him have a meal (Rambo only wanted something to eat) while stressing his dislike of drifters and \"trouble makers\". Rambo begins heading back into town immediately after being dropped off, and Teasle then arrests him and takes him to the local police station.\n\nWhen searching Rambo, Teasle discovers a large survival knife on Rambo's belt. At the station, the Head Deputy Sheriff, Art Galt, beats Rambo and, along with others, harasses him. Rambo begins having flashbacks to the war due to this, where he was a tortured POW. When officers attempt to dry shave him, Rambo finally snaps and fights his way out of the station, beating up Galt, Teasle, and every deputy caught in his path and retrieving his knife. Outside, he hijacks a motorcycle from a man driving past and flees into the nearby mountains, while being pursued by Teasle in his police car. Teasle crashes his car, and Rambo escapes. Teasle calls in more officers and a helicopter, while Rambo abandons his motorcycle and makes his way into the deep terrain on foot. He finds an old sack near a dumped truck which he uses as an item of clothing. Later, he finds himself at the top of a cliff face whilst trying to escape the advancing policemen and is spotted by the search helicopter with Galt in the passenger's seat. Galt fires at him a number of times with his rifle, forcing Rambo to leap from the cliff, falling through a tree. Galt continues to fire upon the injured Rambo on the ground. Fighting back, Rambo throws a rock and hits the helicopter's windshield, causing the pilot to lose control, and Galt is thrown to his death. Rambo takes Galt's gun, tends his injuries, and eventually confronts the lawmen on the cliff above. Rambo shouts to them, \"There's one man dead! It wasn't my fault!\" Teasle tells Rambo not to move or they will shoot. Rambo says he wants no more trouble, and begins to back away, but the men open fire; Rambo flees into the woods, with Teasle and his deputies in pursuit.\n\nThe men catch up to Rambo, and they release the tracking dogs. Rambo shoots two and their owner in the leg with his last bullets, and kills the other with his knife. The men begin to flank out and pursue Rambo, but Rambo easily disables them using guerrilla tactics. Rambo severely wounds each man, but does not kill any of them. Using a deputy as bait, Rambo jumps out of the brush and grabs Teasle, putting his knife to his throat. He tells him, \"In town you're the law. Out here it's me\". He tells Teasle to \"Let it go\" and give up his pursuit. Teasle refuses, and the State Police and National Guard are called in to assist in the hunt. Colonel Samuel Trautman soon arrives, taking credit for training Rambo. He is surprised to find any of the deputies still alive, and warns that it would be safer to let Rambo go and find him after the situation has calmed down. Teasle refuses to give in. Teasle asks Trautman to try and contact Rambo on the radio he stole to get a fix on his position. Trautman gets Rambo to respond on the radio, calling out his Vietnam company. Rambo says that he cannot turn himself in and tells Trautman, \"They drew first blood, not me\". Rambo is eventually cornered by the National Guard in a mine entrance where he is hiding. Teasle gets word they have cornered him, and gives an order not to fire. The inexperienced guardsmen ignore this order, and fire a rocket launcher at him. The blast collapses the mine entrance, trapping him inside. The men assume Rambo is dead, but unknown to his pursuers, Rambo has instead escaped into the tunnels of the mine.\n\nRambo eventually finds an old exit vent, near a main road from out of which the troops are clearing. Rambo hijacks a passing Army truck (throwing its driver out onto the road in the process) and returns to town, crashing it into a gas station. He blocks the highway to anyone in pursuit, by igniting the spilled fuel. Now heavily armed with an M60 machine gun, Rambo destroys transformers knocking out the power to the town. Rambo spots Teasle on the station roof after destroying a gun shop and makes his way to the police station. Rambo takes out the police station's power before making his way inside. Teasle spots Rambo and fires at him, but misses. Rambo shoots back at Teasle through the ceiling, critically injuring him. Teasle falls through the skylight onto the floor. Rambo steps over him, prepared to kill him. Before Rambo can shoot Teasle, Colonel Trautman appears and tells him that there is no hope of escaping alive. Rambo, now surrounded by the police, rages about the horrors of war and the unfair conditions and treatment he came home to. Breaking down, he then weeps as he recounts a particularly gruesome story about witnessing his friend Joey Danforth dying. He tells Trautman how they were in a bar, talking about his friend's Chevy and driving to Las Vegas in it, when a boy came in with a booby-trapped shoeshine box. Rambo had gone into the bar to buy two beers when the box suddenly exploded, tearing his friend's lower body off. Rambo then turns himself in to Trautman, and is arrested.\n\n(There is an alternative ending where Rambo wants to die and tells Trautman to kill him. Trautman does not respond. Soon after, Rambo hands a gun to Trautman, and he proceeds to pull the trigger while facing Rambo. Rambo subsequently dies of his wounds and Trautman then is left alone in the station and walks away.)\n\nRambo: First Blood Part II \n\nAfter the incident in Washington, John Rambo is found guilty after a jury trial and sent to a labor camp prison. At the beginning of Rambo: First Blood Part II (set in 1985), he is visited by Colonel Samuel Trautman who offers him the chance to be released from prison if he goes to Vietnam to search for American POWs at the camp from where he escaped back in 1971. Promised a Presidential pardon if the mission succeeds, Rambo accepts and is officially reinstated in the U.S. Army temporarily. He later meets with Marshall Murdock, an American bureaucrat who is in charge of the operation. He tells Rambo that he is only to photograph the POWs and not to rescue them, nor is he to engage any enemy soldiers. Rambo reluctantly agrees. He is then told that an agent of the U.S. government will be there to receive him in the jungles of Vietnam.\n\nRambo is then parachuted into the Vietnamese jungles. However, while parachuting, he gets stuck on the plane and cuts the rope holding his equipment which allows him to continue parachuting and is left with only his knife, his bow, and arrows. On the ground, he meets Co Bau, a local woman working with the Americans. She takes him to a POW camp where he is able to rescue a captive, killing a number of enemy soldiers with his bow in the process of doing so. The trio then escape by boat but are attacked by a gunboat.\n\nRambo destroys the gunboat with a rocket launcher. When Rambo calls for extraction, he is denied, as Murdock fears what will happen to him and his party if the American public learn about Murdock's activities. Rambo and the captive are both captured, and back at the camp Russian advisors soon arrive to interrogate Rambo. Meanwhile, Co enters the camp under the disguise of a prostitute and comes to the hut in which Rambo is held captive. There she witnesses Rambo being tortured by Russian Colonel Podovsky, who demands that the American contact his base and confess to war crimes. After being electrically shocked on a bedspring and then burned on the cheek with his own knife, Rambo pretends to agree to Podovsky's condition, but instead tells Murdock on the radio that \"he is coming to get him\", after which he promptly escapes with Co's help. They hide in the jungle and Co tends to Rambo's wounds. She then asks him if he will take her with him to the U.S., he agrees and he kisses her. But they are attacked by some Vietnamese soldiers and Co is shot and dies. Enraged and distraught by Co's death, he kills them all (except for their commander, who escapes, but is later killed by one of Rambo's exploding arrows) and then buries Co's body in the jungle so her body is not scavenged upon by animals.\n\nAfter the violence at the camp and on the river, Soviet and Vietnamese troops are scrambled to find and kill Rambo. While they are hunting for Rambo in a forest, Rambo kills a number of them using guerrilla tactics. Vietnamese soldiers continue to chase Rambo into and through a village. In a patch of tall grass there, Rambo sets a booby trap explosion that ignites a fire, burning many of the Vietnamese soldiers.\n\nWhile still running away from the soldiers, a Soviet attack helicopter finds Rambo and drops a keg of explosives onto his position. Rambo dives off a cliff into a river as the keg explodes. The Soviet helicopter pursues him, shooting bullets into the water. As the helicopter gets closer to the water while shooting bullets, Rambo jumps up from under the water, yanks the gunman into the water, and climbs into the helicopter where he confronts the Soviet soldier who tortured him. As they fight inside the helicopter, the helicopter flies away and Rambo throws the Soviet soldier out of the helicopter to his death. As Rambo approaches the pilot, the pilot also jumps out of the helicopter. Rambo gains control of the helicopter and flies it back to the POW camp to rescue the remaining POWs. He kills the remaining guards and gets the captives into the chopper. Another Soviet attack helicopter then tails Rambo's. After its pilot loses Rambo's chopper in a haze of smoke from firing at it, he sees it smoldering in a river. As the Russian chopper flies in low to investigate and finish off the bird, Rambo - who had appeared to be dead - suddenly sits up, rocket launcher in hand, and fires through the windshield, finishing off his would be assailant once and for all.\n\nRambo then returns to the base and, using the M60E3 machine gun from the helicopter, destroys Murdock's command center. He then unsheathes his knife and threatens Murdock, ordering him to find and rescue the remaining American POWs in Vietnam, snarling almost under his breath, \"You know there's more men out there. You know where they are. Find 'em... or I'll find you.\" Trautman then comforts Rambo and tries to pacify him and to convince him to rejoin the Special Forces, also telling him he would get another Medal of Honor for his actions. Rambo, however, visibly angry and fighting back tears, says that the soldiers he rescued deserve the Medal of Honor more than he does, and he only wants the same thing as the soldiers he rescued: for their country to love its soldiers as much as its soldiers love their country. Rambo then starts to leave. Trautman asks him, \"How will you live, John?\" Rambo replies, \"Day by day\". The film ends as Rambo walks off into the distance while his mentor watches him. Because of his actions in saving the POWs, Rambo is granted the Presidential pardon he had been promised and stays in Thailand.\n\nRambo III \n\nRambo III opens with Colonel Samuel Trautman returning to Thailand to once again enlist the help of Rambo. After witnessing Rambo's victory in a stick fighting match, Trautman visits the construction site of the temple Rambo is helping to build and asks Rambo to join him on a mission to Afghanistan. The mission is meant to supply weapons, including FIM-92 Stinger missiles, to Afghan rebels, the Mujahideen, who are fighting the Soviets in the Soviet-Afghan War. Despite showing him photos of civilians suffering under Soviet military intervention, Rambo, fearing the same betrayal of the U.S. government similar to the last mission and wanting a life without more bloodshed, refuses and Trautman chooses to go on his own.\n\nWhile in Afghanistan, Trautman's troops are ambushed by Soviet troops while passing through the mountains at night. Trautman is imprisoned in a Soviet base and coerced for information by Colonel Zaysen and his henchman Kourov. Rambo learns of the incident from embassy field officer Robert Griggs and convinces Griggs to take him through an unofficial operation, despite Grigg's warning that the U.S. government will deny any knowledge of his actions if killed or caught. Rambo immediately flies to Pakistan where he meets up with Musa, a weapons supplier who agrees to take him to a village deep in the Afghan desert, close to the Soviet base where Trautman is kept. The Mujahideen in the village are already hesitant to help Rambo in the first place, but are definitely convinced not to help him when their village is attacked by Soviet helicopters after one of Mousa's shop assistants has informed the Soviets of Rambo's presence. Aided only by Mousa and a young boy named Hamid, Rambo makes his way to the Soviet base and starts his attempts to free Trautman. The first attempt is unsuccessful and results not only in Hamid getting shot in the leg, but also in Rambo himself getting splinters in the side. After escaping from the base, Rambo tends to Hamid's wounds and sends him and Mousa away to safety.\n\nThe next day, Rambo returns to the base once again, just in time to rescue Trautman from being tortured with a blow-torch. After rescuing several other prisoners, Rambo steals a helicopter and escapes from the base. However, the helicopter soon crashes and Rambo and Trautman are forced to continue on foot. After a confrontation in a cave, where Rambo and Trautman eliminate several Soviet Spetsnaz commandos including Kourov, they are confronted by an entire army of Soviet tanks, headed by Zaysen. Just as they are about to be overwhelmed by the might of the Red Army, the Mujahideen warriors, together with Mousa and Hamid, ride onto the battlefield by the hundreds in a cavalry charge, overwhelming the Communists. In the ensuing battle, in which both Trautman and John are wounded, Rambo manages to kill Zaysen by driving a tank (somehow doing the work of a four-man crew all by himself, by also loading and firing the main gun) into the Russian's helicopter. Rambo survives the explosion and gets out of the tank. At the end of the battle Rambo and Trautman say goodbye to their Mujahideen friends and leave Afghanistan to go home.\n\nRambo \n\nThe 2008 film opens with newsreels of the 2007 crisis in Burma. Burma is under the iron fist rule of Than Shwe and takes harsher stances against the nation's pro-democracy movement. Rebels are thrown into a mine-infested marsh and then gunned down by the Tatmadaw, while the Burmese military officer Major Pa Tee Tint gazes grimly at the scene.\n\nFormer U.S. soldier John Rambo is still living in Thailand and resides in a village near the Burmese border. He makes a living capturing snakes and selling them in a nearby village. He also transports roamers in his boat. A missionary, Michael Burnett, asks Rambo to take him and his associates up the Salween River to Burma on a humanitarian mission to give aid to Karen tribespeople. Rambo refuses, but he is convinced by Sarah Miller to take them.\n\nThe boat is stopped by Burmese pirates who demand Sarah, in exchange for passage. After negotiations fail, Rambo kills them all. Although his actions save the missionaries, it greatly disturbs them. Upon arrival, Michael says that they will travel overland and will not need Rambo's help for the return trip. The mission goes well until the Tatmadaw, led by Major Tint, attack. They kill most of the villagers and two missionaries and kidnap the rest, including Michael and Sarah. When the missionaries fail to come back after ten days, their pastor comes to ask Rambo's help in guiding hired mercenaries to the village where the missionaries were last seen.\n\nRambo agrees to transport the soldiers then returns to his village and forges himself a new machete. At their destination, Rambo tries to accompany the mercenaries with a black-wrapped package in hand, but their leader, described as a former \"old school\" and egotistical S.A.S. trooper, refuses. After arriving at the destroyed village with their guide, a Karen freedom fighter, they are forced to hide when some Tatmadaw arrive by truck and force their villager prisoners to run a gauntlet of hidden land mines thrown into the village rice paddies. The mercenary leader will not order a rescue, as he is concerned that the missing Tatmadaw will put the rest on alert. However, Rambo shows up with what is revealed to be his compound bow and shoots down the Tatmadaw. Rambo confronts the leader when the man threatens him, and with his arrow pointed at his eye socket, Rambo tells him and the others that soldiering is what they are and do, and gives them the option to \"Live for nothing...or die for something\". When Rambo stands down and tells the others to come, they follow without question with the leader in tow. They plan to save the hostages at a P.O.W. camp. Rambo helps Sarah and the others to escape. The Tatmadaw unit finds the hostages missing and organizes a massive manhunt. Everyone is captured except for Rambo, Sarah, and the mercenary sniper \"School Boy\". But just as the group is to be executed, Rambo seizes a truck-mounted .50-caliber machine gun and minces the Burmese army, giving an opening for School Boy to shoot down the Tatmadaw near the others and provide them also with weapons. Karen rebels join the fight to help Rambo and the mercenaries win. Major Tint attempts to get away, but is personally disemboweled by Rambo.\n\nEncouraged by Sarah's words, Rambo leaves Thailand and returns to his home in the United States. He is seen walking along an Arizona highway until he sees a horse farm and a rusted mailbox. Reading the name \"R. Rambo\", Rambo smiles and walks down the house's gravel driveway.\n\nAwards \n\nIn First Blood is mentioned:\n* 1 - Medal of Honor\nPer dialogue in Rambo: First Blood Part II, during his Vietnam era service, Rambo was awarded:\n* 1 - Medal of Honor\n* 1 - Distinguished Service Cross\n* 2 - Silver Stars \n* 4 - Bronze Stars for Valor\n* 4 - Purple Heart \n\nIn the \"Rambo Prepares Knife\" deleted scene from Rambo III, Rambo's \"Class A\" uniform can clearly be seen (although his rank can not be seen) in his footlocker with the following 13 ribbons:\n* Medal of Honor - Awarded one and refused another\n* Army Distinguished Service Medal\n* Distinguished Flying Cross\n* Soldier's Medal\n* Bronze Star\n* Purple Heart\n* Air Medal\n* Combat Action Ribbon - This award is actually for US Navy, Coast Guard and Marine personnel, He was awarded one for a joint-service operation with USMC 2nd Battalion 3rd Marines in Battle of Khe Sanh 1968.\n* Vietnam Service Medal\n* Prisoner of War Medal\n* Army Service Ribbon\n* Vietnam Wound Medal - This award is actually a South Vietnamese (ARVN) forces medal and was seldom awarded to US forces, even if it was awarded to a US serviceman, he would not be permitted to wear it on his dress uniform because it is basically a foreign nations variation of the Purple Heart.\n* Vietnam Campaign Medal\n\nIn a measure of discontinuity within the storyline, Rambo's Silver Stars and Distinguished Service Cross were missing from his ribbon rack as well as the National Defense Medal and the Good Conduct Medal, both of which he would have been awarded.\n\nVarious special duty badges can also be seen on Rambo's \"Class A\" uniform, including:\n* Combat Infantryman Badge\n* Aircraft Crewman Badge\n* Senior Combat Parachutist Badge\n* Expert Weapons Qualification Badge\n\nAdditionally, in this same scene, Rambo's Social Security Number is revealed: 936-01-1758. However, the Social Security Administration does not issue a SSN with the prefix 936. Citizens in Arizona, Rambo's home state, are issued SSNs with the prefixes 526-527, 600-601, and 764-765. This was probably done to avoid the chances that Rambo's fictional SSN would match that of a real living person.\n\nOrigins \n\nDavid Morrell says that in choosing the name Rambo he was inspired by \"the sound of force\" in the name of Rambo apples, which he encountered in Pennsylvania. Peter Gunnarsson Rambo sailed from Sweden to New Sweden (SE Pennsylvania/Southern NJ/Northern Delaware) in the 1640s, and soon the name would flourish in New Sweden. The name Rambo was likely derived from a shortened form of \"Ramberget\" (a hill on the Hisingen island near Gothenburg, where Peter Gunnarsson was born) plus \"bo\" (meaning \"resident of\"). Today, many of his descendants can still be found in this region of the US. Morrell felt that its pronunciation was similar to the surname of Arthur Rimbaud, the title of whose most famous work A Season in Hell, seemed to him \"an apt metaphor for the prisoner-of-war experiences that I imagined Rambo suffering\". Furthermore, an Arthur J. Rambo was an actual U.S. soldier in Vietnam, but he never returned. His name can be seen on the Vietnam War Memorial wall in Washington, DC. By sheer coincidence, the Japanese word \"rambō\" (乱暴) means \"violent\" or \"rough\". He was granted the first name \"John\" as a reference to the song \"When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again\".\n\nCultural Impact \n\nJohn Rambo is considered a cultural icon. The character influenced many action heroes and films in the 1980s and '90s. The John Rambo character became a prominent part of pop culture, and \"Rambo\", a word that can function as a noun, adjective, or a verb, became part of the English language. Perhaps more crucial from a cultural perspective, Rambo is a word that can be found in the prestigious Oxford English Dictionary. According to this source, Rambo is \"a Vietnam War veteran represented as macho, self sufficient and bent on violent retribution.\" As well, it is widely popular to use adjectives such as Ramboesque, Ramboid, or Ramboism, to denote an ideological position that resembles Rambo’s attitude and behavior.\n\nRambo has become the quintessential representation of America during the Reagan years. President Ronald Reagan referred to Rambo in public speeches to exemplify his political ideology and aggressive foreign policy. Towards the end of the 1985 Beirut hostage crisis, President Reagan stated at a press conference that: \"Boy, after seeing Rambo [First Blood II] last night, I know what to do next time this happens.\" Reagan often referred to Rambo: First Blood II as a model for his domestic and foreign policies. For instance, in his 1985 Labor Day speech, Reagan stated that he would clean the federal tax system \"in the spirit of Rambo\". \n\nThe Rambo film series also introduced and popularized the concept of the One Man Army in films, in which a protagonist is a well trained individual who can defeat countless enemies by himself. Rambo's weapons also became part of American pop culture. Weapons such as the M60 machine gun and the Bow became synonymous with the character. But it was his signature weapon, the survival knife that became popular, which led to an increase in knife sales during the 1980s.\n\nRambo has also been mentioned or referenced in many films, such as Die Hard, TV shows, cartoons, novels and comic books. The character of John Rambo has been featured in many lists of greatest action heroes. In 2007, the film Son of Rambow is set during the early 1980s; the film is a coming of age story about two schoolboys and their attempts to make an amateur film inspired by First Blood. In 2013, Rambo was #6 in a list of the top 50 action movie heroes in Total Magazine. In 2013, Rambo was voted #1 in WatchMojo.com's top 10 film soldiers of all times.\n\nRambo inspired the character named Yousef Rambu from currently developed Kuwaiti action movie Second Blood. \n\nIn the legal profession, a \"Rambo lawyer\" is one who habitually engages in \"all manners of adversarial excess, including personal attacks on other lawyers, hostility, boorish and insulting behavior, rudeness and obstructionist conduct\" or embracaes \"a 'take no prisoners' attitude.\" \n\nMerchandising \n\nRambo has been merchandised in multiple media, including action figures, video games, and other collectibles.\n\nPortrayals \n\nIn all four films, Rambo is portrayed by Sylvester Stallone. In the animated TV series, the character is voiced by Neil Ross.\n\nAppearances \n\nNovels/Novelizations \n\n* First Blood (novel), written by David Morrell, 1972\n* Rambo: First Blood Part II (novelization), by David Morrell, 1985\n* Rambo III (novelization), by David Morrell, 1988\n\nFilms \n\n* First Blood (1982), directed by Ted Kotcheff\n* Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985), directed by George Pan Cosmatos\n* Rambo III (1988), directed by Peter MacDonald\n* Rambo (2008), directed by Sylvester Stallone\n\nVideo games \n\n* Rambo, 1985\n* Rambo, 1985\n* Rambo: First Blood Part II, 1986\n* Super Rambo Special, 1986\n* Rambo, 1987\n* Rambo III, 1988\n* Rambo On Fire, 2005\n* Rambo Arcade, 2008\n* Rambo: The Video Game, 2014\n* Family Guy: The Quest for Stuff, as an unlockable character during the 2015 Raid to the North Pole event.\n\nTelevision series \n\n* Rambo and the Forces of Freedom, 1986\n\nComics \n\n* Rambo III, 1988\n* Rambo, 1989", "The Rambos were an American Southern gospel music group that was formed in the 1960s. They were one of the most successful Gospel trios of the 20th century. The group consisted of Buck and Dottie Rambo at first along with several various people singing with them and they were joined by their daughter, Reba, in 1965. They have been inducted into the Gospel Music Association's Hall of Fame in 2001.\n\nGroup history\n\nThey signed their first record deal with Benson Records in 1964, after leaving their home in Dawson Springs, Kentucky and ending up in Nashville, Tennessee. Most singers and songwriters would have agreed without hesitation to such a deal with Benson Records, but Dottie wanted to make sure it was the will of God. Without telling anyone else, she prayed that if the deal was God's will, let the contract be for \"so many dollars . . . PLUS 13-CENTS\" The day the contract was to be signed, they were taken to the office of John T. Benson Jr. where the document was handed to Buck, who handled the group's business dealings. After he read the document, he asked Dottie if she wanted to see it. She said she only wanted to see the \"bottom line\" -- the contract amount. Handing her the document, Buck teased her saying that she was only interested in the money. In a sense, she was. When she saw the amount, the \"13-cents\" she had asked the Lord for to affirm that the deal was His will was there!\n In the beginning, the Rambos went by the name of the Gospel Echoes. It wasn't until Reba joined the group at the age of 12 that they changed their name to the Singing Rambos. Their style of singing has been described as \"a harmonic blend of Buck's country-style singing and Dottie's mountain-style black soul music.\" \n\nThe Rambos are known for their three-part harmony. They sang what many called \"inverted harmony,\" which in the music field was not proper or accepted because all groups were supposed to have a bass singer. It was not until they performed one night at the Ryman Auditorium with a group called the Sons of Song that they realized that they could have a successful group without the use of a bass singer. The group went on to become pioneers in the inverted style of singing.\n\nBuck and Dottie were divorced in the mid-1990s. Afterwards, Dottie continued to minister at churches and concerts across the nation and write and record music until her death in 2008.\n\nRichard Fay \"Buck\" Rambo, died February 21, 2016, in Palmetto, Florida, at the age of 84.\n\nReba had a successful solo career in contemporary Christian music, and is now pastoring The River At Music City with her husband, Dony McGuire in Nashville. \n\nOn May 11, 2008, Dottie Rambo died instantly as a result of a tour bus crash along Interstate 44 just outside Mount Vernon, Missouri. Rambo was on a successful concert tour and her manager and staff were also injured but she would be the only fatality. \n\nMembers\n\nDottie Rambo (vocals, lead guitar)\nBuck Rambo (vocals, guitar)\nShirley Cohron (vocals, accordion)\nJoe Hatfield (vocals, piano)\nPat Jones (vocals, piano, accordion, bass 1965–1967)\nReba Rambo (vocals, bass guitar, 1965–1979)\nPatty Carpenter (vocals – replaced Reba)\n\n;Band musicians\nDarius Spurgeon (piano, 1967–1968)\nKenny Parker (piano)\nKenny Hicks (bass guitar)\nDavid Huntsinger (piano, 1976–1979)\nDony McGuire (piano)\n\nDiscography\n\n19—: There's Nothing My God Can't Do - The Gospel Echoes\n1964: Singing Rambos (Vista Records)\n1965: Gospel Echoes \"Those Singing Rambos\" (Introducing Buck and Dottie's Daughter, Reba)\n1966: Come Spring (Heart Warming Records)\n1967: The Soul Singing Rambos (Heart Warming)\n1967: Gospel Ballads (Heart Warming)\n1968: If That Isn't Love (Vista)\n1968: An Evening With The Rambos (Heart Warming)\n1969: The Soul Singing Rambos (Heart Warming)\n1969: This Is My Valley (Heart Warming)\n1970: The Real Thing (Heart Warming)\n1970: Nashville Gospel (Heart Warming)\n1970: Live\n1971: Soul Classics (Heart Warming)\n1971: Rambo Reflections (Heart Warming)\n1971: Songs Of Love And Hope (Vista)\n1971: If That Isn't Love (Vista)\n1972: Soul In The Family (Heart Warming)\n1972: The Best Of The Rambos (Heart Warming)\n1972: Buck, Dottie And Reba (Vista)\n1973: Sing Me On Home (Heart Warming)\n1973: Spotlighting The Rambos (Vista)\n1973: Belief (Vista)\n1973: Sonshine (Heart Warming)\n1973: Too Much to Gain to Lose (Vista)\n1974: Yours, Until He Comes (Heart Warming)\n1974: Alive and Live at Souls Harbor (Heart Warming)\n1975: There Has To Be A Song (Heart Warming)\n1975: These Three Are One (Heart Warming)\n1975: Christmas at Our House (compilation) \"Oh Holy Night\" (Impact)\n1976: The Son Is Shining (Heart Warming)\n1976: Rambo Country (Heart Warming)\n1977: Naturally (Heart Warming)\n1978: Queen of Paradise (Heart Warming)\n1979: Silver Jubilee (Heart Warming)\n1979: Crossin' Over (Heart Warming)\n1981: Rambo Reunion (Heart Warming)\n1983: Memories Made New (Heart Warming)\n1992: Masters of Gospel (Riversong)\n1992: Lost Recordings of The Rambos/Gospel Echoes\n1992: 20 Gospel Classics (Riversong)\n1992: The Very Best Of The Rambos (New Haven)\n\nAppearances on other albums\n\n*1974: Highway Call – Richard (Dickie) Betts (of The Allman Bros.) (Capricorn) (also on The Allman Bros. Dreams CD Box Set – 1989)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "John (disambiguation)", "John (European rulers)", "%22John%22", "John (bishop)", "John (song)", "John" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "22john 22", "john european rulers", "john disambiguation", "john song", "john bishop", "john" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "john", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "John" }
When did field hockey become an Olympic event for men?	tc_960	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Field_hockey.txt", "Olympic_Games.txt" ], "title": [ "Field hockey", "Olympic Games" ], "wiki_context": [ "Field hockey is a team sport of the hockey family. The earliest origins of the sport date back to the Middle Ages in England, Scotland and the Netherlands. The game can be played on a grass field or a turf field as well as an indoor board surface. Each team plays with eleven players including the goalie. Players use sticks made out of wood, carbon fibre, fiberglass or a combination of carbon fibre and fibre glass in different quantities (with the higher carbon fibre stick being more expensive and less likely to break) to hit a round, hard, rubber like ball. The length of the stick depends on the player's individual height. Only one side of the stick is allowed to be used. Goalies often have a different kind of stick however they can also use an ordinary field hockey stick. The specific goal keeping sticks have another curve on the end of the stick. The uniform consists of shin-guards, shoes, shorts, a mouth guard and a jersey. At the turn of the 21st century and 3rd millennium, the game is played globally, with particular popularity throughout western Europe, the Indian subcontinent, Southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Southern and Northeastern United States (such as Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Kentucky, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania). Hockey is the national sport of Pakistan, and is sometimes assumed to be India's national sport as well. The term \"field hockey\" is used primarily in Canada and the United States where ice hockey is more popular.\n\nDuring play, goal keepers are the only players who are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body (the player's hand is considered 'part of the stick'), with this only applying within the shooting circle (also known as the D, or shooting arc, or just the circle), while field players play the ball with the flat side of their stick. Goal keepers also cannot play the ball with the back of their stick. Whoever scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout, depending on the competition's format. There are many variations to overtime play that depend on the league and tournament play. In college play, a seven-aside overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal period with seven players for each team. If a tie still remains the game enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses 5 players to dribble from the 25 yard line down to the circle against the opposing goalie. The player has 8 seconds to score on the goalie keeping it in bounds. The play ends after a goal is scored, the ball goes out of bounds, a foul is committed (ending in either a penalty stroke or flick or the end of the one on one) or time expires.\n\nThe governing body of hockey is the International Hockey Federation (IHF), with men and women being represented internationally in competitions including the Olympic Games, World Cup, World League, Champions Trophy and Junior World Cup, with many countries running extensive junior, senior, and masters' club competitions. The FIH is also responsible for organising the Hockey Rules Board and developing the rules for the sport.\n\nA popular variant of field hockey is indoor field hockey, which differs in a number of respects while embodying the primary principles of hockey. Indoor hockey is a 5-a-side variant, with a field which is reduced to approximately 40 x. With many of the rules remaining the same, including obstruction and feet, there are several key variations – Players may not raise the ball unless shooting on goal, players may not hit the ball (instead utilising pushes to transfer the ball), and the sidelines are replaced with solid barriers which the ball will rebound off. \n\nHistory\n\nThere is a depiction of a hockey-like game in Ancient Greece, dating to c. 510 BC, when the game may have been called (kerētízein) because it was played with a horn (, kéras, in Ancient Greek) and a ball. Researchers disagree over how to interpret this image. It could have been a team or one-on-one activity (the depiction shows two active players, and other figures who may be teammates awaiting a faceoff, or non-players waiting for their turn at play). Billiards historians Stein and Rubino believe it was among the games ancestral to lawn-and-field sports like hockey and ground billiards, and near-identical depictions (but with only two figures) appear both in the Beni Hasan tomb of Ancient Egyptian administrator Khety of the 11th Dynasty (c. 2000 BCE), and in European illuminated manuscripts and other works of the 14th through 17th centuries, showing contemporary courtly and clerical life. In East Asia, a similar game was entertained, using a carved wooden stick and ball prior, to 300 BC. In Inner Mongolia, China, the Daur people have for about 1,000 years been playing beikou, a game with some similarities to field hockey. A similar field hockey or ground billiards variant, called suigan, was played in China during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644, post-dating the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty). A game similar to hockey was played in the 17th century in Punjab state in India under name khido khundi (khido refers to the woolen ball, and khundi to the stick).\n\nIn Northern Europe, the sports of hurling (Ireland) and ' (Iceland), both team balls games involving sticks to drive a ball to the opponents' goal, date at least as far back as the Early Middle Ages. By the 12th century, a team ball game called ' or ', akin to a chaotic and sometimes long-distance version of hockey or rugby football (depending on whether sticks were used in a particular local variant), was regularly played in France and southern Britain between villages or parishes. Throughout the Middle Ages to the Early Modern era, such games often involved the local clergy or secular aristocracy, and in some periods were limited to them by various anti-gaming edicts, or even banned altogether. Stein and Rubino, among others, ultimately trace aspects of these games both to rituals in antiquity involving orbs and sceptres (on the aristocratic and clerical side), and to ancient military training exercises (on the popular side); polo (essentially hockey on horseback) was devised by the Ancient Persians for cavalry training, based on the local proto-hockey foot game of the region. \n\nThe word hockey itself was recorded in 1363 when Edward III of England issued the proclamation: \"Moreover we ordain that you prohibit under penalty of imprisonment all and sundry from such stone, wood and iron throwing; handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting, or other such idle games.\"\n\nThe modern game grew from English public schools in the early 19th century. The first club was in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London, but the modern rules grew out of a version played by Middlesex cricket clubs for winter sport. Teddington Hockey Club formed the modern game by introducing the striking circle and changing the ball to a sphere from a rubber cube. The Hockey Association was founded in 1886. The first international competition took place in 1895 (Ireland 3, Wales 0), and the International Rules Board was founded in 1900.\n\n \nField hockey was played at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920. It was dropped in 1924, leading to the foundation of the Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon (FIH) as an international governing body by seven continental European nations; and hockey was reinstated as an Olympic sport in 1928. Men's hockey united under the FIH in 1970.\n\nThe two oldest trophies are the Irish Senior Cup, which dates back to 1894, and the Irish Junior Cup, a second XI-only competition instituted in 1895. \n\nIn India, the Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament commenced within ten years. Entering the Olympics in 1928, India won all five games without conceding a goal, and won from 1932 until 1956 and then in 1964 and 1980. Pakistan won in 1960, 1968 and 1984.\n\nIn the early 1970s, artificial turf began to be used. Synthetic pitches changed most aspects of field hockey, gaining speed. New tactics and techniques such as the Indian dribble developed, followed by new rules to take account. The switch to synthetic surfaces ended Indian and Pakistani domination because artificial turf was too expensive in developing countries. Since the 1970s, Australia, the Netherlands, and Germany have dominated at the Olympics.\n\nWomen's field hockey was first played at British universities and schools. The first club, the Molesey Ladies, was founded in 1887. The first national association was the Irish Ladies Hockey Union in 1894, and though rebuffed by the Hockey Association, women's field hockey grew rapidly around the world. This led to the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) in 1927, though this did not include many continental European countries where women played as sections of men's associations and were affiliated to the FIH. The IFWHA held conferences every three years, and tournaments associated with these were the primary IFWHA competitions. These tournaments were non-competitive until 1975.\n\nBy the early 1970s, there were 22 associations with women's sections in the FIH and 36 associations in the IFWHA. Discussions started about a common rule book. The FIH introduced competitive tournaments in 1974, forcing the acceptance of the principle of competitive field hockey by the IFWHA in 1973. It took until 1982 for the two bodies to merge, but this allowed the introduction of women's field hockey to the Olympic games from 1980 where, as in the men's game, The Netherlands, Germany, and Australia have been consistently strong. Argentina has emerged as a team to be reckoned with since 2000, winning the world championship in 2002 and 2010 and medals at the last three Olympics.\n\nOutside North America, participation is now fairly evenly balanced between men and women. For example, in England, England Hockey reports that as of the 2008–09 season there were 2488 registered men's teams, 1969 women's teams, 1042 boys' teams, 966 girls' teams and 274 mixed teams. In 2006 the Irish Hockey Association reported that the gender split among its players was approximately 65% female and 35% male. In its 2008 census, Hockey Australia reported 40,534 male club players and 41,542 female. However, in the United States of America, there are few field hockey clubs, most play taking place between high school or college sides, almost entirely of females. The strength of college field hockey reflects the impact of Title IX which mandated that colleges should fund men's and women's sports programmes comparably.\n\nThe game's roots in the English public girls' school mean that the game is associated in the UK with active or overachieving middle class and upper class women. For example, in Nineteen Eighty-Four, George Orwell's novel set in a totalitarian London, main character Winston Smith initially dislikes Julia, the woman he comes to love, because of \"the atmosphere of hockey-fields and cold baths and community hikes and general clean-mindedness which she managed to carry about with her.\" \n\nField of play\n\nMost hockey field dimensions were originally fixed using whole numbers of imperial measures. Nevertheless, metric measurements are now the official dimensions as laid down by the International Hockey Federation (FIH) in the \"Rules of Hockey\". The pitch is a rectangular field. At each end is a goal high and wide, as well as lines across the field from each end-line (generally referred to as the 23-metre lines or the 25-yard lines) and in the center of the field. A spot in diameter, called the penalty spot or stroke mark, is placed with its centre from the centre of each goal. The shooting circle is 16 yd from the base line.\n\nPlaying surface\n\nHistorically the game developed on natural grass turf. In the early 1970s, \"synthetic grass\" fields began to be used for hockey, with the first Olympic Games on this surface being held at the 1976 Montreal edition. Synthetic pitches are now mandatory for all international tournaments and for most national competitions. While hockey is still played on traditional grass fields at some local levels and lesser national divisions, it has been replaced by synthetic surfaces almost everywhere in the western world. There are three main types of artificial hockey surface: \n\nUnfilled or water-based - artificial fibres that are densely packed for stabilisation, requires irrigation or watering to avoid pitch wear\nDressed or sand-dressed - artificial fibres can be less densely packed and sand supports the fibres for part of the pile depth\nFilled or sand-filled - artificial fibres can be longer and less densely packed and sand supports the fibres for 100% of the pile depth\n\nSince the 1970s, sand-based pitches have been favoured as they dramatically speed up the game. However, in recent years there has been a massive increase in the number of \"water-based\" artificial turfs. Water-based synthetic turfs enable the ball to be transferred more quickly than on sand-based surfaces. It is this characteristic that has made them the surface of choice for international and national league competitions. Water-based surfaces are also less abrasive than sand-based surfaces and reduce the level of injury to players when they come into contact with the surface. The FIH are now proposing that new surfaces being laid should be of a hybrid variety which require less watering. This is due to the negative ecological effects of the high water requirements of water-based synthetic fields. It has also been stated that the decision to make artificial surfaces mandatory greatly favoured more affluent countries who could afford these new pitches. \n\nRules and play\n\nThe game is played between two teams of whom eleven are permitted to be on the pitch at any one time. The remaining players may be substituted in any combination. There is an unlimited amount of times a team can sub in and out. Substitutions are permitted at any point in the game, apart from between the award and end of a penalty corner; two exceptions to this rule is for injury or suspension of the defending goalkeeper, which is not allowed when playing with a field keep, or a player can exit the field, but you must wait until after the inserter touches the ball to put somebody back in.\n\nPlayers are permitted to play the ball with the flat of the 'face side' and with the edges of the head and handle of the field hockey stick with the exception that, for reasons of safety, the ball may not be struck 'hard' with a forehand edge stroke, because of the difficulty of controlling the height and direction of the ball from that stroke.\n\nThe flat side is always on the \"natural\" side for a right-handed person swinging the stick at the ball from right to left. Left-handed sticks are rare, but available; however they are pointless as the rules forbid their use in a game. To make a strike at the ball with a left to right swing the player must present the flat of the 'face' of the stick to the ball by 'reversing' the stick head, i.e. by turning the handle through approximately 180°(while a reverse edge hit would turn the stick head through approximately 90° from the position of an upright forehand stroke with the 'face' of the stick head).\n\nEdge hitting of the ball underwent a two-year \"experimental period\", twice the usual length of an \"experimental trial\" and is still a matter of some controversy within the sport. Ric Charlesworth, the former Australian coach, has been a strong critic of the unrestricted use of the reverse edge hit. The 'hard' forehand edge hit was banned after similar concerns were expressed about the ability of players to direct the ball accurately, but the reverse edge hit does appear to be more predictable and controllable than its counterpart. This type is hit is now more commonly referred to as the \"forehand sweep\" where the ball is hit with the flat side or \"natural\" side of the stick and not the rounded edge.\n\nOther rules include; no foot to ball contact, no use of hands, no obstructing other players, no high back swing, and no third party. If a player is dribbling the ball and either loses control and kicks the ball or another player interferes that player is not permitted to gain control and continue dribbling. The rules do not allow the person who kicked the ball to gain advantage from the kick, so the ball will automatically be passed on to the opposing team. Conversely, if no advantage is gained from kicking the ball, play should continue. Players may not obstruct another's chance of hitting the ball in any way. No shoving/using your body/stick to prevent advancement in the other team. Penalty for this is the opposing team receives the ball and if the problem continues, the player can be carded. While a player is taking a free hit or starting a corner the back swing of their hit cannot be too high for this is considered dangerous. Finally there may not be three players touching the ball at one time. Two players from opposing teams can battle for the ball, however if another player interferes it is considered third party and the ball automatically goes to the team who only had one player involved in the third party.\n\nPositions\n\n\" hockey positions are discussed, notions of fluidity are very common. Each team can be fielded with a maximum of 11 players and will typically arrange themselves into forwards, midfielders, and defensive players (fullbacks) with players frequently moving between theses lines with the flow of play. Each team may also play with:\"\n\n a goalkeeper who wears a different color shirt and full protective equipment comprising at least headgear, leg guards and kickers; this player is referred to in the rules as a goalkeeper; or\n\n* a field player with goalkeeping privileges wearing a different color shirt and who may wear protective headgear (but not leg guards and kickers or other goalkeeping protective equipment) when inside their defending 23m area; they must wear protective headgear when defending a penalty corner or stroke; this player is referred to in the rules as a player with goalkeeping privileges; or\n\n* Only field players; no player has goalkeeping privileges or wears a different color shirt; no player may wear protective headgear except a face mask when defending a penalty corner or stroke.\n\nFormations\n\nAs hockey has a very dynamic style of play, it is difficult to simplify positions to the static formations which are common in association football. Although positions will typically be categorized as either fullback, halfback, midfield/inner or striker, it is important for players to have an understanding of every position on the field. For example, it is not uncommon to see a halfback overlap and end up in either attacking position, with the midfield and strikers being responsible for re-adjusting to fill the space they left. Movement between lines like this is particularly common across all positions.\n\nThis fluid Australian culture of hockey has been responsible for developing an international trend towards players occupying spaces on the field, not having assigned positions. Although they may have particular spaces on the field which they are more comfortable and effective as players, they are responsible for occupying the space nearest them. This fluid approach to hockey and player movement, has made it easy for teams to transition between formations such as; \"3 at the back\", \"2 centre halves\", \"5 at the back\" and more.\n\nGoalkeepers\n\nWhen the ball is inside the circle they are defending and they have their stick in their hand, goalkeepers wearing full protective equipment are permitted to use their stick, feet, kickers or leg guards to propel the ball and to use their stick, feet, kickers, leg guards or any other part of their body to stop the ball or deﬂect it in any direction including over the back-line. Similarly, field players are permitted to use their stick. They are not allowed to use their feet and legs to propel the ball, stop the ball or deflect it in any direction including over the back-line. However, neither goalkeepers, or players with goalkeeping privileges are permitted to conduct themselves in a manner which is dangerous to other players by taking advantage of the protective equipment they wear.\n\nNeither goalkeepers or players with goalkeeping privileges may lie on the ball, however, they are permitted to use arms, hands and any other part of their body to push the ball away. Lying on the ball deliberately will result in a penalty stroke, whereas if an umpire deems a goalkeeper has lay on the ball accidentally (e.g. it gets stuck in their protective equipment), a penalty corner is awarded.\n\n* The action above is permitted only as part of a goal saving action or to move the ball away from the possibility of a goal scoring action by opponents. It does not permit a goalkeeper or player with goalkeeping privileges to propel the ball forcefully with arms, hands or body so that it travels a long distance\n\nWhen the ball is outside the circle they are defending, goalkeepers or players with goalkeeping privileges are only permitted to play the ball with their stick. Further, a goalkeeper, or player with goalkeeping privileges whom is wearing a helmet must not take part in the match outside the 23m area they are defending, except when taking a penalty stroke. A goalkeeper must wear protective headgear at all times, except when taking a penalty stroke.\n\nGeneral play\n\nFor the purposes of the rules, all players on the team in possession of the ball are attackers, and those on the team without the ball are defenders, yet throughout the game being played you are always\"defending\" your goal and \"attacking\" the opposite goal. \n\nThe match is officiated by two field umpires. Traditionally each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally. These umpires are often assisted by a technical bench including a timekeeper and record keeper.\n\nPrior to the start of the game, a coin is tossed and the winning captain can choose a starting end or whether to start with the ball. Since 2014 the game consists of four periods of 15 minutes with a 2-minute break after every period, and a 15-minute break at half time before changing ends (before that, it was 35-minute halves).Depending on the country it's played in, and the league of play, as well as the importance of the match, it is generally still 2x 35 minutes with a rest of 5-10 minutes.\nAt the start of each period, as well as after goals are scored, play is started with a pass from the centre of the field. All players must start in their defensive half (apart from the player making the pass), but the ball may be played in any direction along the floor. Each team starts with the ball in one half, and the team that conceded the goal has possession for the restart. Teams trade sides at halftime.\n\nField players may only play the ball with the face of the stick. If the back side of the stick is used, it is a penalty and the other team will get the ball back. Tackling is permitted as long as the tackler does not make contact with the attacker or the other persons stick before playing the ball (contact after the tackle may also be penalized if the tackle was made from a position where contact was inevitable). Further, the player with the ball may not deliberately use his body to push a defender out of the way.\n\nField players may not play the ball with their feet, but if the ball accidentally hits the feet, and the player gains no benefit from the contact, then the contact is not penalized. Although there has been a change in the wording of this rule from 1 January 2007, the current FIH umpires' briefing instructs umpires not to change the way they interpret this rule. \n\nObstruction typically occurs in three circumstances – when a defender comes between the player with possession and the ball in order to prevent them tackling; when a defender's stick comes between the attacker's stick and the ball or makes contact with the attacker's stick or body; and also when blocking the opposition's attempt to tackle a teammate with the ball (called third party obstruction).\n\nWhen the ball passes completely over the sidelines (on the sideline is still in), it is returned to play with a sideline hit, taken by a member of the team whose players were not the last to touch the ball before crossing the sideline. The ball must be placed on the sideline, with the hit taken from as near the place the ball went out of play as possible. If it crosses the back line after last touched by an attacker, a 15 m hit. A 15 m hit is also awarded for offenses committed by the attacking side within 15 m of the end of the pitch they are attacking.\n\nSet plays\n\nSet plays are often utilized for specific situations such as a penalty corner or free hit. For instance, many teams have penalty corner variations that they can use to beat the defensive team. The coach may have plays that sends the ball between two defenders and let the player attack the opposing team's goal. There are no set plays unless your team has them.\n\nFree hits\n\nFree hits are awarded when offences are committed outside the scoring circles (the term 'free hit' is standard usage but the ball need not be hit). The ball may be hit, pushed or lifted in any direction by the team offended against. The ball can be lifted from a free hit but not by hitting, you must flick or scoop to lift from a free hit. (In previous rules versions hits in the area outside the circle in open play have been permitted but lifting one direction from a free hit prohibited). Opponents must move 5 m from the ball when a free hit is awarded. A free hit must be taken from within playing distance of the place of the offence for which it was awarded and the ball must be stationary when the free-hit is taken.\n\nAs mentioned above, a 15 m hit is awarded if an attacking player commits a foul forward of that line, or if the ball passes over the back line off an attacker. These free hits are taken in line with where the foul was committed (taking a line parallel with the sideline between where the offence was committed, or the ball went out of play). When an attacking free hit is awarded within 5 m of the circle everyone including the person taking the penalty must be five metres from the circle and everyone apart from the person taking the free hit must be five metres away from the ball. When taking an attacking free hit the ball may not be hit straight into the circle if you are within your attacking 23 metre area (25 yard area). It must travel 5 metres before going in.\n\n2009 experimental changes\n\nIn February 2009 the FIH introduced, as a \"Mandatory Experiment\" for international competition, an updated version of free hit rule. The changes allows a player taking a free hit to pass the ball to themselves. Importantly, this is not a \"play on\" situation, but to the untrained eye it may appear to be. The player must play the ball any distance in two separate motions, before continuing as if it were a play-on situation. They may raise an aerial or overhead immediately as the second action, or any other stroke permitted by the rules of field hockey. At the high school level, this is called a self-pass and was adopted in Pennsylvania in 2010 as a legal technique for putting the ball in play.\n\nAlso, all players (from both teams) must be at least 5 m from any free hit awarded to the attack within the 23 m area. Additionally, no free hits to the attack are permitted within 5m of the circle, so if a free hit is awarded inside this area it must be dragged back outside this zone. The ball may not travel directly into the circle from a free hit to the attack within the 23 m area without first being touched by another player or being dribbled at least 5 m by a player making a \"self-pass\". These experimental rules apply to all free hit situations, including sideline and corner hits. National Associations may also choose to introduce these rules for their domestic competitions.\n\nCorner\n\nA corner is awarded if the ball goes over the back line after last being touched by a defender, provided they do not play it over the back line deliberately, in which case a penalty corner is awarded. Corners are played by the attacking team and involve a free hit on the sideline 5 m from the corner of the field closest to where the ball went out of play, this rule, however, was changed in 2015. The ball is taken up to the 23 metre line, in line with where it went out, the rest of the rules for a long corner stayed the same. These restarts are also known as long corners (as opposed to short corner which is an alternative name for the penalty corner). The defense must wait until the offender passes the ball in. The offender has to pull the ball out of the circle before trying to make a goal.\n\nPenalty corner\n\nThe short or penalty corner is awarded: \n# for an offence by a defender in the circle which does not prevent the probable scoring of a goal\n# for an intentional offence in the circle by a defender against an opponent who does not have possession of the ball or an opportunity to play the ball\n# for an intentional offence by a defender outside the circle but within the 23-metre area they are defending\n# for intentionally playing the ball over the back-line by a defender\n# when the ball becomes lodged in a player's clothing or equipment while in the circle they are defending\n\nShort corners begin with five defenders (usually including the keeper) positioned behind the back line and the ball placed at least 10 yards from the nearest goal post. All other players in the defending team must be beyond the centre line, that is not in their 'own' half of the pitch, until the ball is in play. Attacking players begin the play standing outside the scoring circle, except for one attacker who starts the corner by playing the ball from a mark 10 m either side of the goal (the circle has a 14.63 m radius). This player puts the ball into play by pushing or hitting the ball to the other attackers outside the circle; the ball must pass outside the circle and then put back into the circle before the attackers may make a shot at the goal from which a goal can be scored. FIH rules do not forbid a shot at goal before the ball leaves the circle after being 'inserted', nor is a shot at the goal from outside the circle prohibited, but a goal cannot be scored at all if the ball has not gone out of the circle and cannot be scored from a shot from outside the circle if it is not again played by an attacking player before it enters the goal.\n\nFor safety reasons, the first shot of a penalty corner must not exceed 460 mm high (the height of the \"backboard\" of the goal) at the point it crosses the goal line if it is hit. However, if the ball is deemed to be below backboard height, the ball can be subsequently deflected above this height by another player (defender or attacker), providing that this deflection does not lead to danger. Note that the \"Slap\" stroke (a sweeping motion towards the ball, where the stick is kept on or close to the ground when striking the ball) is classed as a hit, and so the first shot at goal must be below backboard height for this type of shot also.\n\nIf the first shot at goal in a short corner situation is a push, flick or scoop, in particular the drag flick (which has become popular at international and national league standards), the shot is permitted to rise above the height of the backboard, as long as the shot is not deemed dangerous to any opponent. This form of shooting was developed because it is not height restricted in the same way as the first hit shot at the goal and players with good technique are able to drag-flick with as much power as many others can hit a ball.\n\nPenalty stroke\n\nA penalty stroke is awarded when a defender commits a foul in the circle (accidental or otherwise) that prevents a probable goal or commits a deliberate foul in the circle or if defenders repeatedly run from the back line too early at a penalty corner. The penalty stroke is taken by a single attacker in the circle, against the goalkeeper, from a spot 6.4 m from goal. The ball is played only once at goal by the attacker using a push, flick or scoop stroke. If the shot is saved, play is restarted with a 15 m hit to the defenders. When a goal is scored, play is restarted in the normal way.\n\nDangerous play and raised balls\n\nAccording to the current Rules of Hockey 2015 issued by the FIH there are only two criteria for a dangerously played ball. The first is legitimate evasive action by an opponent (what constitutes legitimate evasive action is an umpiring judgment). The second is specific to the rule concerning a shot at goal at a penalty corner but is generally, if somewhat inconsistently, applied throughout the game and in all parts of the pitch: it is that a ball lifted above knee height and at an opponent who is within 5m of the ball is certainly dangerous.\n\nThe velocity of the ball is not mentioned in the rules concerning a dangerously played ball. A ball that hits a player above the knee may on some occasions not be penalized, this is in the umpire's discretion. A jab tackle for example, might accidentally lift the ball above knee height into an opponent from close range but at such low velocity as not to be, in the opinion of the umpire, dangerous play. In the same way a high velocity hit at very close range into an opponent, but below knee height, could be considered to be dangerous or reckless play in the view of the umpire, especially when safer alternatives are open to the striker of the ball.\n\nA ball that has been lifted high so that it will fall among close opponents may be deemed to be potentially dangerous and play may be stopped for that reason. A lifted ball that is falling to a player in clear space may be made potentially dangerous by the actions of an opponent closing to within 5m of the receiver before the ball has been controlled to ground – a rule which is often only loosely applied; the distance allowed is often only what might be described as playing distance, 2–3 m, and opponents tend to be permitted to close on the ball as soon as the receiver plays it: these unofficial variations are often based on the umpire's perception of the skill of the players i.e. on the level of the game, in order to maintain game flow, which umpires are in general in both Rules and Briefing instructed to do, by not penalising when it is unnecessary to do so, this is also a matter in the umpire's discretion.\n\nThe term \"falling ball\" is important in what may be termed encroaching offences. It is generally only considered an offence to encroach on an opponent receiving a lifted ball that has been lifted to above head height (although the height is not specified in rule) and is falling. So, for example, a lifted shot at the goal which is still rising as it crosses the goal line (or would have been rising as it crossed the goal line) can be legitimately followed up by any of the attacking team looking for a rebound.\n\nIn general even potentially dangerous play is not penalised if an opponent is not disadvantage by it or, obviously, not injured by it so that he cannot continue. A personal penalty, that is a caution or a suspension, rather than a team penalty, such as a free ball or a penalty corner, may be (many would say should be or even must be, but again this is in the umpire's discretion) issued to the guilty party after an advantage allowed by the umpire has been played out in any situation where an offence has occurred, including dangerous play (but once advantage has been allowed the umpire cannot then call play back and award a team penalty).\n\nIt is not an offence to lift the ball over an opponent's stick (or body on the ground), provided that it is done with consideration for the safety of the opponent and not dangerously. For example, a skillful attacker may lift the ball over a defenders stick or prone body and run past them, however if the attacker lifts the ball into or at the defender's body, this would almost certainly be regarded as dangerous.\n\nIt is not against the rules to bounce the ball on the stick and even to run with it while doing so, as long as that does not lead to a potentially dangerous conflict with an opponent who is attempting to make a tackle. For example, two players trying to play at the ball in the air at the same time, would probably be considered a dangerous situation and it is likely that the player who first put the ball up or who was so 'carrying' it would be penalised.\n\nDangerous play rules also apply to the usage of the stick when approaching the ball, making a stroke at it (replacing what was at one time referred to as the \"sticks\" rule, which once forbade the raising of any part of the stick above the shoulder during any play. This last restriction has been removed but the stick should still not be used in a way that endangers an opponent) or attempting to tackle, (fouls relating to tripping, impeding and obstruction). The use of the stick to strike an opponent will usually be much more severely dealt with by the umpires than offences such as barging, impeding and obstruction with the body, although these are also dealt with firmly, especially when these fouls are intentional: field hockey is a non-contact sport.\n\nPlayers may not play or attempt to play at the ball above their shoulders unless trying to save a shot that could go into the goal, in which case they are permitted to stop the ball or deflect it safely away. A swing, as in a hit, at a high shot at the goal (or even wide of the goal) will probably be considered dangerous play if at opponents within 5 m and such a stroke would be contrary to rule in these circumstances anyway.\n\nWithin the English National League it is now a legal action to take a ball above shoulder height if completed using a controlled action.\n\nWarnings and suspensions\n\nGrüne Karte Hockey.JPG\|green card (warning with 2 min suspension)\nGelbe Karte Hockey.JPG\|yellow card ( suspension of 5 / 10 mins depending on intensity of foul)\nRote Karte Hockey.JPG\|red card (permanent suspension)\n\nHockey uses a three-tier penalty card system of warnings and suspensions:\n\nA green card is fairly similar to an association-football yellow card: the player may have to leave the field for two minutes, depending on national regulations though at international standard the player has to leave the field for two minutes, but any further infractions will result in a yellow or red card.\nA yellow card is an official suspension similar to the penalty box in ice hockey. The duration is decided by the umpire issuing the card and the player must go to a pre-defined area of the pitch as chosen by the umpires, or by the local/state/national association of that country, in this case generally it will be in the rule book where that player must go to, at the beginning of the match. Most umpires will opt for a minimum of five minutes' duration without substitution; the maximum time is at the discretion of the umpire, depending on the seriousness of the offence, for example the second yellow to the same player or the first for danger might be given ten minutes. (In some modes, including indoor, shorter periods of suspension are applied, dependent on local rules.) However it's possible that a player is send of for the remainder of the match due to that penalty time is longer than the match time.\nDepending on national rules, if a coach is send of a player may have to leave the field too for the time the coach is sent off.\n\nA red card, just like in association football, is a permanent exclusion from the rest of the game, without substitution, and it usually results in the player being banned for a certain period of time or number of matches (this is governed by local playing conditions, rather than the rules of field hockey). The player must also leave the pitch and surrounding area.\nIf a coach is send, depending on local rules, a player may have to leave the field for the remaining length of the match.\n\nIn addition to their colours, field hockey penalty cards are often shaped differently, so they can be recognized easily. Green cards are normally triangular, yellow cards rectangular and red cards circular.\n\nUnlike football, a player may receive more than one green or yellow card. However, they cannot receive the same card for the same offence (for example two yellows for dangerous play), and the second must always be a more serious card. In the case of a second yellow card for a different breach of the rules (for example a yellow for deliberate foot, and a second later in the game for dangerous play) the temporary suspension would be expected to be of considerably longer duration than the first. However, local playing conditions may mandate that cards are awarded only progressively, and not allow any second awards.\n\nReferees may also advance a free-hit by up to 10 m for dissent or other misconduct after a penalty has been awarded; or, if the free-hit would have been in the attacking 23 m area, upgrade the penalty to a penalty corner.\n\nScoring\n\nThe teams' object is to play the ball into their attacking circle and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal, scoring a goal. The team with more goals after 60 minutes wins the game. The playing time may be shortened, particularly when younger players are involved, or for some tournament play.\n\nTie breaking\n\nIn many competitions (such as regular club competition, or in pool games in FIH international tournaments such as the Olympics or the World Cup), a tied result stands and the overall competition standings are adjusted accordingly. Since March 2013, when tie-breaking is required, the official FIH Tournament Regulations mandate to no longer have extra time and go directly into a penalty shoot-out when a classification match ends in a tie. However, many associations follow the previous procedure consisting of two periods of 7.5 minutes of \"golden goal\" extra time during which the game ends as soon as one team scores.\n\nRule change procedure\n\nThe FIH implemented a two-year rules cycle with the 2007–08 edition of the rules, with the intention that the rules be reviewed on a biennial basis. The 2009 rulebook was officially released in early March 2009 (effective 1 May 2009), however the FIH published the major changes in February. The current rule book is effective from 1 January 2015.\n\nThe FIH has adopted a policy of including major changes to the rules as \"Mandatory Experiments\", showing that they must be played at international level, but are treated as experimental and will be reviewed before the next rulebook is published and either changed, approved as permanent rules, or deleted.\n\nRecent examples of such experiments include a fixed 2-minute suspension for a green card and a (limited) ability to request video umpiring decisions.\n\nLocal rules\n\nThere are sometimes minor variations in rules from competition to competition; for instance, the duration of matches is often varied for junior competitions or for carnivals. Different national associations also have slightly differing rules on player equipment.\n\nThe new Euro Hockey League has made major alterations to the rules to aid television viewers, such as splitting the game into four quarters, and to try to improve player behaviour, such as a two-minute suspension for green cards—the latter was also used in the 2010 World Cup. In the United States, the NCAA has its own rules for inter-collegiate competitions; high school associations similarly play to different rules, usually using the rules published by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). This article assumes FIH rules unless otherwise stated. USA Field Hockey produces an annual summary of the differences. \n\nIn the United States, the games at the junior high level consist of two 25-minute halves, while the high school level consists of two 30-minute halves. Many private American schools play 25-minute halves, and some have adopted FIH rules rather than NFHS rules. Players are required to wear mouth guards and shin guards in order to play the game. Also, there is a newer rule requiring certain types of sticks be used. In recent years, the NFHS rules have moved closer to FIH, but in 2011 a new rule requiring protective eyewear was introduced for the 2011 Fall season. The 'cage style' goggles favored by US high school lacrosse and permitted in high school field hockey is not permitted under FIH rules. \n\nEquipment\n\nField hockey stick\n\nEach player carries a \"stick\" that normally measures between 80–95 cm (31–38\") long; shorter or longer sticks are available. Sticks were traditionally made of wood, but are now often made also with fibreglass, kevlar or carbon fibre composites. Metal is forbidden from use in field hockey sticks, due to the risk of injury from sharp edges if the stick were to break. The stick has a rounded handle, has a J-shaped hook at the bottom, and is flattened on the left side (when looking down the handle with the hook facing upwards). All sticks are right handed. Left handed sticks are not permitted.\n\nThere was traditionally a slight curve (called the bow, or rake) from the top to bottom of the face side of the stick and another on the 'heel' edge to the top of the handle (usually made according to the angle at which the handle part was inserted into the splice of the head part of the stick), which assisted in the positioning of the stick head in relation to the ball and made striking the ball easier and more accurate.\n\nThe hook at the bottom of the stick was only recently the tight curve (Indian style) that we have nowadays. The older 'English' sticks had a longer bend, making it very hard to use the stick on the reverse. For this reason players now use the tight curved sticks.\n\nThe handle makes up the about the top third of the stick. It is wrapped in a grip similar to that used on tennis racket. The grip may be made of a variety of materials, including chamois leather, which many players think improves grip in the wet.\n\nIt was recently discovered that increasing the depth of the face bow made it easier to get high speeds from the dragflick and made the stroke easier to execute. At first, after this feature was introduced, the Hockey Rules Board placed a limit of 50 mm on the maximum depth of bow over the length of the stick but experience quickly demonstrated this to be excessive. New rules now limit this curve to under 25 mm so as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked.\n\nField hockey ball\n\nStandard field hockey balls are hard spherical balls, made of plastic (sometimes over a cork core), and are usually white, although they can be any colour as long as they contrast with the playing surface. The balls have a circumference of 224 - and a mass of 156 -. The ball is often covered with indentations to reduce aquaplaning that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces.\n\nGoalkeeping equipment\n\nThe 2007 rulebook has seen major changes regarding goalkeepers. A fully equipped goalkeeper must wear a helmet, leg guards and kickers. Usually the field hockey goalkeepers must wear extensive additional protective equipment including chest guards, padded shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, groin protectors, neck guards, arm guards, and like all players, they must carry a stick. A goalie may not cross the 23 m line, the sole exception to this being if the goalkeeper is to take a penalty stroke at the other end of the field, when the clock is stopped. The goalkeeper can also remove their helmet for this action. However, if the goalkeeper elects to wear only a helmet (and a different colored shirt), they may cross the 23 m line if they have removed their helmet (and placed it safely off the field of play). If play returns to the circle without them having opportunity to replace the helmet, this player still has \"goalkeeping privileges\", that is, they are not limited to using their stick to play the ball whilst it is in the circle, and the helmet must be worn whilst defending penalty corners and penalty strokes but the best thing to do would be to wear it at all times. While goaltenders are allowed to use their feet and hands to clear the ball, they too are only allowed to use one side of their stick. Slide tackling is permitted as long as it is with the intention of clearing the ball, not aimed at a player.\nIt is now also even possible for teams to have a full eleven outfield players and no goalkeeper at all. No player may wear a helmet or other goalkeeping equipment, neither will any player be able to play the ball with any other part of the body than with their stick. This may be used to offer a tactical advantage, or to allow for play to commence if no goalkeeper or kit is available.\n\nTactics\n\nThe basic tactic in field hockey, as in association football and many other team games, is to outnumber the opponent in a particular area of the field at a moment in time. When in possession of the ball this temporary numerical superiority can be used to pass the ball around opponents so that they cannot effect a tackle because they cannot get within playing reach of the ball and to further use this numerical advantage to gain time and create clear space for making scoring shots on the opponent's goal. When not in possession of the ball numerical superiority is used to isolate and channel an opponent in possession and 'mark out' any passing options so that an interception or a tackle may be made to gain possession. Highly skillful players can sometimes get the better of more than one opponent and retain the ball and successfully pass or shoot but this tends to use more energy than quick early passing.\n\nEvery player has a role depending on their relationship to the ball if the team communicates throughout the play of the game. There will be players on the ball (offensively - ball carriers; defensively - pressure, support players, and movement players.\n\nThe main methods by which the ball is moved around the field by players are a) passing b) pushing the ball and running with it controlled to the front or right of the body and c)\"dribbling\"; where the player controls the ball with the stick and moves in various directions with it to elude opponents. To make a pass the ball may be propelled with a pushing stroke, where the player uses their wrists to push the stick head through the ball while the stick head is in contact with it; the \"flick\" or \"scoop\", similar to the push but with an additional arm and leg and rotational actions to lift the ball off the ground; and the \"hit\", where a swing at ball is taken and contact with it is often made very forcefully, causing the ball to be propelled at velocities in excess of 70 mph. In order to produce a powerful hit, usually for travel over long distances or shooting at the goal, the stick is raised higher and swung with maximum power at the ball, a stroke sometimes known as a \"drive\".\n\nTackles are made by placing the stick into the path of the ball or playing the stick head or shaft directly at the ball. To increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier. To avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate using any of the push, flick, or hit strokes, or attempt to maneuver or \"drag\" the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler.\n\nIn recent years, the penalty corner has gained importance as a goal scoring opportunity. Particularly with the technical development of the drag flick. Tactics at penalty corners to set up time for a shot with a drag flick or a hit shot at the goal involve various complex plays, including multiple passes before a deflections towards the goal is made but the most common method of shooting is the direct flick or hit at the goal.\n\nAt the highest level, field hockey is a fast-moving, highly skilled sport, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the ball towards the goal. Tackling with physical contact and otherwise physically obstructing players is not permitted, Some of the tactics used resemble football (soccer), but with greater ball speed.\n\nWith the 2009 changes to the rules regarding free hits in the attacking 23m area, the common tactic of hitting the ball hard into the circle was forbidden. Although at higher levels this was considered tactically risky and low-percentage at creating scoring opportunities, it was used with some effect to 'win' penalty corners by forcing the ball onto a defender's foot or to deflect high (and dangerously) off a defender's stick. The FIH felt it was a dangerous practice that could easily lead to raised deflections and injuries in the circle, which is often crowded at a free-hit situation, and outlawed it.\n\nInternational competition\n\nThe biggest two field hockey tournaments are the Olympic Games tournament, and the Hockey World Cup, which is also held every 4 years. Apart from this, there is the Champions Trophy held each year for the six top-ranked teams. Field hockey has also been played at the Commonwealth Games since 1998. Amongst the men, India lead in Olympic competition, having won 8 golds (6 successive in row). Amongst the women, Australia and Netherlands have 3 Olympic golds while Netherlands has clinched the World Cup 6 times. The Sultan Azlan Shah Hockey Tournament and Sultan Ibrahim Ismail Hockey Tournament is for the junior team but both tournaments are held annually in Malaysia, is becoming a prominent field hockey tournament where teams from around the world participate to win the cup.\n\nIndia and Pakistan dominated men's hockey until the early 1980s, winning eight Olympic golds and three of the first five world cups respectively, but have become less prominent with the ascendancy of the Netherlands, Germany, New Zealand, Australia and Spain since the late 1980s, as grass playing surfaces were replaced with artificial turf (which conferred increased importance on athleticism). Other notable men's nations include Argentina, England (who combine with other British \"Home Nations\" to form the Great Britain side at Olympic events) and South Korea. Despite their recent drop in international rankings, Pakistan still holds the record of four World Cup wins.\n\nNetherlands, Australia and Argentina are the most successful national teams among women. The Netherlands was the predominant women's team before field hockey was added to Olympic events. In the early 1990s, Australia emerged as the strongest women's country although retirement of a number of players weakened the team. Argentina improved its play on the 2000s, heading IFH rankings in 2003, 2010 and 2013. Other prominent women's teams are China, South Korea, Germany and South Africa.\n\n Germany's men's team and the Netherlands' women's teams lead the FIH world rankings.\n\nThis is a list of the major International field hockey tournaments, in chronological order. Tournaments included are:\nOlympic Games - held every four years.\nWorld Cup - held every four years, in between the Olympics.\nChampions Trophy - currently held every year, for the top 8 ranked nations.\nChampions Challenge - held every year for teams ranked 9th-16th in the world.\nChampions Challenge II - held every year for teams ranked 17th-24th in the world.\n\nAlthough invitational or not open to all countries, the following are also considered international tournaments:\nCommonwealth Games – held every four years between members of the Commonwealth of Nations\nSultan Azlan Shah Hockey Tournament - held annually in Malaysia, an invitational tournament.\nSultan Ibrahim Ismail Hockey Tournament -held annually for athletes aged under-21 in Malaysia, an invitational tournament.\n\nVariants\n\nHockey 5s\n\nAs the name suggests, Hockey 5s is a hockey variant which features five players on each team (which must include a goalkeeper). The field of play is 55 m long and 41.70 m wide—this is approximately half the size of a regular pitch. Few additional markings are needed as there is no penalty circle nor penalty corners; shots can be taken from anywhere on the pitch. Penalty strokes are replaced by a \"challenge\" which is like the one-on-one method used in a penalty shoot-out. The duration of the match is three 12-minute periods with an interval of two minutes between periods. The rules are simpler and it is intended that the game is faster, creating more shots on goal with less play in midfield, and more attractive to spectators. \n\nAn Asian qualification tournament for two places at the 2014 Youth Olympic Games was the first time an FIH event used the Hockey 5s format. Hockey 5s was also used for the Youth Olympic hockey tournament, and at the Pacific Games in 2015.", "The modern Olympic Games or Olympics ( ) are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered to be the world's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held every four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart.\n\nTheir creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.\n\nThe evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for ice and winter sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with a disability, and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, and technological advancements. As a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games. World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916, 1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games.\n\nThe Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, and organizes and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter. The IOC also determines the Olympic program, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals: gold, silver, and bronze, respectively.\n\nThe Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, and a terrorist attack in 1972. Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world.\n\nAncient Olympics\n\nThe Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece. Competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration, horse and chariot racing events. It has been widely written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce. This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were traveling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus. The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games. According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games \"Olympic\" and established the custom of holding them every four years. The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labors, he built the Olympic Stadium as an honor to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a \"stadion\" (, Latin: stadium, \"stage\"), which later became a unit of distance. The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race, and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, pankration, and equestrian events. Tradition has it that Coroebus, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion.\n\nThe Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis. The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement. The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the Pythian Games, the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games. \n\nThe Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended, the most commonly held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. Another date commonly cited is 426 AD, when his successor, Theodosius II, ordered the destruction of all Greek temples.\n\nModern Games\n\nForerunners\n\nVarious uses of the term \"Olympic\" to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century. The first such event was the Cotswold Games or \"Cotswold Olimpick Games\", an annual meeting near Chipping Campden, England, involving various sports. It was first organized by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642, with several later celebrations leading up to the present day. The British Olympic Association, in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London, mentioned these games as \"the first stirrings of Britain's Olympic beginnings\".\n\nL'Olympiade de la République, a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games. The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport.\n\nIn 1850 an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock, in Shropshire, England. In 1859, Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games. This annual sports festival continues to this day. The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November 1860.\n\nBetween 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly, these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook, although only 'gentlemen amateurs' could compete. The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics. In 1865 Hulley, Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter. In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized at London's Crystal Palace.\n\nRevival\n\nGreek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem \"Dialogue of the Dead\", published in 1833. Evangelos Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games. Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games.\n\nThe stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875. Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games. In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years. He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee. This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894, at the University of Paris. On the last day of the Congress, it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896. The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.\n\n1896 Games\n\nThe first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games. George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.\n\nGreek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city. The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world. The second Olympics was held in Paris. \n\nChanges and adaptations\n\nAfter the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival. The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World's fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side shows. The Games in Paris did not have a stadium, but were notable for being the first time women took part in the Games. When the St. Louis Games were celebrated roughly 650 athletes participated, but 580 were from the United States. The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement. The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad) were held in Athens. These Games were, but are not now, officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since. The Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest. This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics. \n\nWinter Games\n\nThe Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France, in connection with the Paris Games held three months later; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games. Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year, this idea was quickly abandoned. The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart. This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held every four years, two years after each Summer Olympics.\n\nParalympics\n\nIn 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the rehabitation of soldiers after World War II, organized a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. Guttmann's event, known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games, became an annual sports festival. Over the next twelve years, Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. For the 1960 Olympic Games, in Rome, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the \"Parallel Olympics\", which became known as the first Paralympics. Since then, the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics. In 2001 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement guaranteeing that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, and the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver. Chairman of the London organising committee, Lord Coe, said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London that,\n\nYouth Games\n\nIn 2010, the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games, which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14–26 August 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, two years later. These Games will be shorter than the senior Games; the summer version will last twelve days, while the winter version will last nine days. The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games, however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events. \n\n21st-century games\n\nFrom 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, the Games have grown to about 10,500 competitors from 204 nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics. The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller. For example, Sochi hosted 2,873 athletes from 88 nations competing in 98 events during the 2014 Winter Olympics. During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village. This village is intended to be a self-contained home for all the Olympic participants, and is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations for religious expression. \n\nThe IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing nations that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. The current version of the Charter allows for the establishment of new National Olympic Committees to represent nations which qualify as \"an independent State recognized by the international community\". Therefore, it did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010, although the IOC had recognized the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986. After 2012, Netherlands Antilles athletes can choose to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba. \n\nEconomic and social impact on host cities and countries\n\nMany economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games, emphasizing that such \"mega-events\" often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run. Conversely hosting (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country's exports, as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games. Moreover, research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector. This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards, although not permanently. This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society. \n\nThe Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities; for example, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history, costing in excess of US$50 billion. According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games, this cost will not boost Russia's national economy, but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services. But by December 2014, The Guardian stated that Sochi \"now feels like a ghost town\", citing the spread-out nature of the stadiums and arenas, the still-unfinished construction, and the overall effects Russia's political and economic turmoil. Furthermore, at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics, citing the high costs or the lack of local support, resulting in only a two-city race between Almaty, Kazakhstan and Beijing, China. Thus in July 2016, The Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is that very few cities want to host them. \n\nInternational Olympic Committee\n\nThe Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations, recognized media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter. As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the sports program, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights.\n\nThe Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:\n International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for association football, and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball. There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each of the Olympic sports. \n* National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the NOC of the United States. There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC.\n* Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) are temporary committees responsible for the organization of each Olympic Games. OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC. \n\nFrench and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three (or more) languages, or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country.\n\nCriticism\n\nThe IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization, with several members on the committee for life. The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial. Brundage was president for over 20 years, and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from political involvement and the influence of advertising. He was accused of both racism, for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation, and antisemitism. Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption. Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism. \n\nIn 1998, it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others. The scandal set off further reforms that changed the way host cities were selected, to avoid similar cases in the future. \n\nA BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games, Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee (headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe) of breaking the bid rules. He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement. The allegation was never fully explored. The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion, Switzerland, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination. \n\nIn July 2012, the Anti-Defamation League called the continued refusal by the International Olympic Committee to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics, \"a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli athletes.\" \n\nCommercialization\n\nUnder national organizing committees \n\nThe Olympics have been commercialized to various degrees since the initial 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, when a number of companies paid for advertizing, including Kodak. In 1908, Oxo, Odol mouthwash and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games. Coca Cola sponsored the 1928 Summer Olympics, and has subsequently remained a sponsor to the current time. Before the IOC took control of sponsorship, national organizing committees were responsible for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and the use of the Olympic symbols.\n\nUnder IOC control \n\nThe IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors. It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage, in 1972, that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them. Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand.\n\nBudget\n\nDuring the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget. As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest. Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC's decision-making. Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organizing committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols. When Brundage retired the IOC had US$2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US$45 million. This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights. When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent.\n\nThe 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history. The Los Angeles-based organizing committee, led by Peter Ueberroth, was able to generate a surplus of US$225 million, which was an unprecedented amount at that time. The organizing committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies. The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights. Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Program (TOP) in 1985, in order to create an Olympic brand. Membership in TOP was, and is, very exclusive and expensive. Fees cost US$50 million for a four-year membership. Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category, and use of the Olympic symbol, the interlocking rings, in their publications and advertisements.\n\nEffect of television\n\nThe 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television, though only to local audiences. The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games, and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialized television broadcasting networks—CBS paid US$394,000 for the American rights, and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) allocated US$660,000. In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War. Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy, and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium. The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games, thereby generating more interest, which in turn created more appeal to advertisers time on television. This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever-increasing fees for those rights. For example, CBS paid US$375 million for the rights of the 1998 Nagano Games, while NBC spent US$3.5 billion for the broadcast rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012.\n\nViewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century. This was due to the use of satellites to broadcast live television worldwide in 1964, and the introduction of color television in 1968. Global audience estimates for the 1968 Mexico City Games was 600 million, whereas at the Los Angeles Games of 1984, the audience numbers had increased to 900 million; that number swelled to 3.5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. However, at the 2000 Summer Games in Sydney, NBC drew the lowest ratings for any Summer or Winter Olympics since 1968. This was attributed to two factors: one was the increased competition from cable channels, the second was the internet, which was able to display results and video in real time. Television companies were still relying on tape-delayed content, which was becoming outdated in the information era. A drop in ratings meant that television studios had to give away free advertising time. With such high costs charged to broadcast the Games, the added pressure of the internet, and increased competition from cable, the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings. The IOC responded by making a number of changes to the Olympic program. At the Summer Games, the gymnastics competition was expanded from seven to nine nights, and a Champions Gala was added to draw greater interest. The IOC also expanded the swimming and diving programs, both popular sports with a broad base of television viewers. Finally, the American television lobby, namely NBC, was able to dictate when certain events were held so that they could be broadcast live during prime time in the United States. The results of these efforts were mixed: ratings for the 2006 Winter Games were significantly lower than those for the 2002 Games, while there was a sharp increase in viewership for the 2008 Summer Olympics, and the 2012 Summer Games became the most watched event in US television history. \n\nThe sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial. The argument is that the Games have become indistinguishable from any other commercialized sporting spectacle. Specific criticism was levelled at the IOC for market saturation during the 1996 Atlanta and 2000 Sydney Games. The cities were awash in corporations and merchants attempting to sell Olympic-related wares. The IOC indicated that they would address this to prevent spectacles of over-marketing at future Games. Another criticism is that the Games are funded by host cities and national governments; the IOC incurs none of the cost, yet controls all the rights and profits from the Olympic symbols. The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast income. Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games, even though there is no certainty that they will earn back their investments. Research has shown that trade is around 30 percent higher for countries that have hosted the Olympics. \n\nSymbols\n\nThe Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic Charter. The Olympic symbol, better known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (Africa, America, Asia, Oceania, Europe). The colored version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white field forms the Olympic flag. These colors were chosen because every nation had at least one of them on its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. It has since been hoisted during each celebration of the Games.\n\nThe Olympic motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning \"Faster, Higher, Stronger\" was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin in 1894 and has been official since 1924. The motto was coined by Coubertin's friend, the Dominican priest Henri Didon OP, for a Paris youth gathering of 1891. \n\nCoubertin's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed:\n\nMonths before each Games, the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun's rays; she then lights the torch of the first relay bearer, thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium, where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony. Though the flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928, the torch relay was only introduced at the 1936 Summer Games.\n\nThe Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968. It has played an important part of the Games' identity promotion since the 1980 Summer Olympics, when the Russian bear cub Misha reached international stardom. The mascot of the Summer Olympics in London was named Wenlock after the town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire. Much Wenlock still hosts the Wenlock Olympian Games, which were an inspiration to Pierre de Coubertin for the Olympic Games. \n\nCeremonies\n\nOpening\n\nAs mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. This ceremony takes place before the events have occurred. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theater representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $100 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment. \n\nAfter the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language, with the host country's athletes being the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens, Greece, the Greek flag entered the stadium first, while the Greek delegation entered last. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier, often a successful Olympic athlete from the host nation, who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium's cauldron.\n\nClosing\n\nThe closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played: the flag of the current host country; the flag of Greece, to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games; and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games. The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches, the Games are officially closed, and the Olympic flame is extinguished. In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony, the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games. The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture.\n\nAs is customary, the men's marathon medals (at the Summer Olympics) or the men's 50 km cross-country skiing freestyle mass start medals (at the Winter Olympics) are presented as part of the Closing Ceremony, which take place later that day, in the Olympic Stadium, and are thus the last medal presentation of the Games.\n\nMedal presentation\n\nA medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IOC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag-bearers. \n\nSports\n\nThe Olympic Games program consists of 35 sports, 30 disciplines and 408 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women, each representing a different weight class. The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics program features 15 sports. Athletics, swimming, fencing, and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program. Cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics program since its inception in 1924. Current Olympic sports, like badminton, basketball, and volleyball, first appeared on the program as demonstration sports, and were later promoted to full Olympic sports. Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the program. \n\nOlympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC. There are sports recognized by the IOC that are not included on the Olympic program. These sports are not considered Olympic sports, but they can be promoted to this status during a program revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a celebration of the Olympic Games. During such revisions, sports can be excluded or included in the program on the basis of a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC. There are recognized sports that have never been on an Olympic program in any capacity, including chess and surfing.\n\nIn October and November 2004, the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission, which was tasked with reviewing the sports on the Olympic program and all non-Olympic recognized sports. The goal was to apply a systematic approach to establishing the Olympic program for each celebration of the Games. The commission formulated seven criteria to judge whether a sport should be included on the Olympic program. These criteria are history and tradition of the sport, universality, popularity of the sport, image, athletes' health, development of the International Federation that governs the sport, and costs of holding the sport. From this study five recognized sports emerged as candidates for inclusion at the 2012 Summer Olympics: golf, karate, rugby union, roller sports and squash. These sports were reviewed by the IOC Executive Board and then referred to the General Session in Singapore in July 2005. Of the five sports recommended for inclusion only two were selected as finalists: karate and squash. Neither sport attained the required two-thirds vote and consequently they were not promoted to the Olympic program. In October 2009 the IOC voted to instate golf and rugby union as Olympic sports for the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympic Games.\n\nThe 114th IOC Session, in 2002, limited the Summer Games program to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major program revision was performed, which resulted in the exclusion of baseball and softball from the official program of the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 program featured just 26 sports. The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf.\n\nAmateurism and professionalism\n\nThe ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public school greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin. The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education, an attitude summed up in the saying mens sana in corpore sano, a sound mind in a sound body. In this ethos, a gentleman was one who became an all-rounder, not the best at one specific thing. There was also a prevailing concept of fairness, in which practicing or training was considered tantamount to cheating. Those who practiced a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practiced it merely as a hobby.\n\nThe exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds. Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were thus considered professionals. \n\nAs class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. The advent of the state-sponsored \"full-time amateur athlete\" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism. Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs. As of 2012, the only sports in which no professionals compete is boxing and wrestling, although even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers and wrestlers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees.\n\nControversies\n\nBoycotts\n\nGreece, Australia, France, Great Britain, and Switzerland are the only countries to be represented at every Olympic Games since their inception in 1896. While countries sometimes miss an Olympics due to a lack of qualified athletes, some choose to boycott a celebration of the Games for various reasons. The Olympic Council of Ireland boycotted the 1936 Berlin Games, because the IOC insisted its team needed to be restricted to the Irish Free State rather than representing the entire island of Ireland.\n\nThere were three boycotts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics: the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian uprising by the Soviet Union, but did send an equestrian delegation to Stockholm; Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon boycotted the Games because of the Suez Crisis; and China (the \"People's Republic of China\") boycotted the Games because Taiwan was allowed to compete in the Games as the \"Republic of China\".\n\nIn 1972 and 1976 a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott to force them to ban South Africa and Rhodesia, because of their segregationist regimes. New Zealand was also one of the African boycott targets, because its national rugby union team had toured apartheid-ruled South Africa. The IOC conceded in the first two cases, but refused to ban New Zealand on the grounds that rugby was not an Olympic sport. Fulfilling their threat, twenty African countries were joined by Guyana and Iraq in a withdrawal from the Montreal Games, after a few of their athletes had already competed. \n\nTaiwan also decided to boycott these Games because the People's Republic of China (PRC) exerted pressure on the Montreal organizing committee to keep the delegation from the Republic of China (ROC) from competing under that name. The ROC refused a proposed compromise that would have still allowed them to use the ROC flag and anthem as long as the name was changed. Taiwan did not participate again until 1984, when it returned under the name of Chinese Taipei and with a special flag and anthem.\n\nIn 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's Games. The United States and sixty-four other countries boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This boycott reduced the number of nations participating to 81, the lowest number since 1956. The Soviet Union and 15 other nations countered by boycotting the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984, contending that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Soviet officials defended their decision to withdraw from the Games by saying that \"chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States\". The boycotting nations of the Eastern Bloc staged their own alternate event, the Friendship Games, in July and August.\n\nThere had been growing calls for boycotts of Chinese goods and the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China's human rights record, and in response to Tibetan disturbances. Ultimately, no nation supported a boycott. In August 2008, the government of Georgia called for a boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics, set to be held in Sochi, Russia, in response to Russia's participation in the 2008 South Ossetia war. \n\nPolitics\n\nThe Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies almost from its inception. Nazi Germany wished to portray the National Socialist Party as benevolent and peace-loving when they hosted the 1936 Games, though they used the Games to display Aryan superiority. Germany was the most successful nation at the Games, which did much to support their allegations of Aryan supremacy, but notable victories by African American Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals, and Hungarian Jew Ibolya Csák, blunted the message. The Soviet Union did not participate until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, starting in 1928, the Soviets organized an international sports event called Spartakiads. During the interwar period of the 1920s and 1930s, communist and socialist organizations in several countries, including the United States, attempted to counter what they called the \"bourgeois\" Olympics with the Workers Olympics. It was not until the 1956 Summer Games that the Soviets emerged as a sporting superpower and, in doing so, took full advantage of the publicity that came with winning at the Olympics. \n\nIndividual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200 meters, performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand. The second-place finisher, Peter Norman of Australia, wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. In response to the protest, IOC president Avery Brundage told the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team. The USOC opted for the former. During the same Olympics, Czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská announced her protest to the Soviet-led invasion of her home country after controversially receiving Silver on the Beam and a shared Gold on the Floor. During the Soviet anthem, Čáslavská turned her head down and to the right of the Soviet flag in order to make a statement over the invasion and the Soviet influence of the sport of Gymnastics. Returning home, Čáslavská was made an outcast by the Soviet government and was banned from competition and travelling.\n\nCurrently, the government of Iran has taken steps to avoid any competition between its athletes and those from Israel. An Iranian judoka, Arash Miresmaeili, did not compete in a match against an Israeli during the 2004 Summer Olympics. Although he was officially disqualified for being overweight, Miresmaeli was awarded US$125,000 in prize money by the Iranian government, an amount paid to all Iranian gold medal winners. He was officially cleared of intentionally avoiding the bout, but his receipt of the prize money raised suspicion. \n\nUse of performance-enhancing drugs\n\nIn the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, in 1904, Thomas Hicks, a gold medalist in the marathon, was given strychnine by his coach. The only Olympic death linked to performance enhancing occurred at the 1960 Rome games. A Danish cyclist, Knud Enemark Jensen, fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines. By the mid-1960s, sports federations started to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs; in 1967 the IOC followed suit. \n\nThe first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance-enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use. One of the most publicized doping-related disqualifications occurred after the 1988 Summer Olympics where Canadian sprinter, Ben Johnson (who won the 100-metre dash) tested positive for stanozolol. His gold medal was later stripped and awarded to the American runner-up Carl Lewis, who himself had tested positive for banned substances prior to the Olympics. \n\nIn 1999 the IOC formed the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in an effort to systematize the research and detection of performance-enhancing drugs. There was a sharp increase in positive drug tests at the 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics. Several medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified because of doping offenses. During the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations attempt to emulate. During the Beijing games, 3,667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood tests were used to detect banned substances. Several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games; only three athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing. In London over 6,000 Olympic and Paralympic athletes were tested. Prior to the Games 107 athletes tested positive for banned substances and were not allowed to compete. During and after the Games eight athletes tested positive for a banned substance and were suspended, including shot putter Nadzeya Ostapchuk, who was stripped of her gold medal. \n\nSex discrimination\n\nWomen were first allowed to compete at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, but at the 1992 Summer Olympics 35 countries were still fielding all-male delegations. This number dropped rapidly over the following years. In 2000, Bahrain sent two women competitors for the first time: Fatema Hameed Gerashi and Mariam Mohamed Hadi Al Hilli. In 2004, Robina Muqimyar and Fariba Rezayee became the first women to compete for Afghanistan at the Olympics. In 2008, the United Arab Emirates sent female athletes (Maitha Al Maktoum competed in taekwondo, and Latifa Al Maktoum in equestrian) to the Olympic Games for the first time. Both athletes were from Dubai's ruling family. \n\nBy 2010, only three countries had never sent female athletes to the Games: Brunei, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. Brunei had taken part in only three celebrations of the Games, sending a single athlete on each occasion, but Saudi Arabia and Qatar had been competing regularly with all-male teams. In 2010, the International Olympic Committee announced it would \"press\" these countries to enable and facilitate the participation of women for the 2012 Summer Olympics. Anita DeFrantz, chair of the IOC's Women and Sports Commission, suggested that countries be barred if they prevented women from competing. Shortly thereafter, the Qatar Olympic Committee announced that it \"hoped to send up to four female athletes in shooting and fencing\" to the 2012 Summer Games in London.\n\nIn 2008, Ali Al-Ahmed, director of the Institute for Gulf Affairs, likewise called for Saudi Arabia to be barred from the Games, describing its ban on women athletes as a violation of the International Olympic Committee charter. He noted: \"For the last 15 years, many international nongovernmental organizations worldwide have been trying to lobby the IOC for better enforcement of its own laws banning gender discrimination. [...] While their efforts did result in increasing numbers of women Olympians, the IOC has been reluctant to take a strong position and threaten the discriminating countries with suspension or expulsion.\" In July 2010, The Independent reported: \"Pressure is growing on the International Olympic Committee to kick out Saudi Arabia, who are likely to be the only major nation not to include women in their Olympic team for 2012. [...] Should Saudi Arabia [...] send a male-only team to London, we understand they will face protests from equal rights and women's groups which threaten to disrupt the Games\".\n\nAt the 2012 Olympic Games in London, Great Britain, for the first time in Olympic history, every country competing included female athletes. Saudi Arabia included two female athletes in its delegation; Qatar, four; and Brunei, one (Maziah Mahusin, in the 400m hurdles). Qatar made one of its first female Olympians, Bahiya al-Hamad (shooting), its flagbearer at the 2012 Games, and runner Maryam Yusuf Jamal of Bahrain became the first Gulf female athlete to win a medal when she won a bronze for her showing in the 1500 m race. \n\nThe only sport on the Olympic programme that features men and women competing together is the equestrian disciplines. There is no \"Women's Eventing\", or 'Men's Dressage'. As of 2008, there were still more medal events for men than women. With the addition of women's boxing to the program in the 2012 Summer Olympics, however, female athletes were able to compete in all the same sports as men. In the winter Olympics, women are still unable to compete in the Nordic Combined. There are currently two Olympic events in which male athletes may not compete: synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics.\n\nTerrorism and violence\n\nThree Olympiads had to pass without a celebration of the Games because of war: the 1916 Games were cancelled because of World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. The Russo-Georgian War between Georgia and Russia erupted on the opening day of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Both President Bush and Prime Minister Putin were attending the Olympics at that time and spoke together about the conflict at a luncheon hosted by Chinese president Hu Jintao. When Nino Salukvadze of Georgia won the bronze medal in the 10 metre air pistol competition, she stood on the medal podium with Natalia Paderina, a Russian shooter who had won the silver. In what became a much-publicized event from the Beijing Games, Salukvadze and Paderina embraced on the podium after the ceremony had ended. \n\nTerrorism most directly affected the Olympic Games in 1972. When the Summer Games were held in Munich, Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the Palestinian terrorist group Black September in what is now known as the Munich massacre. The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon after they had taken them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed liberation attempt. A German police officer and five terrorists also perished. \n\nTerrorism affected the last two Olympic Games held in the United States. During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed two and injured 111 others. The bomb was set by Eric Rudolph, an American domestic terrorist, who is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing. The 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, took place just five months after the September 11 attacks, which meant a higher level of security than ever before provided for an Olympic Games. The opening ceremonies of the Games featured symbols of the day's events. They included the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing \"God Bless America\", and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members. The events of that day have made security at the Olympic Games an increasing concern for Olympic planners. \n\nColonialism\n\nThe Olympic Games have been criticized as upholding (and in some cases increasing) the colonial policies and practices of some host nations and cities either in the name of the Olympics by associated parties or directly by official Olympic bodies, such as the International Olympic Committee, host organizing committees and official sponsors. Critics have argued that the Olympics have engaged in or caused: erroneous anthropological and colonial knowledge production; erasure; commodification and appropriation of indigenous ceremonies and symbolism; theft and inappropriate display of indigenous objects; further encroachment on and support of the theft of indigenous lands; and neglect and/or intensification of poor social conditions for indigenous peoples. Such practices have been observed at: the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri; the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Quebec; the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta; and the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia.\n\nCitizenship\n\nIOC rules for citizenship\n\nThe Olympic Charter requires that an athlete be a national of the country for which they compete. Dual nationals may compete for either country, as long as three years have passed since the competitor competed for the former country. However, if the NOCs and IF involved agree, then the IOC Executive Board may reduce or cancel this period. This waiting period exists only for athletes who previously competed for one nation and want to compete for another. If an athlete gains a new or second nationality, then they do not need to wait any designated amount of time before participating for the new or second nation. The IOC is only concerned with issues of citizenship and nationality after individual nations have granted citizenship to athletes.\n\nReasons for changing citizenship\n\nAthletes will sometimes become citizens of a different nation so they are able to compete in the Olympics. This is often because they are drawn to sponsorships or training facilities in such places as the United States. It could also be because an athlete is unable to qualify from within their original country. The athlete may not qualify because there are already qualified athletes in the athlete's home country. Between 1992 and 2008, about fifty athletes emigrated to the United States to compete on the US Olympic team after having previously competed for another nation.\n\nCitizenship changes and disputes\n\nOne of the most famous cases of changing nationality for the Olympics was Zola Budd, a South African runner who emigrated to the United Kingdom because there was an apartheid-era ban on the Olympics in South Africa. Budd was eligible for British citizenship because her grandfather was born in Britain, but British citizens accused the government of expediting the citizenship process for her. \n\nOther notable examples include Kenyan runner Bernard Lagat, who became a United States citizen in May 2004. The Kenyan constitution requires that one renounce their Kenyan citizenship when they become a citizen of another nation. Lagat competed for Kenya in the 2004 Athens Olympics even though he had already become a United States citizen. According to Kenya, he was no longer a Kenyan citizen, jeopardizing his silver medal. Lagat said he started the citizenship process in late 2003 and did not expect to become an American citizen until after the Athens games. \n\nBasketball player Becky Hammon was not being considered for the United States Olympic team but wanted to play in an Olympic Games, so she emigrated to Russia, where she already played in a domestic league during the WNBA offseason. Hammon received criticism from some Americans, including the US national team coach, even being called unpatriotic. \n\nChampions and medalists\n\nThe athletes or teams who place first, second, or third in each event receive medals. The winners receive gold medals, which were solid gold until 1912, then made of gilded silver and now gold-plated silver. Every gold medal however must contain at least six grams of pure gold. The runners-up receive silver medals and the third-place athletes are awarded bronze medals. In events contested by a single-elimination tournament (most notably boxing), third place might not be determined and both semifinal losers receive bronze medals. At the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal; silver for first and bronze for second. The current three-medal format was introduced at the 1904 Olympics. From 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth, and sixth have received certificates, which became officially known as victory diplomas; in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh- and eighth-place finishers were added. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the gold, silver, and bronze medal winners were also given olive wreaths. The IOC does not keep statistics of medals won, but National Olympic Committees and the media record medal statistics as a measure of success. \n\nNations\n\nNations at the Summer Olympics\n\nAs of the 2012 Games in London, all of the current 204 NOCs have participated in at least one edition of the Olympic Summer Olympics, and athletes from Australia, France, Great Britain, Greece, and Switzerland have competed in all twenty-seven Summer Olympic Games.\n\nNations at the Winter Olympics\n\n119 NOCs (110 of the current 204 NOCs and 9 obsolete NOCs) have participated in at least one Winter Games, and twelve nations (Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States) have participated in all twenty-two Winter Games to date. Including continuity from Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic and Slovakia have also been represented in every edition.\n\nHost nations and cities\n\nThe host city for an Olympic Games is usually chosen seven to eight years ahead of their celebration. The process of selection is carried out in two phases that span a two-year period. The prospective host city applies to its country's National Olympic Committee; if more than one city from the same country submits a proposal to its NOC, the national committee typically holds an internal selection, since only one city per NOC can be presented to the International Olympic Committee for consideration. Once the deadline for submission of proposals by the NOCs is reached, the first phase (Application) begins with the applicant cities asked to complete a questionnaire regarding several key criteria related to the organization of the Olympic Games. In this form, the applicants must give assurances that they will comply with the Olympic Charter and with any other regulations established by the IOC Executive Committee. The evaluation of the filled questionnaires by a specialized group provides the IOC with an overview of each applicant's project and their potential to host the Games. On the basis of this technical evaluation, the IOC Executive Board selects the applicants that will proceed to the candidature stage.\n\nOnce the candidate cities are selected, they must submit to the IOC a bigger and more detailed presentation of their project as part of a candidature file. Each city is thoroughly analyzed by an evaluation commission. This commission will also visit the candidate cities, interviewing local officials and inspecting prospective venue sites, and submit a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC's final decision. During the interview process the candidate city must also guarantee that it will be able to fund the Games. After the work of the evaluation commission, a list of candidates is presented to the General Session of the IOC, which must assemble in a country that does not have a candidate city in the running. The IOC members gathered in the Session have the final vote on the host city. Once elected, the host city bid committee (together with the NOC of the respective country) signs a Host City Contract with the IOC, officially becoming an Olympic host nation and host city.\n\nBy 2016, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 44 cities in 23 countries, but by cities outside Europe and North America on only eight occasions. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the Olympics have been held in Asia or Oceania four times, a sharp increase compared to the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history. The 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro will be the first Olympics for a South American country. No bids from countries in Africa have succeeded.\n\nThe United States has hosted eight Olympic Games, four Summer and four Winter, more than any other nation. The British capital London holds the distinction of hosting three Olympic Games, all Summer, more than any other city. The other nations hosting the Summer Games twice are Germany, Australia, France and Greece. The other cities hosting the Summer Games twice are Los Angeles, Paris and Athens. With the 2020 Summer Olympic Games, Japan and Tokyo, respectively, will hold these statuses.\n\nIn addition to the United States, nations hosting multiple Winter Games are France with three, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, Canada and Italy have hosted twice. Among host cities, Lake Placid, Innsbruck and St. Moritz have played host to the Winter Olympic Games more than once, each holding that honor twice. The most recent Winter Games were held in Sochi in 2014, Russia's first Winter Olympics and second Olympics overall." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "one thousand, nine hundred and eight", "1908" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1908", "one thousand nine hundred and eight" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1908", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1908" }
Bill Cosby had a professional trial in which sport?	tc_965	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bill_Cosby.txt" ], "title": [ "Bill Cosby" ], "wiki_context": [ "William Henry \"Bill\" Cosby, Jr. (born July 12, 1937) is an American former stand-up comedian, actor, author and singer-songwriter.\n\nCosby's start in stand-up comedy began at the hungry i in San Francisco, and was followed by his landing a starring role in the 1960s television show I Spy. During the show's first two seasons, he was also a regular on the children's television series The Electric Company.\n\nUsing the Fat Albert character developed during his stand-up routines, Cosby created, produced, and hosted the animated comedy television series Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids, a show that ran from 1972 to 1985, centering on a group of young friends growing up in an urban area. Throughout the 1970s, Cosby starred in a number of films, occasionally returning to film later in his career. After attending Temple University in the 1960s, he received his bachelor's degree there in 1971. In 1973 he received a master's degree from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and in 1976 he earned his Doctor of Education degree, also from UMass. His dissertation discussed the use of Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids as a teaching tool in elementary schools.\n\nBeginning in the 1980s, Cosby produced and starred in a television sitcom, The Cosby Show, which aired from 1984 to 1992 and was rated as the number one show in America for five years, 1984 through 1989. The sitcom highlighted the experiences and growth of an affluent African-American family. Cosby produced the Cosby Show spin-off sitcom A Different World, which aired from 1987 to 1993; starred in the sitcom Cosby from 1996 to 2000; and hosted Kids Say the Darndest Things for two seasons, from 1998 to 2000.\n\nCosby has been the subject of publicized sexual assault allegations since about 2000. Cosby has been accused by over 50 women of rape, drug facilitated sexual assault, sexual battery, child sexual abuse, and sexual misconduct, with the earliest alleged incidents taking place in the mid-1960s. He has denied the allegations. Most of the acts alleged by his accusers fall outside the statutes of limitations for legal proceedings. Numerous related lawsuits against Cosby are pending, and he faces one felony charge of aggravated indecent assault in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. He surrendered to authorities on December 30, 2015, and was released on $1 million bail.\n\nEarly life\n\nCosby was born on July 12, 1937 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is one of four sons of Anna Pearl (née Hite), a maid, and William Henry Cosby Sr., who served as a mess steward in the U.S. Navy. During much of Cosby's early childhood, his father was away in the U.S. armed forces, spending several years serving in the theater of war in World War II. As a student, he described himself as a class clown. Cosby was the captain of both the baseball team and the track and field team at Mary Channing Wister Public School in Philadelphia, as well as the class president. Early on, though, teachers noted his propensity for clowning around rather than studying. At FitzSimons Junior High School, Cosby began acting in plays as well as continuing his devotion to playing sports. \n\nCosby went on to Philadelphia's Central High School, a magnet and academically rigorous university prep school where he played football, basketball, baseball, and ran track. In addition, Cosby was working before and after school, selling produce, shining shoes, and stocking shelves at a supermarket to help out the family. He transferred to Germantown High School, but failed the tenth grade. Instead of repeating, he got a job as an apprentice at a shoe repair shop, which he liked, but could not see himself doing the rest of his life.\n\nIn 1956, Cosby enlisted in the Navy, serving at the Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland and at the Bethesda Naval Hospital in Maryland. During his four years in the Navy, Cosby served as a Hospital Corpsman working in physical therapy with Navy and Marine Corps personnel injured during the Korean War.\n\nHe finished his equivalency diploma via correspondence courses and was awarded a track and field scholarship to Philadelphia's Temple University in 1961. There, he studied physical education while running track and playing fullback on the university's football team. As Cosby progressed through his undergraduate studies, he continued to hone his talent for humor, joking with fellow enlistees in the service and then with college friends. When he began bartending at a Philadelphia club to earn money, he became more aware of his ability to make people laugh. After using humor on his customers and seeing his tips increase, he then took his talent to the stage. \n\nStand-up career\n\nCosby left Temple to pursue a career in comedy, lining up standup jobs at clubs first in Philadelphia and then in New York City, where he appeared at The Gaslight Cafe beginning in 1961. He booked dates in cities such as Chicago, Las Vegas, San Francisco, Washington, D.C.. He received national exposure on NBC's The Tonight Show in the summer of 1963. This led to a recording contract with Warner Bros. Records, who, in 1964, released his debut LP Bill Cosby Is a Very Funny Fellow...Right!, the first of a series of comedy albums. His album To Russell, My Brother, Whom I Slept With was number 1 on Spin Magazines list of \"The 40 Greatest Comedy Albums of All Time\", calling it \"stand-up comedy's masterpiece\". \n\nWhile many comics of the time were using the growing freedom of that decade to explore material that was controversial and sometimes risqué, Cosby was making his reputation with humorous recollections of his childhood. Many Americans wondered about the absence of race as a topic in Cosby's stories. As Cosby's success grew he had to defend his choice of material regularly; as he argued, \"A white person listens to my act and he laughs and he thinks, 'Yeah, that's the way I see it too.' Okay. He's white. I'm Negro. And we both see things the same way. That must mean that we are alike. Right? So I figure this way I'm doing as much for good race relations as the next guy.\" \n\nIn 1983 he released the concert film Bill Cosby: Himself; it is widely regarded as \"the greatest comedy concert film ever\". Younger, well-established comics like Jerry Seinfeld have credited Cosby as an innovator both as a practitioner of the genre of standup comedy, but also as a person who paved the way for comics to break into sitcom television. Seinfeld said of Cosby: \"He opened a door for all of us, for all of the networks to even consider that this was a way to create a character, was to take someone who can hold an audience just by being up there and telling their story. He created that. He created the whole idea of taking a quote-unquote 'comic' and developing a TV show just from a persona that you see onstage.\" Comedian Larry Wilmore also saw a connection between Bill Cosby: Himself and the later success of The Cosby Show, saying: \"It's clear that the concert is the template for The Cosby Show.\"\n\nCosby performed his first TV standup special in 30 years, \"Bill Cosby: Far From Finished\", on Comedy Central on November 23, 2013. Cosby's last show of the \"Far From Finished\" tour was performed at the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre in Atlanta, Georgia on May 2, 2015. \n\nIn 2014, Cosby was set to release his new stand-up special Bill Cosby 77 on Netflix. The release of the film was cancelled due to allegations of sexual assault. \n\nActing career\n\nI Spy\n\nIn 1965, Cosby was cast alongside Robert Culp in the I Spy espionage adventure series on NBC. I Spy became the first weekly dramatic television series to feature an African American in a starring role. At first Cosby and NBC executives were concerned that some affiliates might be unwilling to carry the series. At the beginning of the 1965 season, four stations declined the show; they were in Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. Viewers were taken with the show's exotic locales and the authentic chemistry between the stars, and it became one of the ratings hits of that television season. I Spy finished among the twenty most-watched shows that year, and Cosby would be honored with three consecutive Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. When accepting his third Emmy for the show, Cosby told the audience: \"Let the message be known to bigots and racists that they don’t count!\"\n\nDuring the run of the series, Cosby continued to do stand-up comedy performances and recorded a half-dozen record albums for Warner Bros. Records. He also began to dabble in singing, recording Silver Throat: Bill Cosby Sings in 1967, which provided him with a hit single with his recording of Little Ole Man (Uptight, Everything's Alright). As a single, the song sold over one million copies in the U.S. (achieving \"gold\" status), and hit number 4 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart. He would record several more musical albums into the early 1970s, but he continued to record primarily stand-up comedy work.\n\nIn June 1968, Billboard reported that Cosby had turned down a five-year, US$3.5 million contract renewal offer and would leave the label in August that year to record for his own record label. \n\nTetragrammaton Records was a division of the Campbell, Silver, Cosby (CSC) Corporation, the Los Angeles-based production company founded by Cosby, his manager Roy Silver, and filmmaker Bruce Post Campbell. It produced films as well as records, including Cosby's television specials, the Fat Albert cartoon special and series and several motion pictures. CSC hired Artie Mogull as President of the label and Tetragrammaton was fairly active during 1968–69 (its most successful signing was British heavy rock band Deep Purple) but it quickly went into the red and ceased trading during 1970. \n\nFat Albert, The Bill Cosby Show, and the 1970s\n\nCosby pursued a variety of additional television projects and appeared as a regular guest host on The Tonight Show and as the star of an annual special for NBC. He returned with another series in 1969, The Bill Cosby Show, a situation comedy that ran for two seasons. Cosby played a physical education teacher at a Los Angeles high school. While only a modest critical success, the show was a ratings hit, finishing eleventh in its first season. Cosby was lauded for using African-American performers such as Lillian Randolph, Moms Mabley, and Rex Ingram as characters. According to commentary on the Season 1 DVDs for the show, Cosby was at odds with NBC over his refusal to include a laugh track in the show (he felt that viewers had the ability to find humor for themselves when watching a TV show). He was originally contracted with NBC to do the show for two seasons, and he believes the show was not renewed afterwards for that reason.\n\nAfter The Bill Cosby Show left the air, Cosby returned to his education. He began graduate work at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. For the PBS series The Electric Company, Cosby recorded several segments teaching reading skills to young children.\n\nIn 1972, Cosby received an MA from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and was also back in prime time with a variety series, The New Bill Cosby Show. However, this time he met with poor ratings, and the show lasted only a season. More successful was a Saturday morning show, Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids, hosted by Cosby and based on his own childhood. That series ran from 1972 to 1979, and as The New Fat Albert Show in 1979 and The Adventures of Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids in 1984. Some schools used the program as a teaching tool, and Cosby himself wrote a dissertation on it, \"An Integration of the Visual Media Via 'Fat Albert And The Cosby Kids' Into the Elementary School Curriculum as a Teaching Aid and Vehicle to Achieve Increased Learning\", as partial fulfillment of obtaining his 1976 doctorate in education, also from the University of Massachusetts. Subsequently, Temple University, where Cosby had begun but never finished his undergraduate studies, would grant him his bachelor's degree on the basis of \"life experience.\" \n\nAlso during the 1970s, Cosby and other African-American actors, including Sidney Poitier, joined forces to make some successful comedy films that countered the violent \"blaxploitation\" films of the era. Uptown Saturday Night (1974) and Let's Do It Again (1975) were generally praised, but much of Cosby's film work has fallen flat. Mother, Jugs & Speed (1976), costarring Raquel Welch and Harvey Keitel; A Piece of the Action, with Poitier; and California Suite, a compilation of four Neil Simon plays, were all panned. In addition, Cos (1976) an hour-long variety show featuring puppets, sketches, and musical numbers, was canceled within a year. It was during this season that ABC decided to take advantage of this phase of Cosby's career by associating with Filmation (producers of Fat Albert) in creating live-action segments starring Cosby for the 1964/1971 animated film Journey Back to Oz, which made its network premiere on Christmas 1976, and aired subsequently in syndication. Cosby was also a regular on children's public television programs starting in the 1970s, hosting the \"Picture Pages\" segments that lasted into the early 1980s.\n\nThe Cosby Show and the 1980s\n\nCosby's greatest television success came in September 1984 with the debut of The Cosby Show. The program aired weekly on NBC and went on to become the highest ranking sitcom of all time. Cosby is an advocate for humor that is family-oriented. While working on The Cosby Show he held creative control, co-produced the series and involved himself in every aspect of production. Plots were often based on ideas that Cosby suggested while in meetings with the writing staff. The show had parallels to Cosby's actual family life: like the characters Cliff and Clair Huxtable, Cosby and his wife Camille were college educated, financially successful, and had five children. On the show, Cosby played the role of an obstetrician.\n\nMuch of the material from the pilot and first season of The Cosby Show was taken from his video Bill Cosby: Himself, released in 1983. The series was an immediate success, debuting near the top of the ratings and staying there for most of its long run. The Cosby Show is one of only three American programs that have been #1 in the Nielsen ratings for at least five consecutive seasons, along with All in the Family and American Idol.\n\nIn 1987, Cosby attempted to return to film with the spy spoof Leonard Part 6. Although Cosby himself was producer and wrote the story, he realized during production that the film was not going to be what he wanted and publicly denounced it, warning audiences to stay away.\n\n1990s and 2000s\n\nAfter The Cosby Show went off the air in 1992, Cosby embarked on a number of other projects, including a revival of the classic Groucho Marx game show You Bet Your Life (1992–93) along with the TV-movie I Spy Returns (1994) and The Cosby Mysteries (1994). In the mid-1990s, he appeared as a detective in black-and-white film noir-themed commercials for Turner Classic Movies. He made appearances in three more films: Ghost Dad (1990), The Meteor Man (1993), and Jack (1996). In addition, he was interviewed in Spike Lee's 4 Little Girls (1997), a documentary about the 1963 racist bombing of a church in Birmingham, Alabama.\n\nAlso in 1996, he started up a new show for CBS, Cosby, again co-starring Phylicia Rashād, his onscreen wife on The Cosby Show. Cosby co-produced the show for Carsey-Werner Productions. The show was based on the British program One Foot in the Grave. It centered on Cosby as Hilton Lucas, an iconoclastic senior citizen who tries to find a new job after being downsized and, in the meantime, gets on his wife's nerves. Madeline Kahn costarred as Rashād's goofy business partner Pauline. Cosby was hired by CBS to be the official spokesman of the WWJ-TV during an advertising campaign from 1995 to 1998. Cosby hosted a CBS special, Kids Say the Darndest Things on February 6, 1995, which was followed after as a full season show, with Cosby as host, from January 9, 1998 to June 23, 2000. \n\nAfter four seasons, Cosby was canceled. Its last episode aired April 28, 2000. Kids Say the Darndest Things was terminated the same year, and Cosby continued to work with CBS through a development deal and other projects.\n\nA series for preschoolers, Little Bill, made its debut on Nickelodeon in 1999. The network renewed the popular program in November 2000. In 2001, Cosby's agenda included the publication of a new book, as well as delivering the commencement addresses at Morris Brown College, Ohio State University, and at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Also that year, he signed a deal with 20th Century Fox to develop a live-action feature film centering on the popular Fat Albert character from his 1970s cartoon series. Fat Albert was released in theaters in December 2004. In May 2007 he spoke at the commencement of High Point University. \n\nIn the summer of 2009, Cosby hosted a comedy gala at Montreal's Just for Laughs, which is the largest comedy festival in the world. \n\n2010s\n\nCosby received the National Football Foundation's Gold Medal in 2010 \n\nA new NBC show, that was scheduled for summer or autumn 2015, created by Mike O'Malley and Mike Sikowitz and to have been produced by The Cosby Show's Tom Werner, was set to feature Cosby as Jonathan Franklin, the patriarch of a multi-generational family. \n\nReruns of The Cosby Show have been canceled as a result of the sexual assault allegations against Cosby. In 2011, Netflix added the entire series to instant stream, before removing it in 2012. On November 19, 2014, TV Land and NBC both ended their relationships with Cosby: TV Land announced that it was pulling reruns from its schedule and also removing clips of the show from its website. In December 2014, the Magic Johnson-owned Aspire removed the series from its lineup. In July 2015, broadcast network Bounce TV pulled reruns, and BET's Centric (another Viacom unit) stopped airing reruns. The show is still available on Hulu Plus.[http://www.hulu.com/the-cosby-show The Cosby Show], Hulu Plus. Retrieved October 10, 2015\n\nOn November 19, 2014, NBC scrapped Cosby's new show after accusations that he sexually assaulted women resurfaced.\n\nIn July 2015, Deadline Hollywood Daily reported that Cosby's agency since 2012, Creative Artists Agency (CAA), stopped representing him in late 2014, leaving Cosby without representation in Hollywood.\n\nSexual assault allegations\n\nCosby has been the subject of publicized sexual assault allegations. With the earliest alleged incidents allegedly taking place in the mid-1960s, Cosby has been accused by more than 50 women of either rape, drug facilitated sexual assault, sexual battery, child sexual abuse, and/or sexual misconduct. Earlier sexual assault allegations against Cosby became more public after an October 2014 accusation as part of an onstage performance by comedian Hannibal Buress went viral, and many additional claims were made after that date. The dates of the alleged incidents span from 1965 to 2008 across 10 U.S. states and one Canadian province. \n\nCosby has repeatedly denied any wrongdoing and had not been charged with a crime prior to December 30, 2015, when a warrant was issued for his arrest for a felony sexual assault charge brought by Pennsylvania prosecutors based on accusations by Andrea Constand. In November 2014, Cosby said, in response to a question about the allegations: \"I don't talk about it.\" Cosby has declined to publicly discuss the accusations in past interviews. However, he told Florida Today, \"people shouldn't have to go through that and shouldn't answer to innuendos\". In May 2015 he said, \"I have been in this business 52 years and I've never seen anything like this. Reality is a situation and I can't speak.\"\n\nMost of the acts alleged fall outside the statutes of limitations for criminal legal proceedings, but numerous civil lawsuits have been brought against Cosby. As of November 2015, eight related civil lawsuits are active against Cosby, including two that also target Cosby's lawyer and one that also implicates his wife and manager Camille Cosby. In a December 11, 2015 interview, Gloria Allred said that she is representing 29 of the alleged victims. Allred also said that there are more alleged victims who have contacted her and that some of those that had contacted her would be coming forward. In July 2015, court records from Andrea Constand's 2005 civil lawsuit against Cosby were unsealed and released to the public. In his testimony, Cosby admitted to casual sex, involving use of Quaaludes, with a series of young women, including an admission that his use of drugs in the 1970s was illegal.\n\nIn the wake of the allegations, numerous organizations have severed ties with the comedian, and previously awarded honors and titles have been revoked. Reruns of The Cosby Show and other shows featuring Cosby have also been pulled from syndication by many organizations. More than a dozen colleges and universities have rescinded his honorary degrees. In an attempt to explain the backlash against Cosby, Adweek reporter Jason Lynch noted that the \"media landscape has changed considerably—and has now been joined by the far-less-forgiving social media arena.\"\n\nOn December 30, 2015, Cosby was charged with sexual assault in Pennsylvania and a warrant for his arrest was issued. Cosby reported to court and was arraigned on the charge. On May 24, 2016, a Pennsylvania judge ruled that there was enough evidence for the case to go to trial. Cosby will remain free on $1 million bail until his trial. Each charge carries a maximum sentence of 10 years; the sentences could be served either concurrently or consecutively as determined by a sentencing judge, if Cosby is convicted. \n\nPolitical views\n\nIn May 2004, after receiving an award at the celebration of the 50th anniversary commemoration of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling—a ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court that outlawed racial segregation in schools—Cosby made public remarks critical of African Americans who put higher priorities on sports, fashion, and \"acting hard\" than on education, self-respect, and self-improvement, pleading for African-American families to educate their children on the many different aspects of American culture. \n\nIn the \"Pound Cake\" speech, Cosby asked that African-American parents teach their children better morals at a younger age. As reported in The Washington Times, Cosby \"told reporters during a special session of the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation’s 34th annual legislative conference\" that \"Parenting needs to come to the forefront. If you need help and you don't know how to parent, we want to be able to reach out and touch you.\" Richard Leiby of The Washington Post reported, \"Bill Cosby was anything but politically correct in his remarks Monday night at a Constitution Hall bash commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Brown v. Board of Education decision.\" \n\nCosby again came under sharp criticism and was again largely unapologetic for his stance when he made similar remarks during a speech in a July 1 meeting commemorating the anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education. During that speech, he admonished apathetic blacks for not assisting or concerning themselves with the individuals who are involved with crime or have counter-productive aspirations. He further described those who needed attention as blacks who \"had forgotten the sacrifices of those in the Civil Rights Movement.\" \n\nIn 2005, Georgetown University sociology professor Michael Eric Dyson wrote a book, Is Bill Cosby Right? Or Has the Black Middle Class Lost Its Mind? In the book, Dyson wrote that Cosby was overlooking larger social factors that reinforce poverty and associated crime; factors such as deteriorating schools, stagnating wages, dramatic shifts in the economy, offshoring and downsizing, chronic underemployment, and job and capital flight. Dyson suggested that Cosby's comments \"betray classist, elitist viewpoints rooted in generational warfare.\"\n\nCornel West defended Cosby and his remarks, saying, \"he's speaking out of great compassion and trying to get folk to get on the right track, 'cause we've got some brothers and sisters who are not doing the right things, just like in times in our own lives, we don't do the right thing... He is trying to speak honestly and freely and lovingly, and I think that's a very positive thing.\" \n\nIn a 2008 interview, Cosby mentioned Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan; Oakland, California; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Springfield, Massachusetts among the cities where crime was high and young African-American men were being murdered and jailed in disproportionate numbers. Cosby stood his ground against criticism and affirmed that African-American parents were continuing to fail to inculcate proper standards of moral behavior. Cosby lectured black communities (usually at churches) about his frustrations with certain problems prevalent in underprivileged urban communities, such as illegal drugs; teenage pregnancy; Black Entertainment Television; high-school dropouts; anti-intellectualism; gangsta rap; vulgarity; thievery; offensive clothing; vanity; parental alienation; single-parenting; and failing to live up to the ideals of Frederick Douglass, Martin Luther King, Jr., and African-Americans who preceded Generation X.\n\nCosby has also been openly critical of conservative Republican politicians in regard to their views on socioeconomic and racial issues. In a 2013 CNN interview regarding voting rights, Cosby stated \"this Republican Party is not the Republican Party of 1863, of Abraham Lincoln, abolitionists and slavery, is not good. I think it's important for us to look at the underlying part of it. What is the value of it? Is it that some people are angry because my people no longer want to work for free?\" \n\nPersonal life\n\nCosby married Camille Olivia Hanks on January 25, 1964. Together, they have had five children, Erika, Erinn, Ensa, Evin, and Ennis. Their only son, Ennis, was murdered on January 16, 1997, while changing a flat tire on the side of Interstate 405 in Los Angeles. The Cosbys have three grandchildren. \n\nCosby is a Protestant. He maintains homes in Shelburne, Massachusetts, and Cheltenham, Pennsylvania. \n\nCosby has hosted the Los Angeles Playboy Jazz Festival since 1979. Known as a jazz drummer, he can also be seen playing bass guitar with Jerry Lewis and Sammy Davis, Jr. on Hugh Hefner's 1970s talk show. His story, \"The Regular Way\", was featured in Playboys December 1968 issue. Cosby has become an active member of The Jazz Foundation of America. Cosby became involved with the foundation in 2004. For several years, he has been a featured host for its annual benefit, A Great Night in Harlem, at the Apollo Theater in New York City. Cosby has stated, many times in his stand up shows, that \"kids these days don't know what the jazz is all about\".\n\nCosby is an alumnus supporter of his alma mater, Temple University, particularly its men's basketball team, whose games Cosby frequently attended prior to his arrest. He is also a member of the Omega Psi Phi fraternity; he was initiated in the fraternity's Beta Alpha Alpha graduate chapter in White Plains, New York, in 1988. \n\nIn July 2016 it was reported that Cosby is now completely blind, as a result of keratoconus. \n\nAutumn Jackson extortion trial\n\nDuring Autumn Jackson's extortion trial in July 1997, Cosby testified that he made private payments to Shawn Upshaw, a woman who had briefly been his lover in Las Vegas during the early 1970s. Upshaw later told Cosby that he was the father of her daughter, Autumn Jackson. Cosby denies being the father and said that he gave Upshaw a total of about $100,000 because he did not want her to publicly reveal the affair. Twenty-two-year-old Autumn Jackson was sentenced to 26 months in jail for trying to extort US$40 million from Cosby. In the trial and subsequent appeal, the courts held that Jackson's belief that she was Cosby's child—even if sincere—was irrelevant to the question of her guilt. The courts stated that the mere fact that she was Cosby's child would not have entitled her to the $40 million she demanded, and therefore the demand was extortionate, whether or not she believed herself to be Cosby's daughter. Although both Jackson and Cosby stated at various times that they were willing to undergo DNA testing to determine Jackson's paternity, the two sides never reached an agreement as to when and how to perform the test. After Jackson's conviction, Cosby provided a blood sample for testing, but Jackson refused to participate until after her sentencing. \n\nAwards and honors\n\n* 1969: Received his third Man of the Year award from Harvard University's performance group the Hasty Pudding Theatricals.\n* 1991: Induction into the Television Hall of Fame.\n* 1998: Received the Kennedy Center Honor. \n* 2002: The Presidential Medal of Freedom for his contributions to television\n* 2002: The scholar Molefi Kete Asante included him in his book The 100 Greatest African Americans. \n* 2003: The Bob Hope Humanitarian Award.\n* 2005: In a British poll broadcast on Channel 4 to find the Comedian's Comedian, he was voted among the top-50 comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. \n* 2010: Received the Lone Sailor Award by the United States Navy Memorial. \n* 2009: Presented with the 12th annual Mark Twain Prize for American Humor.\n\nEmmys\n\nGrammys\n\nHonorary degrees\n\nCosby has been awarded at least 57 honorary degrees since 1985 (some have been revoked; see next section): \n\n* Honorary Doctor of Laws from the University of Pennsylvania, 1990. He also served as the commencement speaker in May 1997. \n* Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from the University of Southern California, May 8, 1998. \n* Honorary Doctorate from Colgate University, May 22, 1999; he was also the keynote speaker for the commencement ceremony. \n* Honorary Doctorate from Amherst College, May 1999. (Doctor of Humane Letters, honoris causa)\n* Honorary Degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2001 \n* Honorary Degree from the University of Cincinnati in 2001.\n* Honorary Doctorate from Paine College in 2003. \n* Honorary Degree in 2003 from Sisseton Wahpeton College for his contributions to minority education.\n* Honorary Doctorate from West Chester University of Pennsylvania during the 2003 graduation ceremony.\n* Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Yale University, May 26, 2003. \n* Honorary Doctor of Music degree from Berklee College of Music, May 8, 2004. Cosby was also the host of the school's 60th Anniversary Concert in January 2006. \n* Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Carnegie Mellon University, May 20, 2007; he was also the keynote speaker for the commencement ceremony. \n* Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Virginia Commonwealth University, December 5, 2008. \n* Honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Marquette University, May 19, 2013. \n\nFollowing numerous allegations of sexual assault made against Cosby, a number of his awards were revoked:\nHonorary degrees (revoked)\n\n* Awarded Honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Brown University, May 1985. Degree rescinded September 2015.\nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Lehigh University, May 1987. Degree rescinded February 2016. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Letters degree from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, 1992. Degree rescinded November 2015. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Swarthmore College, 1995. Degree rescinded December 2015. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts from the University of Connecticut, and served as the commencement speaker May 18, 1996. Degree rescinded June 2016. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Arts degree from Tufts University, 2000. Degree rescinded October 2015.\nAwarded Honorary Doctorate from Goucher College, 2001. Degree rescinded October 2015.\nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts from Fordham University in 2001. Degree rescinded September 2015. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Haverford College, May 2002. Degree rescinded February 2016. \nAwarded Honorary Doctorate from Drew University during the May 2002 graduation ceremony. Degree rescinded October 2015. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Baylor University, September 4, 2003, at the \"Spirit Rally\" for the Baylor and Central Texas communities. Degree rescinded October 2015. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Wilkes University, May 2004. Degree rescinded October 2015.\nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Oberlin College, May 1, 2010. Degree rescinded December 2015. \nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from The University of San Francisco, May 18, 2012. Degree rescinded September 2015.\nAwarded Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Boston University, May 18, 2014. Degree rescinded December 2015. \n\nOther revoked awards\n\n* 2011: Made an honorary Chief Petty Officer (Hospital Corpsman) in the United States Navy. The Navy revoked this award on December 4, 2014. \n\nWorks\n\nDiscography\n\nComedy albums\n\n* Bill Cosby Is a Very Funny Fellow...Right! (1963)\n* I Started Out as a Child (1964)\n* Why Is There Air? (1965)\n* Wonderfulness (1966)\n* Revenge (1967)\n* To Russell, My Brother, Whom I Slept With (1968)\n* 200 M.P.H. (1968)\n* 8:15 12:15 (1969)\n* It's True! It's True! (1969)\n* Sports (1969)\n* Live: Madison Square Garden Center (1970)\n* When I Was a Kid (1971)\n* For Adults Only (1971)\n* Bill Cosby Talks to Kids About Drugs (1971)\n* Inside the Mind of Bill Cosby (1972)\n* Fat Albert (1973)\n* My Father Confused Me... What Must I Do? What Must I Do? (1977)\n* Bill's Best Friend (1978)\n* Bill Cosby: Himself (1982)\n* Those of You with or Without Children, You'll Understand (1986)\n* Oh, Baby! (1991)\n* Bill Cosby: Far from Finished (TV broadcast on November 23, 2013, Blu-ray, DVD, CD and digital distribution on November 26, 2013) \n\nMusic albums\n\n* Silver Throat: Bill Cosby Sings (1967)\n* Bill Cosby Sings Hooray for the Salvation Army Band! (1968)\n* Badfoot Brown & the Bunions Bradford Funeral & Marching Band (1971)\n* Charles Mingus and Friends in Concert – As master of ceremonies (Columbia, 1972)\n* Bill Cosby Presents Badfoot Brown & the Bunions Bradford Funeral Marching Band (1972)\n* At Last Bill Cosby Really Sings (1974)\n* Bill Cosby Is Not Himself These Days (1976)\n* Disco Bill (1977)\n* Where You Lay Your Head (1990)\n* My Appreciation (1991)\n* Hello Friend: To Ennis, With Love (1997)\n* Quincy Jones & Bill Cosby – The Original Jam Sessions 1969 (2004)\n* Quincy Jones & Bill Cosby – The New Mixes Vol. 1 (2004)\n* State of Emergency (2009)\n* Keep Standing (2010)\n\nCompilations\n\n* The Best of Bill Cosby (1969)\n* More of the Best of Bill Cosby (1970)\n* Bill (1973)\n* Down Under (1975)\n* Cosby and the Kids (1986)\n* At His Best (1994)\n* 20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection: The Best of Bill Cosby (2001)\n* The Bill Cosby Collection (2004)\n* Icon (2011)\n\nSingles\n\nFilmography\n\nBooks\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "FOOTBALL", "History of football", "Games called football", "FootBall", "Football games", "Modern codes of football", "Football", "Footbal", "Foot ball", "Foot Ball", "Foot-ball", "Football move", "Football's", "Football rules", "History of football games", "Football code", "Foot-Ball", "Football (Group of Sports)", "Football (elliptical)", "Football codes" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "football move", "foot ball", "footbal", "football", "football rules", "modern codes of football", "football codes", "history of football", "football games", "history of football games", "football elliptical", "football code", "games called football", "football s", "football group of sports" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "football", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Football" }
What was the first film Alfred Hitchcock made in Hollywood?	tc_966	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Alfred_Hitchcock.txt" ], "title": [ "Alfred Hitchcock" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, KBE, (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was an English film director and producer, at times referred to as \"The Master of Suspense\". He pioneered many elements of the suspense and psychological thriller genres. He had a successful career in British cinema with both silent films and early talkies and became renowned as England's best director. Hitchcock moved to Hollywood in 1939 and became a US citizen in 1955. \n\nOver a career spanning more than half a century, Hitchcock fashioned for himself a recognisable directorial style. His stylistic trademarks include the use of camera movement that mimics a person's gaze, forcing viewers to engage in a form of voyeurism. In addition, he framed shots to maximise anxiety, fear, or empathy, and used innovative forms of film editing. His work often features fugitives on the run alongside \"icy blonde\" female characters. Many of Hitchcock's films have twist endings and thrilling plots featuring depictions of murder and other violence. Many of the mysteries, however, are used as decoys or \"MacGuffins\" that serve the films' themes and the psychological examinations of their characters. Hitchcock's films also borrow many themes from psychoanalysis and sometimes feature strong sexual overtones.\n\nHitchcock became a highly visible public figure through interviews, movie trailers, cameo appearances in his own films, and the ten years in which he hosted the television program Alfred Hitchcock Presents. In 1978, film critic John Russell Taylor described Hitchcock as \"the most universally recognizable person in the world\", and \"a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius.\"\n\nHitchcock directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades and is often regarded as the greatest British filmmaker. He came first in a 2007 poll of film critics in Britain's Daily Telegraph, which said: \"Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands, Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from viewers) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else.\" Prior to 1980 there had long been talk of Hitchcock being knighted for his contribution to film. Critic Roger Ebert wrote: \"Other British directors like Sir Carol Reed and Sir Charlie Chaplin were knighted years ago, while Hitchcock, universally considered by film students to be one of the greatest filmmakers of all time, was passed over\". Hitchcock was later to receive his knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year Honours. In 2002, the magazine MovieMaker named Hitchcock the most influential filmmaker of all time. \n\nEarly life\n\nAlfred Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in Leytonstone, which at the time was part of Essex. He was the second son and the youngest of three children of William Hitchcock (1862–1914), a greengrocer and poulterer, and Emma Jane Hitchcock (born Whelan; 1863–1942). He was named after his father's brother. Hitchcock was brought up as a Roman Catholic and was sent to Salesian College and the Jesuit Classic school St Ignatius' College in Stamford Hill, London. His parents were both of half-English and half-Irish ancestry. He often described a lonely and sheltered childhood worsened by his obesity. Around age five, Hitchcock said that he was sent by his father to the local police station with a note asking the officer to lock him away for five minutes as punishment for behaving badly. This incident implanted a lifetime fear of policemen in Hitchcock, and such harsh treatment and wrongful accusations are frequent themes in his films. \n\nWhen Hitchcock was 15, his father died. In the same year, he left St. Ignatius to study at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar, London. After leaving, he became a draftsman and advertising designer with a cable company called Henley's. During the First World War, Hitchcock was called up to serve in the British Army. He was excused from military service with a 'C3' classification due to his size, height or an unnamed medical condition, but he was \"able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home\". Hitchcock signed up to a cadet regiment of the Royal Engineers in 1917. His military stint was limited; he received theoretical briefings, weekend drills and exercises. Hitchcock would march around London's Hyde Park and was required to wear puttees, though he never mastered the proper wrapping of them. \n\nWhile working at Henley's, Hitchcock began to dabble creatively. The company's in-house publication The Henley Telegraph was founded in 1919, and he often submitted short articles and eventually became one of its most prolific contributors. His first piece was \"Gas\" (1919), published in the first issue, in which a young woman imagines that she is being assaulted one night in London – only for the twist to reveal that it was all just a hallucination in the dentist's chair induced by the anesthetic. \n\nHitchcock's second piece was \"The Woman's Part\" (1919), which involves the conflicted emotions that a husband feels as he watches his actress wife perform onstage. \"Sordid\" (1920) surrounds an attempt to buy a sword from an antiques dealer, with another twist ending. The short story \"And There Was No Rainbow\" (1920) is Hitchcock's first brush with possibly censurable material. A young man goes out looking for a brothel, only to stumble into the house of his best friend's girl. \"What's Who?\" (1920) at first glance seems to be a precursor to Abbott and Costello's \"Who's on First?\" routine. It is a very short dialogue piece that resembles a bit of antic dialogue from a music hall skit. It captures the zany confusion that happens when a group of actors decide to put together a sketch in which they will impersonate themselves. In the story’s 40 sentences, confusion regarding the questions “Who’s me?” and \"Who’s you?” rise to comic emotional heights. \"The History of Pea Eating\" (1920) is a satirical disquisition on the various attempts that people have made over the centuries to eat peas successfully. His final piece, \"Fedora\" (1921), is his shortest and most enigmatic contribution. It also gives a strikingly accurate description of his future wife Alma Reville, whom he had not yet met. \n\nInter-war British career\n\nSilent films\n\nHitchcock became intrigued by photography and started working in film production, working as a title card designer for the London branch of what became Paramount Pictures. In 1920, he received a full-time position designing the titles for silent movies at Islington Studios with its American owner Famous Players-Lasky and their British successor Gainsborough Pictures. His rise from title designer to film director took five years. During this period, he became an unusual combination of screenwriter, art director, and assistant director on a series of five films for producer Michael Balcon and director Graham Cutts: Woman to Woman (1923), The White Shadow (1924), The Passionate Adventure (1924), The Blackguard (1925), and The Prude's Fall (1925). \n\nHitchcock's penultimate collaboration with Cutts, The Blackguard (German: Die Prinzessin und der Geiger, 1925), was produced at the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam, where Hitchcock observed part of the making of F. W. Murnau's film The Last Laugh (1924). He was very impressed with Murnau's work and later used many techniques for the set design in his own productions. In a book-length interview with François Truffaut, Hitchcock also said that he was influenced by Fritz Lang's film Destiny (1921). He was likewise influenced by other foreign filmmakers whose work he absorbed as one of the earliest members of the \"seminal\" London Film Society, formed in 1925.\n\nHitchcock's first few films faced a string of bad luck. His first directing project came in 1922 with the aptly titled Number 13, filmed in London. The production was cancelled because of financial problems; the few scenes that had been finished at that point have been lost. Michael Balcon gave Hitchcock another opportunity for a directing credit with The Pleasure Garden (1925), a co-production of Gainsborough and the German firm Emelka, which he made at the Geiselgasteig studio near Munich in the summer of 1925. The film was a commercial flop. Next, Hitchcock directed a drama called The Mountain Eagle (1926), possibly released under the title Fear o' God, in the United States. This film is lost. \n\nHitchcock's luck changed with his first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927), a suspense film about the hunt for a Jack the Ripper type of serial killer in London. Released in January 1927, it was a major commercial and critical success in the United Kingdom. As with many of his earlier works, this film was influenced by Expressionist techniques Hitchcock had witnessed first-hand in Germany. Some commentators regard this piece as the first truly \"Hitchcockian\" film, incorporating such themes as the \"wrong man\". \n\nFollowing the success of The Lodger, Hitchcock hired a publicist to help strengthen his growing reputation. On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married his assistant director, Alma Reville, at the Brompton Oratory in South Kensington, London. Their only child, daughter Patricia, was born on 7 July 1928. Alma was to become Hitchcock's closest collaborator, but her contributions to his films (some of which were credited on screen) Hitchcock would discuss only in private, as she was keen to avoid public attention. \n\nEarly sound films\n\nHitchcock began work on his tenth film Blackmail (1929) when its production company British International Pictures (BIP) decided to convert its Elstree facility to sound, and to utilise that new technology in Blackmail. It was an early 'talkie', often cited by film historians as a landmark film, and is often considered to be the first British sound feature film. Blackmail began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences, with the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the British Museum. It also features one of his longest cameo appearances, which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the London Underground. In the PBS series The Men Who Made The Movies, Hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film, stressing the word \"knife\" in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder. During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP musical film revue Elstree Calling (1930) and directed a short film featuring two Film Weekly scholarship winners entitled An Elastic Affair (1930). Another BIP musical revue, Harmony Heaven (1929), reportedly had minor input from Hitchcock, but his name does not appear in the credits.\n\nIn 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont British. His first film for the company The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934) was a success and his second The 39 Steps (1935) is often considered one of the best films from his early period, with the British Film Institute ranking it the fourth best British film of the 20th century. The film was acclaimed in Britain, and it made Hitchcock a star in the United States, and established the quintessential English \"Hitchcock blonde\" Madeleine Carroll as the template for his succession of ice cold and elegant leading ladies. This film was also one of the first to introduce the \"MacGuffin\". In The 39 Steps, the MacGuffin is a stolen set of design plans. Hitchcock told French director François Truffaut:\n\nThere are two men sitting in a train going to Scotland and one man says to the other, \"Excuse me, sir, but what is that strange parcel you have on the luggage rack above you?\", \"Oh\", says the other, \"that's a Macguffin.\", \"Well\", says the first man, \"what's a Macguffin?\", The other answers, \"It's an apparatus for trapping lions in the Scottish Highlands.\", \"But\", says the first man, \"there are no lions in the Scottish Highlands.\", \"Well\", says the other, \"then that's no Macguffin.\" \n\nHitchcock's next major success was The Lady Vanishes (1938), a fast-paced film about the search for kindly old Englishwoman Miss Froy (Dame May Whitty) who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Bandrika. The Guardian called the film \"one of the greatest train movies from the genre's golden era\", and a contender for the \"title of best comedy thriller ever made\". In 1939, Hitchcock received the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director, the only time he received an award for his direction. \n\nHitchcock was lauded in Britain, where he was dubbed \"Alfred the Great\" by Picturegoer magazine, and his reputation was beginning to soar overseas by the end of the 1930s, with a New York Times feature writer stating: \"Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not. Magna Carta, the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock, the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world.\" Variety magazine referred to him as, \"probably the best native director in England.\" \n\nHollywood\n\nSelznick contract\n\nDavid O. Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in March 1939, and the Hitchcocks moved to Hollywood. The suspense and the gallows humour that had become Hitchcock's trademark in his films continued to appear in his American productions. The working arrangements with Selznick were less than ideal. Selznick suffered from constant financial problems, and Hitchcock was often displeased with Selznick's creative control over his films. In a later interview, Hitchcock commented:\n\n[Selznick] was the Big Producer. ... Producer was king, The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me—and it shows you the amount of control—he said I was the \"only director\" he'd \"trust with a film\". \n\nSelznick lent Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself. Selznick made only a few films each year, as did fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn, so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. Hitchcock was quickly impressed with the superior resources of the American studios compared with the financial limits that he had often faced in Britain. \n\nThe Selznick picture Rebecca (1940) was Hitchcock's first American film, set in a Hollywood version of England's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist Daphne du Maurier. The film stars Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine. The story concerns a naïve (and unnamed) young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat. She goes to live in his huge English country house, and struggles with the lingering reputation of the elegant and worldly first wife, whose name was Rebecca and who died under mysterious circumstances. The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940. The statuette was given to Selznick, as the film's producer. Hitchcock was nominated for the Best Director award, his first of five such nominations, but did not win.\n\nThere were additional problems between Selznick and Hitchcock, with Selznick known to impose restrictive rules on Hitchcock. At the same time, Selznick complained about Hitchcock's \"goddamn jigsaw cutting\", which meant that the producer did not have nearly the leeway to create his own film as he liked, but had to follow Hitchcock's vision of the finished product. \n\nHitchcock's second American film was the European-set thriller Foreign Correspondent (1940), based on Vincent Sheean's Personal History and produced by Walter Wanger. It was nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock and other British subjects felt uneasy living and working in Hollywood while their country was at war; his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the British war effort. The movie was filmed in the first year of the Second World War and was inspired by the rapidly changing events in Europe, as fictionally covered by an American newspaper reporter portrayed by Joel McCrea. The film mixed footage of European scenes with scenes filmed on a Hollywood back lot. It avoided direct references to Nazism, Germany and Germans to comply with Hollywood's Production Code censorship. \n\nEarly war years\n\nHitchcock's films were diverse during the 1940s, ranging from the romantic comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941), to the courtroom drama The Paradine Case (1947), to the dark and disturbing film noir Shadow of a Doubt (1943).\n\nIn September 1940 the Hitchcocks bought the 200 acre Cornwall Ranch near Scotts Valley in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The ranch became the holiday home of the Hitchcocks. Their primary residence was an English-style home in Bel Air which was purchased in 1942. Suspicion (1941) marks Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. It is set in England, and Hitchcock used the north coast of Santa Cruz, California for the English coastline sequence. This film is the first of four projects on which Cary Grant worked with Hitchcock, and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant was cast in a sinister role. Joan Fontaine won Best Actress Oscar for her performance. Grant plays an irresponsible English con man whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife (Fontaine). In one scene Hitchcock uses a lightbulb to illuminate what might be a fatal glass of milk that Grant is bringing to his wife. The character that Grant plays in the film is a killer in the book the film is based on, Before the Fact by Francis Iles, but Hitchcock and the studio felt that Grant's image would be tarnished by that. So instead Hitchcock settled for an ambiguous finale, though, as he stated to François Truffaut, a murder would have suited him better. \n\nSaboteur (1942) is the first of two films that Hitchcock made for Universal during the decade. Hitchcock was forced to use Universal contract player Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane (a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal with Universal), both known for their work in comedies and light dramas. Breaking with Hollywood conventions of the time, Hitchcock did extensive location filming, especially in New York City, and depicted a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur (Norman Lloyd) atop the Statue of Liberty. That year, he also directed Have You Heard?, a photographic dramatisation of the dangers of rumours during wartime, for Life magazine. \n\nShadow of a Doubt (1943) was Hitchcock's personal favourite of all his films and the second of the early Universal films. It is about young Charlotte \"Charlie\" Newton (Teresa Wright), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley (Joseph Cotten) of being a serial murderer. Hitchcock again filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of Santa Rosa during the summer of 1942. The director showcased his personal fascination with crime and criminals when he had two of his characters discuss various ways of killing people, to the obvious annoyance of Charlotte.\n\nWorking at 20th Century Fox, Hitchcock adapted a script of John Steinbeck's, which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a German U-boat attack in the film Lifeboat (1944). The action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank. The locale posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance. That was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that William Bendix is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for \"Reduco-Obesity Slayer\". \n\nWhile at Fox Hitchcock seriously considered directing the film version of A. J. Cronin's novel about a Catholic priest in China, The Keys of the Kingdom, but the plans for this fell through. John M. Stahl ended up directing the 1944 film, which was produced by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and starred Gregory Peck. \n\nWartime non-fiction films\n\nHitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944. While there he made two short films for the British Ministry of Information: Bon Voyage and Aventure Malgache. The two British propaganda films made for the Free French were the only films that Hitchcock made in the French language, and they \"feature typical Hitchcockian touches\". On his motivation for making the films, Hitchcock stated: \"I felt the need to make a little contribution to the war effort, and I was both overweight and over-age for military service. I knew that if I did nothing, I'd regret it for the rest of my life.\" \n\nFrom late June to late July 1945, Hitchcock served as \"treatment advisor\" on a Holocaust documentary which used footage provided by the Allied Forces. It was produced by Sidney Bernstein of the British Ministry of Information, and was assembled in London. Bernstein brought his future 1948–49 production partner Hitchcock on board as a consultant for the film editing process for the British Ministry of Information and the American Office of War Information. \n\nThe film-makers were commissioned to provide irrefutable evidence of the Nazis' crimes, and the film recorded the liberation of Nazi concentration camps. It was transferred in 1952 from the British War Office film vaults to London's Imperial War Museum and remained unreleased until 1985, when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of the PBS network series Frontline under the title which the Imperial War Museum had given it: Memory of the Camps. The full-length version of the film German Concentration Camps Factual Survey was completed in 2014, and was restored by film scholars at the Imperial War Museum.\n\nLater Selznick films\n\nHitchcock worked for Selznick again when he directed Spellbound (1945), which explores psychoanalysis and features a dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí. Gregory Peck plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson (Ingrid Bergman), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past. The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned, having been edited by Selznick to make it \"play\" more effectively. Two point-of-view shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out-sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies of the black-and-white film.\nThe original musical score by Miklós Rózsa makes use of the theremin, and some of it was later adapted by the composer into a concert piano concerto.\n\nNotorious (1946) followed Spellbound. Hitchcock gave a book-length interview to François Truffaut, in which he said that Selznick had sold the director, the two stars (Grant and Bergman), and the screenplay (by Ben Hecht) to RKO Radio Pictures as a \"package\" for $500,000 due to cost overruns on Selznick's Duel in the Sun (1946). Notorious stars Hitchcock regulars Ingrid Bergman and Cary Grant, and features a plot about Nazis, uranium and South America. His prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to Hitchcock's being briefly under FBI surveillance. McGilligan writes that Hitchcock consulted Dr. Robert Millikan of Caltech about the development of an atomic bomb. Selznick complained that the notion was \"science fiction\", only to be confronted by the news stories of the detonation of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945. \n\nHis last film under his contract with Selznick was The Paradine Case (1947), a courtroom drama which critics thought lost momentum because it apparently ran too long and exhausted its resource of ideas.\n\nSidney Bernstein and Transatlantic Pictures\n\nHitchcock formed an independent production company with his friend Sidney Bernstein called Transatlantic Pictures, through which he made two films, his first in colour and making use of long takes. With Rope (1948), Hitchcock experimented with marshaling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with Lifeboat (1944). The film appears to have been shot in a single take, but it was actually shot in 10 takes ranging from 4-½ to 10 minutes each, a 10-minute length of film being the maximum that a camera's film magazine could hold at the time. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. It features James Stewart in the leading role, and was the first of four films that Stewart made with Hitchcock. It was inspired by the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s.\n\nUnder Capricorn (1949), set in 19th century Australia, also uses the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used Technicolor in this production, then returned to black-and-white films for several years. Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after these two unsuccessful films. But Hitchcock continued to produce his own films for the rest of his life.\n\n1950s: Peak years\n\nHitchcock filmed Stage Fright (1950) at studios in Elstree, England where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before. He matched one of Warner Bros.' most popular stars, Jane Wyman, with the expatriate German actress Marlene Dietrich and used several prominent British actors, including Michael Wilding, Richard Todd and Alastair Sim. This was Hitchcock's first proper production for Warner Bros., which had distributed Rope and Under Capricorn, because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties. \n\nHis film Strangers on a Train (1951) was based on the novel by Patricia Highsmith. In it, Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. He approached Dashiell Hammett to write the dialogue, but Raymond Chandler took over, then left over disagreements with the director. In the film, two men casually meet, one of whom speculates on a foolproof method to murder; he suggests that two people, each wishing to do away with someone, should each perform the other's murder. Farley Granger's role was as the innocent victim of the scheme, while Robert Walker, previously known for \"boy-next-door\" roles, played the villain. \n\nI Confess (1953) was set in Quebec with Montgomery Clift as a Catholic priest. It was followed by three popular colour films starring Grace Kelly. Dial M for Murder (1954) was adapted from the stage play by Frederick Knott. Ray Milland plays the scheming villain, an ex-tennis pro who tries to murder his unfaithful wife (Kelly) for her money. She kills the hired assassin in self-defence, so Milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like a premeditated murder by his wife. Her lover Mark Halliday (Robert Cummings) and Police Inspector Hubbard (John Williams) work urgently to save her from execution. With Dial M, Hitchcock experimented with 3D cinematography, with the film now being available in the 3D format on Blu-ray.\n\nHitchcock then moved to Paramount Pictures and filmed Rear Window (1954), starring James Stewart and Kelly again, as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr. Stewart's character is a photographer (based on Robert Capa) who must temporarily use a wheelchair. Out of boredom, he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard, and then becomes convinced that one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Stewart tries to convince both his policeman buddy (Wendell Corey) and his glamorous model-girlfriend (Kelly, whom screenwriter John Michael Hayes based on his own wife), and eventually he succeeds. As with Lifeboat and Rope, the principal characters are confined, in this case to Stewart's small studio apartment overlooking a large courtyard. Hitchcock uses close-ups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions to all that he sees, \"from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbours to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment\".\n\nIn 1955, Hitchcock became a United States citizen. His third Grace Kelly film To Catch a Thief (1955) is set in the French Riviera, and pairs her with Cary Grant. He plays retired thief John Robie, who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. A thrill-seeking American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce him. \"Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success.\" It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly. She married Prince Rainier of Monaco in 1956, and ended her film career.\n\nHitchcock remade his own 1934 film The Man Who Knew Too Much in 1956. This time, the film starred James Stewart and Doris Day, who sang the theme song \"Que Sera, Sera\", which won the Oscar for Best Original Song and became a big hit for her. They play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from interfering with an assassination. As in the 1934 film, the climax takes place at the Royal Albert Hall, London. \n\nThe Wrong Man (1957), Hitchcock's final film for Warner Bros., is a low-key black-and-white production based on a real-life case of mistaken identity reported in Life magazine in 1953. This was the only film of Hitchcock to star Henry Fonda, who plays a Stork Club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief who is arrested and tried for robbery, while his wife (Vera Miles) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes. \n\nVertigo (1958) again starred James Stewart, this time with Kim Novak and Barbara Bel Geddes. Stewart plays \"Scottie\", a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who develops an obsession with a woman that he is shadowing (Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock does not opt for a happy ending. Some critics, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that Vertigo represents the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman that he desires. Vertigo explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography. \n\nThe film contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts that has been copied many times by filmmakers commonly referred to as a dolly zoom. It was premiered in the San Sebastián International Film Festival, where Hitchcock won a Silver Seashell. Vertigo is considered a classic today, but it met with some negative reviews and poor box office receipts upon its release, and was the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. It had previously been ranked just behind Citizen Kane (1941) in earlier Sight and Sound decade polls, but it was voted best ever film in the 2012 Sight & Sound critics poll.\n\nBy this time, Hitchcock had filmed in many areas of the US. He followed Vertigo with three more successful films, which are also recognised as among his best films: North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960) and The Birds (1963).\n\nIn North by Northwest, Cary Grant portrays Roger Thornhill, a Madison Avenue advertising executive who is mistaken for a government secret agent. He is hotly pursued across the United States by enemy agents, apparently one of them being Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint), who is in reality working undercover.\n\n1960: Psycho\n\nPsycho is arguably Hitchcock's best-known film. Produced on a constrained budget of $800,000, it was shot in black-and-white on a spare set using crew members from his television show Alfred Hitchcock Presents. The unprecedented violence of the shower scene, the early death of the heroine and the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the defining hallmarks of a new horror film genre and have been copied by many authors of subsequent films. \n\nThe public loved the film, with lines stretching outside of cinemas as people had to wait for the next showing. It broke box-office records in the United Kingdom, France, South America, the United States and Canada and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period. It was the most profitable film of Hitchcock's career; Hitchcock personally earned well in excess of $15 million. He subsequently swapped his rights to Psycho and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of MCA, making him the third largest shareholder in MCA Inc. and his own boss at Universal, in theory at least, but that did not stop them from interfering with him. \n\nAfter 1960\n\nThe Birds (1963), inspired by a short story by English author Daphne du Maurier and by a news story about a mysterious infestation of birds in Capitola, California, was Hitchcock's 49th film, and the location scenes were filmed in Bodega Bay, California. Newcomer Tippi Hedren co-starred with Rod Taylor and Suzanne Pleshette. The scenes of the birds attacking included hundreds of shots mixing live and animated sequences. The cause of the birds' attack is left unanswered, \"perhaps highlighting the mystery of forces unknown\". Hitchcock cast Hedren again opposite Sean Connery in Marnie (1964), a romantic drama and psychological thriller. Decades later, Hedren called Hitchcock a misogynist and said that Hitchcock effectively ended her career by keeping her to an exclusive contract for two years when she rebuffed his sexual advances. However, Hedren appeared in two TV shows during the two years after Marnie. In 2012, Hedren described Hitchcock as a \"sad character\"; a man of \"unusual genius\", yet \"evil, and deviant, almost to the point of dangerous, because of the effect that he could have on people that were totally unsuspecting.\" In response, a Daily Telegraph article quoted several actresses who had worked with Hitchcock, including Eva Marie Saint, Doris Day and Kim Novak, none of whom shared Hedren's opinion about him. Novak, who worked on Hitchcock's Vertigo, told the Telegraph \"I never saw him make a pass at anybody or act strange to anybody.\" \n\nPsycho and The Birds had unconventional soundtracks: the screeching strings played in the murder scene in Psycho were unusually dissonant, and The Birds dispensed with any conventional score, instead using a new technique of electronically produced sound effects. Bernard Herrmann composed the former and was a consultant on the latter.\n\nFailing health reduced Hitchcock's output during the last two decades of his life. Biographer Stephen Rebello claimed Universal \"forced\" two movies on him, Torn Curtain (1966) and Topaz (1969). Both were spy thrillers set with Cold War-related themes. The first, Torn Curtain (1966), with Paul Newman and Julie Andrews, precipitated the bitter end of the twelve-year collaboration between Hitchcock and composer Bernard Herrmann. Herrmann was sacked when Hitchcock was unsatisfied with his score. Topaz (1969), based on a Leon Uris novel, is partly set in Cuba. Both received mixed reviews from critics.\n\nHitchcock returned to Britain to film his penultimate film Frenzy (1972). After two espionage films, the plot marks a return to the murder thriller genre, and is based upon the novel Goodbye Piccadilly, Farewell Leicester Square. The plot centres on a serial killer in contemporary London. The basic story recycles his early film The Lodger. Richard Blaney (Jon Finch), a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger, becomes the prime suspect for the \"Necktie Murders,\" which are actually committed by his friend Bob Rusk (Barry Foster). This time, Hitchcock makes the victim and villain kindreds, rather than opposites, as in Strangers on a Train. Only one of them, however, has crossed the line to murder. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had previously been taboo, in one of his films. He also shows rare sympathy for the chief inspector and his comic domestic life. \n\nBiographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool Joseph Breen, the longtime head of Hollywood's Production Code. Many times Hitchcock slipped in subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realised that Hitchcock was inserting such things and were actually amused as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's \"inescapable inferences\". Beginning with Torn Curtain, Hitchcock was finally able to blatantly include plot elements previously forbidden in American films.\n\nFamily Plot (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It relates the escapades of \"Madam\" Blanche Tyler, played by Barbara Harris, a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover Bruce Dern, making a living from her phony powers. William Devane, Karen Black and Cathleen Nesbitt co-starred. It is the only Hitchcock film scored by John Williams. While Family Plot was based on the Victor Canning novel The Rainbird Pattern, the novel's tone is more sinister and dark than what Hitchcock wanted for the film. Screenwriter Ernest Lehman originally wrote the film with a dark tone but was pushed to a lighter, more comical tone by Hitchcock. The film went through various titles including Deceit and Missing Heir. It was changed to Family Plot at the suggestion of the studio.\n\nLast project and death\n\nNear the end of his life, Hitchcock had worked on the script for a projected spy thriller, The Short Night, collaborating with James Costigan, Ernest Lehman and David Freeman. Despite some preliminary work, the screenplay was never filmed. This was caused primarily by Hitchcock's seriously declining health and his concerns for his wife, Alma, who had suffered a stroke. The screenplay was eventually published in Freeman's 1999 book The Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock. \n\nHitchcock died aged 80 in his Bel Air home of renal failure on 29 April 1980. While biographer Spoto wrote that Hitchcock \"rejected suggestions that he allow a priest ... to come for a visit, or celebrate a quiet, informal ritual at the house for his comfort,\" Jesuit priest Father Mark Henninger wrote that he and fellow priest Tom Sullivan celebrated Mass at the filmmaker's home; Father Sullivan heard Hitchcock's confession. He was survived by his wife and their daughter. Lew Wasserman, board chairman and chief executive officer of MCA Inc. and previously Hitchcock’s longtime agent, stated:\n\nI am deeply saddened by the death of my close friend and colleague, Sir Alfred Hitchcock, whose death today at his home deprives us all of a great artist and an even greater human being. Almost every tribute paid to Sir Alfred in the past by film critics and historians has emphasised his continuing influence in the world of film. It is that continuing influence, embodied in the magnificent series of films he has given the world, during the last half-century, that will preserve his great spirit, his humour and his wit, not only for us but for succeeding generations of film-goers.\n\nHitchcock's funeral Mass was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills on 30 April 1980, after which his body was cremated and his remains were scattered over the Pacific Ocean on 10 May 1980. \n\nAesthetic\n\nSignature appearances in his films\n\nHitchcock appears briefly in most of his own films. For example, he is seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train (Strangers on a Train), walking dogs out of a pet shop (The Birds), fixing a neighbour's clock (Rear Window), as a shadow (Family Plot), sitting at a table in a photograph (Dial M for Murder) and missing a bus (North by Northwest).\n\nThemes, plot devices and motifs\n\nHitchcock returned several times to cinematic devices such as suspense, the audience as voyeur, and his well-known \"MacGuffin,\" a plot device that is essential to the characters on the screen, but is irrelevant to the audience. Thus, the MacGuffin was always hazily described (in North By Northwest, Leo G. Carroll describes James Mason as an \"importer-exporter.\") A central theme of Hitchcock's films was murder and the psychology behind it. \n\nPsychology of characters\n\nHitchcock's films sometimes feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In North by Northwest (1959), Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant's character) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him. In The Birds (1963), the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother (Jessica Tandy). The killer in Frenzy (1972) has a loathing of women but idolises his mother. The villain Bruno in Strangers on a Train hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by Marion Lorne). Sebastian (Claude Rains) in Notorious has a clearly conflictual relationship with his mother, who is (correctly) suspicious of his new bride Alicia Huberman (Ingrid Bergman). Norman Bates has troubles with his mother in Psycho.\n\nHitchcock heroines tend to be blondes. The famous victims in The Lodger are all blondes. In The 39 Steps, Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, Madeleine Carroll, is put in handcuffs. In Marnie (1964), the title character (played by Tippi Hedren) is a thief. In To Catch a Thief (1955), Francie (Grace Kelly) offers to help a man she believes is a burglar. In Rear Window, Lisa (Grace Kelly again) risks her life by breaking into Lars Thorwald's apartment. The best-known example is in Psycho where Janet Leigh's unfortunate character steals $40,000 and is murdered by a reclusive psychopath. Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was Barbara Harris as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in Family Plot (1976), his final film. In the same film, the diamond smuggler played by Karen Black could also fit that role, as she wears a long blonde wig in various scenes and becomes increasingly uncomfortable about her line of work. The English 'Hitchcock blonde' was based on his preference for the heroines to have an \"indirect\" sex appeal of English women, ladylike in public, but whores in the bedroom, with Hitchcock stating to Truffaut:\n\nStyle of working\n\nWriting\n\nHitchcock once commented, \"The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest.\" In an interview with Roger Ebert in 1969, Hitchcock elaborated further:\n\nIn Writing with Hitchcock, a book-length study of Hitchcock's working method with his writers, author Steven DeRosa noted that \"Although he rarely did any actual 'writing', especially on his Hollywood productions, Hitchcock supervised and guided his writers through every draft, insisting on a strict attention to detail and a preference for telling the story through visual rather than verbal means. While this exasperated some writers, others admitted the director inspired them to do their very best work. Hitchcock often emphasised that he took no screen credit for the writing of his films. However, over time the work of many of his writers has been attributed solely to Hitchcock's creative genius, a misconception he rarely went out of his way to correct. Notwithstanding his technical brilliance as a director, Hitchcock relied on his writers a great deal.\" \n\nStoryboards and production\n\nAccording to the majority of commentators, Hitchcock's films were extensively storyboarded to the finest detail. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder, since he did not need to, though in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternate takes to consider.\n\nHowever, this view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by the book Hitchcock at Work, written by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of Cahiers du cinéma. Krohn, after investigating several script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock alongside inspection of storyboards, and other production material, has observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned. He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his films, was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. A great example would be the celebrated crop-spraying sequence of North by Northwest which was not storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail.\n\nEven when storyboards were made, scenes that were shot differed from them significantly. Krohn's extensive analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like Notorious reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its production. Another example Krohn notes is the American remake of The Man Who Knew Too Much, whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule, something that, as Krohn notes, was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films, including Strangers on a Train and Topaz. While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his films, he was fully cognisant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best-laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines utilised during many other film productions.\n\nKrohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order, which he notes sent many films over budget and over schedule and, more importantly, differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to shoot alternate takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how he/she chooses (often under the producer's aegis). Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency of giving himself options in the editing room, where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work. According to Krohn, this and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock.\n\nHis fastidiousness and attention to detail also found its way into each film poster for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day—film poster designers such as Bill Gold and Saul Bass—who would produce posters that accurately represented his films. \n\nApproach to actors\n\nHitchcock became known for his alleged observation, \"Actors are cattle\". He once said that he first made this remark as early as the late 1920s, in connection to stage actors who were snobbish about motion pictures. However, the actor Michael Redgrave said that Hitchcock had made the statement during the filming of The Lady Vanishes (1938). Later, in Hollywood, during the filming of Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941), Carole Lombard brought some heifers onto the set with name tags of Lombard, Robert Montgomery and Gene Raymond, the stars of the film, to surprise the director. Hitchcock said he was misquoted: \"I said 'Actors should be treated like cattle'.\" \n\nMuch of Hitchcock's supposed dislike of actors has been exaggerated. Hitchcock simply did not tolerate the method approach, as he believed that actors should only concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. In a Sight and Sound interview, he stated that, 'the method actor is OK in the theatre because he has a free space to move about. But when it comes to cutting the face and what he sees and so forth, there must be some discipline'. He often used the same actors in many of his films.\n\nDuring the making of Lifeboat, Walter Slezak, who played the German villain, stated that Hitchcock knew the mechanics of acting better than anyone he knew. Several critics have observed that despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, several actors who worked with him gave fine, often brilliant performances and these performances contribute to the film's success. As more fully discussed above, in \"Inter-War British Career,\" actress Dolly Haas, who was a personal friend of Hitchcock and who acted for him in the 1953 film I Confess, stated that Hitchcock regarded actors as \"animated props.\"\n\nFor Hitchcock, the actors, like the props, were part of the film's setting, as he said to Truffaut:\n\nIn my opinion, the chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well, which is by no means as easy as it sounds. He should be willing to be utilised and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and the camera. He must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights. \n\nRegarding Hitchcock's sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors, there was a persistent rumour that he had said that actors were cattle. Hitchcock addressed this story in his interview with François Truffaut:\n\nI'm not quite sure in what context I might have made such a statement. It may have been made ... when we used actors who were simultaneously performing in stage plays. When they had a matinee, and I suspected they were allowing themselves plenty of time for a very leisurely lunch. And this meant that we had to shoot our scenes at breakneck speed so that the actors could get out on time. I couldn't help feeling that if they'd been really conscientious, they'd have swallowed their sandwich in the cab, on the way to the theatre, and get there in time to put on their make-up and go on stage. I had no use for that kind of actor. \n\nIn the late 1950s, French New Wave critics, especially Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol and François Truffaut, were among the first to see and promote Hitchcock's films as artistic works. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory, which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film-making process.\n\nHitchcock's innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers and actors. His influence helped start a trend for film directors to control artistic aspects of their films without answering to the film's producer.\n\nInspiration for suspense and psychological thrillers\n\nIn a 1963 interview with Oriana Fallaci, Hitchcock was asked in spite of looking like a pleasant, innocuous man, he seemed to have fun making films which involve a lot of suspense and terrifying crime, to which he responded,\n\nTelevision, radio and books\n\nAlong with Walt Disney, Hitchcock was among the first prominent film producers to fully envisage just how popular the medium of television would become. From 1955 to 1965, Hitchcock was the host of the television series titled Alfred Hitchcock Presents. While his films had made Hitchcock's name strongly associated with suspense, the TV series made Hitchcock a celebrity himself. His irony-tinged voice and signature droll delivery, gallows humour, iconic image and mannerisms became instantly recognisable and were often the subject of parody.\n\nThe title-sequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of Hitchcock's profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes), which his real silhouette then filled. His introductions before the stories in his programme always included some sort of wry humour, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one electric chair, while two are now shown with a sign \"Two chairs—no waiting!\". He directed 18 episodes of the TV series himself, which aired from 1955 to 1965 in two versions. It became The Alfred Hitchcock Hour in 1962.\n\nThe series theme tune was Funeral March of a Marionette, by the French composer Charles Gounod (1818–1893), the composer of the 1859 opera Faust. The composer Bernard Herrmann suggested the music be used. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra included the piece on one of their extended play 45-rpm discs for RCA Victor during the 1950s. In the 1980s, a new version of Alfred Hitchcock Presents was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a colourised form.\n\nHitchcock appears as a character in the popular juvenile detective book series, Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators. The long-running detective series was created by Robert Arthur, who wrote the first several books, although other authors took over after he left the series. The Three Investigators—Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw—were amateur detectives, slightly younger than the Hardy Boys. In the introduction to each book, \"Alfred Hitchcock\" introduces the mystery, and he sometimes refers a case to the boys to solve. At the end of each book, the boys report to Hitchcock, and sometimes give him a memento of their case.\n\nAt the height of Hitchcock's success, he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached. The series was a collection of short stories by popular short-story writers, primarily focused on suspense and thrillers. These titles included Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology, Alfred Hitchcock Presents: Stories to be Read with the Door Locked, Alfred Hitchcock's Monster Museum, Alfred Hitchcock's Supernatural Tales of Terror and Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbinders in Suspense, Alfred Hitchcock's Witch's Brew, Alfred Hitchcock's Ghostly Gallery, Alfred Hitchcock's A Hangman's Dozen, Alfred Hitchcock's Stories Not For the Nervous and Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful. Hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading, reviewing, editing or selection of the short stories; in fact, even his introductions were ghost-written. The entire extent of his involvement with the project was to lend his name and collect a cheque.\n\nSome notable writers whose works were used in the collection include Shirley Jackson (Strangers in Town, The Lottery), T. H. White (The Once and Future King), Robert Bloch, H. G. Wells (The War of the Worlds), Robert Louis Stevenson, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Mark Twain and the creator of The Three Investigators, Robert Arthur. In a similar manner, Hitchcock's name was licensed for a digest-sized monthly, Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, which has been published since 1956.\n\nHitchcock also wrote a mystery story for Look magazine in 1943, \"The Murder of Monty Woolley\". This was a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to inspect the pictures for clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves, such as Woolley, Doris Merrick and make-up man Guy Pearce, whom Hitchcock identified, in the last photo, as the murderer. The article was reprinted in Games Magazine in November/December 1980.\n\nIn 2012, Hitchcock featured in the BBC Radio 4 series The New Elizabethans to mark the diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. A panel of 7 academics, journalists and historians named Hitchcock among the group of people in the UK \"whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character\". \n\nAwards and honours\n\nHitchcock was a multiple nominee and winner of a number of prestigious awards, receiving two Golden Globes, eight Laurel Awards, and five lifetime achievement awards including the first BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, as well as being five times nominated for, albeit never winning, an Academy Award as Best Director. His film Rebecca (nominated for 11 Oscars) won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940—another Hitchcock film, Foreign Correspondent, was also nominated that year. Hitchcock has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, receiving one for his contribution to television and another for his work in motion pictures.\n\nAfter refusing a CBE in 1962, Hitchcock received a knighthood in 1980 when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year Honours. Asked by a reporter why it had taken the Queen so long, Hitchcock quipped, \"I suppose it was a matter of carelessness\". An English Heritage blue plaque, unveiled in 1999, marks where Sir Alfred Hitchcock lived in London at 153 Cromwell Road, Kensington and Chelsea, SW5.\n\nIn June 2013, nine restored versions of Hitchcock's early silent films, including his directorial debut, The Pleasure Garden (1925), were shown at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Harvey Theatre. Known as \"The Hitchcock 9,\" the travelling tribute was made possible by a $3 million programme organised by the British Film Institute.\n\nArchives\n\nThe Alfred Hitchcock Collection is housed at the Academy Film Archive. The collection includes home movies, 16mm film shot on the set of Blackmail (1929) and Frenzy (1972), and the earliest known colour footage of Hitchcock. The Academy Film Archive preserved many of Hitchcock's home movies. The Alfred Hitchcock papers at the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library complement the film material. \n\nPortrayals in film and television\n\n* Anthony Hopkins in the 2012 film Hitchcock.\n* Toby Jones in the 2012 HBO telefilm The Girl.\n* Roger Ashton-Griffiths in the 2014 film Grace of Monaco.\n\nFilmography\n\n* Number 13 (1922, unfinished)\n* Always Tell Your Wife (1923, short)\n* The Pleasure Garden (1925)\n* The Mountain Eagle (1926, lost)\n* The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927)\n* The Ring (1927)\n* Downhill (1927)\n* The Farmer's Wife (1928)\n* Easy Virtue (1928)\n* Champagne (1928)\n* The Manxman (1929)\n* Blackmail (1929)\n* Juno and the Paycock (1930)\n* Murder! (1930)\n* Elstree Calling (1930)\n* The Skin Game (1931)\n* Mary (1931)\n* Rich and Strange (1931)\n* Number Seventeen (1932)\n* Waltzes from Vienna (1934)\n* The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934)\n* The 39 Steps (1935)\n* Secret Agent (1936)\n* Sabotage (1936)\n* Young and Innocent (1937)\n* The Lady Vanishes (1938)\n* Jamaica Inn (1939)\n* Rebecca (1940)\n* Foreign Correspondent (1940)\n* Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941)\n* Suspicion (1941)\n* Saboteur (1942)\n* Shadow of a Doubt (1943)\n* Lifeboat (1944)\n* Aventure Malgache (1944, short)\n* Bon Voyage (1944, short)\n* Spellbound (1945)\n* Notorious (1946)\n* The Paradine Case (1947)\n* Rope (1948)\n* Under Capricorn (1949)\n* Stage Fright (1950)\n* Strangers on a Train (1951)\n* I Confess (1953)\n* Dial M for Murder (1954)\n* Rear Window (1954)\n* To Catch a Thief (1955)\n* The Trouble with Harry (1955)\n* The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956)\n* The Wrong Man (1956)\n* Vertigo (1958)\n* North by Northwest (1959)\n* Psycho (1960)\n* The Birds (1963)\n* Marnie (1964)\n* Torn Curtain (1966)\n* Topaz (1969)\n* Frenzy (1972)\n* Family Plot (1976)\n* The Short Night (1979, cancelled)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Rifkah", "Rifko", "Rifka", "Rifkoh", "Ribhqah", "Rivqah", "Rebeccah", "Rebekah", "Rivqa", "Rivko", "Rivka", "Rebbecca", "Rebecca", "Rivkoh" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "rifkoh", "rebeccah", "rivka", "rifko", "ribhqah", "rebekah", "rifkah", "rebbecca", "rivqa", "rivqah", "rivko", "rebecca", "rivkoh", "rifka" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "rebecca", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Rebecca" }
Bujumbura international airport is in which country?	tc_968	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bujumbura_International_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Bujumbura International Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Bujumbura International Airport is an airport in Bujumbura, the capital of Burundi. It is Burundi's only international airport and the only one with a paved runway. \n\nAirlines and destinations\n\n, the following airlines maintain regular scheduled service to Bujumbura International Airport: \n\nPassenger\n\nNote: : Brussels Airlines' outbound flights stop in Kigali, while all inbound flights are nonstop. The airline does not have traffic rights to transport passengers solely between Bujumbura and Kigali.\n\nCargo" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "ISO 3166-1:BI", "Republic of Burundi", "Burundis", "Urundi", "The Republic of Burundi", "Burundians", "Burundi" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "urundi", "burundians", "republic of burundi", "iso 3166 1 bi", "burundis", "burundi" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "burundi", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Burundi" }
The painting The Scream was stolen form which city in 1994?	tc_970	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Scream.txt" ], "title": [ "The Scream" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Scream () is the popular name given to each of four versions of a composition, created as both paintings and pastels, by the Expressionist artist Edvard Munch between 1893 and 1910. The German title Munch gave these works is ' (The Scream of Nature). The works show a figure with an agonized expression against a landscape with a tumultuous orange sky. Arthur Lubow has described The Scream as \"an icon of modern art, a Mona Lisa for our time.\"Arthur Lubow, [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/munch.html Edvard Munch: Beyond The Scream], Smithsonian Magazine, March 2006, (retrieved 29 March 2013)\n\nEdvard Munch created the four versions in various media. The National Gallery, Oslo, holds one of two painted versions (1893, shown here). The Munch Museum holds the other painted version (1910, see gallery, below) and a pastel version from 1893. These three versions have not traveled for years. \n\nThe fourth version (pastel, 1895) was sold for $119,922,600 at Sotheby's Impressionist and Modern Art auction on 2 May 2012 to financier Leon Black, the fourth highest nominal price paid for a painting at auction. The painting was on display in the Museum of Modern Art in New York from October 2012 to April 2013.\n\nAlso in 1895, Munch created a lithograph stone of the image. Of the lithograph prints produced by Munch, several examples survive. Only approximately four dozen prints were made before the original stone was resurfaced by the printer in Munch's absence. \n\nThe Scream has been the target of several high-profile art thefts. In 1994, the version in the National Gallery was stolen. It was recovered several months later. In 2004, both The Scream and Madonna were stolen from the Munch Museum, and were both recovered two years later.\n\nSources of inspiration\n\nThe original German title given by Munch to his work was ' (\"The Scream of Nature\"). The Norwegian word ' usually is translated as scream, but is cognate with the English shriek. Occasionally, the painting also has been called The Cry.\n\nIn his diary in an entry headed Nice 22 January 1892, Munch described his inspiration for the image:\n\nThis memory was later rendered by Munch as a poem, which he hand-painted onto the frame of the 1895 pastel version of the work:\n\nAmong theories advanced to account for the reddish sky in the background is the artist's memory of the effects of the powerful volcanic eruption of Krakatoa, which deeply tinted sunset skies red in parts of the Western hemisphere for months during 1883 and 1884, about a decade before Munch painted The Scream. This explanation has been disputed by scholars, who note that Munch was an expressive painter and was not primarily interested in literal renderings of what he had seen. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the proximity of both a slaughterhouse and a lunatic asylum to the site depicted in the painting may have offered some inspiration. The scene was identified as being the view from a road overlooking Oslo, the Oslofjord and Hovedøya, from the hill of Ekeberg. At the time of painting the work, Munch's manic depressive sister Laura Catherine was a patient at the asylum at the foot of Ekeberg.\n\nIn 1978, the Munch scholar Robert Rosenblum suggested that the strange, sexless creature in the foreground of the painting was inspired by a Peruvian mummy, which Munch could have seen at the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris. This mummy, which was buried in a fetal position with its hands alongside its face, also struck the imagination of Munch's friend Paul Gauguin: it stood as a model for figures in more than twenty of Gauguin's paintings, among those the central figure in his painting, Human misery (Grape harvest at Arles) and for the old woman at the left in his painting, Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?. In 2004, an Italian anthropologist speculated that Munch might have seen a mummy in Florence's Museum of Natural History, which bears an even more striking resemblance to the painting. Nonetheless, later studies have confirmed Rosenblum's suggestion, disproving the Italian theory, for Munch had not been to Florence until after painting The Scream. \n\nThe imagery of The Scream has been compared to that which an individual suffering from depersonalization disorder experiences, a feeling of distortion of the environment and one's self, and also facial pain in the form of Trigeminal neuralgia. \n\nPainting materials\n\nThe material composition of the 1893 painted version was examined in 2010. The pigment analysis revealed the use of cadmium yellow, vermilion, ultramarine and viridian among other pigments of the 19th century. \n\nThefts\n\nThe Scream has been the target of a number of thefts and theft attempts. Some damage has been suffered in these thefts. \n\n1994 theft\n\nOn 12 February 1994, the same day as the opening of the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, two men broke into the National Gallery, Oslo, and stole its version of The Scream, leaving a note reading \"Thanks for the poor security\". The painting had been moved down to a second-story gallery as part of the Olympic festivities. After the gallery refused to pay a ransom demand of US$1 million in March 1994, Norwegian police set up a sting operation with assistance from the British police (SO10) and the Getty Museum and the painting was recovered undamaged on 7 May 1994. In January 1996, four men were convicted in connection with the theft, including Pål Enger, who had been convicted of stealing Munch's Vampire in 1988. They were released on appeal on legal grounds: the British agents involved in the sting operation had entered Norway under false identities. \n\n2004 theft\n\nThe 1910 tempera on board version of The Scream was stolen on 22 August 2004, during daylight hours, when masked gunmen entered the Munch Museum in Oslo and stole it and Munch's Madonna. A bystander photographed the robbers as they escaped to their car with the artwork. On 8 April 2005, Norwegian police arrested a suspect in connection with the theft, but the paintings remained missing and it was rumored that they had been burned by the thieves to destroy evidence. On 1 June 2005, with four suspects already in custody in connection with the crime, the city government of Oslo offered a reward of 2 million Norwegian krone (roughly US$313,500 or €231,200) for information that could help locate the paintings. Although the paintings remained missing, six men went on trial in early 2006, variously charged with either helping to plan or participating in the robbery. Three of the men were convicted and sentenced to between four and eight years in prison in May 2006, and two of the convicted, Bjørn Hoen and Petter Tharaldsen, were also ordered to pay compensation of 750 million kroner (roughly US$117.6 million or €86.7 million) to the City of Oslo. The Munch Museum was closed for ten months for a security overhaul. \n\nOn 31 August 2006, Norwegian police announced that a police operation had recovered both The Scream and Madonna, but did not reveal detailed circumstances of the recovery. The paintings were said to be in a better-than-expected condition. \"We are 100 percent certain they are the originals,\" police chief Iver Stensrud told a news conference. \"The damage was much less than feared.\" Munch Museum director Ingebjørg Ydstie confirmed the condition of the paintings, saying it was much better than expected and that the damage could be repaired. The Scream had moisture damage on the lower left corner, while Madonna suffered several tears on the right side of the painting as well as two holes in Madonna's arm. Before repairs and restoration began, the paintings were put on public display by the Munch Museum beginning 27 September 2006. During the five-day exhibition, 5,500 people viewed the damaged paintings. The conserved works went back on display on 23 May 2008, when the exhibition \"Scream and Madonna — Revisited\" at the Munch Museum in Oslo displayed the paintings together. Some damage to The Scream may prove impossible to repair, but the overall integrity of the work has not been compromised. \n\nRecord sale at auction\n\nThe 1895 pastel-on-board version of the painting, owned by Norwegian businessman Petter Olsen, sold at Sotheby's in London for a record price of nearly US$120 million at auction on 2 May 2012. The bidding started at $40 million and lasted for over 12 minutes when American businessman Leon Black by phone gave the final offer of US$119,922,500, including the buyer's premium. Sotheby's said the painting was the most colorful and vibrant of the four versions painted by Munch and the only version whose frame was hand-painted by the artist to include his poem, detailing the work's inspiration. After the sale, Sotheby's auctioneer Tobias Meyer said the painting was \"worth every penny\", adding: \"It is one of the great icons of art in the world and whoever bought it should be congratulated.\" \n\nThe previous record for the most expensive work of art sold at auction had been held by Picasso's Nude, Green Leaves and Bust, which went for US$106.5 million at Christie's two years prior on 4 May 2010. When accounting for inflation, the highest price paid for art at an auction is still held by Van Gogh's Portrait of Dr. Gachet, which sold for $82.5 million in 1990, or about $ million 2012 dollars. There have been reports that The Card Players, by Cézanne, sold privately for $250m in 2011, which can not be verified for the establishment of a record price.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nIn the late twentieth century, The Scream was imitated, parodied, and outright copies have been made following its copyright expiration, which led to it acquiring an iconic status in popular culture. It was used on the cover of some editions of Arthur Janov's book The Primal Scream. In 1983–1984, pop artist Andy Warhol made a series of silk prints copying works by Munch, including The Scream. His stated intention was to desacralize the painting by making it into a mass-reproducible object. Munch had already begun that process, however, by making a lithograph of the work for reproduction. Erró's ironic and irreverent treatment of Munch's masterpiece in his acrylic paintings The Second Scream (1967) and Ding Dong (1979) is considered a characteristic of post-modern art. The expression of Kevin McCallister (Macaulay Culkin) in the poster for the movie Home Alone was inspired by The Scream. Cartoonist Gary Larson included a \"tribute\" to The Scream (entitled The Whine) in his Wiener Dog Art painting and cartoon compilation, in which the central figure is replaced by a howling dachshund. The Scream has been used in advertising, in cartoons, such as The Simpsons, films, and on television. The principal alien antagonists depicted in the 2011 BBC series of Doctor Who, named \"The Silence\", have an appearance partially based on The Scream. The Ghostface mask worn by the primary antagonists of the Scream series of horror movies is based on the painting, and was created by Brigitte Sleiertin, a Fun World employee, as a Halloween costume, prior to being discovered by Marianne Maddalena and Wes Craven for the film. \n\nIn 2013, The Scream was one of four paintings that the Norwegian postal service chose for a series of stamps marking the 150th anniversary of Edvard Munch’s birth. \n\nA patient resource group for trigeminal neuralgia (which has been described as the most painful condition in existence) have also adopted the image as a symbol of the condition. \n\nIn the anime Detective Conan episode 774 (2015) \"The Missing Scream of Munch\", the disappearance of The Scream plays the main part of story. \n\nThe painting features in chapter 12 of Philip K. Dick's novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? The two bounty hunters, Deckard and Resch are on the trail of Luba Luft, a suspect android. The painting is described as follows: \"The painting showed a hairless, oppressed creature with a head like an inverted pear, its hands clapped in horror to its ears, its mouth open in a vast soundless scream. Twisted ripples of the creature's torment, echoes of its cry, flooded out into the air surrounding it: the man or woman, whichever it was, had become contained by its own howl.\"\n\nIn most Unicode emoji renderings, is made to resemble the subject of the painting. \n\nA simplified version of the subject of the painting is one of the pictographs considered for use on the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant as a non-language-specific symbol of danger in order to warn future human civilizations of the presence of radioactive waste on the site. \n\nGallery\n\nFile:Skrik 1893.jpg\|1893: pastel on cardboard. As possibly the earliest version of The Scream, this pastel appears to be the sketch in which Munch mapped out the essentials of the composition.\nFile:The Scream by Edvard Munch, 1893 - Nasjonalgalleriet.png\|1893: oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard. Perhaps the most recognizable version, located at the National Gallery in Oslo, Norway.\nFile:\"The scream\". Wellcome L0011212.jpg\|1895: lithograph. Some 45 prints were made before the printer repurposed the lithograph stone.\nFile:The Scream Pastel.jpg\|1895: pastel on cardboard, was sold for more than US$120 million, at Sotheby's, in 2012.\nFile:Edvard Munch - The Scream - Google Art Project.jpg\|1910: tempera on cardboard, was stolen from the Munch Museum in 2004, but recovered in 2006." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Municipality of Oslo", "City of Oslo", "History of Oslo", "NOOSL", "Tigerstaden", "List of books about Oslo", "Oslo", "Christiania, Norway", "UN/LOCODE:NOOSL", "Oslo (county)", "The weather in Oslo", "Kristiania, Norway", "Christiana, Norway", "Kristiania", "Olso", "Oslo, Norway" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "list of books about oslo", "municipality of oslo", "un locode noosl", "christiana norway", "oslo", "history of oslo", "oslo county", "city of oslo", "christiania norway", "oslo norway", "olso", "weather in oslo", "noosl", "kristiania norway", "kristiania", "tigerstaden" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "oslo", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Oslo" }
What was Paul Newman's first movie?	tc_971	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Paul_Newman.txt" ], "title": [ "Paul Newman" ], "wiki_context": [ "Paul Leonard Newman (January 26, 1925 – September 26, 2008) was an American actor, film director, entrepreneur, professional racing driver and team owner, environmentalist, activist and philanthropist. He won numerous awards, including an Academy Award for his performance in the 1986 film The Color of Money, a BAFTA Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, a Cannes Film Festival Award, an Emmy Award, and many honorary awards. Newman's other films include The Hustler (1961), Cool Hand Luke (1967), Butch Cassidy in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), The Sting (1973), and The Verdict (1982).\n\nDespite being colorblind, he won several national championships as a driver in Sports Car Club of America road racing, and his race teams won several championships in open wheel IndyCar racing. Newman was married to actress Joanne Woodward from 1958 until his death. He was a co-founder of Newman's Own, a food company from which Newman donated all post-tax profits and royalties to charity. , these donations totaled over US$460 million. He was also a co-founder of Safe Water Network, a nonprofit that develops sustainable drinking water solutions for those in need. In 1988, Newman founded the SeriousFun Children's Network, a global family of camps and programs for children with serious illness which has served 290,076 children since its inception. \n\nEarly years\n\nNewman was born on January 26, 1925 in Shaker Heights, Ohio, an affluent suburb of Cleveland. He was the second son of Theresa (née Fetzer, Fetzko, or Fetsko; ;Lax, Eric (1996). Paul Newman: A Biography. Atlanta: Turner Publishing; ISBN 1-57036-286-6. died 1982) and Arthur Sigmund Newman (1894–1950), who ran a profitable sporting goods store. . Genealogy.com; accessed October 21, 2015. \n\nHis father was Jewish (Paul's paternal grandparents, Simon Newman and Hannah Cohn, were immigrants from Hungary and Poland). His mother, Theresa, whose year of birth remains unclear but appears to have been between 1889 and 1895, was a practitioner of Christian Science, and was born to a Slovak Roman Catholic family at Homonna, Peticse, Kingdom of Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Humenné, Ptičie, Republic of Slovakia). Newman had no religion as an adult, but described himself as a Jew, saying, \"it's more of a challenge.\" Newman's mother worked in his father's store, while raising Paul and his elder brother, Arthur, who later became a producer and production manager. \n\nNewman showed an early interest in the theater; his first role was at the age of seven, playing the court jester in a school production of Robin Hood. At age 10, Newman performed at the Cleveland Play House in a production of Saint George and the Dragon, and was a notable actor and alumnus of their Curtain Pullers children's theatre program. Graduating from Shaker Heights High School in 1943, he briefly attended Ohio University in Athens, Ohio, where he was initiated into the Phi Kappa Tau fraternity.\n\nMilitary service\n\nNewman served in the United States Navy in World War II in the Pacific theater. Initially, he enrolled in the Navy V-12 pilot training program at Yale University, but was dropped when his colorblindness was discovered. Boot camp followed, with training as a radioman and rear gunner. Qualifying in torpedo bombers in 1944, Aviation Radioman Third Class Newman was sent to Barbers Point, Hawaii. He was subsequently assigned to Pacific-based replacement torpedo squadrons VT-98, VT-99, and VT-100, responsible primarily for training replacement combat pilots and air crewmen, with special emphasis on carrier landings.\n\nHe later flew as a turret gunner in an Avenger torpedo bomber. As a radioman-gunner, he was ordered aboard the with a draft of replacements shortly before the Battle of Okinawa in the spring of 1945. His pilot's ear infection kept their plane grounded while the rest of their squadron continued to the aircraft carrier. Days later the rest of their unit on the USS Bunker Hill were among those killed when the ship was the target of a kamikaze attack. \n\nUniversity and training\n\nAfter the war, Newman completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in drama and economics at Kenyon College in 1949. Shortly after earning his degree, Newman joined several summer stock companies, most notably the Belfry Players in Wisconsin and the Woodstock Players in Illinois. He toured with them for three months and developed his talents as a part of Woodstock Players. Newman later attended the Yale School of Drama for one year, before moving to New York City to study under Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio.\n\nOscar Levant wrote that Newman initially was hesitant to leave New York for Hollywood: \"Too close to the cake\", he reported Newman saying, \"Also, no place to study.\" \n\nCareer\n\nEarly work and mainstream success\n\nNewman arrived in New York City in 1951 with his first wife Jackie Witte, taking up residence in the St. George section of Staten Island. \n\nHe made his Broadway theatre debut in the original production of William Inge's Picnic with Kim Stanley in 1953 and appeared in the original Broadway production of The Desperate Hours in 1955. In 1959, he was in the original Broadway production of Sweet Bird of Youth with Geraldine Page and three years later starred with Page in the film version. During this time Newman started acting in television. His first credited role was in a 1952 episode of Tales of Tomorrow entitled \"Ice from Space\". In the mid-1950s, he appeared twice on CBS's Appointment with Adventure anthology series.\n\nIn February 1954, Newman appeared in a screen test with James Dean, directed by Gjon Mili, for East of Eden (1955). Newman was tested for the role of Aron Trask, Dean for the role of Aron's fraternal twin brother Cal. Dean won his part, but Newman lost out to Richard Davalos. That same year, he co-starred with Eva Marie Saint and Frank Sinatra in a live—and color—television broadcast of Our Town, a musical adaptation of Thornton Wilder's stage play. Newman was a last-minute replacement for James Dean. The Dean connection had resonance two other times, as Newman was cast in two leading roles originally earmarked for Dean, as Billy the Kid in The Left Handed Gun and as Rocky Graziano in Somebody Up There Likes Me, both filmed after Dean's death in an automobile collision.\n\nNewman's first film for Hollywood was The Silver Chalice (1954). The film was a box office failure and the actor would later acknowledge his disdain for it. In 1956, Newman garnered much attention and acclaim for the role of Rocky Graziano in Somebody Up There Likes Me. In 1958, he starred in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958), opposite Elizabeth Taylor. The film was a box office smash and Newman garnered his first Academy Award nomination. Also in 1958, Newman starred in The Long, Hot Summer with Joanne Woodward, with whom he reconnected on the set in 1957 (they had first met in 1953). He won Best Actor at the 1958 Cannes Film Festival for this film.\n\nMajor films\n\nNewman starred in Exodus (1960), The Hustler (1961), Hud (1963), Harper (1966), Hombre (1967), Cool Hand Luke (1967), The Towering Inferno (1974), Slap Shot (1977), and The Verdict (1982). He teamed with fellow actor Robert Redford and director George Roy Hill for Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) and The Sting (1973).\n\nAfter his marriage to Woodward they appeared together in The Long, Hot Summer (1958), Rally 'Round the Flag, Boys!, (1958), From the Terrace (1960), Paris Blues (1961), A New Kind of Love (1963), Winning (1969), WUSA (1970), The Drowning Pool (1975), Harry & Son (1984), and Mr. and Mrs. Bridge (1990). They starred in the HBO miniseries Empire Falls, but did not share any scenes.\n\nIn addition to starring in and directing Harry & Son, Newman directed four feature films starring Woodward. They were Rachel, Rachel (1968), based on Margaret Laurence's A Jest of God, the screen version of the Pulitzer Prize–winning play The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds (1972), the television screen version of the Pulitzer Prize–winning play The Shadow Box (1980), and a screen version of Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie (1987). Twenty-five years after The Hustler, Newman reprised his role of \"Fast Eddie\" Felson in the Martin Scorsese–directed film The Color of Money (1986), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor.\n\n21st century roles\n\nIn 2003, Newman appeared in a Broadway revival of Wilder's Our Town, receiving his first Tony Award nomination for his performance. PBS and the cable network Showtime aired a taping of the production, and Newman was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or TV Movie.\n\nNewman's last movie appearance was as a conflicted mob boss in the 2002 film Road to Perdition opposite Tom Hanks, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. His last appearance overall, although he continued to provide voice work for films, was in 2005 in the HBO mini-series Empire Falls (based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by Richard Russo) in which he played the dissolute father of the protagonist, Miles Roby and for which he won a Golden Globe and a Primetime Emmy. In 2006, in keeping with his strong interest in car racing, he provided the voice of Doc Hudson, a retired anthropomorphic race car in Disney/Pixar's Cars — this was his final role for a major feature film.\n\nNewman retired from acting in May 2007, saying \"You start to lose your memory, you start to lose your confidence, you start to lose your invention. So I think that's pretty much a closed book for me.\" He came out of retirement to record narration for the 2007 documentary Dale, about the life of NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt, and for the 2008 documentary The Meerkats.\n\nPhilanthropy\n\nWith writer A. E. Hotchner, Newman founded Newman's Own, a line of food products, in 1982. The brand started with salad dressing, and has expanded to include pasta sauce, lemonade, popcorn, salsa, and wine, among other things. Newman established a policy that all proceeds, after taxes, would be donated to charity. , the franchise has donated in excess of $400 million. He co-wrote a memoir about the subject with Hotchner, Shameless Exploitation in Pursuit of the Common Good. Among other awards, Newman's Own co-sponsors the PEN/Newman's Own First Amendment Award, a $25,000 reward designed to recognize those who protect the First Amendment as it applies to the written word. \n\nOne beneficiary of his philanthropy is the Hole in the Wall Gang Camp, a residential summer camp for seriously ill children located in Ashford, Connecticut, which Newman co-founded in 1988. It is named after the gang in his film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), and the real-life, historic Hole-in-the-Wall outlaw hang-out in the mountains of northern Wyoming. Newman's college fraternity, Phi Kappa Tau, adopted his Connecticut Hole in the Wall camp as their \"national philanthropy\" in 1995. The original camp has expanded to become several Hole in the Wall Camps in the U.S., Ireland, France, and Israel. The camps serve 13,000 children every year, free of charge.\n\nIn June 1999, Newman donated $250,000 to Catholic Relief Services to aid refugees in Kosovo. \n\nOn June 1, 2007, Kenyon College announced that Newman had donated $10 million to the school to establish a scholarship fund as part of the college's current $230 million fund-raising campaign. Newman and Woodward were honorary co-chairs of a previous campaign. \n\nNewman was one of the founders of the Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy (CECP), a membership organization of CEOs and corporate chairpersons committed to raising the level and quality of global corporate philanthropy. Founded in 1999 by Newman and a few leading CEOs, CECP has grown to include more than 175 members and, through annual executive convenings, extensive benchmarking research, and best practice publications, leads the business community in developing sustainable and strategic community partnerships through philanthropy. \nNewman was named the Most Generous Celebrity of 2008 by Givingback.org. He contributed $20,857,000 for the year of 2008 to the Newman's Own Foundation, which distributes funds to a variety of charities. \n\nUpon Newman's death, the Italian newspaper (a \"semi-official\" paper of the Holy See) L'Osservatore Romano published a notice lauding Newman's philanthropy. It also commented that \"Newman was a generous heart, an actor of a dignity and style rare in Hollywood quarters.\" \n\nNewman was responsible for preserving lands around Westport, Connecticut. He lobbied the state's governor for funds for the 2011 Aspetuck Land Trust in Easton. In 2011 Paul Newman's estate gifted land to Westport to be managed by the Aspetuck Land Trust.\n\nMarriages and family\n\nNewman was married to Jackie Witte from 1949 to 1958. They had a son, Scott (1950-1978), and two daughters, Stephanie Kendall (born 1951) and Susan (born 1953). Scott, who appeared in films including Breakheart Pass, The Towering Inferno, and the 1977 film Fraternity Row, died in November 1978 from a drug overdose. Newman started the Scott Newman Center for drug abuse prevention in memory of his son. Susan Newman is a documentary filmmaker and philanthropist, and has Broadway and screen credits, including a starring role as one of four Beatles fans in I Wanna Hold Your Hand (1978), and also a small role opposite her father in Slap Shot. She also received an Emmy nomination as co-producer of his telefilm, The Shadow Box.\n\nNewman met actress Joanne Woodward in 1953. Shortly after filming The Long, Hot Summer in 1957, he divorced Witte. He married Woodward early in 1958. They remained married for fifty years, until his death in 2008. They had three daughters: Elinor \"Nell\" Teresa (b. 1959), Melissa \"Lissy\" Stewart (b. 1961), and Claire \"Clea\" Olivia (b. 1965). Newman directed his daughter Elinor (whose acting name is Nell Potts) alongside her mother in the films Rachel, Rachel and The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds.\n\nThe Newmans moved away from Hollywood in the late 1960s, making their home in Westport, Connecticut. Newman was well known for his devotion to his wife and family. When once asked about infidelity, he famously quipped, \"Why go out for a hamburger when you have steak at home?\" \n\nNewman was an ordained minister of the Universal Life Church. \n\nPolitical activism\n\nNewman was a lifelong Democrat. For his support of Eugene McCarthy in 1968 (and effective use of television commercials in California) and his opposition to the Vietnam War, Newman was placed nineteenth on Richard Nixon's enemies list, which Newman claimed was his greatest accomplishment. During the 1968 general election, Newman supported Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey and appeared in a pre-election night telethon for him. Newman was also a vocal supporter of gay rights. \n\nIn January 1995, Newman was the chief investor of a group, including the writer E.L. Doctorow and the editor Victor Navasky, that bought the progressive-left wing periodical The Nation. Newman was an occasional writer for the publication. \n\nConsistent with his work for liberal causes, Newman publicly supported Ned Lamont's candidacy in the 2006 Connecticut Democratic Primary against Senator Joe Lieberman, and was even rumored as a candidate himself, until Lamont emerged as a credible alternative. He donated to Chris Dodd's presidential campaign. Newman earlier donated money to Bill Richardson's campaign for president in 2008.\n\nHe attended the first Earth Day event in Manhattan on April 22, 1970. \n\nNewman was concerned about global warming and supported nuclear energy development as a solution. \n\nAuto racing\n\nNewman was an auto racing enthusiast, despite being colorblind, and first became interested in motorsports (\"the first thing that I ever found I had any grace in\") while training at the Watkins Glen Racing School for the filming of Winning, a 1969 film. Because of his love and passion for racing, Newman agreed in 1971 to star in and to host his first television special, Once Upon a Wheel, on the history of auto racing. It was produced and directed by David Winters, who co-owned a number of racing cars with Newman. Newman's first professional event as a racer was in 1972 at Thompson International Speedway, quietly entered as \"P.L. Newman\", by which he continued to be known in the racing community. \n\nHe was a frequent competitor in Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) events for the rest of the decade, eventually winning four national championships. He later drove in the 1979 24 Hours of Le Mans in Dick Barbour's Porsche 935 and finished in second place. Newman reunited with Barbour in 2000 to compete in the Petit Le Mans. \n\nFrom the mid-1970s to the early 1990s, he drove for the Bob Sharp Racing team, racing mainly Datsuns (later rebranded as Nissans) in the Trans-Am Series. He became closely associated with the brand during the 1980s, even appearing in commercials for them in Japan and having a special edition of the Nissan Skyline named after him. At the age of 70 years and eight days, Newman became the oldest driver to date to be part of a winning team in a major sanctioned race, winning in his class at the 1995 24 Hours of Daytona. Among his last major races were the Baja 1000 in 2004 and the 24 Hours of Daytona once again in 2005. \n\nDuring the 1976 auto racing season, Newman became interested in forming a professional auto racing team and contacted Bill Freeman who introduced Newman to professional auto racing management, and their company specialized in Can-Am, Indy Cars, and other high performance racing automobiles. The team was based in Santa Barbara, California and commuted to Willow Springs International Motorsports Park for much of its testing sessions.\n\nTheir \"Newman Freeman Racing\" team was very competitive in the North American Can-Am series in their Budweiser sponsored Chevrolet powered Spyder NFs. Newman and Freeman began a long and successful partnership with the Newman Freeman Racing team in the Can-Am series which culminated in the Can-Am Team Championship trophy in 1979. Newman was associated with Freeman's established Porsche racing team which allowed both Newman and Freeman to compete in S.C.C.A. and I.M.S.A. racing events together, including the Sebring 12-hour endurance sports car race. This car was sponsored by Beverly Porsche/Audi. Freeman was Sports Car Club of America's Southern Pacific National Champion during the Newman Freeman Racing period. Later Newman co-founded Newman/Haas Racing with Carl Haas, a Champ Car team, in 1983, going on to win 8 drivers' championships under his ownership. The 1996 racing season was chronicled in the IMAX film Super Speedway, which Newman narrated. He was a partner in the Atlantic Championship team Newman Wachs Racing.\n\nHaving said he would quit \"when I embarrass myself\", Newman competed into his 80s, winning at Lime Rock in what former co-driver Sam Posey called a \"brutish Corvette\" displaying his age as its number: 81. He took the pole in his last professional race, in 2007 at Watkins Glen International, and in a 2008 run at Lime Rock, arranged by friends, he reportedly still did 9/10ths of his best time. \n\nNewman was posthumously inducted into the SCCA Hall of Fame at the national convention in Las Vegas, Nevada on February 21, 2009. \n\nMotorsports career results\n\n(key)\n\nIllness and death\n\nNewman was scheduled to make his professional stage directing debut with the Westport Country Playhouse's 2008 production of John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men, but he stepped down on May 23, 2008, citing his health concerns. \n\nIn June 2008, it was widely reported that Newman had been diagnosed with lung cancer and was receiving treatment at Sloan-Kettering hospital in New York City. Writer A.E. Hotchner, who partnered in the 1980s with Newman to start Newman's Own, told the Associated Press that Newman told him about the disease about eighteen months prior to the interview. Newman's spokesman told the press that the star was \"doing nicely\", but neither confirmed nor denied that he had cancer. \n\nNewman died on the morning of September 26, 2008, aged 83, surrounded by family and friends. He was survived by his five daughters and by eight grandchildren. His remains were cremated after a private funeral service near his home in Westport. \n\nFilmography, awards and nominations\n\nAdditional awards and honors\n\nNewman is one of four actors to have been nominated for an Academy Award in five different decades. The other nominees were Laurence Olivier, Michael Caine, and Jack Nicholson. \n\nIn addition to the awards Newman won for specific roles, he received an honorary Academy Award in 1986 for his \"many and memorable and compelling screen performances\" and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award for his charity work in 1994.\n\nHe received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1992 along with his wife, Joanne Woodward.\n\nIn 1994, Newman and his wife received the Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. \n\nNewman won Best Actor at the Cannes Film Festival for The Long, Hot Summer and the Silver Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival for Nobody's Fool.\n\nIn 1968, Newman was named \"Man of the Year\" by Harvard University's performance group, the Hasty Pudding Theatricals.\n\nIn 2015, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 'forever stamp' honoring Newman, which went on sale September 18, 2015. It features a 1980 photograph of Newman by photographer Steve Schapiro, accompanied by text that reads: 'Actor/Philanthropist'. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nSince the 1970s, an event called \"Newman Day\" has been celebrated at Kenyon College, Bates College, Princeton University, and other American colleges. On \"Newman Day\", students try to drink 24 beers in 24 hours, based on a quote attributed to Newman about there being 24 beers in a case, and 24 hours in a day, and that this is surely not a mere coincidence. In 2004, Newman requested that Princeton University disassociate the event from his name, due to the fact that he did not endorse the behaviors, citing his creation in 1980 of the Scott Newman Centre, \"dedicated to the prevention of substance abuse through education\". Princeton disavowed any responsibility for the event, responding that Newman Day is not sponsored, endorsed, or encouraged by the university itself and is solely an unofficial event among students. \n\nPublished work\n\n* Newman, Paul; Hotchner, A.E. Newman's Own Cookbook. Simon & Schuster, 1998; ISBN 0-684-84832-5.\n* Newman, Paul; Hotchner, A.E. Shameless Exploitation in Pursuit of the Common Good. Doubleday Publishing, 2003; ISBN 0-385-50802-6.\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Silver Chalice" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "silver chalice" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "silver chalice", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Silver Chalice" }
Which University of Wisconsin has the highest enrolment figure?	tc_975	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "University_of_Wisconsin–Madison.txt" ], "title": [ "University of Wisconsin–Madison" ], "wiki_context": [ "The University of Wisconsin–Madison (also known as University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin, \"UW\", or regionally as, UW–Madison, or simply Madison) is a public research university in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. Founded when Wisconsin achieved statehood in 1848, UW–Madison is the official state university of Wisconsin, and the flagship campus of the University of Wisconsin System. It was the first public university established in Wisconsin and remains the oldest and largest public university in the state. It became a land-grant institution in 1866. The 933 acre main campus includes four National Historic Landmarks. \n\nUW–Madison is organized into 20 schools and colleges, which enrolled 29,302 undergraduate, 9,445 graduate, and 2,459 professional students and granted 6,659 bachelor's, 3,493 graduate and professional degrees in 2013–2014. The University employs over 21,796 faculty and staff. Its comprehensive academic program offers 136 undergraduate majors, along with 148 master's degree programs and 120 doctoral programs. \n\nThe UW is one of America's Public Ivy universities, which refers to top public universities in the United States capable of providing a collegiate experience comparable with the Ivy League. UW–Madison is also categorized as an RU/VH Research University (very high research activity) in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. In 2012, it had research expenditures of more than $1.1 billion, the third highest among universities in the country. Wisconsin is a founding member of the Association of American Universities. \n\nThe Wisconsin Badgers compete in 25 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division I Big Ten Conference and have won 28 national championships.\n\nHistory\n\nThe university had its official beginnings when the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature in its 1838 session passed a law incorporating a \"University of the Territory of Wisconsin\", and a high-ranking Board of Visitors was appointed. However, this body (the predecessor of the U.W. board of regents) never actually accomplished anything before Wisconsin was incorporated as a state in 1848. The Wisconsin Constitution provided for \"the establishment of a state university, at or near the seat of state government...\" and directed by the state legislature to be governed by a board of regents and administered by a Chancellor. On July 26, 1846, Nelson Dewey, Wisconsin's first governor, signed the act that formally created the University of Wisconsin. John H. Lathrop became the university's first chancellor, in the fall of 1849. With John W. Sterling as the university's first professor (mathematics), the first class of 17 students met at Madison Female Academy on February 5, 1849. A permanent campus site was soon selected: an area of 50 acre \"bounded north by Fourth lake, east by a street to be opened at right angles with King street\", [later State Street] \"south by Mineral Point Road (University Avenue), and west by a carriage-way from said road to the lake.\" The regents' building plans called for a \"main edifice fronting towards the Capitol, three stories high, surmounted by an observatory for astronomical observations.\" This building, University Hall, now known as Bascom Hall, was finally completed in 1859. On October 10, 1916, a fire destroyed the building's dome, which was never replaced. North Hall, constructed in 1851, was actually the first building on campus. In 1854, Levi Booth and Charles T. Wakeley became the first graduates of the university, and in 1892 the university awarded its first PhD to future university president Charles R. Van Hise. \n\nThe Wisconsin Idea\n\nResearch, teaching, and service at the UW is influenced by a tradition known as \"the Wisconsin Idea\", first articulated by UW–Madison President Charles Van Hise in 1904, when he declared \"I shall never be content until the beneficent influence of the University reaches every home in the state.\" The Wisconsin Idea holds that the boundaries of the university should be the boundaries of the state, and that the research conducted at UW–Madison should be applied to solve problems and improve health, quality of life, the environment, and agriculture for all citizens of the state. The Wisconsin Idea permeates the university's work and helps forge close working relationships among university faculty and students, and the state's industries and government. Based in Wisconsin's populist history, the Wisconsin Idea continues to inspire the work of the faculty, staff, and students who aim to solve real-world problems by working together across disciplines and demographics. \n\nWorld War II\n\nDuring World War II, University of Wisconsin was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. \n\nExpansion\n\nOver time, additional campuses were added to the university. The University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee was created in 1956, and UW–Green Bay and UW–Parkside in 1968. Ten freshman-sophomore centers were also added to this system.[http://www.wisconsin.edu/about/history.htm History and Organization of the University of Wisconsin System] . Retrieved on Feb, 18, 2007. In 1971, Wisconsin legislators passed a law merging the University of Wisconsin with the nine universities and four freshman-sophomore branch campuses of the Wisconsin State Universities System, creating the University of Wisconsin System and bringing the two higher education systems under a single board of regents.\n\nStudent activism\n\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, UW–Madison was shaken by a series of student protests, and by the use of force by authorities in response, comprehensively documented in the film The War at Home. The first major demonstrations protested the presence on campus of recruiters for the Dow Chemical Company, which supplied the napalm used in the Vietnam War. Authorities used force to quell the disturbance. The struggle was documented in the book, They Marched into Sunlight, as well as the PBS documentary Two Days in October. Among the students injured in the protest was current Madison mayor Paul Soglin.\n\nAnother target of protest was the Army Mathematics Research Center (AMRC) in Sterling Hall, which was also home of the physics department. The student newspaper, The Daily Cardinal, published a series of investigative articles stating that AMRC was pursuing research directly pursuant to US Department of Defense requests, and supportive of military operations in Vietnam. AMRC became a magnet for demonstrations, in which protesters chanted \"U.S. out of Vietnam! Smash Army Math!\"\n\nOn August 24, 1970, near 3:40 am, a bomb exploded next to Sterling Hall, aimed at destroying the Army Math Research Center. Despite the late hour, a post doctoral physics researcher, Robert Fassnacht, was in the lab and was killed in the explosion. The physics department was severely damaged, while the intended target, the AMRC, was scarcely affected. Karleton Armstrong, Dwight Armstrong, and David Fine were found responsible for the blast. Leo Burt was identified as a suspect, but was never apprehended or tried. \n\nWhile the student body has shed much of its radical image, the campus is still known for its progressive politics. In February 2011, thousands of students marched and occupied the Wisconsin State Capitol during the 2011 Wisconsin protests.\n\nTimeline of notable events\n\nNotable historical moments in the first 150 years of the University of Wisconsin–Madison include:\n* 1863 Female students first admitted to University of Wisconsin during the American Civil War, \n* 1866 State legislature designated the University as the Wisconsin land-grant institution\n* 1888 Science Hall is constructed, one of the world's first buildings to use I-beams \n* April 4, 1892 The first edition of the student-run The Daily Cardinal was published\n* 1894 State Board of Regents rejected an effort to purge Professor Richard T. Ely for supporting striking printers, issuing the famous \"sifting and winnowing\" manifesto in defense of academic freedom, later described as \"part of Wisconsin's Magna Carta\" \n* 1898 UW music instructors Henry Dyke Sleeper and Conner Ross Buerosse wrote Varsity, the university's alma mater\n* 1904–1905 UW Graduate School established\n* 1905 the University awards the first PhD in chemical engineering ever granted, to Oliver Patterson Watts.\n* 1907 Wisconsin Union was founded\n* 1909 William Purdy and Paul Beck wrote On, Wisconsin the UW–Madison athletic fight song\n* 1907–1911 The \"Single-grain experiment\" was conducted by Stephen Moulton Babcock and Edwin B. Hart, paving the way for modern nutrition as a science\n* 1913 Vitamin A discovered by UW scientist, Elmer V. McCollum\n* 1916 Vitamin B discovered by McCollum\n* 1919 Radio station 9XM founded on campus (Now WHA (970 AM). It is the oldest continually operating radio station in the United States)\n* 1923 Harry Steenbock invented process for adding vitamin D to milk\n* 1925 Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation chartered to control patenting and patent income on UW–Madison inventions\n* 1934 The University of Wisconsin–Madison Arboretum, whose mission was to restore lost landscapes, such as prairies, was opened\n* 1936 UW–Madison began an artist-in-residence program, the first ever at a university\n* 1940–1951 Warfarin (Coumadin) developed at UW. Named after Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation\n* 1969 The Badger Herald was founded as a conservative student paper\n* 1970 Sterling Hall bombing\n* 1976 Orchard Street Research Project: Jordan Ellefson, Mark Meyer, Daniel Dechant, Steve Niemuth\n* 1984 University Research Park founded to encourage technology transfer between university and businesses\n* 1988 The Onion founded by two UW–Madison students, Tim Keck and Christopher Johnson\n* 1998 UW–Madison's James Thomson (cell biologist) first isolated and cultured human embryonic stem cells\n* 2011 Wisconsin defeats Michigan State to win the first ever Big Ten Football Championship Game.\n\nAcademics\n\nThe University of Wisconsin–Madison, the flagship campus of the University of Wisconsin System, is a large, four-year research university comprising twenty associated colleges and schools. In addition to undergraduate and graduate divisions in agriculture and life sciences, business, education, engineering, human ecology, journalism and mass communication, letters and science, music, nursing, pharmacy, and social welfare, the university also maintains graduate and professional schools in environmental studies, law, library and information studies, medicine and public health (School of Medicine and Public Health), public affairs, and veterinary medicine.\n\nThe four year, full-time undergraduate instructional program is classified by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as \"arts and science plus professions\" with a high graduate coexistence; admissions are characterized as \"more selective, lower transfer-in.\" The largest university college, the College of Letters and Science, enrolls approximately half of the undergraduate student body and is made up of thirty-nine departments and five professional schools that instruct students and carry out research in a wide variety of fields, such as astronomy, economics, geography, history, linguistics, and zoology. The graduate instructional program is classified by Carnegie as \"comprehensive with medical/veterinary.\" In 2008, it granted the third largest number of doctorates in the nation. \n\nRankings\n\nInternational\n\nIn the 2015 QS World University Rankings, UW was ranked 54th in the world and received five excellence stars. It was ranked 24th among world universities and 18th among universities in the Americas in Shanghai Jiao Tong University's 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities, which assesses academic and research performance. In the G-factor International University Ranking of 2006, which is a re-analysis of the Shanghai Jiao Tong University data, the UW–Madison was listed 13th. \nThe Times Higher Education Supplement placed it 50th worldwide, based primarily on surveys administered to students, faculty, and recruiters. Additionally, the professional ranking of world universities from École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, based in part on the number of senior managerial positions occupied by alumni, placed UW–Madison 35th in the world. \n\nNational\n\nUW–Madison was ranked 11th among national universities (with three institutions tied) by the Center for Measuring University Performance in its 2007 report, with rankings based on objective statistics on research, faculty awards, student qualifications, and university assets. Of 38 programs at the UW–Madison that were included in the National Research Council's 1995 study, 16 ranked in the top 10 nationally. In 2007, the Chronicle of Higher Education reported that 57 disciplines at the UW–Madison were in the top 10 in the U.S. in scholarly productivity, which placed it second after UC–Berkeley in the number of top ten programs. The UW placed 30th among national universities in Washington Monthlys 2009 rankings, which consider community service and social mobility, as well as research productivity. In 2009, UW–Madison was ranked 6th in the TrendTopper MediaBuzz rankings by the Global Language Monitor. In 2011, the Global Language Monitor increased the ranking to 1st in Internet Media Buzz. Forbes ranked UW-Madison in 69th place on its list of top American colleges for 2015. \n\nMadison's undergraduate program was ranked tied for 41st among national universities by U.S.News & World Report for 2015 and tied for 11th among public schools. The same magazine ranked UW's graduate School of Business tied for 33rd, and its undergraduate business program 15th. Twelve CEOs of S&P 500 companies hold degrees from the University of Wisconsin, putting it in a tie with Harvard University and Princeton University for first place. \n\nIn 2015, USNWR ranked UW's Law School tied for 31st. Other graduate schools ranked by USNWR include the School of Medicine and Public Health, which was 28th in research and 9th in primary care, the College of Engineering tied for 14th, the School of Education 5th, and the La Follette School of Public Affairs 12th.\n\nResearch\n\nUW–Madison was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. In 2009, the school received $952 million in research funding, placing it third in the country. Its research programs were also fourth in the number of patents issued in 2010. The University's research programs were ranked fourth in federally funded research and second in nonfederally funded research among U.S. public universities in 2009. \n\nThe University of Wisconsin–Madison is one of 33 sea grant colleges in the United States. These colleges are involved in scientific research, education, training, and extension projects geared toward the conservation and practical use of U.S. coasts, the Great Lakes and other marine areas.\n\nThe University maintains almost 100 research centers and programs, ranging from agriculture to arts, from education to engineering. It has been considered a major academic center for embryonic stem cell research ever since UW–Madison professor James Thomson became the first scientist to isolate human embryonic stem cells. This has brought significant attention and respect for the University's research programs from around the world. The University continues to be a leader in stem cell research, helped in part by the funding of the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation and promotion of WiCell. \n\nIts center for research on internal combustion engines, called the Engine Research Center, has a five-year collaboration agreement with General Motors. It has also been the recipient of multimillion-dollar funding from the federal government. \n\nIn June 2013, it is reported that the United States National Institutes of Health would fund an $18.13 million study at the University of Wisconsin. The study will research lethal qualities of viruses such as Ebola, West Nile and influenza. The goal of the study is to help find new drugs to fight of the most lethal pathogens. \n\nIn 2012, UW-Madison experiments on cats came under fire from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals who claimed the animals were abused. In 2013, the NIH briefly suspended the research's funding pending an agency investigation. The following year the university was fined more than $35,000 for several violations of the Animal Welfare Act. Bill Maher, James Cromwell and others spoke out against the experiments that ended in 2014. The university defended the research and the care the animals received claiming that PETA's objections were merely a \"stunt\" by the organization. \n\nBig Ten Academic Alliance \n\nThe University of Wisconsin is a participant in the Big Ten Academic Alliance. The Big Ten Academic Alliance (BTAA) is the academic consortium of the universities in the Big Ten Conference. Engaging in $10 billion in research in 2014-2015, BTAA universities provide powerful insight into important issues in medicine, technology, agriculture, and communities. Students at participating schools are also allowed \"in-house\" borrowing privileges at other schools' libraries. The BTAA uses collective purchasing and licensing, and has saved member institutions $19 million to date. Course sharing, professional development programs, study abroad and international collaborations, and other initiatives are also part of the BTAA.\n\nCollege of Agriculture and Life Sciences\n\nThe College of Agricultural and Life Sciences fulfills the UW–Madison's mission as a land-grant university, which dates back to 1862, when Congress passed legislation to establish a national network of colleges devoted to agriculture and mechanics and Wisconsin received 240,000 acres of allotted federal land. In 1885 the university began offering a winter course for farmers, the Agriculture Short Course, which was greatly developed and enhanced by Ransom Asa Moore from 1895 until 1907 and continues today as the Farm and Industry Short Course. In 1889 the university put all of their agricultural offerings under a new College of Agriculture, with W.A. Henry as dean. Professors listed in the 1896 Agricultural Short Course for the College of Agriculture at the University of Wisconsin–Madison listed popular professors such the Dean of the College of Agriculture, W.A. Henry (Feeds and Feeding), S.M. Babcock (Agricultural Chemistry; Farm Dairying), F.H. King (Agricultural Physics, Agricultural Mechanics, and Meteorology), E.S. Goff (Plant Life, Horticulture, and Economic Entomology), H.L. Russell (Bacteriology), J.A. Craig (Breeds: Breeding and Judging Live Stock), Wm. A. Scott (Economics of Agriculture), C.I. King (Practical Mechanics), Mr. R.A. Moore (Parliamentary Procedures and Book-keeping), A.B. Sayles (Farm Dairying), Fred. Cranefield (Assistant in Green House Instruction), and the previous instructor in Veterinary Science, W.G. Clark, V.S.\n\nThe building that housed the College of Agriculture was originally created in 1889 and was centered in South Hall on Bascom Hill until the fall of 1903 when the first classes were held in the brand new College of Agriculture and Life Sciences building, where it has remained since. \"The college has evolved and grown over the decades to reflect changes in the fabric of society and in the areas of knowledge that it studies. Practical studies related to crop and livestock production and farm life gradually delved deeper as scientists strove to understand the underlying biological processes. Today the college generates new knowledge about agriculture, natural resources management and protection, human health and nutrition, community development and related topics. Faculty and staff in 19 academic departments and a number of interdisciplinary programs carry out these lines of study.\"\n\nIt has 12 associated research centers including the Marshfield Agricultural Research Station and research centers in Arlington among other locations in Wisconsin. \n\nLetters & Science Honors Program\n\nThe L&S Honors Program serves over 1300 students in the College of Letters and Science (the UW–Madison's liberal arts college) with an enriched undergraduate curriculum. In addition to its curriculum, the program offers professional advising services; research opportunities and funding; and numerous academic, social and service opportunities through the Honors Student Organization. The Honors Program also supports several student organizations, such as the University of Wisconsin–Madison Forensics Team.\n\nWISCIENCE \n\nThe Wisconsin Institute for Science Education and Community Engagement (WISCIENCE) is a unit that facilitates coordination of science outreach efforts across the university and works to improve science education at all levels. \n\nCampus\n\nLocated in Madison, about a mile from the state capitol, the main campus of the university is situated partially on the isthmus between Lake Mendota and Lake Monona. The main campus comprises 933 acre of land, while the entire campus, including research stations throughout the state, is over 10600 acre in area. The central campus is on an urban layout mostly coinciding with the city of Madison's street grid, exceptions being the suburban University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, and the Department of Psychiatry & Clinics in the West Side research park. The University of Wisconsin–Madison Arboretum, a demonstration area for native ecosystems, is located on the west side of Madison. The main campus includes many buildings designed or supervised by architects J.T.W. Jennings and Arthur Peabody. The hub of campus life is the Memorial Union. In 2011, Travel+Leisure listed the Madison campus as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States. \n\nThe UW–Madison has its own police force, food service, hospital, recreation facilities, botanical gardens, public artworks, power facilities, and an on-campus dairy plant.\n\nBascom Hall\n\nAs one of the icons on campus, Bascom Hall, at the top of Bascom Hill, is often considered the \"heart of the campus.\" Built in 1857, a decorative dome that once sat atop the structure was destroyed by fire in 1916. The structure has been added to several times over the years. The building currently houses the office of the chancellor and vice chancellors. Bascom Hall is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a contributing building within the Bascom Hill Historic District. \n\nMusic Hall\n\nThis Victorian Gothic building, built in 1878 and initially named Assembly Hall, was designed to house an 800-seat auditorium, a library, and a clock tower. Dedicated on March 2, 1880, the building originally held conventions, dances, and commencement ceremonies, along with its primary purpose of a library. After the library moved to a different building on campus, a portion of the hall was assigned to the School of Music in 1900. Shortly after renovations in the early 1900s, the building was officially named Music Hall in 1910. It remains an important music venue and is home to the university opera. This building also is home to the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, with part of the building being used as office space and classrooms.\n\nGeorge L. Mosse Humanities Building\n\nThe George L. Mosse Humanities Building, located on Library Mall, was built in the late 1960s in the Brutalist style. Although debunked, the campus myth is that the building (with its poor ventilation, narrow windows, inclined base, and cantilevered upper floors) was designed to be \"riot-proof\". Its seven floors house the history, art, and music departments. The most recent campus master plan calls for it to be demolished and replaced with two other buildings. \n\nVan Hise Hall\n\nVan Hise Hall is home to most of the languages departments of the university and the upper floors house the offices of the University of Wisconsin System's president and its Board of Regents. The building is often humorously touted by campus tour guides as the birthplace of the Elven language spoken in the The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. \n\nAt 241 feet and 19 stories, Van Hise is the third-tallest building in Madison and one of the tallest educational buildings in the world. Because of its placement atop Bascom Hill it towers over the State Capitol as the building with the highest elevation in the city. Van Hise Hall was constructed in 1967 and its destruction is slated for sometime around 2025 as part of the university's campus master plan. \n\nGrainger Hall\n\nHome of the Wisconsin School of Business, Grainger Hall was built in 1993. In 2008 it underwent a major renovation and addition to assist the 12 MBA specialization programs that were housed there. The addition occupies the corner of Park Street and University Avenue, projecting the school's crest outward in a location that once housed a bank. \n\nGrainger Hall also houses an array of student-run organizations, both undergraduate and graduate. There are major-specific organizations as well as organizations that welcome all students. Several of the clubs are Madison chapters of nationwide organizations, others are honor societies that require a minimum grade point average, while some exist simply to network with other students.\n\nThe Wisconsin Union\n\nThe University of Wisconsin–Madison has two student unions. The older, Memorial Union, was built in 1928 to honor American World War I veterans. Also known as the Union or the Terrace, it has gained a reputation as one of the most beautiful student centers on a university campus. Located on the shore of Lake Mendota, it is a popular spot for socializing among both students and the public, who enjoy gazing at the lake and its sailboats. The union is known for the Rathskeller, a German pub adjacent to the lake terrace. Political debates and backgammon and sheepshead games over a beer on the terrace are common among students. The Rathskeller serves \"Rathskeller Ale\", a beer brewed expressly for the Terrace. Memorial Union was the first union at a public university to serve beer. \n\nMemorial Union is home to many arts venues, including several art galleries, a movie theater, the Wisconsin Union Theater, and the Craftshop, which provides courses and facilities for arts and crafts activities. Students and Madison community members alike congregate at the Memorial Union for the films and concerts each week. An advisory referendum to renovate and expand Memorial Union was approved by the student body in 2006, and the university is currently undergoing the expansion. \n\nUnion South, the newer campus union, was built in 1971 to better accommodate a growing student enrollment and was demolished in 2008. A new \"green\" Union South, located on the site of the old union, opened April 15, 2011. It is a certified Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) gold building. The building contains several dining options, an art gallery, climbing wall, bowling alley event spaces, and a hotel. \n\nThe Wisconsin Union also provides a home for the Wisconsin Union Directorate Student Programming Board (WUD), which provides regular programs for both students and community members. One of the most well-known members of WUD is the Wisconsin Hoofers, a club that organizes outdoor recreational activities. \n\nDejope Hall\n\nOn May 22, 2012, the Ho-chunk Nation passed a resolution permitting the usage of the name \"Dejope\" for a new residence hall at the university. Dejope means \"Four Lakes\" in the Ho-Chunk language, and Native Americans have used this word to describe the Madison area for thousands of years. The residence hall was planned as a symbol of the ongoing cooperative relationship between University of Wisconsin–Madison and the Ho-Chunk nation and the building and its grounds contain imagery of the mounds and lakes in the area. A fire circle in front of the building contains plaques representing all 11 Native American nations in Wisconsin. Images of the four effigy mounds that are located on the campus (Observatory Hill, Willow Drive, Picnic Point and Eagle Heights) are embedded into the flooring of the building's main floor. An acrylic depiction of Lake Mendota is located in the conference room, and another artwork of glass and metal depicting the Four Lakes is located in the East Hall.\n\nLibraries\n\nThe University of Wisconsin–Madison has the 12th largest research library collection in North America. More than 40 professional and special-purpose libraries serve the campus. The campus library collections include more than 8.3 million volumes representing human inquiry through all of history. In addition, the collections comprised more than 101,000 serial titles, 6.4 million microform items, and over 8.2 million items in other formats, such as government documents, maps, musical scores, and audiovisual materials. Over 1 million volumes are circulated to library users every year. Memorial Library serves as the principal research facility on campus for the humanities and social sciences. It is the largest library in the state, with over 3.5 million volumes. It also houses a periodical collection, domestic and foreign newspapers, Special Collections, the Mills Music Library, a letterpress printing museum, and the UW Digital Collections Center. \n\nSteenbock Memorial Library is the primary library for the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, School of Human Ecology, School of Veterinary Medicine, UW-Extension and Cooperative Extension, and Zoology and Botany Departments. The University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives and Records Management Department and Oral History Program are also located in Steenbock Library. The library is named for UW professor Harry Steenbock (1886–1967), who developed an inexpensive method of enriching foods with Vitamin D in the 1920s. This library is open to the public.\n\nUndergraduates can find many of the resources they need at College Library in Helen C. White Hall. Special collections there include Ethnic Studies, Career, Women's, and Gaus (Poetry). The Open Book collection, created to support the extra-academic interests of undergraduates, contains DVDs, audio books, and video games, and paperback books. The library also has a coffee shop, the Open Book Café. College Library houses a media center with over 200 computer workstations, DV editing stations, scanners, poster printing, and equipment checkout (including laptops, digital cameras, projectors, and more).\n\nThe Kurt F. Wendt Library serves the College of Engineering and the Departments of Computer Sciences, Statistics, and Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences. In addition to books, journals, and standards, Wendt Library houses over 1.5 million technical reports in print and microfiche. Designated a Patent and Trademark Depository Library, it maintains all U.S. utility, design, and plant patents, and provides reference tools and assistance for both the general public and the UW–Madison community.\n\nEbling Library for the Health Sciences is located in the Health Sciences Learning Center. It opened in 2004 after the Middleton Library, Weston Library, and Power Pharmaceutical Library merged collections and staff. \n\nThe online catalog for UW–Madison Libraries is MadCat. It includes bibliographic records for books, periodicals, audiovisual materials, maps, music scores, microforms, and computer databases owned by over 40 campus libraries, as well as records for items that are on order. The UW–Madison Libraries website provides access to resources licensed for use by those affiliated with UW–Madison, in addition to those openly available on the World Wide Web.\n\nMuseums\n\nThe Geology Museum features rocks, minerals, and fossils from around the world. Highlights include a blacklight room, a walk-through cave, and a fragment of the Barringer meteorite. Some noteworthy fossils include the first dinosaur skeleton assembled in Wisconsin (an Edmontosaurus), a shark (Squalicorax) and a floating colony of sea lilies (Uintacrinus), both from the Cretaceous chalk of Kansas, and the Boaz Mastodon, a found on a farm in southwestern Wisconsin in 1897. \n\nThe Chazen Museum of Art, formerly the Elvehjem Museum of Art, maintains a collection of paintings, drawings, sculpture, prints and photographs spanning over 700 years of art. \n\nThe university's Zoological Museum maintains a collection of approximately 500,000 zoological specimens, which can be used for research and instruction. A special collection contains skeletons, artifacts, and research papers associated with the Galápagos Islands. Since 1978, the UW–Madison Zoological Museum has been one of only three museums granted permission by the Ecuadoran Government to collect anatomical specimens from the Galápagos Islands. \n\nThe L. R. Ingersoll Physics Museum contains a range of exhibits demonstrating classical and modern physics. Many of the exhibits allow for hands-on interaction by visitors. The museum also has a number of historical instruments and pictures on display. \n\nEffigy mounds\n\nUW–Madison claims more distinct archaeological sites than on any other university campus. \nThe campus contains four clusters of effigy mound located at Observatory Hill, Willow Drive, Picnic Point and Eagle Heights. These sites, reflecting thousands of years of human habitation in the area, have survived to a greater or lesser degree on campus, depending on location and past building activities. Surviving sites are marked and fenced on the campus, ensuring that they are not disturbed. Wisconsin statutes protect effigy mounds by giving them a five-foot buffer zone. The Lakeshore Nature Preserve Committee is endeavoring to \"…safeguard beloved cultural landscapes,\" through aggressive enforcement of measures for the preservation of such zones and advocating for broader buffers where possible. \n\nAthletics\n\nThe University of Wisconsin–Madison sports teams participate in the NCAA's Division I-A. With the exception of lightweight Wisconsin Badgers Crew, the university's athletic programs compete in the Big Ten Conference. The women's hockey program competes in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA), while the men's and women's crew programs compete in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges and Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges, respectively. The school's fight song is On, Wisconsin!. The school's mascot is Buckingham U. Badger, commonly referred to as \"Bucky Badger\". The athletic director is Barry Alvarez.\n\n2005–2006 marked the first time in school history that four Badger teams won national championships in the same academic year. In the fall, the men's cross country team won its fourth national championship. The winter season was highlighted by the men's and women's ice hockey teams both winning national titles. The year was capped off in the spring with the women's lightweight crew taking its third straight Intercollegiate Rowing Association national crown. In 2008, both men's and women's crew teams claimed national titles. \n\nFootball\n\nThe Badgers play college football at Camp Randall Stadium. The head coach is Paul Chryst. Before the fourth quarter of every game at Camp Randall, the crowd jumps around to House of Pain's song \"Jump Around\". After every game, the University of Wisconsin Marching Band plays popular songs during the Fifth Quarter. The Badgers won three Rose Bowl Championships under Alvarez in 1994, 1999, and 2000. In 2006, Bielema led the Badgers to a school record 11-win regular season and to 12 overall wins, defeating Arkansas in the Capital One Bowl. \nThe Badgers lost to TCU in the 2011 Rose Bowl Championship on January 1, 2011. In the 2011 season, the Badgers defended the B1G championship title to go to the 2012 Rose Bowl Championship. The Badgers lost to Oregon 45–38 in the highest-scoring Rose Bowl of all time. The Badgers made it to the 2013 Rose Bowl for their third consecutive Rose Bowl appearance. Brett Bielema took the Arkansas football head coaching position before the game and Barry Alvarez took over as a one-game interim coach. The Badgers lost to Stanford 14-20 for Barry Alvarez's first Rose Bowl loss, he had previously won it three times. \n\nMen's basketball\n\nThe Badgers have made 18 consecutive appearances (1999–2016) in the NCAA Tournament, with Final Four visits in 2000, 2014 and 2015, an Elite Eight appearance in 2005, and Sweet Sixteen appearances in 2003, 2008, 2011, 2012, and 2016. Bo Ryan was the head coach from 2001 to 2015. Greg Gard was named interim coach. The Badgers play at the Kohl Center, where the student fans are known as the Grateful Red. In the 2006–2007 season, the Badgers attained their highest AP ranking in school history (#1 Feb. 19–25), garnering 35 first-place votes. The Badgers' earned their only NCAA National Championship in 1941. The Badgers made two consecutive final four appearances from 2014–2015.\n\nWomen's basketball\n\nThe women's basketball team plays at the Kohl Center. The 2006–2007 season resulted with the Badgers recording 23 wins and becoming the WNIT runners-up. Previously, the team had won the WNIT in 2000.\n\nIce hockey\n\nBadger ice hockey first became a men's varsity sport in 1922. Although dropped after the 1934–35 season, it again became a varsity sport in the 1963–64 season. The men's team played in the Dane County Coliseum until moving to the Kohl Center (capacity 15,359) in the fall of 1998. The first ice hockey game played at the Kohl was the Hall of Fame game against the University of Notre Dame. From 1999 to 2012 the men's team led the nation in college hockey attendance, setting an NCAA attendance record (averaging 15,048) during the 2009–10 season, which surpassed their previous record set in 2006–07. \n\nBob Johnson, nicknamed \"Badger Bob\" by fans, took over the reins in 1966. Johnson coached the Badger men to three national championships in 1973, 1977 and 1981. Jeff Sauer coached the Badger men to two more titles in 1983 and 1990. Mike Eaves, member of the 1977 NCAA title team, coached the Badger men's team to its sixth national championship in 2006. The six Badger titles rank 4th in NCAA men's ice hockey history. Eaves' 2010 squad advanced to the national championship game during the Badgers' 11th appearance in the men's Frozen Four before bowing to Boston College.\n\nThe school's strong ice hockey tradition gained another dimension with the addition of a women's team that began play in the 1999–2000 season. Coached by Mark Johnson, son of \"Badger Bob\" and another member of the men's 1977 title team, the Badger women won their first NCAA championship on March 26, 2006. The dual 2006 titles marked the first time that both the men's and women's Division I NCAA hockey titles were won by the same school in the same year. The women's team repeated as national champions in 2007 with a victory over the University of Minnesota-Duluth and in 2009 with a victory over Mercyhurst. The team set the NCAA women's hockey attendance record on February 15, 2014, in a game against Minnesota. \n\nRivalries\n\nThe Wisconsin Badgers most notable rivalry within the Big Ten is with the University of Minnesota, which is the most-played rivalry in Division 1-A football. In their annual college football game, the teams compete for Paul Bunyan's Axe. The two universities also compete in the Border Battle, a year-long athletic competition in which each team's wins earn points for their university.\n\nMen's basketball rivalries include Michigan State, Illinois and non-conference, in-state Marquette.\n\nThe Wisconsin–Madison men's and women's hockey teams' most recognized rivals are the Golden Gophers of the University of Minnesota and the Fighting Sioux of the University of North Dakota. Other rivals include the University of Denver, Colorado College, Michigan Tech, University of Minnesota Duluth, and St. Cloud State.\n\nMascot\n\nThe school mascot is an anthropomorphized badger named Bucky who dons a sweater affixed with the UW–Madison athletic logo (currently the red \"Motion W\"). Beginning in 1890, the university's first Bucky Badger was a live, temperamental and unruly badger who was quickly retired. Although the nickname of the Wisconsin teams remained the \"Badgers\", it was not until Art Evans drew the early caricature version of Bucky in 1940 that today's recognizable image of Bucky was adopted. In 1949, a contest was held to name the mascot, but no consensus was reached after only a few entries were received. In reaction, the contest committee chose the name Buckingham U. Badger, or \"Bucky\", for short.\n\nAt Wisconsin football games in the 1920s live mascots were used to inspire fans. The animals used included a black bear, a bonnet monkey, and live badgers. 1949 was the first year a student sporting a papier-mâché badger head appeared; this subsequently replaced the use of live badgers. \n\nThe team's nickname originates from the state nickname. In the 1820s, many lead miners and their families lived in the mines in which they worked until adequate above-ground shelters were built, and thus were compared to badgers.\n\nIn 2009, Fulton Market Films produced the documentary Being Bucky which followed the lives of seven Wisconsin students who take on the role of Bucky Badger. Being Bucky won \"Best Documentary Film\" at the Wisconsin Film Festival and went on to play in local Wisconsin movie theaters. \n\nStudent life\n\nOver 750 student organizations or clubs register with the Center for Leadership and Involvement (CFLI) at UW–Madison each year. \n\nMedia\n\nStudent publications\n\nUW–Madison is the only university in the country with two daily student newspapers: The Daily Cardinal, founded in 1892 and The Badger Herald, founded in 1969. The Onion was founded in 1988 by two UW–Madison juniors, and was published in Madison before moving to New York City in 2001. It is also the home of The Madison Misnomer, an undergraduate comedy newspaper, founded in 2007.\n\nUW–Madison is also home to one of only two nationally distributed undergraduate international studies journals in the country. The Journal of Undergraduate International Studies (JUIS) is a competitive publication that features peer-reviewed academic articles. It was founded in 2003 by David Coddon with the support of the University of Wisconsin–Madison Leadership Trust.\n\nCampus radio\n\nThe University of Wisconsin–Madison campus radio station is WSUM 91.7 FM, \"The Snake on the Lake\". Historically, UW–Madison has been home to a collection of student run radio stations, a number of which stopped broadcasting after run-ins with the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The current radio station, WSUM, began in 1997 in a webcast only format because of the prolonged battle to get an FCC license and construct a tower. This lasted five years until February 22, 2002, when the station started broadcasting over FM airwaves at 91.7 from its tower in Montrose, Wisconsin. The radio station currently has around 200 volunteer DJs and 8 paid managers. All UW–Madison students, as well as a limited number of community members, are eligible to participate in running the station. WSUM remains entirely free format, which means that the on-air personnel can showcase a large variety of music and talk programming at their discretion with few limitations. WSUM has garnered many awards from the Wisconsin Broadcasters Association for their news, play-by-play broadcasts of Badger athletic events, and unique public service announcements. \n\nOrganizations\n\nAmong the student organizations at the school include chapters of the fraternities Acacia, Alpha Chi Omega, Alpha Delta Phi, Alpha Gamma Rho Delta Chi and Sigma Alpha. Alpha Chi Sigma was founded at the university in 1902.\n\nReligious student organizations include affiliates of the Christian organizations Cru, Athletes in Action, Chi Alpha Campus Ministries and the Christian Legal Society. \n\nMTV's College Life\n\nOn April 13, 2009, MTV premiered the reality series College Life about the day-to-day lives of eight UW–Madison freshmen. The show was created by UW–Madison alumnus David Wexler. According to MTV, the students did the filming for the series, but not the editing. During production, the university pulled its support of the show. Subsequently, a disclaimer was aired at the beginning of each episode stating that UW–Madison does not endorse the program. Eight episodes aired as of February 22, 2010.\n\nNotable alumni and people\n\nIn 2008, UW–Madison had 387,912 living alumni. Although a large number of alumni live in Wisconsin, a significant number live in Illinois, Minnesota, New York, California, and Washington, D.C. UW–Madison also had 15,479 alumni living outside of the United States.Wisconsin Alumni Association. [http://www.uwalumni.com/home/news_room/factsheet/factsheet.aspx Fact Sheet: About the Wisconsin Alumni Association, 2008 Alumni Facts]\n\nUW–Madison alumni, faculty, or former faculty have been awarded 21 Nobel Prizes and 34 Pulitzer Prizes." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Madison", "List of places named for James Madison", "Madison (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "madison disambiguation", "madison", "list of places named for james madison" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "madison", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Madison" }
What is Diane Keaton's real name?	tc_979	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Diane_Keaton.txt" ], "title": [ "Diane Keaton" ], "wiki_context": [ "Diane Hall (born January 5, 1946), better known by her stage name Diane Keaton, is an American film actress, director, producer and screenwriter. She began her career on stage and made her screen debut in 1970. Her first major film role was as Kay Adams-Corleone in The Godfather (1972), but the films that shaped her early career were those with director and co-star Woody Allen, beginning with Play It Again, Sam in 1972. Her next two films with Allen, Sleeper (1973) and Love and Death (1975), established her as a comic actor. Her fourth, Annie Hall (1977), won her the Academy Award for Best Actress.\n\nKeaton subsequently expanded her range to avoid becoming typecast as her Annie Hall persona. She became an accomplished dramatic performer, starring in Looking for Mr. Goodbar (1977) and received Academy Award nominations for Reds (1981), Marvin's Room (1996) and Something's Gotta Give (2003). Some of her popular later films include Baby Boom (1987), Father of the Bride (1991), The First Wives Club (1996), and The Family Stone (2005). Keaton's films have earned a cumulative gross of over US$1.1 billion in North America. In addition to acting, she is also a photographer, real estate developer, author, and occasional singer.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nKeaton was born as Diane Hall on January 5, 1946, in Los Angeles, California. Her mother, Dorothy Deanne (née Keaton; 1921–2008), was a homemaker and amateur photographer; her father, John Newton Ignatius \"Jack\" Hall (1922–1990), was a real estate broker and civil engineer. Keaton was raised a Free Methodist by her mother. Her mother won the \"Mrs. Los Angeles\" pageant for homemakers; Keaton has said that the theatricality of the event inspired her first impulse to be an actress, and led to her wanting to work on stage. She has also credited Katharine Hepburn, whom she admires for playing strong and independent women, as one of her inspirations. \n\nKeaton is a 1963 graduate of Santa Ana High School in Santa Ana, California. During her time there, she participated in singing and acting clubs at school, and starred as Blanche DuBois in a school production of A Streetcar Named Desire. After graduation, she attended Santa Ana College, and later Orange Coast College as an acting student, but dropped out after a year to pursue an entertainment career in Manhattan. Upon joining the Actors' Equity Association, she changed her surname to Keaton, her mother's maiden name, as there was already an actress registered under the name of Diane Hall. For a brief time, she also moonlighted at nightclubs with a singing act. She would later revisit her nightclub act in Annie Hall (1977) and And So It Goes (2014), and a cameo in Radio Days (1987).\n\nKeaton began studying acting at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City. She initially studied acting under the Meisner technique, an ensemble acting technique first evolved in the 1930s by Sanford Meisner, a New York stage actor/acting coach/director who had been a member of The Group Theater (1931–1940). She has described her acting technique as, \"[being] only as good as the person you're acting with ... As opposed to going it on my own and forging my path to create a wonderful performance without the help of anyone. I always need the help of everyone!\" According to Jack Nicholson, \"She approaches a script sort of like a play in that she has the entire script memorized before you start doing the movie, which I don't know any other actors doing that.\" \n\nIn 1968, Keaton became a member of the \"Tribe\" and understudy to Sheila in the original Broadway production of Hair. She gained some notoriety for her refusal to disrobe at the end of Act I when the cast performs nude, even though nudity in the production was optional for actors (Those who performed nude received a $50 bonus). After acting in Hair for nine months, she auditioned for a part in Woody Allen's production of Play It Again, Sam. After nearly being passed over for being too tall (at 5 ft 8 in./1.73 m she is two inches/5 cm taller than Allen), she won the part.\n\nCareer \n\n1970s \n\nAfter being nominated for a Tony Award for Play It Again, Sam, Keaton made her film debut in Lovers and Other Strangers (1970). She followed with guest roles on the television series Love, American Style and Night Gallery, and Mannix. Between films, Keaton appeared in a series of deodorant commercials.\n\nKeaton's breakthrough role came two years later when she was cast as Kay Adams, the girlfriend and eventual wife of Michael Corleone (played by Al Pacino) in Francis Ford Coppola's 1972 film The Godfather. Coppola noted that he first noticed Keaton in Lovers and Other Strangers, and cast her because of her reputation for eccentricity that he wanted her to bring to the role (Keaton claims that at the time she was commonly referred to as \"the kooky actress\" of the film industry). Her performance in the film was loosely based on her real life experience of making the film, both of which she has described as being \"the woman in a world of men.\" The Godfather was an unparalleled critical and financial success, becoming the highest-grossing film of the year and winning the Best Picture Oscar of 1972.\n\nTwo years later she reprised her role as Kay Adams in The Godfather Part II. She was initially reluctant, stating that, \"At first, I was skeptical about playing Kay again in the Godfather sequel. But when I read the script, the character seemed much more substantial than in the first movie.\" In Part II, her character changed dramatically, becoming more embittered about her husband's activities. Even though Keaton received widespread exposure from the films, her character's importance was minimal. Time wrote that she was \"invisible in The Godfather and pallid in The Godfather, Part II.\" \n\nKeaton's other notable films of the 1970s included many collaborations with Woody Allen. Although by the time they made films together, their romantic involvement had ended, she played many eccentric characters in several of his comic and dramatic films, including Sleeper, Love and Death, Interiors, Manhattan, and the film version of Play It Again, Sam, directed by Herbert Ross. Allen has credited Keaton as his muse during his early film career. \n\nIn 1977, Keaton starred with Allen in the romantic comedy Annie Hall, one of her most famous roles. Annie Hall was written and directed by Allen and the film was believed to be autobiographical of his relationship with Keaton. Allen based the character of Annie Hall loosely on Keaton (\"Annie\" is a nickname of hers, and \"Hall\" is her original surname). Many of Keaton's mannerisms and her self-deprecating sense of humor were added into the role by Allen. (Director Nancy Meyers has claimed \"Diane's the most self-deprecating person alive.\" ) Keaton has also said that Allen wrote the character as an \"idealized version\" of herself. The two starred as a frequently on-again, off-again couple living in New York City. Her acting was later summed up by CNN as \"awkward, self-deprecating, speaking in endearing little whirlwinds of semi-logic\", and by Allen as a \"nervous breakdown in slow motion.\" The film was both a major financial and critical success, and won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Keaton's performance also won the Academy Award for Best Actress. In 2006, Premiere magazine ranked Keaton in Annie Hall as 60th on its list of the \"100 Greatest Performances of All Time,\" and noted:\n\nIt's hard to play ditzy. ... The genius of Annie is that despite her loopy backhand, awful driving, and nervous tics, she's also a complicated, intelligent woman. Keaton brilliantly displays this dichotomy of her character, especially when she yammers away on a first date with Alvy (Woody Allen) while the subtitle reads, 'He probably thinks I'm a yoyo.' Yo-yo? Hardly. \n\nKeaton's eccentric wardrobe in Annie Hall, which consisted mainly of vintage men's clothing, including neckties, vests, baggy pants, and fedora hats, made her an unlikely fashion icon of the late 1970s. A small amount of the clothing seen in the film came from Keaton herself, who was already known for her tomboyish clothing style years before Annie Hall, and Ruth Morley designed the movie's costumes. Soon after the film's release, men's clothing and pantsuits became popular attire for women. She is known to favor men's vintage clothing, and usually appears in public wearing gloves and conservative attire. (A 2005 profile in the San Francisco Chronicle described her as \"easy to find. Look for the only woman in sight dressed in a turtleneck on a 90-degree afternoon in Pasadena. )\n\nHer photo by Douglas Kirkland appeared on the cover of the September 26, 1977, issue of Time magazine, with the story dubbing her \"the funniest woman now working in films.\" Later that year, she departed from her usual lighthearted comic roles when she won the highly coveted lead role in the drama Looking for Mr. Goodbar, based on the novel by Judith Rossner. In the film, she played a Catholic schoolteacher for deaf children, who lives a double life, spending nights frequenting singles bars and engaging in promiscuous sex. Keaton became interested in the role after seeing it as a \"psychological case history.\" The same issue of Time commended her role choice and criticized the restricted roles available for female actors in American films: A male actor can fly a plane, fight a war, shoot a badman, pull off a sting, impersonate a big cheese in business or politics. Men are presumed to be interesting. A female can play a wife, play a whore, get pregnant, lose her baby, and, um, let's see ... Women are presumed to be dull. ... Now a determined trend spotter can point to a handful of new films whose makers think that women can bear the dramatic weight of a production alone, or virtually so. Then there is Diane Keaton in Looking for Mr. Goodbar. As Theresa Dunn, Keaton dominates this raunchy, risky, violent dramatization of Judith Rossner's 1975 novel about a schoolteacher who cruises singles bars.\n\nIn addition to acting, Keaton has stated that \"[I] had a lifelong ambition to be a singer.\" She had a brief, unrealized career as a recording artist in the 1970s. Her first record was an original cast recording of Hair, in 1971. In 1977, she began recording tracks for a solo album, but the finished record never materialized.\n\nKeaton met with more success in the medium of still photography. Like her character in Annie Hall, Keaton had long relished photography as a favorite hobby, an interest she picked up as a teenager from her mother. While traveling in the late 1970s, she began exploring her avocation more seriously. \"Rolling Stone had asked me to take photographs for them, and I thought, 'Wait a minute, what I'm really interested in is these lobbies, and these strange ballrooms in these old hotels.' So I began shooting them\", she recalled in 2003. \"These places were deserted, and I could just sneak in anytime and nobody cared. It was so easy and I could do it myself. It was an adventure for me.\" Reservations, her collection of photos of hotel interiors, was published in book form in 1980.\n\n1980s \n\nIn Manhattan in 1979, Keaton and Woody Allen ended their long working relationship, and the film would be their last major collaboration until 1993. In 1978, she became romantically involved with Warren Beatty, and two years later he cast her to play opposite him in Reds. In the film, she played Louise Bryant, a journalist and feminist, who flees from her husband to work with radical journalist John Reed (Beatty), and later enters Russia to locate him as he chronicles the Russian Civil War. The New York Times wrote that Keaton was, \"nothing less than splendid as Louise Bryant – beautiful, selfish, funny and driven. It's the best work she has done to date.\" Keaton received her second Academy Award nomination for the film.\n\nBeatty cast Keaton after seeing her in Annie Hall, as he wanted to bring her natural nervousness and insecure attitude to the role. The production of Reds was delayed several times following its conception in 1977, and Keaton almost left the project when she believed it would never be produced. Filming finally began two years later. In a 2006 Vanity Fair story, Keaton described her role as \"the everyman of that piece, as someone who wanted to be extraordinary but was probably more ordinary ... I knew what it felt like to be extremely insecure.\" Assistant director Simon Relph later stated that Louise Bryant was one of Keaton's most difficult roles, and that \"[she] almost got broken.\" \n\n1984 brought The Little Drummer Girl, Keaton's first excursion into the thriller and action genre. The Little Drummer Girl was both a financial and critical failure, with critics claiming that Keaton was miscast for the genre, such as one review from The New Republic claiming that \"the title role, the pivotal role, is played by Diane Keaton, and around her the picture collapses in tatters. She is so feeble, so inappropriate.\" However, that same year she received positive reviews for her performance in Mrs. Soffel, a film based on the true story of a repressed prison warden's wife who falls in love with a convicted murderer and arranges for his escape. Two years later she starred with Jessica Lange and Sissy Spacek in Crimes of the Heart, adapted from Beth Henley's Pulitzer Prize-winning play into a moderately successful screen comedy. In 1987, she starred in Baby Boom, her first of four collaborations with writer-producer Nancy Meyers. In Baby Boom, Keaton starred as a Manhattan career woman who is suddenly forced to care for a toddler. That same year she made a cameo in Allen's film Radio Days as a nightclub singer. 1988's The Good Mother was a misstep for Keaton. The film was a financial disappointment (according to Keaton, the film was \"a Big Failure. Like, BIG failure\"), and some critics panned her performance, such as one review from The Washington Post: \"her acting degenerates into hype – as if she's trying to sell an idea she can't fully believe in.\" \n\nIn 1987, Keaton directed and edited her first feature film, a documentary named Heaven about the possibility of an afterlife. Heaven met with mixed critical reaction, with The New York Times likening it to \"a conceit imposed on its subjects.\" Over the next four years, Keaton went on to direct music videos for artists such as Belinda Carlisle, two television films starring Patricia Arquette, and episodes of the series China Beach and Twin Peaks.\n\n1990s \n\nBy the 1990s, Keaton had established herself as one of the most popular and versatile actors in Hollywood. She shifted to more mature roles, frequently playing matriarchs of middle-class families. Of her role choices and avoidance of becoming typecast, she said: \"Most often a particular role does you some good and Bang! You have loads of offers, all of them for similar roles ... I have tried to break away from the usual roles and have tried my hand at several things.\" \n\nShe began the decade with The Lemon Sisters, a poorly received comedy/drama that she starred in and produced, which was shelved for a year after its completion. In 1991, Keaton starred with Steve Martin in the family comedy Father of the Bride. She was almost not cast in the film, as the commercial failure of The Good Mother had strained her relationship with Walt Disney Pictures, the studio of both films. Father of the Bride was Keaton's first major hit after four years of commercial disappointments.\n\nKeaton reprised her role four years later in the sequel, as a woman who becomes pregnant in middle age at the same time as her daughter. A review of the film for The San Francisco Examiner was one of many in which Keaton once again received comparison to Katharine Hepburn: \"No longer relying on that stuttering uncertainty that seeped into all her characterizations of the 1970s, she has somehow become Katharine Hepburn with a deep maternal instinct, that is, she is a fine and intelligent actress who doesn't need to be tough and edgy in order to prove her feminism.\" \n\nKeaton reprised her role of Kay Adams in 1990's The Godfather Part III. Set 20 years after the end of The Godfather, Part II, Keaton's part had evolved into the estranged ex-wife of Michael Corleone. Criticism of the film and Keaton again centered on her character's unimportance in the film. The Washington Post wrote: \"Even though she is authoritative in the role, Keaton suffers tremendously from having no real function except to nag Michael for his past sins.\" In 1993, Keaton starred in Manhattan Murder Mystery, her first major film role in a Woody Allen film since 1979, having made a cameo in 1987's Radio Days. Her part was originally intended for Mia Farrow, but Farrow dropped out of the project after her split with Allen. \n\nIn 1995, Keaton directed Unstrung Heroes, her first theatrically released narrative film. The movie, adapted from Franz Lidz's memoir, starred Nathan Watt as a boy in 1960s whose mother (Andie MacDowell) becomes ill with cancer. As her sickness advances and his inventor father (John Turturro) grows increasingly distant, the boy is sent to live with his two eccentric uncles (Maury Chaykin and Michael Richards). In a geographic switch, Keaton shifted the story's setting from the New York of Lidz's book to the Southern California of her own childhood. And the four mad uncles were reduced to a whimsical odd couple. In an essay for the New York Times, Lidz said that the cinematic Selma had died not of cancer, but of 'Old Movie Disease'. \"Someday somebody may find a cure for cancer, but the terminal sappiness of cancer movies is probably beyond remedy.\" \nThough it played in a relatively limited release and made little impression at the box office, the film and its direction were generally well-received critically. \n\nKeaton's most successful film of the decade was the 1996 comedy The First Wives Club. She starred with Goldie Hawn and Bette Midler as a trio of \"first wives\": middle-aged women who had been divorced by their husbands in favor of younger women. Keaton claimed that making the film \"saved [her] life.\" The film was a major success, grossing US$105 million at the North American box office, and it developed a cult following among middle-aged women. Reviews of the film were generally positive for Keaton and her co-stars, and she was even referred to by The San Francisco Chronicle as \"probably [one of] the best comic film actresses alive.\" In 1997, Keaton, along Hawn and Midler, was a recipient of the Women in Film Crystal Award, which honors \"outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry.\" \n\nAlso in 1996, Keaton starred as Bessie, a woman with leukemia, in Marvin's Room, an adaptation of the play by Scott McPherson. Meryl Streep played her estranged sister Lee, and had also initially been considered for the role of Bessie. The film also starred a young Leonardo DiCaprio as Lee's rebellious son. Roger Ebert stated that \"Streep and Keaton, in their different styles, find ways to make Lee and Bessie into much more than the expression of their problems.\" Keaton earned a third Academy Award nomination for the film, which was critically acclaimed. Keaton said that the biggest challenge of the role was understanding the mentality of a person with terminal illness.\n\nIn 1999 Keaton narrated the one-hour public-radio documentary \"If I Get Out Alive,\" the first to focus on the conditions and brutality faced by young people in the adult correctional system. The program, produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media, aired on public radio stations across the country, and was honored with a First Place National Headliner Award and a Casey Medal for Meritorious Journalism. \n\n2000s \n\nKeaton's first film of 2000 was Hanging Up with Meg Ryan and Lisa Kudrow. Keaton also directed the film, despite claiming in a 1996 interview that she would never direct herself in a film, saying \"as a director, you automatically have different goals. I can't think about directing when I'm acting.\" The film was a drama about three sisters coping with the senility and eventual death of their elderly father, played by Walter Matthau. Hanging Up rated poorly with critics and grossed a modest US$36 million at the North American box office. \n\nIn 2001, Keaton co-starred with Warren Beatty in Town & Country, a critical and financial fiasco. Budgeted at an estimated US$90 million, the film opened to little notice and grossed only US$7 million in its North American theatrical run. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that Town & Country was \"less deserving of a review than it is an obituary....The corpse took with it the reputations of its starry cast, including Warren Beatty and Diane Keaton.\" Also in 2001, and 2002, Keaton starred in four low-budget television films. She played a fanatical nun in the religious drama Sister Mary Explains It All, an impoverished mother in the drama On Thin Ice, and a bookkeeper in the mob comedy Plan B. In Crossed Over, she played Beverly Lowry, a woman who forms an unusual friendship with the only woman executed while on death row in Texas, Karla Faye Tucker.\n\nKeaton's first major hit since 1996 came in 2003's Something's Gotta Give, directed by Nancy Meyers and co-starring Jack Nicholson. Nicholson and Keaton, aged 66 and 57 respectively, were seen as bold casting choices for leads in a romantic comedy. Twentieth Century Fox, the film's original studio, reportedly declined to produce the film, fearing that the lead characters were too old to be bankable. Keaton commented about the situation in Ladies' Home Journal: \"Let's face it, people my age and Jack's age are much deeper, much more soulful, because they've seen a lot of life. They have a great deal of passion and hope—why shouldn't they fall in love? Why shouldn't movies show that?\" Keaton played a middle-aged playwright who falls in love with her daughter's much older boyfriend. The film was a major success at the box office, grossing US$125 million in North America. Roger Ebert wrote that \"Nicholson and Keaton bring so much experience, knowledge and humor to their characters that the film works in ways the screenplay might not have even hoped for.\" The following year, Keaton received her fourth Academy Award nomination for her role in the film.\n\nKeaton's only film between the years of 2004 and 2006 was the comedy The Family Stone (2005), starring an ensemble cast that also included Sarah Jessica Parker, Claire Danes, Rachel McAdams, and Craig T. Nelson. In the film, scripted and directed by Thomas Bezucha, Keaton played a breast cancer survivor and matriarch of a big New England family, who reunite at the parents' home for their annual Christmas holidays. The film was released to moderate critical and commercial success, and earned US$92.2 million worldwide. Keaton received her second Satellite Award nomination for her portrayal, on which Peter Travers of Rolling Stone commented, \"Keaton, a sorceress at blending humor and heartbreak, honors the film with a grace that makes it stick in the memory.\" \n\nIn 2007, Keaton starred in both Because I Said So and Mama's Boy. In the romantic comedy Because I Said So, directed by Michael Lehmann, Keaton played a long-divorced mother of three daughters, determined to pair off her only single daughter, Milly, played by Mandy Moore. Also starring Stephen Collins and Gabriel Macht, the project opened to overwhelmingly negative reviews by critics, with Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe calling it \"a sloppily made bowl of reheated chick-flick cliches,\" and was ranked among the worst-reviewed films of the year. The following year, Keaton received her first and only Golden Raspberry Award nomination to date, for the film. In Mama's Boy, director Tim Hamilton's feature film debut, Keaton starred as the mother of a self-absorbed 29-year-old (played by Jon Heder) whose world turns upside down when his widowed mother starts dating and considers booting him out of the house. Distributed for a limited release to certain parts of the United States only, the independent comedy garnered largely negative reviews. \n\nIn 2008, Keaton starred alongside Dax Shepard and Liv Tyler in Vince Di Meglio's dramedy Smother, playing the overbearing mother of an unemployed therapist, who decides to move in with him and his girlfriend following the split from her husband, played by Ken Howard. As with Mama's Boy, the film received a limited release only, resulting in a gross of US$1.8 million worldwide. Critical reaction to the film was generally unfavorable, and once again Keaton was dismissed for her role choices, with Sandra Hall of the New York Post writing, \"Diane's career is dyin' [...] this time, sadly, she's gone too far. She's turned herself into a mother-in-law joke.\" Also in 2008, Keaton appeared alongside Katie Holmes and Queen Latifah in the crime-comedy film Mad Money, directed by Callie Khouri. Based on the British television drama Hot Money (2001), the film revolves around three female employees of the Federal Reserve who scheme to steal money that is about to be destroyed. As with Keaton's previous projects, the film bombed at the box offices with a gross total of US$26.4 million, and was universally panned by critics, ranking third in the New York Post Top 10 Worst Movies of 2008 overview. \n\n2010s \n\nIn 2010, Keaton starred alongside Rachel McAdams and Harrison Ford in Roger Michell's comedy Morning Glory, playing the veteran TV host of a fictional morning talk show that desperately needs to boost its lagging ratings. Portraying a narcissistic character that would do anything to please the audience, Keaton described her role as \"the kind of woman you love to hate.\" Inspired by Neil Simon's 1972 Broadway play The Sunshine Boys, the film became a moderate success at the box office for a worldwide total of almost US$59 million. Though some critics found that Keaton was underused in the film, the actress was generally praised for her performance, with James Berardinelli of ReelViews noting that \"Diane Keaton is so good at her part that one can see her sliding effortlessly into an anchor's chair on a real morning show.\" \n\n \nIn fall 2010, Keaton joined the production of the comedy drama Darling Companion by Lawrence Kasdan, which was released in 2012. Co-starring Kevin Kline and Dianne Wiest and set in Telluride, Colorado, the film follows a woman, played by Keaton, whose husband loses her much-beloved dog at a wedding held at their vacation home in the Rocky Mountains, resulting in a search party to find the pet. Kasdan's first film in nine years, the film bombed at the US box office, where it scored about US$790,000 throughout its entire theatrical run. Generally negative with the film, critics dismissed the film as \"an overwritten, underplotted vanity project,\" but applauded Keaton's performance. Ty Burr from The Boston Globe felt that the film \"would be instantly forgettable if not for Keaton, who imbues [her role] with a sorrow, warmth, wisdom, and rage that feel earned [...] Her performance here is an extension of worn, resilient grace.\" \n\nAlso in 2011, Keaton began production on Justin Zackham's 2013 ensemble comedy The Big Wedding, in which she, along with Robert De Niro, played a long-divorced couple who, for the sake of their adopted son's wedding and his very religious biological mother, pretend they are still married. Upon release, the remake of the original 2006 French film Mon frère se marie received largely negative reviews. In his review for The New York Post, Lou Lumenick stated that \"the brutally unfunny, cringe-worthy The Big Wedding provides ample opportunities for Robert De Niro, Diane Keaton, Susan Sarandon and Robin Williams to embarrass themselves.\" \n\nIn 2014, Keaton starred in And So It Goes and 5 Flights Up. In Rob Reiner's romantic dramedy And So It Goes, Keaton portrayed a widowed lounge singer, who finds autumnal love with a bad boy, played by Michael Douglas. The film received largely negative reviews from critics, who felt that \"And So It Goes aims for comedy, but with two talented actors stuck in a half-hearted effort from a once-mighty filmmaker, it ends in unintentional tragedy.\" Keaton co-starred with Morgan Freeman in Richard Loncraine's comedy film 5 Flights Up. Based on the novel Heroic Measures by Jill Ciment, they play a long-married couple who have an eventful weekend after they are forced to contemplate selling their beloved Brooklyn apartment. Shot in New York, the film premiered, under its former name Ruth & Alex, at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival. The same year, Keaton became the first woman to receive the Golden Lion Award from the Zurich Film Festival. \n\nKeaton's only film of 2015 was Love the Coopers, an ensemble comedy about a troubled family getting together for Christmas, for which she reunited with Because I Said So writer Jessie Nelson. Also starring John Goodman, Ed Helms, and Marisa Tomei, Keaton was attached for several years before the film went into production. Her cast was instrumental in financing and recruiting most other actors, which led her to an executive producer credit in the film. Upon its release, Love the Coopers received largely negative reviews from critics, who called it a \"bittersweet blend of holiday cheer,\" and became a moderate commercial success at a worldwide total of $41.1 million against a budget of $17 million. \n\nKeaton voiced Dory's mother in Disney•Pixar's Finding Dory (2016), the sequel to the 2003 Pixar computer-animated film Finding Nemo. Her other project of 2016 will be the HBO eight-part series The Young Pope opposite Jude Law, in which she will play a nun. In addition, Keaton is set to appear in Joel Hopkins's Hampstead, a British romance film also starring Brendan Gleeson, and in the Netflix comedy Divanation for which she will reunite with her First Wives Club co-stars Midler and Hawn to portray a singing group that reconnects after a volatile split 30 years prior. \n\nPersonal life \n\nRelationships and family \n\nKeaton has had several romantic associations with noted entertainment industry personalities, starting with her time with the Broadway production of Play It Again, Sam when she auditioned for director Woody Allen. Their association became personal following a dinner after a late-night rehearsal. It was her sense of humor that attracted Allen. They briefly lived together during the Broadway production, but by the time of the film release of the same name in 1972, their living arrangements became informal. They worked together on eight films between 1971 and 1993, and Keaton has said that Allen remains one of her closest friends.\n\nShe was already dating Warren Beatty from 1979 when they had co-lead roles in the film Reds. Beatty was a regular subject in tabloid magazines and media coverage in which she was included much to her bewilderment. Her avoidance of the spotlight earned her in 1985 from Vanity Fair the attribution as \"the most reclusive star since Garbo.\" This relationship ended shortly after Reds wrapped. Troubles with the production are thought to have caused strain on the relationship, including numerous financial and scheduling problems. Keaton remains friends with Beatty.\n\nKeaton also had a relationship with her The Godfather Trilogy costar Al Pacino. Their on-again, off-again relationship ended following the filming of The Godfather Part III. Keaton said of Pacino, \"Al was simply the most entertaining man... To me, that's, that is the most beautiful face. I think Warren was gorgeous, very pretty, but Al's face is like whoa. Killer, killer face.\" \n\nIn July 2001, Keaton revealed her thoughts on being older and unmarried: \"I don't think that because I'm not married it's made my life any less. That old maid myth is garbage.\" Keaton has two adopted children, daughter Dexter (adopted 1996) and son Duke (2001). Her father's death made mortality more apparent to her, and she decided to become a mother at age 55. She later said of having children, \"Motherhood has completely changed me. It's just about the most completely humbling experience that I've ever had.\" \n\nReligious beliefs \n\nKeaton stated that she produced her 1987 documentary Heaven because, \"I was always pretty religious as a kid ... I was primarily interested in religion because I wanted to go to heaven.\" Nevertheless, she has also stated that she considered herself an agnostic.\n\nOther activities \n\nKeaton is an opponent of plastic surgery. She told More magazine in 2004, \"I'm stuck in this idea that I need to be authentic ... My face needs to look the way I feel.\" Keaton is also active in campaigns with the Los Angeles Conservancy to save and restore historic buildings, particularly in the Los Angeles area. Among the buildings she has been active in restoring is the Ennis House in the Hollywood Hills designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Keaton had also been active in the failed campaign to save the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles (a hotel featured in Reservations), the location of Robert Kennedy's assassination in 1968.\n\nSince May 2005, she has been a contributing blogger at The Huffington Post. Since summer 2006, Keaton has been the new face of L'Oréal. \n\nKeaton has served as a producer on films and television series. She produced the Fox series Pasadena that was canceled after airing only four episodes in 2001 but later completed its run on cable in 2005. In 2003, she produced the Gus Van Sant drama Elephant, about a school shooting. On why she produced the film, she said \"It really makes me think about my responsibilities as an adult to try and understand what's going on with young people.\" \n\nOutside of the film industry, Keaton has continued to pursue her interest in photography. As a collector, she told Vanity Fair in 1987: \"I have amassed a huge library of images – kissing scenes from movies, pictures I like. Visual things are really key for me.\" She has published several more collections of her own photographs, and has also served as an editor for collections of vintage photography. Works she has edited in the last decade include a book of photographs by paparazzo Ron Galella; an anthology of reproductions of clown paintings; and a collection of photos of California's Spanish-Colonial-style houses.\n\nKeaton has also established herself as a real estate developer. She has resold several mansions in Southern California after renovating and redesigning them. One of her clients is Madonna, who purchased a US$6.5 million Beverly Hills mansion from Keaton in 2003. She received the Film Society of Lincoln Center's Gala Tribute in 2007.\n\nKeaton wrote her first memoir, entitled Then Again, for Random House in November 2011. Much of the autobiography relies on her\nmother Dorothy's private journals, in which she writes at one point: \"Diane...is a mystery...At times, she's so basic, at others so wise it frightens me.\" In 2012, Keaton's audiobook recording of Joan Didion's Slouching Towards Bethlehem was released at Audible.com. Her performance was nominated for a 2013 Audie Award in the Short Stories/Collections category.\n\nFilmography \n\nFilm \n\nTelevision \n\nAwards and nominations \n\nBooks \n\nAs writer \n\n* Then Again, New York: Random House, 2011, ISBN 9781400068784\n* Let's Just Say It Wasn't Pretty, New York: Random House, 2014, ISBN 9780812994261\n\nAs photographer \n\n* Reservations, New York: Knopf, 1980, ISBN 0394508424\n\nAs editor \n\n* Still Life (with Marvin Heiferman), New York: Callaway, 1983, ISBN 0935112162\n* Mr. Salesman, Santa Fe: Twin Palms Publishers, 1993, ISBN 0944092268\n* Clown Paintings, New York: powerHouse Books, 2002, ISBN 1576871487\n* California Romantica, New York: Rizzoli, 2007, ISBN 0847829758\n* House, New York: Rizzoli, 2012, ISBN 9780847835638" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Diane Hall", "Diane Keaton filmography", "Dianne Keaton", "Diane Keaton", "List of awards and nominations received by Diane Keaton" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dianne keaton", "diane hall", "diane keaton", "diane keaton filmography", "list of awards and nominations received by diane keaton" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "diane hall", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Diane Hall" }
Which word used to be in the name of The San Francisco Ballet?	tc_983	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "San_Francisco_Ballet.txt", "San_Francisco.txt" ], "title": [ "San Francisco Ballet", "San Francisco" ], "wiki_context": [ "San Francisco Ballet is a ballet company, founded in 1933 as the San Francisco Opera Ballet under the leadership of ballet master Adolph Bolm. The company is currently based in the War Memorial Opera House, San Francisco, under the direction of Helgi Tomasson. San Francisco Ballet was the first professional ballet company in the United States. It is among the world's leading dance companies, presenting over 100 performances annually, with a repertoire that spans both classical and contemporary ballet. Along with American Ballet Theatre and the New York City Ballet, San Francisco Ballet has been described as part of the \"triumvirate of great classical companies defining the American style on the world stage today.\" \n\nHistory\n\nFounding: Christensen brothers\n\nWillam Christensen, Harold Christensen, and Lew Christensen made up the famed trio of brothers considered by many to have done more than anyone else to establish ballet in the United States. Born into an artistic and musical family, the three brothers studied folk dance and ballet from early ages and went on to tour the famous vaudeville Orpheum Circuit during the 1920s and 1930s, exposing many Americans to ballet for the first time with their act “The Christ Brothers.” \n\nAs vaudeville faded from American popular culture, Harold and Lew joined George Balanchine’s new company, American Ballet, in 1935. In 1932, Willam formed a ballet school in Portland, Oregon; in 1937, he was engaged as principal male soloist by San Francisco Opera Ballet. He became the company’s ballet master and choreographer in 1938. With his brother Harold, he purchased the company from the Opera in 1942, renaming it San Francisco Ballet. In 1951, Willam retired as director of SF Ballet and moved to Utah, where he started teaching ballet in the country’s first university ballet department at the University of Utah. With a group of his students, he founded the Utah Civic Ballet (now known as Ballet West) in 1963; the company remained under Christensen’s directorship until 1978. \n\nUnder Balanchine’s tutelage at American Ballet, Lew Christensen became the first American-born danseur noble. The United States Army drafted Christensen to fight in World War II. After the war ended, he joined Balanchine’s and Lincoln Kirstein’s Ballet Society (soon to become New York City Ballet), eventually becoming ballet master; he served in the role from 1946 until 1950. In 1951, he joined his brother Willam as co-director of San Francisco Ballet. When Willam moved to Salt Lake City later that year, Lew took over as full director of SF Ballet; he held the position until 1976, when Michael Smuin joined him as co-director. Lew Christensen remained SF Ballet co-director until 1984, the year of his death.\n\nAfter leaving the vaudeville circuit in 1935, Harold Christensen danced with American Ballet, San Francisco Opera Ballet, Kirstein’s Ballet Caravan, and San Francisco Ballet until his retirement from the stage in 1946. In 1940, his brother Willam invited him to become director of the San Francisco Ballet School, and in 1942 he and Willam purchased the SF Ballet. Harold continued to serve as the school’s director until his retirement in 1975.\n\n1938–1950\n\nIn 1938, the company's first major production was Coppélia, choreographed by Willam Christensen. In 1940, it staged Swan Lake, the first time that the ballet was produced in its entirety by an American company. On Christmas Eve 1944, the company staged Nutcracker—the first complete production of Tchaikovsky's most popular piece ever danced in the United States.\n\nIn 1942, San Francisco Opera Ballet split into two independent companies, ballet and opera. The ballet half was sold to Willam and Harold Christensen. Willam became artistic director, while Harold took on the job of director of the San Francisco Ballet School. The San Francisco Ballet Guild was also formed as a support organization for San Francisco Ballet. \n\n1951–1972\n\nThe year 1951 marked a significant shift in administration of San Francisco Ballet. Lew Christensen—premier danseur at the time—partnered with his brother Willam Christensen as co-directors. Then in 1952, Lew Christensen took over as sole director. Under his guidance, San Francisco Ballet began to travel and establish itself as a significant American ballet company. Until 1956, San Francisco Ballet had remained on the West Coast, but Christensen took the company to the Jacob's Pillow Dance Festival in Massachusetts. In 1957, it was the first American ballet company to tour the Far East, performing in 11 Asian nations. On New Year's Day 1965, ABC-TV televised a one-hour abridgement of the Lew Christensen-choreographed production of Nutcracker featuring San Francisco Ballet.\n\nIn 1972, San Francisco's War Memorial Opera House was named the official residence of San Francisco Ballet.\n\n1973–1985\n\nIn 1973, Michael Smuin became co-artistic director of San Francisco Ballet with Lew Christensen; Smuin had danced with the Company from 1953 to 1961. Under his direction, the national and international profile of SF Ballet was raised significantly by the broad success of productions such as 1977’s Romeo and Juliet, which aired on the PBS series “Great Performances: Dance in America” in 1978. This televised performance marked the first time that a West Coast ballet company, and a full-length ballet, was shown on the PBS TV series. PBS televised three more of Smuin’s SF Ballet productions, and his productions of The Tempest and A Song for Dead Warriors went on to win Emmys. Smuin led the company until 1985.\n\n1985–present\n\nHelgi Tomasson’s 1985 arrival as artistic director marked the beginning of a new era for San Francisco Ballet. Under Tomasson’s direction, San Francisco Ballet has been recognized as one of the most innovative ballet companies in the world due to its early and frequent commissioning of new works by aspiring choreographers around the globe, the breadth of its repertory—spanning classical ballet, neoclassical ballet, and contemporary ballet—and the diversity of its company members. The Financial Times noted in 2012 that “Tomasson…helped shatter the distinction between the US top companies and so-called ‘regional companies.' ’’ \n\nOver a span of more than 25 years, Tomasson has staged acclaimed full-length productions of classics including Swan Lake (1988, 2009); The Sleeping Beauty (1990); Romeo and Juliet (1994); Giselle (1999); Don Quixote, co-staged with former principal dancer and current choreographer in residence Yuri Possokhov (2003); and Nutcracker (2004). Tomasson’s Nutcracker, set in San Francisco during the 1915 Panama Pacific International Exposition, is notable for being the only uniquely San Francisco Nutcracker. It features sets (including “a backdrop of San Francisco’s Victorian houses known as “painted ladies”) and costumes created by, respectively, Michael Yeargan and Martin Pakledinaz, both repeat Tony Award-winning designers. Upon its premiere, the New York Times called Tomasson’s Nutcracker “striking, elegant and beautiful.” \n\nToday, San Francisco Ballet presents approximately 100 performances each year. The company’s diverse repertory includes works by Sir Frederick Ashton, George Balanchine, David Bintley, August Bournonville, Val Caniparoli, Lew Christensen, Nacho Duato, Jorma Elo, William Forsythe, James Kudelka, Jirí Kylián, Serge Lifar, Lar Lubovitch, Wayne McGregor, Agnes de Mille, Sir Kenneth MacMillan, Hans van Manen, Peter Martins, Mark Morris, Rudolf Nureyev, Marius Petipa, Roland Petit, Yuri Possokhov, Alexei Ratmansky, Jerome Robbins, Liam Scarlett, Paul Taylor, Helgi Tomasson, Antony Tudor, and Christopher Wheeldon.\n\nIn 2010, the Ballet’s opening-night gala, Silver Celebration, honored Tomasson’s 25 years as artistic director. \n\nThe Gala Opening of San Francisco Ballet's 80th Season included Tarantellapas de deux, L’Arlesienne solo, Flower Festival at Genzano pas de deux, In the Passerine’s Clutch, Raymonda’s Act II solo, Trio second movement, Don Quixote grand pas de deux, Onegin Act 1 pas de deux, Stars and Stripes pas de deux, After the Rain pas de deux, and excerpts from Suite en Blanc. \n\nSan Francisco Ballet's 2013 season included Trio, Ghost and Borderlands as well as Suite en blanc, In the night, Nijinsky, The Rite of Spring, Onegin, Raymonda Act III and Cinderella. \n\nThe 2014 season included Giselle, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Tears, Borderlands, From Foreign Lands, Firebird, Ghosts, The Kingdom of the Shades from La Bayadère, Cinderella, Shostakovich Trilogy, Caprice, Maelstrom, The Rite of Spring, Hummingbird, The Fifth Season, Suite en Blanc, Agon, Brahms-Schoenberg Quartet, and Glass Pieces. \n\nThe 2015 season includes Serenade, RAkU, Lambarena, Giselle, The Vertiginous Thrill of Exactitude, Variations for Two Couples, Manifesto, The Kingdom of the Shades from La Bayadère, Act II, Dances at a Gathering, Hummingbird, Don Quixote, Shostakovich Trilogy, Caprice, Swimmer, and Romeo & Juliet. \n\nProgramming\n\nSan Francisco Ballet performs repertory from January through May at the War Memorial Opera House in San Francisco. In addition, the company performs in July at the Stern Grove Festival in San Francisco, tours nationally in the summer and fall, and presents Nutcracker in December at the War Memorial Opera House.\n\nFestivals and touring\n\nIn 1991, San Francisco Ballet performed in New York City for the first time in 26 years, returning in 1993, 1995, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2008, and 2013. Following the initial tour, the New York Times proclaimed, “Mr. Tomasson has accomplished the unprecedented: He has pulled a so-called regional company into the national ranks, and he has done so by honing the dancers into a classical style of astonishing verve and purity. San Francisco Ballet under Helgi Tomasson’s leadership is one of the spectacular success stories of the arts in America.” \n\nIn May 1995, San Francisco Ballet hosted 12 ballet companies from around the world for UNited We Dance: An International Festival. The festival commemorated the 50th anniversary of the signing of the United Nations Charter, which took place at the San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center.\n\nIn fall 2008, as part of the company’s 75th anniversary celebration, San Francisco Ballet embarked on a critically acclaimed four-city American tour with engagements at Chicago’s Harris Theater for Music and Dance, New York City Center, Southern California’s Segerstrom Center for the Arts, and the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. The year culminated in a New Works Festival of world premieres by 10 of the dance world’s most acclaimed choreographers—Julia Adam, Val Caniparoli, Jorma Elo, Margaret Jenkins, James Kudelka, Mark Morris, Yuri Possokhov, Paul Taylor, Stanton Welch, and Christopher Wheeldon. Other anniversary initiatives included a commemorative book, San Francisco Ballet at Seventy-Five, and the broadcast of Tomasson’s Nutcracker in December 2008 on the \"Great Performances: Dance in America\" series on PBS, produced in partnership with KQED Public Television in San Francisco.\n\nSan Francisco Ballet also performed in frequent overseas tours, including engagements at prestigious venues such as the famed Opéra de Paris-Palais Garnier in Paris (1994, 2001); London’s Sadler’s Wells Theatre (1999, 2004, 2012) and Royal Opera House in Covent Garden (2002); Athens’ Megaron Theatre (2002) and Herod Atticus Amphitheatre (2004); Copenhagen’s Tivoli Gardens (1998, 2010); and the Edinburgh International Festival at the Edinburgh Playhouse (1997, 2003). In fall 2009, San Francisco Ballet made its first trip to the People’s Republic of China, with performances in Shanghai and Beijing.\n\nIn 2012, San Francisco Ballet embarked on the longest tour in the company’s history, with engagements in London and Washington, DC, as well as first-time visits to Hamburg, Germany; Moscow; and Sun Valley, Idaho.\n\nBroadcast and media projects\n\nIn 1978, San Francisco Ballet’s Michael Smuin-directed production of Romeo and Juliet became the first production by a West Coast ballet company, and the first full-length ballet, to be aired by the PBS “Great Performances: Dance in America” television series. Under the direction of Smuin, the ballet’s 1981 production of The Tempest became the first ballet to be broadcast live (on PBS) from the War Memorial Opera House. Three years later, the 1984 PBS broadcast of the Ballet’s performance of A Song for Dead Warriors earned Smuin an Emmy.\n\nThe fruitful relationship between PBS and SF Ballet continues to this day, with regular broadcasts of the Ballet’s 2007 production of Nutcracker, choreographed by Helgi Tomasson. I Also in 2007, the Company had its first theatrical release with Nutcracker, shown in limited theaters in Canada, Australia, and the U.S. In 2011, theatrical distributor IndieNetFilms arranged for additional screenings throughout the U.S. and Canada.\n\nIn December 2011, the U.S. premiere of John Neumeier’s The Little Mermaid, performed by San Francisco Ballet, was broadcast nationally on PBS’s \"Great Performances: Dance in America,” and also internationally. DVDs of the Nutcracker and The Little Mermaid performances were released in 2008 and 2011, respectively. CD recordings of the complete score of Nutcracker and Shinji Eshima’s RAkU were released in 2010 and 2012, respectively.\n\nAccolades and awards\n\nThe company has garnered numerous accolades and awards. In 2005, San Francisco Ballet won its first Laurence Olivier Award, in the category of Outstanding Achievement in Dance, for its 2004 fall season at Sadler’s Wells Theatre. Of the engagement, London’s Sunday Times proclaimed, “Helgi Tomasson’s outstanding artistic direction…has transformed a regional American troupe into one of the world’s top ballet companies.” In 2006, in a readers’ poll conducted by Dance Europe magazine, San Francisco Ballet was the first non-European company to be voted “Company of the Year.” In 2008, San Francisco Ballet received the Jerome Robbins Award for excellence in dance.\n\nIn 2012, Helgi Tomasson was named recipient of the Dance/USA Honor, acknowledging individuals’ contributions to dance in America and the role they play in the national dance community. Most recently, San Francisco Ballet was nominated in the category of Outstanding Company by the 2014 National Dance Awards, based in the U.K.\n\nCompany\n\nThe company of the San Francisco Ballet, as of September 2013: \n\nArtistic director\n\nHelgi Tomasson\n\nBallet master/assistant to the artistic director\n\n Ricardo Bustamante\n\nBallet masters\n\n* Felipe Diaz\n* Betsy Erickson\n* Anita Paciotti\n* Katita Waldo\n\nChoreographer in residence\n\nYuri Possokhov\n\nCompany teachers\n\nHelgi Tomasson\nLola de Avila (guest teacher, 2014 season)\nPatrick Armand (guest teacher, 2014 season)\nRicardo Bustamante\nFelipe Diaz\n\nPrincipal dancers\n\nPrincipal character dancers\n\nRicardo Bustamante\nVal Caniparoli\n\nRubén Martín Cintas\n\nAnita Paciotti\n\nSoloists\n\nClara Blanco\nDaniel Deivison Oliviera\nSasha De Sola\nCarlo Di Lanno\nKoto Ishihara\nJames Sofranko\nJennifer Stahl\nLauren Strongin\nAnthony Vincent\nHansuke Yamamoto\n\nCorps de ballet\n\nGaetano Amico III\nKamryn Baldwin\nSean Bennett\nKimberly Braylock\nSamantha Bristow\nMax Cauthorn\nThamires Chuvas\nDiego Cruz\nIsabella DeVivo\nJahna Frantziskonis\nBenjamin Freemantle\nJordan Hammond\nJillian Harvey\nEsteban Hernandez\nEllen Rose Hummel\n\nNorika Matsuyama\nLee Alexandra Meyer-Lorey\nSteven Morse\nFrancisco Mungamba\nSean Orza\nLauren Parrott\nElizabeth Powell\nAlexander Reneff-Olson\nAaron Renteria\nRebecca Rhodes\nJulia Rowe\nEmma Rubinowitz\nShannon Marie Rugani\nSkyla Shreter\nGrace Shibley\n\nHenry Sidford\nMiranda Silveira\nJohn Paul Simoens\nMyles Thatcher\nMingxuan Wang\nWei Wang\nLonnie Weeks\nMaggie Weirich\nAmi Yuki\nWanTing Zhao\n\nApprentices \n\n* Grace Choi\n* Blake Kessler\n* Anastasia Kubanda\n* Chisako Oga\n* Francisco Sebastião\n\nOfficial school\n\nSan Francisco Ballet School, San Francisco Ballet’s official school, is America's oldest ballet school. The program includes classes in technique, pointe work, pas de deux, men's technique, contemporary dance, floor barre/conditioning, and character dance. Male and female students are placed in divisions according to age, experience, and ability. More than 50 percent of current San Francisco Ballet dancers were trained at the San Francisco Ballet School. \n\nHistory and directors\n\nThe school was founded in 1933 as part of the San Francisco Operatic and Ballet School when Gaetano Merola, the founder of the San Francisco Opera, perceived a need for an institution where dancers could be trained to perform in opera productions. The school was under the direction of ballet director Adolph Bolm from 1933 to 1938. Willam Christensen became director from 1938 to 1940, followed by his brother Harold Christensen from 1942 until 1975. Richard L. Cammack directed the school from 1975 to 1985; he oversaw the move to its current state-of-the-art facilities on Franklin Street in 1983. In 1985, new SF Ballet artistic director Helgi Tomasson appointed Nancy Johnson as school head. Lola de Avila joined as associate director from 1993 to 1999, followed by Gloria Govrin beginning in 1999. In 2006, de Avila returned to serve as associate director until 2012, when Patrick Armand stepped into the role. \n\nSchool programs\n\nAdmission into the school is by audition only. Students may apply for financial aid and merit-based scholarships. Advanced students may be invited to join the SFBS Trainee Program, a one- to two-year pre-professional program established in 2004. \n\nUp to 150 students are chosen by audition to dance in the yearly SF Ballet production of Nutcracker. The most advanced students may also dance with SF Ballet in repertory, and students may dance with the San Francisco Opera and other ballet companies on tour in the Bay Area. \n\nThe school also runs a pre-ballet program for children ages six and seven; after completing the program, students of age who wish to continue study must audition in order to continue at the school. \n\nFaculty\n\nThe faculty of the San Francisco Ballet School has long been known for its excellence and diversity of background. As of April 2015, it is led by the Artistic Director Helgi Tómasson and Associate Director Patrick Armand. The illustrious faculty includes Patrick Armand, Damara Bennett, Kristi DeCaminada, Yuko Katsumi, Tina LeBlanc, Jeffrey Lyons, Rubén Martín Cintas, Parrish Maynard, Pollyana Ribeiro, Brian Fisher (Contemporary), Leonid Shagalov (Character), Henry Berg (Floor Barre), Jamie Narushchen (Music), and Daniel Sullivan (Music). The guest faculty for 2015 included Joanna Berman, Pascal Molat, and Sofiane Sylve (Principal Guest). \n\nSan Francisco Ballet Orchestra\n\nFounded in 1975 to serve as San Francisco Ballet’s official permanent orchestra, the San Francisco Ballet Orchestra (SFBO) holds the rare position of being one of three major orchestras in a single city. The orchestra debuted at the end of 1975 with Nutcracker and has met with both audience and critical acclaim ever since, becoming known by the 1990s as one of the world’s finest ballet orchestras.\n\nThe SFBO toured with the SF Ballet’s touring company from 1978 until 1984. It has accompanied many prestigious international ballet companies that have toured to the San Francisco Bay Area, including The Royal Ballet, the Royal Danish Ballet, Stuttgart Ballet, the Bolshoi Ballet, Paul Taylor Dance Company, American Ballet Theatre, and the Paris Opéra Ballet. In 1995, the orchestra took on the remarkable task of accompanying 13 international dance companies over the space of a single week in the UNited We Dance Festival.\n\nThe 49-member orchestra accompanies SF Ballet throughout its winter and spring repertory seasons. It also performs apart from the Company; it debuted solely as an orchestra in 1979 at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco’s War Memorial Veterans Building, playing a program that included works by Haydn, Ives, and Vivaldi.\n\nOrchestra staff and musicians \n\nThe SFBO is composed of 49 members and headed by Martin West, music director and conductor. As of October 2013, the musicians and staff included: \n\nSan Francisco Ballet Orchestra music directors\n\nThe orchestra was led by Denis de Coteau from 1975 until 1998, when de Coteau’s battle with terminal cancer forced him to step down from the position. Emil de Cou, who had been serving as conductor since 1995, then assumed the role of music director, leading the Orchestra until 2001, when he left to join Washington D.C.’s National Symphony Orchestra. He was replaced by first associate conductor Jean-Louis LeRoux, who then left the interim position in 2003 and was succeeded by Andrew Mogrelia. In 2005, Mogrelia left in order to focus on his duties as music director at San Francisco Conservatory of Music. That same year, Martin West, frequent guest conductor for the Orchestra, stepped into the position of music director. \n\nSan Francisco Ballet Orchestra recordings\n\nThe orchestra’s repertoire includes hundreds of works spanning four centuries of musical history, many of which have been recorded and released to great critical acclaim, including works by Beethoven, Bizet, and Delibes. Four of the orchestra’s recordings have been televised on PBS’s “Great Performances: Dance in America.”\n\nRecordings include:\n\nOthello—Suite from the Ballet by Eliot Goldenthal (Varese Records)\nTchaikovsky: Nutcracker (O’Brien Enterprises), 1988\nSchoenberg, Spohr, Elgar, Handel: Works for String Quartet & Orchestra (Arabesque Records)\nClaude Debussy: Rediscovered, Premiere Orchestral Recordings (Arabesque Records)\nRAkU (San Francisco Ballet Records)\nThe Tempest—complete ballet by Paul Chihara: SF Ballet Orchestra recorded this under the name “Performing Arts Orchestra” in 1981 (Reference Recordings)\nNutcracker Op. 71 (Koch Int'l Classics)\nRussian Masterpieces for Cello and Orchestra (Shostakovich Cello Concert, Tchaikovsky Rococo Variations, etc., Zuill Bailey, Cello) (Telarc)\nDelibes— Coppélia/Sylvia Extended Suites from the Ballets (Reference Recordings)\nWeber—Clarinet Concerti No. 1 & 2 (Alexander Fiterstein, Clarinet), (Bridge Records)\nBeethoven—Triple Concerto in C Major, Opus 56, Piano Trio in E-flat Major, Op. 1 No. 1 (Claremont Piano Trio), (Bridge Records)\nBizet—Symphony in C major; Jeux D’Enfants; Variations chromatique (Reference Records)\n*Yeston—Tom Sawyer—A Ballet in Three Acts (PS Classics)\n\nVolunteer groups\n\nSan Francisco Ballet has a large network of volunteers who assist with the ongoing success of the Company and the San Francisco Ballet School.\n\nMore than 200 Ballet Resource and Volunteer Organization (BRAVO) volunteers donate over 10,000 volunteer hours every year, assisting with office duties, retail work, and the ballet’s Center for Dance Education, as well as helping SF Ballet staff with receptions, fundraisers, the Spring Student Showcase, and other special events. \n\nThe San Francisco Ballet Auxiliary is a group of 100 dedicated women who volunteer to raise over $1 million in net contributions annually. In addition to individual fundraising, the group produces three annual productions: the Opening Night Gala, Fashion Show, and Student Showcase, with proceeds benefiting the Ballet and the San Francisco Ballet School. \n\nSan Francisco Ballet’s Allegro Circle is a group of professional men and women who share a passion for dance and contribute their own personal, professional, and philanthropic resources toward developing a new and diverse generation of subscribers and patrons. \n\nSan Francisco Ballet’s ENCORE! group offers local young professionals access to a range of social and educational events with a behind-the-scenes perspective. Staffing these events presents its 200+ members with a wide range of volunteer opportunities. \n\nRepertory", "San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California and the only consolidated city-county in California. San Francisco encompasses a land area of about on the northern end of the San Francisco Peninsula, which makes it the smallest county in the state. It has a density of about 18,451 people per square mile (7,124 people per km2), making it the most densely settled large city (population greater than 200,000) in the state of California and the second-most densely populated major city in the United States after New York City. San Francisco is the fourth-most populous city in California, after Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Jose, and the 13th-most populous city in the United States—with a Census-estimated 2015 population of 864,816. The city and its surrounding areas are known as the San Francisco Bay Area, and are a part of the larger OMB-designated San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland combined statistical area, the fifth most populous in the nation with an estimated population of 8.7 million.\n\nSan Francisco (Spanish for Saint Francis) was founded on June 29, 1776, when colonists from Spain established Presidio of San Francisco at the Golden Gate and Mission San Francisco de Asís named for St. Francis of Assisi a few miles away. The California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856. \nAfter three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was the port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. After the war, the confluence of returning servicemen, massive immigration, liberalizing attitudes, along with the rise of the \"hippie\" counterculture, the Sexual Revolution, the Peace Movement growing from opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War, and other factors led to the Summer of Love and the gay rights movement, cementing San Francisco as a center of liberal activism in the United States. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines.\n\nA popular tourist destination, San Francisco is known for its cool summers, fog, steep rolling hills, eclectic mix of architecture, and landmarks, including the Golden Gate Bridge, cable cars, the former Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary, Fisherman's Wharf, and its Chinatown district. San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co., Gap Inc., Salesforce.com, Dropbox, Reddit, Square, Inc., Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, and Craigslist. It has several nicknames, including \"The City by the Bay\", \"Fog City\", \"San Fran\", and \"Frisco\", as well as older ones like \"The City that Knows How\", \"Baghdad by the Bay\", \"The Paris of the West\", or simply \"The City\". , San Francisco was ranked high on world livability rankings. \n\nHistory\n\nThe earliest archaeological evidence of human habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. The Yelamu group of the Ohlone people resided in a few small villages when an overland Spanish exploration party, led by Don Gaspar de Portolà, arrived on November 2, 1769, the first documented European visit to San Francisco Bay. Seven years later, on March 28, 1776, the Spanish established the Presidio of San Francisco, followed by a mission, Mission San Francisco de Asís (Mission Dolores), established by the Spanish explorer Juan Bautista de Anza.\n\nUpon independence from Spain in 1821, the area became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the mission system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, near a boat anchorage around what is today Portsmouth Square. Together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7, 1846, during the Mexican–American War, and Captain John B. Montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, and Mexico officially ceded the territory to the United States at the end of the war. Despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. \n\n \nThe California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers (known as \"forty-niners\", as in \"1849\"). With their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. \nSome of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels; many were left to rot and some were sunk to establish title to the underwater lot. By 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land. Buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. \n\nCalifornia was quickly granted statehood, and the U.S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate and a fort on Alcatraz Island to secure the San Francisco Bay. Silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, and gambling. \n\nEntrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush. Early winners were the banking industry, with the founding of Wells Fargo in 1852 and the Bank of California in 1864. Development of the Port of San Francisco and the establishment in 1869 of overland access to the Eastern U.S. rail system via the newly completed Pacific Railroad (the construction of which the city only reluctantly helped support ) helped make the Bay Area a center for trade. Catering to the needs and tastes of the growing population, Levi Strauss opened a dry goods business and Domingo Ghirardelli began manufacturing chocolate. Immigrant laborers made the city a polyglot culture, with Chinese Railroad Workers, drawn to \"Old Gold Mountain\", creating the city's Chinatown quarter. In 1870, Asians made up 8% of the population. The first cable cars carried San Franciscans up Clay Street in 1873. The city's sea of Victorian houses began to take shape, and civic leaders campaigned for a spacious public park, resulting in plans for Golden Gate Park. San Franciscans built schools, churches, theaters, and all the hallmarks of civic life. The Presidio developed into the most important American military installation on the Pacific coast. By 1890, San Francisco's population approached 300,000, making it the eighth-largest city in the U.S. at the time. Around 1901, San Francisco was a major city known for its flamboyant style, stately hotels, ostentatious mansions on Nob Hill, and a thriving arts scene. The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904. \n\nAt 5:12 am on April 18, 1906, a major earthquake struck San Francisco and northern California. As buildings collapsed from the shaking, ruptured gas lines ignited fires that spread across the city and burned out of control for several days. With water mains out of service, the Presidio Artillery Corps attempted to contain the inferno by dynamiting blocks of buildings to create firebreaks. More than three-quarters of the city lay in ruins, including almost all of the downtown core. Contemporary accounts reported that 498 people lost their lives, though modern estimates put the number in the several thousands. More than half of the city's population of 400,000 was left homeless. Refugees settled temporarily in makeshift tent villages in Golden Gate Park, the Presidio, on the beaches, and elsewhere. Many fled permanently to the East Bay.\n\nRebuilding was rapid and performed on a grand scale. Rejecting calls to completely remake the street grid, San Franciscans opted for speed. Amadeo Giannini's Bank of Italy, later to become Bank of America, provided loans for many of those whose livelihoods had been devastated. The influential San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association or SPUR was founded in 1910 to address the quality of housing after the earthquake. The earthquake hastened development of western neighborhoods that survived the fire, including Pacific Heights, where many of the city's wealthy rebuilt their homes. In turn, the destroyed mansions of Nob Hill became grand hotels. City Hall rose again in splendid Beaux Arts style, and the city celebrated its rebirth at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in 1915. \n\nIt was during this period San Francisco built some of its most important infrastructure. Civil Engineer Michael O'Shaughnessy was hired by San Francisco Mayor James Rolph as chief engineer for the city in September 1912 to supervise the construction of the Twin Peaks Reservoir, the Stockton Street Tunnel, the Twin Peaks Tunnel, the San Francisco Municipal Railway, the Auxiliary Water Supply System, and new sewers. San Francisco's streetcar system, of which the J, K, L, M, and N lines survive today, was pushed to completion by O'Shaughnessy between 1915 and 1927. It was the O'Shaughnessy Dam, Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, and Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct that would have the largest effect on San Francisco. An abundant water supply enabled San Francisco to develop into the city it has become today.\n\nIn ensuing years, the city solidified its standing as a financial capital; in the wake of the 1929 stock market crash, not a single San Francisco-based bank failed. Indeed, it was at the height of the Great Depression that San Francisco undertook two great civil engineering projects, simultaneously constructing the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge and the Golden Gate Bridge, completing them in 1936 and 1937 respectively. It was in this period that the island of Alcatraz, a former military stockade, began its service as a federal maximum security prison, housing notorious inmates such as Al Capone, and Robert Franklin Stroud, The Birdman of Alcatraz. San Francisco later celebrated its regained grandeur with a World's fair, the Golden Gate International Exposition in 1939–40, creating Treasure Island in the middle of the bay to house it.\n\nDuring World War II, the Hunters Point Naval Shipyard became a hub of activity, and Fort Mason became the primary port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater of Operations. The explosion of jobs drew many people, especially African Americans from the South, to the area. After the end of the war, many military personnel returning from service abroad and civilians who had originally come to work decided to stay. The UN Charter creating the UN was drafted and signed in San Francisco in 1945 and, in 1951, the Treaty of San Francisco officially ended the war with Japan.\n\nUrban planning projects in the 1950s and 1960s involved widespread destruction and redevelopment of west-side neighborhoods and the construction of new freeways, of which only a series of short segments were built before being halted by citizen-led opposition. The onset of containerization made San Francisco's small piers obsolete, and cargo activity moved to the larger Port of Oakland. The city began to lose industrial jobs and turned to tourism as the most important segment of its economy. The suburbs experienced rapid growth, and San Francisco underwent significant demographic change, as large segments of the white population left the city, supplanted by an increasing wave of immigration from Asia and Latin America. From 1950 to 1980, the city lost over 10 percent of its population.\n\nOver this period, San Francisco became a magnet for America's counterculture. Beat Generation writers fueled the San Francisco Renaissance and centered on the North Beach neighborhood in the 1950s. Hippies flocked to Haight-Ashbury in the 1960s, reaching a peak with the 1967 Summer of Love. In 1974, the Zebra murders left at least 16 people dead. In the 1970s, the city became a center of the gay rights movement, with the emergence of The Castro as an urban gay village, the election of Harvey Milk to the Board of Supervisors, and his assassination, along with that of Mayor George Moscone, in 1978. \n\nBank of America completed 555 California Street in 1969 and the Transamerica Pyramid was completed in 1972, igniting a wave of \"Manhattanization\" that lasted until the late 1980s, a period of extensive high-rise development downtown. The 1980s also saw a dramatic increase in the number of homeless people in the city, an issue that remains today, despite many attempts to address it. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused destruction and loss of life throughout the Bay Area. In San Francisco, the quake severely damaged structures in the Marina and South of Market districts and precipitated the demolition of the damaged Embarcadero Freeway and much of the damaged Central Freeway, allowing the city to reclaim The Embarcadero as its historic downtown waterfront and revitalizing the Hayes Valley neighborhood.\n\nThe last 20 years have seen two booms driven by the internet industry. First was the dot-com boom of the late 1990s, startup companies invigorated the San Francisco economy. Large numbers of entrepreneurs and computer application developers moved into the city, followed by marketing, design, and sales professionals, changing the social landscape as once-poorer neighborhoods became increasingly gentrified. Demand for new housing and office space ignited a second wave of high-rise development, this time in the South of Market district. By 2000, the city's population reached new highs, surpassing the previous record set in 1950. When the bubble burst in 2001, many of these companies folded and their employees were laid off. Yet high technology and entrepreneurship remain mainstays of the San Francisco economy. By the mid 2000s (decade), the social media boom had begun, with San Francisco becoming a popular location for tech offices and a popular place to live for people employed in Silicon Valley companies such as Apple and Google. \n\nGeography\n\nSan Francisco is located on the West Coast of the United States at the north end of the San Francisco Peninsula and includes significant stretches of the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay within its boundaries. Several picturesque islands—Alcatraz, Treasure Island and the adjacent Yerba Buena Island, and small portions of Alameda Island, Red Rock Island, and Angel Island—are part of the city. Also included are the uninhabited Farallon Islands, 27 mi offshore in the Pacific Ocean. The mainland within the city limits roughly forms a \"seven-by-seven-mile square\", a common local colloquialism referring to the city's shape, though its total area, including water, is nearly 232 sqmi.\n\nThere are more than 50 hills within city limits. Some neighborhoods are named after the hill on which they are situated, including Nob Hill, Potrero Hill, and Russian Hill.\nNear the geographic center of the city, southwest of the downtown area, are a series of less densely populated hills. Twin Peaks, a pair of hills forming one of the city's highest points, forms a popular overlook spot. San Francisco's tallest hill, Mount Davidson, is 928 ft high and is capped with a 103 foot tall cross built in 1934. Dominating this area is Sutro Tower, a large red and white radio and television transmission tower.\n\nThe nearby San Andreas and Hayward Faults are responsible for much earthquake activity, although neither physically passes through the city itself. The San Andreas Fault caused the earthquakes in 1906 and 1989. Minor earthquakes occur on a regular basis. The threat of major earthquakes plays a large role in the city's infrastructure development. The city constructed an auxiliary water supply system and has repeatedly upgraded its building codes, requiring retrofits for older buildings and higher engineering standards for new construction. However, there are still thousands of smaller buildings that remain vulnerable to quake damage. USGS has released the California earthquake forecast which models earthquake occurrence in California. \n\nSan Francisco's shoreline has grown beyond its natural limits. Entire neighborhoods such as the Marina, Mission Bay, and Hunters Point, as well as large sections of the Embarcadero, sit on areas of landfill. Treasure Island was constructed from material dredged from the bay as well as material resulting from tunneling through Yerba Buena Island during the construction of the Bay Bridge. Such land tends to be unstable during earthquakes. The resulting liquefaction causes extensive damage to property built upon it, as was evidenced in the Marina district during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Most of the city's natural watercourses, such as Islais Creek and Mission Creek, have been culverted and built over, although the Public Utilities Commission is studying proposals to daylight or restore some creeks. \n\nCityscape\n\nNeighborhoods\n\nThe historic center of San Francisco is the northeast quadrant of the city anchored by Market Street and the waterfront. It is here that the Financial District is centered, with Union Square, the principal shopping and hotel district, and the Tenderloin nearby. Cable cars carry riders up steep inclines to the summit of Nob Hill, once the home of the city's business tycoons, and down to the waterfront tourist attractions of Fisherman's Wharf, and Pier 39, where many restaurants feature Dungeness crab from a still-active fishing industry. Also in this quadrant are Russian Hill, a residential neighborhood with the famously crooked Lombard Street; North Beach, the city's Little Italy and the former center of the Beat Generation; and Telegraph Hill, which features Coit Tower. Abutting Russian Hill and North Beach is San Francisco's Chinatown, the oldest Chinatown in North America. The South of Market, which was once San Francisco's industrial core, has seen significant redevelopment following the construction of AT&T Park and an infusion of startup companies. New skyscrapers, live-work lofts, and condominiums dot the area. Further development is taking place just to the south in Mission Bay area, a former railroad yard, which now has a second campus of the University of California, San Francisco, and where the new Warrior's stadium will be built. \n\nWest of downtown, across Van Ness Avenue, lies the large Western Addition neighborhood, which became established with a large African American population after World War II. The Western Addition is usually divided into smaller neighborhoods including Hayes Valley, the Fillmore, and Japantown, which was once the largest Japantown in North America but suffered when its Japanese American residents were forcibly removed and interned during World War II. The Western Addition survived the 1906 earthquake with its Victorians largely intact, including the famous \"Painted Ladies\", standing alongside Alamo Square. To the south, near the geographic center of the city is Haight-Ashbury, famously associated with 1960s hippie culture. The Haight is now home to some expensive boutiques and a few controversial chain stores, although it still retains some bohemian character. North of the Western Addition is Pacific Heights, an affluent neighborhood that features the homes built by wealthy San Franciscans in the wake of the 1906 earthquake. Directly north of Pacific Heights facing the waterfront is the Marina, a neighborhood popular with young professionals that was largely built on reclaimed land from the Bay. \n\nIn the south-east quadrant of the city is the Mission District—populated in the 19th century by Californios and working-class immigrants from Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Scandinavia. In the 1910s, a wave of Central American immigrants settled in the Mission and, in the 1950s, immigrants from Mexico began to predominate. In recent years, gentrification has changed the demographics of parts of the Mission from Latino, to twenty-something professionals. Noe Valley to the southwest and Bernal Heights to the south are both increasingly popular among young families with children. East of the Mission is the Potrero Hill neighborhood, a mostly residential neighborhood that features sweeping views of downtown San Francisco. West of the Mission, the area historically known as Eureka Valley, now popularly called the Castro, was once a working-class Scandinavian and Irish area. It has become North America's first and best known gay village, and is now the center of gay life in the city. Located near the city's southern border, the Excelsior District is one of the most ethnically diverse neighborhoods in San Francisco. The predominantly African American Bayview-Hunters Point in the far southeast corner of the city is one of the poorest neighborhoods and suffers from a high rate of crime, though the area has been the focus of several revitalizing and controversial urban renewal projects.\n\nThe construction of the Twin Peaks Tunnel in 1918 connected southwest neighborhoods to downtown via streetcar, hastening the development of West Portal, and nearby affluent Forest Hill and St. Francis Wood. Further west, stretching all the way to the Pacific Ocean and north to Golden Gate Park lies the vast Sunset District, a large middle class area with a predominantly Asian population. \nThe northwestern quadrant of the city contains the Richmond, also a mostly middle-class neighborhood north of Golden Gate Park, home to immigrants from other parts of Asia as well as many Russian and Ukrainian immigrants. Together, these areas are known as The Avenues. These two districts are each sometimes further divided into two regions: the Outer Richmond and Outer Sunset can refer to the more western portions of their respective district and the Inner Richmond and Inner Sunset can refer to the more eastern portions.\n\nMany piers remained derelict for years until the demolition of the Embarcadero Freeway reopened the downtown waterfront, allowing for redevelopment. The centerpiece of the port, the Ferry Building, while still receiving commuter ferry traffic, has been restored and redeveloped as a gourmet marketplace. The port's other activities now focus on developing waterside assets to support recreation and tourism.\n\nClimate\n\nSan Francisco's climate is characteristic of the cool-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) of California's coast, with moist mild winters and dry summers. San Francisco's weather is strongly influenced by the cool currents of the Pacific Ocean on the west side of the city, and the water of San Francisco Bay to the north and east. Being surrounded by water moderates temperature swings and produces a remarkably mild year-round climate with little seasonal temperature variation.\n\nAmong major U.S. cities, San Francisco has the coolest daily mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures for June, July, and August. \nDuring the summer, rising hot air in California's interior valleys creates a low pressure area that draws winds from the North Pacific High through the Golden Gate, which creates the city's characteristic cool winds and fog. The fog is less pronounced in eastern neighborhoods and during the late summer and early fall, which is the warmest time of the year.\n\nBecause of its sharp topography and maritime influences, San Francisco exhibits a multitude of distinct microclimates. The high hills in the geographic center of the city are responsible for a 20% variance in annual rainfall between different parts of the city. They also protect neighborhoods directly to their east from the foggy and sometimes very cold and windy conditions experienced in the Sunset District; for those who live on the eastern side of the city, San Francisco is sunnier, with an average of 260 clear days, and only 105 cloudy days per year.\n\nTemperatures reach or exceed 80 °F on an average of only 21 and 23 days a year at downtown and San Francisco International Airport (SFO), respectively. The dry period of May to October is mild to warm, with the normal monthly mean temperature peaking in September at . The rainy period of November to April is slightly cooler, with the normal monthly mean temperature reaching its lowest in January at . On average, there are 73 rainy days a year, and annual precipitation averages . Variation in precipitation from year to year is high. Above average rain years are often associated with warm El Niño conditions in the Pacific while dry years often occur in cold water La Niña periods. In 2013 (a \"La Niña\" year), a record low of rainfall was recorded at downtown San Francisco, where records have been kept since 1849. Snowfall in the city is very rare, with only 10 measurable accumulations recorded since 1852, most recently in 1976 when up to 5 in fell on Twin Peaks. \n\nThe highest recorded temperature at the official National Weather Service office was 103 F on July 17, 1988, and June 14, 2000. The lowest recorded temperature was 27 F on December 11, 1932. The National Weather Service provides a helpful visual aid graphing the information in the table below to display visually by month the annual typical temperatures, the past year's temperatures, and record temperatures.\n\nSan Francisco falls under the USDA 10b Plant Hardiness zone. \n\nDemographics\n\nThe 2010 United States Census reported that San Francisco had a population of 805,235. With a population density of 17,160 per square mile (6,632/km2), San Francisco is the second-most densely populated major American city behind only New York (among cities greater than 200,000 population). \n\nSan Francisco is the traditional focal point of the San Francisco Bay Area and forms part of the five-county San Francisco–Oakland–Hayward, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area, a region of 4.6 million people. It is also part of the greater 12-county San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland, CA Combined Statistical Area, whose population is over 8.7 million, making it the fifth-largest in the United States as of July 1, 2015. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates San Francisco's population increased to 864,816 as of July 1, 2015.\n\nRace, ethnicity, and languages\n\nSan Francisco has a minority-majority population, as non-Hispanic whites comprise less than half of the population, 41.9%, down from 92.5% in 1940. \nAs of the 2010 census, the ethnic makeup and population of San Francisco included: 390,387 Whites (48%), 267,915 Asians (33%), 48,870 African Americans (6%), and others. There were 121,744 Hispanics or Latinos of any race (15%).\n\nIn 2010, residents of Chinese ethnicity constituted the largest single ethnic minority group in San Francisco at 21% of the population; the other Asian groups are Filipinos (5%) and Vietnamese (2%). \nThe population of Chinese ancestry is most heavily concentrated in Chinatown, Sunset District, and Richmond District, whereas Filipinos are most concentrated in the Crocker-Amazon (which is contiguous with the Filipino community of Daly City, which has one of the highest concentrations of Filipinos in North America), as well as in SoMa. The Tenderloin District is home to a large portion of the city's Vietnamese population as well as businesses and restaurants, which is known as the city's Little Saigon.\n\nThe principal Hispanic groups in the city were those of Mexican (7%) and Salvadoran (2%) ancestry. The Hispanic population is most heavily concentrated in the Mission District, Tenderloin District, and Excelsior District. The city's percentage of Hispanic residents is less than half of that of the state.\nSan Francisco's African American population has declined to 6% of the city's population. The percentage of African Americans in San Francisco is similar to that of California. The majority of the city's black population reside within the neighborhoods of Bayview-Hunters Point, and Visitacion Valley, and in the Fillmore District. \n\nOnly 38% of the city's residents were born in California, while 25% were born in a different U.S. state, and 36% were born outside the United States.\n\n, 55% (411,728) of San Francisco residents spoke English at home as a primary language, while 19% (140,302) spoke a variety of Chinese (mostly Taishanese and Cantonese ), 12% (88,147) Spanish, 3% (25,767) Tagalog, and 2% (14,017) Russian. In total, 45% (342,693) of San Francisco's population spoke a mother language other than English. \n\nEducation, households, and income\n\nOf all major cities in the United States, San Francisco has the second-highest percentage of residents with a college degree, behind only Seattle. Over 44% of adults have a bachelor's or higher degree. \nSan Francisco had the highest rate at 7,031 per square mile, or over 344,000 total graduates in the city's . \n\nSan Francisco has the highest percentage of gay and lesbian individuals of any of the 50 largest U.S. cities, at 15%. \nSan Francisco also has the highest percentage of same-sex households of any American county, with the Bay Area having a higher concentration than any other metropolitan area. \n\nSan Francisco ranks third of American cities in median household income with a 2007 value of $65,519. Median family income is $81,136. \nAn emigration of middle-class families has left the city with a lower proportion of children, 15%, than any other large American city. \nThe city's poverty rate is 12%, lower than the national average. \nHomelessness has been a chronic problem for San Francisco since the early 1970s. \nThe city is believed to have the highest number of homeless inhabitants per capita of any major U.S. city. \n\nThere are 345,811 households in the city, out of which: 133,366 households (39%) were individuals, 109,437 (32%) were opposite-sex married couples, 63,577 (18%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 21,677 (6%) were unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 10,384 (3%) were same-sex married couples or partnerships. The average household size was 2.26; the average family size was 3.11. 452,986 people (56%) lived in rental housing units, and 327,985 people (41%) lived in owner-occupied housing units.\nThe median age of the city population is 38 years.\n\nEconomy\n\nSan Francisco has a diversified service economy, with employment spread across a wide range of professional services, including financial services, tourism, and (increasingly) high technology. In 2012, approximately 25% of workers were employed in professional business services; 16% in government services; 15% in leisure and hospitality; 11% in education and health care; and 9% in financial activities. In 2013, GDP in the five-county San Francisco metropolitan area was US$388.3 billion. \n\nThe legacy of the California Gold Rush turned San Francisco into the principal banking and finance center of the West Coast in the early twentieth century. Montgomery Street in the Financial District became known as the \"Wall Street of the West\", home to the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, the Wells Fargo corporate headquarters, and the site of the now-defunct Pacific Coast Stock Exchange. Bank of America, a pioneer in making banking services accessible to the middle class, was founded in San Francisco and in the 1960s, built the landmark modern skyscraper at 555 California Street for its corporate headquarters. Many large financial institutions, multinational banks, and venture capital firms are based in or have regional headquarters in the city. With over 30 international financial institutions, six Fortune 500 companies, and a large support infrastructure of professional services—including law, public relations, architecture and design—San Francisco is designated as an Alpha(-) World City, and is ranked in 10th place among the top global financial centers. \n\nSince the 1990s, San Francisco's economy has diversified away from finance and tourism towards the growing fields of high tech, biotechnology, and medical research. Technology jobs accounted for just 1 percent of San Francisco's economy in 1990, growing to 4 percent in 2010 and an estimated 8 percent by the end of 2013. San Francisco became an epicenter of Internet start-up companies during the dot-com bubble of the 1990s and the subsequent social media boom of the late 2000s (decade). Since 2010, San Francisco proper has attracted an increasing share of venture capital investments as compared to nearby Silicon Valley, attracting 423 financings worth US$4.58 billion in 2013. In 2004, the city approved a payroll tax exemption for biotechnology companies to foster growth in the Mission Bay neighborhood, site of a second campus and hospital of the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). Mission Bay hosts the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, and Gladstone Institutes, as well as more than 40 private-sector life sciences companies. \n\nThe top employer in the city is the city government itself, employing 5.3% (25,000+ people) of the city's population, followed by UCSF with over 22,000 employees. Third—at 1.8% (8,500+ people)—is California Pacific Medical Center, the largest private-sector employer. Small businesses with fewer than 10 employees and self-employed firms make up 85% of city establishments, and the number of San Franciscans employed by firms of more than 1,000 employees has fallen by half since 1977. The growth of national big box and formula retail chains into the city has been made intentionally difficult by political and civic consensus. In an effort to buoy small privately owned businesses in San Francisco and preserve the unique retail personality of the city, the Small Business Commission supports a publicity campaign to keep a larger share of retail dollars in the local economy, and the Board of Supervisors has used the planning code to limit the neighborhoods where formula retail establishments can set up shop, an effort affirmed by San Francisco voters. \n\nLike many U.S. cities, San Francisco once had a significant manufacturing sector employing nearly 60,000 workers in 1969, but nearly all production left for cheaper locations by the 1980s. , San Francisco has seen a small resurgence in manufacturing, with more than 4,000 manufacturing jobs across 500 companies, doubling since 2011. The city's largest manufacturing employer is Anchor Brewing Company, and the largest by revenue is Timbuk2.\n\nTourism and conventions\n\nTourism is one of the city's largest private-sector industries, accounting for more than one out of seven jobs in the city. The city's frequent portrayal in music, film, and popular culture has made the city and its landmarks recognizable worldwide. It attracts the fifth-highest number of foreign tourists of any city in the U.S. \nand is one of the 100 most visited cities worldwide according to Euromonitor International. More than 18 million visitors arrived in San Francisco in 2014, injecting US$10.67 billion into the economy. \nWith a large hotel infrastructure and a world-class convention facility in the Moscone Center, San Francisco is a popular destination for annual conventions and conferences. \n\nThe port currently uses Pier 35 to handle the 60–80 cruise ship calls and 200,000 passengers that come to San Francisco. Itineraries from San Francisco usually include round trip cruises to Alaska and Mexico. The new Terminal Project at Pier 27 is scheduled to open 2014 as a replacement. The existing primary terminal at Pier 35 has neither the sufficient capacity to allow for the increasing size of new cruise ships nor the amenities needed for an international cruise terminal. \n\nA heightened interest in conventioneering in San Francisco, marked by the establishment of convention centers such as Yerba Buena, acted as a feeder into the local tourist economy and resulted in an increase in the hotel industry: \"In 1959, the city had fewer than thirty-three hundred first-class hotel rooms; by 1970, the number was nine thousand; and by 1999, there were more than thirty thousand.\" The commodification of the Castro District has contributed to San Francisco's tourist economy. \n\nCulture and contemporary life\n\nAlthough the Financial District, Union Square, and Fisherman's Wharf are well-known around the world, San Francisco is also characterized by its numerous culturally rich streetscapes featuring mixed-use neighborhoods anchored around central commercial corridors to which residents and visitors alike can walk. Because of these characteristics, San Francisco is ranked the second \"most walkable\" city in the U.S. by Walkscore.com. Many neighborhoods feature a mix of businesses, restaurants and venues that cater to both the daily needs of local residents while also serving many visitors and tourists. Some neighborhoods are dotted with boutiques, cafes and nightlife such as Union Street in Cow Hollow, 24th Street in Noe Valley, Valencia Street in the Mission, Grant Avenue in North Beach, and Irving Street in the Inner Sunset. This approach especially has influenced the continuing South of Market neighborhood redevelopment with businesses and neighborhood services rising alongside high-rise residences. \n\nSince the 1990s, the demand for skilled information technology workers from local startups and nearby Silicon Valley has attracted white-collar workers from all over the world and created a high standard of living in San Francisco. Many neighborhoods that were once blue-collar, middle, and lower class have been gentrifying, as many of the city's traditional business and industrial districts have experienced a renaissance driven by the redevelopment of the Embarcadero, including the neighborhoods South Beach and Mission Bay. The city's property values and household income have risen to among the highest in the nation, creating a large and upscale restaurant, retail, and entertainment scene. According to a 2014 quality of life survey of global cities, San Francisco has the highest quality of living of any U.S. city. However, due to the exceptionally high cost of living, many of the city's middle and lower-class families have been leaving the city for the outer suburbs of the Bay Area, or for California's Central Valley. By June 2, 2015, the median rent was reported to be as high as $4,225. The high cost of living is due in part to restrictive planning laws which limit new residential construction. \n\nThe international character that San Francisco has enjoyed since its founding is continued today by large numbers of immigrants from Asia and Latin America. With 39% of its residents born overseas, San Francisco has numerous neighborhoods filled with businesses and civic institutions catering to new arrivals. In particular, the arrival of many ethnic Chinese, which accelerated beginning in the 1970s, has complemented the long-established community historically based in Chinatown throughout the city and has transformed the annual Chinese New Year Parade into the largest event of its kind outside China. \n\nWith the arrival of the \"beat\" writers and artists of the 1950s and societal changes culminating in the Summer of Love in the Haight-Ashbury district during the 1960s, San Francisco became a center of liberal activism and of the counterculture that arose at that time. The Democrats and to a lesser extent the Green Party have dominated city politics since the late 1970s, after the last serious Republican challenger for city office lost the 1975 mayoral election by a narrow margin. San Francisco has not voted more than 20% for a Republican presidential or senatorial candidate since 1988. In 2007, the city expanded its Medicaid and other indigent medical programs into the \"Healthy San Francisco\" program, which subsidizes certain medical services for eligible residents. \n\nSan Francisco also has had a very active environmental community. Starting with the founding of the Sierra Club in 1892 to the establishment of the non-profit Friends of the Urban Forest in 1981, San Francisco has been at the forefront of many global discussions regarding our natural environment. The 1980 San Francisco Recycling Program was one of the earliest curbside recycling programs. The city's GoSolarSF incentive promotes solar installations and the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission is rolling out the CleanPowerSF program to sell electricity from local renewable sources. SF Greasecycle is a program to recycle used cooking oil for conversion to biodiesel. \n\nThe Sunset Reservoir Solar Project, completed in 2010, installed 24,000 solar panels on the roof of the reservoir. The 5-megawatt plant more than tripled the city's 2-megawatt solar generation capacity when it opened in December 2010. \n\nLGBT\n\nSan Francisco has long had an LGBT-friendly history. It was home to the first lesbian-rights organization in the United States, Daughters of Bilitis; the first openly gay person to run for public office in the U.S., José Sarria; the first openly gay man to be elected to public office in the U.S., Harvey Milk; the first openly lesbian judge appointed in the U.S., Mary C. Morgan; and the first transgender police commissioner, Theresa Sparks. The city's large gay population has created and sustained a politically and culturally active community over many decades, developing a powerful presence in San Francisco's civic life. One of the most popular destinations for gay tourists internationally, the city hosts San Francisco Pride, one of the largest and oldest pride parades.\n\nSan Francisco Pride events have been held continuously since 1972. The events are themed and a new theme is created each year. In 2013, over 1.5 million people attended, around 500,000 more than the previous year. \n\nEntertainment and performing arts\n\nSan Francisco's War Memorial and Performing Arts Center hosts some of the most enduring performing-arts companies in the U.S. The War Memorial Opera House houses the San Francisco Opera, the second-largest opera company in North America as well as the San Francisco Ballet, while the San Francisco Symphony plays in Davies Symphony Hall.\n\nThe Fillmore is a music venue located in the Western Addition. It is the second incarnation of the historic venue that gained fame in the 1960s, housing the stage where now-famous musicians such as the Grateful Dead, Janis Joplin, Led Zeppelin and Jefferson Airplane first performed, fostering the San Francisco Sound.\n\nSan Francisco has a large number of theaters and live performance venues. Local theater companies have been noted for risk taking and innovation. The Tony Award-winning non-profit American Conservatory Theater (A.C.T.) is a member of the national League of Resident Theatres. Other local winners of the Regional Theatre Tony Award include the San Francisco Mime Troupe. \nSan Francisco theaters frequently host pre-Broadway engagements and tryout runs, and some original San Francisco productions have later moved to Broadway. \n\nMuseums\n\nThe San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) houses 20th century and contemporary works of art. It moved to its current building in the South of Market neighborhood in 1995 and attracted more than 600,000 visitors annually. SFMOMA closed for renovation and expansion in 2013. The museum is scheduled to reopen in 2016 with an addition, designed by Snøhetta, that will double the museum's size. \n\nThe Palace of the Legion of Honor holds primarily European antiquities and works of art at its Lincoln Park building modeled after its Parisian namesake. The de Young Museum in Golden Gate Park features American decorative pieces and anthropological holdings from Africa, Oceania and the Americas, while Asian art is housed in the Asian Art Museum. Opposite the de Young stands the California Academy of Sciences, a natural history museum that also hosts the Morrison Planetarium and Steinhart Aquarium. Located on Pier 15 on the Embarcadero, the Exploratorium is an interactive science museum. The Contemporary Jewish Museum is a non-collecting institution that hosts a broad array of temporary exhibitions. On Nob Hill, the Cable Car Museum is a working museum featuring the cable car power house, which drives the cables. \n\nSports\n\nMajor League Baseball's San Francisco Giants have played in San Francisco since moving from New York in 1958. The Giants play at AT&T Park, which opened in 2000. The Giants won World Series titles in 2010, 2012 and in 2014. The Giants have boasted such stars as Willie Mays, Willie McCovey and Barry Bonds. In 2012, San Francisco was ranked #1 in a study that examined which U.S. metro areas have produced the most Major Leaguers since 1920. \n\nThe San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL) were the longest-tenured major professional sports franchise in the city until moving in 2013. The team began play in 1946 as an All-America Football Conference (AAFC) league charter member, moved to the NFL in 1950 and into Candlestick Park in 1971. The team began playing its home games at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara in 2014, closer to the city of San Jose. The 49ers won five Super Bowl titles in the 1980s and 1990s.\n\nAt the collegiate level, the San Francisco Dons compete in NCAA Division I. Bill Russell led the Don's basketball team to NCAA championships in 1955 and 1956. AT&T Park hosted the annual Fight Hunger Bowl college football game from 2002 through 2013 before it moved to Santa Clara.\n\nThe Bay to Breakers footrace, held annually since 1912, is best known for colorful costumes and a celebratory community spirit. The San Francisco Marathon attracts more than 21,000 participants. The Escape from Alcatraz triathlon has, since 1980, attracted 2,000 top professional and amateur triathletes for its annual race. The Olympic Club, founded in 1860, is the oldest athletic club in the United States. Its private golf course has hosted the U.S. Open on five occasions. San Francisco hosted the 2013 America's Cup yacht racing competition. \n\nWith an ideal climate for outdoor activities, San Francisco has ample resources and opportunities for amateur and participatory sports and recreation. There are more than 200 mi of bicycle paths, lanes and bike routes in the city. \nSan Francisco residents have often ranked among the fittest in the U.S. Golden Gate Park has miles of paved and unpaved running trails as well as a golf course and disc golf course.\nBoating, sailing, windsurfing and kitesurfing are among the popular activities on San Francisco Bay, and the city maintains a yacht harbor in the Marina District.\n\nBeaches and parks\n\nSeveral of San Francisco's parks and nearly all of its beaches form part of the regional Golden Gate National Recreation Area, one of the most visited units of the National Park system in the United States with over 13 million visitors a year. Among the GGNRA's attractions within the city are Ocean Beach, which runs along the Pacific Ocean shoreline and is frequented by a vibrant surfing community, and Baker Beach, which is located in a cove west of the Golden Gate and part of the Presidio, a former military base. Also within the Presidio is Crissy Field, a former airfield that was restored to its natural salt marsh ecosystem. The GGNRA also administers Fort Funston, Lands End, Fort Mason, and Alcatraz. The National Park Service separately administers the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park – a fleet of historic ships and waterfront property around Aquatic Park.\n\nThere are more than 220 parks maintained by the San Francisco Recreation & Parks Department. The largest and best-known city park is Golden Gate Park, which stretches from the center of the city west to the Pacific Ocean. Once covered in native grasses and sand dunes, the park was conceived in the 1860s and was created by the extensive planting of thousands of non-native trees and plants. The large park is rich with cultural and natural attractions such as the Conservatory of Flowers, Japanese Tea Garden and San Francisco Botanical Garden. Lake Merced is a fresh-water lake surrounded by parkland and near the San Francisco Zoo, a city-owned park that houses more than 250 animal species, many of which are endangered. The only park managed by the California State Park system located principally in San Francisco, Candlestick Point was the state's first urban recreation area. \n\nLaw and government\n\nSan Francisco—officially known as the City and County of San Francisco—is a consolidated city-county, a status it has held since the 1856 secession of what is now San Mateo County. It is the only such consolidation in California. The mayor is also the county executive, and the county Board of Supervisors acts as the city council. The government of San Francisco is a charter city and is constituted of two co-equal branches. The executive branch is headed by the mayor and includes other citywide elected and appointed officials as well as the civil service. The 11-member Board of Supervisors, the legislative branch, is headed by a president and is responsible for passing laws and budgets, though San Franciscans also make use of direct ballot initiatives to pass legislation. \n\nThe members of the Board of Supervisors are elected as representatives of specific districts within the city. Upon the death or resignation of mayor, the President of the Board of Supervisors becomes acting mayor until the full Board elects an interim replacement for the remainder of the term. In 1978, Dianne Feinstein assumed the office following the assassination of George Moscone and was later selected by the Board to finish the term. In 2011, Edwin M. Lee was selected by the Board to finish the term of Gavin Newsom, who resigned to take office as Lieutenant Governor of California. \n\nBecause of its unique city-county status, local government exercises jurisdiction over property that would otherwise be located outside of its corporation limit. San Francisco International Airport, though located in San Mateo County, is owned and operated by the City and County of San Francisco. San Francisco also has a county jail complex located in San Mateo County, in an unincorporated area adjacent to San Bruno. San Francisco was also granted a perpetual leasehold over the Hetch Hetchy Valley and watershed in Yosemite National Park by the Raker Act in 1913.\n\nSan Francisco serves as the regional hub for many arms of the federal bureaucracy, including the U.S. Court of Appeals, the Federal Reserve Bank, and the U.S. Mint. Until decommissioning in the early 1990s, the city had major military installations at the Presidio, Treasure Island, and Hunters Point—a legacy still reflected in the annual celebration of Fleet Week. The State of California uses San Francisco as the home of the state supreme court and other state agencies. Foreign governments maintain more than seventy consulates in San Francisco. \n\nThe municipal budget for fiscal year 2013–14 was $7.9 billion. The city employs around 27,000 workers. \n\nCrime\n\nThe following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense.\n\nIn 2011, 50 murders were reported, which is 6.1 per 100,000 people. There were about 134 rapes, 3,142 robberies, and about 2,139 assaults. There were about 4,469 burglaries, 25,100 thefts, and 4,210 motor vehicle thefts. The Tenderloin area has the highest crime rate in San Francisco: 70% of the city's violent crimes, and around one-fourth of the city's murders, occur in this neighborhood. The Tenderloin also sees high rates of homelessness, drug abuse, gang violence, and prostitution. Another area with high crime rates is the Bayview-Hunters Point area. In the first six months of 2015 there were 25 murders compared to 14 in the first six months of 2014. However, the murder rate is still much lower than in past decades. \n\nHomelessness\n\nHomelessness, historically, has been a major problem in the city and remains a growing problem in modern times. The homeless population is estimated to be 13,500 with 6,500 living on the streets. \n\nGangs\n\nSeveral street gangs operate in the city, including MS-13, the Sureños and Norteños in the Mission District, and to some extent the Crips in Bayview-Hunters Point. There is a presence of Asian gangs in Chinatown. In 1977, an ongoing rivalry between two Chinese gangs led to a shooting attack at a restaurant in Chinatown, which left 5 people dead and 11 wounded. None of the victims in this attack were gang members. Five members of the Joe Boys gang were arrested and convicted of the crime. In 1990, a gang-related shooting killed one man and wounded six others outside a nightclub near Chinatown. In 1998, six teenagers were shot and wounded at the Chinese Playground; a 16-year-old boy was subsequently arrested. \n\nPublic safety\n\nThe city is mainly patrolled by the San Francisco Police Department. The San Francisco Sheriff's Department, BART Police (public transit only), Amtrak Police, California Highway Patrol and many other local, state, and federal agencies perform law enforcement tasks in the city. The portions of Golden Gate National Recreation Area located within the city, including the Presidio and Ocean Beach, are patrolled by the United States Park Police.\n\nThe San Francisco Fire Department provides both fire suppression and emergency medical services to the city.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges and universities\n\nThe University of California, San Francisco is the sole campus of the University of California system entirely dedicated to graduate education in health and biomedical sciences. It is ranked among the top five medical schools in the United States and operates the UCSF Medical Center, which ranks among the top 15 hospitals in the country. UCSF is a major local employer, second in size only to the city and county government. A 43 acre Mission Bay campus was opened in 2003, complementing its original facility in Parnassus Heights. It contains research space and facilities to foster biotechnology and life sciences entrepreneurship and will double the size of UCSF's research enterprise. All in all, UCSF operates more than 20 facilities across San Francisco. The University of California, Hastings College of the Law, founded in Civic Center in 1878, is the oldest law school in California and claims more judges on the state bench than any other institution. \nSan Francisco's two University of California institutions have recently formed an official affiliation in the UCSF/UC Hastings Consortium on Law, Science & Health Policy. \n\nSan Francisco State University is part of the California State University system and is located near Lake Merced. The school has approximately 30,000 students and awards undergraduate, master's and doctoral degrees in more than 100 disciplines. The City College of San Francisco, with its main facility in the Ingleside district, is one of the largest two-year community colleges in the country. It has an enrollment of about 100,000 students and offers an extensive continuing education program. \n\nFounded in 1855, the University of San Francisco, a private Jesuit university located on Lone Mountain, is the oldest institution of higher education in San Francisco and one of the oldest universities established west of the Mississippi River. Golden Gate University is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational university formed in 1901 and located in the Financial District.\nWith an enrollment of 13,000 students, the Academy of Art University is the largest institute of art and design in the nation. Founded in 1871, the San Francisco Art Institute is the oldest art school west of the Mississippi. The California College of the Arts, located north of Potrero Hill, has programs in architecture, fine arts, design, and writing. The San Francisco Conservatory of Music, the only independent music school on the West Coast, grants degrees in orchestral instruments, chamber music, composition, and conducting. The California Culinary Academy, associated with the Le Cordon Bleu program, offers programs in the culinary arts, baking and pastry arts, and hospitality and restaurant management.\nCalifornia Institute of Integral Studies, founded in 1968, offers a variety of graduate programs in its Schools of Professional Psychology & Health, and Consciousness and Transformation.\n\nPrimary and secondary schools\n\nPublic schools are run by the San Francisco Unified School District as well as the State Board of Education for some charter schools. Lowell High School, the oldest public high school in the U.S. west of the Mississippi, and the smaller School of the Arts High School are two of San Francisco's magnet schools at the secondary level. Public school students attend schools based on an assignment system rather than neighborhood proximity. \n\nJust under 30% of the city's school-age population attends one of San Francisco's more than 100 private or parochial schools, compared to a 10% rate nationwide. Nearly 40 of those schools are Catholic schools managed by the Archdiocese of San Francisco. \n\nMedia\n\nThe major daily newspaper in San Francisco is the San Francisco Chronicle, which is currently Northern California's most widely circulated newspaper. The Chronicle is most famous for a former columnist, the late Herb Caen, whose daily musings attracted critical acclaim and represented the \"voice of San Francisco\". The San Francisco Examiner, once the cornerstone of William Randolph Hearst's media empire and the home of Ambrose Bierce, declined in circulation over the years and now takes the form of a free daily tabloid, under new ownership. Sing Tao Daily claims to be the largest of several Chinese language dailies that serve the Bay Area. SF Weekly is the city's alternative weekly newspaper. San Francisco Magazine and 7x7 are major glossy magazines about San Francisco. The national newsmagazine Mother Jones is also based in San Francisco.\n\nThe San Francisco Bay Area is the sixth-largest TV market and the fourth-largest radio market in the U.S. The city's oldest radio station, KCBS (AM), began as an experimental station in San Jose in 1909, before the beginning of commercial broadcasting. KALW was the city's first FM radio station when it signed on the air in 1941. The city's first television station was KPIX, which began broadcasting in 1948.\n\nAll major U.S. television networks have affiliates serving the region, with most of them based in the city. CNN, MSNBC, BBC, Al Jazeera America, Russia Today, and CCTV America also have regional news bureaus in San Francisco. Bloomberg West was launched in 2011 from a studio on the Embarcadero and CNBC broadcasts from One Market Plaza since 2015. ESPN uses the local ABC studio for their broadcasting. The regional sports network, Comcast SportsNet Bay Area and its sister station Comcast SportsNet California, are both located in San Francisco. The Pac-12 Network is also based in San Francisco.\n\nPublic broadcasting outlets include both a television station and a radio station, both broadcasting under the call letters KQED from a facility near the Potrero Hill neighborhood. KQED-FM is the most-listened-to National Public Radio affiliate in the country. Another local broadcaster, KPOO, is an independent, African-American owned and operated noncommercial radio station established in 1971. San Francisco–based CNET and Salon.com pioneered the use of the Internet as a media outlet. Satellite channel non-commercial Link TV was launched in 1999 from San Francisco.\n\nSan Francisco-based inventors made important contributions to modern media. During the 1870s, Eadweard Muybridge began recording motion photographically and invented a zoopraxiscope with which to view his recordings. These were the first motion pictures. Then in 1927, Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image. This was the first television.\n\nTransportation\n\nFreeways and roads\n\nDue to its unique geography, and the freeway revolts of the late 1950s, San Francisco is one of the few American cities with arterial thoroughfares instead of having numerous highways within the city.\n\nInterstate 80 begins at the approach to the Bay Bridge and is the only direct automobile link to the East Bay. U.S. Route 101 connects to the western terminus of Interstate 80 and provides access to the south of the city along San Francisco Bay toward Silicon Valley. Northward, the routing for U.S. 101 uses arterial streets to connect to the Golden Gate Bridge, the only direct automobile link to Marin County and the North Bay.\n\nState Route 1 also enters San Francisco from the north via the Golden Gate Bridge and bisects the city as the 19th Avenue arterial thoroughfare, joining with Interstate 280 at the city's southern border. Interstate 280 continues south from San Francisco, and also turns to the east along the southern edge of the city, terminating just south of the Bay Bridge in the South of Market neighborhood. After the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, city leaders demolished the Embarcadero Freeway and a portion of the Central Freeway, converting them into street-level boulevards.\n\nState Route 35 enters the city from the south as Skyline Boulevard and terminates at its intersection with Highway 1. State Route 82 enters San Francisco from the south as Mission Street, and terminates shortly thereafter at its junction with 280.\n\nThe Western Terminus of the historic transcontinental Lincoln Highway, the first road across America, is in San Francisco's Lincoln Park.\n\nPublic transportation\n\n32% of San Francisco residents use public transportation in daily commuting to work, ranking it first on the West Coast and third overall in the United States. The San Francisco Municipal Railway, known as Muni, is the primary public transit system of San Francisco. Muni is the seventh-largest transit system in the United States, with 210,848,310 rides in 2006. The system operates both a combined light rail and subway system, the Muni Metro, and a large bus network. Additionally, it runs a historic streetcar line, which runs on Market Street from Castro Street to Fisherman's Wharf. It also operates the famous cable cars, which have been designated as a National Historic Landmark and are a major tourist attraction. \n\nBART, a regional Rapid Transit system, connects San Francisco with the East Bay through the underwater Transbay Tube. The line runs under Market Street to Civic Center where it turns south to the Mission District, the southern part of the city, and through northern San Mateo County, to the San Francisco International Airport, and Millbrae.\nAnother Commuter Rail system, Caltrain, runs from San Francisco along the San Francisco Peninsula to San Jose. Historically, trains operated by Southern Pacific Lines ran from San Francisco to Los Angeles, via Palo Alto and San Jose.\n\nAmtrak California Thruway Motorcoach runs a shuttle bus from San Francisco to its rail station across the Bay in Emeryville. Lines from Emeryville Station include the Capitol Corridor, San Joaquin, California Zephyr, and Coast Starlight. Thruway service also runs south to San Luis Obispo, California with connection to the Pacific Surfliner.\n\nSan Francisco Bay Ferry operates from the Ferry Building and Pier 39 to points in Oakland, Alameda, Bay Farm Island, South San Francisco, and north to Vallejo in Solano County. The Golden Gate Ferry is the other ferry operator with service between San Francisco and Marin County. Soltrans runs supplemental bus service between the Ferry Building and Vallejo.\n\nSan Francisco was an early adopter of carsharing in America. The non profit City Carshare opened in 2001. Zipcar closely followed.\n\nAirports\n\nThough located 13 mi south of downtown in unincorporated San Mateo County, San Francisco International Airport (SFO) is under the jurisdiction of the City and County of San Francisco. SFO is a hub for United Airlines and Virgin America. SFO is a major international gateway to Asia and Europe, with the largest international terminal in North America. In 2011, SFO was the 8th busiest airport in the U.S. and 22nd busiest in the world, handling over 40.9 million passengers. \n\nLocated across the bay, Oakland International Airport is a popular, low-cost alternative to SFO. Geographically, Oakland Airport is approximately the same distance from downtown San Francisco as SFO, but due to its location across San Francisco Bay, it is greater driving distance from San Francisco.\n\nCycling and walking\n\nCycling is a popular mode of transportation in San Francisco. 75,000 residents commute by bicycle per day. \nBay Area Bike Share, a bike-sharing system supplied by PBSC Urban Solutions was launched in August 2013 with 700 bikes in downtown San Francisco and selected cities south to San Jose. The San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency and Bay Area Air Quality Management District are responsible for the operation with management provided by Alta Bicycle Share. The system will be expanded in the future.\nPedestrian traffic is a major mode of transport. In 2015, [https://www.walkscore.com/cities-and-neighborhoods/ Walk Score] ranked San Francisco the second-most walkable city in the United States. \n\nSan Francisco has significantly higher rates of pedestrian and bicyclist traffic deaths than the USA on average. In 2013, 21 pedestrians were killed in vehicle collisions, the highest since 2001, which is 2.5 deaths per 100,000 population – 70% higher than the national average of 1.5 deaths per 100,000 population. \n\nCycling is growing in San Francisco. Annual bicycle counts conducted by the Municipal Transportation Agency (MTA) in 2010 showed the number of cyclists at 33 locations had increased 58% from the 2006 baseline counts. In 2008, the MTA estimated that about 128,000 trips were made by bicycle each day in the city, or 6% of total trips. Since 2002, improvements in cycling infrastructure in recent years, including additional bike lanes and parking racks, have made cycling in San Francisco safer and more convenient. Since 2006, San Francisco has received a Bicycle Friendly Community status of \"Gold\" from the League of American Bicyclists. \n\nNotable people\n\nConsulates and sister cities\n\nSan Francisco participates in the Sister Cities program. A total of 41 consulates general and 23 honorary consulates have offices in the San Francisco Bay Area. \n\nSister cities" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Operatics", "Baroque opera", "Opera singers", "Opera", "Opera basic topics", "Operatic scene", "Opera (Music)", "Opera eroica", "The Opera", "Operas", "Opera company", "Operatic", "Opera singer" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "operatic scene", "operas", "opera singer", "opera eroica", "baroque opera", "opera company", "opera singers", "opera basic topics", "opera music", "operatics", "operatic", "opera" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "opera", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Opera" }
What nationality were Mother Teresa's parents?	tc_986	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mother_Teresa.txt" ], "title": [ "Mother Teresa" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mother Teresa (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997) also known as Blessed Teresa of Calcutta, MC,\"Blessed Mother Teresa\". (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 July 2010. was an Albanian Roman Catholic nun and missionary. She was born in Skopje (modern Republic of Macedonia), then part of the Kosovo Vilayet in the Ottoman Empire. After having lived in Macedonia for eighteen years, she moved to Ireland and then to India, where she lived for most of her life.\n\nMother Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation, which in 2012 consisted of over 4,500 sisters and was active in 133 countries. They run hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis; soup kitchens; dispensaries and mobile clinics; children's and family counselling programmes; orphanages; and schools. Members must adhere to the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, as well as a fourth vow, to give \"wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor\". \n\nMother Teresa was the recipient of numerous honours, including the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. On 19 October 2003, she was beatified as \"Blessed Teresa of Calcutta\". A second miracle was credited to her intercession by Pope Francis, in December 2015, paving the way for her to be recognised as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church. Her canonisation is scheduled for 4 September 2016.\n\nA controversial figure both during her life and after her death, Mother Teresa was widely admired by many for her charitable works. She was both praised and criticised for her anti-abortion views. She also received criticism for conditions in the hospices she ran. Loudon, Mary. (1996)The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, Book Review, BMJ vol. 312, no. 7022, 6 January 2006, pp.64–5. Retrieved 2 August 2007. See also Her authorised biography was written by Indian civil servant Navin Chawla and published in 1992.\n\nEarly life\n\nMother Teresa was born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu (; gonxhe meaning \"rosebud\" or \"little flower\" in Albanian) on 26 August 1910 into a Kosovar Albanian family. She considered 27 August, the day she was baptised, to be her \"true birthday\".(2002) \"Mother Teresa of Calcutta (1910–1997)\". Vatican News Service. Retrieved 30 May 2007. Her birthplace of Skopje, now capital of the Republic of Macedonia, was part of the Ottoman Empire at the time of her birth in 1910. \n\nShe was the youngest of the children of Nikollë and Dranafile Bojaxhiu (Bernai). Her father, who was involved in the politics of the Albanian community in Macedonia, died in 1919 when she was eight years old. Her father may have been from Prizren, Kosovo, while her mother may have been from a village near Gjakova. \n\nAccording to a biography written by Joan Graff Clucas, in her early years Agnes was fascinated by stories of the lives of missionaries and their service in Bengal, and by age 12 had become convinced that she should commit herself to a religious life. Her final resolution was taken on 15 August 1928, while praying at the shrine of the Black Madonna of Vitina-Letnice, where she often went on pilgrimage. \n\nAgnes left home in 1928 at the age of 18 to join the Sisters of Loreto at Loreto Abbey in Rathfarnham, Ireland to learn English, with a view to becoming a missionary. English was the language the Sisters of Loreto used to teach schoolchildren in India. She never again saw her mother or her sister. Her family continued to live in Skopje until 1934, when they moved to Tirana in Albania. \n\nShe arrived in India in 1929, and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, near the Himalayan mountains, where she learnt Bengali and taught at St. Teresa's School, a schoolhouse close to her convent. She took her first religious vows as a nun on 24 May 1931. At that time she chose to be named after Thérèse de Lisieux, the patron saint of missionaries, but because one nun in the convent had already chosen that name, Agnes opted for the Spanish spelling of Teresa. \n\nShe took her solemn vows on 14 May 1937, while serving as a teacher at the Loreto convent school in Entally, eastern Calcutta. Teresa served there for almost twenty years and in 1944 was appointed headmistress. \n\nAlthough Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was increasingly disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta. \nThe Bengal famine of 1943 brought misery and death to the city; and the outbreak of Hindu/Muslim violence in August 1946 plunged the city into despair and horror. \n\nMissionaries of Charity\n\nOn 10 September 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as \"the call within the call\" while travelling by train to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling from Calcutta for her annual retreat. \"I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them. It was an order. To fail would have been to break the faith.\" One author later observed, \"Though no one knew it at the time, Sister Teresa had just become Mother Teresa\". \n\nShe began her missionary work with the poor in 1948, replacing her traditional Loreto habit with a simple white cotton sari decorated with a blue border. Mother Teresa adopted Indian citizenship, spent a few months in Patna to receive a basic medical training in the Holy Family Hospital and then ventured out into the slums. Initially, she started a school in Motijhil (Calcutta); soon she started tending to the needs of the destitute and starving. In the beginning of 1949, she was joined in her effort by a group of young women and laid the foundations of a new religious community helping the \"poorest among the poor\".\n\nHer efforts quickly caught the attention of Indian officials, including the prime minister, who expressed his appreciation. \n\nTeresa wrote in her diary that her first year was fraught with difficulties. She had no income and had to resort to begging for food and supplies. Teresa experienced doubt, loneliness and the temptation to return to the comfort of convent life during these early months. She wrote in her diary:\n\nTeresa received Vatican permission on 7 October 1950 to start the diocesan congregation that would become the Missionaries of Charity. Its mission was to care for, in her own words, \"the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone.\"\n\nIt began as a small congregation with 13 members in Calcutta; by 1997 it had grown to more than 4,000 sisters running orphanages, AIDS hospices and charity centres worldwide, and caring for refugees, the blind, disabled, aged, alcoholics, the poor and homeless, and victims of floods, epidemics, and famine. \n\nIn 1952, Mother Teresa opened the first Home for the Dying in space made available by the city of Calcutta. With the help of Indian officials she converted an abandoned Hindu temple into the Kalighat Home for the Dying, a free hospice for the poor. She renamed it Kalighat, the Home of the Pure Heart (Nirmal Hriday). Those brought to the home received medical attention and were afforded the opportunity to die with dignity, according to the rituals of their faith; Muslims were read the Quran, Hindus received water from the Ganges, and Catholics received the Last Rites.Spink, Kathryn (1997). Mother Teresa: A Complete Authorized Biography. New York. HarperCollins, p.55. ISBN 0-06-250825-3. \"A beautiful death,\" she said, \"is for people who lived like animals to die like angels—loved and wanted.\"\n\nMother Teresa soon opened a home for those suffering from Hansen's disease, commonly known as leprosy, and called the hospice Shanti Nagar (City of Peace). The Missionaries of Charity also established several leprosy outreach clinics throughout Calcutta, providing medication, bandages and food. \n\nAs the Missionaries of Charity took in increasing numbers of lost children, Mother Teresa felt the need to create a home for them. In 1955 she opened the Nirmala Shishu Bhavan, the Children's Home of the Immaculate Heart, as a haven for orphans and homeless youth. \n\nThe congregation soon began to attract both recruits and charitable donations, and by the 1960s had opened hospices, orphanages and leper houses all over India. Mother Teresa then expanded the congregation throughout the globe. Its first house outside India opened in Venezuela in 1965 with five sisters. Others followed in Rome, Tanzania, and Austria in 1968; during the 1970s the congregation opened houses and foundations in dozens of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and the United States. \n\nThe Missionaries of Charity Brothers was founded in 1963, and a contemplative branch of the Sisters followed in 1976. Lay Catholics and non-Catholics were enrolled in the Co-Workers of Mother Teresa, the Sick and Suffering Co-Workers, and the Lay Missionaries of Charity. In answer to the requests of many priests, in 1981 Mother Teresa also began the Corpus Christi Movement for Priests, and in 1984 founded with Fr. Joseph Langford the Missionaries of Charity Fathers to combine the vocational aims of the Missionaries of Charity with the resources of the ministerial priesthood. By 2007 the Missionaries of Charity numbered approximately 450 brothers and 5,000 sisters worldwide, operating 600 missions, schools and shelters in 120 countries. \n\nInternational charity\n\nMother Teresa said \"By blood, I am Albanian. By citizenship, an Indian. By faith, I am a Catholic nun. As to my calling, I belong to the world. As to my heart, I belong entirely to the Heart of Jesus.\"\n\nIn 1982, at the height of the Siege of Beirut, Mother Teresa rescued 37 children trapped in a front line hospital by brokering a temporary cease-fire between the Israeli army and Palestinian guerrillas. Accompanied by Red Cross workers, she travelled through the war zone to the devastated hospital to evacuate the young patients. \n\nWhen Eastern Europe experienced increased openness in the late 1980s, she expanded her efforts to Communist countries that had previously rejected the Missionaries of Charity, embarking on dozens of projects. She was undeterred by criticism about her firm stand against abortion and divorce stating, \"No matter who says what, you should accept it with a smile and do your own work.\" She visited the Soviet republic of Armenia following the 1988 earthquake, and met with Nikolai Ryzhkov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. \n\nMother Teresa travelled to assist and minister to the hungry in Ethiopia, radiation victims at Chernobyl, and earthquake victims in Armenia. In 1991, Mother Teresa returned for the first time to her homeland and opened a Missionaries of Charity Brothers home in Tirana, Albania.\n\nBy 1996, Mother Teresa was operating 517 missions in more than 100 countries. Over the years, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity grew from twelve to thousands serving the \"poorest of the poor\" in 450 centres around the world. The first Missionaries of Charity home in the United States was established in the South Bronx, New York; by 1984 the congregation operated 19 establishments throughout the country. Mother Teresa was fluent in five languages: Bengali, Albanian, Serbian, English, and Hindi. \n\nDeclining health and death\n\nMother Teresa suffered a heart attack in Rome in 1983 while visiting Pope John Paul II. After a second attack in 1989, she received an artificial pacemaker. In 1991, after having pneumonia while in Mexico, she suffered further heart problems. She offered to resign her position as head of the Missionaries of Charity, but the sisters of the congregation, in a secret ballot, voted for her to stay. Mother Teresa agreed to continue her work as head of the congregation. \n\nIn April 1996, Mother Teresa fell and broke her collar bone. In August she suffered from malaria and failure of the left heart ventricle. She had heart surgery but it was clear that her health was declining. The Archbishop of Calcutta, Henry Sebastian D'Souza, said he ordered a priest to perform an exorcism on Mother Teresa with her permission when she was first hospitalised with cardiac problems because he thought she may be under attack by the devil. \n\nChristopher Hitchens accused her of hypocrisy for opting to receive advanced treatment for her heart condition. \n\nOn 13 March 1997, she stepped down from the head of Missionaries of Charity. She died on 5 September 1997. \n\nAt the time of her death, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity had over 4,000 sisters, and an associated brotherhood of 300 members, operating 610 missions in 123 countries. These included hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup kitchens, children's and family counselling programmes, personal helpers, orphanages and schools. The Missionaries of Charity were also aided by co-workers, who numbered over 1 million by the 1990s. \n\nMother Teresa lay in repose in St Thomas, Calcutta, for one week prior to her funeral in September 1997. She was granted a state funeral by the Indian government in gratitude for her services to the poor of all religions in India. Her death was mourned in both secular and religious communities. In tribute, Nawaz Sharif, the Prime Minister of Pakistan, said that she was \"a rare and unique individual who lived long for higher purposes. Her life-long devotion to the care of the poor, the sick, and the disadvantaged was one of the highest examples of service to our humanity.\" A former U.N. Secretary-General, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, said that \"She is the United Nations. She is peace in the world.\"[http://www.christianmemorials.com/tributes/mother-teresa-of-calcutta/ Online Memorial Tribute to Mother Teresa]\n\nRecognition and reception\n\nIn India\n\nMother Teresa had first been recognised by the Indian government more than a third of a century earlier when she was awarded the Padma Shri in 1962 and the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1969. She continued to receive major Indian awards in subsequent years, including India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna, in 1980. Her official biography was written by an Indian civil servant, Navin Chawla, and published in 1992. \n\nOn 28 August 2010, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of her birth, the government of India issued a special 5 Rupee coin, being the sum she first arrived in India with. President Pratibha Patil said of Mother Teresa, \"Clad in a white sari with a blue border, she and the sisters of Missionaries of Charity became a symbol of hope to many – the aged, the destitute, the unemployed, the diseased, the terminally ill, and those abandoned by their families.\" \n\nIndian views on Mother Teresa were not uniformly favourable. Aroup Chatterjee, who was born and raised in Calcutta but lived in London, reports that \"she was not a significant entity in Calcutta in her lifetime\". Chatterjee blames Mother Teresa for promoting a negative image of Calcutta, exaggerating the work done by her Mission, and misusing the funds and privileges at her disposal.Chatterjee, Aroup, Introduction to The Final Verdict\n\nHer presence and profile grated in parts of the Indian political world, as she often opposed the Hindu Right. The Bharatiya Janata Party clashed with her over the Christian Dalits (\"untouchables\"), but praised her in death, sending a representative to her funeral. The Vishwa Hindu Parishad, on the other hand, opposed the government's decision to grant her a state funeral. Its secretary Giriraj Kishore said that \"her first duty was to the Church and social service was incidental\" and accused her of favouring Christians and conducting \"secret baptisms\" of the dying. In its front page tribute, the Indian fortnightly Frontline dismissed these charges as \"patently false\" and said that they had \"made no impact on the public perception of her work, especially in Calcutta\". Although praising her \"selfless caring\", energy and bravery, the author of the tribute was critical of Mother Teresa's public campaigning against abortion and that she claimed to be non-political when doing so.Parvathi Menon Cover story: A life of selfless caring, Frontline, Vol.14 :: No. 19 :: 20 September–3 October 1997\n\nIn February 2015, Mohan Bhagwat, leader of the Hindu right-wing organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, said that her objective was \"to convert the person, who was being served, into a Christian\" Former RSS spokesperson MG Vaidhya backed Bhagwat's remarks. The party accused the media of \"distorting facts about Bhagwat's remarks\". Trinamool Congress MP Derek O'Brien, CPI leader Atul Anjan and Delhi's chief minister Arvind Kejriwal protested against the remarks. \n\nIn the rest of the world\n\nIn 1962, Mother Teresa received the Philippines-based Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding, given for work in South or East Asia. The citation said that \"the Board of Trustees recognises her merciful cognisance of the abject poor of a foreign land, in whose service she has led a new congregation\". By the early 1970s, Mother Teresa had become an international celebrity. Her fame can be in large part attributed to the 1969 documentary Something Beautiful for God, which was filmed by Malcolm Muggeridge and his 1971 book of the same title. Muggeridge was undergoing a spiritual journey of his own at the time. During the filming of the documentary, footage taken in poor lighting conditions, particularly the Home for the Dying, was thought unlikely to be of usable quality by the crew. After returning from India, however, the footage was found to be extremely well lit. Muggeridge claimed this was a miracle of \"divine light\" from Mother Teresa herself. Others in the crew said it was due to a new type of ultra-sensitive Kodak film. Muggeridge later converted to Catholicism.\n\nAround this time, the Catholic world began to honour Mother Teresa publicly. In 1971, Paul VI awarded her the first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize, commending her for her work with the poor, display of Christian charity and efforts for peace. She later received the Pacem in Terris Award (1976). Since her death, Mother Teresa has progressed rapidly along the steps towards sainthood, currently having reached the stage of having been beatified.\n\nMother Teresa was honoured by both governments and civilian organisations. She was appointed an honorary Companion of the Order of Australia in 1982, \"for service to the community of Australia and humanity at large.\" The United Kingdom and the United States each repeatedly granted awards, culminating in the Order of Merit in 1983, and honorary citizenship of the United States received on 16 November 1996. Mother Teresa's Albanian homeland granted her the Golden Honour of the Nation in 1994. Her acceptance of this and the Haitian Legion of Honour proved controversial. Mother Teresa attracted criticism from a number of people for implicitly giving support to the Duvaliers and to corrupt businessmen such as Charles Keating and Robert Maxwell. In Keating's case she wrote to the judge of his trial asking for clemency to be shown.\n\nUniversities in both the West and in India granted her honorary degrees. Other civilian awards include the Balzan Prize for promoting humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples (1978), and the Albert Schweitzer International Prize (1975). In April 1976, Mother Teresa visited the University of Scranton in northeastern Pennsylvania where she was awarded the La Storta Medal for Human Service by the university’s president, William Byron, S.J. While there, she also addressed a crowd of 4,500 people. In her speech, she called the audience to \"know poor people in your own home and local neighborhood\", whether it meant feeding others or simply spreading joy and love. She continued, stating that \"the poor will help us grow in sanctity, for they are Christ in the guise of distress,\" calling the students and residents of the city of Scranton to give to suffering members in their community. Again, in August 1987, Mother Teresa visited the University of Scranton and was awarded an honorary doctor of social science degree in recognition of her selfless service and her ministry to help the destitute and sick. She also spoke to the students as well as members of the Diocese of Scranton, numbering over 4000 individuals, telling them about her service to the \"poorest of the poor\" and instructing them to \"do small things with great love.\" \n\nIn 1979, Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, \"for work undertaken in the struggle to overcome poverty and distress, which also constitutes a threat to peace.\" She refused the conventional ceremonial banquet given to laureates, and asked that the $192,000 funds be given to the poor in India, stating that earthly rewards were important only if they helped her help the world's needy. When Mother Teresa received the prize, she was asked, \"What can we do to promote world peace?\" She answered \"Go home and love your family.\" Building on this theme in her Nobel Lecture, she said: \"Around the world, not only in the poor countries, but I found the poverty of the West so much more difficult to remove. When I pick up a person from the street, hungry, I give him a plate of rice, a piece of bread, I have satisfied. I have removed that hunger. But a person that is shut out, that feels unwanted, unloved, terrified, the person that has been thrown out from society—that poverty is so hurtable [sic] and so much, and I find that very difficult.\" She also singled out abortion as \"the greatest destroyer of peace today. Because if a mother can kill her own child – what is left for me to kill you and you kill me – there is nothing between.\" \n\nAfter the award of the Nobel Peace Prize Teresa was criticised for promoting the Catholic Church's moral teachings on abortion and contraception, which some felt diverted funds from more effective methods of solving India's problems. At the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Teresa stated \"Yet we can destroy this gift of motherhood, especially by the evil of abortion, but also by thinking that other things like jobs or positions are more important than loving.\" \n\nDuring her life, Mother Teresa was named 18 times in the yearly Gallup's most admired man and woman poll as one of the 10 women around the world who Americans admired most, finishing first several times in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1999, a poll of Americans ranked her first in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. In that survey, she out-polled all other volunteered answers by a wide margin, and was in first place in all major demographic categories except the very young. \n\nCriticism \n\nSuffering \n\nMother Teresa believed suffering – even when caused by poverty, medical problems, or starvation – was a gift from God. As a result, while her clinics received millions of dollars in donations, their conditions drew criticism from people disturbed by the shortage of medical care, systematic diagnosis, and necessary nutrition, as well as the scarcity of analgesics for those in pain. Some have argued that the additional money could have had transformative effects on the health of the poor by creating advanced palliative care facilities in the city. Pro-choice groups criticised her stance on abortion, while pro-life advocates praised her support of fetal rights. \n\nChristopher Hitchens \n\nOne of Mother Teresa's most outspoken critics was the English journalist and literary critic Christopher Hitchens, who wrote the extended essay The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice (1995) and wrote in a 2003 article, \"This returns us to the medieval corruption of the church, which sold indulgences to the rich while preaching hellfire and continence to the poor. [Mother Teresa] was not a friend of the poor. She was a friend of poverty. She said that suffering was a gift from God. She spent her life opposing the only known cure for poverty, which is the empowerment of women and the emancipation of them from a livestock version of compulsory reproduction.\" \n\nSpiritual life\n\nAnalysing her deeds and achievements, John Paul II asked: \"Where did Mother Teresa find the strength and perseverance to place herself completely at the service of others? She found it in prayer and in the silent contemplation of Jesus Christ, his Holy Face, his Sacred Heart.\" Privately, Mother Teresa experienced doubts and struggles over her religious beliefs which lasted nearly 50 years until the end of her life, during which \"she felt no presence of God whatsoever\", \"neither in her heart or in the eucharist\" as put by her postulator, the Rev. Brian Kolodiejchuk. Mother Teresa expressed grave doubts about God's existence and pain over her lack of faith: \n\nWith reference to the above words, the Rev. Brian Kolodiejchuk, her postulator (the official responsible for gathering the evidence for her sanctification) said he thought that some might misinterpret her meaning, but her faith that God was working through her remained undiminished, and that while she pined for the lost sentiment of closeness with God, she did not question his existence.[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/223/story_22353_1.html New Book Reveals Mother Teresa's Struggle with Faith] Beliefnet, AP 2007 and that she may have experienced something similar to what is believed of Jesus Christ when crucified who was heard to say \"Eli Eli lama sabachthani?\" which is translated to \"My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?\" Brian Kolodiejchuk, drew comparisons to the 16th century mystic St. John of the Cross, who coined the term the \"Dark Night of the Soul\". Many other saints had similar experiences of spiritual dryness, or what Catholics believe to be spiritual tests (\"passive purifications\"), such as Mother Teresa's namesake, St. Therese of Lisieux, who called it a \"night of nothingness.\" The Rev. James Langford said these doubts were typical and would not be an impediment to canonisation.\n\nMother Teresa described, after ten years of doubt, a short period of renewed faith. At the time of the death of Pope Pius XII in 1958, praying for him at a Requiem Mass, she said she had been relieved of \"the long darkness: that strange suffering.\" However, five weeks later, she described returning to her difficulties in believing.\n\nMother Teresa wrote many letters to her confessors and superiors over a 66-year period, most notably to Calcutta Archbishop Ferdinand Perier and a Jesuit priest, Celeste van Exem, who had been her spiritual advisor since the formation of the Missionaries of Charity. She had asked that her letters be destroyed, concerned that \"people will think more of me—less of Jesus.\" \nDespite this request, the correspondences have been compiled in Mother Teresa: Come Be My Light (Doubleday). In one publicly released letter to a spiritual confidant, the Rev. Michael van der Peet, she wrote, \"Jesus has a very special love for you. [But] as for me, the silence and the emptiness is so great, that I look and do not see,—Listen and do not hear—the tongue moves [in prayer] but does not speak ... I want you to pray for me—that I let Him have [a] free hand.\"\n\nIn his first encyclical Deus caritas est, Benedict XVI mentioned Teresa of Calcutta three times and he also used her life to clarify one of his main points of the encyclical. \"In the example of Blessed Teresa of Calcutta we have a clear illustration of the fact that time devoted to God in prayer not only does not detract from effective and loving service to our neighbour but is in fact the inexhaustible source of that service.\" Mother Teresa specified that \"It is only by mental prayer and spiritual reading that we can cultivate the gift of prayer.\" \n\nAlthough there was no direct connection between Mother Teresa's order and the Franciscan orders, she was known as a great admirer of St. Francis of Assisi.\"Mother Teresa of Calcutta Pays Tribute to St. Francis of Assisi\" on the American Catholic website. Retrieved 30 May 2007. Accordingly, her influence and life show influences of Franciscan spirituality. The Sisters of Charity recite the peace prayer of St. Francis every morning during thanksgiving after Communion and many of the vows and emphasis of her ministry are similar. St. Francis emphasised poverty, chastity, obedience and submission to Christ. He also devoted much of his own life to service of the poor, especially lepers in the area where he lived.\n\nSainthood\n\nMiracle and beatification\n\nAfter Mother Teresa's death in 1997, the Holy See began the process of beatification, the third step toward possible canonisation. This process requires the documentation of a miracle performed from the intercession of Mother Teresa. \n\nIn 2002, the Vatican recognised as a miracle the healing of a tumour in the abdomen of an Indian woman, Monica Besra, after the application of a locket containing Mother Teresa's picture. Besra said that a beam of light emanated from the picture, curing the cancerous tumour. Some of Besra's medical staff and Besra's husband said that conventional medical treatment had eradicated the tumour. Dr. Ranjan Mustafi, who told The New York Times he had treated Besra, said that the cyst was not cancer at all but a cyst caused by tuberculosis. He said, \"It was not a miracle.... She took medicines for nine months to one year.\" According to Besra's husband, \"My wife was cured by the doctors and not by any miracle.\" Besra's medical records contain sonograms, prescriptions, and physicians' notes and could provide evidence on whether the cure was a miracle or not. Besra has claimed that Sister Betta of the Missionaries of Charity is withholding them. The officials at the Balurghat Hospital where Besra was seeking medical treatment have claimed that they are being pressured by the Catholic order to declare the cure a miracle.\n\nChristopher Hitchens was the only witness as far as he knew, called by the Vatican to give evidence against Mother Teresa's beatification and canonisation process,[http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section\nlibrary&pagehitchens_24_2 \"Less than Miraculous\"] by Christopher Hitchens, Free Inquiry 24(2), February/March 2004. because the Vatican had abolished the traditional \"devil's advocate\" role, which fulfilled a similar purpose.Hitchens, Christopher (6 January 1996). \"Less than Miraculous\". Free Inquiry Magazine. Volume 24, Number 2. Hitchens has argued that \"her intention was not to help people,\" and he alleged that she lied to donors about the use of their contributions. \"It was by talking to her that I discovered, and she assured me, that she wasn't working to alleviate poverty,\" says Hitchens. \"She was working to expand the number of Catholics. She said, 'I'm not a social worker. I don't do it for this reason. I do it for Christ. I do it for the church.'\" \n\nIn the process of examining Teresa's suitability for beatification and canonisation, the Roman Curia (the Vatican) studied a great deal of published and unpublished criticism of her life and work. Concerning allegations raised by journalist Christopher Hitchens, Vatican officials have responded by saying that these have been investigated by the agency charged with such matters, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints, and that they found no obstacle to Mother Teresa's beatification. Because of the attacks she has received, some Catholic writers have called her a sign of contradiction. Mother Teresa was beatified 19 October 2003, thereby bestowing on her the title \"Blessed.\" \n\nCanonisation\n\nOn 17 December 2015, the Vatican confirmed that Pope Francis recognised a second miracle attributed to her involving the healing of a Brazilian man with multiple brain tumors. The Vatican has scheduled 4 September 2016 as the canonisation date for Teresa.\n\nLegacy and depictions in popular culture\n\nCommemoration\n\nMother Teresa inspired a variety of commemorations. She has been memorialised through museums, been named patroness of various churches, and had various structures and roads named after her, including Albania's international airport. Mother Teresa Day (Dita e Nënë Terezës) on 19 October is a public holiday in Albania. In 2009 the Memorial House of Mother Teresa was opened in her hometown Skopje, in Macedonia. The Roman Catholic cathedral in Pristina is also dedicated in her honour. Its construction sparked controversy in Muslim circles in 2011; local Muslim leaders claimed that the cathedral was too large for Pristina's small Catholic community and complained that most Muslim places of worship in the city were far smaller. An initiative to erect a monument to Mother Teresa in the town of Peć that same year was also protested by some Albanian Muslims. A youth group calling itself the Muslim Youth Forum started a petition demanding that a monument to Albanian veterans of the Kosovo War be erected instead, and collected some 2,000 signatures by May 2011. The Muslim Youth Forum claimed that the building of a Mother Teresa monument would represent an insult to the town's Muslim community, which makes up about 98 percent of the population. Noli Zhita, the group's spokesperson, claimed that Mother Teresa was not an Albanian but a Vlach from Macedonia. He described the monument's planned construction as part of a plot to \"Christianise\" Kosovo. The Mayor of Peć, Ali Berisha, voiced support for the monument's construction and indicated that the head of the Islamic community in the town had not raised any objections. \n\nMother Teresa Women's University, Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, has been established in 1984 as a public university by government of Tamil Nadu, India.\n\nMother Theresa Post Graduate and Research Institute of Health Sciences, Pondicherry has been established in 1999 by Government of Puducherry, India.\n\nThe charitable organisation Sevalaya runs the Mother Teresa Girls Home, named in her honour and designed to provide poor and orphan girls children in the vicinity of the underserved Kasuva village in Tamil Nadu with free food, clothing, shelter, and education. \n\nVarious tributes have been published in Indian newspapers and magazines written by her biographer, Navin Chawla. \n\nIndian Railways introduced a new train, \"Mother Express\", named after Mother Teresa, on 26 August 2010 to mark her birth centenary. \n\nThe Tamil Nadu State government organised centenary celebrations of Mother Teresa on 4 December 2010 in Chennai, headed by Tamil Nadu chief minister M Karunanidhi. \n\nBeginning 5 September 2013, the anniversary of her death has been designated as the International Day of Charity by the United Nations General Assembly. \n\nFilm and literature\n\nDocumentaries\n\n* Mother Teresa is the subject of the 1969 documentary film and 1972 book Something Beautiful for God by Malcolm Muggeridge. This film is often credited with having called the Western world's attention to Mother Teresa.\n* Christopher Hitchens' 1994 documentary about her, Hell's Angel, claims that she urged the poor to accept their fate, while the rich are portrayed as being favoured by God. It had a tie-in book entitled The Missionary Position : Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice.\n\nDrama films or television\n\n* Actress Geraldine Chaplin played Mother Teresa in Mother Teresa: In the Name of God's Poor which won an 1997 Art Film Festival award. \n* Mother Teresa was played by Olivia Hussey in a 2003 Italian television miniseries titled Mother Teresa of Calcutta. This was re-released in 2007 and received a CAMIE award.\n* Mother Teresa was played by Juliet Stevenson in the 2014 film The Letters which is heavily based on her letters to Vatican priest Celeste van Exem.\n\nSatire\n\n* In a satirical film-within-a-film, Teresa was portrayed by Megan Fox in the 2007 movie How to Lose Friends & Alienate People." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Albanian", "Albanian (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "albanian disambiguation", "albanian" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "albanian", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Albanian" }
Who had a 60s No 1 hit with I'm Telling You Now?	tc_987	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "1960s_in_music.txt", "I'm_Telling_You_Now.txt" ], "title": [ "1960s in music", "I'm Telling You Now" ], "wiki_context": [ "For music from a year in the 1960s, go to 60 \| 61 \| 62 \| 63 \| 64 \| 65 \| 66 \| 67 \| 68 \| 69\n\nThis article includes an overview of the major events and trends in popular music in the 1960s.\n\nIn North America, Europe and Oceania, the decade was particularly revolutionary in terms of popular music, as it saw the formation and evolution of rock. At the beginning of the 1960s, pop and rock and roll trends of the 1950s continued; nevertheless, the rock and roll of the decade before started to merge into a more international, eclectic variant known as rock. In the early-1960s, rock and roll in its purest form was gradually overtaken by pop rock, beat, psychedelic rock, blues rock, and folk rock, which had grown in popularity. The country and folk-influenced style associated with the latter-half of 1960s rock music spawned a generation of popular singer-songwriters who wrote and performed their own work. Towards the decade's end, genres such as Baroque pop, sunshine pop, bubblegum pop, and progressive rock started to grow popular, with the latter two finding greater success in the following decade. Furthermore, the 1960s saw funk and soul music rising in popularity; rhythm and blues in general remained popular, and this style was commonly associated to Girl groups of the time, whose fusion of R&B and Gospel with rock and roll enjoyed success until the mid-part of the decade. Aside from the popularity of rock and R&B music in the 1960s, Latin American as well as Jamaican and Cuban music achieved a degree of popularity throughout the decade, with genres such as Bossa nova, the cha-cha-cha, ska, and calypso being popular. From a classical point of view, the 1960s were also an important decade as they saw the development of experimental, jazz and contemporary classical music, notably minimalism and free improvisation. \n\nIn Asia, various trends marked the popular music of the 1960s. In Japan, the decade saw the rise in popularity of several Western popular music groups such as The Beatles. The success of rock music and bands in the Japan started a new generation, known as Group Sounds, which was popular in the latter half of the decade.\n\nIn South America, genres such as bossa nova, Nueva canción and Nueva ola started to rise. Rock music began leaving its mark, and achieved success in the 1960s. Additionally, salsa grew popular towards the end of the decade. In the 1960s cumbia entered Chile and leaving a long-lasting impact on tropical music in that country.\n\nThe U.K.\n\nBeat music \n\nIn the late 1950s, a flourishing culture of groups began to emerge, often out of the declining skiffle scene, in major urban centres in the UK like Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham and London. This was particularly true in Liverpool, where it has been estimated that there were around 350 different bands active, often playing ballrooms, concert halls and clubs.[http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/about/founders-story2.shtml Mersey Beat - the founders' story]. Beat bands were heavily influenced by American bands of the era, such as Buddy Holly and the Crickets (from which group the Beatles derived their name), as well as earlier British groups such as the Shadows. After the national success of the Beatles in Britain from 1962, a number of Liverpool performers were able to follow them into the charts, including Gerry & the Pacemakers, the Searchers and Cilla Black. Among the most successful beat acts from Birmingham were the Spencer Davis Group and the Moody Blues. From London, the term Tottenham Sound was largely based around the Dave Clark Five, but other London bands that benefited from the beat boom of this era included the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds and the Kinks. The first non-Liverpool, non-Brian Epstein-managed band to break through in the UK were Freddie and the Dreamers, who were based in Manchester, as were Herman's Hermits. The beat movement provided most of the groups responsible for the British invasion of the American pop charts in the period after 1964, and furnished the model for many important developments in pop and rock music.\n\nThe British Invasion\n\nBy the end of 1962, the British rock scene had started with beat groups like the Beatles drawing on a wide range of American influences including soul music, rhythm and blues and surf music.R. Stakes, \"Those boys: the rise of Mersey beat\", in S. Wade, ed., Gladsongs and Gatherings: Poetry and its Social Context in Liverpool Since the 1960s (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-85323-727-1, pp. 157-66. Initially, they reinterpreted standard American tunes, playing for dancers doing the twist, for example. These groups eventually infused their original rock compositions with increasingly complex musical ideas and a distinctive sound. In mid-1962 the Rolling Stones started as one of a number of groups increasingly showing blues influence, along with bands like the Animals and the Yardbirds. During 1963, the Beatles and other beat groups, such as the Searchers and the Hollies, achieved great popularity and commercial success in Britain itself.\n\nBritish rock broke through to mainstream popularity in the United States in January 1964 with the success of the Beatles. \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" was the band's first No. 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, starting the British Invasion of the American music charts.[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/80244/British-Invasion \"British Invasion\"] Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 29 January 2010. The song entered the chart on January 18, 1964 at No. 45 before it became the No. 1 single for 7 weeks and went on to last a total of 15 weeks in the chart. Their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show February 9 is considered a milestone in American pop culture. The broadcast drew an estimated 73 million viewers, at the time a record for an American television program. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed by numerous British bands.\n\nDuring the next two years, Chad & Jeremy, Peter and Gordon, the Animals, Manfred Mann, Petula Clark, Freddie and the Dreamers, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman's Hermits, the Rolling Stones, the Troggs, and Donovan would have one or more No. 1 singles. Other acts that were part of the invasion included the Kinks and the Dave Clark Five.T. Leopold, [http://www.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/Music/02/05/beatles.40/ \"When the Beatles hit America CNN February 10, 2004\"], CNN.com, retrieved 1 February 2010. British Invasion acts also dominated the music charts at home in the United Kingdom.[ \"British Invasion\"], Allmusic, retrieved 29 January 2010.\n\nThe British Invasion helped internationalize the production of rock and roll, opening the door for subsequent British (and Irish) performers to achieve international success. In America it arguably spelled the end of instrumental surf music, vocal girl groups and (for a time) the teen idols, that had dominated the American charts in the late 1950s and '60s. It dented the careers of established R&B acts like Fats Domino and Chubby Checker and even temporarily derailed the chart success of surviving rock and roll acts, including Elvis Presley. The British Invasion also played a major part in the rise of a distinct genre of rock music, and cemented the primacy of the rock group, based on guitars and drums and producing their own material as singer-songwriters. \n\nBritish blues boom\n\nIn parallel with Beat music, in the late 1950s and early 1960s a British blues scene was developing recreating the sounds of American R&B and later particularly the sounds of bluesmen Robert Johnson, Howling Wolf and Muddy Waters. It reached its height of mainstream popularity in the 1960s, when it developed a distinctive and influential style dominated by electric guitar and made international stars of several proponents of the genre including the Rolling Stones, Eric Clapton, the Yardbirds, Fleetwood Mac and Led Zeppelin.\n\nA number of these moved through blues-rock to different forms of rock music and as a result British blues helped to form many of the subgenres of rock, including psychedelic rock and heavy metal music. Since then direct interest in the blues in Britain has declined, but many of the key performers have returned to it in recent years, new acts have emerged and there have been a renewed interest in the genre. \n\nBritish psychedelia\n\nBritish psychedelia emerged during the mid-1960s, was influenced by psychedelic culture and attempted to replicate and enhance the mind-altering experiences of hallucinogenic drugs. The movement drew on non-Western sources such as Indian music's ragas and sitars as well as studio effects and long instrumental passages and surreal lyrics. Established British artists such as Eric Burdon, the Who, Cream, Pink Floyd and the Beatles produced a number of highly psychedelic tunes during the decade. Many British psychedelia bands of the 1960s never published their music and only appeared in live concerts during that time.\n\nNorth America\n\nFolk music\n\nThe Kingston Trio, the Weavers, Pete Seeger, Woody Guthrie, Odetta, Peter, Paul and Mary, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Judy Collins, Leonard Cohen, Joni Mitchell, Carolyn Hester, Phil Ochs, Tom Paxton, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Dave Van Ronk, Tom Rush, Fred Neil, Gordon Lightfoot, Ian and Sylvia, Arlo Guthrie and several other performers were instrumental in launching the folk music revival of the 1950s and 1960s.\n\nRock\n\nRoy Orbison was one of rock's famous artists who wrote ballads of lost love. \n\nBy the 1960s, the scene that had developed out of the American folk music revival had grown to a major movement, utilizing traditional music and new compositions in a traditional style, usually on acoustic instruments.G. Mitchell, The North American Folk Music Revival: Nation and Identity in the United States and Canada, 1945-1980 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), ISBN 0-7546-5756-6, p. 95. In America the genre was pioneered by figures such as Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger and often identified with progressive or labour politics. In the early sixties figures such as Bob Dylan and Joan Baez had come to the fore in this movement as singer-songwriters.G. Mitchell, The North American Folk Music Revival: Nation and Identity in the United States and Canada, 1945-1980 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), ISBN 0-7546-5756-6, p. 72. Dylan had begun to reach a mainstream audience with hits including \"Blowin' in the Wind\" (1963) and \"Masters of War\" (1963), which brought \"protest songs\" to a wider public, but, although beginning to influence each other, rock and folk music had remained largely separate genres, often with mutually exclusive audiences.\nEarly attempts to combine elements of folk and rock included the Animals \"House of the Rising Sun\" (1964), which was the first commercially successful folk song to be recorded with rock and roll instrumentation. The folk rock movement is usually thought to have taken off with the Byrds' recording of Dylan's \"Mr. Tambourine Man\" which topped the charts in 1965. With members who had been part of the cafe-based folk scene in Los Angeles, the Byrds adopted rock instrumentation, including drums and 12-string Rickenbacker guitars, which became a major element in the sound of the genre. \nBy the mid-'60s Bob Dylan took the lead in merging folk and rock, and in July '65, released Like a Rolling Stone, with a revolutionary rock sound, steeped in tawdry urban imagery, followed by an electric performance later that month at the Newport Folk Festival. Dylan plugged an entire generation into the milieu of the singer-songwriter, often writing from an urban point of view, with poetry punctuated by rock rhythms and electric power. By the mid to late '60s, bands and singer-songwriters began to proliferate the underground New York art/music scene. The release of The Velvet Underground & Nico in 1967, featuring singer-songerwriter Lou Reed and German singer and collaborator Nico was described as \"most prophetic rock album ever made\" by Rolling Stone in 2003. Other New York City based singer songerwriters began to emerge, using the urban landscape as their canvass for lyrics in the confessional style of poets like Anne Sexton and Sylvia Plath. In July, 1969, Newsweek magazine ran a feature story, \"The Girls-Letting Go,\" describing the groundbreaking music of Joni Mitchell, Laura Nyro, Lotti Golden and Melanie, as a new breed of female troubadour: \"What is common to them are the personalized songs they write, like voyages of self discovery, brimming with keen observation and startling in the impact of their poetry.\" The work of these early New York based singer-songwriters, from Laura Nyro's New York Tendaberry (1969), to Lotti Golden's East Village diaries on Motor-Cycle her 1969 debut on Atlantic Records, has served as inspiration to generations of female singer-songwriters in the rock, folk and jazz traditions.Saal, Hubert (July 14, 1969). \" The Girl's-Letting Go\". Newsweek, pp. 68,71. Dylans adoptation of electric instruments, much to the outrage of many folk purists, with his \"Like a Rolling Stone\" succeeded in creating a new genre. Folk rock particularly took off in California, where it led acts like the Mamas & the Papas and Crosby, Stills and Nash to move to electric instrumentation, and in New York, where it spawned singer-songwriters and performers including the Lovin' Spoonful and Simon and Garfunkel, with the latter's acoustic \"The Sounds of Silence\" being remixed with rock instruments to be the first of many hits.\n\nFolk rock reached its peak of commercial popularity in the period 1967-68, before many acts moved off in a variety of directions, including Dylan and the Byrds, who began to develop country rock. However, the hybridization of folk and rock has been seen as having a major influence on the development of rock music, bringing in elements of psychedelia, and in particular, helping to develop the ideas of the singer-songwriter, the protest song and concepts of \"authenticity\". \n\nPsychedelic rock\n\nPsychedelic music's LSD-inspired vibe began in the folk scene, with the New York-based Holy Modal Rounders using the term in their 1964 recording of \"Hesitation Blues\".M. Hicks, Sixties Rock: Garage, Psychedelic, and Other Satisfactions (University of Illinois Press, 2000), ISBN 0-252-06915-3, pp. 59-60. The first group to advertise themselves as psychedelic rock were the 13th Floor Elevators from Texas, at the end of 1965; producing an album that made their direction clear, with The Psychedelic Sounds of the 13th Floor Elevators the following year.\n\nPsychedelic rock particularly took off in California's emerging music scene as groups followed the Byrds from folk to folk rock from 1965. The Los Angeles-based group the Doors formed in 1965 after a chance meeting on Venice Beach. Although its charismatic lead singer Jim Morrison died in 1971, the band's popularity has endured to this day. The psychedelic life style had already developed in San Francisco since about 1964, and particularly prominent products of the scene were the Grateful Dead, Country Joe and the Fish, the Great Society and Jefferson Airplane. The Byrds rapidly progressed from purely folk rock in 1966 with their single \"Eight Miles High\", widely taken to be a reference to drug use.\n\nPsychedelic rock reached its apogee in the last years of the decade. In America the Summer of Love was prefaced by the Human Be-In event and reached its peak at the Monterey Pop Festival, the latter helping to make major American stars of Jimi Hendrix and the Who, whose single \"I Can See for Miles\" delved into psychedelic territory. Key recordings included Jefferson Airplane's Surrealistic Pillow and the Doors' Strange Days. These trends climaxed in the 1969 Woodstock Festival, which saw performances by most of the major psychedelic acts, but by the end of the decade psychedelic rock was in retreat. The Jimi Hendrix Experience broke up before the end of the decade and many surviving acts, moved away from psychedelia into more back-to-basics \"roots rock\", the wider experimentation of progressive rock, or riff laden heavy rock.\n\nSurf rock\n\nIn the early 1960s, one of the most popular forms of rock and roll was Surf Rock, which was characterized by being nearly entirely instrumental and by heavy use of reverb on the guitars. The spring reverb featured in Fender amplifiers of the day, cranked to its maximum volume, produced a guitar tone shimmering with sustain and evoking surf and ocean imagery.\n\nDuane Eddy's \"Movin' and Groovin\" is thought by many to be the main contender for laying the groundwork as the first surf rock record, while others claim the genre was invented by Dick Dale on \"Let's Go Trippin'\", which became a hit throughout California. Most early surf bands were formed in during this decade in the Southern California area. By the mid-1960s the Beach Boys, who used complex pop harmonies over a basic surf rock rhythm, had emerged as the dominant surf group and helped popularize the genre. In addition, bands such as the Ventures, the Shadows, the Atlantics, the Surfaris and the Champs were also among the most popular Surf Rock bands of the decade.\n\nGarage rock\n\nGarage rock was a raw form of rock music, particularly prevalent in North America in the mid-1960s and is called such because of the perception that many of the bands rehearsed in a suburban family garage.R. Shuker, Popular Music: the Key Concepts (Abingdon: Routledge, 2nd edn., 2005), ISBN 0-415-34770-X, p. 140. Garage rock songs often revolved around the traumas of high school life, with songs about \"lying girls\" being particularly common. The lyrics and delivery were notably more aggressive than was common at the time, often with growled or shouted vocals that dissolved into incoherent screaming such as the influential Washington based band, The Sonics. They ranged from crude one-chord music (like the Seeds) to near-studio musician quality (including the Knickerbockers, the Remains, and the Fifth Estate). There were also regional variations in many parts of the country with flourishing scenes particularly in California and Texas. The Pacific Northwest states of Washington and Oregon had perhaps the most defined regional sound. \n\nThe style had been evolving from regional scenes as early as 1958. \"Louie Louie\" by the Kingsmen (1963) is a mainstream example of the genre in its formative stages. By 1963, garage band singles were creeping into the national charts in greater numbers, including Paul Revere and the Raiders (Boise), the Trashmen (Minneapolis) and the Rivieras (South Bend, Indiana). In this early period many bands were heavily influenced by surf rock and there was a cross-pollination between garage rock and frat rock, sometimes viewed as merely a subgenre of garage rock. \n\nThe British Invasion of 1964-66 greatly influenced garage bands, providing them with a national audience, leading many (often surf or hot rod groups) to adopt a British Invasion lilt, and encouraging many more groups to form. Thousands of garage bands were extant in the USA and Canada during the era and hundreds produced regional hits. Despite scores of bands being signed to major or large regional labels, most were commercial failures. It is generally agreed that garage rock peaked both commercially and artistically around 1966. By 1968 the style largely disappeared from the national charts and at the local level as amateur musicians faced college, work or the draft. New styles had evolved to replace garage rock (including blues-rock, progressive rock and country rock). In Detroit garage rock stayed alive until the early '70s, with bands like the MC5 and the Stooges, who employed a much more aggressive style. These bands began to be labelled punk rock and are now often seen as proto-punk or proto-hard rock. \n\nBlues-rock\n\nThe American blues-rock had been pioneered in the early 1960s by guitarist Lonnie Mack, but the genre began to take off in the mid-'60s as acts followed developed a sound similar to British blues musicians. Key acts included Paul Butterfield (whose band acted like Mayall's Bluesbreakers in Britain as a starting point for many successful musicians), Canned Heat, the early Jefferson Airplane, Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, the J. Geils Band and Jimi Hendrix with his power trios, the Jimi Hendrix Experience and Band of Gypsys, whose guitar virtuosity and showmanship would be among the most emulated of the decade. Blues-rock bands like Allman Brothers Band, Lynyrd Skynyrd and eventually ZZ Top from the southern states, incorporated country elements into their style to produce distinctive Southern rock.\n\nRoots rock\n\nRoots rock is the term now used to describe a move away from the excesses of the psychedelic scene, to a more basic form of rock and roll that incorporated its original influences, particularly country and folk music, leading to the creation of country rock and Southern rock. In 1966 Bob Dylan spearheaded the movement when he went to Nashville to record the album Blonde on Blonde. This, and subsequent more clearly country-influenced albums, have been seen as creating the genre of country folk, a route pursued by a number of, largely acoustic, folk musicians.K. Wolff, O. Duane, Country Music: The Rough Guide (London: Rough Guides, 2000), ISBN 1-85828-534-8, p. 392. Other acts that followed the back-to-basics trend were the group the Band and the Californian-based Creedence Clearwater Revival, both of which mixed basic rock and roll with folk, country and blues, to be among the most successful and influential bands of the late 1960s. The same movement saw the beginning of the recording careers of Californian solo artists like Ry Cooder, Bonnie Raitt and Lowell George, and influenced the work of established performers such as the Rolling Stones' Beggar's Banquet (1968) and the Beatles' Let It Be (1970).\n\nIn 1968 Gram Parsons recorded Safe at Home with the International Submarine Band, arguably the first true country rock album. Later that year he joined the Byrds for Sweetheart of the Rodeo (1968), generally considered one of the most influential recordings in the genre. The Byrds continued in the same vein, but Parsons left to be joined by another ex-Byrds member Chris Hillman in forming the Flying Burrito Brothers who helped establish the respectability and parameters of the genre, before Parsons departed to pursue a solo career. Country rock was particularly popular in the Californian music scene, where it was adopted by bands including Hearts & Flowers, Poco and Riders of the Purple Sage, the Beau Brummels and the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band. A number of performers also enjoyed a renaissance by adopting country sounds, including: the Everly Brothers; one-time teen idol Ricky Nelson who became the frontman for the Stone Canyon Band; former Monkee Mike Nesmith who formed the First National Band; and Neil Young. The Dillards were, unusually, a country act, who moved towards rock music. The greatest commercial success for country rock came in the 1970s, with artist including the Doobie Brothers, Emmylou Harris, Linda Ronstadt and the Eagles (made up of members of the Burritos, Poco and Stone Canyon Band), who emerged as one of the most successful rock acts of all time, producing albums that included Hotel California (1976).N. E. Tawa, Supremely American: Popular Song in the 20th Century: Styles and Singers and What They Said About America (Lanham, MA: Scarecrow Press, 2005), ISBN 0-8108-5295-0, pp. 227-8.\n\nThe founders of Southern rock are usually thought to be the Allman Brothers Band, who developed a distinctive sound, largely derived from blues rock, but incorporating elements of boogie, soul and country in the early 1970s. The most successful act to follow them were Lynyrd Skynyrd, who helped establish the \"good ol' boy\" image of the subgenre and the general shape of 1970s guitar rock. Their successors included the fusion/progressive instrumentalists Dixie Dregs, the more country-influenced Outlaws, jazz-leaning Wet Willie and (incorporating elements of R&B and gospel) the Ozark Mountain Daredevils. After the loss of original members of the Allmans and Lynyrd Skynyrd, the genre began to fade in popularity in the late 1970s, but was sustained the 1980s with acts like .38 Special, Molly Hatchet and the Marshall Tucker Band.\n\nProgressive rock\n\nProgressive rock, sometimes used interchangeably with art rock, was an attempt to move beyond established musical formulas by experimenting with different instruments, song types and forms. From the mid-1960s the Left Banke, the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and the Beach Boys, had pioneered the inclusion of harpsichords, wind and string sections on their recordings to produce a form of Baroque rock and can be heard in singles like Procol Harum's \"A Whiter Shade of Pale\" (1967), with its Bach inspired introduction.J. S. Harrington, Sonic Cool: the Life & Death of Rock 'n' Roll (Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2003), ISBN 0-634-02861-8, p. 191. The Moody Blues used a full orchestra on their album Days of Future Passed (1967) and subsequently created orchestral sounds with synthesisers. Classical orchestration, keyboards and synthesisers were a frequent edition to the established rock format of guitars, bass and drums in subsequent progressive rock. \n\nInstrumentals were common, while songs with lyrics were sometimes conceptual, abstract or based in fantasy and science fiction. The Pretty Things' SF Sorrow (1968) and the Who's Tommy (1969) introduced the format of rock operas and opened the door to \"concept albums, usually telling an epic story or tackling a grand overarching theme.\" King Crimson's 1969 début album, In the Court of the Crimson King, which mixed powerful guitar riffs and mellotron, with jazz and symphonic music, is often taken as the key recording in progressive rock, helping the widespread adoption of the genre in the early 1970s among existing blues-rock and psychedelic bands, as well as newly formed acts.\n\nPop\n\nChubby Checker during the early 1960s popularizes the enduring dance craze the Twist with his hit cover of Hank Ballard & the Midnighters' R&B hit \"The Twist\".\n\nGerry Goffin and Carole King become a very influential duo in pop music, writing numerous number one hits including the first song to ever reach number one by a girl group, the Shirelles \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\" and the 1962 number one hit, \"The Loco-Motion\" which was performed by Little Eva.\n\nSugar Sugar becomes a big hit for the Archies, defining the bubblegum pop genre.\n\nThe Monkees were a made for TV band, inspired by the antics of the Beatles in A Hard Day's Night. Under contractual reasons, the group were not allowed to play their own instruments, which led to many feuds between the band mates and music supervisor, Don Kirshner.\n\nR&B and Soul\n\n* The Detroit-based Motown label develops as a pop-influenced answer to soul music. The label begins a long run of No. 1 U.S. hit singles in 1961 with \"Please Mr. Postman\" by the Marvelettes. The label would have numerous No. 1 Billboard hits throughout the decade and into the 1990s. Notable Motown acts included the Supremes, the Miracles, the Temptations, the Four Tops, Martha and the Vandellas, Marvin Gaye and the Jackson Five, who debuted in 1969.\n* Soul music develops popularity throughout the decade, led by Sam Cooke, James Brown and Otis Redding, among many others.\n* Funk begins later in the decade with James Brown and Sly & the Family Stone having early hits.\n* You Keep Me Hanging On uses a fast tempo which would prove innovative in the development of disco music.\n* Aretha Franklin's 1967 recordings, such as \"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\", \"Respect\" (originally sung by Otis Redding), and \"Do Right Woman-Do Right Man\", are considered the apogee of the soul genre, and were among its most commercially successful productions.\n\nCountry music\n\nTriumph and great tragedy marked the 1960s in country music. The genre continued to gain national exposure through network television, with weekly series and awards programs gaining popularity. Sales of records continued to rise as new artists and trends came to the forefront. However, several top stars died under tragic circumstances, including several who were killed in plane crashes.\n\nThe predominant musical style during the decade was the Nashville Sound, a style that emphasized string sections, background vocals, crooning lead vocals and production styles seen in country music. The style had first become popular in the late 1950s, in response to the growing encroachment of rock and roll on the country genre, but saw its greatest success in the 1960s. Artists like Jim Reeves, Eddy Arnold, Ray Price, Patsy Cline, Floyd Cramer, Roger Miller and many others achieved great success through songs such as \"He'll Have to Go,\" \"Danny Boy,\" \"Make the World Go Away\", \"King of the Road\" and \"I Fall to Pieces.\" The country-pop style was also evident on the 1962 album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music, recorded by rhythm and blues and soul singer Ray Charles. Charles recorded covers of traditional country, folk and classical music standards in pop, R&B and jazz styles. The album was hailed as a critical and commercial success, and would be vastly influential in later country music styles. Songs from the album that were released for commercial airplay and record sales included \"I Can't Stop Loving You,\" \"Born to Lose\" and \"You Don't Know Me.\"\n\nBy the end of the decade, the Nashville Sound became more polished and streamlined, and became known as \"countrypolitan.\" Tammy Wynette, Glen Campbell, Dottie West and Charley Pride were among the top artists adopting this style. While George Jones — by the early 1960s one of country music's most consistent hitmakers — also recorded countrypolitan-styled music, his background remained pure honky tonk, singing of heartbreak and lonlieness in many of his songs. Also, Marty Robbins proved to be one of the genre's most diverse singers, singing everything from straight-ahead country to western to pop to blues ... and even Hawaiian.\n\nJohnny Cash—who became known as \"The Man in Black\"—became one of the most influential musicians of the 1960s (and eventually, 20th century). Although primarily recording country, his songs and sound spanned many other genres including rockabilly, blues, folk and gospel. His music showed great compassion for minorities and others who were shunned by society, including prison inmates. Two of Cash's most successful albums were recorded live in prison: At Folsom Prison and At San Quentin.\n\nDuring the latter half of the 1960s, Pride — a native of Sledge, Mississippi — became the first African-American superstar in country music, a genre virtually dominated by white artists. Some of his early hits, sang with a smooth baritone voice and in a style meshing honky-tonk and countrypolitan, included \"Just Between You and Me,\" \"The Easy Part's Over,\" \"All I Have to Offer You (Is Me)\" and a cover version of Hank Williams' \"Kaw-Liga.\" Pride continued to be successful for more than 20 years, amassing an eventual 29 No. 1 hits on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart.\n\nA newly emerging style, which had its roots in the 1950s but exploded in the mainstream during the 1960s, was the \"Bakersfield sound.\" Instead of creating a sound similar to mainstream pop music, the Bakersfield sound used honky tonk as its base and added electric instruments and a backbeat, plus stylistic elements borrowed from rock and roll. Buck Owens, Merle Haggard and Wynn Stewart were some of the top artists adopting this sound, and by the late 1960s they were among country music's top selling artists.\n\nAmong female acts, the most successful of the lot were Loretta Lynn, Tammy Wynette and Dolly Parton. Lynn, a native of Butcher Hollow, Kentucky and indeed, the daughter of a coal miner, would -- with the help of her husband, Oliver \"Doolittle\" Lynn -- gain a recording contract with Zero Records in 1960, and while only her first single (\"Honky Tonk Girl\") of her early 1960s releases charted, her early recordings were the springboard for much bigger and better things to come. By the latter half of the decade and continuing into the 1970s, she was recording songs that defied the stereotype of the woman who had to put up with men, their hard drinking, philandering and other negative traits -- for instance, \"Don't Come Home A-Drinkin' (With Lovin' on Your Mind)\" -- as well as songs that pushed the genre's conservative boundaries (\"Dear Uncle Sam,\" a song about the Vietnam War) and her willingness to stand up to other women (\"You Ain't Woman Enough (To Take My Man)\").\n\nParton, a native of the Smoky Mountains town of Locust Ridge, Tennessee, gained national exposure on the nationally syndicated program The Porter Wagoner Show. Her mountain-influenced, biographical brand of country and her down-home personality won many fans, and her star power would only begin to rise. Her first major hits were mainly duets with Wagoner, although she had several solo hits -- including her breakthrough, \"Dumb Blonde\" -- as well. Wynette gained acclaim with unique perspectives on the classic themes of loneliness, divorce, and the difficulties of life and relationships, illustrated by songs such as \"I Don't Wanna Play House\" and \"D-I-V-O-R-C-E.\" However, it was \"Stand By Your Man,\" a song pledging of unyielding faithfulness and standing by men despite their shortcomings, that gave Wynette her career hit. By the late 1960s, she was married to fellow country music singer George Jones.\n\nAmong other female newcomers, Connie Smith was among the most successful, as her breakthrough hit, \"Once a Day\" spent eight weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in late 1964 and early 1965, the longest-running chart-topper for nearly 50 years. During a career that has spanned 50-plus years, Smith's songs often explored themes of loneliness and vulnerability.\n\nIn addition to the syndicated The Porter Wagoner Show, several other television programs were produced to allow country music to reach a wider audience, such as The Jimmy Dean Show in mid-decade. At the end of the decade, Hee Haw began a 23-year run, first on CBS and later in syndication; Hee Haw, hosted by Owens and Roy Clark was loosely based on the comedy series Rowan & Martin's Laugh In, and incorporated comedy along with performances by the show's cast or guest performers from the country music field. The Academy of Country Music and Country Music Association awards programs were telecast for the first time in the late 1960s.\n\nThe 1960s were marred with tragedy. Johnny Horton, who sang in the saga-song style, was killed in a car accident in 1960. A March 5, 1963, plane crash claimed the lives of Patsy Cline, Cowboy Copas and Hawkshaw Hawkins. Days later, Jack Anglin was killed in a car accident, while Texas Ruby died in a trailer fire in Texas. In July 1964, Jim Reeves lost his life while piloting a plane near Brentwood, Tennessee. Ira Louvin (one half of the Louvin Brothers) was killed in a car accident in 1965. Success overcame several of those tragic deaths, as both Cline and Reeves had many posthumous hits (with previously recorded songs issued after their deaths) and enjoyed strong followings for many years, while Louvin's brother, Charlie, continued as a successful solo performer for more than 40 years.\n\nThe 1960s began a trend toward a proliferation of No. 1 hits on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart, thanks to ever-changing data collecting methods. When the 1960s decade opened, there were but four No. 1 songs topping the chart (five, if one counts Marty Robbins' \"El Paso\"), but by the mid-1960s, there were always at least a dozen songs topping the chart annually. In 1967, there were more than 20 songs reaching the top spot for the first time ever in a single calendar year ... and that number would only continue to rise during the next 20 years.\n\nOther trends and musical events\n\nLate in the decade, the Monterey Pop Festival and Woodstock Music Festival would epitomize the American counterculture.\nCurrent events become a major influence on popular music. Many songs are written in protest to the Vietnam War. The song \"Ohio\" was written about the Kent State Massacre, and became a hit for Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young.\nWorld music sees a huge rise in popularity as many seek interest in other cultures. Ravi Shankar performs at the Monterey and Woodstock festivals. Latin Rock artist Carlos Santana sees popularity throughout the decade. George Harrison develops an interest in the Hare Krishna culture, adding Indian influence to the Beatles' music including the use of a sitar. Reggae begins to popularize at this time.\nIn 1969, the Rolling Stones organised the ill-fated Altamont Free Concert.\nSongs like \"Summertime Blues\" and \"Eve of Destruction\" address the issue of the voting age, which at the time was 21. The issue was that soldiers were drafted at 18, but could not vote. The voting age was eventually lowered to eighteen.\nA few songs such as Bob Dylan's \"Blowin' in the Wind\" address the Civil Rights Movement.\n\nLatin America, Spain and Portugal\n\nBossa Nova\n\nThis Brazilian musical style, which means \"New Trend\", had its origins in the upscale neighbourhoods of Rio de Janeiro. Immensely popular in the early 1960s, it was a fusion of samba and cool jazz. Antonio Carlos Jobim, João Gilberto, and Astrud Gilberto became the best known artists of the Bossa Nova movement. The latter's The Girl From Ipanema, released in 1964, became the first Bossa Nova song to achieve international acclaim. In 1965, it won a Grammy Award for Best Record of the Year.\n\nNueva ola\n\nIt was during the 60s that rock music began to gain acclaim in Latin America. In Spanish speaking South America musicians who adopted US and British inspired rock, mainly rock and roll, twist and British Invasion music, were collectively labelled as Nueva ola (Spanish for \"New Wave\"). Argentina, having his own Rock and Roll and British Invasion inspired bands and artist, Sandro de América, , , Los Gatos Salvajes, Los Beatniks, Los Buhos, among others.) suffered the Uruguayan Invasion, a series of British Invasion inspired rock bands from Montevideo that moved to Buenos Aires and soon became popular in Argentina Los Shakers, Los Mockers, Los Iracundos. Rock music was during the 60s still largely sung in English, but some bands like Los Mac's and others mentioned above used Spanish for their songs as well. \n\nNueva canción\n\nDuring the 1960s Nueva Canción emerges and starts to expand its influence. This development is pioneered by the Chileans Violeta Parra and Victor Jara who base many of their songs in folklore, specially cueca. Nueva Canción spreads quickly all over Latin America and becomes closely related to the New Left and the Liberation theology movements. In Francisco Franco's Spain Joan Manuel Serrat reaches widespread notability as an exponent of Nueva Canción and of the political opposition.\n\nSalsa\n\nEven though salsa music began to take form In a New York scene dominated by Cubans and other Latin American communities, Salsa would not become popular all across Latin America until the late 1980s.\n\nAustralia and New Zealand\n\nThe 1960s saw increasing interest in how electronic music could solve both compositional and more practical problems. Composers were also absorbing ideas from overseas, such as indeterminacy and electro-acoustic music, and interpreting them in an Australian context to mixed responses from local audiences.\n\nEarly in the decade, Bruce Clarke began toying with the new Moog synthesizer. A musicians' strike led him to create a completely electronic soundtrack for a cigarette commercial in 1963. Innovative film makers, like Arthur Cantrill and Dušan Marek, employed tape manipulation, turntables and extended instrument techniques to create soundtracks for their short films. Avowed amateur and Melbourne physician, Val Stephen, became the first Australian to have electronic music released internationally.\n\nAfter working amongst the musical avant-garde in Paris, Keith Humble's return to Australia helped to encourage educational institutions to take electronic music seriously. Humble’s most notably experimental work was his Nunique series. These vast multimedia events featured simultaneous performances by rock bands, string quartets and theatre ensembles, all according to precise flowcharts.\n\nHumble initiated the Melbourne-based Society for the Private Performance of New Music in 1966, providing a supportive performance space for young innovators both in and outside the academy. Among these were the McKimm/Rooney/Clayton trio, who, since the 1964, had been incorporating graphic scores and aspects of serialism into jazz improvization. Jazz was radicalizing at the fringes: John Sangster explored free jazz concepts and Charlie Munro incorporated Eastern musical elements. Syd Clayton would leave jazz behind in pursuit of a new form of experimental music theatre that incorporated chance operations along with sports and games as musical structures.\n\nYoung composers, like David Ahern, emerged, initially inspired by ideas of the European avant-garde, and applying them to Australian icons, such as Captain Cook and Ned Kelly. Ahern would travel to Europe later in the 1960s, where he encountered Stockhausen and Cardew, before returning home with further more radical ideas that questioned the very premises of composer and music itself.\n\nLegacy\n\nIt's difficult to gauge the lasting impact of 1960s music in popular culture. A 2010 European survey conducted by the digital broadcaster Music Choice, interviewing over 11,000 participants, rated the decade rather low, with only 19% declaring it the best tune decade in the last 50 years, while participants of an American land line survey rated the 1960s a bit higher, with 26% declaring it as best decade in music.", "\"I'm Telling You Now\" is a song by Freddie Garrity and Mitch Murray, originally performed by Freddie and the Dreamers that hit number one on the American Billboard Hot 100 in 1965. Murray also wrote songs for other British artists during the 1960s, including Gerry and the Pacemakers, Manfred Mann, and Georgie Fame. \"I'm Telling You Now\" was first released in 1963 on Capitol Records, USA/Canada and on Columbia, UK/India/Netherlands/Sweden, and was not successful. Two years later, Capitol's subsidiary, Tower Records, re-released the song, which became extremely popular, and propelled Freddie and the Dreamers to pop-music stardom." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Freddy and the Dreamers", "Freddie and the Dreamers", "Freddie and the dreamers", "Freddie & the Dreamers", "Freddie & The Dreamers" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "freddie and dreamers", "freddie dreamers", "freddy and dreamers" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "freddie dreamers", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Freddie & The Dreamers" }
Which philosopher wrote Eros and Civilization and One Dimensional Man?	tc_991	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Eros_and_Civilization.txt", "One-Dimensional_Man.txt" ], "title": [ "Eros and Civilization", "One-Dimensional Man" ], "wiki_context": [ "Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (1955; second edition 1966) is a book by the German philosopher and social critic Herbert Marcuse, in which Marcuse proposes a non-repressive society and attempts a synthesis of the theories of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud; it has been suggested that the work also reveals the influence of Martin Heidegger. The title of Eros and Civilization alludes to Freud's Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). One of Marcuse's best known works, and the book with which he achieved international fame, Eros and Civilization has been compared to books such as Norman O. Brown's Life Against Death (1959). Eros and Civilization helped shape the subcultures of the 1960s. The 1966 edition has an added \"political preface\". \n\nSummary \n\nMarcuse discusses the social meaning of biology - history seen not as a class struggle, but a fight against repression of our instincts. He argues that \"advanced industrial society\" (modern capitalism) is preventing us from reaching a non-repressive society \"based on a fundamentally different experience of being, a fundamentally different relation between man and nature, and fundamentally different existential relations\". He contends that Freud's argument that repression is needed by civilization to persist is mistaken, as Eros is liberating and constructive.\n\nMarcuse starts with the conflict described by Freud in Civilization and Its Discontents - the struggle between human instincts and the conscience of repression (superego), which is self-repressing trying to follow the society's mores and norms.Young, Robert M. (1969).[http://www.human-nature.com/rmyoung/papers/paper89h.html THE NAKED MARX: Review of Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud], New Statesman, vol. 78, 7 November 1969, pp. 666-67 Freud claimed that a clash between Eros and civilization results in the history of Man being one of his repression: 'Our civilization is, generally speaking, founded on the suppression of instincts.' Sex produces the energy, and it is repressed so the energy can be channeled into progress - but the price of progress is the prevalence of guilt instead of happiness. \"Progress\", for Marcuse, is a concept that provides the explanation and excuse of why the system has to continue; it is the reason the happiness of people is sacrificed (see also pleasure principle).\n\nMarcuse argues that \"the irreconcilable conflict is not between work (reality principle - life without leisure) and Eros (pleasure principle - leisure and pleasure), but between alienated labour (performance principle - economic stratification) and Eros.\" Sex is allowed for \"the betters\" (capitalists and others in power), and for workers only when not disturbing performance. Marcuse believes that a socialist society could be a society without needing the performance of the \"poor\" and without as strong a suppression of our sexual drives: it could replace \"alienated labor\" with \"non-alienated libidinal work\" resulting in \"a non-repressive civilization based on 'non-repressive sublimation'\".\n\nMarcuse's argument depends on the assumption that instincts can be shaped by historical phenomena such as repression. Marcuse concludes that our society's troubles result not from biological repression itself but from its increase due to \"surplus repression\" which is the result of contemporary society.\n\nReception \n\nMarxist writer Paul Mattick reviewed Eros and Civilization in Western Socialist, writing that Marcuse \"renews the endeavor to read Marx into Freud\", following the unsuccessful attempts of Wilhelm Reich. Brown, a classicist, commended the work in Life Against Death (1959), calling it \"the first book, after...Reich's ill-fated adventures, to reopen the possibility of the abolition of repression.\" \n\nRobert Young, in a 1969 New Statesman review, called Marcuse's philosophy a merger of Freud and Marx that provided an \"eroticized Marx.\" Psychoanalyst Erich Fromm, however, considered Eros and Civilization an incompetent distortion of Freud. Literary critic Frederick Crews argued that Marcuse's proposed liberation of instinct was not a real challenge to the status quo, since by taking the position that such a liberation could only be attempted \"after culture has done its work and created the mankind and the world that could be free\", Marcuse was accommodating society's institutions. Crews found Marcuse to be guilty of sentimentalism. Psychotherapist Joel D. Hencken writes that Eros and Civilization is an \"interesting precursor\" to a \"study of the psychological processes in the internalization of oppression\", but that aspects of the work have unfortunately limited its audience. \n\nPhilosopher Jeffrey Abramson compares Eros and Civilization to works such as Brown's Life Against Death (1959), Philip Rieff's Freud: The Mind of the Moralist (1959), Paul Ricœur's Freud and Philosophy (1965), and Jürgen Habermas's Knowledge and Human Interests (1968), arguing that they jointly placed Freud at the center of moral and philosophical inquiry. Philosopher Seyla Benhabib writes that Marcuse interprets \"the sources of disobedience and revolt as rooted in collective memory\", and that this theme is present in Marcuse's earlier work Hegel's Ontology and the Theory of Historicity (1932), an interpretation of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel influenced by Heidegger. Kenneth Lewes writes that in the epilogue to Eros and Civilization Marcuse admirably criticizes the \"pseudohumane moralizing\" of neo-Freudians such as Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Clara Thompson. \n\nJoel Schwartz writes that Eros and Civilization is \"one of the most influential Freudian works written since Freud's death\", but that Marcuse is unsuccessful in his attempt to remedy Freud's \"failure to differentiate among various kinds of civil society\", instead simply grouping all existing regimes as \"repressive societies\" and contrasting them with a hypothetical non-repressive society of the future. Schwartz concludes that Marcuse fails to reinterpret Freud in a way that adds political to psychoanalytic insights. \n\nPsychoanalyst Joel Kovel, who notes that Marcuse studied with Heidegger but later broke with him for political reasons, believes that Marcuse's Heideggerian side, which had been in eclipse during Marcuse's most active period with the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, reemerged, displaced onto Freud, in Eros and Civilization. Economist Richard Posner writes that Eros and Civilization contains \"political and economic absurdities\", but that these should not be allowed to obscure Marcuse's interesting observations about sex and art. \n\nHistorian Arthur Marwick writes that Eros and Civilization was the book with which Marcuse achieved international fame, a key work in the intellectual legacy of the 1950s, and important in shaping the subcultures of the 1960s. Historian Roy Porter writes that Marcuse's view that \"industrialization demanded erotic austerity\" was discredited by Michel Foucault in The History of Sexuality (1976). Philosopher Todd Dufresne compares Eros and Civilization to Brown's Life Against Death (1959) and anarchist Paul Goodman's Growing Up Absurd (1960). Anthony Elliott writes that Eros and Civilization is a \"seminal\" work. Author Jay Cantor calls Brown's Life Against Death and Marcuse's Eros and Civilization \"equally profound\".", "One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society is a 1964 book by philosopher Herbert Marcuse, in which Marcuse offers a wide-ranging critique of both contemporary capitalism and the Communist society of the Soviet Union, documenting the parallel rise of new forms of social repression in both these societies, as well as the decline of revolutionary potential in the West. He argues that \"advanced industrial society\" created false needs, which integrated individuals into the existing system of production and consumption via mass media, advertising, industrial management, and contemporary modes of thought.\n\nThis results in a \"one-dimensional\" universe of thought and behaviour, in which aptitude and ability for critical thought and oppositional behaviour wither away. Against this prevailing climate, Marcuse promotes the \"great refusal\" (described at length in the book) as the only adequate opposition to all-encompassing methods of control. Much of the book is a defense of \"negative thinking\" as a disrupting force against the prevailing positivism.\n\nMarcuse also analyzes the integration of the industrial working class into capitalist society and new forms of capitalist stabilization, thus questioning the Marxian postulates of the revolutionary proletariat and the inevitability of capitalist crisis. In contrast to orthodox Marxism, Marcuse champions non-integrated forces of minorities, outsiders, and radical intelligentsia, attempting to nourish oppositional thought and behavior through promoting radical thinking and opposition. He considers the trends towards bureaucracy in supposedly Marxist countries to be as oppositional to freedom as those in the capitalist West.\n\nOne-Dimensional Man was the book that made Marcuse famous. \n\nSummary\n\nMarcuse strongly criticizes consumerism, arguing that it is a form of social control. He suggests that the system we live in may claim to be democratic, but it is actually authoritarian in that a few individuals dictate our perceptions of freedom by only allowing us choices to buy for happiness. In this state of \"unfreedom\", consumers act irrationally by working more than they are required to in order to fulfill actual basic needs, by ignoring the psychologically destructive effects, by ignoring the waste and environmental damage it causes, and by searching for social connection through material items. \n\nIt is even more irrational in the sense that the creation of new products, calling for the disposal of old products, fuels the economy and encourages the need to work more to buy more. An individual loses his or her humanity and becomes a tool in the industrial machine and a cog in the consumer machine. Additionally, advertising sustains consumerism, which disintegrates societal demeanor, delivered in bulk and informing the masses that happiness can be bought, an idea that is psychologically damaging.\n\nThere are other alternatives to counter the consumer lifestyle. Anti-consumerism is a lifestyle that demotes any unnecessary consumption, as well as unnecessary work, waste, etc. But even this alternative is complicated by the extreme interpenetration of advertising and commodification because everything is a commodity, even those things that are actual needs.\n\nReception\n\nOne-Dimensional Man was the book that made Marcuse famous. In a letter to the New York Review of Books, Georg H. Fromm, William Leiss et al. outlined the major themes of the book as follows: \n\n(1) The concept of “one-dimensional man” asserts that there are other dimensions of human existence in addition to the present one and that these have been eliminated. It maintains that the spheres of existence formerly considered as private (e.g. sexuality) have now become part of the entire system of social domination of man by man, and it suggests that totalitarianism can be imposed without terror.\n\n(2) Technological rationality, which impoverishes all aspects of contemporary life, has developed the material bases of human freedom, but continues to serve the interests of suppression. There is a logic of domination in technological progress under present conditions: not quantitative accumulation, but a qualitative “leap” is necessary to transform this apparatus of destruction into an apparatus of life.\n\n(3) The analysis proceeds on the basis of “negative” or dialectical thinking, which sees existing things as “other than they are” and as denying the possibilities inherent in themselves. It demands “freedom from the oppressive and ideological power of given facts.”\n\n(4) The book is generally pessimistic about the possibilities for overcoming the increasing domination and unfreedom of technological society; it concentrates on the power of the present establishment to contain and repulse all alternatives to the status quo.\n\nCritical theorist Douglas Kellner writes in Herbert Marcuse and the Crisis of Marxism that One-Dimensional Man was one of the most important books of the 1960s and one of the most subversive books of the twentieth century. Despite its importance, it was—due to its subversive nature—severely criticized by both orthodox Marxists and academic theorists of various political and theoretical commitments. Despite its pessimism, represented by the citation of the words of Walter Benjamin at the end of this book that \"Nur um der Hoffnungslosen willen ist uns die Hoffnung gegeben\" (\"It is only for the sake of those without hope that hope is given to us\"), it influenced many in the New Left as it articulated their growing dissatisfaction with both capitalist societies and Soviet communist societies.\n\nPhilosopher Stephen Hicks argues that the book's popularity marked \"a strong turn towards irrationality and violence among younger Leftists.\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Marcusian", "Marcusean", "Works by Herbert Marcuse", "Hebert Marcuse", "Herbert Marcuse" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "hebert marcuse", "marcusian", "marcusean", "works by herbert marcuse", "herbert marcuse" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "herbert marcuse", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Herbert Marcuse" }
What are the international registration letters of a vehicle from Sri Lanka?	tc_993	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Sri_Lanka.txt" ], "title": [ "Sri Lanka" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sri Lanka ( or; Sinhalese: ශ්‍රී ලංකා ', Tamil: இலங்கை Ilaṅkai), officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest. \n\nSri Lanka's documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of great strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon. Sri Lanka's recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. \n\nA diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, and languages. In addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, the Pāli Canon, dates back to the Fourth Buddhist council in 29 BC. \n\nSri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the commercial capital and largest city, Colombo.\n\nSri Lanka has had a long history of international engagement, as a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), and a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G77, and the Non-Aligned Movement. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are currently rated among high human development on the Human Development Index.\n\nEtymology\n\nIn antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni (\"copper-red hands\" or \"copper-red earth\"), because his followers' hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā (\"Island\"). In Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. \n\nAncient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā () or Taprobanē () from the word Tambapanni. The Persians and Arabs referred to it as Sarandīb (the origin of the word \"serendipity\") from the word Cerentivu. ', the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese Empire when it arrived in 1505, was transliterated into English as Ceylon. As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.\n\nThe country is known in Sinhalese as ' () and in Tamil as ' (,). In 1972, its formal name was changed to \"Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka\". Later in 1978 it was changed to the \"Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka\". As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nThe pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years. The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after the Chinese traveller monk Faxian), which dates back to 37,000 BP, Batadombalena (28,500 BP) and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man, and other evidence suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game. \n\nOne of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that was created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for Kubera, the Lord of Wealth. It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravana's airport. \n\nEarly inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. The 19th-century Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorized that Galle, a city in southern Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks, and other valuables.\n\nPre-Anuradhapura period\n\nAccording to the Mahāvamsa, a chronicle written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also been discovered in Sri Lanka. Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of Prince Vijaya , a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from Vanga Kingdom (present-day Bengal). He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern-day Mannar. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately 189 native monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as the Dipavamsa, Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and Rājāvaliya (see list of Sinhalese monarchs). Sri Lankan dynastic history ended in 1815 CE, when the land became part of the British Empire. \n\nAnuradhapura period\n\nThe Anuradhapura Kingdom was established in 380 BCE during the reign of Pandukabhaya of Anuradhapura. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years. Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of structures (constructions) such as tanks, dagobas and palaces. Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC, Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka and a bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) arrived in Mihintale carrying the message of Buddhism. His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population. \n\nSucceeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of Nalanda, which was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the Tipitaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda. In 245 BC, bhikkhuni Sangamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened. It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivamsa) \n\n;Invasions\nSri Lanka first experienced a foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India. The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by a Chola king named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. He built Ruwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya. \n\nDuring its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava. These invaders were all subsequently driven back. There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statue were built during the reign of Dhatusena. \n\n;Fourth Buddhist Council\n\nThe Fourth Buddhist council of Theravada Buddhism was held at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba of Anuradhapura in 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because the Pāli Canon was at that time oral literature maintained in several recensions by dhammabhāṇakas (dharma reciters), the surviving monks recognized the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.\n\nAfter the Council, palm-leaf manuscripts containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such as Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.\n\n;Later periods\n\nSri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: Anula of Anuradhapura (r. 47–42 BCE). Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as Sigiriya, the so-called \"Fortress in the Sky\", built during the reign of Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures. \n\nThe 1,600-year-old Sigiriya frescoes are an example of ancient Sri Lankan art at its finest. It is one of the best preserved examples of ancient urban planning in the world. It has been declared by UNESCO as one of the seven World Heritage Sites in Sri Lanka. Among other structures, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate with rainy and dry seasons, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notable. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics that allows water to flow outside the dam, keeping pressure on the dam to a minimum. \n\nAncient Sri Lanka was the first country in the world to establish a dedicated hospital, in Mihintale in the 4th century. It was also the leading exporter of cinnamon in the ancient world. It maintained close ties with European civilisations including the Roman Empire. For example, Bhatikabhaya (22 BCE – 7 CE) sent an envoy to Rome who brought back red coral, which was used to make an elaborate netlike adornment for the Ruwanwelisaya. In addition, Sri Lankan male dancers witnessed the assassination of Caligula. When Queen Cleopatra sent her son Caesarion into hiding, he was headed to Sri Lanka. \n\nThe upasampada for bhikkhunis (Buddhist nuns) first arrived in China when Devasāra and ten other bhikkhunis came from Sri Lanka at the request of Chinese women and established the order there in 429.\n\nPolonnaruwa and Transitional periods\n\nThe medieval period of Sri Lanka begins with the fall of Anuradhapura Kingdom. In AD 993, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in AD 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura. Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa. \n\nThis marked the end of the two great houses of dynasties of ancient Sri Lanka, the Moriya and the Lambakanna. Following a seventeen-year-long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century. Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign. During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya. \n\nSri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (AD 1153–1186). This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. He built 1470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in the history – repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini reservoirs. His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka. \n\nAfter his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In AD 1215, Kalinga Magha, a South Indian with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa with a 24,000 strong army sailed 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships from Kalinga. Unlike the previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery. His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. \n\nSri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom. The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. He ruled the North from AD 1450 to 1467. \n\nThe next three centuries stating from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte,Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap06.html Ch. 6] Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy. Chinese admiral Zheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri-Lanka in 1409 and got into battle with the local king as the local king tried to capture him. Zheng He captured the local king and later released him. Zheng He erected a stone tablet inscription at Galle in three languages, Chinese, Tamil and Persian which is known as Galle Trilingual Inscription to commemorate his visit. The stele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the Colombo National Museum.\n\nKandyan period\n\nThe early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505. In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location he thought more secure from attack. In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of Jaffna kingdom came to an end. \n\nDuring the reign of the Rajasinghe II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas. The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. An ethnic group named Burgher people emerged in Sri Lankan society as a result of Dutch rule. \n\nThe Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka. In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic – the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese – to Kandy, and built the Temple of the Tooth. In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king Vira Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India and was childless by her.\n\nEventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking the right of \"Unambuwe Bandara\", Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine. The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful. \n\nBritish rule\n\nDuring the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796. Two years later, in 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned. The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated.\n\nBy then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India. The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg. \n\nThe beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833. They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government. An Executive Council and a Legislative Council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful. \n\nSoon coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent. These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848. A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years. The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. Tea production in Sri Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.\n\nBy the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, and medical professions. New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian missionary activities. The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost. \n\nIn 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam, pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for \"communal representation\" by creating a \"Colombo seat\" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s. \n\nThe Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council. In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944–45.\n\nModern Sri Lanka\n\nThe Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948. D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon. Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet. The British Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of the rice ration, known as Hartal 1953, resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake. \n\nS. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound impact through his self-proclaimed role of \"defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture\". He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture. \n\nThe Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict. The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959. \n\nSirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic polices, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s. The policy of standardisation by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education, resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy. The assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by LTTE marked a crisis point. \n\nThe Government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular United Front government. Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy. Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the anti-Tamil race riots in July 1983 allegedly backed by Sinhalese hard-line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries. \n\nLapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training. In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE. The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka, necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990. In 1990 October, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka. In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.\n\nThe 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 35,000 in Sri Lanka. From 1985 to 2006, Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government. Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the 26 years of conflict. \n\nForty thousand Tamil civilians may have been killed in the final phases of the Sri Lankan civil war, according to an Expert Panel convened by U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon. The exact number of Tamils killed is still a speculation that needs further study. Following the LTTE's defeat, the Tamil National Alliance, the largest Tamil political party in Sri Lanka, dropped its demand for a separate state in favour of a federal solution. The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced. \n\nAccording to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011. In May 2010, President Rajapaksa appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009. Sri Lanka has emerged from its 26-year war to become one of the fastest growing economies of the world. \n\nGeography\n\nSri Lanka lies on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formerly part of the Indo-Australian Plate. It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5° and 10°N, and longitudes 79° and 82°E. Sri Lanka is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level. Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until cyclones deepened the channel. Portions are still as shallow as 1 m, hindering navigation. \n\nThe island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2524 m above sea level. The climate is tropical and warm, due to the moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from 17 C in the central highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 C in other low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 28 C to nearly 31 C. Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 C-change to 18 C-change. \n\nRainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The \"wet zone\" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2500 mm of rain each month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka comprise the \"dry zone\", which receives between 1200 and of rain annually. \n\nThe arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 800 to per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall. \n\nAn increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy. \n\nSri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335 km. These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 meters or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 m. Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km long. Sri Lanka claims an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses. \n\nSri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons. Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The island is rich in minerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium. Existence of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway. \n\nFlora and fauna\n\nLying within the Indomalaya ecozone, Sri Lanka is one of 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world. Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity density in Asia. A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals (see List), are endemic. Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as Asian elephants, leopards, sloth bears, the unique small loris, a variety of deer, the purple-faced langur, the endangered wild boar, porcupines and Indian pangolins. \n\nFlowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes. \n\nYala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja. Of these, Sinharaja forest reserve is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie.\n\nThe untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the Minneriya tank, which is an important source of water for numerous elephants (Elephus maximus) inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed \"The Gathering\", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas). and grasslands (talawas). \n\nSri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (see List). It has declared several bird sanctuaries including Kumana. During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1900 km2 as national parks. Sri Lanka's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had fallen to approximately 24% by 2009. \n\nPolitics\n\nSri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia. The Donoughmore Constitution, drafted by the Donoughmore Commission in 1931, enabled general elections with adult universal suffrage (universal adult voting) in the country. It was the first time a non-white country within the empires of Western Europe was given one man, one vote and the power to control domestic affairs. The first election under the universal adult franchise, held in June 1931, was for the Ceylon State Council. Sir Don Baron Jayatilaka was elected as Leader of the House. \n\nIn 1944, the Soulbury Commission was appointed to draft a new constitution. During this time, struggle for independence was fought on \"constitutionalist\" lines under the leadership of D. S. Senanayake. The draft constitution was enacted in the same year, and Senanayake was appointed Prime Minister following the parliamentary election in 1947. The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status and granted independence to Sri Lanka in 1948.\n\nPolitical culture \n\nThe current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-leftist and progressivist United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP). Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67. Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest. \n\nThe UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party. It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence. SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who was the Cabinet minister of Local Administration before he left the UNP in July 1951. SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election. Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of government. \n\nG. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades. The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese. \n\nWith the constitutional reforms of 1972, the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) and Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) created a common front called the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National Alliance. Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist-Leninist political party founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context. It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party. Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka. \n\nGovernment\n\nSri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system. Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval in a nationwide referendum.\n\nIn common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:\n* Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the armed forces; head of government, and is popularly elected for a five-year term. The President heads the cabinet and appoints ministers from elected members of parliament. The president is immune from legal proceedings while in office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity. Following passage of the 19th amendment to the constitution in 2015, the President has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.\n* Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka is a unicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected by proportional representation. Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws. The president's deputy, the Prime Minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.\n* Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court – the highest and final superior court of record, a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences. Criminal law is based almost entirely on British law. Basic Civil law derives from Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal. Due to ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai, and Sharia law are followed in special cases. The President appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the Chief Justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.\n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nFor administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces and twenty-five districts. \n\nProvinces\nThere have been provinces in Sri Lanka since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the Government of Sri Lanka. Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any Ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities, but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils. Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province. Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:\n\nDistricts and local authorities\nSri Lanka is also divided into 25 districts. Each district is administered under a District Secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these, in turn, to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions. The Districts are known in Sinhala as Disa and in Tamil as Māwaddam. Originally, a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva. A government agent, who is known as District Secretary, administers a district.\n\nThere are three other types of local authorities: Municipal Councils (18), Urban councils (13) and Pradeshiya Sabha, also called Pradesha Sabhai (256). Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as 'D.R.O. divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'. Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the divisions were known as 'A.G.A. divisions'. These Divisional Secretariats are currently administered by a 'Divisional Secretary'.\n\nForeign relations\n\nSri Lanka is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated relations with India. Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan.\n\nOne of the two parties that have governed Sri Lanka since its independence, the United National Party, has traditionally favoured links with the West while its left-leaning counterpart, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party, has favoured links with the East. Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950. At the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and refused to accept payment of reparations for World War II damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy. Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the PRC was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952. Sri Lanka played a vital role at the Asian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM. \n\nThe Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under Fidel Castro in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka. The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964 and Sirima-Gandhi Pact of 1974 were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long-standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian origin. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait, was formally ceded to Sri Lanka. By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM and Colombo held the fifth NAM summit in 1976. The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of J. R. Jayawardene. As a result, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed an Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987. In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China, Russia and Pakistan. \n\nMilitary\n\nThe Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The total strength of the three services is around 259,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves. Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription. Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force, and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard \n\nSince independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 30-year-long conflict with the LTTE which has been proscribed as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years. Marking a rare occurrence in modern military history, the Sri Lankan military was able to bring a decisive end to the Sri Lankan Civil War in May 2009. Sri Lanka has claimed to be the first country in the modern world to eradicate terrorism on its own soil. The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti. \n\nEconomy\n\n]\n\nAccording to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's GDP in terms of purchasing power parity is second only to the Maldives in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income. \n\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade. From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state established. In 1977 the Free market economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation and the promotion of private enterprise. \n\nWhile the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange. \n\n, the service sector makes up 60% of GDP, the industrial sector 28%, and the agriculture sector 12%. The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy. India is Sri Lanka's largest trading partner. Economic disparities exist between the provinces, with the Western province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern province and the Central province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively. With the end of the war, the Northern province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010. \n\nThe per capita income of Sri Lanka has doubled since 2005. During the same period, poverty has dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate has dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, market capitalisation of Colombo Stock Exchange has quadrupled and budget deficit has doubled. Over 90% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified. 87.3% of the population have access to safe drinking water and 39% have access to pipe-borne water. Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010. Sri Lanka's cellular subscriber base has shown a staggering 550% growth, from 2005 to 2010. Sri Lanka was the first country in the South Asian region to introduce 3G, 3.5G HSDPA, 3.75G HSUPA and 4G LTE mobile broadband Internet technologies. \n\nThe Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum, has described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage, and that it ranks 52nd in global competitiveness. Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. Sri Lanka ranks 8th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society. In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit. The Dow Jones classified Sri Lanka as an emerging market in 2010, and Citigroup classified it as a 3G country in February 2011. Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with 0.750 points.\n\nSri Lanka's road network consists of 35 A grade highways and two Controlled-access highways (E01)and(E03). The railway network, operated by the state-run national railway operator, Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1447 km. Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports, at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota. The port at Trincomalee is the fifth largest natural harbour in the world: during World War II the British stated that they could place their entire navy in the harbour with room to spare. Sri Lanka's flag carrier airline is SriLankan Airlines. Fitch Ratings has affirmed Sri Lanka's Foreign- and Local-Currency Issuer Default Ratings (IDRs) at 'BB-' with a \"stable\" outlook. With a grant of 20 million dollars from the US and help from China, a space academy has been set up for the purpose of developing an indigenous space sector to launch satellites of other nations as well as of Sri Lanka. This dual use of launching technology will also serve to develop missile technology. On 26 September 2012 China launched Sri Lanka's first satellite, with plans for more launches in the coming years. \n\nDemographics\n\nSri Lanka is the 57th most populated nation in the world, with 20,277,597 people, and an annual population growth rate of 0.73%. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 17.6 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.2 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population. \n\nSri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2. Sri Lankan Moors comprise 9.2%. Tamils of Indian origin were brought into the country as indentured labourers by British colonists to work on estate plantations. Nearly 50% of them were repatriated following independence in 1948. They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island. \n\nLanguages \n\nSinhalese and Tamil are the two official languages of Sri Lanka. The Constitution defines English as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island. \n\nReligion \n\nSri Lanka is a multi-religious country. Buddhists comprise 70 percent of the population, with the Theravada school being predominant. Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BC by Venerable Mahinda. A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BC. \n\nSri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation, with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BC. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma. Buddhism is given special recognition in the Constitution which requires Sri Lankan to \"protect and foster the Buddha Sasana\". \n\nHinduism is the second most prevalent religion in Sri Lanka and predates Buddhism. Today, Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka. Hindus are mainly Tamils.\n\nIslam is the third most dominant religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the 7th century AD. Most Muslims are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school. Most followers of Islam in Sri Lanka today are believed to be descendants of these Arab traders and the local women they married. \n\nChristianity reached the country through Western colonists in the early 16th century. Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of which 82% are Roman Catholics who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant denominations. \n\nThere is also a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule, but this community has steadily dwindled in recent years. Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days each month according to the Lunar calendar, and Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 Gallup poll, Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life. \n\nUrban centres \n\nHealth \n\nSri Lankans have a life expectancy of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average. The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from the developed countries. The universal \"pro-poor\" health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures. \n\nEducation\n\nWith a literacy rate of 92.5%, Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations. Its youth literacy rate stands at 98%, computer literacy rate at 35%, and primary school enrolment rate at over 99%. An education system which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place. The free education system established in 1945, is a result of the initiative of C. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake. It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage. \n\nKannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children. In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system saw the separation of the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite National Schools are controlled directly by the Ministry of Education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9675 government schools, 817 private schools and Pirivenas.\n\nThe number of public universities in Sri Lanka is 15. A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector. A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%. The proposed private university bill has been withdrawn by the Higher Education Ministry after university students' heavy demonstrations and resistance. \n\nThe British science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke served as Chancellor of Moratuwa University in Sri Lanka from 1979 to 2002. \n\nTransport\n\nSri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000 km of paved roads, it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5 km of paved roads per every 1sq.km. of land). E-grade highways are the latest addition to Sri Lanka's road network. These are access-controlled, high-mobility roads with permitted speeds up to 120 km/h. These highways connect local communities together, by-passing busy and congested town centers.\n\nA and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority. C & D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.\n\nRail network of Sri Lanka consists of main line, coastal line, and up-country line. In addition, there are small contributions from air and water based media, to the inland transport of the country.\n\nHuman rights and media\n\nThe Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerly Radio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia, established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting began in Europe. The station broadcasts services in Sinhalese, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, a large number of private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced to the country in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially all Television stations were state controlled, but private television networks began broadcasts in 1992. \n\n, 51 newspapers (30 Sinhala, 10 Tamil, 11 English) are published and 34 TV stations and 52 radio stations are in operation. In recent years, freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst the poorest in democratic countries. Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor Lasantha Wickrematunge, who had also been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article. \n\nOfficially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However human rights in Sri Lanka have come under criticism by Amnesty International, Freedom from Torture and Human Rights Watch, as well as the United States Department of State. British colonial rulers, the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the government of Sri Lanka are accused of violating human rights. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general has accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of alleged war crimes during final stages of the civil war. Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is currently very little protection for those who stand up against corruption. \n\nThe UN Human Rights Council has documented over 12,000 named individuals who have undergone disappearance after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980. The Sri Lankan government has confirmed that 6,445 of these are dead. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict. \n\nUN Human Rights Commissioner Navanethem Pillay visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit she said, \"The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded.\" Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military land grabbing. She also said that while in Sri Lanka she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces. \n\nIn 2012, the UK charity Freedom from Torture reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, Freedom from Torture published Out of the Silence which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in May 2009. \n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Sri Lanka dates back over 2500 years. It is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism. Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times, the British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. Sri Lanka claims a democratic tradition matched by few other developing countries. \n\nThe first Tamil immigration was probably around the 3rd century BC. Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct. Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.\n\nFood and festivals\n\nDishes include rice and curry, pittu, Kiribath, wholemeal Roti, String hoppers, wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu, and hoppers. Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf or lotus leaf.\n\nMiddle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Holiday Biscuit), and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).\n\nIn April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festival. Esala Perahera is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August. Fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate Christmas on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal, Maha Shivaratri and Muslims celebrate Hajj, Ramadan in their respective days of the year.\n\nVisual, literary and performing arts\n\nThe movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The broken promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of treasures, 1962) marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to colour. It in the recent years has featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE. The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but has been in steady decline since then. \n\nAn influential filmmaker is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The changing village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold heart, 1968). Sri Lankan-Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz, is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhalese and English. Similarly, naturalized-Canadian Michael Ondaatje, is well known for his English-language novels and three films.\n\nThe earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam. Traditional music instruments such as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon (founded in 1925). Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, H. R. Jothipala and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the upliftment of Sri Lankan music. Baila is another popular music genre in the country, originated among Kaffirs or the Afro-Sinhalese community. \n\nThere are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Of these, the Kandyan style, which flourished under kings of the Kingdom of Kandy, is more prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance, that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam. An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers and a drum called Geta Béraya is used to assist the dancer to keep on rhythm. In addition, four folk drama variants named Sokri, Kolam Nadagam, Pasu, and several devil dance variants such as Sanni Yakuma and Kohomba Kankariya can be also observed.\n\nThe history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BC. The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahavamsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BC. The chronicles have description of various paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas, and in monastic residence.\n\nTheatre moved into the country when a Parsi theatre company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century. The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956. It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.\n\nSri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia, and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda. The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BC. Ancient chronicles such as the Mahāvamsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary), that dates few more centuries back. The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century.\n\nThe greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (Parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (Swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (Myna message). Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (diadem of poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature. The first modern-day novel, Meena, a work of Simon de Silva appeared in 1905, and was followed by a number of revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature. \n\nSports\n\nWhile the national sport in Sri Lanka is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket. Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity, as do athletics, football (soccer) and tennis. Sri Lanka's schools and colleges regularly organise sports and athletics teams, competing on provincial and national levels.\n\nThe Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup. They also won the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007 and 2011, and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012. \n\nFormer Sri Lankan off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack. Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986, 1997, 2004, 2008 and 2014. Current world records for highest team score in all three formats of cricket are also held by Sri Lanka. The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011, and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.\n\nSri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games, one silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres. In 1973, Mohammed Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing and scuba diving on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka, Cheena di and Angampora." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "C.L.", "Cl.", "CL", "C L", "CL (disambiguation)", "C.l." ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cl", "c l", "cl disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "cl", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "CL" }
Who directed the movie East of Eden?	tc_994	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "East_of_Eden_(film).txt" ], "title": [ "East of Eden (film)" ], "wiki_context": [ "East of Eden is a 1955 film, directed by Elia Kazan, and loosely based on the second half of the 1952 novel of the same name by John Steinbeck. It is about a wayward young man who, while seeking his own identity, vies for the affection of his deeply religious father against his favored brother, thus retelling the story of Cain and Abel.\n\nThe film stars Julie Harris, James Dean (in his first major screen role), and Raymond Massey. It also features Burl Ives, Richard Davalos, and Jo Van Fleet, and was adapted by Paul Osborn. \n\nAlthough set in early 20th century Monterey, California, much of the film was actually shot on location in Mendocino, California. Some scenes were filmed in the Salinas Valley.\n\nOf the three films in which James Dean played the male lead, this is the only one to have been released during his lifetime and the only one Dean personally viewed in its entirety. \n\nThe film, along with Rebel Without a Cause and Giant, has been named by the American Film Institute as one of the best 400 American films of all time. \n\nPlot\n\nThe story is set during 1917 and 1918, leading into American involvement in World War I, in the central California coastal towns of Monterey and Salinas. Cal (James Dean) and Aron (Richard Davalos) are the sons of a modestly successful farmer and wartime draft board chairman, Adam Trask (Raymond Massey). Cal is moody and embittered by his belief that his father favors Aron. Although both Cal and Aron had long been led to believe that their mother had died \"and gone to heaven,\" the opening scene reveals Cal has apparently learned that his mother is still alive, owning and running a successful brothel in nearby Monterey.\n\nAfter the father's idealistic plans for a long-haul vegetable shipping business venture end in a loss of thousands of dollars, Cal decides to enter the bean-growing business, as a way of recouping the money his father lost in the vegetable shipping venture. He is advised that if the United States enters the war, the price of beans will skyrocket. Cal hopes this will finally earn him the love and respect of his father. He goes to his mother Kate (Jo Van Fleet) to ask to borrow the capital he needs. Though she remains hostile toward Adam for inflicting his \"purity\" on her and her sons, Kate reluctantly lends him $5,000.\n\nMeanwhile, Aron's girlfriend Abra (Julie Harris) gradually finds herself attracted to Cal, who seems to reciprocate her feelings.\n\nLater on, Cal goes to the carnival and sees Abra alone, waiting for Aron. To accompany her, they soon go together on several rides and play games, increasing their ongoing attraction for each other. On a Ferris wheel, they kiss, but Abra in tears admits that she still loves Aron. Afterwards, there is a fight between the townspeople and Aron regarding the Germans. Cal climbs down from the Ferris wheel and engages in the fight to help Aron. Although his intentions were pure, Aron sees this deed as just an act to impress Abra, also noticing that Abra is holding Cal's jacket. Aron grabs Cal by his shirt, then in a fit of rage Cal strikes Aron 4 times.\n\nCal's business goes well, and he decides to give the money to his father at a surprise birthday party for him, which he and Abra plan together. As the party gets under way, Aron, who is jealous at what Cal and Abra have done for Adam, suddenly announces that he and Abra are engaged. While Adam is openly pleased with the news, both Abra and Cal are uneasy, having recently discovered their emerging mutual attraction despite their suppressed feelings. Aron has stolen Cal's thunder and once again triumphs as the favorite.\n\nCal makes a surprise birthday present of the money to his father. However, Adam refuses to accept any money earned by what he regards as war profiteering. Cal does not understand and sees his father's refusal to accept the gift as another emotional rejection. When the distraught Cal leaves the room, Abra goes after him to console him. Aron sees them through the branches of a tree and orders Cal to stay away from her.\n\nAngry, Cal takes his brother to see their mother, then returns home alone. The shock drives Aron to get drunk and board a troop train to enlist in the army. When his father demands to know where his brother is, Cal tells him. As Sam (Burl Ives), the sheriff, brings the news, Adam rushes to the train station in an attempt to dissuade him, but can only watch helplessly as his son steams away from him, smashing the rail car window with his head and maniacally laughing at him. The sheriff tells Cal he should leave like in the story of Cain and Abel and go East of Eden and live in the land of nod.\n\nBecause of the stress, Adam suffers a stroke, leaving him paralyzed and unable to communicate. Cal and Abra enter the bedroom. Cal tries to talk to him, but gets no response and dejectedly departs the bedroom, leaving Abra alone with Adam. Abra pleads with Adam to show Cal fatherly love he wants so desperately and let Cal \"do\" something for him before it is too late. She persuades Cal to go back into the room. When Cal makes his last bid for acceptance before leaving town, his father manages to speak. He tells his Cal to dismiss a self-absorbed, obnoxious nurse and not to replace her, but to stay & take care of him himself. Cal embraces Abra and they share their first kiss free from Aron's shadow; and he pulls up a chair to sit next to his father. The film ends with Abra leaving the room and Cal sitting by Adam's bedside.\n \nCast\n\n* Julie Harris as Abra Bacon\n* James Dean as Caleb Trask\n* Raymond Massey as Adam Trask\n* Richard Davalos as Aron Trask\n* Burl Ives as Sam the Sheriff\n* Jo Van Fleet as Cathy Ames/Kate Trask \n* Albert Dekker as Will Hamilton\n\n* Lois Smith as Anne, Kate's Servant\n* Timothy Carey as Joe, Kate's Henchman (uncredited)\n* Harold Gordon as Gustav Albrecht\n* Nick Dennis as Rantani\n* Barbara Baxley as Adam's Nurse (uncredited)\n* Richard Garrick as Dr. Edwards (uncredited) \n* Lonny Chapman as Car Instructor (uncredited)\n\nLois Smith is the last surviving credited cast member.\n\nProduction\n\nCasting\n\nDirector Elia Kazan first toyed with the idea of casting Marlon Brando as Cal and Montgomery Clift as Aron, but at 30 and 34 years old, respectively, they were simply too old to play teenage brothers. Paul Newman, who was one year younger than Brando, was a finalist for the part of Cal, which eventually was played by James Dean, who was six years younger than Newman.\n\nNewman and Dean, who were up for the part of Cal, screen tested together for the parts of the rival brothers. In the end, Richard Davalos got the part of Aron. This was his screen debut.\n\nJulie Harris was cast as Abra James. Executive producer Jack L. Warner was opposed to her casting, because she was ten years older than her character.\n\nFilming\n\nPrincipal photography of East of Eden lasted ten weeks. Before filming began, Kazan sent Dean off to Palm Springs to gain some weight and get some sun so that he looked like a \"real\" farm boy. Dean hated getting a tan, having his hair cut, and drinking a pint of cream a day to put on pounds.\n\nWhen they first arrived in Los Angeles to begin production, Kazan accompanied Dean to visit his estranged father, who was living there at the time. He witnessed first hand how badly the father treated Dean and how much the boy wanted to please him. As he got to know Dean better, Kazan saw how this relationship had instilled in him a great deal of anger because of frustrated love, the key to the character of Cal. \"It was the most apt piece of casting I've ever done in my life.\"\n\nKazan denied rumours that he didn't like Dean: \"You can't not like a guy with that much pain in him....You know how a dog will be mean and snarl at you, then you pat him, and he's all over you with affection? That's the way Dean was.\" Kazan did intervene sternly, however, when Dean started to feel his power as a hotly emerging star and treated crew members disrespectfully. \n\nWhen Kazan introduced Dean to Steinbeck, the author exclaimed that he was the perfect choice for Cal Trask. Steinbeck himself enjoyed the final film very much.\n\nShooting in the fairly new CinemaScope process proved to be a challenge for Kazan, but he was lucky to have a good working relationship with longtime Warner Brothers cinematographer Ted D. McCord. The studio camera department gave him instructions up front to keep the camera at least six feet from the actors, which rankled Kazan. So he and McCord made some tests to see how close they could push in. It caused the side edges of the screen to appear a bit curved, but Kazan decided to use that distortion for dramatic expression. McCord suggested that, as long as they were distorting anyway, they should tip the camera angle in certain shots. This technique was used a few times, most prominently in the tense dinner table scene in which Cal and his father fight over the boy's antagonistic reading of Bible passages.\n\nKazan was proud of his use of CinemaScope to get what he thought was the best shot in the film, the train pulling away with all the lettuce on it. In the carefully calibrated shot, the train disappears behind the railroad station and then reappears much smaller, going off toward the distant mountains. \"It's a perfect shot because it shows that their hope is going off,\" he said. \"It's sentimental and still emotional.\" Kazan also liked the shot of Cal and Abra after his father's rejection, standing behind the willow tree, audible but with only their feet showing.\n\nKazan noted that Dean's tension and shyness always manifested itself physically, so he allowed the actor to use contorted, awkward postures to convey the character. \"It was almost psychotic. He was exactly like the people you see in insane asylums.\"\n\nIt was Dean's idea to do the little running dance in the bean field, and Kazan said he kissed him for that valuable contribution. He also noted that the far more contained Brando would never have been able to do a scene like that, \"but Dean was actually like a kid.\"\n\nDavalos said the most difficult scene for him was when Dean as Cal hits him after an argument. Dean didn't really hit him, of course, but the emotions felt so real Davalos believed Dean really did hate him. He left the set after the take and cried \"for about four hours\" until Harris had to calm him down.\n\nSeveral cast members reported that Dean's emotions overtook him so strongly he would frequently cry. Kazan usually just let those moments pass before resuming shooting, but he did leave one of Dean's breakdowns in—the scene in which Cal is crushed by his father's rejection of the money he earned for him.\n\nDean would provoke Raymond Massey off-camera so that the elder actor would hate him and he could get into character easier. Kazan did nothing to dispel the tension between the two, as it was so right for their characters in the film. In the scene where Adam refuses to accept Cal's money, the script called for Cal to turn away in anger from his father. It was Dean's instinct to embrace him instead. This came as a surprise to Massey, who could think of nothing to do but say, \"Cal! Cal!\" in response.\n\nThe conflict between James Dean and Raymond Massey came to a boiling point in the scene where Cal angers his father because of the way he reads from the Bible. Elia Kazan, who found Massey to be a rather rigid and unemotional \"stiff\" off screen and on, wasn't happy with the way it was going, so he took Dean aside and whispered some suggestions. Dean came back and read the Old Testament passages interlaced with the most offensive curses and crude sexual expressions. Massey became incensed, storming off the set and threatening to call his lawyers. But before the outburst, Kazan was able to capture the heightened anger he was going for.\n\nDespite the annoyances and difficulties he faced making East of Eden, Massey called the role of Adam Trask one of the best parts he ever had on screen and one of the few three-dimensional characters he played in movies. Even though he appreciated the tension that came through on the screen, Elia Kazan later said he didn't do justice to the character of Adam by hiring Raymond Massey, who he said \"had only one colour.\"\n\nOn the last day of shooting, Harris went to Dean's trailer to say goodbye because she was not sure she would attend the wrap party. She found Dean crying because the production was over. She said: \"It was so moving. It was his first picture [sic], it meant so much, and now it was over.\"\n\nThemes and character motivations\n\nThe underlying theme of East of Eden is a biblical reference to the brothers Cain and Abel. Cal is constantly struggling to earn his father's approval. The relationship between Cal and his father is a stressful one and is not resolved until late in the story, after his father suffers a paralyzing stroke. In his paralyzed state and with the help of Julie Harris' character, Abra, Cal's father finally expresses his suppressed love for the boy. \n\nOther themes touched upon in the film include anti-German xenophobia, specifically as wrought against a local German immigrant as resentment about United States entry into World War I grew. The themes of young love and sibling rivalry are also present in the film, as Aron's girlfriend finds herself increasingly drawn to the more rebellious Cal. Mental illness is also considered with Cal's character, though still young, displaying many characteristics of Borderline Personality Disorder, a sometimes genetic condition likely inherited from his mother.\n\nCritical reaction\n\nDave Kehr of the Chicago Reader praised the adaptation by Kazan and the \"down-to-earth\" performances of James Dean and Richard Davalos. Bosley Crowther, writing for The New York Times, described the film as having \"energy and intensity but little clarity and emotion\"; he notes:\n\nBosley Crowther called Dean's performance a \"mass of histrionic gingerbread\" which clearly emulated the style of Marlon Brando.\n\nFifty years later, film critic Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times, was much more positive, saying East of Eden is \"not only one of Kazan's richest films and Dean's first significant role, it is also arguably the actor's best performance.\" The film's depiction of the interaction between Dean and Massey was characterized by Turan as \"the paradigmatic generational conflict in all of American film.\"\n\nAwards and honors\n\nWins\n* Academy Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role: Jo Van Fleet\n* Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama: Elia Kazan\n* Golden Globe, Special Achievement Award: Given posthumously for Best Dramatic Actor: James Dean \n* Cannes Film Festival, Best Dramatic Film: Elia Kazan \n\nNominations\n* Academy Award for Best Actor: James Dean\n* Academy Award for Directing: Elia Kazan\n* Academy Award for Best Writing (Adapted Screenplay): Paul Osborn\n* BAFTA Award for Best Film from Any Source\n* BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor: James Dean\n* BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer: Jo Van Fleet" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Elia Kazan", "Elias Kazantzoglou", "Elia Kazanjoglous" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "elia kazanjoglous", "elias kazantzoglou", "elia kazan" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "elia kazan", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Elia Kazan" }
In which year did Count Basie die?	tc_997	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Count_Basie.txt" ], "title": [ "Count Basie" ], "wiki_context": [ "William James \"Count\" Basie (August 21, 1904 – April 26, 1984) was an American jazz pianist, organist, bandleader, and composer. His mother taught him to play the piano and he started performing in his teens. Dropping out of school, he learned to operate lights for vaudeville and to improvise accompaniment for silent films at a local movie theater in his home town of Red Bank, New Jersey. By 16 years old, he increasingly played jazz piano at parties, resorts and other venues. In 1924, he went to Harlem, where his performing career expanded; he toured with groups to the major jazz cities of Chicago, St. Louis and Kansas City. In 1929 he joined Bennie Moten's band in Kansas City, and played with them until Moten's death in 1935.\n\nIn 1935, Basie formed his own jazz orchestra, the Count Basie Orchestra, and in 1936 took them to Chicago for a long engagement and their first recording. He led the group for almost 50 years, creating innovations like the use of two \"split\" tenor saxophones, emphasizing the rhythm section, riffing with a big band, using arrangers to broaden their sound, and others. Many musicians came to prominence under his direction, including the tenor saxophonists Lester Young and Herschel Evans, the guitarist Freddie Green, trumpeters Buck Clayton and Harry \"Sweets\" Edison and singers Jimmy Rushing and Joe Williams. Basie's theme songs were \"One O'Clock Jump\", developed in 1935 in the early days of his band, and later \"April in Paris\".\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life and education\n\nWilliam Basie was born to Harvey Lee and Lillian Basie in Red Bank, New Jersey. His father worked as a coachman and caretaker for a wealthy judge. After automobiles replaced horses, his father became a groundskeeper and handyman for several wealthy families in the area. Both of his parents had some type of musical background. His father played the mellophone, and his mother played the piano; in fact, she gave Basie his first piano lessons. She took in laundry and baked cakes for sale for a living. She paid 25 cents a lesson for piano instruction for him. \n\nNot much of a student in school, Basie dreamed of a traveling life, inspired by touring carnivals which came to town. He finished junior high school but spent much of his time at the Palace Theater in Red Bank, where doing occasional chores gained him free admission to performances. He quickly learned to improvise music appropriate to the acts and the silent movies. \n\nThough a natural at the piano, Basie preferred drums. Discouraged by the obvious talents of Sonny Greer, who also lived in Red Bank and became Duke Ellington's drummer in 1919, Basie at age 15 switched to piano exclusively. Greer and Basie played together in venues until Greer set out on his professional career. By then, Basie was playing with pick-up groups for dances, resorts, and amateur shows, including Harry Richardson's \"Kings of Syncopation\". When not playing a gig, he hung out at the local pool hall with other musicians, where he picked up on upcoming play dates and gossip. He got some jobs in Asbury Park at the Jersey Shore, and played at the Hong Kong Inn until a better player took his place. \n\nEarly career\n\nAround 1920, Basie went to Harlem, a hotbed of jazz, where he lived down the block from the Alhambra Theater. Early after his arrival, he bumped into Sonny Greer, who was by then the drummer for the Washingtonians, Duke Ellington's early band. Soon, Basie met many of the Harlem musicians who were \"making the scene,\" including Willie \"the Lion\" Smith and James P. Johnson.\n\nBasie toured in several acts between 1925 and 1927, including Katie Krippen and Her Kiddies as part of the Hippity Hop show; on the Keith, the Columbia Burlesque, and the Theater Owners Bookers Association (T.O.B.A.) vaudeville circuits; and as a soloist and accompanist to blues singers Katie Krippen and Gonzelle White. His touring took him to Kansas City, St. Louis, New Orleans, and Chicago. Throughout his tours, Basie met many jazz musicians, including Louis Armstrong. Before he was 20 years old, he toured extensively on the Keith and TOBA vaudeville circuits as a solo pianist, accompanist, and music director for blues singers, dancers, and comedians. This provided an early training that was to prove significant in his later career.\"Bill; William (1904 -1984) Bandleader and Pianist.\" PBS. PBS, n.d. Web. Nov 30, 2012. \n\nBack in Harlem in 1925, Basie gained his first steady job at Leroy's, a place known for its piano players and its \"cutting contests.\" The place catered to \"uptown celebrities,\" and typically the band winged every number without sheet music using \"head arrangements.\" He met Fats Waller, who was playing organ at the Lincoln Theater accompanying silent movies, and Waller taught him how to play that instrument. (Basie later played organ at the Eblon Theater in Kansas City). As he did with Duke Ellington, Willie \"the Lion\" Smith helped Basie out during the lean times by arranging gigs at \"house-rent parties,\" introducing him to other leading musicians, and teaching him some piano technique. \n\nIn 1928, Basie was in Tulsa and heard Walter Page and his Famous Blue Devils, one of the first big bands, which featured Jimmy Rushing on vocals. A few months later, he was invited to join the band, which played mostly in Texas and Oklahoma. It was at this time that he began to be known as \"Count\" Basie (see Jazz royalty). \n\nKansas City years\n\nThe following year, in 1929, Basie became the pianist with the Bennie Moten band based in Kansas City, inspired by Moten's ambition to raise his band to the level of Duke Ellington's or Fletcher Henderson's. Where the Blue Devils were \"snappier\" and more \"bluesy,\" the Moten band was classier and more respected, and played in the \"Kansas City stomp\" style. In addition to playing piano, Basie was co-arranger with Eddie Durham, who notated the music. \nTheir \"Moten Swing\", which Basie claimed credit for, was widely acclaimed and was an invaluable contribution to the development of swing music, and at one performance at the Pearl Theatre in Philadelphia in December 1932, the theatre opened its door to allow anybody in to hear the band perform. \nDuring a stay in Chicago, Basie recorded with the band. He occasionally played four-hand piano and dual pianos with Moten, who also conducted. The band improved with several personnel changes, including the addition of tenor saxophonist Ben Webster.\n\nWhen the band voted Moten out, Basie took over for several months, calling the group \"Count Basie and his Cherry Blossoms.\" When his own band folded, he rejoined Moten with a newly re-organized band. When Moten died in 1935 after a surgical procedure, the band unsuccessfully tried to stay together but couldn't make a go of it.\n\nBasie formed a new band that year, which included many Moten alumni, with the important addition of tenor player Lester Young. They played at the Reno Club and sometimes were broadcast on local radio. Late one night with time to fill, the band started improvising. Basie liked the results and named the piece \"One O'Clock Jump.\" According to Basie, \"we hit it with the rhythm section and went into the riffs, and the riffs just stuck. We set the thing up front in D-flat, and then we just went on playing in F.\" It became his signature tune. \n\nJohn Hammond and first recordings\n\nAt the end of 1936, Basie and his band, now billed as \"Count Basie and His Barons of Rhythm,\" moved from Kansas City to Chicago, where they honed their repertoire at a long engagement at the Grand Terrace Ballroom. Right from the start, Basie's band was noted for its rhythm section. Another Basie innovation was the use of two tenor saxophone players; at the time, most bands had just one. When Young complained of Herschel Evans' vibrato, Basie placed them on either side of the alto players, and soon had the tenor players engaged in \"duels\". Many other bands later adapted the split tenor arrangement. \n\nIn that city in October 1936, the band had a recording session which the producer John Hammond later described as \"the only perfect, completely perfect recording session I've ever had anything to do with\". Hammond had heard Basie's band over short-wave radio and went to Kansas City to check them out. He invited them to record, in performances which were Lester Young's earliest recordings. Those four sides were released on Vocalion Records under the band name of Jones-Smith Incorporated; the sides were \"Shoe Shine Boy\", \"Evening\", \"Boogie Woogie\", and \"Oh, Lady Be Good\". After Vocalion became a subsidiary of Columbia Records in 1938, \"Boogie Woogie\" was released in 1941 as part of a four-record compilation album entitled Boogie Woogie (Columbia album C44). When he made the Vocalion recordings, Basie had already signed with Decca Records, but did not have his first recording session with them until January 1937. \n\nBy then, Basie's sound was characterized by a \"jumping\" beat and the contrapuntal accents of his own piano. His personnel around 1937 included: Lester Young and Herschel Evans (tenor sax), Freddie Green (guitar), Jo Jones (drums), Walter Page (bass), Earle Warren (alto sax), Buck Clayton and Harry Edison (trumpet), Benny Morton and Dickie Wells (trombone). Lester Young, known as \"Prez\" by the band, came up with nicknames for all the other band members. He called Basie \"Holy Man\", \"Holy Main\", and just plain \"Holy\". \n\nBasie favored blues, and he would showcase some of the most notable blues singers of the era after he went to New York: Billie Holiday, Jimmy Rushing, Big Joe Turner, Helen Humes, and Joe Williams. He also hired arrangers who knew how to maximize the band's abilities, such as Eddie Durham and Jimmy Mundy.\n\nNew York City and the swing years\n\nWhen Basie took his orchestra to New York in 1937, they made the Woodside Hotel in Harlem their base (they often rehearsed in its basement). Soon, they were booked at the Roseland Ballroom for the Christmas show. Basie recalled a review, which said something like, \"We caught the great Count Basie band which is supposed to be so hot he was going to come in here and set the Roseland on fire. Well, the Roseland is still standing\". Compared to the reigning band of Fletcher Henderson, Basie's band lacked polish and presentation. \n\nThe producer John Hammond continued to advise and encourage the band, and they soon came up with some adjustments, including softer playing, more solos, and more standards. They paced themselves to save their hottest numbers for later in the show, to give the audience a chance to warm up. His first official recordings for Decca followed, under contract to agent MCA, including \"Pennies from Heaven\" and \"Honeysuckle Rose\". \n\nHammond introduced Basie to Billie Holiday, whom he invited to sing with the band. (Holiday did not record with Basie, as she had her own record contract and preferred working with small combos). The band's first appearance at the Apollo Theater followed, with the vocalists Holiday and Jimmy Rushing getting the most attention. Durham returned to help with arranging and composing, but for the most part, the orchestra worked out its numbers in rehearsal, with Basie guiding the proceedings. There were often no musical notations made. Once the musicians found what they liked, they usually were able to repeat it using their \"head arrangements\" and collective memory. \n\nNext, Basie played at the Savoy, which was noted more for lindyhopping, while the Roseland was a place for fox-trots and congas. In early 1938, the Savoy was the meeting ground for a \"battle of the bands\" with Chick Webb's group. Basie had Holiday, and Webb countered with the singer Ella Fitzgerald. As Metronome magazine proclaimed, \"Basie's Brilliant Band Conquers Chick's\"; the article described the evening:\n\"Throughout the fight, which never let down in its intensity during the whole fray, Chick took the aggressive, with the Count playing along easily and, on the whole, more musically scientifically. Undismayed by Chick's forceful drum beating, which sent the audience into shouts of encouragement and appreciation and casual beads of perspiration to drop from Chick's brow onto the brass cymbals, the Count maintained an attitude of poise and self-assurance. He constantly parried Chick's thundering haymakers with tantalizing runs and arpeggios which teased more and more force from his adversary\". \nThe publicity over the big band battle, before and after, gave the Basie band a boost and wider recognition. Soon after, Benny Goodman recorded their signature \"One O'Clock Jump\" with his band. \n\nA few months later, Holiday left for Artie Shaw's band. Hammond introduced Helen Humes, whom Basie hired; she stayed with Basie for four years. When Eddie Durham left for Glenn Miller's orchestra, he was replaced by Dicky Wells. Basie's 14-man band began playing at the Famous Door, a mid-town nightspot with a CBS network feed and air conditioning, which Hammond was said to have bought the club in return for their booking Basie steadily throughout the summer of 1938. Their fame took a huge leap. Adding to their play book, Basie received arrangements from Jimmy Mundy (who had also worked with Benny Goodman and Earl Hines), particularly for \"Cherokee\", \"Easy Does It\", and \"Super Chief\". In 1939, Basie and his band made a major cross-country tour, including their first West Coast dates. A few months later, Basie quit MCA and signed with the William Morris Agency, who got them better fees. \n\nOn 19 February 1940, Count Basie and his Orchestra opened a four-week engagement at Southland in Boston, and they broadcast over the radio on 20 February. \nOn the West Coast, in 1942 the band did a spot in Reveille With Beverly, a musical film starring Ann Miller, and a \"Command Performance\" for Armed Forces Radio, with Hollywood stars Clark Gable, Bette Davis, Carmen Miranda, Jerry Colonna, and the singer Dinah Shore. Other minor movie spots followed, including Choo Choo Swing, Crazy House, Top Man, Stage Door Canteen, and Hit Parade of 1943. They also continued to record for OKeh Records and Columbia Records. The war years caused a lot of members turn over, and the band worked many play dates with lower pay. Dance hall bookings were down sharply as swing began to fade, the effects of the musicians' strikes of 1942–44 and 1948 began to be felt, and the public's taste grew for singers.\n\nBasie occasionally lost some key soloists. However, throughout the 1940s, he maintained a big band that possessed an infectious rhythmic beat, an enthusiastic team spirit, and a long list of inspired and talented jazz soloists.\"THE BIOGRAPHY OF COUNT BASIE.\" THE BIOGRAPHY OF COUNT BASIE. Swingmusic.net, n.d. Web. Nov 30, 2012. \n\nPost-war and later years\n\nThe big band era appeared to have ended after the war, and Basie disbanded the group. For a while, he performed in combos, sometimes stretched to an orchestra. In 1950, he headlined the Universal-International short film \"Sugar Chile\" Robinson, Billie Holiday, Count Basie and His Sextet. He reformed his group as a 16-piece orchestra in 1952. Basie credits Billy Eckstine, a top male vocalist of the time, for prompting his return to Big Band. He said that Norman Granz got them into the Birdland club and promoted the new band through recordings on the Mercury, Clef, and Verve labels. The jukebox era had begun, and Basie shared the exposure along with early rock'n'roll and rhythm and blues artists. Basie's new band was more of an ensemble group, with fewer solo turns, and relying less on \"head\" and more on written arrangements.\n\nBasie added touches of bebop \"so long as it made sense\", and he required that \"it all had to have feeling\". Basie's band was sharing Birdland with such bebop greats as Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, and Miles Davis. Behind the occasional bebop solos, he always kept his strict rhythmic pulse, \"so it doesn't matter what they do up front; the audience gets the beat\". Basie also added flute to some numbers, a novelty at the time that became widely copied. Soon, his band was touring and recording again. The new band included: Paul Campbell, Tommy Turrentine, Johnny Letman, Idrees Sulieman, and Joe Newman (trumpet); Jimmy Wilkins, Benny Powell, Matthew Gee (trombone); Paul Quinichette and Floyd \"Candy\" Johnson (tenor sax); Marshal Royal and Ernie Wilkins (alto sax); and Charlie Fowlkes (baritone sax). Down Beat magazine reported, \"(Basie) has managed to assemble an ensemble that can thrill both the listener who remembers 1938 and the youngster who has never before heard a big band like this.\" In 1957, Basie sued the jazz venue Ball and Chain in Miami over outstanding fees, causing the closure of the venue. \n\nIn 1958, the band made its first European tour. Jazz was especially appreciated in France, The Netherlands, and Germany in the 1950s; these countries were the stomping grounds for many expatriate American jazz stars who were either resurrecting their careers or sitting out the years of racial divide in the United States. Neal Hefti began to provide arrangements, notably \"Lil Darlin'\". By the mid-1950s, Basie's band had become one of the preeminent backing big bands for some of the most prominent jazz vocalists of the time. They also toured with the \"Birdland Stars of 1955\", whose lineup included Sarah Vaughan, Erroll Garner, Lester Young, George Shearing, and Stan Getz. \n\nIn 1957, Basie released the live album Count Basie at Newport. \"April in Paris\" (arrangement by Wild Bill Davis) was a best-selling instrumental and the title song for the hit album. The Basie band made two tours in the British Isles and on the second, they put on a command performance for Queen Elizabeth II, along with Judy Garland, Vera Lynn, and Mario Lanza. He was a guest on ABC's The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom, a venue also opened to several other black entertainers. In 1959, Basie's band recorded a \"greatest hits\" double album The Count Basie Story (Frank Foster, arranger) and \"Basie and Eckstine, Inc.\": album featuring Billy Eckstine, Quincy Jones (as arranger) and the Count Basie Orchestra. It was released by Roulette Records, then later reissued by Capitol Records.\n\nLater that year, Basie appeared on a television special with Fred Astaire, featuring a dance solo to \"Sweet Georgia Brown\", followed in January 1961 by Basie performing at one of the five John F. Kennedy Inaugural Balls. That summer, Basie and Duke Ellington combined forces for the recording First Time! The Count Meets the Duke, each providing four numbers from their play books. \n\nDuring the balance of the 1960s, the band kept busy with tours, recordings, television appearances, festivals, Las Vegas shows, and travel abroad, including cruises. Some time around 1964, Basie adopted his trademark yachting cap. \n\nThrough steady changes in personnel, Basie led the band into the 1980s. Basie made a few more movie appearances, such as the Jerry Lewis film Cinderfella (1960) and the Mel Brooks movie Blazing Saddles (1974), playing a revised arrangement of \"April in Paris\".\n\nDuring its heyday, The Gong Show (1976–80) used Basie's \"Jumpin' at the Woodside\" during some episodes, while an NBC stagehand named Eugene Patton would dance on stage; Patten became known as \"Gene Gene, the Dancing Machine\".\n\nMarriage and family\n\nBasie was a member of Omega Psi Phi Fraternity. On [http://interactive.ancestry.com/1171/vrmmo1833_c22648-2340/2120783?backurlhttp%3a%2f%2fsearch.ancestry.com%2fcgi-bin%2fsse.dll%3fdb%3dMOmarriages%26rank%3d1%26new%3d1%26so%3d3%26MSAV%3d1%26msT%3d1%26gss%3dms_db%26gsfn%3dwilliam%2bjames%26gsfn_x%3dNP_NN_NIC%26gsln%3dbasie%26gsln_x%3dXO%26msgdy%3d1930%26uidh%3drd3&ssrc\n&backlabelReturnSearchResults 21 July 1930], Basie married Vivian Lee Winn, in Kansas City, Jackson County, Missouri. They were divorced sometime before 1935. Sometime in or before 1935, the now single Basie returned to New York City, renting a house at [https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-27840-17022-55?cc\n2000219 111 West 138th Street], Manhattan, as evidenced by the 1940 census. He married [http://interactive.ancestry.com/2378/85360001_3d3e434c-99c4-43a5-9a8c-2defe3ca7935/922625?backurlhttp%3a%2f%2fsearch.ancestry.com%2fcgi-bin%2fsse.dll%3fdb%3dwamarriage%26so%3d2%26pcat%3dROOT_CATEGORY%26rank%3d1%26new%3d1%26MSAV%3d1%26msT%3d1%26gss%3dangs-g%26gsfn%3dwilliam%2bjames%26gsfn_x%3dNP_NN_NIC%26gsln%3dbasie%26gsln_x%3dXO%26cpxt%3d1%26catBucket%3dr%26uidh%3drd3%26cp%3d12%26mssns0%3dmorgan%26mssns0_x%3d1&ssrc\n&backlabel=ReturnSearchResults Catherine Morgan] on 13 July 1950 in the King County courthouse in Seattle, Washington. In 1942, they moved to Queens. On April 11, 1983, Catherine Basie died of a heart attack at the couple's home in Freeport, Grand Bahama Island. She was 67 years old. \n\nBasie died of pancreatic cancer in Hollywood, Florida on April 26, 1984 at the age of 79.\n\nThe singers\n\nBasie hitched his star to some of the most famous vocalists of the 1950s and 1960s, which helped keep the Big Band sound alive and added greatly to his recording catalog. Jimmy Rushing sang with Basie in the late 1930s. Joe Williams toured with the band and was featured on the 1957 album One O'Clock Jump, and 1956's Count Basie Swings, Joe Williams Sings, with \"Every Day (I Have the Blues)\" becoming a huge hit. With Billy Eckstine on the album Basie/Eckstine Incorporated, in 1959. Ella Fitzgerald made some memorable recordings with Basie, including the 1963 album Ella and Basie!. With the 'New Testament' Basie band in full swing, and arrangements written by a youthful Quincy Jones, this album proved a swinging respite from her Songbook recordings and constant touring she did during this period. She even toured with the Basie Orchestra in the mid-1970s, and Fitzgerald and Basie also met on the 1979 albums A Classy Pair, Digital III at Montreux, and A Perfect Match, the last two also recorded live at Montreux. In addition to Quincy Jones, Basie was using arrangers such as Benny Carter (Kansas City Suite), Neal Hefti (The Atomic Mr Basie), and Sammy Nestico (Basie-Straight Ahead).\n\nFrank Sinatra recorded for the first time with Basie on 1962's Sinatra-Basie and for a second studio album on 1964's It Might as Well Be Swing, which was arranged by Quincy Jones. Jones also arranged and conducted 1966's live Sinatra at the Sands which featured Sinatra with Count Basie and his orchestra at the Sands Hotel in Las Vegas. In May 1970, Sinatra performed in London's Royal Festival Hall with the Basie orchestra, in a charity benefit for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Sinatra later said of this concert \"I have a funny feeling that those two nights could have been my finest hour, really. It went so well; it was so thrilling and exciting\". \n\nBasie also recorded with Tony Bennett in the early 1960s—their albums together included the live recording at Las Vegas and Strike Up the Band, a studio album. Basie also toured with Bennett, including a date at Carnegie Hall. Other notable recordings were with Sammy Davis, Jr., Bing Crosby, and Sarah Vaughan. One of Basie's biggest regrets was never recording with Louis Armstrong, though they shared the same bill several times. In 1968 Basie and his Band recorded an album with Jackie Wilson titled \"Manufacturers of Soul\". \n\nLegacy and honors\n\nCount Basie introduced several generations of listeners to the Big Band sound and left an influential catalog. Basie is remembered by many who worked for him as being considerate of musicians and their opinions, modest, relaxed, fun-loving, dryly witty, and always enthusiastic about his music. In his autobiography, he wrote, \"I think the band can really swing when it swings easy, when it can just play along like you are cutting butter.\" \n\nIn Red Bank, New Jersey, the Count Basie Theatre, a property on Monmouth Street redeveloped for live performances, and Count Basie Field were named in his honor.\nMechanic Street, where he grew up with his family, has the honorary title of Count Basie Way.\nIn 2009, Edgecombe Avenue and 160th Street in Washington Heights, Manhattan, were renamed as Paul Robeson Boulevard and Count Basie Place. The corner is the location of 555 Edgecombe Avenue, also known as the Paul Robeson Home, a National Historic Landmark where Count Basie had also lived.\nIn October 2013, version 3.7 of WordPress was code-named Count Basie. \n\nRepresentation in other media\n\nJerry Lewis used \"Blues in Hoss' Flat\" from Basie's Chairman of the Board album, as the basis for his own \"Chairman of the Board\" routine in the movie The Errand Boy.\n\"Blues in Hoss' Flat,\" composed by Basie band member Frank Foster, was used by the radio DJ Al \"Jazzbeaux\" Collins as his theme song in San Francisco and New York.\nIn Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992), Brenda Fricker's \"Pigeon Lady\" character claims to have heard Basie in Carnegie Hall.\nDrummer Neil Peart of the Canadian rock band Rush recorded a version of \"One O'Clock Jump\" with the Buddy Rich Big Band, and has used it at the end of his drum solos on the 2002 Vapor Trails Tour and Rush's 30th Anniversary Tour.\n\nDiscography\n\nThe majority of Basie's recordings were made with his big band, see Count Basie Orchestra Discography.\n\nFrom 1929–1932 Basie was part of Bennie Moten's Kansas City Orchestra:\nBennie Moten's Kansas City Orchestra (1929–1932): Basie Beginnings (1929–1932, RCA/Bluebird Records)\n\nBasie also made several small group recordings without his band:\nThe Swinging Count! (Clef 1952 [1956]) as The Count Basie Sextet\nCount Basie Presents Eddie Davis Trio + Joe Newman (Roulette, 1958) with Eddie \"Lockjaw\" Davis and Joe Newman\n Atomic Swing (1958, Roulette Jazz)\nMemories Ad-Lib (Roulette, 1958)\nString Along with Basie (Roulette, 1960)\nCount Basie and the Kansas City 7 (1962, Impulse!)\nBasie Swingin' Voices Singin' (ABC-Paramount, 1966) with the Alan Copeland Singers\nLoose Walk (with Roy Eldridge) (1972, Pablo)\nBasie Jam (1973, Pablo)\nThe Bosses (with Big Joe Turner) (1973)\nFor the First Time (1974, Pablo)\nSatch and Josh (with Oscar Peterson)\nBasie & Zoot (with Zoot Sims) (1975, Pablo)\nFor the Second Time (1975, Pablo)\nBasie Jam 2 (1976, Pablo)\nBasie Jam 3 (1976, Pablo)\nKansas City 5 (1977, Pablo)\nThe Gifted Ones (with Dizzy Gillespie) (1977, Pablo)\nMontreux '77 (Live) (1977 Pablo)\nBasie Jam: Montreux '77 (Live) (1977, Pablo)\nSatch and Josh...Again (with Oscar Peterson) (1977, Pablo)\nNight Rider (with Oscar Peterson) (1978, Pablo)\nCount Basie Meets Oscar Peterson – The Timekeepers (with Oscar Peterson) (1978, Pablo)\nYessir, That's My Baby (with Oscar Peterson) (1978, Pablo)\nKansas City 8: Get Together (1979, Pablo)\nKansas City 7 (1980, Pablo)\nOn The Road (1980, Pablo Today, Red Vinyl)\nKansas City 6 (1981, Pablo)\nMostly Blues...and Some Others (1983, Pablo)\n20 Golden Pieces of Count Basie (1993, Bulldog)\nJazz & blues (1995, Editions Atlas)\nCount Basie [K-Tel] (1996, K-Tel)\nCount Basie's Got Rhythm (1998, Emporio; 2001, MCI)\nJumpin' (2000, Columbia River Entertainment Group)\nThe Memorial Album (2012, AAO Music)\n\nFilmography\n\n* Hit Parade of 1943 (1943) – as himself\n* Sugar Chile Robinson, Billie Holiday, Count Basie and His Sextet (1950) – as himself\n* Cinderfella (1960) – as himself\n* Blazing Saddles (1974) – as himself with his orchestra\n* Last of the Blue Devils (1979) – interview and concert by the orchestra in documentary on Kansas City music\n\nAwards\n\nGrammy Awards\n\nGrammy Hall of Fame\n\nBy 2011, four recordings of Count Basie had been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old, and that have \"qualitative or historical significance.\"\n\nHonors and inductions\n\nOn May 23, 1985, William \"Count\" Basie was presented, posthumously, with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan. The award was received by his son, Aaron Woodward.\n\nOn September 11, 1996 the U.S. Post Office issued a Count Basie 32 cents postage stamp. Basie is a part of the Big Band Leaders issue, which, is in turn, part of the Legends of American Music series.\n\nIn 2009, Basie was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame. \n\nNational Recording Registry\n\nIn 2005, Count Basie's song \"One O'Clock Jump\" (1937) was included by the National Recording Preservation Board in the Library of Congress National Recording Registry. The board selects songs in an annual basis that are \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1984", "one thousand, nine hundred and eighty-four" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1984", "one thousand nine hundred and eighty four" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1984", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1984" }
Which bridge is the subject of Hart Crane's The bridge?	tc_1001	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Bridge_(long_poem).txt", "Hart_Crane.txt" ], "title": [ "The Bridge (long poem)", "Hart Crane" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Bridge, first published in 1930 by the Black Sun Press, is Hart Crane's first, and only, attempt at a long poem. (Its primary status as either an epic or a series of lyrical poems remains contested; recent criticism tends to read it as a hybrid, perhaps indicative of a new genre, the \"modernist epic.\" )\n\nThe Bridge was inspired by New York City's \"poetry landmark\", the Brooklyn Bridge. Crane lived for some time at 110 Columbia Heights in Brooklyn, where he had an excellent view of the bridge; only after The Bridge was finished did Crane learn that one of its key builders, Washington Roebling, had once lived at the same address. \n\nThe first edition of the book features photographs by Crane's friend, the photographer Walker Evans.\n\nContents\n\nThe Bridge comprises 15 lyric poems of varying length and scope. In style, it mixes near-Pindaric declamatory metre, free verse, sprung metre, Elizabethan diction and demotic language at various points between alternating stanzas and often in the same stanzas. In terms of its acoustical coherence, it requires its reader, novelly, to follow both end-paused and non end-paused enjambments in a style Crane intended to be redolent of the flow of the Jazz or Classical music he tended to listen to when he wrote. Though the poem follows a thematic progress, it freely juggles various points in time. -The University of Illinois' Modern American Poetry site analyses the symbolic meaning of \"the bridge\" as a central image throughout the book: When Crane positions himself under the shadows of the bridge, he is, in one sense, simply the poet of the romantic tradition, the observer who stands aside the better to see; but he is, in another sense, the gay male cruising in an area notorious for its casual sex. Even the bridge itself, the Brooklyn Bridge that is the central object of the poem, was strongly identified in Crane’s own mind with [Crane's lover] Emil Opffer, to whom Voyages was dedicated. The appearance of the bridge secretly encrypts a highly personal memory and a specific presence in the text. Crane’s \"epic of America\" gets underway as a personal quest, as a poem divided against itself, in devotion to an urban setting that encourages social diversity, with secret inscriptions that retain their meanings to which only a privileged few are accessible. \n\n\"Proem: To Brooklyn Bridge\" is the short lyrical ode to the Brooklyn Bridge and New York City which opens the sequence and serves as an introduction (and New York City's urban landscape remains a dominant presence throughout the book). After beginning with this ode, \"Ave Maria\" begins the first longer sequence labeled Roman numeral I which describes Columbus' accidental voyage to the Americas. The title of the piece is based upon the fact that Columbus attributed his crew's survival across the Atlantic Ocean to \"the intercession of the Virgin Mary.\" Ellmann, Richard and Robert O'Clair, eds. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, 2nd Edition. New York: Norton, 1988. The second major section of the poem, \"Powhatan's Daughter,\" is divided into five parts, and one well-known part, entitled \"The River,\" follows a group of vagabonds, in the 20th century, who are traveling west through America via train. In \"The River,\" Crane incorporates advertisements and references Minstrel shows. He claimed in a letter that \"the rhythm [in this section] is jazz.\" The section also includes the story of Pocahontas (who was \"Powhatan's Daughter\") and a section on the fictional character Rip Van Winkle. \n\nOther major sections of the poem include \"Cape Hatteras\" (the longest individual section of the poem), \"Quaker Hill,\" \"The Tunnel,\" and \"Atlantis,\" the rapturous final section that returns the poem's focus back to the Brooklyn Bridge, and which was actually the first part of the overall poem finished despite its reservation for the end.\n\nCritical reception\n\nUpon its publication, The Bridge received mostly negative reviews. Yvor Winters, a contemporary and friend of Crane's who had praised Crane's previous book, White Buildings, wrote one such review, in which he associated Crane's book with Modernist works by James Joyce and William Carlos Williams. Due to his disparaging views toward Modernism as a whole, Winters viewed such an association negatively. In Winter's own words, The Bridge \"has no narrative framework and so lacks the formal unity of an epic.\" \n\nIn a slightly more mixed review, \"Metaphor in Contemporary Poetry,\" Cudworth Flint wrote, \"This poem seems to me indubitably the work of a man of genius, and it contains passages of compact imagination and compelling rhythms. But its central intention, to give to America a myth embodying a creed which may sustain us somewhat as Christianity has done in the past, the poem fails.\" \n\nCritical consensus on The Bridge (and on Crane's status in the Modernist canon more broadly) still remains deeply divided.Kirsch, Adam. \"The Mystic Word. The New Yorker. October 9, 2006. [http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/10/09/061009crbo_books1] Some critics believe that The Bridge was Crane's crowning achievement, and that it is a masterpiece of American modernism. For instance, Gregory Woods writes that \"Hart Crane’s place in the Modernist pantheon is established by The Bridge,\" and when the literary critic Harold Bloom placed Crane in his pantheon of the best Modernist American poets of the 20th century, Bloom focused on The Bridge as Crane's most significant achievement, putting it on the same level as T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land, though Bloom regarded Crane as the superior poet, as evidenced in this section from his introduction to his complete poems: \"But after a lifetime of disliking Eliot's literary and \"cultural\" criticism, I have to yield to The Waste Land, because Hart Crame did, though he went down fighting the poem. The glory of The Bridge (1930) is its ambivalent warfare with The Waste Land, without which Crane would not have been the miracle he was.\". Still, the poet/critic Randall Jarrell had much more mixed feelings about the lack of overall consistency in the epic, writing, \"Hart Crane's The Bridge does not succeed as a unified work of art, partly because some of its poems are bad or mediocre;\" nevertheless, Jarrell goes on to write, \"how wonderful parts of The Bridge are! 'Van Winkle' is one of the clearest and freshest and most truly American poems ever written.\" Allen Ginsberg called Atlantis the greatest work in Western metrical rhetoric since Shelley's Adonais.\n\nMore recently, Jarrell and Flint's criticisms of the poem have been echoed, and even been amplified, by more conservative contemporary poetry critics like Adam Kirsch and William Logan who both wrote highly critical reviews of Crane's work following the publication of Hart Crane: Complete Poems and Selected Letters by the Library of America in 2006. In an article for The New Yorker, Kirsch called The Bridge \"an impressive failure. . .[that] varies wildly in quality, containing some of Crane’s best writing and some of his worst.\" Then Kirsch goes on to call parts of the \"Atlantis\" section of the poem \"exhilarating\" while he criticizes the \"Indiana\" section for being \"rankly sentimental.\"\n\nFrom a more positive critical perspective, The Bridge was recently singled out by the Academy of American Poets as one of the 20th century's \"Groundbreaking Books\". The organization writes, \"Physically removed from the city [since he began the piece while living in the Caribbean], Crane relied on his memory and imagination to render the numerous awesome and grotesque nuances of New York, evident in poems such as 'The Tunnel' and 'Cutty Sark.' The book’s opening, 'Proem: To Brooklyn Bridge,' is indicative of Crane’s ecstatic, symbolic vision of the modern city. . .However, [because of his suicide in April 1932,] Crane would never again complete anything as complex or compelling as The Bridge.\" \n\nComposition\n\nAccording to the 1988 Voices and Visions PBS documentary on Crane, when Crane first began to write The Bridge, he \"felt. . .stuck and was incapable of writing more than a few lines.\" Around this time Crane wrote, \"Emotionally I should like to write The Bridge. Intellectually the whole theme seems more and more absurd. The very idea of a bridge is an act of faith. The form of my poem rises out of a past that so overwhelms the present with its worth and vision that I'm at a loss to explain my delusion that there exists any real links between that past and a future destiny worthy of it. If only America were half as worthy today to be spoken of as Whitman spoke of it fifty years ago, there might be something for me to say.\" As the poem began to take shape and showed promise, Crane wrote, \"The Bridge is symphonic in including all the strands: Columbus, conquest of water, land, Pocahontas, subways, offices. The Bridge, in becoming a ship, a world, a woman, a tremendous harp as it does finally, seems to really have a career.\"Voice and Visions Series. \"Hart Crane.\" Produced by the New York Center for Visual History. 1988. [http://www.learner.org/resources/series57.html?popyes&pid\n591]\n\nNotes", "Harold Hart Crane (July 21, 1899 – April 27, 1932) was an American poet. Finding both inspiration and provocation in the poetry of T. S. Eliot, Crane wrote modernist poetry that was difficult, highly stylized, and ambitious in its scope. In his most ambitious work, The Bridge, Crane sought to write an epic poem, in the vein of The Waste Land, that expressed a more optimistic view of modern, urban culture than the one that he found in Eliot's work. In the years following his suicide at the age of 32, Crane has been hailed by playwrights, poets, and literary critics alike (including Robert Lowell, Derek Walcott, Tennessee Williams, and Harold Bloom), as being one of the most influential poets of his generation. \n\nLife and work\n\nHart Crane was born in Garrettsville, Ohio, the son of Clarence A. Crane and Grace Edna Hart. His father was a successful Ohio businessman who invented the Life Savers candy and held the patent, but sold it for $2,900 before the brand became popular. He made other candy and accumulated a fortune from the candy business with chocolate bars. Crane's mother and father were constantly fighting, and early in April, 1917, they divorced.Exact date seems to be April 1st, but is described somewhat unclearly in Mariani p. 35 Hart dropped out of high school during his junior year and left for New York City, promising his parents he would attend Columbia University later. His parents, in the middle of divorce proceedings, were upset. Crane took various copywriting jobs and jumped between friends’ apartments in Manhattan. Between 1917 and 1924 he moved back and forth between New York and Cleveland, working as an advertising copywriter and a worker in his father’s factory. From Crane's letters, it appears that New York was where he felt most at home, and much of his poetry is set there.\n\nCareer\n\nThroughout the early 1920s, small but well-respected literary magazines published some of Crane's lyrics, gaining him, among the avant-garde, a respect that White Buildings (1926), his first volume, ratified and strengthened. White Buildings contains many of Crane’s best lyrics, including \"For the Marriage of Faustus and Helen\", and \"Voyages\", a powerful sequence of erotic poems. They were written while he was falling in love with Emil Opffer, a Danish merchant mariner. \"Faustus and Helen\" was part of a larger artistic struggle to meet modernity with something more than despair. Crane identified T. S. Eliot with that kind of despair, and while he acknowledged the greatness of The Waste Land, he also said it was \"so damned dead\", an impasse, and characterized by a refusal to see \"certain spiritual events and possibilities\". Crane’s self-appointed work would be to bring those spiritual events and possibilities to poetic life, and so create \"a mystical synthesis of America\". \n\nCrane returned to New York in 1928, living with friends and taking temporary jobs as a copywriter or living off unemployment and the charity of friends and his father. For a time, he was living in Brooklyn at 77 Willow Street until his lover, Opffer, invited him to live in Opffer's father’s home at 110 Columbia Heights in Brooklyn Heights. Crane was overjoyed at the views the location afforded him. He wrote his mother and grandmother in the spring of 1924:\n\nJust imagine looking out your window directly on the East River with nothing intervening between your view of the Statue of Liberty, way down the harbour, and the marvelous beauty of Brooklyn Bridge close above you on your right! All of the great new skyscrapers of lower Manhattan are marshaled directly across from you, and there is a constant stream of tugs, liners, sail boats, etc in procession before you on the river! It's really a magnificent place to live. This section of Brooklyn is very old, but all the houses are in splendid condition and have not been invaded by foreigners...\n\nHis ambition to synthesize America was expressed in The Bridge (1930), intended to be an uplifting counter to Eliot's The Waste Land. The Brooklyn Bridge is both the poem’s central symbol and its poetic starting point.[http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/hart-crane Poetry Foundation profile] Crane found what a place to start his synthesis in Brooklyn. Arts patron Otto H. Kahn gave him $2,000 to begin work on the epic poem. When he wore out his welcome at the Opffers, Crane left for Paris in early 1929, but failed to leave his personal problems behind. It was during the late 1920s, while he was finishing The Bridge, that his drinking, always a problem, became notably worse. \n\nIn Paris in February 1929, Harry Crosby, who with his wife Caresse Crosby owned the fine arts press Black Sun Press, offered Crane the use of their country retreat, Le Moulin du Soleil in Ermenonville. They hoped he could use the time to concentrate on completing The Bridge. Crane spent several weeks at their estate where he roughed out a draft of the \"Cape Hatteras\" section, a key part of his epic poem. In late June that year, Crane returned from the south of France to Paris. Harry noted in his journal, \"Hart C. back from Marseilles where he slept with his thirty sailors and he began again to drink Cutty Sark.\" Crane got drunk at the Cafe Select and fought with waiters over his tab. When the Paris police were called, he fought with them and was beaten. They arrested and jailed him, fining him 800 francs. After Hart had spent six days in prison at La Santé, Harry Crosby paid Crane's fine and advanced him money for the passage back to the United States where he finally finished The Bridge. The work received poor reviews, and Crane’s sense of his own failure became crushing.\n\nDeath\n\nCrane visited Mexico in 1931–32 on a Guggenheim Fellowship and his drinking continued as he suffered from bouts of alternating depression and elation. When Peggy Cowley, wife of his friend Malcolm Cowley, agreed to a divorce, she joined Crane. As far as is known, she was his only heterosexual partner. \"The Broken Tower,\" one of his last published poems, emerged from that affair. Crane still felt himself a failure, in part because he recommenced homosexual activity in spite of his relationship with Cowley.\n\nWhile on board the steamship Orizaba en route to New York, he was beaten after making sexual advances to a male crew member. Just before noon on April 27, 1932, Hart Crane jumped overboard into the Gulf of Mexico. Although he had been drinking heavily and left no suicide note, witnesses believed his intentions to be suicidal, as several reported that he exclaimed \"Goodbye, everybody!\" before throwing himself overboard. His body was never recovered. A marker on his father's tombstone in Garrettsville includes the inscription, \"Harold Hart Crane 1899–1932 lost at sea\". \n\nPoetics\n\nCrane's critical effort, like those of Keats and Rilke, is most pronounced in his letters: he corresponded regularly with Allen Tate, Yvor Winters, and Gorham Munson, and shared critical dialogues with Eugene O'Neill, William Carlos Williams, E. E. Cummings, Sherwood Anderson, Kenneth Burke, Waldo Frank, Harriet Monroe, Marianne Moore, and Gertrude Stein. He was also a correspondent of H. P. Lovecraft, who eventually would voice concern over Crane's premature aging due to alcohol abuse. Most serious work on Crane begins with his letters, selections of which are available in many editions of his poetry; his letters to Munson, Tate, Winters, and his patron, Otto Hermann Kahn, are particularly insightful. His two most famous stylistic defenses emerged from correspondences: his Emersonian \"General Aims and Theories\" (1925) was written to urge Eugene O’Neill’s critical foreword to White Buildings, then passed around among friends, yet unpublished during Crane's life; and the famous \"Letter to Harriet Monroe\" (1926) was part of an exchange for the publication of \"At Melville's Tomb\" in Poetry.\n\nThe literary critic Adam Kirsch has argued that \"[Crane has been] a special case in the canon of American modernism, his reputation never quite as secure as that of Eliot or Stevens.\" \n\nThe \"Logic of Metaphor\"\n\nAs with Eliot's \"objective correlative,\" a certain vocabulary haunts Crane criticism, his \"logic of metaphor\" being perhaps the most vexed. His most quoted formulation is in the circulated, if long unpublished, \"General Aims and Theories\": \"As to technical considerations: the motivation of the poem must be derived from the implicit emotional dynamics of the materials used, and the terms of expression employed are often selected less for their logical (literal) significance than for their associational meanings. Via this and their metaphorical inter-relationships, the entire construction of the poem is raised on the organic principle of a 'logic of metaphor,' which antedates our so-called pure logic, and which is the genetic basis of all speech, hence consciousness and thought-extension. \n\nThere is also some mention of it, though it is not so much presented as a critical neologism, in his letter to Harriet Monroe: \"The logic of metaphor is so organically entrenched in pure sensibility that it can't be thoroughly traced or explained outside of historical sciences, like philology and anthropology.\" L. S. Dembo's influential study of The Bridge, Hart Crane's Sanskrit Charge (1960), reads this 'logic' well within the familiar rhetoric of the Romantics: \"The Logic of metaphor was simply the written form of the 'bright logic' of the imagination, the crucial sign stated, the Word made words.... As practiced, the logic of metaphor theory is reducible to a fairly simple linguistic principle: the symbolized meaning of an image takes precedence over its literal meaning; regardless of whether the vehicle of an image makes sense, the reader is expected to grasp its tenor. \n\nDifficulty\n\nThe publication of White Buildings was delayed by Eugene O'Neill's struggle (and eventual failure) to articulate his appreciation in a foreword to it; and many critics since have used Crane's difficulty as an excuse for a quick dismissal. Even a young Tennessee Williams, then falling in love with Crane's poetry, could \"hardly understand a single line—of course the individual lines aren't supposed to be intelligible. The message, if there actually is one, comes from the total effect.\". It was not lost on Crane, then, that his poetry was difficult. Some of his best, and practically only, essays originated as encouraging epistles: explications and stylistic apologies to editors, updates to his patron, and the variously well-considered or impulsive letters to his friends. It was, for instance, only the exchange with Harriet Monroe at Poetry when she initially refused to print \"At Melville’s Tomb\" that urged Crane to describe his \"logic of metaphor\" in print. But describe it he did, then complaining that: \"If the poet is to be held completely to the already evolved and exploited sequences of imagery and logic—what field of added consciousness and increased perceptions (the actual province of poetry, if not lullabies) can be expected when one has to relatively return to the alphabet every breath or two? In the minds of people who have sensitively read, seen, and experienced a great deal, isn’t there a terminology something like short-hand as compared to usual description and dialectics, which the artist ought to be right in trusting as a reasonable connective agent toward fresh concepts, more inclusive evaluations?\" \n\nMonroe was not impressed, though she acknowledged that others were, and printed the exchange alongside the poem: \"You find me testing metaphors, and poetic concept in general, too much by logic, whereas I find you pushing logic to the limit in a painfully intellectual search for emotion, for poetic motive.\" In any case, Crane had a relatively well-developed rhetoric for the defense of his poems; here is an excerpt from \"General Aims and Theories\": \"New conditions of life germinate new forms of spiritual articulation. ...the voice of the present, if it is to be known, must be caught at the risk of speaking in idioms and circumlocutions sometimes shocking to the scholar and historians of logic.\" \n\nThe \"Homosexual Text\"\n\nAs a boy, he had a sexual relationship with a man.\"[That] Hart Crane was homosexual was by now well known to most of his friends. He said to Evans that he had been seduced as a boy by an older man.\" Rathbone, Belinda. Walker Evans: A Biography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995. p. 4 He associated his sexuality with his vocation as a poet. Raised in the Christian Science tradition of his mother, he never ceased to view himself as a social pariah. However, as poems such as \"Repose of Rivers\" make clear, he felt that this sense of alienation was necessary in order for him to attain the visionary insight that formed the basis for his poetic work.\n\nRecent queer criticism has asserted that it is particularly difficult, perhaps even inappropriate, to read many of Crane's poems – \"The Broken Tower,\" \"My Grandmother's Love Letters,\" the \"Voyages\" series, and others – without a willingness to look for, and uncover, homosexual meanings in the text. The prominent queer theorist Tim Dean argues, for instance, that the obscurity of Crane's style owes itself partially to the necessities of being a semi-public homosexual – not quite closeted, but also, as legally and culturally necessary, not open: \"The intensity responsible for Crane’s particular form of difficulty involves not only linguistic considerations but also culturally subjective concerns. This intensity produces a kind of privacy that is comprehensible in terms of the cultural construction of homosexuality and its attendant institutions of privacy.\" \n\nThomas Yingling objects to the traditional, New Critical and Eliotic readings of Crane, arguing that the \"American myth criticism and formalist readings\" have \"depolarized and normalized our reading of American poetry, making any homosexual readings seem perverse.\" Even more than a personal or political problem, though, Yingling argues that such \"biases\" obscure much of what the poems make clear; he cites, for instance, the last lines of \"My Grandmother's Love Letters\" from White Buildings as a haunting description of estrangement from the norms of (heterosexual) family life:\n\nYet I would lead my grandmother by the hand\nThrough much of what she would not understand;\nAnd so I stumble. And the rain continues on the roof\nWith such a sound of gently pitying laughter.\n\nThe critic Brian Reed has contributed to a project of critical reintegration, suggesting that an overemphasis on the sexual biography of Crane's poetry can skew a broader appreciation of his overall work. In one example of Reed's approach, he published a close reading of Crane's lyric poem, \"Voyages,\" (a love poem that Crane wrote for his lover Emil Opffer) on the Poetry Foundation website, analyzing the poem based strictly on the content of the text itself and not on outside political or cultural matters. \n\nInfluence\n\nCrane was admired by artists such as Allen Tate, Eugene O'Neill, Kenneth Burke, Edmund Wilson, E. E. Cummings and William Carlos Williams. Although Hart had his sharp critics, among them Marianne Moore and Ezra Pound, Moore did publish his work, as did T. S. Eliot, who, moving even further out of Pound's sphere, may have borrowed some of Crane's imagery for Four Quartets, in the beginning of East Coker, which is reminiscent of the final section of The River, from The Bridge. \n\nImportant mid-century American poets like John Berryman and Robert Lowell cited Crane as a significant influence. Both poets also wrote about Crane in their poetry. Berryman wrote him one of his famous elegies in The Dream Songs, and Lowell published his \"Words for Hart Crane\" in Life Studies (1959): \"Who asks for me, the Shelley of my age, / must lay his heart out for my bed and board.\" Lowell thought that Crane was the most important American poet of the generation to come of age in the 1920s, stating that \"[Crane] got out more than anybody else . . . he somehow got New York City; he was at the center of things in the way that no other poet was.\" Lowell also described Crane as being \"less limited than any other poet of his generation.\" \n\nPerhaps most reverently, Tennessee Williams said that he wanted to be \"given back to the sea\" at the \"point most nearly determined as the point at which Hart Crane gave himself back.\". One of Williams's last plays, a \"ghost play\" titled \"Steps Must Be Gentle,\" explores Crane's relationship with his mother. \n\nIn a 1991 interview with Antonio Weiss of The Paris Review, the literary critic Harold Bloom talked about how Crane, along with William Blake, initially sparked his interest in literature at a very young age: I was preadolescent, ten or eleven years old. I still remember the extraordinary delight, the extraordinary force that Crane and Blake brought to me—in particular Blake’s rhetoric in the longer poems—though I had no notion what they were about. I picked up a copy of The Collected Poems of Hart Crane in the Bronx Library. I still remember when I lit upon the page with the extraordinary trope, “O Thou steeled Cognizance whose leap commits / The agile precincts of the lark’s return.” I was just swept away by it, by the Marlovian rhetoric. I still have the flavor of that book in me. Indeed it’s the first book I ever owned. I begged my oldest sister to give it to me, and I still have the old black and gold edition she gave me for my birthday back in 1942. . .I suppose the only poet of the twentieth century that I could secretly set above Yeats and Stevens would be Hart Crane. \n\nMore recently, the American poet Gerald Stern wrote an essay on Crane in which he stated, \"Some, when they talk about Crane, emphasize his drinking, his chaotic life, his self-doubt, and the dangers of his sexual life, but he was able to manage these things, even though he died at 32, and create a poetry that was tender, attentive, wise, and radically original.\" At the conclusion of his essay, Stern writes, \"Crane is always with me, and whatever I wrote, short poem or long, strange or unstrange—his voice, his tone, his sense of form, his respect for life, his love of the word, his vision have affected me. But I don't want, in any way, to exploit or appropriate this amazing poet whom I am, after all, so different from, he who may be, finally, the great poet, in English, of the twentieth century.\" \n\nSuch important affections have made Crane a \"poet's poet\". Thomas Lux offers, for instance: \"If the devil came to me and said 'Tom, you can be dead and Hart can be alive,' I'd take the deal in a heartbeat if the devil promised, when arisen, Hart would have to go straight into A.A.\" \n\nBeyond poetry, Crane's suicide inspired several works of art by noted artist Jasper Johns, including \"Periscope,\" \"Land's End,\" and \"Diver,\" the \"Symphony for Three Orchestras\" by Elliott Carter (inspired by the \"Bridge\") and the painting by Marsden Hartley \"Eight Bells' Folly, Memorial for Hart Crane.\" \n\nDepictions\n\nCrane is the subject of The Broken Tower, a 2011 American student film by the actor James Franco who wrote, directed, and starred in the film which was the Master thesis project for his MFA in filmmaking at New York University. He loosely based his script on Paul Mariani's 1999 nonfiction book The Broken Tower: A Life of Hart Crane. Despite being a student film, The Broken Tower was shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival in 2011 and received DVD distribution in 2012 by Focus World Films.\n\nCrane appears as a character in Samuel R. Delany's novella \"Atlantis: Model 1924\" and the The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson.\n\nBibliography\n\nWhite Buildings. (1926)\nThe Bridge. (1930)\nThe Collected Poems of Hart Crane. Ed.Waldo Frank). Boriswood. (1938)\nHart Crane and Yvor Winters: Their Literary Correspondence. Ed. Thomas Parkinson. Berkeley: University of California Press (1978)\nO My Land, My Friends: The Selected Letters of Hart Crane. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows. (1997)\nThe Complete Poems of Hart Crane. Ed. Marc Simon. New York: Liveright. (1986)\n*Hart Crane: Complete Poems and Selected Letters. Ed. Langdon Hammer. New York: The Library of America. (2006)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "I have a bridge to sell you", "I've a bridge to sell you", "Brooklyn bridge", "Brooklyn Bridge", "The Brooklyn Bridge", "East River Bridge", "I've got a bridge to sell you", "Buy the brooklyn bridge", "Brooklin bridge", "I got a bridge to sell you", "Bridge buying", "Selling the Brooklyn Bridge" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "i ve got bridge to sell you", "brooklyn bridge", "buy brooklyn bridge", "brooklin bridge", "bridge buying", "east river bridge", "i have bridge to sell you", "i got bridge to sell you", "selling brooklyn bridge", "i ve bridge to sell you" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "brooklyn bridge", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Brooklyn Bridge" }
Who is credited with inventing the Tarzan yodel?	tc_1002	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Tarzan.txt", "Yodeling.txt", "Tarzan_yell.txt" ], "title": [ "Tarzan", "Yodeling", "Tarzan yell" ], "wiki_context": [ "Tarzan (John Clayton, Viscount Greystoke) is a fictional character, an archetypal feral child raised in the African jungles by the Mangani great apes; he later experiences civilization only to largely reject it and return to the wild as a heroic adventurer. Created by Edgar Rice Burroughs, Tarzan first appeared in the novel Tarzan of the Apes (magazine publication 1912, book publication 1914), and subsequently in twenty-five sequels, several authorized books by other authors, and innumerable works in other media, both authorized and unauthorized.\n\nCharacter biography\n\nChildhood years\n\nTarzan is the son of a British lord and lady who were marooned on the Atlantic coast of Africa by mutineers. When Tarzan was only an infant, his mother died, and his father was killed by Kerchak, leader of the ape tribe by whom Tarzan was adopted. From then onwards, Tarzan became a feral child. Tarzan's tribe of apes is known as the Mangani, Great Apes of a species unknown to science. Kala is his ape mother. Burroughs added stories occurring during Tarzan's adolescence in his sixth Tarzan book, Jungle Tales of Tarzan. Tarzan is his ape name; his real English name is John Clayton, Viscount Greystoke (according to Burroughs in Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle; Earl of Greystoke in later, less canonical sources, notably the 1984 movie Greystoke). In fact, Burroughs's narrator in Tarzan of the Apes describes both Clayton and Greystoke as fictitious names – implying that, within the fictional world that Tarzan inhabits, he may have a different real name.\n\nAdult life\n\nAs a young adult, Tarzan meets a young American woman, Jane Porter. She, her father, and others of their party are marooned on exactly the same coastal jungle area where Tarzan's biological parents were twenty years earlier. When Jane returns to the United States, Tarzan leaves the jungle in search of her, his one true love. In The Return of Tarzan, Tarzan and Jane marry. In later books he lives with her for a time in England. They have one son, Jack, who takes the ape name Korak (\"the Killer\"). Tarzan is contemptuous of what he sees as the hypocrisy of civilization, and he and Jane return to Africa, making their home on an extensive estate that becomes a base for Tarzan's later adventures.\n\nCharacterization\n\nBurroughs created an elegant version of the wild man figure largely unalloyed with character flaws or faults. He is described as being white, extremely athletic, tall, handsome, and tanned, with grey eyes and long black hair. Emotionally, he is courageous, intelligent, loyal, and steadfast. He is presented as behaving ethically in most situations, except when seeking vengeance under the motivation of grief, as when his ape mother Kala is killed in Tarzan of the Apes, or when he believes Jane has been murdered in Tarzan the Untamed. He is deeply in love with his wife and totally devoted to her; in numerous situations where other women express their attraction to him, Tarzan politely but firmly declines their attentions. When presented with a situation where a weaker individual or party is being preyed upon by a stronger foe, Tarzan invariably takes the side of the weaker party. In dealing with other men, Tarzan is firm and forceful. With male friends, he is reserved but deeply loyal and generous. As a host, he is, likewise, generous and gracious. As a leader, he commands devoted loyalty.\n\nIn keeping with these noble characteristics, Tarzan's philosophy embraces an extreme form of \"return to nature\". Although he is able to pass within society as a civilized individual, he prefers to \"strip off the thin veneer of civilization\", as Burroughs often puts it. His preferred dress is a knife and a loincloth of animal hide, his preferred abode is any convenient tree branch when he desires to sleep, and his favored food is raw meat, killed by himself; even better if he is able to bury it a week so that putrefaction has had a chance to tenderize it a bit.\n\nTarzan's primitivist philosophy was absorbed by countless fans, amongst whom was Jane Goodall, who describes the Tarzan series as having a major influence on her childhood. She states that she felt she would be a much better spouse for Tarzan than his fictional wife, Jane, and that when she first began to live among and study the chimpanzees she was fulfilling her childhood dream of living among the great apes just as Tarzan did. \n\nRudyard Kipling's Mowgli has been cited as a major influence on Edgar Rice Burroughs' creation of Tarzan. Mowgli was also an influence for a number of other \"wild boy\" characters.\n\nSkills and abilities\n\nTarzan's jungle upbringing gives him abilities far beyond those of ordinary humans. These include climbing, clinging, and leaping as well as any great ape, or better. He uses branches and hanging vines to swing at great speed, a skill acquired among the anthropoid apes.\n\nHis strength, speed, stamina, agility, reflexes, senses, flexibility, durability, endurance, and swimming are extraordinary in comparison to normal men. He has wrestled full grown bull apes and gorillas, lions, rhinos, crocodiles, pythons, sharks, tigers, man-size seahorses (once) and even dinosaurs (when he visited Pellucidar). He is also a skilled tracker and uses his exceptional senses of hearing and smell to follow prey or avoid predators, and kills only for food, yet is a skilled thief when raiding African tribal villages or hunting parties that Tarzan has judged to be brutal and deserve no pity, taking their spears, shields, bows, knives, and most importantly, metal arrowheads. His sense of hearing also allows him to eavesdrop on conversations between other people near him.\n\nHe is also able to communicate with animals, in particular tribes of Great Apes that live in his local region of Africa who possess a primitive language that is unknown to science. The language may not be complex, but it does have names for individuals, and Tarzan is his Great Ape name.\n\nTarzan is extremely intelligent, and was literate in English before being able to speak the language when he first encounters other English-speaking people such as his love interest, Jane Porter. His literacy is self-taught after several years in his early teens by visiting the log cabin of his dead parents and looking at and correctly deducing the function of children's primer/picture books. The books were brought to Africa by his dead mother who intended to teach her son herself. He eventually reads every book in his dead father's portable book collection, and is fully aware of geography, basic world history, and his family tree, yet is not able to speak English until after meeting human beings as he never heard what English is supposed to sound like when spoken aloud. He is \"found\" by a traveling Frenchman that teaches him the basics of human speech and returns him to England. \n\nHe learns a new language in days, ultimately speaking many languages, including that of the great apes, French, Finnish, English, Dutch, German, Swahili, many Bantu dialects, Arabic, ancient Greek, ancient Latin, Mayan, the languages of the Ant Men and of Pellucidar.\n\nIt should be noted that unlike depictions in black and white movies of the 1930s, after learning to speak a language in the novels Tarzan/John Clayton is very articulate, reserved (he prefers to listen and carefully observe before speaking) and does not speak in broken English as the classic movies depict him.\n\nHe also communicates with many species of jungle animals, and has been shown to be a skilled impressionist, able to mimic the sound of a gunshot perfectly.\n\nIn Tarzan's Quest (1935), he was one of the recipients of an immortality drug at the end of the book that functionally made him immortal.\n\nLiterature\n\nTarzan has been called one of the best-known literary characters in the world. In addition to more than two dozen books by Burroughs and a handful more by authors with the blessing of Burroughs' estate, the character has appeared in films, radio, television, comic strips, and comic books. Numerous parodies and pirated works have also appeared.\n\nBurroughs considered other names for the character, including \"Zantar\" and \"Tublat Zan,\" before he settled on \"Tarzan.\" \n\nEven though the copyright on Tarzan of the Apes has expired in the United States of America and other countries, the name Tarzan is claimed as a trademark of Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc.\n\nCritical reception\n\nWhile Tarzan of the Apes met with some critical success, subsequent books in the series received a cooler reception and have been criticized for being derivative and formulaic. The characters are often said to be two-dimensional, the dialogue wooden, and the storytelling devices (such as excessive reliance on coincidence) strain credulity. According to author Rudyard Kipling (who himself wrote stories of a feral child, The Jungle Books Mowgli), Burroughs wrote Tarzan of the Apes just so that he could \"find out how bad a book he could write and get away with it.\" \n\nWhile Burroughs is not a polished novelist, he is a vivid storyteller, and many of his novels are still in print. In 1963, author Gore Vidal wrote a piece on the Tarzan series that, while pointing out several of the deficiencies that the Tarzan books have as works of literature, praises Edgar Rice Burroughs for creating a compelling \"daydream figure\". Critical reception grew more positive with the 1981 study by Erling B. Holtsmark, Tarzan and Tradition: Classical Myth in Popular Literature. Holtsmark added a volume on Burroughs for Twayne's United States Author Series in 1986. In 2010, Stan Galloway provided a sustained study of the adolescent period of the fictional Tarzan's life in The Teenage Tarzan. \n\nDespite critical panning, the Tarzan stories have remained popular. Burroughs's melodramatic situations and the elaborate details he works into his fictional world, such as his construction of a partial language for his great apes, appeal to a worldwide fan base. \n\nThe Tarzan books and movies employ extensive stereotyping to a degree common in the times in which they were written. This has led to criticism in later years, with changing social views and customs, including charges of racism since the early 1970s. The early books give a pervasively negative and stereotypical portrayal of native Africans, including Arabs. In The Return of Tarzan, Arabs are \"surly looking\" and call Christians \"dogs\", while blacks are \"lithe, ebon warriors, gesticulating and jabbering\". One could make an equal argument that when it came to blacks that Burroughs was simply depicting unwholesome characters as unwholesome and the good ones in a better light as in Chapter 6 of Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar where Burroughs writes of Mugambi, \"...nor could a braver or more loyal guardian have been found in any clime or upon any soil.\" Other groups are stereotyped as well. A Swede has \"a long yellow moustache, an unwholesome complexion, and filthy nails\", and Russians cheat at cards. The aristocracy (except the House of Greystoke) and royalty are invariably effete. In later books, Africans are portrayed somewhat more realistically as people. For example, in Tarzan's Quest, while the depiction of Africans remains relatively primitive, they are portrayed more individualistically, with a greater variety of character traits (positive and negative), while the main villains are white people. Burroughs never loses his distaste for European royalty, though. \n\nBurroughs' opinions, manifested through the narrative voice in the stories, reflect common attitudes in his time, which in a 21st-century context would be considered racist and sexist. However Thomas F. Bertonneau writes about Burroughs' \"conception of the feminine that elevates the woman to the same level as the man and that – in such characters as Dian of the Pellucidar novels or Dejah Thoris of the Barsoom novels – figures forth a female type who corresponds neither to desperate housewife, full-lipped prom-date, middle-level careerist office-manager, nor frowning ideological feminist-professor, but who exceeds all these by bounds in her realized humanity and in so doing suggests their insipidity.\" The author is not especially mean-spirited in his attitudes. His heroes do not engage in violence against women or in racially motivated violence. In Tarzan of the Apes, details of a background of suffering experienced at the hands of whites by Mbonga's \"once great\" people are repeatedly told with evident sympathy, and in explanation or even justification of their current animosity toward whites.\n\nAlthough the character of Tarzan does not directly engage in violence against women, feminist scholars have critiqued the presence of other sympathetic male characters who do with Tarzan's approval. In Tarzan and the Ant Men, the men of a fictional tribe of creatures called the Alali gain social dominance of their society by beating Alali women into submission with weapons that Tarzan willingly provides them. Following the battle, Burroughs states: \"To entertain Tarzan and to show him what great strides civilization had taken—the son of The First Woman seized a female by the hair and dragging her to him struck her heavily about the head and face with his clenched fist, and the woman fell upon her knees and fondled his legs, looking wistfully into his face, her own glowing with love and admiration. (178)\" While Burroughs depicts some female characters with humanistic equalizing elements, Torgovnick argues that violent scenes against women in the context of male political and social domination are condoned in his writing, reinforcing a notion of gendered hierarchy where patriarchy is portrayed as the natural pinnacle of society.\n\nIn regards to race, a superior-inferior relationship with valuation is also accordingly implied, as it is unmistakable in virtually all interactions between whites and blacks in the Tarzan stories, and similar relationships and valuations can be seen in most other interactions between differing people, although one could argue that such interactions are the bedrock of the dramatic narrative and without such valuations there is no story. According to James Loewen's Sundown Towns, this may be a vestige of Burroughs' having been from Oak Park, Illinois, a former Sundown town (a town that forbids non-whites from living within it).\n\nGail Bederman takes a different view in her Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917. There she describes how various people of the time either challenged or upheld the idea that \"civilization\" is predicated on white masculinity. She closes with a chapter on 1912's Tarzan of the Apes because the story's protagonist is, according to her, the ultimate male by the standards of 1912 white America. Bederman does note that Tarzan, \"an instinctivily chivalrous Anglo-Saxon\", does not engage in sexual violence, renouncing his \"masculine impulse to rape.\" However, she also notes that not only does Tarzan kill black man Kulonga in revenge for killing his ape mother (a stand-in for his biological white mother) by hanging him, \"lyncher Tarzan\" actually enjoys killing black people, the cannibalistic Mbongans, for example. Bederman, in fact, reminds readers that when Tarzan first introduces himself to Jane, he does so as \"Tarzan, the killer of beasts and many black men.\" The novel climaxes with Tarzan saving Jane—who in the original novel is not British, but a white woman from Baltimore, Maryland—from a black ape rapist. When he leaves the jungle and sees \"civilized\" Africans farming, his first instinct is to kill them just for being black. \"Like the lynch victims reported in the Northern press, Tarzan's victims--cowards, cannibals, and despoilers of white womanhood--lack all manhood. Tarzan's lynchings thus prove himself the superior man.\"\n\nDespite embodying all the tropes of white supremacy espoused or rejected by the people she had reviewed (Theodore Roosevelt, G. Stanley Hall, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Ida B. Wells), Bederman states that, in all probability, Burroughs was not trying to make any kind of statement or echo any of them. \"He probably never heard of any of them.\" Instead, Bederman writes that Burroughs proves her point because in telling racist and sexist stories whose protagonist boasted of killing blacks, he was not being unusual at all, but was instead just being a typical 1912 white American.\n\nTarzan is a white European male who grows up with apes. According to \"Taking Tarzan Seriously\" by Marianna Torgovnick, Tarzan is confused with the social hierarchy that he is a part of. Unlike everyone else in his society, Tarzan is the only one who is not clearly part of any social group. All the other members of his world are not able to climb or decline socially because they are already part of a social hierarchy which is stagnant. Turgovnick writes that since Tarzan was raised as an ape, he thinks and acts like an ape. However, instinctively he is human and he resorts to being human when he is pushed to. The reason of his confusion is that he does not understand what the typical white male is supposed to act like. His instincts eventually kick in when he is in the midst of this confusion, and he ends up dominating the jungle. In Tarzan, the jungle is a microcosm for the world in general in 1912 to the early 1930s. His climbing of the social hierarchy proves that the European white male is the most dominant of all races/sexes, no matter what the circumstance. Furthermore, Turgovnick writes that when Tarzan first meets Jane, she is slightly repulsed but also fascinated by his animal-like actions. As the story progresses, Tarzan surrenders his knife to Jane in an oddly chivalrous gesture, which makes Jane fall for Tarzan despite his odd circumstances. Turgovnick believes that this displays an instinctual, civilized chivalry that Burrough believes is common in white men. \n\nUnauthorized works\n\nAfter Burroughs' death a number of writers produced new Tarzan stories. In some instances, the estate managed to prevent publication of such works. The most notable example in the United States was a series of five novels by the pseudonymous \"Barton Werper\" that appeared 1964-65 by Gold Star Books (part of Charlton Comics). As a result of legal action by Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc., they were taken off the market. Similar series appeared in other countries, notably Argentina, Israel, and some Arab countries.\n\nModern fiction\n\nIn 1972, science fiction author Philip José Farmer wrote Tarzan Alive, a biography of Tarzan utilizing the frame device that he was a real person. In Farmer's fictional universe, Tarzan, along with Doc Savage and Sherlock Holmes, are the cornerstones of the Wold Newton family. Farmer wrote two novels, Hadon of Ancient Opar and Flight to Opar, set in the distant past and giving the antecedents of the lost city of Opar, which plays an important role in the Tarzan books. In addition, Farmer's A Feast Unknown, and its two sequels Lord of the Trees and The Mad Goblin, are pastiches of the Tarzan and Doc Savage stories, with the premise that they tell the story of the real characters the fictional characters are based upon. A Feast Unknown is somewhat infamous among Tarzan and Doc Savage fans for its graphic violence and sexual content.\n\nTarzan in film and other non-print media\n\nFilm\n\nThe Internet Movie Database lists 200 movies with Tarzan in the title between 1918 and 2014. The first Tarzan movies were silent pictures adapted from the original Tarzan novels, which appeared within a few years of the character's creation. The first actor to portray the adult Tarzan was Elmo Lincoln in 1918's Tarzan Of The Apes. With the advent of talking pictures, a popular Tarzan movie franchise was developed, which lasted from the 1930s through the 1960s. Starting with Tarzan the Ape Man in 1932 through twelve films until 1948, the franchise was anchored by former Olympic swimmer Johnny Weissmuller in the title role. Weissmuller and his immediate successors were enjoined to portray the ape-man as a noble savage speaking broken English, in marked contrast to the cultured aristocrat of Burroughs's novels.\n\nWith the exception of the Burroughs co-produced The New Adventures of Tarzan, this \"me Tarzan, you Jane\" characterization of Tarzan persisted until the late 1950s, when producer Sy Weintraub, having bought the film rights from producer Sol Lesser, produced Tarzan's Greatest Adventure followed by eight other films and a television series. The Weintraub productions portray a Tarzan that is closer to Edgar Rice Burroughs' original concept in the novels: a jungle lord who speaks grammatical English and is well educated and familiar with civilization. Most Tarzan films made before the mid-fifties were black-and-white films shot on studio sets, with stock jungle footage edited in. The Weintraub productions from 1959 on were shot in foreign locations and were in color.\n\nThere were also several serials and features that competed with the main franchise, including Tarzan the Fearless (1933) starring Buster Crabbe and The New Adventures of Tarzan (1935) starring Herman Brix. The latter serial was unique for its period in that it was partially filmed on location (Guatemala) and portrayed Tarzan as educated. It was the only Tarzan film project for which Edgar Rice Burroughs was personally involved in the production.\n\nTarzan films from the 1930s on often featured Tarzan's chimpanzee companion Cheeta, his consort Jane (not usually given a last name), and an adopted son, usually known only as \"Boy.\" The Weintraub productions from 1959 on dropped the character of Jane and portrayed Tarzan as a lone adventurer. Later Tarzan films have been occasional and somewhat idiosyncratic. Recently, Tony Goldwyn portrayed Tarzan in Disney’s animated film of the same name (1999). This version marked a new beginning for the ape man, taking its inspiration equally from Burroughs and the 1984 live-action film Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes. Since Greystoke, two additional live-action Tarzan movies have been released, 1998's Tarzan and the Lost City and 2016's The Legend of Tarzan, both period pieces that drew inspiration from Edgar Rice Burroughs' writings.\n\nRadio\n\nTarzan was the hero of two popular radio programs in the United States. The first aired from 1932–1936 with James Pierce in the role of Tarzan. The second ran from 1951–1953 with Lamont Johnson in the title role. \n\nTelevision\n\nTelevision later emerged as a primary vehicle bringing the character to the public. From the mid-1950s, all the extant sound Tarzan films became staples of Saturday morning television aimed at young and teenaged viewers. In 1958, movie Tarzan Gordon Scott filmed three episodes for a prospective television series. The program did not sell, but a different live action Tarzan series produced by Sy Weintraub and starring Ron Ely ran on NBC from 1966 to 1968. An animated series from Filmation, Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle, aired from 1976 to 1977, followed by the anthology programs Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour (1977–1978), Tarzan and the Super 7 (1978–1980), The Tarzan/Lone Ranger Adventure Hour (1980–1981), and The Tarzan/Lone Ranger/Zorro Adventure Hour) (1981–1982). Joe Lara starred in the title role in Tarzan in Manhattan (1989), an offbeat TV movie, and later returned in a completely different interpretation in Tarzan: The Epic Adventures (1996), a new live-action series. In between the two productions with Lara, Tarzán, a half-hour syndicated series ran from 1991 through 1994. In this version of the show, Tarzan was portrayed as a blond environmentalist, with Jane turned into a French ecologist. Disney’s animated series The Legend of Tarzan (2001–2003) was a spin-off from its animated film. The latest television series was the live-action Tarzan (2003), which starred male model Travis Fimmel and updated the setting to contemporary New York City, with Jane as a police detective, played by Sarah Wayne Callies. The series was cancelled after only eight episodes. A 1981 television special, The Muppets Go to the Movies, features a short sketch titled \"Tarzan and Jane\". Lily Tomlin plays Jane opposite The Great Gonzo as Tarzan. In addition, the Muppets have made reference to Tarzan on half a dozen occasions since the 1960s. Saturday Night Live featured recurring sketches with the speech-impaired trio of \"Frankenstein, Tonto, and Tarzan\".\n\nStage\n\nA 1921 Broadway production of Tarzan of The Apes starred Ronald Adair as Tarzan and Ethel Dwyer as Jane Porter. In 1976, Richard O'Brien wrote a musical entitled T. Zee, loosely based on Tarzan but restyled in a rock idiom. Tarzan, a musical stage adaptation of the 1999 animated feature, opened at the Richard Rodgers Theatre on Broadway on May 10, 2006. The show, a Disney Theatrical production, was directed and designed by Bob Crowley. The same version of Tarzan that was played at the Richard Rodgers Theatre is being played throughout Europe and has been a huge success in the Netherlands. The Broadway show closed on July 8, 2007. Tarzan also appeared in the Tarzan Rocks! show at the Theatre in the Wild at Walt Disney World Resort's Disney's Animal Kingdom. The show closed in 2006.\n\nVideo and computer games\n\nIn the mid-1980s there was an arcade video game called Jungle King that featured a Tarzanesque character in a loin cloth. A game under the title Tarzan Goes Ape was released in the 1980s for the Commodore 64. A Tarzan computer game by Michael Archer was produced by Martech. Disney's Tarzan had seen video games released for the PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color. Followed by Disney's Tarzan Untamed for the PS2 and Gamecube. Tarzan also appeared in the PS2 game Kingdom Hearts, although this Tarzan was shown in the Disney context, not the original conceptional idea of Tarzan by Burroughs. In the first Rayman, a Tarzanesque version of Rayman named Tarayzan appears in the Dream Forest.\n\nIn the 1982 video game Pitfall! for the Atari VCS game console system, the main hero, called \"Pitfall Harry,\" sometimes has to traverse vines over dangerous lakes. When doing so, a sound effect is played imitating Tarzan's signature cry.\n\nAction figures\n\nThroughout the 1970s Mego Corporation licensed the Tarzan character and produced 8\" action figures which they included in their \"World's Greatest Super Heroes\" line of characters. In 1975 they also produced a 3\" \"Bendy\" figure made of poseable, malleable plastic.\n\nEphemera\n\nSeveral Tarzan-themed products have been manufactured, including View-Master reels and packets, numerous Tarzan coloring books, children's books, follow-the-dots, and activity books.\n\nTarzan in comics\n\nTarzan of the Apes was adapted in newspaper strip form, in early 1929, with illustrations by Hal Foster. A full page Sunday strip began March 15, 1931 by Rex Maxon. Over the years, many artists have drawn the Tarzan comic strip, notably Burne Hogarth, Russ Manning, and Mike Grell. The daily strip began to reprint old dailies after the last Russ Manning daily (#10,308, which ran on 29 July 1972). The Sunday strip also turned to reprints circa 2000. Both strips continue as reprints today in a few newspapers and in Comics Revue magazine. NBM Publishing did a high quality reprint series of the Foster and Hogarth work on Tarzan in a series of hardback and paperback reprints in the 1990s.\n\nTarzan has appeared in many comic books from numerous publishers over the years. The character's earliest comic book appearances were in comic strip reprints published in several titles, such as Sparkler, Tip Top Comics and Single Series. Western Publishing published Tarzan in Dell Comics's Four Color Comics #134 & 161 in 1947, before giving him his own series, Tarzan, published through Dell Comics and later Gold Key Comics from January–February 1948 to February 1972). DC took over the series in 1972, publishing Tarzan #207-258 from April 1972 to February 1977, including work by Joe Kubert. In 1977 the series moved to Marvel Comics, which restarted the numbering rather than assuming that used by the previous publishers. Marvel issued Tarzan #1-29 (as well as three Annuals), from June 1977 to October 1979, mainly by John Buscema. Following the conclusion of the Marvel series the character had no regular comic book publisher for a number of years. During this period Blackthorne Comics published Tarzan in 1986, and Malibu Comics published Tarzan comics in 1992. Dark Horse Comics has published various Tarzan series from 1996 to the present, including reprints of works from previous publishers like Gold Key and DC, and joint projects with other publishers featuring crossovers with other characters.\n\nThere have also been a number of different comic book projects from other publishers over the years, in addition to various minor appearances of Tarzan in other comic books. The Japanese manga series Jungle no Ouja Ta-chan (Jungle King Tar-chan) by Tokuhiro Masaya was based loosely on Tarzan. Also, manga \"god\" Osamu Tezuka created a Tarzan manga in 1948 entitled Tarzan no Himitsu Kichi (Tarzan's Secret Base).\n\nWorks inspired by Tarzan\n\nJerry Siegel named Tarzan and another Burroughs character, John Carter, as early inspiration for his creation of Superman. \n\nTarzan's popularity inspired numerous imitators in pulp magazines. A number of these, like Kwa and Ka-Zar were direct or loosely veiled copies; others, like Polaris of the Snows, were similar characters in different settings, or with different gimmicks. Of these characters the most popular was Ki-Gor, the subject of fifty-nine novels that appeared between winter 1939 to spring 1954 in the magazine Jungle Stories. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nTarzan is often used as a nickname to indicate a similarity between a person's characteristics and that of the fictional character. Individuals with an exceptional 'ape-like' ability to climb, cling and leap beyond that of ordinary humans may often receive the nickname 'Tarzan'. An example is retired American baseball player Joe Wallis. \n\nBritish politician Michael Heseltine is nicknamed Tarzan, and was often portrayed as such in the press.\n\nComedian Carol Burnett was often prompted by her audiences to perform her trademark Tarzan yell. She explained that it originated in her youth when she and a friend watched a Tarzan movie. \n\n\"Tarzan Boy\" is a song recorded by Italian-based act Baltimora. It was the group's debut single, released in April 1985, from its first album Living in the Background, on which it features as first track. The song was re-recorded in 1993 and has been covered by several artists throughout the years. The refrain uses Tarzan's cry as a melodic line. The song is rhythmical, with an electronic melody and simple lyrics.[2]\n\nA 2016 GEICO TV commercial depicts Tarzan and his wife Jane arguing over directions while they're swinging from tree to tree. \n \n\nBibliography\n\nBy Edgar Rice Burroughs\n\n;Main Series\n#Tarzan of the Apes (1912) (Project Gutenberg Entry:[http://gutenberg.org/etext/78 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/tarzan-of-the-apes/ LibriVox.org Audiobook])\n#The Return of Tarzan (1913) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/81 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/the-return-of-tarzan-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#The Beasts of Tarzan (1914) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/85 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/the-beasts-of-tarzan/ Audiobook])\n#The Son of Tarzan (1914) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/90 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/son-of-tarzan-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar (1916) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/92 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/tarzan-and-the-jewels-of-opar-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#Jungle Tales of Tarzan (1919) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/106 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/jungle-tales-of-tarzan-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#\"Tarzan's First Love\" (1916)\n#\"The Capture of Tarzan\" (1916)\n#\"The Fight for the Balu\" (1916)\n#\"The God of Tarzan\" (1916)\n#\"Tarzan and the Black Boy\" (1917)\n#\"The Witch-Doctor Seeks Vengeance\" (1917)\n#\"The End of Bukawai\" (1917)\n#\"The Lion\" (1917)\n#\"The Nightmare\" (1917)\n#\"The Battle for Teeka\" (1917)\n#\"A Jungle Joke\" (1917)\n#\"Tarzan Rescues the Moon\" (1917)\n#Tarzan the Untamed (1920) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/1401 Ebook])\n#\"Tarzan and the Huns\" (1919)\n#\"Tarzan and the Valley of Luna\" (1920)\n#Tarzan the Terrible (1921) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/2020 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/tarzan-the-terrible-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#Tarzan and the Golden Lion (1922, 1923) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100271.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Ant Men (1924) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600651h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle (1927, 1928) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600681.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Lost Empire (1928) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600911.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan at the Earth's Core (1929) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601071h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan the Invincible (1930, 1931) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500191h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan Triumphant (1931) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601121.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the City of Gold (1932) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500241.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Lion Man (1933, 1934) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600711.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Leopard Men (1935) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500201h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan's Quest (1935, 1936) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601011.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Forbidden City (1938) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600671.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan the Magnificent (1939) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500211h.html Ebook])\n#\"Tarzan and the Magic Men\" (1936)\n#\"Tarzan and the Elephant Men\" (1937–1938)\n#Tarzan and the Foreign Legion (1947) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600701.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Madman (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Castaways (1965)\n#\"Tarzan and the Castaways\" (1941) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600661.txt Ebook])\n#\"Tarzan and the Champion\" (1940)\n#\"Tarzan and the Jungle Murders\" (1940)\n\n#Tarzan and the Tarzan Twins (1963, for younger readers)\n\"The Tarzan Twins\" (1927) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601161.txt Ebook])\n\"Tarzan and the Tarzan Twins and Jad-Bal-Ja the Golden Lion\" (1936) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks09/0900371.txt Ebook])\n\n#Tarzan: the Lost Adventure (with Joe R. Lansdale) (1995)\n\nBy other authors\n\nBarton Werper – these novels were never authorized by the Burroughs estate, were taken off the market and remaining copies destroyed.\n#Tarzan and the Silver Globe (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Cave City (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Snake People (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Abominable Snowmen (1965)\n#Tarzan and the Winged Invaders (1965)\nFritz Leiber – the first novel authorized by the Burroughs estate, and numbered as the 25th book in the Tarzan series.\n*Tarzan and the Valley of Gold (1966)\nPhilip José Farmer\nTarzan Alive (1972) a fictional biography of Tarzan (here Lord Greystoke), which is one of the two foundational books (along with Doc Savage: His Apocalyptic Life) of the Wold Newton family.\nThe Adventure of the Peerless Peer (1974) Sherlock Holmes goes to Africa and meets Tarzan.\n*The Dark Heart of Time (1999) this novel was specifically authorized by the Burroughs estate, and references Tarzan by name rather than just by inference. The story is set between Tarzan the Untamed and Tarzan the Terrible.\nFarmer also wrote a novel based on his own fascination with Tarzan, entitled Lord Tyger, and translated the novel Tarzan of the Apes into Esperanto.\n\nR. A. Salvatore\n*Tarzan: The Epic Adventures (1996) an authorized novel based on the pilot episode of the series of the same name.\nNigel Cox\n**Tarzan Presley (2004) This novel combines aspects of Tarzan and Elvis Presley into a single character named Tarzan Presley, within New Zealand and American settings. Upon its release, it was subject to legal action in the United States, and has not been reprinted since its initial publication.\n\nNew Tarzan\n\nPublisher Faber and Faber with the backing of the Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc. have updated the series using Author Andy Briggs and in 2011 he published the first of the books Tarzan: The Greystoke Legacy. In 2012 he published the second book Tarzan: The Jungle Warrior In 2013, he has published the third book Tarzan: The Savage Lands.", "Yodeling (also yodelling or jodeling) is a form of singing which involves repeated and rapid changes of pitch between the low-pitch chest register (or \"chest voice\") and the high-pitch head register or falsetto. The English word yodel is derived from the German (and originally Austro-Bavarian) word jodeln, meaning \"to utter the syllable jo\" (pronounced \"yo\" in English). This vocal technique is used in many cultures worldwide. \n\nAlpine yodeling was a longtime rural tradition in Europe, and became popular in the 1830s as an entertainment in theaters and music halls. In Central Africa, yodeling was a form of communication announcing the yodeler's location and identity. In the United States, traveling minstrels were yodeling in the 1800s, and in 1920 the Victor recording company listed 17 yodels in their catalogue. Music historians credit the first country recording to include yodeling to Riley Puckett in 1924. In 1928, blending Alpine yodeling with traditional work, blues, hobo, and cowboy music, Jimmie Rodgers released his recording \"Blue Yodel No. 1\". Rodger's Blue Yodel created an instant national craze for yodeling in the United States and, according to a black musician who lived near Rodgers in Mississippi, everyone, both black and white alike, began to copy Rodgers. The popularity lasted through the 1940s, but by the 1950s it became rare to hear yodeling in Country or Western music. The Swiss Amish maintain the practice of yodeling until today. \n\nHistory\n\nMost experts agree that yodeling was used in the Central Alps by herders calling their stock or to communicate between Alpine villages. The multi-pitched \"yelling\" later became part of the region's traditional lore and musical expression. The earliest record of a yodel is in 1545, where it is described as \"the call of a cowherd from Appenzell\". \n\nIn Persian classical music, singers frequently use tahrir (\"tremolo\" in English), a yodeling technique that oscillates on neighbor tones. It is similar to the Swiss yodel, and is used as an ornament or trill in phrases which have long syllables, and usually falls at the end of a phrase. Tahrir is also prevalent in Azerbaijani, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Turkish, Armenian, Afghan, and Central Asian musical traditions, and to a lesser extent in Pakistani and some Indian music.\n\nIn Georgian traditional music, yodeling takes the form of krimanchuli technique, and is used as a top part in three/four part polyphony. \n\nIn Central Africa Pygmy singers use yodels within their elaborate polyphonic singing, and the Shona people of Zimbabwe sometimes yodel while playing the mbira. The Mbuti of the Congo incorporate distinctive whistles and yodels\ninto their songs. Living from hunting and gathering, they sing hunting and harvest songs and use yodelling to call each other. In 1952, ethnomusicologist Hugh Tracey recorded their songs and they have been released on compact discs.\n \n\nBritish stage performances by yodelers were common in the nineteenth century. Sir Walter Scott wrote in his June 4, 1830, journal entry that \"Anne wants me to go hear the Tyrolese Minstrels but...I cannot but think their yodeling...is a variation upon the tones of a jackass.\"[https://books.google.com/books?idVpeGEPCKsesC&pg\nPA110&lpgPA110&dq\nyodeler+George+Watson&sourcebl&ots\nU-fKp77cc_&sigZ2hQuBQVybq7fJmi7Am9eALQbFo&hl\nen&saX&ei\n-hNmUJuzM4-O8wTPgoHwCQ&ved0CDYQ6AEwAw#v\nonepage&qyodeler%20George%20Watson&f\ntrue Country: The Twisted Roots of Rock 'n' Roll - Nick Tosches - Google Books]\n\nTechnique\n\n\t\n\t\n\n\t \t\nHuman voices have at least two distinct vocal registers, called the \"head\" and \"chest\" voices. Most people can sing tones within a certain range of lower pitches in their chest voice and tones within a certain range of higher pitch in their head voice. Falsetto is an \"unsupported\" register forcing vocal cords in a higher pitch without any head or chest voice air support. The range of overlap between registers, called the passaggio, can be challenging for untrained singers. Experienced singers can control their voices in this range, easily switching between registers. Yodeling is a version of this technique in which a singer might change register several times in only a few seconds and at a high volume. Repeated alternation between registers at a singer's passaggio pitch range produces a very distinctive sound. For example, in the famous \"Yodel - Ay - EEE - Oooo\", the \"EEE\" is sung in the head voice while all other syllables are in the chest voice.\n\t \t\nBart Plantenga, author of Yodel-Ay-Ee-Oooo: The Secret History of Yodeling Around the World, explains the technique:\n\n\"The basic yodel requires sudden alterations of vocal register from a low-pitched chest voice to high falsetto tones sung on vowel sounds: AH, OH, OO for chest notes and AY or EE for the falsetto. Consonants are used as levers to launch the dramatic leap from low to high, giving it its unique ear-penetrating and distance-spanning power.\" \n \t\nThe best places for Alpine-style yodelling are those with an echo. Ideal natural locations include not only mountain ranges but lakes, rocky gorges or shorelines, and high or open areas with one or more distant rock faces.[http://yodel.askdefine.com/ Define yodel \| Dictionary and Thesaurus]\n\nYodeling in the United States \n\nIt is thought that yodeling was first introduced to the United States by German immigrants in Pennsylvania in the early 1800s. As the new settlers traveled south through the Appalachian Mountains and beyond into the Deep South they came into contact with Scots-Irish immigrants, Scandinavians (practitioners of a unique yodeling called kölning), and other nationalities including African slaves who communicated with \"field hollers\", described by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1853 as a \"long, loud, musical shout, rising and falling and breaking into falsetto\".\n\nIn 1839, the Tyrolese Minstrels toured the United States and started an American craze for Alpine music. During the 1840s, dozens of German, Swiss, and Austrian singing groups crisscrossed the country entertaining audiences with a combination of singing, yodeling, and “Alpine harmony.” The success of the European groups led to the formation of many American family singing groups as well. The most popular was the Hutchison Family Singers who toured, singing harmony and yodeling. Minstrel shows parodied the Hutchison's yodeling with their own, calling it \"Tyrolesian business\". In 1853, Christy's Minstrels burlesqued (mocked) the Hutchinson Family singing 'We Come From the Hills With Tyrolean Echo'.[http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/b_yodel.htm America's Blue Yodel]\n\nOther traveling American minstrels were yodeling in the United States as well. Tom Christian was the first American yodeling minstrel, appearing in 1847 in Chicago. Recordings of yodelers were made in 1892 and in 1920 the Victor recording company listed 17 yodels in their catalogue, many of them by George Watson, the most successful yodeler of the time. [http://victor.library.ucsb.edu/index.php/talent/detail/40193/Watson_George_P._vocalist_yodeling Victor Discography: George P. Watson (vocalist : yodeling)] In 1897 Watson recorded the song, \"Sleep, Baby, Sleep\" [http://www.loc.gov/jukebox/recordings/detail/id/8559 Browse All Recordings \| Sleep, baby sleep, Take 1 (1901-02-15) \| National Jukebox LOC.gov] which was later recorded in 1927 by Riley Puckett as the second yodeling record ever made (the first was \"Rock All Our Babies to Sleep\"). \"Sleep Baby Sleep\" was also the first song ever recorded by Jimmie Rodgers (at the Bristol sessions); Rodgers would eventually come to be known as the father of both country music and American yodeling when he combined the yodel with southern African-American blues.\n\nThe American minstrel show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, performed by white people in blackface or, especially after the American Civil War, black people in blackface. Minstrel shows toured the same circuits as opera companies, circuses, and European entertainers, with venues ranging from lavish opera houses to makeshift tavern stages. When the European Tyrolese Minstrels toured the United States for several years in the early 1840s and created an American craze for Alpine yodeling music, four unemployed white actors decided to stage an African-American style spoof of this group's concerts. Calling themselves Dan Emmett's Virginia Minstrels, the performance was wildly popular and most historians mark this production as the beginning of minstrelsy in the U.S. According to jazz historian Gary Giddins:\nThough antebellum (minstrel) troupes were white, the form developed in a form of racial collaboration, illustrating the axiom that defines – and continues to define – American music as it developed over the next century and a half : African American innovations metamorphose into American popular culture when white performers learn to mimic black ones. \n\nBy the 1880s the minstrel show had been replaced by Vaudeville and American Burlesque. By around 1905, more than 20 years before Jimmie Rodgers introduced his blue yodel, African Americans were touring the country singing and yodeling. The most noted yodelers of that time were Monroe Tabor (\"The Yodeling Bellboy\" - though he was not a bellboy), Beulah Henderson (who appeared in black face), and Charles Anderson (who played a singing \"mammy\" and a female impersonator in several of his acts). Tabor performed with the Dandy Dixie Minstrels. In New York in 1908, a 'well-known critic' reported: \nMonroe Tabor sang \"A Tear, a Kiss, a Smile\". Mr Tabor is a new tenor with a good voice, which suffers only from a lack of training...While there was not quite enough comedy and ragtime, the Yoodle song, \"Sleep, Baby, Sleep\", was greatly in atonement and showed Monroe Tabor to be unexcelled as a yoodler.\n\nAnd from a 1917 review:\n\n...and Monroe Tabor yodeled as only J K Emmett Sr, of yore could do. At the Avenue Theater in December 1917, \"When My Ship Comes Sailing Home\" was a fine tenor solo by Tabor, who has no superiors as a yodeler. \n\nKnown as The Jolly Hendersons, Beulah Henderson toured with her husband Billy from 1905 through 1910. Billed as \"The Classy Colored Comedy Pair\", Beulah was featured as \"America's only Colored Lady Yodeler\". In Indianapolis in 1911 manager Tim Owsley noted:\n\nThe Jolly Hendersons offered a clean, bright and snappy act of singing, talking and dancing. Each song rendered by the jolly pair won for them an encore. Mr Henderson is a real clever light comedian, while his partner, Miss Henderson , is just as clever as a singing and talking soubrette. In fact she is one of the first lady yodlers that we have had the pleasure of hearing.\n\nCharles Anderson began touring with a vaudeville show in 1909, singing a combination of blues and yodeling. A 1913 St. Louis review reports:\nThe Male Mockingbird, Charles Anderson, the man with the golden voice, is some character singer, imitator, and impersonator. As an imitator, Anderson has the best on the market skinned, his violin imitation intermezzo went big, and was one of the best imitations of a musical instrument heard in this neck of the woods for many moons. \"Sleep Baby Sleep\", a lullaby sung in costume of an old nurse went big. The yodeling in this song was excellent. \"Baby Seals Blues\", as rendered by Anderson, was worth going to hear. After a quick change, Anderson reappeared as the polished gentleman and sang \"When the Cuckoo Sings\", instantly winning the hearts of the audience with his perfect yodeling, causing said audience to cheer like mad for more.\n\nCountry blues singer Lottie Kimbrough, billed as The Kansas City Butterball (she was a rather large woman), sang in speakeasys and nightclubs. Kimbrough recorded her music from 1924 through 1929 and is now best known for her collaborations with Winston Holmes. Holmes supplied a series of yodels, vocalized bird calls and train whistles on some of their recordings. A good recording of Kimbrough and Holmes singing Wayward Girl Blues (1924) is available on YouTube.\n\nWhen music critic Abbe Niles heard the Blue Yodel recordings released by Jimmie Rodgers in 1928 he was impressed by how distinctively black Rodgers's Blue Yodel recordings sounded, yodeling and all. In his opinion Rodgers was a \"white man gone black\". In his 1928 record review column, writing under the heading \"White man singing black songs,\" Niles acknowledged that Rodgers's first Blue Yodel had \"started the whole epidemic of yodeling blues that now rages - though Clarence Williams wrote a good one five years ago.\" Niles went on to advise his readers to add race records to their collections saying, \"Listening to race records is nearly the only way for white people to share the Negroes' pleasures without bothering the Negroes.\"\n\nAuthors Lynn Abbott & Doug Seroff write: \n\nWhile some of the blue yodels heard on late 1920s Race recordings - those by the Mississippi Sheiks, for example - probably do owe something to Jimmie Rodgers' phenomenal success, others - like Billie Young's When They Get Lovin' They's Gone (accompanied by Jelly Roll Morton on Victor 23339,1930), Lottie Kimbrough and Winston Holmes' Lost Lover Blues (Gennett 6607, 1928), and Clint Jones' Mississippi Woman Blues and Blue Valley Blues (Okeh 8587, 1928) - seem more deeply connected to these precedent recordings by Charles Anderson, and to the venerable line of African-American yodelers they represent. There is no reason to doubt that Jimmie Rodgers, who could not resist a show, was exposed to and influenced by the black yodeler-blues singer tradition. Its practitioners were thoroughly entrenched in minstrelsy and vaudeville, and accessible to all races of people. Perhaps Jimmie even saw Charles Anderson himself perform, or heard some of Anderson's crystalline blues and yodeling 78s, before rising to immortality on his own great 'Blue Yodel' recordings. At any rate, the Freeman references strongly suggest that Charles Anderson and his generation of black professional yodelers had introduced the blue yodel in African-American entertainment before Jimmie Rodgers recorded.\n\nPerformers\n\nEarly years\n\nMost music historians say that the first country music record to include yodeling was \"Rock All Our Babies to Sleep\" sung by Riley Puckett, a blind singer from Georgia. In 1924 in country music, his recording was one of the top hits of that year. Another early yodeler was Emmett Miller, a minstrel show performer, also from Georgia. In the 1920s, Miller recorded the song \"Lovesick Blues\", which was later a major hit for country singer Hank Williams. Bob Wills, the King of Western Swing, was also influenced by Miller (see the sound file above with Will's singer Tommy Duncan singing \"Blue Yodel No. 1\" in 1937) In the early 1920s, African-American Winston Holmes started a record label, Merritt Records, and was a performer himself. His vocals included bird calls, train whistles and yodels. He managed and made some songs with blues singer Lottie Kimbrough in the twenties. \n\nIn 1923 and 1924 black performer Charles Anderson recorded eight sides for the Okeh label which gave a summary account of his vaudeville repertoire during the previous decade. Five of the recorded songs are yodels : \"Sleep, Baby, Sleep\", \"Comic Yodle Song\", \"Coo Coo\" (J K Emmett's Cuckoo Song, adapted for Anderson's famous 60-second sustained soprano note), \"Laughing Yodel\" and \"Roll On Silver Moon\", a sentimental ballad, similar to Jimmie Rodgers' various Southern ballad recordings. Some historians credit white singer Riley Puckett with the first recorded yodeling record.\n\nJimmie Rodgers\n\nAnother famous early yodeler was The Singing Brakeman Jimmie Rodgers, who recorded dozens of popular songs in the late 1920s and early 1930s. While working on the railroad he learned blues techniques from African American gandy dancers, and eventually created his characteristic sound - a blend of traditional work, blues, hobo, and cowboy songs and his trademark \"Blue Yodel.\" His first blue yodel, known as “Blue Yodel No. 1\" (T For Texas), was recorded in the Trinity Baptist Church at Camden, New Jersey. When the song was released in February 1928 it became “a national phenomenon and generated an excitement and record-buying frenzy that no-one could have predicted”. Rogers sang about everyday affairs and woes that many Americans of that time could relate to. Here are the lyrics of \"Blue Yodel No. 3\":\n\nShe’s long she’s tall, she six feet from the ground\nShe’s long she’s tall, she six feet from the ground\nShe tailor made, lord she ain’t no hand me down\nOh-di-lay-ee-ay, di-lay-dee-oh, de-lay-ee\n\nShe got eyes like diamonds, lord her teeth shine just the same\nShe got eyes like diamonds and her teeth shine just the same\nShe got sweet ruby lips, and a hair like a horse’s mane\nOh-di-lay-ee-ay, di-lay-dee-oh, de-lay-ee\n\nEvery time I see you mama, you’re always on the street\nEvery time I see you mama, you’re always on the street\nYou hang out on the corner, like a police on his beat\nOh-di-lay-ee-ay, di-lay-dee-oh, de-lay-ee\n\nEvery time I need you mama, lord I always find you’re gone\nEvery time I need you mama, lord I always find you’re gone\nListen here sweet mama, I’m gonna put your air brakes on\nOh-di-lay-ee-ay, di-lay-dee-oh, de-lay-ee \n\nAccording to a black musician who lived near Rodgers in Mississippi, everyone, both black and white alike, began to copy Rodgers: \"Every one who could pick a guitar started yodeling like Rodgers.\" Rodgers died in 1933. Many performers that followed him claimed that he had been a big influence in their singing style and career.\n\nThe Lion Sleeps Tonight\n\nOne famous yodeling tune known the world-over is the song \"The Lion Sleeps Tonight\", also known as \"Wimoweh\". It was first recorded by Solomon Linda and the Evening Birds in South Africa in 1939. Linda, a singer of Zulu origin, wrote the song, originally titled \"Mbube\" (), while working for the Gallo Record Company as a cleaner and record packer. According to South African journalist Rian Malan:\n\"Mbube\" wasn't the most remarkable tune, but there was something terribly compelling about the underlying chant, a dense meshing of low male voices above which Solomon yodeled and howled for two exhilarating minutes, occasionally making it up as he went along. The third take was the great one, but it achieved immortality only in its dying seconds, when Solly took a deep breath, opened his mouth and improvised the melody that the world now associates with these words:\n::In the jungle, the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps tonight. \n\nBy 1948 the song had sold about 100,000 copies in Africa and among black South African immigrants in Great Britain and had lent its name to a style of African a cappella music that evolved into isicathamiya (also called mbube), popularized by Ladysmith Black Mambazo. It was covered internationally by many 1950s pop and folk revival artists, including The Weavers, Jimmy Dorsey, Yma Sumac, Miriam Makeba, and The Kingston Trio. In 1961, it became a number one hit in the U.S. as adapted by the doo-wop group The Tokens. It went on to earn at least 15 million US dollars in royalties from covers and film licensing. Then, in the mid-nineties, it became a pop \"supernova\" when it was used in the film The Lion King, its spin-off TV series and live musical.\n\nRadio\n\nOther than the National Barn Dance, broadcast out of Chicago starting in 1924, and the Grand Ole Opry in 1925, American Country Western performers had only live performances and records to promote their music. When radio grew in popularity in the late 1920s and early 1930s, the powerful recording company RCA Victor feared that free music would devastate their record business. RCA first attempted to prevent artists from appearing on the radio and then successfully stopped the growth of more powerful FM stations. But radio ownership grew from 2 out of 5 U.S. homes in 1931 to 4 out of 5 homes in 1938, and stations began to broadcast live shows featuring various artists, sometimes with a live audience. Some artists remained in their home area, but many traveled a circuit covering dozens of low-power AM stations throughout the country, introducing the various styles of singing to others outside of their region. A Georgia radio station of that era lists \"cowboy Roy Lykes\", the \"Yodeling Fence Rider\" from Texas, in its 1934 roster. Lykes is described as \"a real cowboy\" who \"wears regulation cowboy shoes to get him in the mood\". \n\nToday radio listeners can enjoy rare outtakes of historic cowboy yodeling on the [http://kpov.org/kpov_show/calling-all-cowboys/ \"Calling All Cowboys\"] western music program on community radio KPOV-FM and [http://kpov-od.streamguys.us/calling_all_cowboys_new_56k.mp3 streamed on the internet].\n\nNotable performers\n\nUnited States\n\nKnown as the \"Texas Drifter,\" Goebel Reeves claimed to have taught Jimmie Rodgers to yodel. Reeves came from a middle-class background, but chose the life of a hobo. His most famous song, \"Hobo's Lullaby,\" has been covered by numerous singers, notably Woody Guthrie and his son Arlo.\n \nIn 1934 yodeler Elton Britt recorded what was to become his signature song, \"Chime Bells\". Like so many others of that era, Britt listened to records of Jimmie Rodgers, which inspired him to learn how to yodel. Eventually he became renowned for his ability to sustain his yodel for an unusually long time, a skill he reportedly learned while swimming underwater for several minutes at a time. Swiss-American Country singer Jewel yodels and is known for her version of \"Chime Bells\" as well. Jewel says that she learned to yodel from her father who also learned to yodel by listening to Jimmie Rodgers. \n\nBlue yodeler Cliff Carlisle was one of the most prolific recording artists of the 1930s, and a pioneer in the use of the Hawaiian steel guitar in country music. He frequently released songs with sexual connotations including barnyard metaphors (which became something of a trademark). \n\nJack Guthrie, the cousin of Woody Guthrie, performed in the thirties and early forties. Known as \"Oklahoma's Yodeling Cowboy\", he developed a style of singing and yodeling influenced by his idol, Jimmie Rodgers, and his experiences as a bucking-horse rider and rodeo performer.[http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/G/GU005.html GUTHRIE, LEON JERRY \"JACK\" (1915-1948)] \n\nHank Snow was one of the great country legends of the 1950s, but he had actually been singing in Canada for years where he was known as \"The Yodeling Ranger\". He admired Jimmie Rodgers as well, and learned to yodel by listening to his records. He even named his son Jimmie Rodgers Snow.[http://www.allmusic.com/artist/p1811/biography Hank Snow - Music Biography, Credits and Discography : AllMusic]\n\nTommy Duncan, vocalist for \"Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys\", was a good yodeler. (See the sound file above with Duncan singing Rodger's \"Blue Yodel No. 1\" in 1937) Bob Wills is considered by music authorities to be the co-founder of Western Swing.\n\nThe DeZurik Sisters were two of the first women to become stars on both the National Barn Dance and the Grand Ole Opry, largely a result of their original yodeling style. Carolina Cotton[http://www.hillbilly-music.com/artists/story/index.php?id12787 Hillbilly-Music.com - Carolina Cotton] and Patsy Montana were early cowgirl yodeling singers as well.[https://books.google.com/books?id\nM8p_WFCDe7AC&pgPA224&dq\nyodeling+technique&hlen&ei\nDWxhTt6RNsnIgQfhm9HHAQ&saX&oi\nbook_result&ctresult&resnum\n2&ved0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v\nonepage&qyodeling%20technique&f\nfalse Country - Richard Carlin - Google Books] Patsy Montana's signature song, \"I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart\" was again popularized in 1946 by Rosalie Allen, a \"singing cowgirl\" from Pennsylvania, who went on to host her own \"western\" radio show in New York City. Margo Smith covered it in the 1970s, and singer/yodeler LeAnn Rimes again brought the song back in the 1990s. In 1996 Rimes also recorded \"The Cattle Call\", a \"singing cowboy\" song written by cowboy yodeler Tex Owens, with legendary singer Eddy Arnold. \"The Cattle Call\" was Arnold's signature song, but it has been recorded by many artists including Emmylou Harris and even Elvis Presley.[http://mademoisellemontana.wordpress.com/2009/04/13/cattle-call-from-tex-owens-to-people-like-us/ Cattle Call: from Tex Owens to People Like Us \| Mademoiselle Montana's Yodel Heaven]\n\nSinging cowboy Roy Rogers yodeled, as did his box office competitor Gene Autry. (See the sound file above in which Autry sings the Jimmie Rodgers song \"Blue Yodel No. 5\") Zeke Clements, known as \"The Dixie Yodeler\" acted in \"singing cowboy\" Westerns and also provided the voice of Bashful, the yodeling dwarf, in Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film).\n\nYodeler Hannès Schroll was the voice for the Goofy holler, a stock sound effect that is used frequently in Walt Disney cartoons and films. It is the cry Goofy makes when falling or being launched into the air, which could be transcribed as \"yaaaaaaa-hoo-hoo-hooey!\"\n\n\"Yodelin' Slim Clark\", hailed from Maine and performed for 70 years. (See the sound file above \"The Old Chisholm Trail\" recorded by Clark in 1956.)[http://www.yodelingslimclark.com/ Yodeling Slim Clark] Yodeler Don Walser was from Texas. Though widely known in Texas, his singing career didn't really take off until he was 60 years old in 1994. In 2000 he received a lifetime \"Heritage\" award from the National Endowment for the Arts, and he and his band played at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.[http://www.markrubin.com/war/ Don Walser circa 1964] Jimmie Davis, who served two terms as the Governor of Louisiana, was also a successful country singer who yodeled.\n\nPerhaps yodeler Bill Haley of Bill Haley and the Comets has one of the strangest histories of all. Bill Haley zoomed to fame as the \"King of Rock and Roll\" when his song \"Rock Around the Clock\" was featured in the popular film Blackboard Jungle. But it is little-known that Haley and his band had been around for years doing Western swing music with Haley featured as a yodeler. Haley was born in 1925 and \"Rock Around the Clock\" made the scene in 1955 and at that time he and his band were using the name the Comets. However, prior to that time they had gone under the names the Down Homers, the Texas Range Riders, the Four Aces of Western Swing and finally, The Saddlemen. At one point in the 1940s, Bill Haley was even awarded Indiana State Yodeling Champion for his skill, perhaps something that his skillful manager Colonel Tom Parker felt not important to mention to his screaming teenage rock 'n' roll fans.[http://www.hillbilly-music.com/artists/story/index.php?id=13813 Hillbilly-Music.com - Bill Haley and the Saddlemen][http://wn.com/Bill_Haley__Yodel_Your_Blues_Away Bill Haley Yodel Your Blues Away][http://www.reocities.com/nemsbook/h/billhaley.htm Bill Haley: Before the Comets - NEMSbook]\n\nYodler Kenny Roberts was another member of the Down Homers; he taught Bill Haley to yodel before he did a stint in the Navy when Haley took his place in the band. In later years Roberts was popular on children's TV shows where he used to leap over two feet in the air while playing guitar and yodeling.\n\nJazz singer Leon Thomas, best known for his work with Pharoah Sanders, particularly the 1969 song \"The Creator Has a Master Plan\" from Sanders' Karma album, was known to break out into yodeling in the middle of a vocal. Thomas said he learned to yodel from listening to African Pygmy singers. This style has influenced singers James Moody, Tim Buckley and Bobby McFerrin, among others.\n\nSlim Whitman performed for over 60 years. Whitman avoided the \"down on yer luck\" songs, preferring instead to sing laid-back romantic melodies about simple life and love. Critics dubbed his musical style \"countrypolitan,\" due to its fusion of country music and a more sophisticated crooner vocal style. Pop singer Michael Jackson cited Whitman as one of his ten favorite vocalists. Beatles George Harrison and Paul McCartney cite Whitman as an early influence In the film Mars Attacks!, a Kansas teenager discovers that the Martians are vulnerable to Whitman's song \"Indian Love Call\", whereupon he and his grandmother use it to destroy the Martians.\n\nOther western music yodeling singers include Douglas B. Green (Ranger Doug)[http://www.bobnolan-sop.net/Recollections/Douglas%20B.%20Green/Douglas%20B%20Green.htm Douglas B Green] and Wylie Gustafson. Green sings with his band Riders in the Sky.[http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?qcache:TFzcSNh6bg8J:ridersinthesky.com/index.htm%3Fid%3D17650%26sid%3D17417+Ranger+Doug%27s+Classic+Cowboy+Corral%22+satellite+radio+show&cd\n3&hlen&ct\nclnk&glus&client\nfirefox-a Riders in the Sky \| Bio \| Official Site for America's Favorite Cowboys] He is also a music historian and has written a book, Singing in the Saddle \"the first comprehensive look at the singing cowboy phenomenon that swept the United States in the 1930s\". Gustafson learned to yodel from his dad, who learned from Austrians on the ski team in Bozeman, Montana. In 2007, he released an instructional book and CD titled, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090609200126/http://www.wyliewebsite.com/howtoyodel.html How to Yodel: Lessons to Tickle Your Tonsils]. Mike Johnson is an African American yodeler who combines the Jimmie Rodgers, Swiss, and Cowboy yodeling styles, . In 2007, 114 of his yodeling songs were inducted into the Recorded Sound Reference Center's permanent music collection in the Library of Congress in Washington D.C.[http://www.freewebs.com/blackyodelno1/ Mike Johnson Biography - Mike Johnson, Country Music's No.1 Black Yodeler][http://mudcat.org/Detail.CFM?messages__Message_ID=2047475 Mudcat Café Message]\n\nKerry Christensen, who hails from Idaho, has been performing since he was three years old. He yodels in both western and Alpine styles and also plays the accordion, the zither and the alphorn...and is very good at imitating chickens.\nYodeler Taylor Ware was a contestant on America's Got Talent when she was eleven years old. According to Ware, she taught herself to yodel from an audiotape and instruction book when she was seven years old.[http://www.tv.com/people/taylor-ware/ Taylor Ware - TV.com] Alyse Eady, who holds the title of Miss Arkansas 2010 and was 1st runner-up in the Miss America 2011 Pageant, both yodeled and did ventriloquism in the song \"I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart\" as her talent performance.\n\nAccording to Bart Plantenga, author of Yodel-Ay-Ee-Oooo: The Secret History of Yodeling Around the World, \"...unlikely yodellers include the Muppets (with, of course, special guest Julie Andrews), Shakira, Goofy, Bill Murray (remember Charlie's Angels?), Gene Wilder (who was taught to yodel by Rough Guide contributor and yodel legend Kenny Roberts), and South Korea's former Miss World Ji-Yea Park.\" [http://www.brooklynrail.org/2006/03/music/yodel-spotting-lapsed-mennonites-yodeling-truck-drivers-japanese-carnivores-in-lederhosen-and-soft-core-tyrolean-yodel-porn Yodel-Spotting: Lapsed-Mennonites, Yodeling Truck Drivers, Japanese Carnivores in Lederhosen, and Soft-Core Tyrolean Yodel Porn - The Brooklyn Rail]\n\nThe Sound of Music by Rodgers and Hammerstein contains a yodelling song, \"The Lonely Goatherd\", in which Mary Martin yodelled to good effect in the original production on Broadway in 1959. Gwen Stefani also yodeled in 2006 single, \"Wind It Up\".\nThe lead vocalist for American electro-punk band the Epoxies is also known for her yodeling in a lot of their songs. Soul singer Aaron Neville said he was inspired by Gene Autry's yodelling to develop his unusual vibrato singing style.[http://yodel.askdefine.com/ Define yodel \| Dictionary and Thesaurus]\n\nIn a skit that aired on the TV \"Late Night with Jimmy Fallon\", the actor Brad Pitt and Jimmy Fallon engaged in a yodeling conversation atop New York City skyscrapers. As they yodeled back and forth, subtitles inform viewers of what they are saying to each another. After some small talk Pitt asks Fallon if he'd like to try a \"double yodel.\" Fallon responds, \"A double yodel? But that's never been done before!\" and the episode concludes with the two yodeling in harmony. \n\nCanada\n\nCanadian Wilf Carter (Montana Slim) was known as the \"Father of Canadian Country Music\". He began singing in the 1920s after seeing a traveling Swiss performer named \"The Yodeling Fool\" in a nearby town. Carter sang in the \"singing cowboy\" style and developed a yodel with a Swiss-sound sometimes called an \"echo yodel\" or a \"three-in-one.\"[http://fieldwoodhs.ednet.ns.ca/cfhswilf.html Wilf Carter Memorabilia, Canning Heritage Centre]\n\nCanadian country singer and yodeler Donn Reynolds set a world record yodelling non-stop for 7 hours and 29 minutes in 1976. Reynolds later established a world record for the fastest 5 tone yodel (3 falsetto) in 1.9 seconds in 1984. His release of the yodelling song \"She Taught Me How To Yodel\" reached #2 on the Canadian country music charts in 1965. \n\nStompin' Tom Connors of Canada is also noted for yodeling in some of his songs.\n\nEurope\n\nYodeling is a major feature of folk music (Volksmusik) from Switzerland, Austria, and southern Germany and can be heard in many contemporary folk songs, which are also featured on regular TV broadcasts. Stefanie Hertel is a German yodeler and popular performer of Alpine folk music. Hertel has won numerous prizes as a performer; in 1992, she won the Grand Prix der Volksmusik with the song \"Über jedes Bacherl geht a Brückerl\"\n\nFranz \"Franzl\" Lang, known as the Yodelking (German: Jodlerkönig), is a famous yodeler from Bavaria. Lang also plays the guitar and the accordion and he has authored several books on yodeling. Ursprung Buam is an Austrian folk music trio from Zillertal, Tyrol. One of the most popular touring groups in Austria, Ursprung Buam often tours Germany and many places across the European Union, as well as the Tirolean festival scene. Oesch’s die Dritten is a Yodel Volksmusik family group from the Bernese Oberland, Switzerland.\n\nBobbejaan Schoepen was an extremely accomplished, successful, and versatile Belgian entertainer, entrepreneur, singer-songwriter, guitarist, comedian, actor, and professional whistler. \nIn 1948 \"De Jodelende Fluiter\" (\"The Yodeling Whistler\") was Schoepen's first hit. In 1953, he was one of the first Europeans to appear at the \"Grand Ole Opry\" in the United States.[http://chawedrosin.wordpress.com/2010/06/14/bobbejaan-schoepen-the-yodeling-whistler/ Bobbejaan Schoepen: The Yodeling Whistler \| The Chawed Rosin] Outside of regional Volksmusic, Karl Denver was a Scottish singer who had a series of yodel-based hit singles in the early 1960s. Most famous of these was a 1961 version of \"Wimoweh\".\n\nHarry Hopkinson (1902 – 1979) has been credited as one of the world's greatest yodelers. He used the stage name Harry Torrani and was billed as the \"Yodeling Cowboy from Chesterfield\". Frank Ifield, an Australian-English singer, released a double A-sided single record, \"Lovesick Blues\" and \"She Taught Me How to Yodel\" in the UK in 1962. It reached number 1 in the UK charts, and also reached number 44 in the U.S.Billboard Hot 100.\n\nIn England, Edith Sitwell featured a \"Jodelling Song\" as part of her series of poems Façade, set to music by William Walton. \n\nOne of the earliest songs to portray an unusual marriage between yodeling and rock music was \"Hocus Pocus\" by the Dutch band Focus released in 1971. Irish singer Dolores O'Riordan is renowned for her yodelling particularly in tracks such as \"Dreams\", one of several Riordan-penned singles from the double platinum album Everybody Else Is Doing It, So Why Can't We? by The Cranberries.\n\nOutside Europe and North America\n\nAustralia\"s first singing cowboy Smoky Dawson was well known for his western-style yodel, and featured yodel on his first single Im A Happy Go-Lucky Cowhand\"\nIn South Africa, yodeling is featured in some Afrikaans-language pop music. \n\nKishore Kumar was a playback singer from India, famous for his yodeling,[http://mademoisellemontana.wordpress.com/2008/04/27/do-they-yodel-in-india-kishore-kumar/ Do they yodel in India ?: Kishore Kumar \| Mademoiselle Montana's Yodel Heaven] while it was JP Chandrababu talented comedian of Tamil film who introduced yodeling as playback singing in India.[http://www.mohdrafi.com/meri-awaaz-suno/rafi-and-yodeling.html Rafi and Yodeling \| Rafians tribute to a true Maestro - Mohd Rafi]\n\nJoy McKean, Australian country music singer-songwriter, is known as the \"grand lady\" of Australian country music. By the age of 18 she was performing with her sister Heather on their own radio show as the McKean Sisters, noted for their yodeling harmonies. Mckean performed with her husband Slim Dusty till his death in 2003. Slim, a singer-songwriter and yodeler as well, wrote his first song, \"The Way the Cowboy Dies\" when he was only 10 years old. He received 37 Golden Guitar and two ARIA awards and was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.[http://www.mp3lyrics.org/s/slim-dusty/gymkhana-yodel/ GYMKHANA YODEL Lyrics SLIM DUSTY & Heather McKean & Joy]\n\nMary Schneider is an Australian singer and performer who yodels the works of classic composers. She mainly appears in club and pub venues around Australia as well as overseas, but she has also performed at many arena venues. Her daughter Melinda Schneider is also a country music singer and yodeller.\n\nThe Tarzan yell\n\nThe Tarzan yell is the yodel-like call of the character Tarzan, as portrayed by actor Johnny Weissmuller in the films based on the character created by Edgar Rice Burroughs, starting with Tarzan the Ape Man (1932). The yell was a creation of the movies, based on what Burroughs described in his books as \"the victory cry of the bull ape.\"", "The Tarzan yell is the distinctive, ululating yell of the character Tarzan as portrayed by actor Johnny Weissmuller in the films based on the character created by Edgar Rice Burroughs starting with Tarzan the Ape Man (1932). The yell was a creation of the movies based on what Burroughs described in his books as simply \"the victory cry of the bull ape.\" \n\nHistory and origin\n\n \nAlthough the RKO Picture version of the Tarzan yell was putatively that of Weissmuller, different stories exist as to how the Tarzan Yell was created. Many speculate that a man named Lloyd Thomas Leech was the original voice behind the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Tarzan Yell. He was an opera singer from the 1940s into the '60s, winning the Chicagoland Music Festival on August 17, 1946, and going on to sing throughout the U.S., touring with several opera companies. There are recordings of his recollections of creating the Tarzan yell, a story supported by his children and grandchildren. According to the newspaper columnist L. M. Boyd (circa 1970), \"Blended in with that voice are the growl of a dog, a trill sung by a soprano, a note played on a violin's G string and the howl of a hyena recorded backward.\" According to Bill Moyers, it was created by combining the recordings of three men: one baritone, one tenor, and one hog caller from Arkansas. Another widely published notion concerns the use of an Austrian yodel played backwards at abnormally fast speed. But Weissmuller claimed that the yell was actually his own voice. His version is supported by his son and by his Tarzan co-star, Maureen O'Sullivan.\n\nIn the 1999 Disney animated film based on the Tarzan franchise, the character lets out an updated version of this yell at various moments.\n\nThe Tarzan yell is often used for comic effect in later, unrelated movies, particularly when a character is swinging on vines or doing other \"Tarzanesque\" things. The sound clip used in the Weissmuller films has also been exclusively used for animated series appearances of Tarzan, and in the Tarzan television series (1966 - 1968), which starred Ron Ely, rather than having the actor providing Tarzan's voice for the series attempt to imitate the trademark yell. A comical version of this yell was performed by Ray Stevens in his 1969 novelty hit \"Gitarzan\". It was even used in the 1981 film Tarzan, the Ape Man. The yell is heard at Carolina Hurricanes home games. Comedian Carol Burnett would do the yell on request during a question and answer weekly session on her comedy sketch series. A version of the yell even appeared in Return of the Jedi as the character of Chewbacca swings on a vine towards an Imperial Scout Walker on the forest planet of Endor. The yell is also heard in the third prequel Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith in a similar scene of a wookiee swinging onto an attacking droid tank. It was also used to dubious comic effect in the James Bond film Octopussy in 1983 and in the first Mad Max film in 1979.\n\nTrademark \n\nThe sound itself is a registered trademark and service mark, owned by Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc. \n\nRecognition of the trademark's registration within the European Union is uncertain. In late 2007, the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (OHIM) determined that attempts by ERB, Inc. to maintain such trademark must fail legally, reasoning that \"[w]hat has been filed as a graphic representation is from the outset not capable of serving as a graphic representation of the applied-for sound ... The examiner was therefore correct to refuse the attribution of a filing date.\" Regardless, the trademark registration was updated in 2010 (to include slot machines) and 2014 (to include online use).\n\nOther Tarzan yells\n\nThe first ever version of the yell can be found in the part-sound serial Tarzan the Tiger (1929). This version is described as a \"Nee-Yah!\" noise. \n\nIn the 1932 Tarzan radio serial with James Pierce the yell sounds like \"Taaar-maan-ganiii\". In the ape language mentioned in the Tarzan novels \"Tarmangani\" means \"White Ape\".\n\nA very similar cry was used for Burroughs' own Tarzan film, The New Adventures of Tarzan (1935), shot concurrently with the MGM Weismuller movies in Central America with Herman Brix as a cultured Tarzan. The yell can best be described as a \"Mmmmm-ann-gann-niii\" sound that gradually rises ever higher in pitch. \n\nElmo Lincoln recreated his victory cry in a 1952 episode of You Asked for It. \n\nDonkey Kong has also been known to use the Tarzan yell (although it sounds like \"Ooo-wa-ooo-aaooaaooaa-ooo!\"). His Tarzan yell is first heard in Donkey Kong: Jungle Beat and later was used in DK Jungle Climber, Donkey Kong Country Returns and later in Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze.\n\nTarzan's yell is used as a melodic refrain in the Baltimora single \"Tarzan Boy\". This refrain ironically plays in place of an ordinary Tarzan yell when Haru climbs and struggles to keep his balance on the top of a palm tree in Beverly Hills Ninja. The refrain was also used in a 1993 jungle-themed advert for Listerine's Cool Mint mouthwash. \n\nIn the 1999 animated film, the Tarzan yell is dubbed by Brian Blessed, who voiced the villain Clayton. This was done after Tony Goldwyn, who voiced the title character, blew his vocals.\n\nJane (as portrayed by Maureen O'Sullivan) used a variation of the Tarzan Yell." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Johnny Weismuller", "Weissmuller", "Johnny Weissmueller", "Johnny Weissmuller", "Johnny Weissmüller", "Johann Peter Weißmüller", "John Weissmuller" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "johnny weissmuller", "weissmuller", "johnny weissmueller", "johnny weismuller", "johann peter weißmüller", "john weissmuller", "johnny weissmüller" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "johnny weissmuller", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Johnny Weissmuller" }
In which state do most Cree Indians live in the USA?	tc_1010	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Cree.txt" ], "title": [ "Cree" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Cree (historical autonym: Nēhiraw; ) are one of the largest groups of First Nations in North America, with over 200,000 members living in Canada. The major proportion of Cree in Canada live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories. About 38,000 live in Quebec. \n\nIn the United States, this Algonquian-speaking people historically lived from Lake Superior westward. Today, they live mostly in Montana, where they share a reservation with the Ojibwe (Chippewa). \n\nThe documented westward migration over time has been strongly associated with their roles as traders and hunters in the North American fur trade. \n\nSub-groups \n\nThe Cree are generally divided into eight groups based on dialect and region. These divisions do not necessarily represent ethnic sub-divisions within the larger ethnic group:\n\n* Naskapi and Montagnais (together known as the Innu) are inhabitants of an area they refer to as Nitassinan. Their territories comprise most of the present-day political jurisdictions of eastern Quebec and Labrador. Their cultures are differentiated, as the Naskapi are still caribou hunters and more nomadic than the Montagnais, but the Montagnais have more settlements. The total population of the two groups in 2003 was about 18,000 people, of which 15,000 lived in Quebec. Their dialects and languages are the most distinct from the Cree spoken by the groups west of Lake Superior.\n* Attikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to as Nitaskinan (Our Land), in the upper St. Maurice River valley of Quebec (about 300 km north of Montreal). Their population is around 4,500.\n* James Bay Cree – Grand Council of the Crees; approximately 18,000 Cree (Iyyu in Coastal Dialect / Iynu in Inland Dialect) of Eeyou Istchee and Nunavik regions of Northern Quebec.\n* Moose Cree – Moose Factory in the Cochrane District, Ontario; this group lives on Moose Factory Island, near the mouth of the Moose River, at the southern end of James Bay.\n* Swampy Cree – this group lives in northern Manitoba along the Hudson Bay coast and adjacent inland areas to the south and west, and in Ontario along the coast of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Some also in eastern Saskatchewan around Cumberland House. It has 4,500 speakers.\n* Woods Cree group in northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.\n* Plains Cree 34,000 people in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Montana.\n\nDue to the many dialects of the Cree language, there is no modern collective autonym. The Plains Cree and Attikamekw refer to themselves using modern forms of the historical nêhiraw, namely nêhiyaw and nêhirawisiw, respectively. Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Montagnais all refer to themselves using modern dialectal forms of the historical iriniw, meaning 'man.' Moose Cree use the form ililiw, coastal East Cree and Naskapi use iyiyiw (variously spelled iiyiyiu, iiyiyuu, and eeyou), inland East Cree use iyiniw (variously spelled iinuu and eenou), and Montagnais use ilnu and innu, depending on dialect. The Cree use \"Cree,\" \"cri,\" \"Naskapi, or \"montagnais\" to refer to their people only when speaking the languages of the European colonists, French or English. \n\nPolitical organization \n\nHistorical \n\nAs hunter-gatherers, the basic unit of organization for Cree peoples were the lodge, a group of perhaps eight or a dozen people, usually the families of two separate but related married couples, who lived together in the same wigwam (domed tent) or tipi (conical tent), and the band, a group of lodges who moved and hunted together. In the case of disagreement lodges could leave bands, and bands could be formed and dissolved with relative ease, but as there is safety in numbers, all families would want to be part of some band, and banishment was considered a very serious punishment. Bands would usually have strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Besides these regional gatherings, there was no higher-level formal structure, and decisions of war and peace were made by consensus with allied bands meeting together in council. People could be identified by their clan, which is a group of people claiming descent from the same common ancestor; each clan would have a representative and a vote in all important councils held by the band (compare: Anishinaabe clan system). \n\nEach band remained independent of each other. However, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and with their neighbours against outside enemies. Those Cree who moved onto the Great Plains and adopted bison hunting, called the Plains Cree, were allied with the Assiniboine and the Saulteaux in what was known as the \"Iron Confederacy\" which was a major force in the North American fur trade from the 1730s to the 1870s.\n\nWhen a band went to war, they would nominate a temporary military commander, called a okimahkan. loosely translated as \"war chief\". This office was different from that of the \"peace chief\", a leader who had a role more like that of diplomat. In the run-up to the 1885 North-West Rebellion, Big Bear was the leader of his band, but once the fighting started Wandering Spirit became war leader.\n\nContemporary \n\nThere have been several attempts to create a national political organization that would represent all Cree peoples, at least as far back as a 1994 gathering at the Opaskwayak Cree First Nation reserve. \n\nName \n\nThe name \"Cree\" is derived from the Algonkian-language exonym Kirištino˙, which the Ojibwa used for tribes around Hudson Bay. The French colonists and explorers, who spelled the term Kilistinon, Kiristinon, Knisteneaux, Cristenaux, and Cristinaux, used the term for numerous tribes which they encountered north of Lake Superior, in Manitoba, and west of there. The French used these terms to refer to various groups of peoples in Canada, some of which are now better distinguished as Severn Anishinaabe (Ojibwa), who speak dialects different from the Algonquin. \n\nDepending on the community, the Cree may call themselves by the following names: the nēhiyawak, nīhithaw, nēhilaw, and nēhinaw; or ininiw, ililiw, iynu (innu), or iyyu. These names are derived from the historical autonym nēhiraw (uncertain meaning) or from the historical autonym iriniw (meaning \"person\"). Cree using the latter autonym tend to be those living in the territories of Quebec and Labrador. \n\nLanguage \n\nThe Cree language (also known in the most broad classification as Cree-Montagnais, Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi, to show the groups included within it) is the name for a group of closely related Algonquian languages spoken by approximately 117,000 people across Canada, from the Northwest Territories to Labrador. It is the most widely spoken aboriginal language in Canada. The only region where Cree has official status is in the Northwest Territories, together with eight other aboriginal languages. \n\nThe two major groups: Nehiyaw and Innu, speak a mutually intelligible Cree dialect continuum, which can be divided by many criteria. In a dialect continuum, \"It is not so much a language, as a chain of dialects, where speakers from one community can very easily understand their neighbours, but a Plains Cree speaker from Alberta would find a Quebec Cree speaker difficult to speak to without practice.\" \n\nOne major division between the groups is that the Eastern group palatalizes the sound to either (c) or to (č) when it precedes front vowels. There is also a major difference in grammatical vocabulary (particles) between the groups. Within both groups, another set of variations has arisen around the pronunciation of the Proto-Algonquian phoneme l, which can be realized as or (th) by different groups. Yet in other dialects, the distinction between (ē) and (ī) has been lost, merging to the latter. In more western dialects, the distinction between and (š) has been lost, both merging to the former.\n\nGolla lists Cree as one of fifty five languages that have more than 1,000 speakers which are being actively acquired by children. \n\nIdentity and ethnicity \n\nIn Canada \n\nThe Cree are the largest group of First Nations in Canada, with 220,000 members and 135 registered bands. This large population may be a result of the Crees' traditional openness to intertribal marriage. Together, their reserve lands are the largest of any First Nations group in the country. The largest Cree band and the second largest First Nations Band in Canada after the Six Nations Iroquois is the Lac La Ronge Band in northern Saskatchewan.\n\nGiven the traditional Cree acceptance of mixed marriages, it is acknowledged by academics that all bands are ultimately of mixed heritage and multilingualism and multiculturalism was the norm. In the West mixed bands of Cree, Saulteaux and Assiniboine, all partners in the Iron Confederacy, are the norm. However, in recent years, as indigenous languages have declined across western Canada where there were once three languages spoken on a given reserve, there may now only be one. This has led to a simplification of identity, and it has become \"fashionable\" for bands in many parts of Saskatchewan to identify as \"Plains Cree\" at the expense of a mixed Cree-Salteaux history. There is also a tendency for bands to recategorize themselves as \"Plains Cree\" instead of Woods Cree or Swampy Cree. Neal McLeod argues this is partly due to the dominant culture's fascination with Plains Indian culture as well as the greater degree of written standardization and prestige Plains Cree enjoys over other Cree dialects.\n\nThe Métis (from the French, Métis - of mixed ancestry) are people of mixed ancestry, such as Nehiyaw (or Anishinaabe) and French, English, or Scottish heritage. According to Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, the Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Nehiyaw women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and northern Dene women (Anglo-Métis). Generally in academic circles, the term métis can be used to refer to any combination of persons of mixed Native American and European heritage, although historical definitions for Métis remain. Canada's Indian and Northern Affairs broadly define Métis as those persons of mixed First Nation and European ancestry, while The Métis National Council defines a Métis as \"a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation\". \n\nFile:Group of Crees (HS85-10-27756).jpg\|Group of Crees\nFile:Cree Indian (HS85-10-27754).jpg\|Cree Indian\nFile:Chief King of the Wind (HS85-10-27755).jpg\|Chief King of the Wind\nFile:Chief Thundercloud (HS85-10-27757).jpg\|Chief Thundercloud\nFile:Chief Duckhunter (HS85-10-27759).jpg\| Chief Duckhunter\nFile:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 095.jpg\|Nehiyaw girl (1928)\n\nIn the United States \n\nAt one time the Cree lived in northern Minnesota, North Dakota and Montana. Today American Cree are enrolled in the federally recognized Chippewa Cree tribe, located on the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation, and in minority as \"Landless Cree\" on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation and as \"Landless Cree\" and \"Rocky Boy Cree\" on the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, all in Montana. The Chippewa Cree share the reservation with the Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians, who form the \"Chippewa\" (Ojibwa) half of the Chippewa Cree tribe. On the other Reservations, the Cree minority share the Reservation with the Assiniboine, Gros Ventre and Sioux tribes. Traditionally, the southern limits of the Cree territory in Montana were the Missouri River and the Milk River.\n\nFirst Nation communities \n\n1 Naskapi (Iyiyiw and Innu)\nKawawachikamach\nNatuashish\n\n2 Montagnais\na Eastern Montagnais (Innu)\nMingan\nUashat-Maliotenam\nMatimekosh\nNatashquan\nPakua-Shipi\nLa Romaine\nSheshatshiu\nb Western Montagnais (Nehilaw and Ilniw)\nMashteuiatsh\nBetsiamites\nEssipit\n\n3 Atikamekw (Nehiraw)\nAtikamekw d'Opitciwan\nLes Atikamekw de Manawan\nConseil des Atikamekw de Wemotaci\n\n4 James Bay Cree Iyiyiw and Iyiniw\nEeyou Istchee/Baie-James Territory\nChisasibi\nEastmain\nMistissini\nNemaska\nOujé-Bougoumou \nWaskaganish \nWaswanipi\nWemindji\nWhapmagoostui\nWashaw Sibi \n\n5 Moose Cree (Mōsonī / ililī)\nBrunswick House First Nation (also Ojibwa)\nChapleau Cree First Nation\nConstance Lake First Nation (also Ojibwa)\nKashechewan First Nation (also Swampy Cree)\nMatachewan First Nation (also Ojibwa)\nMissanabie Cree First Nation\nMoose Cree First Nation – Moose Factory, Ontario\nTaykwa Tagamou Nation (formerly known as New Post First Nation)\n\n6 Swampy Cree (Maškēkowak / nēhinawak)\nAttawapiskat First Nation – Attawapiskat, Ontario\nChemawawin Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree)\nCumberland House Cree Nation\nFisher River Cree Nation\nFort Albany First Nation (also known as Albany First Nation) - Fort Albany, Ontario\nFort Severn First Nation\nFox Lake Cree Nation\nKashechewan First Nation (also Moose Cree)\nMisipawistik Cree Nation (formerly known as Grand Rapids First Nation) (also Rocky Cree)\nMosakahiken Cree Nation (Also 'Cree' name for Moose Lake First Nation)\nOpaskwayak Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) – The Pas, Manitoba\nRed Earth Cree Nation (also Woods Cree)\nSapotaweyak Cree Nation\nShamattawa Cree Nation\nShoal Lake Cree Nation (also Woods Cree)\nTataskweyak Cree Nation\nWar Lake First Nation\nWeenusk First Nation\nWuskwi Sipihk First Nation\nYork Factory First Nation\n\n7 Woodland Cree\na Rocky Cree (Asinīskāwiyiniwak)\nBarren Lands First Nation\nBunibonibee Cree Nation (formerly known as Oxford House First Nation)\nChemawawin Cree Nation (also Swampy Cree)\nGod’s Lake First Nation\nGreen Lake Band of Cree (historical)\nLac La Ronge First Nation (formerly known as Lac La Ronge Indian Band)\n La Ronge & Stanley Mission Band of Cree Indians (Historical), which divided and then re-amalgamated:\n James Roberts Band of Cree Indians (Historical)\n Amos Charles Band of Cree Indians (Historical)\nMontreal Lake First Nation\n*Peter Ballantyne Cree Nation\nManto Sipi Cree Nation\nMarcel Colomb First Nation\nBlack Sturgeon First Nation\nMathias Colomb First Nation\nMisipawistik Cree Nation (formerly known as Grand Rapids First Nation) (also Swampy Cree)\nMoose Lake First Nation \n Nelson House Band of Cree (Historical)\n Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation\n O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation\nNorway House Cree Nation\nOpaskwayak Cree Nation (also Swampy Cree)\nPimicikamak\nCross Lake First Nation\nTataskweyak Cree Nation (IR Split Lake 171)\n\nb Woods Cree (Sakāwithiniwak / nīhithawak)\nBigstone Cree Nation\nCross Lake First Nation\nCanoe Lake First Nation (also Bush Cree)\nDriftpile First Nation\nDuncan's First Nation\nFort McMurray First Nation (also Chipewyan)\nHeart Lake First Nation\nKapawe'no First Nation\nLittle Red River Cree Nation\nLoon River First Nation\nLubicon Lake Indian Nation\nMikisew Cree First Nation \nRed Earth Cree Nation (also Swampy Cree)\nSawridge First Nation\nShoal Lake Cree Nation (also Swampy Cree)\nSturgeon Lake Cree Nation\nSucker Creek First Nation\nSwan River First Nation \nWhitefish Lake First Nation 128\n\n8 Plains Cree (Paskwāwiyiniwak / nēhiyawak)\na Downstream People (Māmihkiyiniwak)\nCowessess First Nation\nLittle Black Bear First Nation\nMuscowpetung First Nation (also Saulteaux)\nNekaneet First Nation\nOchapowace First Nation\nOne Arrow First Nation\nPeepeekisis First Nation\nStar Blanket First Nation\n\ni Calling River / Qu'Appelle Cree (Kātēpwēwi-sīpīwiyiniwak)\nOcean Man First Nation (also Assiniboine and Saulteaux)\nPheasant Rump Nakota Nation (also Nakoda and Saulteaux)\nWhitebear First Nation\n\nii Rabbit skins (Wāpošwayānak)\nKahkewistahaw First Nation\nOkanese First Nation (also Saulteaux)\nPasqua First Nation (also Saulteaux)\nSakimay First Nation (also Saulteaux)\n\niii Touchwood Hills Cree (Pasākanacīwiyiniwak)(also Saulteaux) – Punnichy, Saskatchewan\nDaystar First Nation (formerly: Day Star's Band of Cree)\nGordon First Nation (formerly: George Gordon's Band of Cree)(also Saulteaux and Metis)\n* Poorman's Band of Cree (historical)\nKawacatoose First Nation\nMuskowekwan First Nation\n\niv Cree-Assiniboine / Young Dogs (Nēhiyawi-pwātak)(also Assiniboine)\nLandless Cree - Fort Peck, Montana\nLandless Cree and Rocky Boy Cree - Fort Belknap Agency, Montana\nPiapot First Nation\n\nb Upstream People (Natimiyininiwak)\nBeaver Lake Cree Nation – Lac La Biche, Alberta\nBig Island Lake First Nation (also known as Joseph Bighead First Nation)\nChippewa-Cree Indians of the Rocky Boy’s Reservation, Montana (also Ojibwa)\nFrog Lake First Nation\nKehewin Cree Nation - Alberta\nLucky Man First Nation\nMoosomin First Nation\nMosquito-Grizzly Bear's Head-Lean Man (also Nakoda)\nMuskeg Lake First Nation\nPelican Lake First Nation\nSaulteaux \n* St. Peter's Band of Cree and Saulteaux (Historical)\n Muskoday First Nation (formerly: John Smith First Nation) – Muskoday, Saskatchewan\n Peguis First Nation\nSturgeon Lake First Nation\nThunderchild First Nation\nWaterhen Lake First Nation\nWitchekan Lake First Nation\n\ni Beaver Hills Cree (Amiskwacīwiyiniwak)\nAlexander First Nation (also Wapski Mahikan Society)(formerly: Alexander's Band of Cree) – Morinville, Alberta\nAlexis Nakota First Nation (formerly: Joseph's Band of Indians)(also Nakoda)\nEnoch Cree Nation (formerly: Enoch's Band of Cree) – Winterburn, Alberta\nErmineskin Cree Nation (formerly: Ermineskin's Band of Cree)(also Nakoda) – Maskwacis, Alberta\nLouis Bull First Nation (formerly: Louis Bull's Band of Cree) – Maskwacis, Alberta\nMichel's Band of Cree (Historical)(also Iroquois)\nMontana First Nation – Maskwacis, Alberta\nO'Chiese First Nation (also Saulteaux)\nOnion Lake Cree Nation\nPapaschase First Nation\nPaul First Nation (formerly: Paul's Band of Cree)(also Nakoda) – Duffield, Alberta\nSaddle Lake Cree Nation\nBlue Quill's Band of Cree (Historical)\nJames Seenum's Band of Cree (Historical)\n*Whitefish (Goodfish) Lake First Nation\nLittle Hunter's Band of Cree (a.k.a. Saddle Lake Band of Cree)(Historical)\n*Wahsatenaw Band of Cree (a.k.a. Wasatnow Band of Cree, Bear Ears' Band of Cree)(Historical)\nSamson Cree Nation (formerly: Samson's Band of Cree) – Maskwacis, Alberta\nSunchild First Nation\n\nii House Cree (wāskahikaniwiyiniwak)\nAhtahkakoop First Nation\nMistawasis First Nation\n\niii Parklands Cree / Willow Cree (Paskokopāwiyiniwak)\nBeardy's and Okemasis First Nations\nJames Smith First Nation\n Peter Chapman Cree Nation (incorporated into James Smith First Nation, but with some legal status as a separate entity). \n\niv River Cree (Sīpīwininiwak)\nLittle Pine First Nation\nPoundmaker First Nation\nRed Pheasant First Nation\nSweetgrass First Nation\n\nv Northern Plains Cree / Western Woodland Cree / Bush Cree (Sakāwiyiniwak)\nBig River First Nation\nCanoe Lake First Nation (also Woods Cree)\nFlying Dust First Nation\nIsland Lake First Nation\nMakwa Sahgaiehcan First Nation\n\nEthnobotany \n\nThe Hudson Bay Cree use a decoction of the leaves of Kalmia latifolia for diarrhea, but they consider the plant to be poisonous. \n\nNotable leaders \n\n Mistāwasis (\"Big Child\", also known as Pierre Belanger), Chief of the Parklands/Willow Cree (Paskokopāwiyiniwak), born about 1813. He was one of the influential leaders of the House Cree or Wāskahikaniwiyiniwak, supplied between 1852 and 1854 Fort Carlton with bison meat and pemmican, acquired in his youth by constant military conflicts the respect of Crowfoot, leader of the Siksika, the Blackfoot called Mistāwasis respectfully \"The Iron Buffalo of the Plains\") \n* Ahtahkakoop (Atahkakohp, \"Starblanket\"), Chief of the House Cree (Wāskahikaniwiyiniwak). He was born about 1815-16, signed together with his cousin, Mistāwasis in 1876 the Treaty 6 at Fort Carlton, where he agreed that his group were settled into a reserve near the present-day Prince Albert, died 4 December 1896 at the age of 81 years. \n* Ahchuchhwahauhhatohapit or Ahchacoosacootacoopits (Acahkosa kā-otakohpit, \"[One who has] Star[s for a ]blanket\", ) Chief of a band of Calling River Cree (Kātēpwēwi-sīpīwiyiniwak), born about 1845 in the lower Qu’Appelle Valley, son of Wāpiy-mōstōsis (\"White Calf\"), his tribal group was closely associated with the Ka Kichi Wi Winiwak under the leadership of Kakeesheway (‘Loud Voice’), and a close ally of Payipwāt (\"Piapot\"), leader of the Cree-Assiniboine or \"Young Dogs\", 1879 after the disappearance of the bison Ahchuchhwahauhhatohapit settled on a reserve in the File Hills of the lower Qu'Appelle Valley, died 1917 in the Star Blanket reserve, Saskatchewan) \n* Payipwāt (or Piapot: \"[One who Knows the] Secrets of the Sioux\"), also known as \"Hole in the Sioux\" or Kisikawasan - ‘Flash in the Sky’, Chief of the Cree-Assiniboine or the Young Dogs with great influence on neighboring Assiniboine, Downstream People, southern groups of the Upstream People and Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwa), born 1816, kidnapped as a child by the Sioux, he was freed about 1830 by Plains Cree, significant Shaman, most influential chief of the feared Young Dogs, convinced the Plains Cree to expand west in the Cypress Hills, the last refugee for bison groups, therefore disputed border area between Sioux, Assiniboine, Siksika Kainai and Cree, refused to participate in the raid on a Kainai camp near the present Lethbridge, Alberta, then the Young Dogs and their allies were content with the eastern Cypress Hills to the Milk River, Montana, does not participate at the negotiations on the Treaty 4 of 1874, he and Cheekuk, the most important leaders of the Plains Ojibwa in the Qu'Appelle area, signed on 9 September 1875 the treaty only as preliminary contract, tried with Minahikosis (\"Little Pine\") and Mistahi-maskwa (\"Big Bear\") to erect a kind of Indian Territory for all the Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwa and Assiniboine - as Ottawa refused, he asked 1879-80 along with Kiwisünce (cowessess- 'Little Child') and the Assiniboine for adjacent reserves in the Cypress Hills, Payipwāt settled in a reserve about 37 miles northeast of Fort Walsh, Minahikosis (\"Little Pine\") and Papewes (‘Lucky Man’) asked successfully for reserves near the Assiniboine or Payipwāt - this allowed the Cree and Assiniboine to preserve their autonomy - because they went 1881 in Montana on bison hunting, stole Absarokee horses and alleged cattle killed, arrested the U.S. Army the Cree-Assiniboine group, disarmed and escorted them back to Canada - now unarmed, denied rations until the Cree and Assiniboine gave up their claims to the Cypress Hills and went north - in the following years the reserves changed several times and the tribes were trying repeated until to the Northwest Rebellion in 1885 to build an Indian Territory, Payipwāt remained under heavy guard, until his death he was a great spiritual leader, therefore Ottawa deposed Payipwāt on 15 April 1902 as chief, died in April 1908 on Piapot Reserve, Saskatchewan) \n* Kee-a-kee-ka-sa-coo-way (‘The Man Who gives the War Whoop’), Chief of the Plains Cree, was in the middle of the 19th century the leading chief of the Plains Cree, had also a large following among the Plains Ojibwa around Fort Pitt, his sub-chief was Mukitou (‘Black Powder’), the father of Mistahi-maskwa.\n* Mistahi-maskwa (recorded as Mistihui'muskwa or as Mistahimusqua; better known as Big Bear in English and as Gros Ours in French), Chief of the Plains Cree, born about 1825, son of the Ojibwa leader Mukitou (‘Black Powder’), mastered his native language, the Cree language, as well as Ojibwe language, led the last resistance to the dispersal of the Cree on many reservations and asked for a big total reserve, a revolt of the young warriors under the leadership of one of his sons in 1885 destroyed these plans, died 17 January 1888 on the Poundmaker reservation in North Battleford in Saskatchewan.\n* Kapapamahchakwew (Kā-papāmahcāhkwēw, Kapapa Machatiwe, Papamahchakwayo, French: ‘Esprit Errant’, better known as Wandering Spirit, war chief of the Plains Cree under Mistahimaskwa, born 1845 near Jackfish Lake, Saskatchewan, committed on 2 April 1885, the so-called Frog Lake massacre, killed the Indian Agent Thomas Quinn and eight whites and one Métis, surrendered in July at Fort Pitt, was hanged on 27 November 1885 in Battleford, Saskatchewan) \n* Kamiokisihkwew (Miyo-Kîsikaw - Fine Day, Chief of the Plains Cree, born 1850 in the Battle River region, died 193[?], was a shaman and war chief under Pitikwahanapiwiyin's River Cree, during the North-West Rebellion Battleford was sacked by River Cree, subsequently Fine Day was the leader of the uprising, defeated the Canadian army in the Battle of Cut Knife, later joined a group of Plains Cree under the leadership of Wīhkasko-kisēyin(‘Sweet Grass’)\n* Pitikwahanapiwiyin (Pîhtokahânapiwiyin - ‘Poundmaker’, Chief of the River Cree, born about 1842 in the North Battleford Region in Saskatchewan; son of Sikakwayan (‘Skunk Skin’), a shaman of the Assiniboine and a Franco-Canadian Métis woman who was the sister of Mistāwasis (\"Big Child\"). Pitikwahanapiwiyin was chief of a band consisting of Plains River Cree (Sīpīwininiwak-paskwāwiyiniwak), Woods River Cree (‘Sīpīwininiwak-sakāwiyiniwak’), Western Woodland Cree (Sakāwiyiniwak) and Nakoda (Stoney), was adopted in 1873 by the Siksika chief Crowfoot as son, lived several years by the Blackfeet-name Makoyi-koh-kin (‘Wolf Thin Legs’) under the Siksika, returned to the Cree, became counsellor to Pihew-kamihkosit (‘Red Pheasant’), was involved in the negotiations for the Treaty 6 in 1876 and went in 1879 in the Poundmaker reservation, later he participated in the siege of Battleford and the Battle of Cut Knife, died 4 July 1886 in Blackfoot Crossing, Alberta) \n* Wīhkasko-kisēyin (Wee-kas-kookee-sey-yin, better known as Chief Sweet Grass, leader of the Plains Cree, his mother was a captured Absaroke, as he grew up he was also called Apisci-okimas- 'Little Chief', signed the Treaty 6 on 9 September 1876 at Fort Pitt, along with bands of Woodland Cree, Chipewyan, some Saulteaux, only a quarter of the participating groups were Plains Cree, while his successor as chief Wah-wee-oo-kah-tah-mah-hote ('Strike him on the back') signed the Treaty 6 at Fort Carlton on 28 August 1876 together with the Willow Cree, died 11 January 1877 in a shooting accident on the Plains, probably at Saint-Paul-des-Cris, Alberta) \n* Peechee (Pisiw - ‘Mountain Lion’, also known as Louis Piche), Chief of the Asini Wachi Nehiyawak and later the head chief of the 'Rocky/Mountain Cree' or Asini Wachi Wi Iniwak, born about 1821, introduced under the Asini Wachi Wi Iniwak to the Catholic rite, his three sons, Piyesew Chak, Keskayiwew('Bobtail') and Ermineskin were also significant leaders, Pesew and his elder son Chak Piyesew were killed during a gambling dispute in 1843, among his sons-in-law were Samson, Chiniki, Bearspaw, Capote Blank and Jacques Cardinal) \n* Ermineskin (‘One with skin like an ermine’, Sehkosowayanew, Sikosew Inew, also known as Baptiste Piche, Chief of the Bear Hills Cree (Maskwa Wachi-is Ininiwak), son of Pesew (‘Mountain Lion’), brother-in-law of Pitikwahanapiwiyin) \n* Keskayiwew (Kîskâyiwew, Kiskiyo - Bobtail, also known as Alexis Piche, Chief of the Bear Hills Cree (Maskwa-wachi-is Ininiwak), son of Pesew (‘Mountain Lion’), brother of Ermineskin, became chief after the death of his older brother, was elected instead of Maskepetoon ('Broken Arm') to the chieftainship of the Rocky Cree and later became head chief of the Western Cree(‘Pakisimotan Wi Iniwak’) and soon after became the head chief of all the groups of the Upstream People)\n* Kamdyistowesit (Kâ Mîthistowesit, Kanaweyihimitowin, ‘Beardy’, French: ‘Barbu’, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree, born 1828 near Duck Lake, became a leader in the 1870s, married Yaskuttsu-s, the half-sister of Küpeyakwüskonam (‘One Arrow’), among the members of his tribal group were many Métis descendants of the Hudson's Bay Company employee George Sutherland) \n* Küpeyakwüskonam (Kupeyakwuskonam, Kah-pah-yak-as-to-cum - One Arrow, French: ‘Une Flèche’, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree, born 1815 in the Saskatchewan River Valley, son of George Sutherland (‘Okayasiw’) and his second wife Paskus (‘Rising’), tried to prevent in 1876 negotiations on the Treaty 6 at Fort Carlton along with Kamdyistowesit ('Beardy') and Saswaypew ('Cut Nose'), but finally signed on August 28 the treaty, in August 1884 he attended a meeting with Mistahimaskwa ('Big Bear') and Papewes (‘Papaway’ - 'Lucky Man'), his tribal group joined first the Métis in 1885, died on 25 April 1886 in the prison) \n* Minahikosis (Little Pine, French: ‘Petit Pin’, Chief of the Plains Cree, born about 1830 in the vicinity of Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan, his mother was a Blackfeet, became famous in the 1860s, as armed Plains Cree to find the last remaining bison, penetrated more and more into the territory of the Blackfoot Confederacy, led three years bitter resistance, signed however, in view of his starving people in 1879 the Treaty 6, and moved into a reserve at the foot of Blue Hill along the Battle River, his reputation was comparable to that of Mistahimaskwa' ('Big Bear')) \n* Papewes (Papaway - ‘Lucky Man’, Chief of the Plains River Cree (Sīpīwininiwak-paskwāwiyiniwak), born in the late 1830s near Fort Pitt, was in the 1870s a leader of Mistahimaskwa´s Plains River Cree, as the bison disappeared, signed along with Little Pine on 2 July 1879 for the 470 members of his tribal group an annex to the Agreement No. 6 at Fort Walsh, in vain he asked for a reserve in the Cypress Hills and the Buffalo Lake, so many members went back to Mistahimaskwa (\"Big Bear\") or joined Minahikosis (\"Little Pine\"), Papewes asked 1884 in vain a reserve adjacent to the reserves of Pitikwahanapiwiyin (' Poundmaker'), Minahikosis and Mistahimaskwa, during the rebellion of 1885 were the two groups of Papewes and Minahikosis scattered and some of their members fled in the U.S., 1886 settled the remaining members of the two groups in the Little Pine's reserve died 1901 nahe Fort Assiniboine, Montana) \n* Saswaypew (Sayswaypus, Seswepiu - ‘Cut Nose’, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree, son of Wimtchik, a Franco-Canadian Métis, married One Arrow’s sister Nawapukayus, his sisters Ayamis and Minuskipuihat were both married to ‘One Arrow’, Kamdyistowesit (‘Beardy’) and he were brother-in-law, because both were married to daughters of George Sutherland)\n* Maskepetoon (Mâskipiton – \"Broken Arm\", \"Crooked Arm\", later called Peacemaker, Chief of a group of Rocky/Mountain Cree or Asini Wachi Wi Iniwak, born about 1807 in the Saskatchewan River region, because of his bravery he was called by the hostile Blackfoot Mon-e-ba-guh-now or Mani-kap-ina (\"Young Man Chief\"), turned later to the Methodist missionaries, what he and his followers brought into conflict with the Catholic free Rocky Cree under the leadership of Pesew, moved to the reserve and was soon known as the Peacemaker, was killed in 1869 in a Blackfoot camp in Alberta by Big Swan, in an attempt to make peace between the two peoples unarmed. \n* Pihew-kamihkosit (Pee-yahn-kah-nihk-oo-sit, better known as Red Pheasant, Chief of the Plains River Cree, brother and counsellor to Wuttunee (‘Porcupine’), signed on 23 August 1876 on behalf of his brother Wuttunee the Treaty 6, he was then regarded as a \"Treaty Chief\" by the Canadian government, moved with his tribal group 1878 onto the present Red Pheasant Reserve, about 33 km south of North Battleford, Saskatchewan) \n* Peayasis (Piyêsîs, better known as François Desjarlais, Chief of the Beaver River Cree or Amisk Sipi Wi Iniwak, a subgroup of the Woodland Cree (Sakāwithiniwak), born 1824 at the Beaver River, son of Ladoucoeur dit Desjarlais and Josephte Suzette Cardinal, signed on 8 August 1876 the Treaty 6, participated in battle of Battle River)\n* Kahkewistahaw Chief of the Rabbit Skin Cree (Wāpošwayānak) and Saulteaux, signed on 15 September 1874 the Treaty 4, his tribal group was hunting in the area around Wood Mountain and the Cypress Hills and went back to the Qu'Appelle Valley once a year to get their payments and gifts until a reserve was established in 1881) \n* Paskwüw (pâskwâw, Paskwa, Pisqua, usually called Pasquah - ‘The Plain’; French: Les Prairies), Chief of the Plains Cree, born 1828, son of Mahkaysis, 1874 his tribal group were making their living with bison hunting in the vicinity of today's Leech Lake, Saskatchewan, they had also created gardens and raised a small herd of cattle; in September 1874 Pasqua took part in the negotiations on the Treaty 4 in Qu'Appelle Valley, he asked the Canadian government for the payment of £300,000 to the tribes, which the Hudson's Bay Company had received for the sale of Rupert's land to Canada; despite the refusal of Canada he finally signed the treaty and moved to a reserve five miles west of Fort Qu'Appelle, stayed out with his tribal group from the Northwest Rebellion of 1885, died in March 1889 he succumbed to the tuberculosis) \n* Petequakey (‘Comes to Us With the Sound of Wings’, better known as Isidore Cayen dit Boudreau, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree at Muskeg Lake, born in St. Boniface, Manitoba, as son of Pierre Narcisse Cayen dit Boudreau and Adelaide Catherine Arcand (‘Kaseweetin’), though he was a Métis he became chief of the Willow Cree and the Métis, who were living with the Cree, brother and counsellor to Kee-too-way-how (a.k.a. Alexander Cayen dit Boudreau), after Kee-too-way-how had left the reserve on the Muskeg Lake to live around Batoche, became Petequakey chief (1880–1889) of the remaining Cree and Métis living in the reserve, he participated on 26 March 1885 along with the Métis leader Gabriel Dumont at the battle at Duck Lake, thereafter he led his tribal group to St. Laurent to participate in the defense of Batoche, one of the largest Métis settlements and the seat of the Saskatchewan's provisional government during the rebellion) \n* Kee-too-way-how (‘Sounding With Flying Wings’, better known as Alexander Cayen dit Boudreau, Chief of the Parklands or Willow Cree at Muskeg Lake, born 1834 St. Boniface, Manitoba, son of Pierre Narcisse Cayen dit Boudreau and Adelaide Catherine Arcand (‘Kaseweetin’), though he was of Métis descent he became chief of the Willow Cree and the Métis, who were living with the Cree, brother of Petequakey (‘Isidore Cayen dit Boudreau’), lived along Duck Lake, signed 1876 Treaty 6 and settled in a reserve at Muskeg Lake - that was later named after his brother Petequakey - but left the reserve in 1880 and lived again in the following years close to St. Laurent de Grandin mission, played a prominent role during the Northwest Rebellion of 1885 in which he participated in every battle, served also as an emissary of the Métis leader Gabriel Dumont to ask the Assiniboine for support, on 23 May 1885 he also submitted the declaration of surrender of Pitikwahanapiwiyin ('Poundmaker') to General Middleton, was captured on 1 June 1885, in the subsequent trial of Kee-too-way-how at Regina, Louis Cochin testified that he and the carters in the camp of Pitikwahanapiwiyin survived only thanks to the intercession by Kee-way-too-how and its people, despite the positive testimony, he was on 14 August 1885 sentenced to imprisonment for seven years for his involvement in the Métis rebellion, died 1886).\n\nOther notable people \n\n* Janice Acoose, author, of Sakimay (Saulteaux) and Ninankawe Marival Métis ancestry\n* Nathaniel Arcand, actor\n* Irene Bedard, actress\n* Mary Katherine Campbell, former Miss America pageant titleholder\n* Harold Cardinal, writer, political leader, teacher, and lawyer\n* Lorne Cardinal, actor\n* Tantoo Cardinal, actor\n* Jonathan Cheechoo, NHL and KHL hockey player\n* Michael Eklund, actor\n* Connie Fife, poet\n* Theoren Fleury, retired NHL hockey player, humanitarian, spokesperson, and author\n* Edward Gamblin, musician\n* Michael Greyeyes, actor\n* Tomson Highway, playwright, librettist of the first Cree-language opera\n* Tyson Houseman, actor\n* Cody Lightning, actor\n* Wilton Littlechild, lawyer, former Member of Parliament\n* Delia Opekokew, lawyer and activist\n* Bronson Pelletier, actor\n* Romeo Saganash, Member of Parliament for Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou, Quebec\n* Buffy Sainte-Marie, singer\n* Cree Summer, singer/actress\n* Roseanne Supernault, actress\n* Richard Throssel (1882–1933), photographer\n* Michelle Thrush, actor\n* Gordon Tootoosis, actor\n* Shania Twain, singer\n* Alfred Young Man (b. 1948), educator, writer, curator, artist\n* Shane Yellowbird, Country singer\n* Ashley Callingbull-Burnham, 2015 Mrs. Universe winner, actress and first nations activist\n* Ralph Garvin Steinhauer, tenth Lieutenant Governor of Alberta and first Aboriginal to hold that post." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Politics of Montana", "Climate of Montana", "Big Sky Country", "Geography of Montana", "Forty-first State", "Montana state nickname", "Montucky", "Treasure State", "Sports in Montana", "Symbols of the State of Montana", "Montanans", "Montana", "Montana, United States", "The Big Sky Country", "Montana (U.S. state)", "Religion in Montana", "The Treasure State", "Education in Montana", "Demographics of Montana", "State of Montana", "Montana (state)", "Montana state slogan", "Government of Montana", "Economy of Montana", "US-MT", "41st State", "Forty-First State", "Montanan", "Montana state official nickname" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "montana united states", "climate of montana", "montana state slogan", "montana", "montana u s state", "41st state", "education in montana", "religion in montana", "montana state official nickname", "demographics of montana", "economy of montana", "government of montana", "geography of montana", "state of montana", "montana state", "treasure state", "montanans", "montucky", "sports in montana", "forty first state", "us mt", "montanan", "politics of montana", "montana state nickname", "symbols of state of montana", "big sky country" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "montana", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Montana" }
Bob Dole trained for which profession although he didn't qualify?	tc_1011	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bob_Dole.txt" ], "title": [ "Bob Dole" ], "wiki_context": [ "Robert Joseph \"Bob\" Dole (born July 22, 1923) is an American politician who represented Kansas in the United States Senate from 1969 to 1996 and in the House of Representatives from 1961 to 1969. In the 1976 presidential election, Dole was the Republican Party nominee for Vice President and incumbent President Gerald Ford's running mate. He ran unsuccessfully for the Republican presidential nomination in 1980 and 1988. In 1996, Dole was able to secure the Republican nomination for President of the United States, but lost the general election to incumbent President Bill Clinton.\n\nIn 2007, President George W. Bush appointed Dole and Donna Shalala, former Secretary of Health and Human Services, as co-chairs of the commission to investigate problems at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Dole is currently a member of the advisory council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation and special counsel at the Washington, D.C., office of law firm Alston & Bird. \n\nDole is married to former U.S. cabinet member and former U.S. Senator Elizabeth Hanford Dole of North Carolina.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nDole was born on July 22, 1923 in Russell, Kansas, the son of Bina M. (née Talbott; 1904–1983) and Doran Ray Dole (1901–1975). Dole's father, who had moved the family to Russell shortly before Robert was born, earned money by running a small creamery. One of Dole's father's customers was the father of future Senator Arlen Specter. During the Great Depression, which severely impacted Kansas and its residents, the Dole family moved to the basement of their home and eventually rented out the upper floors to raise money. As a boy, Dole worked as a soda jerk in the local drug store.\n\nDole graduated from Russell High School in the spring of 1941 and enrolled at the University of Kansas the following fall. Dole had been a star high school athlete in Russell, and Kansas basketball coach Phog Allen traveled to Russell to recruit him to play for the Jayhawks basketball team. While at KU, Dole played for the basketball team, the track team, and the football team. In football, Dole played at the end position, earning varsity letters in 1942 and 1944. While in college, Dole joined the Kappa Sigma Fraternity, and in 1970 was bestowed with the Fraternity's \"Man of the Year\" honor. Dole's pre-med studies at KU were interrupted by World War II. After the war, Dole returned to become a law student. Dole attended the University of Arizona from 1948 to 1951 and earned both his LLB and BA degrees from Washburn University in 1952. Dole was initiated as a Freemason of Russell Lodge No. 177, Russell, Kansas on April 19, 1955. \n\nDole grew up in a house at 1035 North Maple in Russell and it remained his official residence throughout his political career. \n\nWorld War II and recovery\n\nIn 1942, Dole joined the United States Army's Enlisted Reserve Corps to fight in World War II, becoming a second lieutenant in the Army's 10th Mountain Division.\nIn April 1945, while engaged in combat near Castel d'Aiano in the Apennine mountains southwest of Bologna, Italy, Dole was badly wounded by German machine gun fire, being hit in his upper back and right arm. As Lee Sandlin describes, when fellow soldiers saw the extent of his injuries, all they thought they could do was to \"give him the largest dose of morphine they dared and write an 'M' for 'morphine' on his forehead in his own blood, so that nobody else who found him would give him a second, fatal dose.\" Dole was transported to the United States, where his recovery was slow, interrupted by blood clots and a life-threatening infection. After large doses of penicillin had not succeeded, Dole overcame the infection with the administration of streptomycin, which at the time was still an experimental drug. He nevertheless remained despondent, \"not ready to accept the fact that my life would be changed forever.\" He was encouraged to see a Chicago orthopedist by the name of Hampar Kelikian, who had been working with veterans returning from war. Although during their first meeting Kelikian told Dole that he would never be able to recover fully, the encounter changed Dole's outlook on life, who years later wrote that Kelikian, a survivor of the Armenian Genocide, \"inspired me to focus on what I had left and what I could do with it, rather than complaining what had been lost.\" Dr. K, as Dole later came to affectionately call him, operated on him seven times, free of charge, and had, in Dole's words, \"an impact on my life second only to my family.\" \n\nDole recovered from his wounds at the Percy Jones Army Hospital. This complex of federal buildings, no longer a hospital, is now named Hart-Dole-Inouye Federal Center in honor of three patients who became United States Senators: Dole, Philip Hart and Daniel Inouye. Dole was decorated three times, receiving two Purple Hearts for his injuries, and the Bronze Star with combat \"V\" for valor for his attempt to assist a downed radioman.\n\nPolitical career\n\nDole ran for office for the first time in 1950 and was elected to the Kansas House of Representatives, serving a two-year term. After graduating from law school at Washburn University in Topeka, Dole was admitted to the bar and commenced the practice of law in his hometown of Russell in 1952.\n\nAlso in 1952, Dole became the County Attorney of Russell County, serving in that position for eight years. In 1960, Dole was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Kansas' 6th Congressional District, located in central Kansas. In 1962, his district was merged with the 3rd District in western Kansas to form the 1st Congressional District, a huge 60-county district that soon became known as the \"Big First.\" Dole was re-elected that year and twice thereafter without serious difficulty.\n\nU.S. Senate\n\nIn 1968, Dole defeated Kansas Governor William H. Avery for the Republican nomination for the United States Senate to succeed retiring Senator Frank Carlson, subsequently being elected. Dole was re-elected in 1974, 1980, 1986, and 1992, before resigning on June 12, 1996, to focus on his Presidential campaign. Dole faced only one truly enthusiastic and well-financed challenger, Congressman Bill Roy in 1974. Much of Roy's popularity was in response to the fallout from Watergate. Dole would win re-election in 1974 by only a few thousand votes, having in the end graphically painted Roy as pro-abortion. While in the Senate, Dole served as chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1971 until 1973, the ranking Republican on the Agriculture Committee from 1975 to 1978, and the ranking Republican on the Finance Committee from 1979 to 1980.\n\nWhen the Republicans took control of the Senate after the 1980 elections, Dole became chairman of the Finance Committee in 1981, serving until 1985. From 1985, when Howard Baker of Tennessee retired, until his resignation from the Senate, Dole was the leader of the Senate Republicans, serving as Majority Leader from 1985 until 1987 and again from 1995 to 1996. Dole served as Minority Leader from 1987 to 1995. Following the advice of conservative William Kristol, Dole flatly rejected the health care plan of Bill Clinton, remarking, \"There is no crisis in health care.\"\n\nDole had a moderate voting record and was widely considered to be one of the few Kansas Republicans who could bridge the gap between the moderate and conservative wings of the Kansas Republican Party. As a Congressman in the early 1960s, Dole supported the major civil rights bills, which appealed to moderates. When Johnson proposed the Great Society in 1964–65, Dole voted against some War on Poverty measures like public-housing subsidies and Medicare, thus appealing to conservatives. Dole's first speech in the Senate in 1969 was a plea for federal aid for the handicapped. Later, as a member of the Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, Dole joined liberal Senator George McGovern to lower eligibility requirements for federal food stamps, a liberal goal that was supported by Kansas farmers.\n\nDole's hawkishness on the Vietnam War and on crime issues kept him in good standing with the right wing. When they heard Nixon might make Dole chairman of the Republican National Committee, half the Republican Senators protested, especially moderates who feared Dole would direct party assets to conservatives.\n\nPresidential politics\n\nIn 1976, Dole ran unsuccessfully for Vice President on a ticket headed by President Gerald Ford. Incumbent Vice President Nelson Rockefeller had withdrawn from consideration the previous November, and Dole was chosen. Dole stated during the Vice Presidential debate with Walter Mondale, \"I figured it up the other day: If we added up the killed and wounded in Democrat wars in this century, it would be about 1.6 million Americans — enough to fill the city of Detroit\". The remark backfired.\n\nDole ran for the 1980 Republican presidential nomination, eventually won by Ronald Reagan. Despite Dole's fame from the '76 campaign, Dole was viewed as a lower-tier candidate, trailing not only Reagan but George Bush, Howard Baker, John Connally, and John Anderson. Dole received only 597 votes (less than 1%) in the New Hampshire primary and immediately withdrew. In March 1980, Dole urged former President Ford to jump into the race as a stop-Reagan candidate.\n\nDole made a more serious bid in 1988, formally announcing his candidacy in Russell, Kansas, on November 9, 1987. At the ceremony, Dole was presented with the cigar box that had been used to collect donations for his war-related medical expenses. The box contained $100,000 in campaign donations. Dole started out strongly by solidly defeating then-Vice President George H.W. Bush in the Iowa caucus—Bush finished third, behind television evangelist Pat Robertson. Bush, however, recovered in time to defeat Dole in the New Hampshire primary a week later. The New Hampshire contest between the two was particularly bitter, although they differed little on the issues. After the returns had come in on the night of that primary, Dole appeared to lose his temper in a television interview. Dole was interviewed live in New Hampshire on NBC by Tom Brokaw, who was in the NBC studio in New York. It happened that Bush was right next to Brokaw in the studio. Brokaw asked Bush if he had anything to say to Dole. Bush responded, \"No, just wish him well and meet again in the south.\" Dole, apparently not expecting to see Bush, when asked the same question about the Vice President said, \"Yeah, stop lying about my record\", largely in response to a very tough New Hampshire Bush commercial which accused Dole of \"straddling\" on taxes. This remark prompted some members of the media to perceive him as angry about the loss, contributing to Dole's \"hatchet man\" image earned during his tenure as RNC chairman and the '76 campaign.\n\nDespite two big wins in South Dakota and Minnesota a week after New Hampshire, Dole was not able to recover. Viewed by many as a micromanager who could not effectively oversee a presidential campaign while serving as a senator, Dole did not hire a full-time campaign manager, former Tennessee Senator Bill Brock, until late 1987, well after Bush's team had been in place. Despite raising almost as much money as the Bush campaign, the Dole campaign spent its money faster and was vastly outspent in the contests held after Iowa, New Hampshire, Minnesota, and South Dakota. Despite a key endorsement by Senator Strom Thurmond, one of many Republican senators who supported their leader, Dole was defeated by Bush again in South Carolina in early March. Several days later, every southern state voted for Bush in a \"Super Tuesday\" sweep. Another big loss in Illinois persuaded Dole to withdraw from the race.\n\n1996 presidential campaign\n\nDole was the early front runner for the GOP nomination in the 1996 presidential race. Dole was expected to win the nomination against underdog candidates such as the more conservative Senator Phil Gramm of Texas and more moderate Senator Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania. Pat Buchanan upset Dole in the early New Hampshire primary, however, with Dole finishing second and former Tennessee governor Lamar Alexander finishing third. Publisher Steve Forbes also ran and broadcast a stream of negative ads. At least eight candidates ran for the nomination.\n\nDole eventually won the nomination, becoming the oldest first-time presidential nominee at the age of 73 years, 1 month (Ronald Reagan was 73 years, 6 months in 1984, for his second presidential nomination). In his acceptance speech, Dole stated, \"Let me be the bridge to an America that only the unknowing call myth. Let me be the bridge to a time of tranquillity, faith, and confidence in action,\" to which incumbent president Bill Clinton responded, \"We do not need to build a bridge to the past, we need to build a bridge to the future.\" Dole, however, had been forced to spend more on the primary than he had planned and until the convention in San Diego faced federal limits on campaign spending. Dole hoped to use his long experience in Senate procedures to maximize publicity from his rare positioning as Senate Majority Leader against an incumbent President but was stymied by Senate Democrats. On June 11, 1996, Dole resigned his seat to focus on the campaign, saying he was either heading for \"The White House or home\". \n\nThe incumbent, Bill Clinton, had no serious primary opposition. Dole promised a 15% across-the-board reduction in income tax rates and made former Congressman and supply side advocate Jack Kemp his running mate. Dole also found himself criticized from both the left and the right within the Republican Party over the convention platform, one of the major issues being the inclusion of the Human Life Amendment. Clinton framed the narrative against Dole early, painting him as a mere clone of unpopular then-House Speaker Newt Gingrich, warning America that Dole would work in concert with the Republican Congress to slash popular social programs, like Medicare and Social Security, dubbed by Clinton as \"Dole-Gingrich\". Dole's tax-cut plan found itself under attack from the White House, who said it would \"blow a hole in the deficit\". Dole was defeated, as pundits had long expected, by Bill Clinton in the 1996 election. Clinton won in a 379–159 Electoral College landslide, capturing 49.2% of the vote against Dole's 40.7% and Ross Perot's 8.4%. \n\nDole is the only person in the history of the two major U.S. political parties to have been a party's nominee for both President and Vice President, but who was never elected to either office.\n\nThe span of 20 years between his participation in the 1976 vice-presidential debate and the 1996 presidential debates is the longest for any candidate since televised debates in presidential election years were instituted in 1960.\n\nDole is the last World War II veteran to be the presidential nominee of a major party.\n\nRetirement\n\nDole has worked part-time for a Washington, D.C., law firm, Alston & Bird LLP, and engaged in a career of writing, consulting, public speaking, and television appearances. This has included becoming a television commercial spokesman for such products as Viagra, Visa, Dunkin' Donuts and Pepsi-Cola (with Britney Spears), and as an occasional political commentator on the interview program Larry King Live, and has been a guest a number of times on Comedy Central's satirical news program, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. Dole was, for a short time, a commentator opposite Bill Clinton on CBS's 60 Minutes. Dole guest-starred as himself on NBC's Brooke Shields sitcom Suddenly Susan in January 1997 (shortly after losing the presidential election). Dole also made a cameo appearance on Saturday Night Live, parodying himself in November 1996. On the Larry King show Dole had a heated exchange with Democratic presidential primary candidate Wesley Clark in which Dole correctly predicted that Clark would lose the New Hampshire primary and other primaries. In 2001, Dole, at age 77, was treated successfully for an abdominal aortic aneurysm by vascular surgeon Kenneth Ouriel. Dr. Ouriel said Dole \"maintained his sense of humor throughout his care.\"\n\nThe Robert J. Dole Institute of Politics, housed on the University of Kansas campus in Lawrence, Kansas, was established to bring bipartisanship back to politics. The Institute, which opened in July 2003 to coincide with Dole's 80th birthday, has featured such notable speakers as former President Bill Clinton and former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani.\n\nDole has written several books, including one on jokes told by the Presidents of the United States, in which he ranks the presidents according to their level of humor. On January 18, 1989, Dole was presented with the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Reagan. Then, on January 17, 1997, President Clinton awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his service in the military and his political career. Dole received the American Patriot Award in 2004 for his lifelong dedication to America and his service in World War II.\n\nDole's legacy also includes a commitment to combating hunger both in the United States and around the globe. In addition to numerous domestic programs, and along with former Senator George McGovern (D-South Dakota), Dole created an international school lunch program through the George McGovern-Robert Dole International Food for Education and Child Nutrition Program, which, funded largely through the Congress, helps fight child hunger and poverty by providing nutritious meals to children in schools in developing countries. This internationally popular program would go on to provide more than 22 million meals to children in 41 countries in its first eight years. It has since led to greatly increased global interest in and support for school-feeding programs — which benefit girls and young women, in particular — and won McGovern and Dole the 2008 World Food Prize.\n\nIn recent years, Dole has struggled with health problems. In December 2004, he had a hip-replacement operation which required him to receive blood thinners. One month after the surgery, it was determined that Dole was bleeding inside his head. Dole spent 40 days at Walter Reed, and upon release, his \"good\" arm, the left, was of limited use. Dole told a reporter that he needed help to handle the simplest of tasks, since both of his arms are injured. Dole undergoes physical therapy for his left shoulder once a week, but doctors have told him that he might not regain total use of his left arm.\n\nIn 2009, Dole was hospitalized for an elevated heart rate and sore legs for which he underwent a successful skin-graft procedure. In February 2010, Dole was hospitalized for pneumonia after undergoing knee surgery. He spent 10 months at Walter Reed, recovering from the surgery and experienced three bouts with pneumonia. Dole was released from the hospital in November 2010. In January 2011, however, Dole was readmitted to Walter Reed Hospital and spent about six days there, being treated for a fever as well as a minor infection.\n\nDole is special counsel at the Washington, D.C., law firm of Alston & Bird. On April 12, 2005, Dole released his autobiography One Soldier's Story: A Memoir (ISBN 0-06-076341-8), which talks of his World War II experiences and his battle to survive his war injuries.\n\nDole also was responsible for a large amount of funds raised for the U.S. National World War II memorial in Washington, D.C.\n\nOn June 28, 2004, Dole was named 'Shining Star of Perseverance' by the Assurant Employee Benefits WillReturn Council. \n\nOn September 18, 2004, Dole offered the inaugural lecture to dedicate the University of Arkansas Clinton School of Public Service, during which he chronicled his life as a public servant and also discussed the importance of public service in terms of defense, civil rights, the economy, and in daily life. Dole also gave the 2008 Vance Distinguished Lecture at Central Connecticut State University. \n\nIn 2007, Dole joined fellow former Senate Majority Leaders Howard Baker, Tom Daschle, and George Mitchell to found the Bipartisan Policy Center, a non-profit think-tank that works to develop policies suitable for bipartisan support. \n\nThat same year, President George W. Bush appointed Dole and Donna Shalala co-chairs of the President's Commission on Care for America's Returning Wounded Warriors to investigate problems at Walter Reed Army Medical Center.\n\nDole appears in the 2008 documentary on Lee Atwater, Boogie Man: The Lee Atwater Story. In the film, Dole says, \"I don't comment on Atwater.\" Additionally, \"This isn't politics, this is garbage.\"\n\nOn January 26, 2012, Dole issued a letter critical of Newt Gingrich, focusing on Dole and Gingrich's time working together on Capitol Hill. The letter was issued immediately before the Florida primary. Dole endorsed Mitt Romney for the Republican nomination. \n\nDole was hospitalized in the latter part November 2012, at Walter Reed Army Medical Center, according to Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid. \n\nOn December 4, 2012, Dole made an appearance on the Senate floor to advocate ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Democratic Senator John Kerry explained: \"Bob Dole is here because he wants to know that other countries will come to treat the disabled as we do.\" The Senate rejected the treaty by a vote of 61-38, less than the 66 required for ratification. Many Republican senators voted against the bill, fearing it would impact American sovereignty. \n\nIn early 2014 Dole began a reunion tour to his home state of Kansas, in which he intends to visit each of the state's 105 counties. At each stop he spends approximately an hour speaking with old friends and well-wishers. \nDole endorsed and campaigned for Senator Pat Roberts during the latter's 2014 re-election bid. \n\nIn 2015, Dole endorsed former Florida governor Jeb Bush in his presidential campaign. After Bush ended his campaign following the South Carolina primary, Dole endorsed Florida Senator Marco Rubio's campaign. During the campaign, Dole criticized Ted Cruz and his anti-government stance, calling him \"an extreme conservative\" and \"RINO\". Dole endorsed Donald Trump after the latter clinched the Republican nomination, and Dole was the lone former Republican presidential nominee to attend the 2016 Republican National Convention. Former Dole advisers, including Paul Manafort, play a major role in Trump's presidential campaign.\n\nIn February 2016 Dole donated $20,000 to help pay for a camp for children with cancer in central Kansas. \n\nAwards\n\nMilitary\n\nBronze Star Medal\nPurple Heart with oak leaf cluster\nAmerican Campaign Medal\nEuropean-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal\n*World War II Victory Medal\n\nOther\n\nOn January 17, 1997, Senator Dole was presented the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton.\n\nIn 1997, Dole received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. \n\nIn October 2001, Dole received the Gold Good Citizenship award from the National Society of the Sons of the American Revolution.\n\nOn September 30, 2015, the National Commemoration of the Armenian Genocide Centennial (NCAGC) honored former Senator Bob Dole with the organization's Survivor's Gratitude Award in the category of \"Hero of Responsibility and Principle\" for his tireless efforts in raising attention to the Armenian Genocide and its victims. \n\nOn May 13, 2016, Dole was awarded an honorary Doctor of Arts in Leadership at Fort Hays State University in Hays, Kansas. Dole also delivered the university's commencement address. \n\nPersonal life\n\nDole married Phyllis Holden, an occupational therapist at a veterans hospital, in Battle Creek, Michigan, in 1948, three months after they met. Their daughter, Robin, was born in 1954. Dole and Holden divorced January 11, 1972. Holden died on April 22, 2008.\n\nDole met his second wife Elizabeth, 13 years younger, in 1972. The couple were married on December 6, 1975. They have no children.\n\nDole is a Freemason and a member of Russell Lodge No. 177, Russell, Kansas. In 1975, Dole was elevated to the 33rd degree of the Scottish Rite. \n\nDole often refers to himself in the third person in conversation. \n\nElectoral history" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The doctor (film)", "The Doctor (film)", "List of doctors", "Doctor (disambiguation)", "Doctor", "The Doctor (album)", "The Doctor (song)", "The Doctor", "Doctors", "The Doctor (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "doctor disambiguation", "doctor album", "doctor song", "doctors", "doctor film", "doctor", "list of doctors" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "doctor", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Doctor" }
Out of 11 series of prime time seasons how many times did Happy days make the Nielsen Top Twenty?	tc_1012	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Happy_Days.txt", "NCIS_(TV_series).txt", "All_in_the_Family.txt" ], "title": [ "Happy Days", "NCIS (TV series)", "All in the Family" ], "wiki_context": [ "Happy Days is an American television sitcom that aired first-run from January 15, 1974, to September 24, 1984, on ABC. The show was originally based on a segment from ABC's Love, American Style titled Love and the Television Set, (later retitled Love and the Happy Days for syndication) featuring future cast members Ron Howard, Marion Ross and Anson Williams.\n\nCreated by Garry Marshall, the series presents an idealized vision of life in the mid-1950s to mid-1960s United States. \n\nThe series was produced by Miller-Milkis Productions (Miller-Milkis-Boyett Productions in later years) and Henderson Productions in association with Paramount Television. Happy Days was one of the highest-rated shows of the 1970s.\n\nPlot\n\nSet in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the series revolves around teenager Richie Cunningham and his family: his father, Howard, who owns a hardware store; traditional homemaker and mother, Marion; younger sister Joanie; Richie's older brother Chuck (seasons 1 & 2 only) and high school dropout, biker and suave ladies' man Arthur \"Fonzie\"/\"The Fonz\" Fonzarelli, who would eventually become Richie's best friend and the Cunninghams' upstairs tenant. The earlier episodes revolve around Richie and his friends, Potsie Weber and Ralph Malph, with Fonzie as a secondary character. However, as the series progressed, Fonzie proved to be a favorite with viewers and soon more story lines were written to reflect his growing popularity, and Winkler was eventually credited with top billing in the opening credits alongside Howard as a result. Fonzie befriended Richie and the Cunningham family, and when Richie left the series for military service, Fonzie became the central figure of the show, with Winkler receiving sole top billing in the opening credits. In later seasons, other characters were introduced including Fonzie's young cousin, Charles \"Chachi\" Arcola, who became a love interest for Joanie Cunningham. Each of the eleven seasons of the series roughly tracks the eleven years from 1955 to 1965, inclusive, in which the show was set.\n\nThe series' pilot was originally shown as Love and the Television Set, (later retitled Love and the Happy Days for syndication), a one-episode teleplay on the anthology series Love, American Style, aired on February 25, 1972. Happy Days spawned the hit television shows Laverne & Shirley and Mork & Mindy as well as three failures, Joanie Loves Chachi, Blansky's Beauties (featuring Nancy Walker as Howard's cousin), and Out of the Blue. The show is the basis for the Happy Days musical touring the United States since 2008. The leather jacket worn by Winkler during the series was acquired by the Smithsonian Institution for the permanent collection at the National Museum of American History. \n\nEpisodes\n\nCast\n\nCast changes \n\nWith season four, Al Molinaro was added as Al Delvecchio, the new owner of Arnold's, after Pat Morita's character of Arnold moved on after his character got married. (Morita had left the program to star in a short-lived sitcom of his own, Mr. T and Tina, which was actually a spin-off of Welcome Back, Kotter. Morita also starred in a subsequent short lived Happy Days spin-off series titled Blansky's Beauties.) Al Molinaro also played Al's twin brother Father Anthony Delvecchio, a Catholic priest. Al eventually married Chachi's mother (played by Ellen Travolta) and Father Delvecchio served in the wedding of Joanie to Chachi in the series finale.\n\nThe most major character changes occurred after season five with the addition of Scott Baio as Fonzie's cousin, Charles \"Chachi\" Arcola. Originally, the character Spike (mentioned as Fonzie's nephew in the episode \"Not With My Sister You Don't,\" but also claimed to be his cousin, as was stated in one episode) was supposed to be the character who became Chachi. Season five also saw the introduction of more outlandish and bizarre plots including Fonzie making a bet with the Devil, and the appearance of Mork (Robin Williams), an alien who wanted to take Richie back to his homeworld. Although when first aired this ended with it all simply being a dream Richie was having, this episode was retconned in subsequent airings by way of additional footage to have actually taken place, with Mork having wiped everyone's memory except Richie's and then deciding to time travel to the present day (the setting of Mork & Mindy).\n\nLynda Goodfriend joined the cast as semi-regular character Lori Beth Allen, Richie's steady girlfriend, in season five, and became a permanent member of the cast between seasons eight and nine, after Lori Beth married Richie.\n\nAfter Ron Howard (Richie) left the series, Ted McGinley joined the cast as Roger Phillips, the new physical education teacher at Jefferson High and nephew to Howard and Marion. He took over from the departed Richie Cunningham character, acting as counterpoint to Fonzie. Cathy Silvers also joined the cast as Jenny Piccalo, Joanie's best friend who was previously referenced in various episodes from earlier seasons and remained as a main cast member until the final season. Both actors were originally credited as guest stars but were promoted to the main cast during season ten after several series regulars left the show. The real focus of the series was now on the Joanie and Chachi characters, and often finding ways to incorporate Fonzie into them as a shoulder to cry on, advice-giver, and savior as needed. The Potsie character, who had already been spun off from the devious best friend of Richie to Ralph's best friend and confidante, held little grist for the writers in this new age, and was now most often used as the occasional \"dumb\" foil for punchlines (most often from Mr. C., whom he later worked for at Cunningham Hardware, or Fonzie).\n\nBilly Warlock joined the cast in season 10 as Roger's brother Flip, along with Crystal Bernard as Howard's niece K.C. They were intended as replacements for Erin Moran and Scott Baio (who departed for their own show, Joanie Loves Chachi) and were credited as part of the semi-regular cast. Both characters left with the return of Moran and Baio, following the cancellation of Joanie Loves Chachi. Al Molinaro also left Happy Days in season 10 for Joanie Loves Chachi. Pat Morita then returned to the cast as Arnold in his absence.\n\nIn season 11, the story line of Richie and Lori Beth is given closure with the two-part episode \"Welcome Home.\" Richie returns home from the Army, but barely has time to unpack when he learns that his parents have lined up a job interview at the Milwaukee Journal for him. However, they are taken aback when he tells them he prefers to take his chances in California to become a Hollywood screenwriter. They remind him of his responsibilities and while Richie gives in, he becomes angry and discontent, torn between his obligations to his family and fulfilling his dream. After a confrontation that ends with a conversation with Fonzie, he decides to face his family and declare his intentions. While somewhat reluctant at first, they support him and bid Richie, Lori Beth, and Little Richie an emotional farewell.\n\nCharacters\n\nMain\n\n* Richie Cunningham – The protagonist for the first seven years of the series (1974–80). When Ron Howard left the show due to his burgeoning directorial career, Richie was written out by leaving to join the United States Army. He marries his girlfriend, Lori Beth, in season eight by phone, while Fonzie stands-in for him in the wedding. Howard returned for guest appearances as Richie during the show's final season. He came back with Lori Beth and their son, Richie Jr., and Ralph in the season 11 two-part episode, \"Welcome Home\", and then left for California with Lori Beth and Richie Jr. to pursue a career in screenwriting. He also returned in \"Passages\", when he and his family attended Joanie and Chachi's wedding. \n* Marion \"Mrs. C\" Cunningham – Wife of Howard Cunningham, mother of Richie and Joanie, and a traditional homemaker. She is the only character who is allowed to call Fonzie by his real first name, Arthur, which she does affectionately. She sometimes gets tired of being at home, such as in \"Marion Rebels\" where she gets into an argument with Howard and briefly gets a job as a waitress at Arnold's. In \"Empty Nest\" when Joanie left for Chicago to pursue her music career, Marion had \"empty nest syndrome\" and was thrilled when her and Howard's niece, K.C., moved in with them. Marion was one of only four characters to remain with the show throughout its entire run.\n* Howard \"Mr. C\" Cunningham – Husband of Marion Cunningham, father of Richie and Joanie, business owner of a hardware store called \"Cunningham's Hardware\", he is a lodge member, and family man. Frequently seen reading the daily newspaper in his easy chair. Enjoys driving his beloved 1948 DeSoto Suburban. In \"Letting Go\", he did not want Joanie to go to Chicago, still seeing her as his \"little girl\". But after talking with Fonzie and realizing how much she has grown up, he supports her going. In \"Passages\", Howard says that he is proud of Richie and Joanie in Joanie and Chachi's wedding. Howard is one of only two characters (the other being Fonzie) to appear in every episode of the series.\n* Joanie Cunningham – Richie's younger sister. In early seasons, she is sometimes snooping on Richie's activities and would occasionally be sent to her room by her parents. She is affectionately called \"Shortcake\" by Fonzie. Later on, Joanie briefly joins a motorcycle gang after going on a date with a boy, whom she considered to be \"dull\". In \"Smokin' Ain't Cool\", Joanie started smoking in order to be in a cool club, until Fonzie sets her straight. For years, Fonzie's cousin, Chachi, had been chasing her until she eventually agreed to a date with him. She and Chachi would eventually form a band together; and in \"Letting Go\", they leave for Chicago to pursue their music career (which spun off the short-lived series Joanie Loves Chachi). Joanie, however, eventually left the band to return home to pursue a teaching career. She and Chachi then broke up for a time until Chachi proposes to her and they get married in the series finale.\n* Arthur \"Fonzie\" Fonzarelli – Initially a minor character, he was a hugely popular breakout character and was made a series regular. Fonzarelli's \"Fonzie\" nickname and comeback phrase, \"Sit on it,\" were created by the show's producer, Bob Brunner. Known for being especially cool and for his catchphrases \"(H)eyyyy!\" and \"Whoa!\" His coolness gave him special powers, such as making machinery (such as Arnold's jukebox and other vending machines, electric lights, and car engines) function by pounding on them with his fist, or getting the attention of girls by snapping his fingers. His parents abandoned him as a child and his grandmother raised him from the age of four. \n* Warren \"Potsie\" Weber – Richie's best friend and an aspiring talented singer. He is somewhat more carefree and worldly than Richie in early seasons, then in mid-seasons, he becomes more often paired with Ralph for plots, and the two became inseparable. In later seasons, his character evolves to increasingly emphasize his dimwitted side, and Ralph would often say to him \"You're such a Potsie\". Potsie often lightheartedly mentioned the supposed hatred his father (who never appeared on the show) had for him. Potsie remained with the show after Richie and Ralph joined the Army; however, he was seen less frequently. While Potsie's character became underdeveloped in these later episodes (and he, along with Ralph, was one of the few characters absent from the finale), he is mentioned to regularly bowl with the Cunninghams and still continues his position as assistant manager of Cunningham Hardware, and as pledge master of the Leopard Lodge.\n* Ralph Malph – In the first season, Ralph was more of a side character to plots, but when Most became a main cast member in season two, Ralph was more commonly seen, and he, Richie, and Potsie (these two also later became roommates) became the three amigos. Known for saying \"I still got it!\" after delivering one of his jokes. Ralph left with Richie after the 1979–80 season to join the Army. Malph returned as a guest star in the final season, although he is absent in the finale (along with Potsie) – he is mentioned as having left to continue college to become an optometrist like his father.\n* Charles \"Chachi\" Arcola – Fonzie's younger cousin and later Al Delvecchio's stepson. Chachi eventually dated and later married Joanie Cunningham.\n* Al Delvecchio – From seasons four to nine (1976–82), Al became the new owner/cook of the drive-in after Arnold got married the previous season. Al later married Chachi's mother Louisa, thereby becoming Chachi's stepfather and Fonzie's uncle. Molinaro left Happy Days in 1982 to take his \"Al\" character to Joanie Loves Chachi, and returned as Al in three later episodes of Happy Days. Known for sighing \"Yeeep, yep, yep, yep, yep\" when he was disappointed or when things did not go his way.\n* Jenny Piccalo – Joanie's boy-crazy best friend (1980–83), often mentioned in early episodes, but did not appear in person until the 1980 season. Returned as a guest star in the series finale. Jenny's father appeared in one episode, played by Silvers' real-life father Phil Silvers.\n* Roger Phillips – Marion's nephew, coach and teacher at Jefferson High, until \"Vocational Education\" where he became principal at Patton High. Introduced in 1980 after Richie left the show as a recurring character.\n* Lori Beth Allen-Cunningham – Richie's girlfriend and later his wife (1977–82). She married Richie by phone in season eight. Fonzie helped Lori Beth while she delivers the baby in \"Little Baby Cunningham.\" She returned as a guest star in the final season.\n* Ashley Pfister – (Linda Purl) Divorced mother who becomes Fonzie's steady girlfriend, but later broke up offscreen sometime before, \"Where the Guys Are.\" Note Linda Purl was also on Happy Days in Season 2 as Richie's part-time girlfriend Gloria.\n\nMinor/recurring \n\n* Marsha Simms (Beatrice Colen) (seasons 1–3, 5; 22 episodes) – A carhop in the first two seasons. Appeared in the background of a few episodes during the first and second seasons before disappearing from the show in the third season. However, she later returned for a flashback guest appearance in the episode \"Our Gang\". \n* Bobby Melner (Harris Kal) (seasons 8–11; 19 episodes) – Friend of Chachi and Joanie seen in episodes after Richie and Ralph left the show. He is a student in Fonzie's auto shop class, as well as in Roger's health class. At one point, he was also on the Jefferson High basketball team, and performed in a band with Joanie and Chachi.\n* K.C. Cunningham (Crystal Bernard) (season 10; 15 episodes) – Howard's niece. She moved in with Howard and Marion after Joanie left for Chicago. She left an all-girls boarding school in Texas because it closed down. Her parents are always traveling. She also became friends with Jenny and she went on her first date with Melvin.\n* Leopold \"Flip\" Phillips (Billy Warlock) (seasons 9 & 10; 13 episodes) – Roger's rebellious younger brother. He usually wears a shirt cut off over his bellybutton. \n* Tommy (Kevin Sullivan) (seasons 8–11; 13 episodes) – Another friend of Chachi and Joanie in episodes after Richie and Ralph left the show. Like Bobby, Tommy is a student in Fonzie's auto shop class, as well as in Roger's health class. At one point, he was also on the Jefferson High basketball team, and performed in a band with Joanie and Chachi.\n* Heather Pfister (Heather O'Rourke) (season 10; 12 episodes) – Ashley Pfister's daughter. Initially did not get along with Fonzie, but gradually learned to accept him as a father figure.\n* Charles \"Chuck\" Cunningham (Gavan O'Herlihy, Randolph Roberts) (seasons 1 & 2; 11 episodes) – The oldest son of Howard and Marion Cunningham and older brother of Richie and Joanie, Chuck is a college student and basketball player. He is rarely seen and disappears without explanation in season two. The character's disappearance gave rise to the pejorative term \"Chuck Cunningham Syndrome\", used to describe TV characters that disappear from shows without explanation and are later retconned to have never existed. \n* Eugene Belvin (Denis Mandel) (seasons 8 & 9; 10 episodes) – Nerdy classmate of Joanie and Chachi, and twin brother of Melvin Belvin. Is in Fonzie's auto shop class, and has a crush on Jenny Piccalo. Despite being a general stooge to his classmates at Jefferson High, he frequently tags along with Joanie and Chachi's circle of friends.\n* \"Bag\" Zombroski (Neil J. Schwartz) (seasons 1–4; 9 episodes) – A schoolmate and leader of a gang called \"The Demons\".\n* Police Officer Kirk / Army Reserve Major Kirk (Ed Peck) (seasons 3–10; 9 episodes) – Fonzie's nemesis and antagonist, who's eager to demonstrate his inflated sense of authority, and on the watch for delinquents and \"pinkos\" (communists). Kirk took over as acting Sheriff following the untimely death of Sheriff Flanaghan.\n* Wendy (Misty Rowe) (season 2; 8 episodes) – A carhop from Arnold's in season two. She was paired with Marsha Simms in five episodes. \n* Melvin Belvin (Scott Bernstein) (seasons 9 & 10; 8 episodes) – Nerdy classmate of Joanie and Chachi, and twin brother of Eugene Belvin. Like his brother, Melvin frequently tags along with Joanie's and Chachi's circle of friends. He once went on a date with K.C. Cunningham.\n* Leather Tuscadero (Suzi Quatro) (seasons 5 & 6; 7 episodes) – Musician; younger sister of Pinky Tuscadero, and a former juvenile delinquent; formed her own girl group called \"Leather and the Suedes\".\n* Jennifer Jerome (Lorrie Mahaffey) (seasons 5 & 6; 6 episodes) – Potsie's steady girlfriend. Mahaffey was Anson Williams' then wife.\n* Laverne De Fazio (Penny Marshall) and Shirley Feeney (Cindy Williams) (seasons 3, 6 & 7; 5 episodes) - Dating interest of Fonzie, Laverne, and her friend, Shirley, appeared prominently in three episodes during the season three (\"A Date with Fonzie\", \"Football Frolics\", and \"Fonzie the Superstar\"), which led to the two starring in the spin-off series Laverne & Shirley; they also make guest appearances in the season six's \"Fonzie's Funeral (Part 2)\" and season seven's \"Shotgun Wedding\" (Part 1) (the second part of \"Shotgun Wedding\" concluded on a crossover episode of Laverne and Shirley.)\n* Louisa Arcola-Delvecchio (Ellen Travolta) (seasons 8–11; 5 episodes) – Mother of Chachi Arcola and Fonzie's aunt. She married Al Delvecchio and they moved to Chicago.\n* Gloria (Linda Purl) (season 2; 5 episodes) – Richie's occasional girlfriend in season two.\n* Dr. Mickey Malph (Alan Oppenheimer, Jack Dodson) (season 3 & 4, 7; 4 episodes) – Ralph's father, an optometrist and, like his son, a self-styled comedian. Briefly separated from his wife Minnie, but apparently resolved issues with her after a talk with Ralph. It was Dr. Malph who convinced Fonzie to wear glasses after he started having vision problems.\n* Raymond \"Spike\" Fonzarelli (Danny Butch) (seasons 2–4; 4 episodes) – Fonzie's cousin (often referred to as his nephew, but Fonzie explains that he couldn't be his nephew as Fonzie was an only child) and his copycat. He went on a date with Joanie in \"Not with My Sister, You Don't.\" Made fleeting appearances before the introduction of Chachi. The kinship between Spike and Chachi was never explained.\n* Carol \"Pinky\" Tuscadero (Roz Kelly) (season 4; 3 episodes) – Former girlfriend of Fonzie and a traveling demolition derby driver.\n* Clarence (Gary Friedkin) (season 10; 3 episodes) – A cook at Arnold's who is referred to several times throughout the show, but never actually seen until the episode \"A Woman Not Under the Influence\". There, it is revealed that Clarence is a little person. Clarence seems to have a good relationship with Al, but also frequently upsets him while goofing off in the kitchen.\n* Bill \"Sticks\" Downey (Jack Baker) (season 3; 2 episodes) – Friend of Fonzie, Richie, Potsie and Ralph and drummer for their band, hence his nickname \"Sticks\", though he claimed he got the nickname because he was skinny.\n* Mitsumo \"Arnold\" Takahashi (Pat Morita) (seasons 3 10-11: 26 episodes) depicted the owner of Arnold's Drive-In for season three (1975–76). He stated that he obtained the moniker when he purchased Arnold's restaurant and people thought it was named after him, explaining that it was too costly to buy enough letter signs needed to rename it \"Takahashi\". He moonlighted as a martial arts instructor, teaching self-defense classes at the drive-in after hours. Morita also played \"Arnold\" as a guest star in 1977 and 1979 before returning as a recurring character after Al Molinaro departed in 1982.\n\nNotable guest stars\n\n* Henry \"Hank\" Aaron, the Milwaukee Braves home run king, appeared in season seven, episode nine\n* Frankie Avalon appeared as himself (in season 9), singing his signature song \"Venus\" to a swooning Jenny Piccalo at the Leopard Lodge's annual \"Poo Bah Doodah\" musical\n* Dr. Joyce Brothers (season 5, episode 19) appears as herself, trying to help Fonzie's dog out of a depression\n* Julie Brown made her television debut in the episode \"Ahhh Wilderness\" (season 7) as one of three girls who went camping with Richie, Fonzie et al.\n* Morgan Fairchild appears in season five, episode ten as a snooty rich socialite who tries to humiliate Fonzie\n* Herbie Faye appeared as \"Pop\" in the 1974 episode \"Knock Around the Block\"\n* Lorne Greene made a brief walk-on cameo during the season five premiere, which took place in Hollywood\n* Tom Hanks appeared in an episode as a character seeking revenge on Fonzie for pushing him off a swing when the two of them were in the 3rd grade; the confrontation occurs just as Fonzie was about to be given a community leader award\n* John Hart (TV's The Lone Ranger in 1952) appeared in season 9, episode 17 where Fonzie meets his childhood idol (Hart's last acting job)\n* Christopher Knight (Peter Brady on ABC's The Brady Bunch) played Joanie's boyfriend on the season five episode \"Be My Valentine\"\n* Cheryl Ladd appeared in \"Wish Upon a Star\" (season 2), playing the part of a Hollywood starlet Richie wins a date with\n* Michael McKean and David L. Lander, of Laverne & Shirley, portrayed their \"Lenny\" and \"Squiggy\" characters in the season-six episode \"Fonzie's Funeral\" (Part 2)\n* Eddie Mekka, also from Laverne & Shirley, portrayed his \"Carmine\" character in the season four's \"Joanie's Weird Boyfriend\" and the season six's \"Fonzie's Funeral\" (Part 2)\n* Maureen McCormick (Marcia Brady on The Brady Bunch) was \"Hildie\" in season 2, episode 16\n* James Millhollin, a character actor, made the last television appearance of his career as Mr. Rudi in the 1979 episode \"Potsie Quits School\"\n* James Randi (\"The Amazing Randi\") appeared as himself in the episode \"The Magic Show\" (season 6) \n* Buffalo Bob Smith and Bob Brunner as Clarabell the Clown appeared in the episode \"The Howdy Doody Show\" (season 2); the characters come to town looking for Howdy Doody look-alikes\n* Craig Stevens, the star of detective show Peter Gunn played Ashley Pfister's father in \"Hello Pfisters\" (season 10)\n* Danny Thomas appeared in the episode \"Grandpa's Visit\" (season 5) as Sean Cunningham, Howard's father.\n* Charlene Tilton appeared in the episode \"They Shoot Fonzies, Don't They?\" (season 4) as Jill Higgins, who challenges Fonzie and Joanie at a dance marathon until Fonzie might have to get a crewcut.\n* Robin Williams appeared in two episodes as Mork from Ork; in season five's \"My Favorite Orkan\", Mork wants to take Richie back to Ork with him to study earthlings, which led to the spin-off Mork & Mindy; season six's \"Mork Returns\" aired during the height of the popularity of Mork and Mindy\n* Lyle Waggoner appeared in the episode \"Dreams Can Come True\" (season 8) as Bobby Burns, host of the titular game show on which Marion appears as a contestant and in the episode \"Like Mother, Like Daughter\" (season 11) as Frederick Hamilton, Marion's former college boyfriend.\n\nHistory \n\nHappy Days originated during a time of 1950s nostalgic interest as evident in 1970s film, television, and music. Beginning as an unsold pilot filmed in late 1971 called New Family in Town, with Harold Gould in the role of Howard Cunningham, Marion Ross as Marion, Ron Howard as Richie, Anson Williams as Potsie, Ric Carrott as Charles \"Chuck\" Cunningham, and Susan Neher as Joanie, Paramount passed on making it into a weekly series, and the pilot was recycled with the title Love and the Television Set (later retitled Love and the Happy Days for syndication), for presentation on the television anthology series Love, American Style. In 1972, George Lucas asked to view the pilot to determine if Ron Howard would be suitable to play a teenager in American Graffiti, then in pre-production. Lucas immediately cast Howard in the film, which became one of the top-grossing films of 1973. Show creator Garry Marshall and ABC recast the unsold pilot to turn Happy Days into a series. According to Marshall in an interview, executive producer Tom Miller said while developing the sitcom, \"If we do a TV series that takes place in another era, and when it goes into reruns, then it won't look old.\" This made sense to Marshall while on the set of the show.\n\nGould had originally been tapped to reprise the role of Howard Cunningham on the show. However, during a delay before the start of production he found work doing a play abroad and when he was notified the show was ready to begin production, he declined to return because he wanted to honor his commitment. Bosley was then offered the role.\n\nProduction and scheduling notes \n\n* Jerry Paris, who played next-door neighbor Jerry Helper on The Dick Van Dyke Show and directed several episodes of that series, directed every episode of Happy Days from season three on, except for three episodes in season three (\"Jailhouse Rock\", \"Dance Contest\" and \"Arnold's Wedding\"). \n* Producer and writer Bob Brunner created Arthur Fonzarelli's \"Fonzie\" nickname and his iconic comeback phrase, \"Sit on it.\"\n* Until the show went out of production, reruns of the show were syndicated under the title Happy Days Again.\n* Happy Days was produced by Miller-Milkis Productions, a teaming of Thomas L. Miller with former film editor Edward K. Milkis, which became Miller-Milkis-Boyett Productions when Robert L. Boyett joined the company in 1980, and was the first ever show to be produced by the company's most recent incarnation, Miller-Boyett Productions, which followed Milkis's resignation from the partnership. It was also produced by Henderson Productions and was one of the popular shows produced in association with Paramount Television.\n* In its 11 seasons on the air, Happy Days is the second-longest running sitcom in ABC's history (behind The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, which ran 14 seasons, from 1952 to 1966), and one of the longest-running primetime programs in the network's history. It is also unique in that it remained in the Tuesday at 8:00 p.m. time slot for the series' first ten seasons. Tuesdays at 8 p.m. became a signature timeslot for ABC, with Who's The Boss? instantly becoming a Top 10 hit when it was moved from Thursdays and staying in that time slot for six seasons, followed by the equally family-friendly sitcom Full House (another Miller-Boyett co-production). That sitcom also hit the Top 10 immediately after inheriting the Tuesday at 8 p.m. slot and then stayed there for four seasons.\n* Happy Days also proved to be quite popular in daytime reruns; they joined the ABC daytime schedule in 1975, airing reruns at 11:30 a.m. (ET), being moved to 11 a.m. in 1977, paired with Family Feud following at 11:30 a.m. It was replaced on the daytime schedule by reruns of its spin-off, Laverne & Shirley, in April 1979.\n* CBS programming head Fred Silverman scheduled the Maude spin-off Good Times directly against Happy Days during their respective second seasons in an attempt to kill the ABC show's growing popularity. In a way this move backfired on Silverman, as he was named president of ABC in 1975— thus forcing him to come up with a way to save the show he tried to kill the year before. After having knocked Happy Days out of the top 20 programs on television his last year at CBS, Silverman had the series at the top of the Nielsen ratings by 1977 (see below). Good Times was later cancelled in 1979.\n* Ron Howard later revealed that many of the exterior scenes filmed in Happy Days were actually shot in Munster, Indiana.\n\nProduction styles \n\nThe first two seasons of Happy Days (1974–75) were filmed using a single-camera setup and laugh track. One episode of season two (\"Fonzie Gets Married\") was filmed in front of a studio audience with three cameras as a test run. From the third season on (1975–84), the show was a three-camera production in front of a live audience (with a cast member, usually Tom Bosley, announcing in voice-over, \"Happy Days is filmed before a live audience\" at the start of most episodes), giving these later seasons a markedly different style. A laugh track was still used during post-production to smooth over live reactions.\n\nGary Marshall's earlier television series The Odd Couple had undergone an identical change in production style after its first season in 1970-71.\n\nSets \n\nThe show had two main sets: the Cunningham home and Arnold's/Al's Drive-in.\n\nIn seasons one and two, the Cunningham house was arranged with the front door on the left and the kitchen on the right of screen, in a triangular arrangement. From season three on, the house was rearranged to accommodate multiple cameras and a studio audience.\n\nThe Cunninghams' official address is 565 North Clinton Drive, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The house that served as the exterior of the Cunningham residence is actually located at 565 North Cahuenga Boulevard (south of Melrose Avenue) in Los Angeles, several blocks from the Paramount lot on Melrose Avenue.\n\nThe Milky Way Drive-In, located on Port Washington Road in the North Shore suburb of Glendale, Wisconsin (now Kopp's Frozen Custard Stand), was the inspiration for the original Arnold's Drive-In; it has since been demolished. The exterior of Arnold's was a standing set on the Paramount Studios lot that has since been demolished. This exterior was close to Stage 19, where the rest of the show's sets were located.\n\nThe set of the diner in the first season was a room with the same vague details of the later set, such as the paneling, and the college pennants. When the show changed to a studio production in 1975, the set was widened and the entrance was hidden, but allowed an upstage, central entrance for cast members. The barely-seen kitchen was also upstaged and seen only through a pass-through window. The diner had orange booths, downstage center for closeup conversation, as well as camera left. There were two restroom doors camera right, labeled \"Guys\" and \"Dolls\". A 1953 Seeburg Model G jukebox (with replaced metal pilasters from Wico Corp.) was positioned camera right, and an anachronistic \"Nip-It\" pinball machine (actually produced in 1972) was positioned far camera right.\n\nCollege pennants adorned the walls, including Purdue and University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, along with a blue and white sign reading \"Jefferson High School\". Milwaukee's Washington High School provided the inspiration for the exteriors of the fictional Jefferson.\n\nIn a two-part episode from the seventh season, the original Arnold's Drive-In was written out of the series as being destroyed by fire (see List of Happy Days episodes, episodes 159 and 160). In the last seasons that covered the 60s timeline, a new Arnold's Drive-In set (to portray the new Arnold's that replaced the original Arnold's destroyed by the fire) emerged in a 60s decor with wood paneling and stained glass.\n\nIn 2004, two decades after the first set was destroyed, the Happy Days 30th Anniversary Reunion requested that the reunion take place in Arnold's. The set was rebuilt by production designer James Yarnell based on the original floor plan. The reunion special was taped at CBS Television City's Bob Barker Studio in September 2004. \n\nTheme music \n\nSeason one used a newly recorded version of \"Rock Around the Clock\" by Bill Haley & His Comets (recorded in the fall of 1973) as the opening theme song. This recording was not commercially released at the time, although the original 1954 recording returned to the American Billboard charts in 1974 as a result of the song's use on the show. The \"Happy Days\" recording had its first commercial release in 2005 by the German label Hydra Records. (When Happy Days entered syndication in 1979, the series was retitled Happy Days Again and used an edited version of the 1954 recording instead of the 1973 version). In some prints intended for reruns and overseas broadcasts, the original \"Rock Around the Clock\" opening theme is replaced by the more standard \"Happy Days\" theme.\n\nThe show's closing theme song in seasons one and two was a fragment from \"Happy Days\" (although in a different recording with different lyrics to that which would become the standard version), whose music was composed by Charles Fox and whose lyrics were written by Norman Gimbel. According to SAG, this version was performed by Jimmy Haas on lead vocals, Ron Hicklin of the Ron Hicklin Singers, Stan Farber, Jerry Whitman, and Gary Garrett on backing vocals, and studio musicians.\n\nFrom seasons three to ten inclusive, a longer version of \"Happy Days\" replaced \"Rock Around the Clock\" at the beginning of the show. Released as a single in 1976 by Pratt & McClain, \"Happy Days\" cracked the Top 5. The show itself finished the 1976–77 television season at #1, ending the five-year Nielsen reign of All in the Family. On the Season 2 DVD set release, the song \"Rock Around the Clock\" was replaced with a reconstructed version of \"Happy Days\" because of music rights issues.\n\nFor the show's 11th and final season (1983–84), the theme was rerecorded in a more modern style. It featured Bobby Arvon on lead vocals, with several back-up vocalists. To accompany this new version, new opening credits were filmed, and the flashing Happy Days logo was reanimated to create an overall \"new\" feel which incorporated 1980s sensibilities with 1950s nostalgia (although by this time the show was set in 1965).\n\nRatings \n\nBroadcast history\n\nTuesday at 8:00–8:30 PM on ABC: January 15, 1974 – March 22, 1983\nTuesday at 8:30–9:00 PM on ABC: September 27, 1983 – May 8, 1984\nThursday at 8:30–9:00 PM on ABC: June 28 – July 19, 1984\nThursday at 8:00–8:30 PM on ABC: September 27, 1984\n\n\"Jumping the shark\" \n\nThe idiom \"jumping the shark\" describes a point in a series where it resorts to outlandish or preposterous plot devices to maintain or regain good ratings. Specifically, the term arose from the season five episode \"Hollywood (Part 3)\" that first aired on September 20, 1977, in which a water-skiing Fonzie (clad in swim trunks and signature leather jacket) jumps over a confined shark. Despite the decline in ratings, Happy Days continued for several years until its cancellation in 1984. The program never received an Emmy nomination for writing during its entire run; comedy writing Emmy nominations during Happy Days broadcast history were routinely awarded to the writers of such shows as MASH, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, and All in the Family. \n\nSyndication \n\nHappy Days has been syndicated by many networks. It aired in the United States on TBS from 1989 to 1995, The Family Channel from 1990 to 1996, Nick at Nite from 1995 to 2000 (and again in 2002–03), Odyssey Network/Hallmark Channel from 1999 to 2002 (and again from January to April 2013), TV Land from 2002 to 2007, WGN America from 2002 until 2008, and FamilyNet from 2009 to 2010. It also aired on Me-TV from December 21, 2010, until early 2012, when it was removed from the network's lineup, where it aired on Sunday afternoons at 1pm Eastern and Pacific time. The series also joined INSP's line-up, airing in an hour block from 6 to 7 pm Eastern time, on January 2, 2012 to September 30, 2013. From October 11, 2010 through October 3, 2014, the show aired on Hub Network. The show returned to Me-TV on May 26, 2014.\n \nIn the United Kingdom reruns aired on Five USA and on Channel 4 between the early 1990s and the early 2000s. Original-run episodes in the 1970s and 1980s were shown on various regions of the ITV network usually on a weekday afternoon at 17:15. It is currently (2015–16) being shown on the True Entertainment channel.\n\nWhen reruns first went into syndication on local stations while the series was still producing new episodes, the reruns were re-titled Happy Days Again. The series went into off-network syndication in fall 1979, just as season seven began on ABC. There are also some episodes still aired with the Happy Days Again title.\n\nMerchandising revenue lawsuit \n\nOn April 19, 2011, five Happy Days co-stars; Erin Moran, Don Most, Marion Ross, Anson Williams and the estate of Tom Bosley, who died in 2010, filed a $10 million breach-of-contract lawsuit against CBS, which owns the show, claiming they had not been paid for merchandising revenues owed under their contracts. The cast members claimed they had not received revenues from show-related items, including comic books, T-shirts, scrapbooks, trading cards, games, lunch boxes, dolls, toy cars, magnets, greeting cards and DVDs where their images appear on the box covers. Under their contracts, they were supposed to be paid 5% of the net proceeds of merchandising if their sole image were used, and half that amount if they were in a group. CBS said it owed the actors $8,500 and $9,000 each, most of it from slot machine revenues, but the group said they were owed millions. The lawsuit was initiated after Ross was informed by a friend playing slots at a casino of a \"Happy Days\" machine on which players win the jackpot when five Marion Rosses are rolled.\n\nIn October 2011, a judge rejected the group's fraud claim, which meant they could not receive millions of dollars in potential damages. On June 5, 2012, a judge denied a motion filed by CBS to have the case thrown out, which meant it would go to trial on July 17 if the matter was not settled by then. In July 2012, the actors settled their lawsuit with CBS. Each received a payment of $65,000 and a promise by CBS to continue honoring the terms of their contracts. \n\nDVD releases \n\nParamount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD have released the first six seasons of Happy Days on DVD in Region 1, as of December 2, 2014. Each release from CBS features music replacements due to copyright issues, including the theme song \"Rock Around the Clock\" for The Second Season (The Complete First Season retains the original opening, as it was released before CBS was involved). The Sixth Season was released on December 2, 2014. As of June 2016, no more seasons have been planned for release. \n\nSeasons 1 to 4 have also been released on DVD in the UK and in regions 2 and 4.\n\nSpin-offs \n\nHappy Days, itself a spin-off from Love, American Style, resulted in seven different spin-off series, including two that were animated: Laverne & Shirley, Blansky's Beauties, Mork & Mindy, Out of the Blue, Joanie Loves Chachi, The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang (animated) and Laverne & Shirley with Special Guest Star the Fonz (animated).\n\n The most successful of these spin-offs, Laverne & Shirley (starring Penny Marshall and Cindy Williams, respectively), also took place in early/mid-1960s Milwaukee. As Shotz Brewery workers, modeled after the Miller, Schlitz, and Pabst Breweries once located in Milwaukee, Laverne and Shirley find themselves in adventures with The Fonz, Lenny and Squiggy and even the Cunninghams also living in the midwestern city. The two starring characters eventually moved to Los Angeles in the show's later years. Penny Marshall is the sister of producer Garry Marshall. Happy Days and Laverne & Shirley had a crossover episode, \"Shotgun Wedding\", in which Richie and Fonzie get into trouble with a farmer for courting his daughters and Laverne and Shirley try to help them. Part one is the season seven premiere of Happy Days and part two is the season five premiere of Laverne & Shirley.\n* Robin Williams made his first appearance as \"Mork\" on Happy Days. In his own sitcom, Mork & Mindy, his character of Mork, the alien from the planet Ork, landed in 1970s Boulder, Colorado, to study humans and took up residence with Pam Dawber's character of Mindy McConnell. Originally, Mork's appearance was explained as a dream of Richie's, but after the spin-off was established, a new ending was tagged on to the repeat of the Happy Days episode explaining that Mork would return to Earth in 1978.\n* Joanie Loves Chachi was a short-lived show about Richie's younger sister Joanie and Fonzie's younger cousin Chachi's relationship during their years as musicians in Chicago. While commonly believed that the show was canceled due to low ratings, the program finished in the Top 20 its first season, but ABC determined that the show was losing too much of its lead-in, suggesting low appeal if the show were moved (a suggestion that came to be realized, as the show's ratings dropped dramatically after a move to another time slot in its second season). This type of cancellation seemed strange in the early 1980s, but soon became a commonplace part of TV audience research.\n* Out of the Blue is a spin-off of Happy Days, though a scheduling error had the series airing prior to the main character's introduction on Happy Days.\n* Blansky's Beauties (1977) starred Nancy Walker as former Las Vegas showgirl Nancy Blansky. One week before the show's premiere, the Blansky character appeared on Happy Days as a cousin of Howard Cunningham. Scott Baio and Lynda Goodfriend co-starred before joining Happy Days the following fall, and Pat Morita reprised his role of Arnold. Similarly, Eddie Mekka of Laverne & Shirley played the cousin of his Carmine character, while pulling double duty as a regular in both shows.\n\nBooks\n\nA series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the 1970s.\n\nAnimation \n\nThere are two animated series. Both were produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions in association with Paramount Television (now known as CBS Television Distribution). The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang ran from 1980 to 1982. There are also animated spin-offs of Laverne & Shirley (Laverne & Shirley in the Army) and Mork and Mindy (centering on a young Mork and Mindy in high school). The following season, they were connected together as The Mork & Mindy/Laverne & Shirley/Fonz Hour (1982). \n\nMusicals \n\nIn the late 1990s, a touring arena show called Happy Days, The Arena Spectacular toured Australia's major cities. The story featured a property developer, and former girlfriend of Fonzie called Miss Frost (Rebecca Gibney) wanting to buy the diner and redevelop it. It starred Craig McLachlan as Fonzie, Max Gillies and Wendy Hughes as Mr. and Mrs. Cunningham, Doug Parkinson as Al and Jo Beth Taylor as Richie's love interest Laura. Tom Bosley presented an introduction before each performance live on stage, and pop group Human Nature played a 1950s-style rock group.\n\nAnother stage show, Happy Days: A New Musical began touring in 2008. \n\nReunions \n\nThere have been two reunion shows. One was filmed in 1992 and the other in 2005 to commemorate the 30th anniversary. Both were set up in interview/clip format.", "NCIS is an American action police procedural television series, revolving around a fictional team of special agents from the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, which investigates crimes involving the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps.\n\nThe concept and characters were initially introduced in two episodes of the CBS series JAG (season eight episodes 20 and 21: \"Ice Queen\" and \"Meltdown\"). The show, a spin-off from JAG, premiered on September 23, 2003, on CBS. To date it has aired for thirteen full seasons and has gone into broadcast syndication on the USA Network and Cloo. Donald P. Bellisario and Don McGill are co-creators and executive producers of the premiere member of the NCIS franchise. It is the second longest-running scripted, non-animated U.S. primetime TV series currently airing, surpassed only by Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (1999–present), and is the 15th longest-running scripted U.S. primetime TV series overall.\n\nNCIS was originally referred to as Navy NCIS during season one; \"Navy\" was later dropped from the title as it was redundant (the \"N\" in \"NCIS\" stands for \"Naval\"). In season 6, a two-part episode led to a spin-off series, NCIS: Los Angeles. A two-part episode in season 11 led to a second spin-off series, NCIS: New Orleans.\n\nWhile initially slow in the ratings, barely cracking the Top 30 in the first four seasons, by season 6 it became a Top 5 hit and has been in the Top 5 since. In 2011, NCIS was voted America's favorite television show. The series finished its tenth season as the most-watched television series in the U.S. during the 2012–13 TV season. \n\nOn February 29, 2016, NCIS was renewed for its fourteenth and fifteenth seasons. Season fourteen will premiere on September 20, 2016, while Duane Henry, Jennifer Esposito, and Wilmer Valderrama will join the cast as series regulars. \n\nPremise\n\nNCIS follows a fictional team of Naval Criminal Investigative Service Major Case Response Team (MCRT) special agents based at the Washington, D.C. field office in Washington Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. In real life, the field office is based at the nearby Joint Base Anacostia-Bolling while the Navy Yard is home to the museum and several military commands within the Department of the Navy. It is described by the actors and producers (on special features on DVD releases in the United States) as being distinguished by its comedic elements, ensemble acting, and character-driven plots. The NCIS is the primary law enforcement and counterintelligence arm of the United States Department of the Navy, which includes the United States Marine Corps. NCIS investigates all major criminal offenses (felonies) – for example, crimes punishable under the Uniform Code of Military Justice by confinement of more than one year – within the Department of the Navy. The MCRT is frequently assigned to high-profile cases such as the death of the U.S. president's military aide, a bomb situation on a U.S. Navy warship, the death of a celebrity on a reality show set on a U.S. Marine Corps base, terrorist threats involving U.S Naval and Marine Corps weapons, personnel and/or installations, and kidnappings of Navy and Marine Corps personnel and/or their dependents.\n\nPlot\n\nWhenever a crime is committed involving Navy or Marine personnel, the Washington-based Major Case Response Team - an elite arm of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service - spearhead the investigation. Led by laconic investigator Leroy Jethro Gibbs (Mark Harmon, season 1–), the team is composed of former Secret Service agent Caitlin Todd (Sasha Alexander, seasons 1–2), Anthony DiNozzo (Michael Weatherly, seasons 1–13), a former Baltimore Homicide Detective, M.I.T. graduate Timothy McGee (Sean Murray, season 2–), and Eleanor Bishop (Emily Wickersham, season 11–), an NSA analyst turned NCIS operative. \n\nOver the course of the series, the team are assisted by allies both foreign and domestic, including Special Agent Ziva David (Cote de Pablo, seasons 3–11), a former Israeli Mossad Officer, Chief Medical Examiner Dr. Donald Mallard (David McCallum, season 1–), nicknamed \"Ducky\", and his assistant Jimmy Palmer (Brian Dietzen, season 10–), and forensic scientist Abby Sciuto (Pauley Perrette, season 1–). Together, they work under the watchful eye of the NCIS Director - former career agent Jennifer Shepard (Lauren Holly, seasons 3–5), who was murdered during an unauthorized investigation, and her replacement Leon Vance (Rocky Carroll, season 6–).\n\nCast and characters\n\n* Mark Harmon as Leroy Jethro Gibbs; an NCIS Supervisory Special Agent and a former Marine Gunnery Sergeant.\n* Sasha Alexander as Caitlin Todd; an NCIS Special Agent and a former Secret Service Agent (seasons 1–2; guest: seasons 3, 8, 9, 12).\n* Michael Weatherly as Anthony DiNozzo; an NCIS Senior Field Agent and a former Detective (seasons 1–13).\n* Pauley Perrette as Abby Sciuto; a forensic specialist assigned to NCIS.\n* David McCallum as Donald \"Ducky\" Mallard; NCIS' Chief Medical Examiner.\n* Sean Murray as Timothy McGee; an NCIS Special Agent (seasons 2–; recurring: season 1).\n* Coté de Pablo as Ziva David; an NCIS Special Agent and a former Mossad Officer (seasons 3–11).\n* Lauren Holly as Jenny Shepard; the Director of NCIS (seasons 3–5; guest seasons 8, 9, 12).\n* Rocky Carroll as Leon Vance; the Director of NCIS (seasons 6–; recurring: season 5)\n* Brian Dietzen as Jimmy Palmer; NCIS' Assistant Medical Examiner (seasons 10–; recurring: seasons 1–5; also starring: seasons 6–9).\n* Emily Wickersham as Eleanor Bishop; an NCIS Special Agent and a former NSA Analyst (seasons 11–).\n\nProduction\n\nName\n\nPrior to the launch of the first season, advertisements on CBS identified the show as \"Naval CIS\". By the time of the launch of the first episode, NCIS was airing under the name Navy NCIS, the name it held for the entire first season. Since the \"N\" in NCIS stands for \"Naval\", the name \"Navy NCIS\" was redundant. The decision to use this name was reportedly made by CBS, over the objections of Bellisario, in order to:\n* Attract new viewers (particularly those of JAG), who might not know the NCIS abbreviation.\n* Disambiguate between NCIS and the similarly themed and similarly spelled CBS series CSI and its spinoffs. (The original title, for instance, was often misquoted and parodied as \"Navy CSI\", something the show itself referenced in the first episode). \n\nFlair\n\nFrom the season two episode \"Lt. Jane Doe\" onwards, the series began showing two-second long black-and-white clips. These clips are shown at the beginning of every segment depicting the last two seconds of that segment, a segment being the 5–6 portions of the show meant to be separated by commercials. In the season three premiere, \"Kill Ari (Part I)\", a freeze-frame shot was also used with the very end of most episodes turned into a freeze frame as well.\n\nCrew changes\n\nIt was reported in May 2007 that Donald Bellisario would be stepping down from the show. Due to a disagreement with series star Mark Harmon, Bellisario's duties as showrunner/head writer were to be tasked to long-time show collaborators, including co-executive producer Chas. Floyd Johnson and Shane Brennan, with Bellisario retaining his title as executive producer. In fall 2009, Gary Glasberg joined the crew and became the new \"day-to-day\" runner of NCIS, as Shane Brennan had to focus on his new show, the spin-off NCIS: Los Angeles. \n\nOn April 5, 2016, long-time director Dennis Smith announced he had completed his final episode as part of the NCIS crew, though it is not specified to which episode he is referring. \n\nEpisodes\n\nBackdoor pilots\n\n* JAG: The pilot of NCIS was made up of two episodes which were part of JAG Season 8, the episodes being \"Ice Queen\" and \"Meltdown\". These JAG episodes introduced Mark Harmon as Gibbs, Michael Weatherly as Tony, Pauley Perrette as Abby, and David McCallum as Ducky. Patrick Labyorteaux reprised his role as Lt. Bud Roberts in the first season episode \"Hung Out to Dry\"; Alicia Coppola returned as Lt. Cmdr. Faith Coleman in \"UnSEALed\", \"Call of Silence\", and \"Hometown Hero\", while Adam Baldwin returned as Cmdr. Michael Rainer in \"A Weak Link\", and John M. Jackson appeared as retired Rear Admiral A. J. Chegwidden in the season ten episode \"Damned If You Do\".\n* NCIS: Los Angeles: The two-part NCIS episode \"Legend\" serves as the back-door pilot of NCIS: Los Angeles. Rocky Carroll appears on NCIS: Los Angeles as his NCIS character Director Leon Vance, while Pauley Perrette has appeared twice as Abby. NCIS guest stars reprising roles between series include: David Dayan Fisher as CIA Officer Trent Kort, in the season one finale of NCIS: Los Angeles; Kelly Hu as Lee Wuan Kai in NCIS: Los Angeles and later in an episode of NCIS. Michael Weatherly guest stars as Tony DiNozzo in the NCIS: Los Angeles episode \"Blame It on Rio\".\n* NCIS: New Orleans: The two-part NCIS episode \"Crescent City\" serves as the back-door pilot of NCIS: New Orleans. Rocky Carroll appears as Director Leon Vance, while Pauley Perrette, David McCallum, Michael Weatherly, Mark Harmon, Meredith Eaton, Joe Spano, Diane Neal and Leslie Hope have all guest starred on NCIS: New Orleans.\n\nCrossover with NCIS: New Orleans\n\nIn \"Sister City\", the D.C. team works with the New Orleans team on a case involving Abby's brother. Gibbs, Abby, Ducky, Ellie and Jimmy appear in part two. \n\nRelease\n\nBroadcast\n\nNCIS airs on Network Ten and TV Hits (formerly TV1) in Australia, Global (syndicated on Showcase & Lifetime) in Canada, TV3 and The Box in New Zealand, and Fox, CBS Action, Universal Channel, Channel 5 and 5USA in the United Kingdom.\n\nHome video releases\n\nThe first eleven seasons of NCIS have been released in Regions 1, 2 and 4. In Germany (Region 2), seasons 1–4 and 6–8 were released in two separate sets for each season. The first season DVD omits the two introductory episodes from season eight of JAG, though they are featured on the JAG season eight DVD.\n\nOther releases\n\nIn 2010, CBS Interactive and GameHouse released a mobile video game, NCIS: The Game for iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Windows Mobile, and BREW/J2ME. The game features five different cases written by the show's writers. \n\nOn November 1, 2011, Ubisoft released a video game adaption of NCIS for the PC, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii. A Nintendo 3DS version was released on March 6, 2012. The video game was deemed as a mockery to the show by reviewers and players alike, and received a 2/10 rating on GameSpot. \n\nTV movies\n\nSoundtrack\n\nCBS Records released the show's first soundtrack on February 10, 2009. The Official TV Soundtrack is a two-disc, 22-track set that includes brand new songs from top artists featured prominently in upcoming episodes of the series as well as the show's original theme by Numeriklab (available commercially for the first time) and a remix of the theme by Ministry. The set also includes songs performed by series regulars Pauley Perrette and Coté de Pablo.\n\nA sequel to the soundtrack was released on November 3, 2009. NCIS: The Official TV Soundtrack; Vol. 2 is a single disc, 12 track set that covers songs (many previously unreleased) featured throughout the seventh season of the show, including one recording titled \"Bitter and Blue\" by Weatherly, as well as two songs used in previous seasons.\n\nReception\n\nBroadcast ratings\n\nSeasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of NCIS.\n\nNote: Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.\n\n* Ever since season 7, NCIS has been the most watched scripted show on American television, but it was only in the 2012–13 season that it ranked number 1 as the most watched program of the past year, surpassing both American Idol and NBC Sunday Night Football that had ranked above it the past three seasons.\n* On January 15, 2013, NCIS surpassed its previous series high in viewers, with the season ten episode \"Shiva\" attracting 22.86 million viewers. \n\nDVR\n\n* The show ranked number four in DVR playback (2.714 million viewers), according to Nielsen prime DVR lift data from January 5–11, 2009. \n* The show ranked number thirteen in DVR playback (2.743 million viewers), according to Nielsen prime DVR lift data from February 9–15, 2009. \n* The show ranked number nine in DVR playback (3.007 million viewers), according to Nielsen prime DVR lift data from April 6–12, 2009. \n\nCable\n\n* The show ranked number eighteen (4.793 million viewers) in the list of Nielsen ratings top twenty most-watched cable shows for the week ending January 25, 2009. \n* The show ranked number ten (4.535 million viewers), twelve (4.264 million viewers), thirteen (4.221 million viewers), fifteen (4,161 million viewers), seventeen (4.132 million viewers), and twenty (4.081 million viewers) in the list of Nielsen ratings top twenty most-watched cable shows for the week ending March 1, 2009. \n* The show ranked sixteen (4.091 million viewers), seventeen (4.084 million viewers), eighteen (4.072 million viewers), and twenty (4.006 million viewers) in the list of Nielsen ratings top twenty most-watched cable shows for the week ending March 29, 2009. \n* The show ranked number five (4.492 million viewers), six (4.467 million viewers), eight (4.394 million viewers), nine (4.214 million viewers), fifteen (3.962 million viewers), and seventeen (3.8.58 million viewers) in the list of Nielsen ratings top twenty most-watched cable shows for the week ending May 3, 2009. \n* The show ranked number three (4.82 million viewers), six (4.38 million viewers), ten (3.82 million viewers), eleven (3.88 million viewers), and fourteen (3.87 million viewers) in the list of Nielsen ratings top fifteen most-watched cable shows for the week ending November 1, 2009. \n\nFranchise\n\nNCIS has produced two spin-offs: NCIS: Los Angeles (2009–) and NCIS: New Orleans (2014–).\n\nNCIS: Los Angeles\n\nIn 2009, CBS picked up an NCIS spin-off series with the title NCIS: Los Angeles, with the backdoor pilot, \"Legend\", airing on April 28, 2009 and May 5, 2009. The backdoor pilot introduced Chris O'Donnell as Special Agent G. Callen, LL Cool J as Special Agent Sam Hanna, Louise Lombard as Special Agent Lara Macy, Peter Cambor as Operational Psychologist Nate Getz: and Daniela Ruah as Special Agent Kensi Blye. The crew for the series includes Michael B. Kaplan, Lev L. Spiro, Jerry London, Sheldon Epps, and Mark Saraceni. \n\nFollowing the show's official pick-up by CBS, it was confirmed that Louise Lombard had not been signed to continue her role as Special Agent Lara Macy. Linda Hunt and Adam Jamal Craig were confirmed to replace her in starring roles, playing OSP Manager Henrietta Lange and Special Agent Dom Vail respectively. Craig, who left the series in episode 21 of season 1, was replaced by Eric Christian Olsen playing Marty Deeks. \n\nCharacters from NCIS have appeared in the spin-off. Rocky Carroll portrayed Leon Vance in a recurring role, while Pauley Perrette portrayed Abby Sciuto and appeared in the season 1 episodes \"Killshot\" and \"Random on Purpose\". \n\nNCIS: Los Angeles was created by Shane Brennan. In April 2011, NCIS creator Donald Bellisario sued CBS over NCIS: Los Angeles because of his contract which gave him \"first opportunity\" to develop a spin-off or sequel, the lawsuit was dismissed by a judge in June 2012. However discussions continued between CBS and Bellisario and in January 2013 the dispute was settled outside of court a week before it was set to go to trial, however the terms of the agreement were not disclosed but were described as being amicable. \n\nNCIS: New Orleans\n\nIn September 2013 CBS announced a planned second spin-off series set in New Orleans that would be introduced via a planted two-part backdoor pilot NCIS episode. The episodes were filmed in February 2014 and aired on March 25, 2014 and April 1, 2014. NCIS star Mark Harmon and showrunner Gary Glasberg are the executive producers, and CBS Studios produces the series. \"Crescent City\", the two-part backdoor-pilot episode was initially \"supposed to be just an idea for an episode\". Glasberg discussed the idea of the episode with Harmon, who said \"That's more than a[n] [...] episode\". The premise for the episodes are, according to Glasberg, \"all about this tiny little NCIS office that's down [in New Orleans], and the kind of cases that they come across\". \n\nThe series stars Scott Bakula as Special Agent Dwayne Cassius Pride, Lucas Black as Special Agent Christopher LaSalle, Zoe McLellan as Special Agent Meredith \"Merri\" Brody, Rob Kerkovich as Sebastian Lund, and C. C. H. Pounder as Dr. Loretta Wade. Daryl \"Chill\" Mitchell and Shalita Grant joined the main cast later.\n\nOn May 9, 2014, NCIS: New Orleans was picked up by CBS. and was renewed for a second season on January 12, 2015. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nNCIS has received many awards and nominations since it premiered on September 23, 2003 including the ALMA Awards, ASCAP Awards, BMI Film & TV Awards, Emmy Awards, and People's Choice Awards.", "All in the Family is an American sitcom that was originally broadcast on the CBS television network for nine seasons, from January 12, 1971, to April 8, 1979. In September 1979, a new show, Archie Bunker's Place, picked up where All in the Family had ended. That sitcom lasted another four years, ending its run in 1983.\n\nProduced by Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin and starring Carroll O'Connor, Jean Stapleton, Rob Reiner, and Sally Struthers, All in the Family revolves around the life of a working-class bigot and his family. The show broke ground in its depiction of issues previously considered unsuitable for U.S. network television comedy, such as racism, homosexuality, women's liberation, rape, religion, miscarriage, abortion, breast cancer, the Vietnam War, menopause, and impotence. Through depicting these controversial issues, the series became arguably one of television's most influential comedic programs, as it injected the sitcom format with more realistic and topical conflicts.[http://www.tvland.com/shows/all-in-the-family All in the Family TV Show - Videos, Actors, Photos and Episodes from the Classic Television Show] \n\nThe show is often regarded in the United States as one of the greatest television series of all time. The show ranked number-one in the yearly Nielsen ratings from 1971 to 1976. It became the first television series to reach the milestone of having topped the Nielsen ratings for five consecutive years. The episode \"Sammy's Visit\" was ranked #13 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time ranked All in the Family as #4. Bravo also named the show's protagonist, Archie Bunker, TV's greatest character of all time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked All in the Family the fourth best written TV series ever and TV Guide ranked it as the fourth greatest show of all time. \n\nPremise\n\nAll in the Family revolves around Archie Bunker (Carroll O'Connor), a working-class World War II veteran living in Queens, New York. He is a short-tempered, outspoken bigot, seemingly prejudiced against everyone who is not a U.S.-born, heterosexual White Anglo-Saxon Protestant male, and dismissive of anyone not in agreement with his view of the world. His ignorance and stubbornness seem to cause his malapropism-filled arguments to self-destruct. He often responds to uncomfortable truths by blowing a raspberry. He longs for better times when people sharing his viewpoint were in charge, as evidenced by the nostalgic theme song \"Those Were the Days,\" the show's original title. Despite his bigotry, he is portrayed as loveable and decent, as well as a man who is simply struggling to adapt to the changes in the world, rather than someone motivated by hateful racism or prejudice.\n\nBy contrast, Archie's wife, Edith (Jean Stapleton), is a sweet and understanding, if somewhat naïve, woman who usually defers to her husband. On the rare occasions when Edith takes a stand she proves to be one of the wisest characters, as evidenced in the episodes \"The Battle of the Month\" and \"The Games Bunkers Play\". Archie often tells her to \"stifle\" herself and calls her a \"dingbat\". Despite their different personalities they love each other deeply.\n\nThey have one child, Gloria (Sally Struthers) who, for the most part, is kind and good natured, like her mother, but who also on occasion displays traces of her father's stubbornness; she becomes more of an outspoken feminist as the series progresses. Gloria is married to college student Michael Stivic (Rob Reiner). Michael is referred to as \"Meathead\" by Archie and \"Mike\" by nearly everyone else. Mike is a bit of a hippie, openly an atheist and his morality is influenced and shaped by the counterculture of the 1960s. He and Archie represent the real-life clash between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boomers. They constantly clash over religious, political, social, and personal issues. For much of the series, the Stivics live in the Bunkers' home to save money, providing even more opportunity for the two men to irritate each other. When Mike finally finishes graduate school and the Stivics move out, it turns out to be to the house next door. The house was offered to them by George Jefferson, the Bunkers' former neighbor, who knows it will irritate Archie. In addition to calling him \"Meathead\", Archie also frequently cites Mike's Polish ancestry, referring to him as a \"dumb Polack.\"\n\nThe show is set in the Astoria section of Queens, one of New York City's five boroughs, with the vast majority of scenes taking place in the Bunkers' home at 704 Hauser Street (and later, frequently, the Stivics' home). Occasional scenes take place in other locations, most often (especially during later seasons) Kelsey's Bar, a neighborhood tavern where Archie spends a good deal of time and which he eventually buys. The house seen in the opening is at 89-70 Cooper Avenue near the junction of the Glendale, Middle Village, and Rego Park sections of Queens. According to the US Postal Service, the official address is: 8970 COOPER AVE, REGO PARK NY 11374-5324. \n\nCast\n\nMain characters\n\n* Carroll O'Connor as Archie Bunker. Frequently called a \"lovable bigot\", Archie was an assertively prejudiced blue-collar worker. Former child actor Mickey Rooney was Lear's first choice to play Archie, but Rooney declined the offer because of the strong potential for controversy and, in Rooney's opinion, a poor chance for success. Scott Brady, formerly of the western series Shotgun Slade, also declined the role of Archie Bunker, but appeared four times on the series in 1976 in the role of Joe Foley. O'Connor missed 7 episodes of the series run.\n* Jean Stapleton as Edith Bunker, née Baines. It was Stapleton who developed Edith's recognizable voice. Stapleton remained with the show through the original series run but decided to leave before the first season of Archie Bunker's Place had wrapped up. At that point Edith was written out as having suffered a stroke and died off-camera, leaving Archie to deal with the death of his beloved \"dingbat\". Stapleton appeared in all but four episodes of All in the Family and had a recurring role during the first season of Archie Bunker's Place. In the series' first episode, Edith is portrayed as being less of a dingbat and even sarcastically refers to her husband as \"Mr. Religion, here...\" after they come home from church, something her character wouldn't be expected to say later.\n* Sally Struthers as Gloria Stivic, née Bunker. The Bunkers' college-age daughter was married to Michael Stivic. Gloria frequently attempted to mediate Archie's and Michael's arguments. The roles of the Bunkers' daughter and son-in-law (then named \"Dickie\") initially went to Candice Azzara and Chip Oliver. However, after seeing the show's pilot, ABC, the original production company, requested a second pilot expressing dissatisfaction with both actors. Lear later recast the roles of \"Gloria\" and \"Dickie\" with Struthers and Reiner. Penny Marshall (Reiner's wife, whom he married in April 1971, shortly after the program began) was also considered for the role of Gloria. During the earlier seasons of the show, Struthers was known to be discontented with how static her part was, frequently coming off as irritating and having only a few token lines. As the series continued Gloria's character became more developed, satisfying Struthers. Struthers appeared in 157 of the 202 episodes during the first eight seasons—from January 12, 1971 to March 19, 1978. She later reprised the role in the spin-off series Gloria, which lasted for a single season in 1982-83.\n* Rob Reiner as Michael Stivic. Gloria's Polish-American hippie husband was part of the counterculture of the 1960s. He constantly sparred with Archie (in the original pilot, he was Irish-American). Michael was, in many ways, as stubborn as Archie, even though his moral views were generally presented as being more ethical and his logic somewhat sounder. Though this was true, he was generally portrayed in a more negative light than Archie; Archie was portrayed in a more sympathetic sense, while Michael was portrayed as loudmouthed and at times, demanding. He consistently tried to prove himself correct (as evidenced in the episode \"The Games Bunkers Play\") and seemed desperate to convince people that his way was the right way to go all the time, even more than Archie, who gave up giving advice about his way when there was no point. This would occasionally, if not often, end him up in conflict with his friends and wife. For his bullheadedness, Stivic was sometimes criticized for being an elitist. He also struggled with assumptions of male superiority. He spoke of believing in female equality, but often tried to control Gloria's decisions and desires in terms of traditional gender roles. While Archie was a representative of supposed bigotry and demonstrated the lion's share of the hypocrisy, Michael, on many occasions, showed his own. As discussed in All in the Family retrospectives, Richard Dreyfuss sought the part but Norman Lear was convinced to cast Reiner. Reiner appeared in 174 of the 202 episodes of the series during the first eight seasons—from January 12, 1971 to March 19, 1978. Reiner is also credited with writing three of the series' episodes. \n* Danielle Brisebois as Edith's 9-year-old grandniece, Stephanie Mills, who is a regular throughout the 9th season. The Bunkers take her in after the child's father, Floyd Mills, abandons her on their doorstep in 1978 (he later extorts money from them to let them keep her). She remained with the show through its transition to Archie Bunker's Place, and appeared in all four seasons of the latter show.\n\nSupporting characters\n\n* Sherman Hemsley as George Jefferson, Isabel Sanford as his wife Louise, and Mike Evans as their son Lionel, Archie's black neighbors. George is Archie's combative black counterpart, while Louise is a smarter, more assertive version of Edith. Lionel first appeared in the series' premiere episode \"Meet the Bunkers\", with Louise appearing later in the first season. Although previously mentioned many times, George was not seen until 1973. Hemsley, who was Norman Lear's first choice to play George, was performing in the Broadway musical Purlie and did not want to break his commitment to that show. However, Lear kept the role waiting for him until he had finished with the musical. Plots frequently find Archie and George at odds with one another, while Edith and Louise attempt to join forces to bring about a resolution. They later moved to an apartment in Manhattan which resulted in their own show The Jeffersons.\n* Mel Stewart, as George's brother Henry Jefferson. The two appeared together only once, in the 1973 episode in which the Bunkers host Henry's going-away party, marking Stewart's final episode and Hemsley's first. Even when the Jeffersons were spun off into their own show in 1975, Stewart's character was rarely referred to again and was never seen. In the closing credits of \"The First and Last Supper\" episode, Mel Stewart is incorrectly credited as playing George Jefferson. Stewart was actually playing George's brother, Henry Jefferson, who was pretending to be George for most of the episode.\n* Bea Arthur as Edith's cousin Maude. Maude was white-collared and ultra-liberal, the perfect foil to Archie and one of his main antagonists. She appeared in only two episodes, \"Cousin Maude's Visit\", where she took care of the Bunker household when all four were sick, and \"Maude\" from the show's second season. She then went on to her own spin-off series, Maude, in fall 1972.\n* Betty Garrett and Vincent Gardenia as the liberal and Roman Catholic next-door neighbors Irene and Frank Lorenzo. Both first appeared as a married couple as Irene was trying to use the Bunker's phone. However, during an argument earlier in the episode, Archie and Mike had broken the phone wire. Irene being a 'handyman' of sorts with her own tools, which she carried in her purse, fixed it. Irene fixed many things at the Bunker house during her time on the show. She also had a sister who was a nun and appeared in one episode. It is revealed in the episode Edith's Christmas Story that Irene has had a mastectomy. Archie got her a job as a forklift operator at the plant where Archie worked. Irene was a strongwilled woman of Irish heritage, and Frank was a jovial Italian househusband who loved cooking and singing. He also was a salesman, but it never was said what he sold. Gardenia, who also appeared as Jim Bowman in Episode 8 of Season 1 (as the man who sold his house to the Jeffersons) and as Curtis Rempley in Episode 7 of Season 3 (as a swinger opposite Rue McClanahan), became a semi-regular along with Garrett in 1973. Gardenia only stayed for one season as Frank Lorenzo, but Garrett remained until her character was phased out in late 1975.\n* Allan Melvin as Archie's neighbor and best friend Barney Hefner. The character first appeared in 1972 as a fairly minor character. Barney's role expanded toward the end of the series, after the departures of Reiner and Struthers. He also appeared as a regular in all four seasons of Archie Bunker's Place.\n\nRecurring characters\n\n* James Cromwell as Jerome \"Stretch\" Cunningham (1973–1976) \"The Funniest Man in The World\", Archie's friend and co-worker from the loading dock (Archie claims that he is known as the \"Bob Hope\" of the loading platform). What Archie did not know was that Stretch was Jewish, evident only after Stretch died and Archie went to the funeral. Archie's eulogy for his friend is often referred to as a rare occasion when he was capable of showing the humanity he tried so earnestly to hide. In the episode titled \"Archie in the Cellar,\" Billy Sands is referred to as Stretch Cunningham, the voice on the tape recorder telling jokes. Sands also appeared as other characters on the show during its run, usually in Kelsey's Bar as a patron.\n* Liz Torres as Theresa Betancourt (1976–1977), a Puerto Rican nursing student who initially meets Archie when he is admitted to the hospital for surgery; she later rents Mike's and Gloria's former room at the Bunker house. She called Archie \"Papi.\" Torres had just completed the first season of the CBS sitcom Phyllis in the spring of 1976 before being dropped from the cast. (She had replaced the late actress Barbara Colby in the role of Julie Erskine). Torres joined All in the Family in the fall of 1976, but her character was not popular with viewers, and the role was phased out before the end of the season.\n* Billy Halop as Mr. Munson (1971–74), the cab driver who lets Archie use his cab to make extra money.\n* Bob Hastings as Kelcy or Tommy Kelsey, who owns the bar Archie frequents and later buys. Kelcy was also played by Frank Maxwell in the episode \"Archie Gets The Business.\" The name of the establishment is Kelcy's Bar (as seen in the bar window in various episodes). However, due to a continuity error, the end credits of episodes involving the bar owner spell the name \"Kelcy\" for the first two seasons and \"Kelsey\" thereafter, although the end credits show \"Kelcy\" in the \"Archie Gets the Business\" episode.\n* Jason Wingreen as Harry Snowden, a bartender at Kelcy's Bar who continues to work there after Archie purchases it and eventually becomes his business partner. Harry had initially tried to buy the bar from Kelcy, but Archie was able to come up with the money first, by taking a mortgage out on his house, which the Bunkers own outright.\n* Gloria LeRoy as Mildred \"Boom-Boom\" Turner, a buxom, middle-aged secretary at the plant where Archie works. Her first appearance was when Archie is lost on his way to a convention and Mike and Gloria suspect he and she could be having an affair. Archie gave her that moniker as she was walking by the loading dock. He said when she walked, \"Boom-Boom\". She is not initially fond of Archie due to his and Stretch's leering and sexist behavior, but later becomes friendly with him, occasionally working as a barmaid at Archie's Place. Gloria LeRoy also appeared in a third season episode as \"Bobbi Jo,\" the wife of Archie's old war buddy \"Duke\".\n* Barnard Hughes as Father Majeskie, a local Catholic priest who was suspected by Archie one time of trying to convert Edith. He appeared in multiple episodes. The first time was when Edith accidentally hit Majeskie's car in the shopping parking lot with a can of cling peaches in heavy syrup.\n* Eugene Roche appeared as practical jokester friend and fellow lodge member \"Pinky Peterson\", one of Archie Bunker's buddies, in three episodes; first in the episode \"Beverly Rides Again\", then the memorable Christmas Day episode called \"The Draft Dodger\" (Episode 146, 1976), and finally the episode \"Archie's Other WIfe\".\n* Sorrell Booke as Lyle Sanders, personnel manager at Archie Bunker's workplace, Prendergast Tool and Die Company. (He had previously appeared on the series as Lyle Bennett, the manager of a local television station, in the episode \"Archie and the Editorial\" in Season 3.)\n* Lori Shannon as Beverly La Salle, a transvestite entertainer, who appeared in three episodes: \"Archie the Hero\", \"Beverly Rides Again\", and \"Edith's Crisis of Faith\", where he and Mike are attacked, and he is killed while defending him. \n* Estelle Parsons as Blanche Hefner (1977–1979), Barney's second wife. Blanche and Archie are not fond of one another, though Edith likes her very much. The character is mentioned throughout much of the series after Barney's first wife, Mabel, had died, though she only appeared in a handful of episodes during the last couple of seasons. Estelle Parsons also appeared in the season 7 episode \"Archie's Secret Passion\" as Dolores Fencel.\n* Bill Quinn as Mr. Edgar Van Ranseleer (a.k.a. \"Mr. Van R\"), a blind patron and regular at the bar. He was almost never referred to by his first name. In a running joke, Archie usually waves his hand in front of Mr. Van R's face when he speaks to him. His role was later expanded on Archie Bunker's Place, where he appeared in all four seasons.\n* Burt Mustin as Justin Quigley, a feisty octogenarian. Mr. Quigley first appeared in the episode: \"Edith Finds an Old Man\" (Season 4 Ep 3 Sept 23, 1973) where he runs away from the Sunshine Home where Edith volunteers. He temporarily moves in with the Bunkers and soon finds a geriatric sweetheart, Josephine \"Jo\" Nelson, played by Ruth McDevitt. He appeared in four other episodes including: \"Archie's Weighty Problem\". \n* Nedra Volz as Aunt Iola. Edith's aunt who was mentioned several times in the 8th season and stayed with the Bunkers for two weeks. Edith wanted her to move in, but Archie would not allow it, though when he thought Iola didn't have any place to go, he told her privately that she could always stay with them.\n* Francine Beers and Jane Connell as Sybil Gooley, who worked at Ferguson's Market. Frequently mentioned, usually by Edith, Sybil predicted that Gloria and Mike were having a baby boy by performing a ring on a string \"swing test\" over Gloria's abdomen. Sybil also appeared in the episode \"Edith's 50th Birthday\" and spilled the beans on her surprise party because she had not been invited. She and Archie did not get along, and he referred to her as a \"Big Mouth\".\n* Rae Allen and Elizabeth Wilson as Cousin Amelia. Archie detested both Amelia and her husband, Russ, who were both wealthy. Once she sent Edith a mink and Archie wanted to send it back, until he found out how much it was worth. In another episode, both Amelia and her husband gave the Bunkers Hawaiian shirts. Amelia was played by two different actresses throughout the first few seasons of the show.\n* Richard Dysart as Russ DeKuyper, Amelia's husband, a plumber who continued the business started by Amelia's father and uncles and walked into a successful plumbing concern, and who constantly flaunts his monetary wealth in front of Archie and looks askance at the way Archie lives. Russ was later played by George S. Irving in season 5.\n* Clyde Kusatsu as Reverend Chong. Reverend Chong appeared in several episodes. He refused to baptize little Joey in Season 6, and then remarried both Archie and Edith and Mike and Gloria in Season 8, and gave counsel to Stephanie in Season 9 as it was learned she was Jewish.\n* Ruth McDevitt as Josephine \"Jo\" Nelson. She played Justin Quigley's girlfriend, the older man Edith found walking around the supermarket. She appeared in three episodes from the 4th-6th seasons. Gloria and Mike adopted them as their godgrandparents. Out of most of the characters, Archie took a liking to Justin and Jo. She died following the end of the 6th season.\n* William Benedict as Jimmy McNabb. The Bunker's neighbor who was starting a petition to keep minorities out of their neighborhood. He appeared in two episodes during the first and second season, and was referred to many times during the first few seasons.\n* Jack Grimes as Mr. Whitehead. A member of Archie's lodge, and local funeral director. The death of Archie's cousin Oscar in a season 2 episode of All in the Family brings the very short, white-haired and silver-tongued Whitehead with his catalog of caskets.\n\nHistory and production\n\nThe show came about when Norman Lear read an article in Variety magazine on Till Death Us Do Part and its success in the United Kingdom. He immediately knew it portrayed a relationship just like the one between him and his father. \n\nLear bought the rights to the show and incorporated his own family experiences with his father into the show. Lear's father would tell Lear's mother to \"stifle herself\" and she would tell Lear's father \"you are the laziest white man I ever saw\" (two \"Archieisms\" that found their way onto the show).\n\nThe original pilot was titled Justice for All and was developed for ABC. Tom Bosley, Jack Warden, and Jackie Gleason were all considered for the role of Archie Bunker. In fact, CBS wanted to buy the rights to the original show and retool it specifically for Gleason, who was under contract to them, but producer Norman Lear beat out CBS for the rights and offered the show to ABC.\n\nIn the pilot, Carroll O'Connor and Jean Stapleton played Archie and Edith Justice. Kelly Jean Peters played Gloria and Tim McIntire played her husband, Richard. It was taped in October 1968 in New York City. After screening the first pilot, ABC gave the producers more money to shoot a second pilot, titled Those Were the Days, which was taped in February 1969 in Hollywood. Candice Azzara played Gloria and Chip Oliver played Richard. D'Urville Martin played Lionel Jefferson in both pilots.\n\nAfter stations' and viewers' complaints caused ABC to cancel Turn-On after only one episode in February 1969, the network became uneasy about airing a show with a \"foul-mouthed, bigoted lead\" character, and rejected the series at about the time Richard Dreyfuss sought the role of Michael. Rival network CBS was eager to update its image and was looking to replace much of its then popular \"rural\" programming (Mayberry R.F.D., The Beverly Hillbillies, Petticoat Junction, and Green Acres) with more \"urban\", contemporary series and was interested in Lear's project. CBS bought the rights from ABC and retitled the show All in the Family. The pilot episode CBS developed had the final cast and was the series' first episode.\n\nLear initially wanted to shoot in black and white as Till Death Us Do Part had been. While CBS insisted on color, Lear had the set furnished in rather neutral tones, keeping everything relatively devoid of color. As costume designer Rita Riggs described in her 2001 Archive of American Television interview, Lear's idea was to create the feeling of sepia tones, in an attempt to make viewers feel as if they were looking at an old family album.\n\nAll in the Family was the first major American series to be videotaped in front of a live studio audience. In the 1960s, most sitcoms had been filmed in the single-camera format without audiences, with a laugh track simulating an audience response. Lear employed the multi-camera format of shooting in front of an audience, but used tape, whereas previous multi-camera shows like Mary Tyler Moore had used film. Thanks to the success of All in the Family, videotaping sitcoms in front of an audience became a common format for the genre during the 1970s, the 1980s and the 1990s. The use of videotape also gave All in the Family the look and feel of early live television, including the original live broadcasts of The Honeymooners, to which All in the Family is sometimes compared.\n\nFor the show's final season, the practice of being taped before a live audience changed to playing the already taped and edited show to an audience and recording their laughter to add to the original sound track. Thus, the voice-over during the end credits was changed from Rob Reiner's \"All in the Family was recorded on tape before a live audience\" to Carroll O'Connor's \"All in the Family was played to a studio audience for live responses\". (Typically, the audience would be gathered for a taping of One Day at a Time, and get to see All In the Family as a bonus.) Throughout its run, Norman Lear took pride in the fact that canned laughter was never used (mentioning this on many occasions); the laughter heard in the episodes was genuine.\n\nTheme song\n\nThe series' opening theme song \"Those Were The Days\", written by Lee Adams (lyrics) and Charles Strouse (music), was presented in a unique way for a 1970s series: Carroll O'Connor and Jean Stapleton seated at a console or spinet piano (played by Stapleton) and singing the tune on-camera at the start of every episode, concluding with live-audience applause. (The song dates back to the first Justice For All pilot, although on that occasion O'Connor and Stapleton performed the song off-camera and at a faster tempo than the series version.) Several different performances were recorded over the run of the series, including one version that includes additional lyrics. The song is a simple, pentatonic melody (that can be played exclusively with black keys on a piano) in which Archie and Edith wax nostalgic for the simpler days of yesteryear. A longer version of the song was released as a single on Atlantic Records, reaching No. 30 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart early in 1972; the additional lyrics in this longer version lend the song a greater sense of sadness, and make poignant reference to social changes taking place in the 1960s and early 1970s.\n\nA few perceptible drifts can be observed when listening to each version chronologically: In the original version Jean Stapleton was wearing glasses and after the first time the lyric \"Those Were The Days\" was sung over the tonic (root chord of the song's key) the piano strikes a Dominant 7th chord in transition to the next part which is absent from subsequent versions. Jean Stapleton's screeching high note on the line \"And you knew who you WEEERRE then\" became louder, longer, and more comical, although it was only in the original version that audience laughter was heard in response to her rendition of the note; Carroll O'Connor's pronunciation of \"welfare state\" gained more of Archie's trademark enunciation and the closing lyrics (especially \"Gee, our old LaSalle ran great.\") were sung with increasingly deliberate articulation, as viewers had initially complained that they could not understand the words. Also in the original version the camera angle was shot slightly from the right side of the talent as opposed to the straight on angle of the next version.\n\nIn addition to O'Connor and Stapleton singing, footage is also shown beginning with aerial shots of Manhattan, and continuing to Queens, progressively zooming in, culminating with a still shot of a lower middle-class semi-detached home, presumably representing the Bunkers' house in Astoria. The house shown in the opening credits, however, is actually located at 89–70 Cooper Avenue in the Glendale section of Queens, New York. There is a notable difference, however, between the Cooper Avenue house and the All in the Family set: there is no porch on the Cooper Avenue house, while the Bunkers' home featured a front porch. The footage for the opening had been shot back in 1968 for the series' first pilot, thus the establishing shot of the Manhattan skyline was completely devoid of the World Trade Center towers, which had not yet been built. When the series aired two years later, the Trade Center towers, although under construction, had still not yet risen high enough to become a prominent feature on the Manhattan skyline (this did not happen until the end of 1971). Despite this change in the Manhattan skyline, the original 1968 footage continued to be used for the series opening until the series transitioned into Archie Bunker's Place in 1979. At that point a new opening with current shots of the Manhattan skyline were used with the Trade Center towers being seen in the closing credits. This opening format – showing actual footage of the cities and neighborhoods in which the show was set – became the standard for most of Norman Lear's sitcoms including Maude, Good Times, and The Jeffersons.\n\nAt the end of the opening the camera then returns to a few final seconds of O'Connor and Stapleton, as they finish the song. In one version of the opening Archie hugs Edith at the conclusion, while another version sees Edith smiling blissfully at Archie, while Archie puts a cigar in his mouth and returns a rather cynical look to Edith. Additionally, in the first three versions of the opening Archie is seen wearing his classic trademark white shirt. In the last version of the opening for the series' ninth season, Archie is seen wearing a grey sweater-jacket over his white shirt.\n\nThe opening for the animated series Family Guy begins with Peter and Lois Griffin singing at the piano, a tribute to the All in the Family opening. As with \"Those Were the Days\", the lyrics to the Family Guy theme song also seem to imply that things have changed for the worse since the old days (\"But where are those good old fashioned values/On which we used to rely?\"). The All in the Family opening is also parodied in The Simpsons ninth-season episode \"Lisa's Sax\", as Homer and Marge Simpson sit at a piano and perform \"Those Were the Days\" with altered lyrics pertaining to the episode's plot.\n\nIn interviews, Norman Lear stated that the idea for the piano song introduction was a cost-cutting measure. After completion of the pilot episode, the budget would not allow an elaborate scene to serve as the sequence played during the show's opening credits. Lear decided to have a simple scene of Archie and Edith singing at the piano.\n\nThe closing theme (an instrumental) was \"Remembering You\" played by Roger Kellaway with lyrics co-written by Carroll O'Connor. It was played over footage of the same row of houses in Queens as in the opening (but moving in the opposite direction down the street), and eventually moving back to aerial shots of Manhattan, suggesting the visit to the Bunkers' home has concluded. O'Connor recorded a vocal version of \"Remembering You\" for a record album, but though he performed it several times on TV appearances, the lyrics (about the end of a romance) were never heard in the actual series.\n\nExcept for some brief instances in the first season, there was no background or transitional music.\n\nSetting and location\n\nLear and his writers set the series in the Queens neighborhood of Astoria. The exact location of the Bunkers' house at 704 Hauser Street is completely fictitious (no Hauser Street exists in Queens), however, and factually incorrect with the way addresses are given in Queens (all address numbers are hyphenated, containing the location of the nearest numbered street). Nevertheless, many episodes reveal that the Bunkers live near the major thoroughfare Northern Boulevard, which was the location of Kelsey's Bar and later Archie Bunker's Place.\n\nThe façade of the house shown at the show opening is an actual home located at 89-70 Cooper Avenue, Glendale, Queens, New York, across from St. John Cemetery ().\n\nMany real Queens institutions are mentioned throughout the series. Carroll O’Connor, a real-life Queens native from Forest Hills, said in an interview with the Archive of American Television that he suggested to the writers many of the locations to give the series authenticity. For example, it is revealed that Archie attended Flushing High School, a real high school located in Flushing, Queens (although in the \"Man Of The Year\" episode of Archie Bunker's Place, it is revealed that Archie attended Bryant High School in Long Island City, graduating in 1940). As another example, the 1976 episode \"The Baby Contest\" deals with Archie entering baby Joey in a cutest baby contest sponsored by the Long Island Daily Press, a then-operating local newspaper in Queens and Long Island.\n\nAdditionally, the writers of All in the Family continued throughout the series to have the Bunkers, as well as other characters, use telephone exchange names when giving a telephone number (most other series at the time, such as The Mary Tyler Moore Show, were using the standard fake 555 telephone number) at a time when AT&T was earnestly trying to discontinue them. At different times throughout the series, the telephone exchanges Ravenswood and Bayside were used for the Bunkers' telephone number. Both exchanges were and still are applicable names for phone numbers in the neighborhoods of Astoria and Bayside. This may have had to do with the fact that at the time many major cities in the United States, such as New York, were resisting the dropping of telephone exchange names in favor of all-number calling, and were still printing their telephone books with exchange names. Actual residents of the Bunkers' age continued using exchange names into the early 1980s. This fact is referred to in the 1979 episode \"The Appendectomy,\" when Edith, while dialing a telephone number, uses the Parkview exchange name only to correct herself by saying that she keeps forgetting that it's all-number dialing now. However, she comes to the conclusion that the number is exactly the same either way.\n\nEpisodes\n\n\"Sammy's Visit,\" first broadcast in February 1972, is a particularly notable episode, whose famous episode-ending scene produced the longest sustained audience laughter in the history of the show. Guest star Sammy Davis, Jr. plays himself in the episode. Davis leaves a briefcase behind in Archie's taxi (Archie is moonlighting as a cab driver) and goes to the Bunker home to pick it up. After hearing Archie's racist remarks, Davis asks for a photograph with him. At the moment the picture is taken, Davis suddenly kisses a stunned Archie on the cheek. The ensuing laughter went on for so long that it had to be severely edited for network broadcast, as Carroll O'Connor still had one line (\"Well, what the hell — he said it was in his contract!\") to deliver after the kiss. (The line is usually cut in syndication.)\n\nBroadcast history\n\nTuesday at 9:30-10:00 PM on CBS: January 12—April 6, 1971\nSaturday at 8:00-8:30 PM on CBS: September 18, 1971—March 8, 1975\nMonday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: September 8, 1975—March 8, 1976\nWednesday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: September 22—October 27, 1976\nSaturday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: November 6, 1976—March 12, 1977\nSunday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: October 9, 1977—October 1, 1978\nSunday at 8:00-8:30 PM on CBS: October 8, 1978—April 8, 1979\n\nSyndication\n\nDuring the show's sixth season, starting on December 1, 1975, CBS began showing reruns on weekdays, replacing long-running soap opera The Edge of Night, which had been purchased by ABC. This lasted until September 1979, at which point the reruns entered off-network syndication. Originally it was syndicated by Viacom. The show was picked up in most television markets as such. In 1991, the show began to be syndicated by Columbia/Embassy and has been by their heirs ever since.\n\nSince the late 1980s, All in the Family has been rerun on various cable and satellite networks including TBS (though they had the rights locally in Atlanta as well), TV Land and Nick at Nite. Since January 3, 2011, the show has been airing on Antenna TV.\n\nThe cast settled their residual rights for a cash payout early in the production run. \n\nRatings\n\nAll in the Family is one of three television shows (The Cosby Show and American Idol being the others) that have been No. 1 in the Nielsen ratings for five consecutive TV seasons. The show remained in the top-ten for seven of its nine seasons.\n\nThe series finale was seen by 40.2 million viewers. \n\nSpin-offs, TV specials and influence\n\nAccording to The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946–Present, All in the Family has the most spin-offs for a prime-time television series, spawning five other shows, three of which were highly successful and two of which are spin-offs from spin-offs. \n\nThe first spin-off was Maude on September 12, 1972. Maude Findlay, played by Bea Arthur, was Edith's cousin; she had first appeared on All in the Family in the episode \"Cousin Maude's Visit\", which aired on December 11, 1971, in order to help take care of the Bunkers when they all were sick with a nasty flu virus. Maude disliked Archie intensely, mainly because she thought Edith could have married better, but also because Archie was a conservative while Maude was very liberal in her politics, especially when Archie denounced Maude's support of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Maude was featured in another All in the Family episode in which Archie and Edith visited Maude's home in Westchester County to attend the wedding of Maude's daughter Carol. It aired as the finale of the second season on March 11, 1972, titled \"Maude.\" The episode was essentially designed to set up the premise for the spin-off series that would air later in the year. In the episode, Bill Macy played Maude's husband, Walter; it was a role he reprised for the weekly series that fall. Marcia Rodd, the actress who played Carol in the episode, was replaced by Adrienne Barbeau in Maude. The show lasted for six seasons and 141 episodes, airing its final episode on April 22, 1978.\n*Good Times is considered by some to be a spin off of Maude, focusing on Maude's former maid Florida Evans. However, the character was retroactively changed. According to producer Allan Manings \"It wasn't really a spin-off.\" The show contains no mention of Maude, and the Evans' now live in Chicago. It ran for six seasons from February 8, 1974 to August 1, 1979.\nThe second and longest-lasting spin-off of All in the Family was The Jeffersons. Debuting on CBS on January 18, 1975 The Jeffersons lasted 11 seasons and 253 episodes compared to All in the Family's 9 seasons and 208 episodes. The main characters of The Jeffersons were the Bunkers' former next-door neighbors George Jefferson (Sherman Hemsley) and his wife, Louise \"Weezie\" Jefferson (Isabel Sanford). George Jefferson was the owner of a chain of seven successful dry-cleaning stores; as The Jeffersons begins, they have just moved from the Bunkers' neighborhood to a luxury high-rise apartment building in Manhattan's Upper East Side. George was considered to be the \"black Archie Bunker,\" and just as racist as Archie.\n*Checking In was spun off from The Jeffersons, focusing on the Jeffersons' maid Florence Johnston working as executive housekeeper at the St. Fredereick Hotel in Manhattan. It only lasted four weeks from April 9 to April 30, 1981 and Florence returned to her old job as the Jeffersons' maid.\nGloria was the third spin-off of All in the Family, focusing on Archie's divorced daughter Gloria starting a new life as an assistant trainee to a couple of veterinarians in Foxridge, New York. It premiered September 26, 1982 and ran for one season.\n\nOther spin-offs of All in the Family include:\nArchie Bunker's Place was technically a spin-off, but was more of a continuation of the series.\n704 Hauser features the Bunkers' house with a new family, the key twist being that the Archie Bunker analog in this series is black. Joey Stivic, Gloria and Mike's son, now in his twenties, makes a brief appearance in the first episode.\n\nAt the height of the show's popularity, Henry Fonda hosted a special one-hour retrospective of All in the Family and its impact on American television. Included were clips from the show's most memorable episodes up to that time. It was titled The Best of \"All in the Family\", and aired on December 21, 1974.\n\nA 90-minute retrospective, All in the Family 20th Anniversary Special, was produced to commemorate the show's 20th anniversary and aired on CBS February 16, 1991. It was hosted by Norman Lear, and featured a compilation of clips from the show's best moments, and interviews with the four main cast members.\n\nThe special was so well received by the viewing audience (ratings: 14.7 household rating from 8-9:30pm while Empty Nest garnered a 17.3) that CBS decided to air reruns of All in the Family during their summer schedule that year. During its summer run, the 20-year-old program was popular. \n\nSo successful were these primetime reruns that they garnered higher ratings than the new series scheduled next to it, the Norman Lear-produced sitcom Sunday Dinner. The latter was Lear's return to TV series producing after a seven-year absence (after the failed A.k.a. Pablo for ABC in 1984). It was cancelled after the six-week tryout run.\n\nThe creators of the long-running ongoing adult animated series American Dad! have likened the early seasons of their series to All in the Family. In its early going, American Dad was almost a farcical animated version of All in the Family, utilizing elements of bigotry, conservatism, patriotism, etc. In both series, conservatism is expressed ludicrously by a paternal main character (Stan Smith likened to Archie) while liberalism is expressed by a daughter character and her husband (Hayley Smith and Jeff Fischer likened to Gloria and Mike). \n\nDVD releases\n\nSony Pictures Home Entertainment (formerly Columbia Tri-Star Home Entertainment) released the first six seasons of All in the Family on DVD in Region 1 between 2002 and 2007. No further seasons were released, because the sales figures did not match Sony's expectations.\n\nOn June 23, 2010, Shout! Factory announced that they had acquired the rights to the series, and have since released the remaining three seasons. \n\nOn October 30, 2012, Shout! Factory released All in the Family - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 28-disc box set features all 208 episodes of the series as well as bonus features. \n\nCultural impact\n\nAs one of US television's most acclaimed and groundbreaking programs, All in the Family has been referenced or parodied in countless other forms of media. References on other sitcoms include That '70s Show, The Brady Bunch, and The Simpsons. The animated series Family Guy pays homage to All in the Family in the opening sequence which features Peter and Lois Griffin playing the piano and singing a lament on the loss of traditional values and also paid tribute to the ending credits of the show at the end of the episode Stewie Loves Lois.\n\nPopular T-shirts, buttons, and bumper stickers showing O'Connor's image and farcically promoting \"Archie Bunker for President\" appeared around the time of the 1972 presidential election. In 1998, All in the Family was honored on a 33-cent stamp by the USPS. \n\nArchie and Edith Bunker's chairs are on display in the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. Originally purchased by the show's set designer for a few dollars at a local Goodwill thrift store, the originals were given to the Smithsonian (for an exhibit on American television history) in 1978. It cost producers thousands of dollars to create replicas to replace the originals.\n\nAlso, then-US President Richard Nixon can be heard discussing the show (specifically the 1971 episodes \"Writing the President\" and \"Judging Books by Covers\") on one of the infamous Watergate tapes. \n\nRapper Redman has made references to Archie Bunker in a few of his songs, specifically his smoking of large cigars. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nAll in the Family is the first of four sitcoms in which all the lead actors (O'Connor, Stapleton, Struthers, and Reiner) won Primetime Emmy Awards. The other three are The Golden Girls, The Simpsons and Will & Grace.\n\nPrimetime Emmy Awards and Nominations\n\n;1971\nOutstanding New Series (Won)\nOutstanding Series - Comedy (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: John Rich for \"Gloria's Pregnant\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy:\n Norman Lear for \"Meet the Bunkers\" (Nominated)\n Stanley Ralph Ross for \"Oh, My Aching Back\" (Nominated)\n;1972\nOutstanding Series - Comedy (Won)\nOutstanding Single Program - Drama or Comedy for \"Sammy's Visit\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Achievement in Live or Tape Sound Mixing: Norman Dewes for \"The Elevator Story\" (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Won)\nOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: John Rich for \"Sammy's Visit\" (Won)\nOutstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy:\n* Burt Styler for \"Edith's Problem\" (Won)\nAlan J. Levitt and Philip Mishkin for \"Mike's Problem\" (Nominated)\nNorman Lear and Burt Styler for \"The Saga of Cousin Oscar\" (Nominated)\n;1973\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\nOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: Bob LaHendro and John Rich for \"The Bunkers and the Swingers\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy: Lee Kalcheim & Michael Ross & Bernie West for \"The Bunkers and the Swingers\" (Won)\n;1974\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nBest Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Won)\nBest Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1975\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\n;1976\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\n;1977\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Paul Bogart for \"The Draft Dodger\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Art Direction or Scenic Design for a Comedy Series: Don Roberts for \"The Unemployment Story\" (Nominated)\n;1978\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Won)\nOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\nOutstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Paul Bogart for \"Edith's 50th Birthday\" (Won)\nOutstanding Writing for a Comedy Series:\nBob Schiller and Bob Weiskopf for \"Edith's 50th Birthday\" (Nominated)\nLarry Rhine & Erik Tarloff & Mel Tolkin for \"Edith's Crisis of Faith\" (Nominated)\nHarve Brosten & Barry Harman & Bob Schiller & Bob Weiskopf for \"Cousin Liz\" (Won)\n;1979\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Sally Struthers (Won)\nOutstanding Directing for a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Paul Bogart for \"California, Here We Are\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Writing for a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Milt Josefsberg & Bob Schiller & Phil Sharp & Bob Weiskopf for \"California, Here We Are\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Video Tape Editing for a Series: Harvey W. Berger and Hal Collins for \"The 200th Episode Celebration of 'All in the Family'\" (Nominated)\n\nGolden Globe Awards and Nominations\n\n;1972\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1973\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1974\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1975\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Nominated)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Betty Garrett (Won)\n;1976\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\n;1977\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1978\nBest TV Series - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\n;1979\nBest TV Series - Musical/Comedy (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\n;1980\n*Best TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\n\nTCA Heritage Award\n\nIn 2013, the Television Critics Association honored All in the Family with its Heritage Award for its cultural and social impact on society." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "8", "eight", "Eight" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "8", "eight" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "eight", "type": "Numerical", "value": "Eight" }
Who wrote the novel Watership Down?	tc_1013	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Watership_Down.txt" ], "title": [ "Watership Down" ], "wiki_context": [ "Watership Down is a classic adventure novel, written by English author Richard Adams, published by Rex Collings Ltd of London in 1972. Set in southern England, the story features a small group of rabbits. Although they live in their natural environment, they are anthropomorphised, possessing their own culture, language, proverbs, poetry, and mythology. Evoking epic themes, the novel follows the rabbits as they escape the destruction of their warren and seek a place to establish a new home, encountering perils and temptations along the way.\n\nWatership Down was Richard Adams' first novel. Although it was rejected by several publishers before Collings accepted it, it won the annual Carnegie Medal, annual Guardian Prize, and other book awards. It was adapted into the 1978 animated film Watership Down. Later there was a television series also titled Watership Down which ran from 1999 to 2001. \n\nAdams completed a sequel almost 25 years later, Tales from Watership Down (Random House, 1996; Hutchinson and Alfred A. Knopf imprints). It is a collection of 19 short stories about El-ahrairah and the rabbits of the Watership Down warren, with \"Notes on Pronunciation\" and \"Lapine Glossary\".. Retrieved 2012-09-08. \n\nOrigin and publication history\n\nThe title refers to the rabbits' destination, Watership Down, a hill in the north of Hampshire, England, near the area where Adams grew up. The story began as tales that Richard Adams told his young daughters Juliet and Rosamond during long car journeys. As he explained in 2007, he \"began telling the story of the rabbits ... improvised off the top of my head, as we were driving along.\" The daughters insisted he write it down—\"they were very, very persistent\". After some delay he began writing in the evenings and completed it 18 months later. The book is dedicated to the two girls. \n\nAdams's descriptions of wild rabbit behaviour were based on The Private Life of the Rabbit (1964), by British naturalist Ronald Lockley. The two later became friends, embarking on an Antarctic tour that became the subject of a co-authored book, Voyage Through the Antarctic (A. Lane, 1982).\n\nWatership Down was rejected seven times before it was accepted by Rex Collings. The one-man London publisher Collings wrote to an associate, \"I've just taken on a novel about rabbits, one of them with extra-sensory perception. Do you think I'm mad?\" The associate did call it \"a mad risk\" in her obituary of Collings; \"a book as bizarre by an unknown writer which had been turned down by the major London publishers; but it was also dazzlingly brave and intuitive.\"Quigly, Isabel (8 June 1996). [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-rex-collings-1335987.html \"Obituary: Rex Collings\"]. The Independent. Retrieved 2012-07-26. Collings had little capital and could not pay an advance but \"he got a review copy onto every desk in London that mattered.\" Adams wrote that it was Collings who gave Watership Down its title. There was a second edition in 1973.\n\nMacmillan USA, then a media giant, published the first U.S. edition in 1974 and a Dutch edition was also published that year by Het Spectrum.\n. Retrieved 2012-07-31. According to WorldCat, participating libraries hold copies in 18 languages of translation. \n\nPlot summary \n\nIn the Sandleford warren,The map in front of book indicates that the story begins in the real life Wash Common, just beyond the western tip of the park and parish of Sandleford, on the Berkshire-Hampshire border. Fiver, a young runt rabbit who is a seer, receives a frightening vision of his warren's imminent destruction. When he and his brother Hazel fail to convince their chief rabbit of the need to evacuate, they set out on their own with a small band of eleven rabbits to search for a new home, barely eluding the Owsla, the warren's military caste.\n\nThe travelling group of rabbits finds itself following the leadership of Hazel, previously an unimportant member of the warren. They travel through dangerous territory, with Bigwig and Silver, both former Owsla, as the strongest rabbits among them. Eventually they meet a rabbit named Cowslip, who invites them to join his warren. However, when Bigwig is nearly killed in a snare, the rabbits realize that the new warren is managed by a farmer who protects the rabbits but also harvests a number of them for his own purposes, and the residents of the new warren are simply using them to increase their own odds of survival. After Fiver rescues Bigwig from the snare they continue on their journey.\n\nFiver's visions promise a safe place in which to settle, and the group eventually finds Watership Down, an ideal location to set up their new warren. They are soon reunited with Holly and Bluebell, also from the Sandleford Warren, who reveal that Fiver's vision was true and the entire warren was destroyed by humans.\n\nAlthough Watership Down is a peaceful habitat, Hazel realizes there are no does (female rabbits), thus making the future of the warren certain to end with the inevitable death of the rabbits present. With the help of a black-headed gull named Kehaar, they locate a nearby warren, Efrafa, which is overcrowded and has many does. Hazel sends a small embassy to Efrafa to present their request for does. While waiting for the group to return, Hazel and Pipkin scout the nearby Nuthanger Farm to find two pairs of hutch rabbits there; Hazel leads a raid on the farm the next day and rescues two does and a buck from the hutch. When the emissary returns, Hazel and his rabbits learn Efrafa is a police state led by the despotic General Woundwort, and the four rabbits dispatched there manage to return with little more than their lives intact.\n\nHowever, the group does manage to identify an Efrafan doe named Hyzenthlay who wishes to leave the warren and can recruit other does to join in the escape. Hazel and Bigwig devise a plan to rescue the group and join them on Watership Down, after which the Efrafan escapees start their new life of freedom.\n\nShortly thereafter the Owsla of Efrafa, led by Woundwort himself arrives to attack the newly formed warren at Watership Down, but through Bigwig's bravery and loyalty and Hazel's ingenuity, the Watership Down rabbits seal the fate of the Efrafan general by unleashing the Nuthanger Farm watchdog. A formidable fighter by rabbit standards, Woundwort fearlessly stands his ground when the dog closes on him for the kill. His body, however, is never found, and at least one of his former followers continues to believe in his survival. Hazel is nearly killed by a cat, but is saved by the farm girl Lucy, the owner of the escaped hutch rabbits.\n\nThe story's epilogue tells the reader of how Hazel, dozing in his burrow one \"chilly, blustery morning in March\" some years later, is visited by El-Ahrairah, the spiritual overseer of all rabbits, and hero of many rabbit stories, who invites Hazel to join his own Owsla. Leaving his friends and no-longer-needed body behind, Hazel departs Watership Down with the spirit-guide, \"running easily down through the wood, where the first primroses were beginning to bloom.\"\n\nCharacters \n\n* Hazel: The protagonist, Fiver's brother; he leads the rabbits from Sandleford and eventually becomes Chief Rabbit. Though Hazel is not particularly large or powerful, he is loyal, brave, and a quick thinker. He sees the good in each individual, and what they bring to the table; in so doing, he makes sure that no one gets left behind, thus earning the respect and loyalty of his warren. He often relies on Fiver's advice, and trusts in his brother's instincts absolutely.\n* Fiver: A runt rabbit whose name literally means \"Little Thousand\" (rabbits have a single word, \"hrair\", for all numbers greater than four; Fiver's name in Lapine, Hrairoo, indicates that he is the smallest of a litter of five or more rabbits ) and Hazel's younger brother. As a seer, he has visions and very strong instincts. Fiver is one of the most intelligent rabbits in the group. He is quiet and intuitive, and though he does not directly act as a leader, the others listen to and follow his advice. Vilthuril becomes his mate.\n* Bigwig: An ex-Owsla officer, and the largest and bravest rabbit of the group. His name in Lapine is Thlayli, which literally means \"Fur-head\" and refers to the shock of fur on the back of his head. Though he is powerful and fierce, he is also shown to be cunning in his own way when he devises a plan to defeat the larger and stronger General Woundwort. His final battle with Woundwort leaves him severely wounded, but he survives and becomes the leader of Hazel's Owsla.\nBlackberry: A clever buck rabbit with black-tipped ears. He is often capable of understanding concepts that the other rabbits find incomprehensible. He realises, for instance, that wood floats, and the rabbits use this tactic twice to travel on water. He also works out how to dismantle the snare that almost kills Bigwig, saving him. He is one of Hazel's most trusted advisors, given the task to plan a way to rescue does from Efrafa.\n Holly: Former captain of the Sandleford Warren Owsla, escapes with Bluebell when his warren is destroyed by men. He is near death when he finds the warren at Watership Down, but is nursed back to health and becomes one of Hazel's most trusted companions.\n* Bluebell: Buck rabbit who escapes with Holly during the destruction of Sandleford and tells jokes to cope and help Holly\n* Strawberry: Buck from Cowslip's warren who leaves with the Watership Down rabbits after his doe is killed by a snare. Strawberry is strong and sleek but not as hardy as the other rabbits given his warren upbringing but learns quickly and gets along well with the group. It is for this reason that he is selected to represent the rabbits on an expedition to Efrafa. \n* Haystack: One of the hutch rabbits who escapes in order to live with the wild rabbits\n* Buckthorn: A strong buck who was expected to be part of the Sandleford Owsla once he reached maturity. \n* Hawkbit: Described in the book as a \"rather stupid rabbit\" but is accepted by Hazel regardless. \nDandelion: A buck rabbit notable for his storytelling ability and speed. He is instrumental in luring the Nuthanger Farm dog into the Efrafans during the siege of Watership Down.\n Silver: A strong buck rabbit, given his name for his silver-gray fur, he fights alongside Bigwig and helps defend the rabbits during their journey. He is teased for his silver fur at the Sandleford warren which is one of the reasons he was more willing to leave. \nPipkin: A small and timid buck rabbit, who looks to Hazel for guidance and protection. Hazel encourages him, and Pipkin grows very loyal to Hazel. He proves to be a constant comforter, particularly for Holly after the destruction of Sandleford warren. His name is Hlao in Lapine.\n Hyzenthlay: A doe who lives in Efrafa and assists Bigwig in arranging for the liberation of its inhabitants. General Woundwort, who suspects her of fomenting dissension, orders his guards to keep a close eye on her. She escapes Efrafa with Bigwig and becomes Hazel's mate. Like Fiver, she has visions. Her name means literally \"shine-dew-fur\", or \"fur shining like dew\".\n* Blackavar: A rabbit with very dark fur who tries to escape from Efrafa but is apprehended, mutilated, and put on display to discourage further escape attempts. When he is liberated by Bigwig, he quickly proves himself an expert tracker and ranger.\n* Kehaar: A black-headed gull who is forced, by an injured wing, to take refuge on Watership Down, and befriends the rabbits when they help him. He is characterized by his frequent impatience, guttural accent and unusual phrasing. After discovering the Efrafa warren and helping the rabbits, he rejoins his colony, but promises to visit. According to Adams, Kehaar was based on a fighter from the Norwegian Resistance in World War II.Adams, Richard. \"Introduction.\" Watership Down, Scribner U.S. edition, 2005. ISBN 0-7432-7770-8.\n* General Woundwort: The main antagonist: a fearless, cunning and brutally efficient rabbit who was orphaned at a young age, Woundwort founded the Efrafa warren and is its tyrannical chief. Though larger and stronger than Bigwig, he lacks mercy and kindness. He even leads an attack to destroy the Watership warren as an act of revenge against Bigwig stealing does from Efrafa, which is narrowly defeated by Hazel's ingenuity and Bigwig's bravery. After his apparent death fighting the Nuthanger farm dog, he lives on in rabbit legend as a bogeyman.\nCaptain Campion: Woundwort's most trusted subordinate, Campion is a loyal, brave and clever officer. After Woundwort disappears, he becomes the Chief Rabbit of Efrafa and reforms it, making peace with the Watership rabbits.\nVervain: The head of the Council police in Efrafa. When Woundwort's forces storm the Honeycomb, he is ordered by Woundwort to kill Fiver, but Fiver's supernatural calmness and prophesising of his (Vervain's) death terrify him into fleeing.\n* Frith: A god-figure who created the world and promised that rabbits would always be allowed to thrive. In Lapine, his name literally means \"the sun\".\n* El-ahrairah: A rabbit trickster folk hero, who is the protagonist of nearly all of the rabbits' stories. He represents what every rabbit wants to be; smart, devious, tricky, and devoted to the well-being of his warren. In Lapine, his name is a contraction of the phrase Elil-hrair-rah, which means \"prince with a thousand enemies\". His stories of cleverness (and excessive hubris) are very similar to Br'er Rabbit and Anansi.\n* Prince Rainbow: A god-figure who serves as a foil to El-ahrairah. He attempts to rein in El-ahrirah several times, but is always outsmarted by the rabbit.\n* Rabscuttle: Another mythical folk hero, Rabscuttle is El-ahrairah's second in command and the Owsla leader. He participates in many of the El-ahrairah's capers. He is considered to be almost as clever as his chief. \n* Black Rabbit of Inlé: A somber phantom servant of the god Frith who appears in rabbit folklore as a kind of analog to the grim reaper, and similarly ensures all rabbits die at their predestined time. \"Inlé\" is the Lapine term for the moon or darkness.\n\nLapine language\n\n\"Lapine\" is a fictional language created by author Richard Adams for the novel, where it is spoken by the rabbit characters. The fragments of language presented by Adams consist of a few dozen distinct words, and are chiefly used for the naming of rabbits, their mythological characters, and objects in their world.\n\nThemes \n\nWatership Down has been described as an allegory, with the labours of Hazel, Fiver, Bigwig, and Silver \"mirror[ing] the timeless struggles between tyranny and freedom, reason and blind emotion, and the individual and the corporate state.\" Adams draws on classical heroic and quest themes from Homer and Virgil, creating a story with epic motifs.\n\nThe Hero, The Odyssey, and The Aeneid \n\nThe book explores the themes of exile, survival, heroism, leadership, political responsibility, and the \"making of a hero and a community\". Joan Bridgman's analysis of Adams's works in The Contemporary Review identifies the community and hero motifs: \"[T]he hero's journey into a realm of terrors to bring back some boon to save himself and his people\" is a powerful element in Adams's tale. This theme derives from the author's exposure to the works of mythologist Joseph Campbell, especially his study of comparative mythology, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949), and in particular, Campbell's \"monomyth\" theory, also based on Carl Jung's view of the unconscious mind, that \"all the stories in the world are really one story.\" \n\nThe concept of the hero has invited comparisons between Watership Down's characters and those in Homer's Odyssey and Virgil's Aeneid. Hazel's courage, Bigwig's strength, Blackberry's ingenuity and craftiness, and Dandelion's and Bluebell's poetry and storytelling all have parallels in the epic poem Odyssey. Kenneth Kitchell declared, \"Hazel stands in the tradition of Odysseus, Aeneas, and others\". Tolkien scholar John Rateliff calls Adams's novel an Aeneid \"what-if\" book: what if the seer Cassandra (Fiver) had been believed and she and a company had fled Troy (Sandleford Warren) before its destruction? What if Hazel and his companions, like Odysseus, encounter a seductive home at Cowslip's Warren (Land of the Lotus Eaters)? Rateliff goes on to compare the rabbits' battle with Woundwort's Efrafans to Aeneas's fight with Turnus's Latins. \"By basing his story on one of the most popular books of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Adams taps into a very old myth: the flight from disaster, the heroic refugee in search of a new home, a story that was already over a thousand years old when Virgil told it in 19 BC.\"\n\nReligious symbolism \n\nIt has been suggested that Watership Down contains symbolism of several religions, or that the stories of El-ahrairah were meant to mimic some elements of real-world religion. When asked in a 2007 BBC Radio interview about the religious symbolism in the novel, Adams stated that the story was \"nothing like that at all.\" Adams said that the rabbits in Watership Down did not worship, however, \"they believed passionately in El-ahrairah\". Adams explained that he meant the book to be, \"only a made-up story... in no sense an allegory or parable or any kind of political myth. I simply wrote down a story I told to my little girls\". Instead, he explained, the \"let-in\" religious stories of El-ahrairah were meant more as legendary tales, similar to a rabbit Robin Hood, and that these stories were interspersed throughout the book as humorous interjections to the often \"grim\" tales of the \"real story\". \n\nReception \n\nThe Economist heralded the book's publication, saying \"If there is no place for Watership Down in children’s bookshops, then children’s literature is dead.\" Peter Prescott, senior book reviewer at Newsweek, gave the novel a glowing review: \"Adams handles his suspenseful narrative more dextrously than most authors who claim to write adventure novels, but his true achievement lies in the consistent, comprehensible and altogether enchanting civilisation that he has created.\" Kathleen J. Rothen and Beverly Langston identified the work as one that \"subtly speaks to a child\", with \"engaging characters and fast-paced action [that] make it readable.\" This echoed Nicholas Tucker's praise for the story's suspense in the New Statesman: \"Adams ... has bravely and successfully resurrected the big picaresque adventure story, with moments of such tension that the helplessly involved reader finds himself checking whether things are going to work out all right on the next page before daring to finish the preceding one.\" \n\nThe \"enchanting\" world Prescott admired was not as well received upon its 1974 American publication. Although again the object of general approval, reception in the United States was more mixed, unlike the predominantly positive reviews of 1972. D. Keith Mano, a science fiction writer and conservative social commentator writing in the National Review, declared that the novel was \"pleasant enough, but it has about the same intellectual firepower as Dumbo.\" He pilloried it further: \"Watership Down is an adventure story, no more than that: rather a swashbuckling crude one to boot. There are virtuous rabbits and bad rabbits: if that’s allegory, Bonanza is an allegory.\" \n\nJohn Rowe Townsend notes that the book quickly achieved such a high popularity despite the fact that it \"came out at a high price and in an unattractive jacket from a publisher who had hardly been heard of.\" Fred Inglis, in his book The Promise of Happiness: Value and meaning in children's fiction, praises the author’s use of prose to express the strangeness of ordinary human inventions from the rabbits' perspective. \n\nWatership Downs universal motifs of liberation and self-determination have led to the tendency of minority groups to read their own narrative into the novel, despite the author's assurance (in 2005) that it \"was never intended to become some sort of allegory or parable.\" Rachel Kadish, reflecting on her own superimposition of the founding of Israel onto Watership Down, has remarked \"Turns out plenty of other people have seen their histories in that book...some people see it as an allegory for struggles against the Cold War, fascism, extremism...a protest against materialism, against the corporate state. Watership Down can be Ireland after the famine, Rwanda after the massacres.\" Kadish has praised both the fantasy genre and Watership Down for its \"motifs [that] hit home in every culture...all passersby are welcome to bring their own subplots and plug into the archetype.\" \n\nAwards \n\nAdams won the 1972 Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British subject. He also won the annual Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, a similar award that authors may not win twice. In 1977 California schoolchildren selected it for the inaugural California Young Reader Medal in the Young Adult category, which annually honours one book from the last four years. In The Big Read, a 2003 survey of the British public, it was voted the forty-second greatest book of all time. \n\nCriticism\n\nGender roles \n\nThe 1993 Puffin Modern Classics edition of the novel contains an afterword by Nicholas Tucker, who wrote that stories such as Watership Down \"now fit rather uneasily into the modern world of consideration of both sexes\". He contrasted Hazel's sensitivity to Fiver with the \"far more mechanical\" attitude of the bucks towards does, who Tucker considers are portrayed as \"little more than passive baby-factories\". \n\nIn \"Male Chauvinist Rabbits,\" an essay originally published in the New York Times Book Review, Selma G. Lanes criticized Adams's treatment of gender. She observed that the first third of the story is a \"celebration of male camaraderie, competence, bravery and loyalty as a scraggly bunch of yearling bucks ... arrive triumphant at a prospectively ideal spot\", only to realize that they have no females for mating. \"Fully the last two-thirds of Adams's saga,\" Lanes argued, \"is devoted to what one male reviewer has blithely labelled \"The Rape of the Sabine Rabbits\", a ruthless, single-minded and rather mean-spirited search for females – not because Watership Downs males miss their companionship or yearn for love, but rather to perpetuate the existing band.\" For Adams, Lanes continued, the does are only \"instruments of reproduction\" to prevent the achievement of reaching Watership Down from \"becoming a hollow victory.\" As evidence, Lanes pointed to Hazel and Holly's assessment of the rescued Nuthanger does' value: \"it came naturally ... to consider the two Nuthanger does simply as breeding stock for the warren.\" \n\nLanes argued that this view of the female rabbits came from Adams himself rather than his source text, Ronald Lockley's The Private Life of the Rabbit. In Lockley's text, by contrast, the rabbit world is matriarchal, and new warrens are always initiated by dissatisfied, young females. Hence, Lanes concluded, Adams's novel is \"marred by an attitude towards females that finds more confirmation in Hugh Hefner's Playboy than R. M. Lockley's The Private Life of the Rabbit.\" \n\nIn similar vein, literary critic Jane Resh Thomas stated that Watership Down \"draws upon ... an anti-feminist social tradition which, removed from the usual human context and imposed upon rabbits, is eerie in its clarity.\" Thomas did find much to admire about Watership Down, calling it a \"splendid story\". For her, its \"anti-feminist bias ... damages the novel in only a minor way.\" She later explained: \"I wrote about Watership Down because I was angry and hurt when I read the book. ... I felt he [Adams] had treated me and my kind with a contempt I couldn't be silent about.\" \n\nAdams' 1996 sequel, Tales from Watership Down includes stories where the female rabbits play a more prominent role in the Watership Down warren. It has been suggested that this might have been an attempt to modernise the story, to make it more in tune with the political sensibilities of the 1990s, when it was published. \n\nAdaptations \n\nFilm \n\nIn 1978 Martin Rosen wrote and directed an animated film adaptation of Watership Down. The voice cast included John Hurt, Richard Briers, Harry Andrews, Simon Cadell, Nigel Hawthorne, and Roy Kinnear. The film featured the song \"Bright Eyes\", sung by Art Garfunkel. Released as a single, the song became a UK number one hit. \n\nAlthough the essentials of the plot remained relatively unchanged, the film omits several side plots. Though the Watership Down warren eventually grew to seventeen rabbits, with the additions of Strawberry, Holly, Bluebell, and three hutch rabbits liberated from the farm, the movie only includes a band of eight. Rosen's adaptation was praised for \"cutting through Adams' book ... to get to the beating heart\". \n\nThe film has also seen some positive critical attention. In 1979 the film received a nomination for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Additionally, British television station Channel 4's 2006 documentary 100 Greatest Cartoons named it the 86th greatest cartoon of all time. \n\nTelevision \n\nFrom 1999 to 2001, the book was also adapted as an animated television series, broadcast on CITV in the UK and on YTV in Canada. It was produced by Martin Rosen and starred several well-known British actors, including Stephen Fry, Rik Mayall, Dawn French, John Hurt, and Richard Briers, running for a total of 39 episodes over three seasons. Although the story was broadly based on that of the novel and most characters and events retained, some of the story lines and characters (especially in later episodes) were entirely new. In 2003, the second season was nominated for a Gemini Award for Best Original Music Score for a Dramatic Series. \n\nMiniseries \n\nIn July 2014, it was confirmed that the BBC would be airing a new animated series based on the book. In April 2016 it was announced that the series would be a co-production between the BBC and Netflix, and would consist of four one-hour episodes. The series will have a budget of £20 million. \n\nTheatre \n\nIn 2006, Watership Down was again adapted for the stage, this time by Rona Munro. It ran at the Lyric Hammersmith in London. Directed by Melly Still, the cast included Matthew Burgess, Joseph Traynor, and Richard Simons. The tone of the production was inspired by the tension of war: in an interview with The Guardian, Still commented, \"The closest humans come to feeling like rabbits is under war conditions ... We've tried to capture that anxiety.\" A reviewer at The Times called the play \"an exciting, often brutal tale of survival\" and said that \"even when it’s a muddle, it’s a glorious one.\" \n\nIn 2011, Watership Down was adapted for the Lifeline Theatre in Chicago by John Hildreth. This production was directed by Katie McLean Hainsworth and the cast included Scott T. Barsotti, Chris Daley, Paul S. Holmquist, and Mandy Walsh.\n\nRole-playing game \n\nWatership Down inspired the creation of Bunnies & Burrows, a role-playing game in which the main characters are talking rabbits, published in 1976 by Fantasy Games Unlimited. It introduced several innovations to role-playing game design, being the first game to allow players to have non-humanoid roles, as well as the first with detailed martial arts and skill systems. Fantasy Games Unlimited published a second edition of the game in 1982, and the game was modified and republished by Steve Jackson Games as an official GURPS supplement in 1992.\n\nMusic \n\nThe song \"Bright Eyes\" was written by Mike Batt and performed by Art Garfunkel for the 1978 film adaptation of the book Watership Down. In addition to this song, numerous bands or musicians have made reference to Watership Down in their music:\n\n* Italian power metal band Trick or Treat released the first of their planned two Watership Down concept albums in 2012. The album is called Rabbits' Hill Pt. 1. The tracklist includes a cover of the song \"Bright Eyes\" originally written by Mike Batt.\n* American folk rock trio America performed a song titled \"Watership Down\", released by Warner Bros. Records in April 1976 on their Hideaway album. Composed by singer/songwriter Gerry Beckley, the song's lyrics refer obliquely to the story elements, including the phrase \"you might hear them in the distance, if your ear's to the ground.\"\n* Swedish progressive rock musician Bo Hansson recorded a suite named \"Rabbit Music\" which was based on the book, as part of his 1975 album Attic Thoughts. Two years later, Hansson released an entire album devoted to the novel, titled Music Inspired by Watership Down.\n* The British post-hardcore band Fall of Efrafa is a concept band who has recorded a trilogy of albums based loosely on the mythology of Watership Down. This trilogy is known as The Warren of Snares and consists of the albums Owsla (2006), Elil (2007) and Inlé (2009). \n* The British electronic group Ladytron shot a music video for their single \"Ghosts\", off their 2008 album Velocifero, which featured many references to Watership Down.\n* American art-rock band ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead has a song on their 1998 self-titled album called \"Prince with a Thousand Enemies\".\n* American hip-hop group Common Market recorded a song called \"Watership Down\" on their 2008 EP Black Patch War.\n* New Jersey-based hardcore punk band Bigwig takes its name from the character in the novel. The cover art of its first album, Unmerry Melodies, features a rabbit resembling Bigwig, and the song \"Best of Me\" features a sample from the film Watership Down. \n* American rapper Sole, on his album Selling Live Water, references the story of El Ahrairah in the tunnel in the chorus of his song \"Tokyo\".\n* American singer-songwriter Vanessa Carlton's 2011 album Rabbits on the Run was inspired by Watership Down and A Brief History of Time. \n* The song \"Honey and the Bee\" by Owl City contains the lyrics \"The crow and the beanfield\", referencing the title of chapter 9.\n*American electronic dance music dj and producer Skrillex named his record label OWSLA.\n\nRadio \n\nIn 2002, a two-part, two-hour dramatization of Watership Down by Neville Teller was broadcast by BBC Radio 4.\n\nAudiobooks \n\nIn the 1970s, the book was read by Roy Dotrice, with musical background — music by George Butterworth performed by Academy of St Martin in the Fields under the direction of Neville Marriner.\n\nIn 1984, Watership Down was adapted into a 4-cassette audiobook by John Maher in association with the Australian Broadcasting Company's Renaissance Players. Produced by John Hannaford and narrated by Kerry Francis, the audiobook was distributed by The Mind's Eye. \n\nIn 1990, a 16-hour, 11-cassette recording read by John MacDonald was published by Books on Tape, Inc. of Santa Ana, CA. ISBN 0-7366-1700-0\n\nAndrew Sachs recorded a 5 and a half hour abridged version of the story for Puffin Audiobooks.\n\nIn 2010, Audible.com released an unabridged digital download of the book, narrated by the multiple award-winning Ralph Cosham.\n\nParodies \n\nIn an episode of the British comedy show The Goodies, entitled Animals, nature presenters from the BBC are forced to escape in rabbit suits from the fury of animals now granted equal rights with humans. It features the music and animation in the style of the movies.\n\nIn the American TV show Robot Chicken, a parody of the book is done with the Fraggles, the main characters of the show Fraggle Rock, in place of the rabbits." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Richard Adams", "Richard George Adams", "Adams, Richard", "Adams, Richard George", "Richard Adams (author)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "richard george adams", "adams richard george", "richard adams", "adams richard", "richard adams author" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "richard adams", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Richard Adams" }
Who was the Prime Minister of Australia from 1983 - 1991?	tc_1014	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search", "Search", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Bob_Hawke.txt", "Prime_Minister_of_Australia.txt", "List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Australia.txt", "Paul_Keating.txt" ], "title": [ "Bob Hawke", "Prime Minister of Australia", "List of Prime Ministers of Australia", "Paul Keating" ], "wiki_context": [ "Robert James Lee \"Bob\" Hawke, Sr. (born 9 December 1929) is an Australian politician who was the Prime Minister of Australia and the Leader of the Labor Party from 1983 to 1991.\n\nAfter graduating from the University of Oxford in 1956, Hawke was allowed to join the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) as a research officer. Having risen to become responsible for wage arbitration, he was elected President of the ACTU in 1969, where he achieved an unprecedented level of popularity. After a decade as ACTU President, Hawke announced his intention to enter politics, and was immediately elected to the House of Representatives as the Labor MP for Wills.\n\nThree years later, he led Labor to a landslide election victory at the 1983 election and was sworn in as Prime Minister. He led Labor to victory at three more elections in 1984, 1987 and 1990, thus making him the most electorally successful Labor Leader in history. The Hawke Government created Medicare and Landcare, brokered the Prices and Incomes Accord, formed APEC, floated the Australian dollar, deregulated the financial sector, introduced the Family Assistance Scheme, announced \"Advance Australia Fair\" as the official national anthem and initiated superannuation pension schemes for all workers.\n\nHawke was eventually replaced by Paul Keating at the end of 1991, who would go on to deliver the Labor government a record fifth consecutive victory and a record 13 years in government at the 1993 election. He remains to date Labor's longest-serving Prime Minister, Australia's third-longest-serving Prime Minister, and is currently the oldest living former Prime Minister. To date, he is the only Australian Prime Minister to be born in South Australia.\n\nEarly life and family\n\nHawke was born in Bordertown, South Australia, the second child of Arthur Hawke (known as Clem), a Congregationalist minister, and his wife Edith (known as Ellie), a schoolteacher. \nHis uncle, Albert, was the Labor Premier of Western Australia between 1953 and 1959, and was also a close friend of Prime Minister John Curtin, who was in many ways Bob Hawke's role model.\n\nHawke's elder brother Neil, who was nine years his senior, died at the age of 17 after contracting meningitis, with no cure being available at the time. Ellie Hawke subsequently developed an almost messianic belief in her son's destiny, and this contributed to Hawke's supreme self-confidence throughout his career. At the age 15, he presciently boasted to friends that he would one day become the Prime Minister of Australia. \n\nAt the age of 17, the same age that his brother Neil had died, Hawke had a serious accident while riding his Panther motorcycle that left him in a critical condition for several days. This near-death experience acted as his catharsis, driving him to make the most of his talents and not let his abilities go to waste. He joined the Labor Party in 1947 at the age of 18, and successfully applied for a Rhodes Scholarship at the end of 1952. \n\nEducation\n\nHawke was educated at Perth Modern School and the University of Western Australia, graduating in 1952 with a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws. He was also president of the university's guild in the same year. The following year, Hawke won a Rhodes Scholarship to attend University College, Oxford, where he undertook a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE). He soon found he was covering much the same ground as he did in his education at the University of Western Australia, and transferred to a Bachelor of Letters, writing his thesis on wage-fixing in Australia which was successfully presented in January 1956.Hawke, Bob (1994), p.28\n\nHis academic achievements were complemented by setting a new world record for beer drinking; he downed – equivalent to a yard of ale – from a sconce pot in 11 seconds as part of a college penalty. In his memoirs, Hawke suggested that this single feat may have contributed to his political success more than any other, by endearing him to a voting population with a strong beer culture.\n\nIn 1956, Hawke accepted a scholarship to undertake doctoral studies in the area of arbitration law in the law department at the Australian National University in Canberra. Soon after his arrival at ANU, Hawke became the students' representative on the University Council. A year later, Hawke was recommended to the President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) to become a research officer, replacing Harold Souter who had become ACTU Secretary. The recommendation was made by Hawke's mentor at ANU, H.P. Brown, who for a number of years had assisted the ACTU in national wage cases. Hawke decided to abandon his doctoral studies and accept the offer, moving to Melbourne with his wife Hazel. \n\nCouncil of Trade Unions\n\nNot long after Hawke began work at the ACTU, he became responsible for the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. He was first appointed as an ACTU advocate in 1959. The 1958 case, under previous advocate R.L. Eggleston, had yielded only a five-shilling increase. The 1959 case found for a fifteen-shilling increase, and was regarded as a personal triumph for Hawke. He went on to attain such success and prominence in his role as an ACTU advocate that, in 1969, he was encouraged to run for the position of ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held elected office in a trade union.\n\nHe was elected ACTU President in 1969 on a modernising platform by the narrow margin of 399 to 350, with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the Communist Party. He later credited Ray Gietzelt, General Secretary of the FMWU, as the single most significant union figure in helping him achieve this outcome. \n\nHawke declared publicly that \"socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself\", and his approach to government was pragmatic. He concerned himself with making improvements to workers' lives from within the traditional institutions of government, rather than by using any ideological theory. He opposed the Vietnam War, but was a strong supporter of the US-Australian alliance, and also an emotional supporter of Israel. It was his commitment to the cause of Jewish Refuseniks that led to a planned assassination attempt on Hawke by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and its Australian operative Munif Mohammed Abou Rish. \n\nIn 1971, Hawke along with other members of the ACTU requested that South Africa send a non-racially biased team for the Rugby Union tour, with the intention of unions agreeing not to serve the team in Australia. Prior to arrival, the Western Australian branch of the Transport Workers Union, and the Barmaids' and Barmens' Union, announced that they would serve the team, which allowed the Springboks to land in Perth. The tour commenced on 26 June and riots occurred as anti-apartheid protesters disrupted games. Hawke and his family started to receive malicious mail and phone calls from people who thought that sport and politics should not mix. Hawke remained committed to the ban on apartheid teams and later that year, the South African cricket team was successfully denied and no apartheid team was to ever come to Australia again. It was this ongoing dedication to racial equality in South Africa that would later earn Hawke the respect and friendship of Nelson Mandela. \n\nIn industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for, and considerable skill at, negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for. As early as 1972, speculation began that he would seek to enter Parliament and eventually run to become the Leader of the Labor Party. But while his professional career continued successfully, his heavy drinking and his notorious womanising placed considerable strains on his family life. \n\nIn 1973, Hawke was elected as the Federal President of the Labor Party. Two years later, when the Whitlam Government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, Hawke showed an initial keenness to enter Parliament at the ensuing election. Harry Jenkins, the MP for Scullin, came under pressure to step down to allow Hawke to stand in his place, but he strongly resisted this push. Hawke eventually decided not to attempt to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted. After Labor was defeated at the election, Whitlam initially offered the leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him. Despite not taking on the offer, Hawke remained influential, playing a key role in averting national strike action. \n\nThe strain of this period, serving as both ACTU President and Labor Party President, took its toll on Hawke and in 1979 he suffered a physical collapse. This shock led Hawke to publicly announce his alcoholism in a television interview, and that he would make a concerted – and ultimately successful – effort to overcome it. He was helped through this period by the relationship that he had established with the writer Blanche d'Alpuget, who in 1982 published an admiring biography of Hawke. His popularity with the public was, if anything, enhanced by this period of rehabilitation, and opinion polling suggested that he was a far more popular public figure than either Labor Leader Bill Hayden or Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser.\n\nMember of Parliament\n\nHawke's first attempt to enter Parliament came during the 1963 federal election. He stood in the seat of Corio in Geelong and managed to achieve a 3.1% swing against the national trend, although he fell short of ousting longtime Liberal incumbent Hubert Opperman. Hawke passed up several opportunities to enter Parliament throughout the 1970s, something he later wrote that he \"regretted\". He eventually stood for election to the House of Representatives at the 1980 election for the safe Melbourne seat of Wills, winning comfortably. Immediately upon his election to Parliament, Hawke was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet by Labor Leader Bill Hayden as Shadow Minister for Industrial Relations. Following his entry to Parliament, opinion polls continually indicated that, in contrast to Hayden, Hawke was regarded as \"a certain election winner\". After losing the 1980 election, Hayden's position as leader had become insecure. In order to quell speculation over his position, Hayden eventually called a leadership ballot for 16 July 1982, believing that if he won he would be able to lead Labor into the next election. Hawke duly challenged Hayden, but Hayden was able to defeat him and remain in position, although his five-vote victory over the former ACTU President was not large enough to dispel doubts that he could lead the Labor Party to victory at an election. \n\nDespite being defeated, Hawke continued to agitate behind the scenes for a change in leadership, with opinion polls continuing to show that Hawke was a far more popular figure than both Hayden and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. Hayden's leadership position was thrown into further doubt after Labor performed poorly in a by-election in December 1982 for the Victorian seat of Flinders, following the resignation of the former Liberal Minister Sir Phillip Lynch. Labor needed a swing of 5.5% to win the seat, and had been predicted by the media to win, but could only achieve a swing of 3%.Hurst, J., (1983), p. 270 This convinced many Labor MPs that only Hawke would be able to lead Labor to victory at the upcoming election. Labor Party power-brokers, such as Graham Richardson and Barrie Unsworth, now openly switched their allegiance from Hayden to Hawke. More significantly, Hayden's staunch friend and political ally, Labor's Senate Leader John Button, had become convinced that Hawke's chances of victory at an election were greater than Hayden's. Having initially believed that he could carry on, Button's defection proved to be the final straw in convincing Hayden that he would have to resign as Labor Leader. Less than two months after the disastrous showing in Flinders, Hayden announced his resignation as Labor Leader to the caucus on 3 February 1983. Hawke was subsequently named Leader—and hence Leader of the Opposition—pending a party-room ballot at which he was elected unopposed. By a remarkable coincidence, on the same day that Hawke became Leader, Fraser called a snap election for 5 March 1983, hoping to capitalise on Labor's feuding before it could replace Hayden with Hawke. Fraser initially believed that he had caught Labor out, thinking that they would be forced to fight the election with Hayden as Leader. However, he was surprised to find out upon his return from seeing the Governor-General that Hayden had already resigned that morning, just hours before the writs were issued. In the election held a month later, Hawke led Labor to a landslide election victory, achieving a 24-seat swing—still the worst defeat that a sitting non-Labor Government has ever suffered—and ending seven years of Liberal rule.\n\nPrime Minister\n\nAfter Labor's landslide win, Hawke was sworn in as the 23rd Prime Minister of Australia by the Governor-General on 11 March 1983. The inaugural days of the Hawke Government were distinctly different from those of the Whitlam Government. Rather than immediately initiating extensive reform programmes as Whitlam had, Hawke announced that Malcolm Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred. As part of his internal reforms package, Hawke divided the Government into two tiers, with only the most senior ministers sitting in the Cabinet. The Labor caucus was still given the authority to determine who would make up the Ministry, but gave Hawke unprecedented powers for a Labor Prime Minister to select which individual ministers would comprise the 13-strong Cabinet.Kelly, P., (1992), p.30 Hawke said that he did this in order to avoid what he viewed as the unwieldy nature of the Whitlam Cabinet, which had 27 members. Caucus under Hawke also exhibited a much more formalised system of parliamentary factions, which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations.\n\nUnlike his predecessor as Labor Leader, Hawke's authority within the Labor Party was absolute. This enabled him to persuade his MPs to support a substantial set of policy changes. Individual accounts from ministers indicate that while Hawke was not usually the driving force behind individual reforms, he took on the role of achieving consensus and providing political guidance on what was electorally feasible and how best to sell it to the public, tasks at which he proved highly successful. Hawke took on a very public role as Prime Minister, proving to be incredibly popular with the Australian electorate; to this date he still holds the highest ever AC Nielsen approval rating. \n\nThe political partnership between Hawke and his Treasurer, Paul Keating, proved essential to Labor's success in government. The two men proved a study in contrasts: Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keating left high school early. Hawke's enthusiasms were cigars, horse racing and all forms of sport; Keating preferred classical architecture, Mahler symphonies and collecting British Regency and French Empire antiques. Hawke was consensus-driven; Keating revelled in aggressive debate. Hawke was a lapsed Protestant; Keating was a practising Catholic. These differences, however, seemed only to increase the effectiveness of their partnership, as they oversaw sweeping economic and social changes throughout Australia.\n\nAccording to political commentator Paul Kelly, \"the most influential economic decisions of the 1980s were the floating of the Australian dollar and the deregulation of the financial system\".Kelly, P., (1992), p.76 Although the Fraser Government had played a part in the process of financial deregulation by commissioning the 1981 Campbell Report, opposition from Fraser himself had stalled the deregulation process. When the Hawke Government implemented a comprehensive program of financial deregulation and reform, it \"transformed economics and politics in Australia\". The Australian economy became significantly more integrated with the global economy as a result, which completely transformed its relationship with Asia, Europe and the United States. Both Hawke and Keating would claim the credit for being the driving force behind the success of the Australian Dollar float. \n\nAmong other reforms, the Hawke Government dismantled the tariff system, privatised state sector industries, ended the subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off the state-owned Commonwealth Bank of Australia,Qantas and CSL Limited. The tax system was reformed, with the introduction of a fringe benefits tax and a capital gains tax, reforms strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but not ones that they reversed when they eventually returned to office. Partially offsetting these imposts upon the business community – the \"main loser\" from the 1985 Tax Summit according to Paul Kelly – was the introduction of full dividend imputation, a reform insisted upon by Keating. Funding for schools was also considerably increased, while financial assistance was provided for students to enable them to stay at school longer. Considerable progress was also made in directing assistance \"to the most disadvantaged recipients over the whole range of welfare benefits.\" \n\nHawke benefited greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal Party fell after the resignation of Malcolm Fraser. The Liberals were divided between supporters of the dour, socially conservative John Howard and the more liberal, urbane Andrew Peacock. The arch-conservative Premier of Queensland, Joh Bjelke-Petersen, added to the Liberals' problems with his \"Joh for Canberra\" campaign, which proved highly damaging. Exploiting these divisions, Hawke led the Labor Party to landslide election victories in a snap 1984 election and the 1987 election.\n\nHawke's time as Prime Minister saw considerable friction develop between himself and the grassroots of the Labor Party, who were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to cooperate with business interests. All Labor Prime Ministers have at times engendered the hostility of the organisational wing of the Party, but none more so than Hawke, who regularly expressed his willingness to cull Labor's \"sacred cows\". The Socialist Left faction, as well as prominent Labor figure Barry Jones, offered severe criticism of a number of government decisions. He also received criticism for his \"confrontationalist style\" in siding with the airlines in the 1989 Australian pilots' strike. \n\nIn spite of the criticisms levelled against the Hawke Government, it succeeded in enacting a wide range of social reforms during its time in office. Deflecting arguments that the Hawke Government had failed as a reform government, Neville Wran, John Dawkins, Bill Hayden and Paul Keating made a number of speeches throughout the 1980s arguing that the Hawke Government had been a recognisably reformist government, drawing attention to Hawke's achievements as Prime Minister during his first five years in office. As well as the reintroduction of Medibank, under the new name Medicare, these included the doubling of child care places, the introduction of occupational superannuation, a boost in school retention rates, a focus on young people's job skills, a doubling of subsidised home care services, the elimination of poverty traps in the welfare system, a 50% increase in public housing funds, an increase in the real value of the old-age pension, the development of a new youth support program, the re-introduction of six-monthly indexation of single adult unemployment benefits, and significant improvements in social security provisions. As pointed out by John Dawkins, the proportion of total government outlays allocated to families, the sick, single parents, widows, the handicapped, and veterans was significantly higher under the Hawke Government than under the Whitlam Government.\n\nAnother notable success for which Hawke's response is given considerable credit was Australia's public health campaign regarding AIDS. In the later years of the Hawke Government, Aboriginal affairs also saw considerable attention, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the Government, although this idea would be overtaken by events, notably the Mabo court decision.\n\nThe Hawke Government also made some notable environmental decisions. In its first months in office it halted the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, responding to a groundswell of protest about the issue. In 1990, with an election looming, tough political operator Graham Richardson was appointed Environment Minister, and was given the task of attracting second-preference votes from the Australian Democrats and other environmental parties. Richardson claimed this as a major factor in the government's narrow re-election at the 1990 election. \n\nRichardson felt that the importance of his contribution to Labor's victory would automatically entitle him to the ministerial portfolio of his choice, which was Transport and Communications. He was shocked, however, at what he perceived as Hawke's ingratitude in allocating him Social Security instead. He later vowed in a telephone conversation with Peter Barron, a former Hawke staffer, to do \"whatever it takes\" to \"get\" Hawke. He immediately transferred his allegiance to Paul Keating, who after seven years as Treasurer was openly coveting the leadership. \n\nThe late 1980s recession and accompanying high interest rates had seen the government in considerable electoral trouble, with many doubting if Hawke could win in 1990. Although Keating was the main architect of the government's economic policies, he took advantage of Hawke's declining popularity to plan a leadership challenge. In 1988, in the wake of poorer opinion polls, Keating put pressure on Hawke to step down immediately. Hawke responded by agreeing a secret deal with Keating, the so-called \"Kirribilli agreement\", that he would stand down in Keating's favour shortly after the 1990 election, which he convinced Keating he could win. Hawke duly won the 1990 election, albeit by a very tight margin, and subsequently appointed Keating as Deputy Prime Minister to replace the retiring Lionel Bowen, and to prepare Keating to assume the leadership.\n\nNot long after becoming Deputy Prime Minister, frustrated at the lack of any indication from Hawke as to when he might step down, Keating made a provocative speech to the Federal Parliamentary Press Gallery. Hawke considered the speech extremely disloyal, and subsequently indicated to Keating that he would renege on the Kirribilli Agreement as a result. After this disagreement tensions between the two men reached an all-time high, and after a turbulent year, Keating finally resigned as Deputy Prime Minister and Treasurer in June 1991, to challenge Hawke for the leadership. Hawke comfortably defeated Keating, and in a press conference after the result Keating declared that with regards the leadership, he had fired his \"one shot\". Hawke appointed John Kerin to replace Keating as Treasurer, but Kerin quickly proved to be unequal to the job. In spite of his convincing win over Keating, Hawke was seen after the result as a \"wounded\" leader; he had now lost his long-term political partner, his rating in opinion polls began to decrease, and after nearly nine years as Prime Minister, many were openly speculating that he was \"tired\", and that it was time for somebody new. \n\nHawke's leadership was finally irrevocably damaged towards the end of 1991, as new Liberal Leader John Hewson released 'Fightback!', a detailed proposal for sweeping economic change, including the introduction of a goods and services tax and deep cuts to government spending and personal income tax. The package appeared to take Hawke by complete surprise, and his response to it was judged to be extremely ineffective. Many within the Labor Party appeared to lose faith in him over this, and Keating duly challenged for the leadership a second time on 19 December 1991, this time narrowly defeating Hawke by 56 votes to 51. In a speech to the House of Representatives the following day, Hawke declared that his nine years as Prime Minister had left Australia a better country than he found, and he was given a standing ovation by those present. He subsequently tendered his resignation as Prime Minister to the Governor-General. Hawke briefly returned to the backbenches before resigning from Parliament on 20 February 1992, sparking a by-election which was won by independent Phil Cleary from a record field of 22 candidates. \n\nHawke wrote that he had very few regrets over his time in office; although his bitterness towards Keating surfaced in his earlier memoirs, by 2010, Hawke said that he and Keating had long since buried their differences, and that they regularly dined together and considered each other friends. \n\nRetirement and later life\n\nAfter leaving Parliament, Hawke entered the business world, taking on a number of directorships and consultancy positions which enabled him to achieve considerable financial success. He deliberately had little involvement with the Labor Party during Keating's time as Prime Minister, not wanting to overshadow his successor, although he did occasionally criticise some of Keating's policies publicly. \n\nAfter Keating's defeat and the election of the Howard Government at the 1996 election, he began to be more involved with Labor, regularly appearing at a number of Labor election launches and campaigns, often alongside Keating. In the run up to the 2007 election, Hawke made a considerable personal effort to support Kevin Rudd, making speeches at a large number of campaign office openings across Australia. As well as campaigning against WorkChoices, Hawke also attacked John Howard's record as Treasurer, stating \"it was the judgement of every economist and international financial institution that it was the restructuring reforms undertaken by my government, with the full cooperation of the trade union movement, which created the strength of the Australian economy today\". \n\nSimilarly, in the 2010 and 2013 campaigns, Hawke lent considerable support to Julia Gillard and Kevin Rudd respectively. Hawke also maintained an involvement in Labor politics at a state level; in 2011, Hawke publicly supported New South Wales Premier Kristina Keneally, who was facing almost certain defeat, in her campaign against Liberal Barry O'Farrell, describing her campaign as \"gutsy\". \n\nIn February 2008, Hawke joined former Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam, Malcolm Fraser and Paul Keating in Parliament House to witness Prime Minister Kevin Rudd deliver the long anticipated apology to the Stolen Generations. \n\nIn 2009, Hawke helped establish the Centre for Muslim and Non-Muslim Understanding at the University of South Australia. Interfaith dialogue was an important issue for Hawke, who told the Adelaide Review that he is \"convinced that one of the great potential dangers confronting the world is the lack of understanding in regard to the Muslim world. Fanatics have misrepresented what Islam is. They give a false impression of the essential nature of Islam.\" \n\nPersonal life\n\nHawke married Hazel Masterson in 1956 at Perth Trinity Church.Hurst, J., (1983), p.25 They had three children; Susan (born 1957), Stephen (born 1959) and Roslyn (born 1960). Their fourth child, Robert Jr, died in his early infancy in 1963. Hawke would later be named Victorian Father of the Year in 1971. The couple divorced in 1995. Hawke subsequently married the writer Blanche d'Alpuget, and the two currently live together in Northbridge, a suburb of the North Shore of Sydney.\n\nOn the subject of his religion, Hawke previously wrote, while attending the 1952 World Christian Youth Conference in India, that \"there were all these poverty stricken kids at the gate of this palatial place where we were feeding our face and I just had this struck by this enormous sense of irrelevance of religion to the needs of people\". He subsequently abandoned his Christian beliefs. By the time he entered politics he was a self-described agnostic. Hawke told Andrew Denton in 2008 that his father's Christian faith had continued to influence his outlook, saying \"My father said if you believe in the fatherhood of God you must necessarily believe in the brotherhood of man, it follows necessarily, and even though I left the church and was not religious, that truth remained with me.\" \n\nTitles, styles and honours\n\nHonours\n\n;Orders\n* 1979: Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) \"For service to trade unionism and industrial relations\" as President of the ACTU; the honour is also traditionally bestowed upon all former Prime Ministers of Australia. \n\n;Foreign honours\n* 1989: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant.\n* 2008 Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu, Papua New Guinean Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare informed Hawke that he was being honoured for his \"support for Papua New Guinea ... from the time you assisted us in the development of our trade union movement, and basic workplace conditions, to the strong support you gave us during your term as Prime Minister of Australia\". \n\n;Organisations\n* August 2009: Australian Labor Party Life membership, Bob Hawke became only the third person to be awarded life membership of the Australian Labor Party, after Gough and Margaret Whitlam. During the conferration, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd referred to Hawke as \"the heart and soul of the Labor Party\". \n\nAppointments\n\n;Fellowships\n* University College, Oxford\n\n;Honorary degrees\n* Nanjing University, Various honorary doctorates\n* Oxford University, Honorary Doctor of Civil Law\n* Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Various honorary doctorates\n* Rikkyo University, Honorary Doctor of Humanities\n* Macquarie University, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n* University of New South Wales, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of South Australia, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of Western Australia, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n\nOther honours\n\n;Buildings\n* University of South Australia, Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library \n\nFilm\n\nA biographical television film, Hawke, premiered on the Ten Network in Australia on 18 July 2010, with Richard Roxburgh playing the title character. Rachael Blake and Felix Williamson portrayed Hazel Hawke and Paul Keating respectively.", "The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia is the head of government in Australia. The individual who holds the office is the most senior Minister of the Crown, the leader of the Cabinet and the chairperson of the National Security Committee. The office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and exists only through an unwritten political convention and tradition. Despite this, in practice it is the most powerful political position in Australia. The individual who holds the office is commissioned by the Governor-General of Australia.\n\nAlmost always and according to convention, the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party or largest party in a coalition of parties in the House of Representatives. However, there is no constitutional requirement that the prime minister sit in the House of Representatives, or even be a member of parliament, though by convention this is always the case. The only case where a member of the Senate was appointed prime minister was John Gorton, who subsequently resigned his Senate position and was elected as a member of the House of Representatives (Senator George Pearce was acting prime minister for seven months in 1916 while Billy Hughes was overseas). \n\nMalcolm Turnbull has held the office of Prime Minister since 15 September 2015. He received his commission after replacing Tony Abbott as the leader of the Liberal Party, the dominant party in the Coalition government, following the outcome of the September 2015 Liberal leadership ballot. \n\nFormer Prime Ministers continue to be important national figures, and in some cases go on to significant post-prime ministerial careers. Some notable examples have included: Edmund Barton, who was a justice of the High Court; George Reid, Andrew Fisher, Joseph Cook and Stanley Bruce, who were High Commissioners to the United Kingdom; Arthur Fadden, who was Treasurer under another prime minister, Robert Menzies; and Kevin Rudd, who became Julia Gillard's Foreign Minister.\n\nAppointment\n\nThe Prime Minister of Australia is appointed by the Governor-General of Australia under Section 64 of the Australian Constitution, which empowers the Governor-General to appoint Ministers of the Crown and requires such Ministers to be members of the House of Representatives or the Senate, or become members within three months of the appointment. Before being sworn in as a minister, a person must first be sworn in as a member of the Federal Executive Council if they are not already a member. Membership of the Federal Executive Council entitles the member to the style of The Honourable (usually abbreviated to The Hon) for life, barring exceptional circumstances. The senior members of the Executive Council constitute the Cabinet of Australia.\n\nThe Prime Minister is, like other ministers, normally sworn in by the Governor-General and then presented with the commission (Letters patent) of office. When defeated in an election, or on resigning, the Prime Minister is said to \"hand in the commission\" and actually does so by returning it to the Governor-General. In the event of a Prime Minister dying in office, or becoming incapacitated, the Governor-General can terminate the commission. Ministers hold office \"during the pleasure of the Governor-General\" (s. 64 of the Constitution of Australia), so theoretically, the Governor-General can dismiss a minister at any time, by notifying them in writing of the termination of their commission; however, his or her power to do so except on the advice of the Prime Minister is heavily circumscribed by convention.\n\nDespite the importance of the office of prime minister, the Constitution does not mention the office by name. The conventions of the Westminster system were thought to be sufficiently entrenched in Australia by the authors of the Constitution that it was deemed unnecessary to detail them. The formal title of the portfolio has always been simply \"Prime Minister\", except for the period of the Fourth Deakin Ministry (June 1909 to April 1910), when it was known as \"Prime Minister (without portfolio)\". \n\nIf a government cannot get its appropriation (budget) legislation passed by the House of Representatives, or the House passes a vote of \"no confidence\" in the government, the Prime Minister is bound by convention to immediately advise the Governor-General to dissolve the House of Representatives and hold a fresh election.\n\nFollowing a resignation in other circumstances, or the death of a prime minister, the governor-general will generally appoint as prime minister the person elected as leader by the governing party or, in the case of a coalition, the senior party in the coalition. There have been four notable exceptions to this:\n* When Joseph Lyons, prime minister and leader of the United Australia Party (UAP), died suddenly in April 1939, the governor-general, Lord Gowrie, called on Sir Earle Page to become caretaker prime minister. Page was the leader of the smaller party in the governing coalition, the Country Party. He held the office for three weeks until the UAP elected a new leader, Robert Menzies.\n* In August 1941 Menzies resigned as prime minister. The UAP was so bereft of leadership at this time that the Country Party leader Arthur Fadden was invited to become prime minister, although the Country Party was the smaller of the two coalition parties. The government depended on support from two independents, who two months later voted against Fadden's budget and brought the government down, paving the way for John Curtin to be appointed as Labor prime minister.\n* In July 1945 John Curtin died suddenly. His deputy, Frank Forde, was sworn in the next day as prime minister, although the Labor Party had not had an opportunity to meet and elect a new leader. Forde served for eight days until Ben Chifley was elected leader. Chifley was then sworn in, replacing Forde, who became Australia's shortest-serving prime minister.\n* Harold Holt disappeared while swimming on 17 December 1967 and was declared presumed dead on 19 December. The governor-general, Lord Casey, commissioned the Leader of the Country Party, John McEwen, to form a government until the Liberal Party elected a new leader. McEwen was prime minister for 23 days, until the election of (then Senator) John Gorton.\n\nThere were only three other cases where someone other than the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives was prime minister:\n* Federation occurred on 1 January 1901, but elections for the first parliament were not scheduled until late March. In the interim, an unelected caretaker government was necessary. In what is now known as the Hopetoun Blunder, the governor-general, Lord Hopetoun, invited Sir William Lyne, the premier of the most populous state, New South Wales, to form a government. Lyne was unable to do so and returned his commission in favour of Edmund Barton, who became the first prime minister and led the inaugural government into and beyond the election.\n* During the second parliament, three parties (Free Trade, Protectionist and Labor) had roughly equal representation in the House of Representatives. The leaders of the three parties, Alfred Deakin, George Reid and Chris Watson each served as prime minister before losing a vote of confidence.\n* During the 1975 constitutional crisis, on 11 November 1975, the governor-general, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the Labor Party's Gough Whitlam as prime minister. Despite Labor holding a majority in the House of Representatives, Kerr appointed the Leader of the Opposition, Liberal leader Malcolm Fraser as caretaker prime minister, conditional on the passage of the Whitlam government's Supply bills through the Senate and the calling of an election for both houses of parliament. Fraser accepted these terms and immediately advised a double dissolution. An election was called for 13 December, which the Liberal Party won in its own right (although the Liberals governed in a coalition with the Country Party).\n\nPowers\n\nMost of the prime minister's powers derive from being head of Government. In practice, the Federal Executive Council will act to ratify all decisions made by the cabinet and, in practice, decisions of the cabinet will always require the support of the prime minister. The powers of the governor-general to grant Royal Assent to legislation, to dissolve and prorogue parliament, to call elections and to make appointments are exercised on the advice of the prime minister.\n\nThe formal power to appoint the Governor-General lies with the Queen of Australia, but this appointment is done on the formal advice of the Prime Minister. By convention, this advice is provided by the Prime Minister alone, and thus the appointment is effectively the Prime Minister's personal choice. The Prime Minister may also advise the monarch to dismiss the Governor-General, though it remains unclear how quickly the monarch would act on such advice in a constitutional crisis. This uncertainty, and the possibility of a \"race\" between the Governor-General and Prime Minister to sack the other, was a key question in the 1975 constitutional crisis.\n\nThe power of the prime minister is subject to a number of limitations. Prime ministers removed as leader of his or her party, or whose government loses a vote of no-confidence in the House of Representatives, must advise an election of the lower house or resign the office or be dismissed by the governor-general.\n\nThe prime minister's party will normally have a majority in the House of Representatives and party discipline is exceptionally strong in Australian politics, so passage of the government's legislation through the House of Representatives is mostly a formality. Attaining the support of the Senate can be more difficult as government usually lacks an absolute majority because the Senate's representation is based on overall proportion of votes and often includes minor parties.\n\nSalary and benefits\n\nSalary\n\nAllowances\n\nThe Royal Australian Air Force's No. 34 Squadron transports the prime minister within Australia and overseas by specially converted Boeing Business, Jets and smaller Challenger aircraft. The aircraft contain secure communications equipment as well as office, conference room and sleeping compartments. The call-sign for the aircraft is \"Envoy\".\n\nThe prime minister's official residence is The Lodge in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, but not all prime ministers have chosen to make use of it. Jim Scullin preferred to live at the Hotel Canberra (now the Hyatt Hotel); Ben Chifley lived in the Hotel Kurrajong; and John Howard made Kirribilli House in Sydney his primary residence, using The Lodge when in Canberra on official business. On her appointment on 24 June 2010, Julia Gillard said she would not be living in The Lodge until such time as she was returned to office by popular vote at the next general election. (She became prime minister mid-term after replacing the incumbent, Kevin Rudd, who resigned in the face of an unwinnable party-room ballot.) The official residences are fully staffed and catered for both the prime minister and his or her family. A considerable amount of official entertaining is conducted at these residences.\n\nDuring his first term, Kevin Rudd had a staff at The Lodge consisting of a senior chef and an assistant chef, a child carer, one senior house attendant, and two junior house attendants. At Kirribilli House in Sydney, there is one full-time chef and one full-time house attendant. \n\nPrime ministers are usually granted certain privileges after leaving office, such as office accommodation, staff assistance, and a Life Gold Pass, which entitles the holder to travel within Australia for \"non-commercial\" purposes at government expense.\n\nOnly one prime minister who had left the Federal Parliament ever returned. Stanley Bruce was defeated in his own seat in 1929 while prime minister, but was re-elected to parliament in 1931. Other prime ministers were elected to parliaments other than the Australian federal parliament: Sir George Reid was elected to the UK House of Commons (after his term as High Commissioner to the UK); and Frank Forde was re-elected to the Queensland Parliament (after his term as High Commissioner to Canada, and a failed attempt to re-enter the Federal Parliament).\n\nOfficial state car\n\nSince 2015, the Prime Minister of Australia's official car has been a fleet of heavily armoured BMW 7 Series, which replaced a fleet of Holden Caprices. It is escorted by police vehicles from state and federal authorities. The Prime Minister's car bears the number plate \"C1\" (meaning \"Commonwealth 1\"). \n\nActing and interim prime ministers\n\nFrom time to time prime ministers are required to leave the country on government business and a deputy acts in their place during that time. In the days before jet aircraft, such absences could be for extended periods. For example, William Watt was acting prime minister for 16 months, from April 1918 until August 1919, when Prime Minister Billy Hughes was away at the Paris Peace Conference, and Senator George Pearce was acting Prime Minister for more than seven months in 1916. An acting Prime Minister is also appointed when the prime minister takes leave. The Deputy Prime Minister most commonly becomes acting Prime Minister in those circumstances.\n\nThree prime ministers have died in office – Joseph Lyons (1939), John Curtin (1945) and Harold Holt (1967) – and Robert Menzies resigned as Prime Minister in 1941. In each of these cases the Deputy Prime Minister (an unofficial office at the time) became an interim Prime Minister, pending an election of a new leader of the government party. In none of these cases was the interim Prime Minister successful at the subsequent election.\n\nThe powers and duties of an acting or interim Prime Minister is analogous to that of a caretaker Prime Minister.\n\nTimeline\n\nLiving former prime ministers\n\nAs of , there are six living former Prime Ministers of Australia, the oldest being Bob Hawke (born 1929). The most recent former prime minister to die was Malcolm Fraser (1975–1983), on 20 March 2015.\n\nThe greatest number of living former prime ministers at any one time was eight. This has occurred twice:\n* Between 7 October 1941 (when John Curtin succeeded Arthur Fadden) and 18 November 1941 (when Chris Watson died), the eight living former prime ministers were Bruce, Cook, Fadden, Hughes, Menzies, Page, Scullin and Watson\n* Between 13 July 1945 (when Ben Chifley succeeded Frank Forde) and 30 July 1947 (when Sir Joseph Cook died), the eight living former prime ministers were Bruce, Cook, Fadden, Forde, Hughes, Menzies, Page and Scullin.\n\nConvictions\n\nJohn Curtin is the only prime minister to serve time in prison (three days for failing to comply with an order for a compulsory medical examination for conscription, during World War I). \n\nAges\n\nThe three youngest people when they first became prime minister were:\n* Chris Watson - 37\n* Stanley Bruce - 39\n* Robert Menzies - 44\n\nThe three oldest people when they first became prime minister were:\n* John McEwen - 67\n* William McMahon - 63\n* Malcolm Turnbull - 60\n\nThe three youngest people to last leave the office of prime minister were:\n* Chris Watson - 37\n* Arthur Fadden - 46 years 5 months 22 days\n* Stanley Bruce - 46 years 6 months 7 days\n\nThe three oldest people to last leave the office of prime minister were:\n* Robert Menzies - 71\n* John Howard - 68\n* John McEwen - 67\n\nTime in office\n\nThe longest serving prime minister was Sir Robert Menzies, who served in office twice: from 26 April 1939 to 28 August 1941, and again from 19 December 1949 to 26 January 1966. In total Robert Menzies spent 18 years, 5 months and 12 days in office. He served under the United Australia Party and the Liberal Party respectively.\n\nThe shortest-serving prime minister was Frank Forde, who was appointed to the position on 6 July 1945 after the death of John Curtin, and served until 13 July 1945 when Ben Chifley was elected leader of the Australian Labor Party.\n\nPost-office longevity\n\nSix former prime ministers are living: Hawke, Keating, Howard, Rudd, Gillard and Abbott. \n\nBen Chifley died only one year and six months after leaving the prime ministership. Alfred Deakin lived another nine years and five months. \n\nAll the others who have left office at least 10 years ago have lived at least another 10 years. Nine of them (Bruce, Cook, Fadden, Forde, Fraser, Gorton, Hughes, Watson, and Whitlam) lived more than 25 years after leaving the office, and all but one of them have survived longer than 30 years (Hughes lasted 29 years and 8 months).\n\nThe longest-surviving was Gough Whitlam, who lived 38 years and 11 months after office, surpassing Stanley Bruce's previous record of 37 years and 10 months after leaving the office.", "Below is a list of Prime Ministers of the Commonwealth of Australia. \n\nThe parties shown are those to which the prime ministers belonged at the time they held office and the electoral divisions shown are those they represented while in office. Several prime ministers belonged to parties other than those given and represented other electorates before and after their time as Prime Ministers.\n\nList\n\nLiving former Prime Ministers\n\nThere are six living former Australian Prime Ministers:\n\nFile:Bob_Hawke_Portrait_1983.jpg\|Bob Hawke served 1983-1991, born 9 December 1929 (age )\nFile:Paul_Keating_-_2007-crop.jpg\|Paul Keating served 1991-1996, born 18 January 1944 (age )\nFile:Image-Howard2003upr.JPG\|John Howard served 1996–2007, born 26 July 1939 (age )\nFile:Kevin_Rudd_portrait.jpg\|Kevin Rudd served 2007-2010, 2013, born 21 September 1957 (age )\nFile:Julia_Gillard_2010.jpg\|Julia Gillard served 2010-2013, born 29 September 1961 (age )\nFile:Tony_Abbott_October_2014.jpg\|Tony Abbott served 2013-2015, born 4 November 1957 (age )", "Paul John Keating (born 18 January 1944) is an Australian politician who was the 24th Prime Minister of Australia and the Leader of the Labor Party from 1991 to 1996. Born in a working-class Sydney suburb and having left school at 15, Keating was first elected to the House of Representatives at 25, winning the seat of Blaxland in 1969.\n\nKeating was appointed Treasurer of Australia by newly elected Prime Minister Bob Hawke in 1983. Although lacking any formal education in economics, Keating went on to become arguably the most reforming Treasurer in Australian history. During his time as Treasurer, the Australian dollar was floated, the financial sector deregulated, certain state sector industries were privatised, a capital gains tax was introduced, and a Prices and Incomes Accord was struck. In 1990 he was elected Deputy Leader of the Labor Party and made Deputy Prime Minister.\n\nKeating later challenged Hawke for the leadership in June 1991, and resigned from the Government following defeat. Six months later he challenged Hawke again, this time successfully, and subsequently became Prime Minister. He would go on to deliver the Labor government a record fifth consecutive victory and a record 13 years in government at the 1993 election, defeating the opposition led by John Hewson and his 650-page Fightback! policy package, despite consistently poor government opinion polls following the effects of the early 1990s recession. The Keating Government introduced native title to Aborigines, greatly increased the social wage and the family benefits system, saw increased bilateral relations between Australia and countries in Asia, and aggressively promoted a vision of Australia as a republic. After being defeated by John Howard at the 1996 election, Keating resigned as Prime Minister and retired from Parliament.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nKeating grew up in Bankstown, a working-class suburb of Sydney. He was one of four children born to Matthew Keating, a boilermaker and trade union representative of Irish Catholic descent, and his wife Minnie. His siblings include Anne Keating, a company director and businesswoman. Leaving De La Salle College—now known as LaSalle Catholic College—at the age of 14, Keating left high school and decided not to pursue higher education, and instead worked as a pay clerk at the Sydney County Council ( Electrical Supply Authority). He then worked as research assistant for a trade union, having joined the Labor Party as soon as he was eligible. In 1966, he became president of NSW Young Labor. In the 1960s, Keating also managed rock band \"The Ramrods\". \n\nMember of Parliament, 1969–91\n\nThrough his contacts in the unions and the NSW Young Labor Council, Keating met future senior Labor figures such as Laurie Brereton, Graham Richardson and Bob Carr. He also developed a friendship with former New South Wales Premier Jack Lang. In 1971, he succeeded in having Lang re-admitted to the Labor Party. Using his extensive contacts, Keating eventually gained the Labor endorsement for the seat of Blaxland in the western suburbs of Sydney, and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1969 when he was 25 years old.\n\nKeating was a backbencher for most of the Whitlam government, although he briefly served as a Minister for the Northern Territory in October 1975, before the government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General that November. After Labor's defeat in the election one month later, Keating was promoted to become an opposition spokesman; as an opposition spokesman, his parliamentary style was that of an aggressive debater. In 1981, he was elected president of the New South Wales Labor Party, thus becoming the leader of the dominant right-wing faction in Labor. At this time, he initially supported Bill Hayden over Bob Hawke as leadership tensions between the two men began to mount; part of the reason for his support was that he privately hoped to succeed Hayden in the near future. However, by 1982, his faction had swung behind Hawke, and Keating endorsed his challenge. The formal announcement of Keating's support for Hawke was written by a fellow Labor politician, Gareth Evans. Although Hayden survived the challenge, pressure continued to mount on him, and he eventually resigned in February 1983 after a poor by-election result. Hawke was elected to replace him, and he subsequently led Labor to a landslide victory in the election just six weeks later.\n\nFederal Treasurer (1983–91)\n\nFollowing Labor's victory in the 1983 election, Keating was appointed Treasurer of Australia by Prime Minister Bob Hawke – he would go on to hold that post until 1991. Keating succeeded John Howard as treasurer and was able to use the size of the budget deficit that the Hawke government inherited to question the economic credibility of the Liberal–National Coalition. That the deficit had significantly increased in the lead up to the election had not been disclosed in pre-election documents released by the Fraser government. According to Hawke, the historically large $9.6 billion budget deficit left by the Coalition \"became a stick with which we were justifiably able to beat the Liberal National Opposition for many years\". Although Howard was widely regarded at this time as being \"discredited\" by the hidden deficit, he had in fact argued unsuccessfully against Fraser that the revised figures should be disclosed before the election. \n\nKeating was one of the major driving forces behind the various extensive macro and microeconomic reforms of the Hawke government. As Treasurer, Keating pursued economic policies such as floating the Australian dollar in 1983, reducing tariffs on imports, completely reforming the tax system, moving from centralised wage-fixing to enterprise bargaining, privatising publicly owned companies such as Qantas,CSL Limited and the Commonwealth Bank, and deregulating large parts of the banking system. Keating was also instrumental in the introduction of the Prices and Incomes Accord, an agreement between the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) and the government to negotiate wages. His management of the Accord, and close working relationship with ACTU President Bill Kelty, became a source of tremendous political power for Keating. Through the power given to him, Keating was often able to bypass the Cabinet altogether, notably in exercising monetary policy, and he was regularly referred to as \"the most powerful Treasurer in modern times\". \n\nIn 1985, Keating argued within the Cabinet for the introduction of a broad-based consumption tax, similar in nature to the goods and services tax that was later introduced by the Howard government. In the build-up to the 1984 election, Hawke had promised a policy paper on taxation reform to be discussed with all stakeholders at a tax summit. Three options – A, B and C – were presented in the Draft White Paper, with Keating and his Treasury colleagues fiercely advocating for C, which included a consumption tax of 15% on goods and services along with reductions in personal and company income tax, a fringe benefits tax and a capital gains tax. Although Keating was able to win the support of a reluctant Cabinet, Hawke believed that the opposition from the public, the ACTU, and the business community would be too great. He therefore decided to abandon any plans for a consumption tax, although the remainder of the reforms were adopted in the tax reform package. The loss of the consumption tax was seen a bitter defeat for Keating; he later joked about it at a press conference, saying, \"It's a bit like Ben Hur. We've crossed the line with one wheel off, but we have crossed the line.\" \n\nKeating's tenure as Treasurer was often criticised for high interest rates and the 1990s recession, which Keating referred to in an interview as \"(the) recession we had to have\". Through the 1980s, both the global and Australian economies grew quickly, and by the late 1980s inflation had grown to around 9%. By 1988, the Reserve Bank of Australia began tightening monetary policy, and household interest rates peaked at 18%. It is often said that the Bank was too slow in easing monetary policy, and that this ultimately led to a recession. In private, Keating had argued for rates to rise earlier than they did, and fall sooner, although his view was at odds with the Reserve Bank and his Treasury colleagues. Publicly, Hawke and Keating had said there would be no recession – or that there would be a \"soft landing\" – but this changed when Keating announced the country was indeed in recession in 1990. Claiming that the recession was something Australia \"had to have\" was referred to by Paul Kelly as \"perhaps the most stupid remark of Keating's career, and it nearly cost him the Prime Ministership.\" Kelly did also concede that, \"... however, it is largely true that the boom begat the recession.\" During the subsequent Howard government, Keating would often criticise Howard for taking credit for the good economic conditions Australia experienced without acknowledging that it had been the early 1990s recession that had ended the inflation problem. \n\nHawke led Labor to a third consecutive victory in the 1987 election, but by his fifth anniversary as prime minister a year later, he had begun to suffer from poor opinion polling. It was at this time that Keating privately began to put pressure on Hawke to stand down in his favour as soon as possible. The two men eventually met at Kirribilli House later that year to discuss the handover of the leadership to Keating. Eventually, Hawke agreed in front of two witnesses that he would resign in Keating's favour a short time after the 1990 election, which he convinced Keating he could win. Hawke subsequently won that election, and appointed Keating his Deputy Prime Minister to replace the retiring Lionel Bowen, in theory preparing Keating to assume the leadership. However, Keating quickly became dissatisfied with the lack of any indication from Hawke as to when he might stand down, and subsequently made a number of provocative speeches questioning the direction of the government. This caused tensions between the two men to grow very quickly, and Hawke told Keating that he would renege on the deal on the basis that Keating had been publicly disloyal. Keating eventually resigned from the Cabinet and challenged Hawke for the leadership in June 1991. Hawke won the ballot by 66 votes to 44, and in a press statement afterwards Keating declared that he had fired his \"one shot\". Publicly, at least, this seemed to spell the end of his leadership ambitions. Having failed to defeat Hawke, Keating realised that events would have to move very much in his favour for a second challenge to be even possible, and he strongly considered retiring from politics altogether. \n\nSeveral factors over the coming months enabled Keating to mount a second challenge to Hawke. Over the remainder of 1991, the economy showed no signs of recovery from the recession, and unemployment continued to rise. Opinion polling for Labor was poor, some of Keating's supporters actively undermined the government, and, perhaps more significantly, Liberal Leader John Hewson introduced 'Fightback!', an economic policy package which, according to Keating's biographer, \"appeared to astonish and stun Hawke's Cabinet\". According to Edwards, \"Hawke was unprepared to attack it and responded with windy rhetoric\". Following Hawke's lacklustre response to 'Fightback!', many began to openly speculate that nearly nine years as prime minister had left Hawke \"tired\", and he began to lose the confidence of many in the Labor caucus. Keating was viewed as the only viable replacement for Hawke, and on 19 December 1991, Keating challenged Hawke for a second time, this time defeating him by 56 votes to 51.\n\nPrime Minister (1991–96)\n\nOn 20 December 1991, following his successful leadership challenge, Keating was sworn in as the 24th Prime Minister of Australia by the Governor-General. Keating had an extensive legislative agenda upon taking office, which included reconciliation with Australia's indigenous population, furthering economic and cultural ties with Asia, and making Australia a republic. The addressing of these issues came to be known as Keating's \"big picture.\" Keating's legislative program also included establishing the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA), a review of the Sex Discrimination Act, and the establishment of native title rights for Australia's indigenous peoples following the Mabo High Court decision. Throughout his time as prime minister, Keating took a number of steps to strengthen and develop bilateral links with Australia's closest neighbours; he frequently said that there was no country in the world that was more important to Australia than Indonesia. He also played a key role in the establishment of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC), initiating the annual leaders' meeting and ensuring that they continued thereafter. Arguably Keating's most far-reaching legislative achievement was the introduction of a national superannuation scheme, implemented to address the long-term problem of low national savings. This built on policies that Keating had introduced whilst Treasurer, and was aimed at ensuring that most Australians would have enough money to retire. Keating also moved to introduce mandatory detention for asylum seekers.[http://www.ajustaustralia.com/informationandresources_researchandpapers.php?act\npapers&id=101 Detention timeline], Special Broadcasting Service, 17 June 2008 On 10 December 1992, Keating delivered the Redfern Speech on Aboriginal reconciliation, a speech which has regularly been cited as among the greatest in Australian political history. \n\nAs Prime Minister, Keating maintained his aggressive debating style. When asked by Opposition Leader John Hewson why he would not call an early election after he had become prime minister, Keating replied, \"because I want to do you slowly.\" He referred to the Liberal Party as \"a motley, dishonest crew\", and the National Party as \"dummies and dimwits; desperadoes\". During an opposition debate that sought to censure Keating, he described being attacked by Peter Costello as \"like being flogged with warm lettuce\". Despite a very busy legislative agenda, many commentators predicted that the upcoming 1993 election was \"unwinnable\" for Labor. The government had been in power for the previous decade, and the pace of economic recovery from the early 1990s recession was slow. \n\nSuch was the expectation that Labor would lose, many senior Labor figures openly told Keating that his job was to save as many seats as possible, so that their time in opposition would be short. Despite the overwhelming predictions that Labor would lose, Keating succeeded in winning over the electorate with a strong campaign opposing 'Fightback!' and a focus on creating jobs to reduce unemployment. In particular, Keating focused a great deal of his campaign on attacking the proposed goods and services tax, arguing that it would make unemployment worse and would prove \"a dead weight\" on the economy. He was helped in this by his opponent, John Hewson, struggling towards the end of the campaign to explain exactly which products would have the GST levied on them, and which would not. Having begun the campaign an average of ten points behind the Liberal/National Coalition, Keating led Labor to an unexpected and record-breaking fifth consecutive election victory on 13 March 1993. The speech Keating delivered at the victory celebration has been described as one of the great Labor speeches. Opening with \"This is a victory for the true believers\", the speech has been described as providing a source of inspiration for the party faithful, but also criticised as helping to create a perception that Keating's Labor government was not a government for all Australians. \n\nHaving secured a mandate in his own right as prime minister, Keating immediately set about implementing as much of his \"big picture\" as possible, leading the consultation and introducing legislation that would eventually lead to a 1999 referendum on Australia becoming a republic. Keating also continued to pursue improved relations with countries throughout Asia, in particular Indo-China. In December 1993, he became involved in a diplomatic incident with Malaysia when he described Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad as \"recalcitrant\". The incident occurred after Mahathir refused to attend the 1993 APEC summit. Keating said, \"APEC is bigger than all of us – Australia, the U.S. and Malaysia, and Dr. Mahathir and any other recalcitrants.\" Mahathir demanded an apology from Keating, and threatened to reduce diplomatic ties and trade drastically with Australia, which became an enormous concern to Australian exporters. Some Malaysian officials talked of launching a \"Buy Australian Last\" campaign; Keating subsequently apologised to Mahathir over the remark. Keating dismantled the century-old protectionism that had been present in Australia, fuelling a productivity drive in the free market and increasing Australian living standards. \n\nKeating's friendship with Indonesian President Suharto was criticised by human rights activists supportive of East Timorese independence, and by Nobel Peace Prize winner José Ramos-Horta, who would later go on to become East Timor's president and prime minister. The Keating government's cooperation with the Indonesian military, and the signing of the Timor Gap Treaty, were also strongly criticised by these same groups. It was alleged that Keating was overlooking alleged human rights abuses by the Indonesian government as part of his effort to dramatically increase Australia's cultural, diplomatic and economic ties with Asia. \n\nLike Hawke before him, Keating benefited while prime minister from a split Liberal Party. Shortly after the 1993 election, John Hewson was replaced as Liberal Leader by Alexander Downer, whose leadership was quickly marred by gaffes and controversies within months. After continuous poor polling, Downer resigned in 1995 and was replaced by John Howard, who had previously led the Liberals from 1985 to 1989. Although at first showing no improvement, under Howard the Coalition soon regained momentum to move back ahead of Labor in opinion polls, and Keating was unable to wrest back the lead again. The first warning sign of a serious swing away from Labor came in March 1995, when Labor lost Canberra in a by-election. Later in 1995, the Queensland Labor Party barely held onto its majority at the state election, before losing it altogether in a 1996 by-election. That by-election took place a week after Keating had called the 1996 election; the very public defeat severely hampered the launch of the Labor campaign, and the campaign was never able to regain momentum.\n\nHoward, determined to avoid a repeat of the 1993 election, adopted a \"small target\" strategy, publicly committing to keep Labor reforms such as Medicare, and defusing the republic issue by promising to hold a constitutional convention. Howard was therefore successfully able to focus the campaign on the longevity of the Labor government, which by 1996 had been in power for 13 years. The narrative of \"time for a change\" proved impossible to defend against, and on 2 March 1996 the Keating government was swept from power in a landslide, suffering a five percent two party preferred swing. Although this was not a large swing in and of itself, Labor lost 29 seats, including 13 in New South Wales and 11 in Queensland—in terms of seats lost, the second-worst defeat ever of a sitting government in Australian history. Keating tendered his resignation as prime minister on 11 March, 13 years to the day after Bob Hawke had first taken office, and stepped down from Parliament just over a month later on 23 April 1996. \n\nRetirement and later life (1996–present)\n\nSoon after leaving Parliament, Keating became a director of various companies and a senior adviser to Lazard, an investment banking firm. In 1997, Keating declined appointment as a Companion of the Order of Australia, an honour which has been offered to all former Prime Ministers since the modern Australian Honours System was introduced in 1975.\n\nIn 2000, he published his first book since leaving office, Engagement: Australia Faces the Asia-Pacific, which focused on foreign policy during his term as prime minister. In 2002, Keating's former speechwriter and adviser, Don Watson, published Recollections of a Bleeding Heart: A Portrait of Paul Keating PM. The book first drew criticism from Keating's estranged wife, Annita Keating, who said that it understated her contribution, a complaint Watson rejected. Keating himself was so unhappy with the book that it brought the two men's friendship to an abrupt end. Keating's primary complaint was about Watson's claim that he had authored the Redfern Speech, something Keating strenuously denied. \n\nDuring John Howard's time as prime minister, Keating made occasional speeches strongly criticising his successor's social policies, and defending his own policies, such as those on East Timor. Keating described Howard as a \"desiccated coconut\" who was \"Araldited to the seat\", and described him as \"... an old antediluvian 19th century person who wanted to stomp forever ... on ordinary people's rights to organise themselves at work ... he's a pre-Copernican obscurantist\" when criticising Howard's controversial WorkChoices policy. He described Howard's deputy, Peter Costello, as being \"all tip and no iceberg\" when referring to an alleged pact made by Howard to hand the leadership over to Costello after two terms. After Labor's landslide victory at the 2007 election, Keating said that he was relieved, rather than happy, that the Howard government had been removed. He claimed that there was \"relief that the nation had put itself back on course...relief that the toxicity of the Liberal social agenda, the active disparagement of particular classes and groups, that feeling of alienation in your own country, was over.\" \n\nKeating was also publicly critical of the leadership team of Kevin Rudd. Just before the 2007 election, he criticised Rudd's deputy, Julia Gillard, saying that she lacked an understanding of principles such as enterprise-bargaining that had been set under the Hawke–Keating government in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He also attacked Rudd's chief of staff, David Epstein, and Gary Gray, who was at that time a candidate for Kim Beazley's former seat of Brand. \n\nIn May 2007, Keating suggested that Sydney, rather than Canberra, should be the capital of Australia, saying that, \"John Howard has already effectively moved the Parliament there. Cabinet meets in Phillip Street in Sydney, and when they do go to Canberra, they fly down to the bush capital, and everybody flies out on Friday. There is an air of unreality about Canberra. If Parliament sat in Sydney, they would have a better understanding of the problems being faced by their constituents. These real things are camouflaged from Canberra.\" \n\nIn February 2008, Keating joined former Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam, Malcolm Fraser and Bob Hawke in Parliament House to witness Kevin Rudd deliver the apology to the Stolen Generations. In August 2008, he spoke at the book launch of Unfinished Business: Paul Keating's Interrupted Revolution, authored by economist David Love. Among the topics discussed during the launch were the need to increase compulsory superannuation contributions, as well as to restore incentives for people to receive their superannuation payments in annuities. \n\nKeating is currently a Visiting Professor of Public Policy at the University of New South Wales. He has been awarded honorary doctorates in law from Keio University in Tokyo (1995), the National University of Singapore (1999), the University of New South Wales (2003) and Macquarie University (2012).\n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1975, Keating married Annita van Iersel, a Dutch-born flight attendant for Alitalia. They had four children, who spent some of their teenage years in The Lodge, the Prime Minister's official residence in Canberra. The couple separated in November 1998. While they did not formally divorce until 2008, Annita had resumed her maiden name long before then. Since 1999, Keating's partner has been actress Julieanne Newbould. Keating's daughter, Katherine Keating, is a former adviser to former New South Wales minister Craig Knowles as well as former New South Wales Premier Bob Carr. Keating's interests include the music of Gustav Mahler and collecting French antique clocks. He currently resides in Potts Point, in inner-city Sydney.\n\nMusical\n\nIn 2005, Keating!, a musical based on Keating's life and career, premiered at the Melbourne International Comedy Festival. It went on to run until 2010, winning a number of awards and eventually being broadcast on ABC2." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Robert Hawke", "Bob Hawke", "Robert J. L. Hawke", "Bob hawke", "Robert James Lee Hawke" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bob hawke", "robert hawke", "robert j l hawke", "robert james lee hawke" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "bob hawke", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Bob Hawke" }
On which river was the Kariba Dam built?	tc_1016	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Kariba_Dam.txt" ], "title": [ "Kariba Dam" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Kariba Dam is a hydroelectric dam in the Kariba Gorge of the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The dam stands tall and long. The dam forms Lake Kariba which extends for 280 km and holds 185 km3 of water.\n\nConstruction \n\nThe double curvature concrete arch dam was designed by Coyne et Bellier and constructed between 1955 and 1959 by Impresit of Italy at a cost of $135,000,000 for the first stage with only the Kariba South power cavern. Final construction and the addition of the Kariba North Power cavern by Mitchell Construction was not completed until 1977 due to largely political problems for a total cost of $480,000,000. During construction, 86 men lost their lives. \n\nPower generation \n\nThe Kariba Dam supplies 1626 MW of electricity to parts of both Zambia (the Copperbelt) and Zimbabwe and generates 6400 GWh per annum. Each country has its own power station on the north and south bank of the dam respectively. The south station belonging to Zimbabwe has been in operation since 1960 and has six generators of 111 MW capacity each for a total of 666 MW. \n\nOn November 11, 2013 It was announced by Zimbabwe's Finance Minister, Patrick Chinamasa that capacity at the Zimbabwean (South) Kariba hydropower station would be increased by 300 megawatts. The cost of upgrading the facility has been supported by a $319m loan from China. The deal is a clear example of Zimbabwe's \"Look East\" policy which was adopted after falling out with Western powers. Construction on the Kariba South expansion began in mid-2014 and is expect to be complete in 2019. \n\nThe north station belonging to Zambia has been in operation since 1976, and has four generators of 150 MW each for a total of 600 MW; work to expand this capacity by an additional 360 MW to 960 MW was completed in December 2013. Two additional 180 MW generators were added. \n\nChoice of location \n\nThe Kariba Dam project was planned by the government of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, or Central African Federation (CAF). The CAF was a semi-independent state within the Commonwealth in southern Africa that existed from 1953 to the end of 1963, comprising the former self-governing British colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia and the former British protectorate of Nyasaland. Northern Rhodesia had decided earlier in 1953 (before the Federation was founded) to build a dam within its territory, on the Kafue River, a major tributary of the Zambezi. It would have been closer to Zambia's Copperbelt which was in need of more power. This would have been a cheaper and less grandiose project, with a smaller environmental impact. Southern Rhodesia, the richest of the three, objected to a Kafue dam and insisted that the dam be sited instead at Kariba. Also, the capacity of the Kafue dam was much lower than that at Kariba. The Kariba Dam is now owned and operated by the Zambezi River Authority, which is jointly and equally owned by Zimbabwe and Zambia. \n\nSince Zambia's independence, two dams have been built on the Kafue River: the Kafue Gorge Dam and the Itezhi-Tezhi Dam.\n\nEnvironmental impacts \n\nPopulation displacement and resettlement \n\nThe creation of the reservoir forced resettlement of about 57,000 Tonga people living along the Zambezi in both Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia. \nFrom \"The Shadow of The Dam\", a first-hand account written by David Howarth in the 1960s, referring to the situation in Northern Rhodesia:- \"Everything that a government can do on a meagre budget is being done. Demonstration gardens have been planted, to try to teach the Tonga more sensible methods of agriculture, and to try to find cash crops which they can grow. The hilly land has been plowed in ridge contours to guard against erosion. In Sinazongwe, an irrigated garden has grown a prodigious crop of pawpaws, bananas, oranges, lemons, and vegetables, and shown that the remains of the valley could be made prolific if only money could be found for irrigation. Cooperative markets have been organized, and Tonga are being taught to run them. Enterprising Tonga have been given loans to set themselves up as farmers. More schools have been built than the Tonga ever had before, and most of the Tonga are now within reach of dispensaries and hospitals.\" \n\nThere are many different perspectives on how much resettlement aid was given to the displaced tribe. According to anthropologist Thayer Scudder, who has studied these communities since the late 1950s, \"Today, most are still 'development refugees.' Many live in less-productive, problem-prone areas, some of which have been so seriously degraded within the last generation that they resemble lands on the edge of the Sahara Desert.\" \n\nA 2005 book, \"Deep Water\" by Jacques Leslie focused on the plight of the people resettled by the dam, and found the situation little changed. Kariba remains the worst dam-resettlement disaster in African history.\n\nOver 6000 large animals threatened by the rising water were rescued by Operation Noah.\n\nBasilwizi Trust \n\nIn a quest to restore their lives and find justice, the Tonga formed their own advocacy group in 2000, the Basilwizi Trust. \n\nRiver ecology \n\nThe Kariba Dam controls 90% of the total runoff of the Zambezi River, thus changing the downstream ecology dramatically.\n\nWildlife rescue \n\nFrom 1958 to 1961, 'Operation Noah' captured and removed around 6,000 large animals and numerous small ones threatened by the lake's rising waters.\n\nRecent activity \n\nOn the 6th of February 2008, the BBC reported that heavy rain might lead to a release of water from the dam, which would force 50,000 people downstream to evacuate. \nRising levels led to the opening of the floodgates in March 2010, requiring the evacuation of 130,000 people who lived in the floodplain, and causing concerns that flooding may spread to nearby areas. \n\nIn March 2014 at a Zambezi River Authority organized conference, engineers warned that the foundations of the dam had weakened and there was a possibility of dam failure unless repairs were made. \n\nOn 3 October 2014 the BBC reported that “The Kariba Dam is in a dangerous state. Opened in 1959, it was built on a seemingly solid bed of basalt. But, in the past 50 years, the torrents from the spillway have eroded that bedrock, carving a vast crater that has undercut the dam's foundations. … engineers are now warning that without urgent repairs, the whole dam will collapse. If that happened, a tsunami-like wall of water would rip through the Zambezi valley, reaching the Mozambique border within eight hours. The torrent would overwhelm Mozambique's Cahora Bassa Dam and knock out 40% of southern Africa's hydroelectric capacity. Along with the devastation of wildlife in the valley, the Zambezi River Authority estimates that the lives of 3.5 million people are at risk.” \n\nOn January 18 2016 It was reported that water levels at the Kariba dam had dropped to 12% of capacity. Levels fell to 477.25 metres, just above the minimum operating level for the hydropower dam. Low rainfalls and overuse of the water by the power plants at the reservoir have left it near empty, raising the prospect that both Zimbabwe and Zambia will face water shortages." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Zambesi", "Zambezi river", "Zambezi basin", "Zambezi Valley", "Zambesi river", "Zambeze River", "Zambesi River", "Zambezian coastal flooded savanna", "Kabra Bassa rapids", "River Zambezi", "Sambesi", "Great Zambezi River", "Zambezi River", "Zambezi", "Zambezi valley", "Zambeze" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "kabra bassa rapids", "zambezi river", "zambezi basin", "river zambezi", "great zambezi river", "zambesi river", "zambeze river", "zambezi", "zambezi valley", "sambesi", "zambeze", "zambesi", "zambezian coastal flooded savanna" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "zambezi", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Zambezi" }
Detroit born Diana Earle became famous under which name?	tc_1017	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Detroit.txt", "Diana_Ross.txt" ], "title": [ "Detroit", "Diana Ross" ], "wiki_context": [ "Detroit ( ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Michigan, the fourth-largest city in the Midwest and the largest city on the United States–Canada border. It is the seat of Wayne County, the most populous county in the state. Detroit's metropolitan area, known as Metro Detroit, is home to 4.3 million people, making it the fourteenth-most populous metropolitan area in the United States and the second-largest in the Midwestern United States (behind Chicago).\n\nThe Detroit–Windsor area, a commercial link straddling the Canada–U.S. border, has a total population of about 5.7 million.[http://www.citypopulation.de/World.html World Agglomerations] Retrieved on May 5, 2009. The Detroit metropolitan region holds roughly one-half of Michigan's population. Detroit is a major port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States. The City of Detroit anchors the second-largest economic region in the Midwest, behind Chicago, and the thirteenth-largest in the United States. \n\nDetroit was founded on July 24, 1701 by the French explorer and adventurer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and a party of settlers. With expansion of the automobile industry, the Detroit area emerged as a significant metropolitan region within the United States in the early 20th century, when the city became the fourth-largest in the country for a period. In the 1950s and 1960s, expansion continued with construction of a regional freeway system.\n\nDue to industrial restructuring and loss of jobs in the auto industry, Detroit lost considerable population from the late 20th century to present. Between 2000 and 2010 the city's population fell by 25 percent, changing its ranking from the nation's 10th-largest city to 18th. In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777, more than a 60 percent drop from a peak population of over 1.8 million at the 1950 census. This resulted from suburbanization, industrial restructuring, and the decline of Detroit's auto industry. Following the shift of population and jobs to its suburbs or other states or nations, the city has focused on becoming the metropolitan region's employment and economic center.\n\nThe erstwhile rapid growth of the city left a globally unique stock of architectural monuments and historic places of the first half of the 20th century, with many of them falling into disrepair or torn down since the 1960s. Conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces since the 2000s and allowed several large-scale revitalisations. Downtown Detroit has held an increased role as a cultural destination in the 21st century, with the restoration of several historic theatres and entertainment venues, new sports stadiums, and a riverfront revitalization project. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, and a handful of other neighborhoods has increased. Some other neighborhoods remain distressed, with extensive abandonment of properties.\n\nThe Governor of Michigan, Rick Snyder, declared a financial emergency for the city in March 2013, appointing an emergency manager. On July 18, 2013, Detroit filed the largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history. It was declared bankrupt by Judge Steven W. Rhodes of the Bankruptcy Court for the Eastern District of Michigan on December 3, 2013; he cited its $18.5 billion debt and declared that negotiations with its thousands of creditors were unfeasible. On November 7, 2014, Judge Rhodes approved the city's bankruptcy plan, allowing the city to begin the process of exiting bankruptcy. The City of Detroit successfully exited Chapter 9 municipal bankruptcy with all finances handed back to the city at midnight on December 11, 2014. \n\nHistory\n\nEuropean settlement\n\nThe city was named by French colonists, referring to the Detroit River (, meaning the strait of Lake Erie), linking Lake Huron and Lake Erie; in the historical context, the strait included the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair and the Detroit River. \n\nOn the shores of the strait, in 1701, the French officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, along with fifty-one French people and French Canadians, founded a settlement called Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, naming it after Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, Minister of Marine under Louis XIV., p. 56. France offered free land to colonists to attract families to Detroit; when it reached a total population of 800 in 1765, it was the largest city between Montreal and New Orleans, both also French settlements. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400. By 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec. \n\nThe region grew based on the lucrative fur trade, in which numerous Native American people had important roles. Detroit's city flag reflects its French colonial heritage. (See Flag of Detroit). Descendants of the earliest French and French Canadian settlers formed a cohesive community who gradually were replaced as the dominant population after more Anglo-American settlers came to the area in the early 19th century. Living along the shores of Lakes St. Clair, and south to Monroe and downriver suburbs, the French Canadians of Detroit, also known as Muskrat French, remain a subculture in the region today. \n\nDuring the French and Indian War (1754–63), the North American front of the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, British troops gained control of the settlement in 1760. They shortened the name to Detroit. Several Native American tribes launched Pontiac's Rebellion (1763), and conducted a siege of Fort Detroit, but failed to capture it. In defeat, France ceded its territory in North America east of the Mississippi to Britain following the war.\n\nFollowing the American Revolutionary War and United States independence, Britain ceded Detroit along with other territory in the area under the Jay Treaty (1796), which established the northern border with Canada. In 1805, fire destroyed most of the Detroit settlement, which consisted mostly of wooden buildings. A river warehouse and brick chimneys of the former wooden homes were the sole structures to survive. \n\n19th century\n\nFrom 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan (first the territory, then the state). Detroit surrendered without a fight to British troops during the War of 1812 in the Siege of Detroit. The Battle of Frenchtown (January 18–23, 1813) was part of a United States effort to retake the city, and American troops suffered their highest fatalities of any battle in the war. This battle is commemorated at River Raisin National Battlefield Park south of Detroit in Monroe County. Detroit was finally recaptured by the United States later that year.\n\nIt was incorporated as a city in 1815. As the city expanded, a geometric street plan developed by Augustus B. Woodward was followed, featuring grand boulevards as in Paris.\n\nPrior to the American Civil War, the city's access to the Canadian border made it a key stop for refugee slaves gaining freedom in the North along the Underground Railroad. Many went across the Detroit River to Canada to escape pursuit by slave catchers. There were estimated to be 20,000 to 30,000 African-American refugees who settled in Canada.\n\nNumerous men from Detroit volunteered to fight for the Union during the American Civil War, including the 24th Michigan Infantry Regiment (part of the legendary Iron Brigade), which fought with distinction and suffered 82% casualties at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. When the First Volunteer Infantry Regiment arrived to fortify Washington, DC, President Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying \"Thank God for Michigan!\" George Armstrong Custer led the Michigan Brigade during the Civil War and called them the \"Wolverines\". \n\nDuring the late 19th century, several Gilded Age mansions reflecting the wealth of industry and shipping magnates were built east and west of the current downtown, along the major avenues of the Woodward plan. Most notable among them was the David Whitney House located at 4421 Woodward Avenue, which became a prime location for mansions. During this period some referred to Detroit as the Paris of the West for its architecture, grand avenues in the Paris style, and for Washington Boulevard, recently electrified by Thomas Edison. The city had grown steadily from the 1830s with the rise of shipping, shipbuilding, and manufacturing industries. Strategically located along the Great Lakes waterway, Detroit emerged as a major port and transportation hub.\n\nIn 1896, a thriving carriage trade prompted Henry Ford to build his first automobile in a rented workshop on Mack Avenue. During this growth period, Detroit expanded its borders by annexing all or part of several surrounding villages and townships.\n\n20th century\n\nIn 1903, Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company. Ford's manufacturing—and those of automotive pioneers William C. Durant, the Dodge Brothers, Packard, and Walter Chrysler—established Detroit's status in the early 20th century as the world's automotive capital. The growth of the auto industry was reflected by changes in businesses throughout the Midwest and nation, with the development of garages to service vehicles and gas stations, as well as factories for parts and tires.\n\nWith the rapid growth of industrial workers in the auto factories, labor unions such as the American Federation of Labor and the United Auto Workers fought to organize workers to gain them better working conditions and wages. They initiated strikes and other tactics in support of improvements such as the 8-hour day/40-hour work week, increased wages, greater benefits and improved working conditions. The labor activism during those years increased influence of union leaders in the city such as Jimmy Hoffa of the Teamsters and Walter Reuther of the Autoworkers.\n\nThe city became the 4th-largest in the nation in 1920, after only New York City, Chicago and Philadelphia, with the influence of the booming auto industry.\n\nThe prohibition of alcohol from 1920 to 1933 resulted in the Detroit River becoming a major conduit for smuggling of illegal Canadian spirits. \n\nDetroit, like many places in the United States, developed racial conflict and discrimination in the 20th century following rapid demographic changes as hundreds of thousands of new workers were attracted to the industrial city; in a short period it became the 4th-largest city in the nation. The Great Migration brought rural blacks from the South; they were outnumbered by southern whites who also migrated to the city. Immigration brought southern and eastern Europeans of Catholic and Jewish faith; these new groups competed with native-born whites for jobs and housing in the booming city. Detroit was one of the major Midwest cities that was a site for the dramatic urban revival of the Ku Klux Klan beginning in 1915. \"By the 1920s the city had become a stronghold of the KKK,\" whose members opposed Catholic and Jewish immigrants, as well as black Americans. \nThe Black Legion, a secret vigilante group, was active in the Detroit area in the 1930s, when one-third of its estimated 20,000 to 30,000 members in Michigan were based in the city. It was defeated after numerous prosecutions following the kidnapping and murder in 1936 of Charles Poole, a Catholic Works Progress Administration organizer. A total of 49 men of the Black Legion were convicted of numerous crimes, with many sentenced to life in prison for murder.\n\nIn the 1940s the world's \"first urban depressed freeway\" ever built, the Davison, was constructed in Detroit. During World War II, the government encouraged retooling of the American automobile industry in support of the Allied powers, leading to Detroit's key role in the American Arsenal of Democracy.Nolan, Jenny (January 28, 1997).[http://info.detnews.com/redesign/history/story/historytemplate.cfm?id\n73&category=locations Willow Run and the Arsenal of Democracy]. Michigan History, The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 23, 2007. \n\nJobs expanded so rapidly that 400,000 people were attracted to the city from 1941 to 1943, including 50,000 blacks in the second wave of the Great Migration, and 350,000 whites, many of them from the South. Some European immigrants and their descendants feared black competition for jobs and housing. The federal government prohibited discrimination in defense work but when in June 1943, Packard promoted three blacks to work next to whites on its assembly lines, 25,000 whites walked off the job. The Detroit race riot of 1943 took place three weeks after the Packard plant protest. Over the course of three days, 34 people were killed, of whom 25 were African American, and approximately 600 were injured, 75% black people. \n\nPostwar era\n\nIndustrial mergers in the 1950s, especially in the automobile sector, increased oligopoly in the American auto industry. Detroit manufacturers such as Packard and Hudson merged into other companies and eventually disappeared. At its peak population of 1,849,568, in the 1950 Census, the city was the 5th-largest in the United States, after New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia and Los Angeles.\n\nAs in other major American cities in the postwar era, construction of an extensive highway and freeway system around Detroit and pent-up demand for new housing stimulated suburbanization; highways made commuting by car easier. In 1956, Detroit's last heavily used electric streetcar line along the length of Woodward Avenue was removed and replaced with gas-powered buses. It was the last line of what had once been a 534-mile network of electric streetcars. In 1941 at peak times, a streetcar ran on Woodward Avenue every 60 seconds. \n\nAll of these changes in the area's transportation system favored low-density, auto-oriented development rather than high-density urban development, and industry also moved to the suburbs. The metro Detroit area developed as one of the most sprawling job markets in the United States by the 21st century, and combined with poor public transport, resulted in many jobs beyond the reach of urban low-income workers. \n\nIn 1950, the city held about one-third of the state's population, anchored by its industries and workers. Over the next sixty years, the city's population declined to less than 10 percent of the state's population. During the same time period, the sprawling Detroit metropolitan area, which surrounds and includes the city, grew to contain more than half of Michigan's population. The shift of population and jobs eroded Detroit's tax base.\n\nIn June 1963, Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. gave a major speech in Detroit that foreshadowed his \"I Have a Dream\" speech in Washington, D.C. two months later. While the African-American Civil Rights Movement gained significant federal civil rights laws in 1964 and 1965, longstanding inequities resulted in confrontations between the police and inner city black youth wanting change. Longstanding tensions in Detroit culminated in the Twelfth Street riot in July 1967. Governor George W. Romney ordered the Michigan National Guard into Detroit, and President Johnson sent in U.S. Army troops. The result was 43 dead, 467 injured, over 7,200 arrests, and more than 2,000 buildings destroyed, mostly in black residential and business areas. Thousands of small businesses closed permanently or relocated to safer neighborhoods. The affected district lay in ruins for decades. It was the most costly riot in the United States.\n\nOn August 18, 1970, the NAACP filed suit against Michigan state officials, including Governor William Milliken, charging de facto public school segregation. The NAACP argued that although schools were not legally segregated, the city of Detroit and its surrounding counties had enacted policies to maintain racial segregation in public schools. The NAACP also suggested a direct relationship between unfair housing practices and educational segregation, which followed segregated neighborhoods. The District Court held all levels of government accountable for the segregation in its ruling. The Sixth Circuit Court affirmed some of the decision, holding that it was the state's responsibility to integrate across the segregated metropolitan area.\nThe U.S. Supreme Court took up the case February 27, 1974. The subsequent Milliken v. Bradley decision had wide national influence. In a narrow decision, the Court found that schools were a subject of local control and that suburbs could not be forced to solve problems in the city's school district.\n\n\"Milliken was perhaps the greatest missed opportunity of that period,\" said Myron Orfield, professor of law at the University of Minnesota. \"Had that gone the other way, it would have opened the door to fixing nearly all of Detroit's current problems.\" \nJohn Mogk, a professor of law and an expert in urban planning at Wayne State University in Detroit, says, \"Everybody thinks that it was the riots [in 1967] that caused the white families to leave. Some people were leaving at that time but, really, it was after Milliken that you saw mass flight to the suburbs. If the case had gone the other way, it is likely that Detroit would not have experienced the steep decline in its tax base that has occurred since then.\"\n\n1970s and decline\n\nIn November 1973, the city elected Coleman Young as its first black mayor. After taking office, Young emphasized increasing racial diversity in the police department. \nYoung also worked to improve Detroit's transportation system, but tension between Young and his suburban counterparts over regional matters was problematic throughout his mayoral term. In 1976, the federal government offered $600 million for building a regional rapid transit system, under a single regional authority. But the inability of Detroit and its suburban neighbors to solve conflicts over transit planning resulted in the region losing the majority of funding for rapid transit. Following the failure to reach an agreement over the larger system, the City moved forward with construction of the elevated downtown circulator portion of the system, which became known as the Detroit People Mover. \n\nThe gasoline crises of 1973 and 1979 also affected Detroit and the U.S. auto industry. Buyers chose smaller, more fuel-efficient cars made by foreign makers as the price of gas rose. Efforts to revive the city were stymied by the struggles of the auto industry, as their sales and market share declined. Automakers laid off thousands of employees and closed plants in the city, further eroding the tax base. To counteract this, the city used eminent domain to build two large new auto assembly plants in the city. \n\nAs mayor, Young sought to revive the city by seeking to increase investment in the city's declining downtown. The Renaissance Center, a mixed-use office and retail complex, opened in 1977. This group of skyscrapers was an attempt to keep businesses in downtown.\nYoung also gave city support to other large developments to attract middle and upper-class residents back to the city. Despite the Renaissance Center and other projects, the downtown area continued to lose businesses to the suburbs. Major stores and hotels closed and many large office buildings went vacant. Young was criticized for being too focused on downtown development and not doing enough to lower the city's high crime rate and improve city services.\n\nLong a major population center and site of worldwide automobile manufacturing, Detroit has suffered a long economic decline produced by numerous factors. Like many industrial American cities, Detroit reached its population peak in the 1950 census. The peak population was 1.8 million people. Following suburbanization, industrial restructuring, and loss of jobs (as described above), by the 2010 census, the city had less than 40 percent of that number, with just over 700,000 residents. The city has declined in population in each census since 1950. \n\nHigh unemployment was compounded by middle-class flight to the suburbs, and some residents leaving the state to find work. The city was left with a higher proportion of poor in its population, reduced tax base, depressed property values, abandoned buildings, abandoned neighborhoods, high crime rates and a pronounced demographic imbalance.\n\n1990s–2000s\n\nIn 1993 Young retired as Detroit's longest serving mayor, deciding not to seek a sixth term. That year the city elected Dennis Archer, a former Michigan Supreme Court justice. Archer prioritized downtown development and easing tensions with Detroit's suburban neighbors. A referendum to allow casino gambling in the city passed in 1996; several temporary casino facilities opened in 1999, and permanent downtown casinos with hotels opened in 2007–08. \n\nCampus Martius, a reconfiguration of downtown's main intersection as a new park was opened in 2004. The park has been cited as one of the best public spaces in the United States. \nThe city's riverfront has been the focus of redevelopment, following successful examples of other older industrial cities. In 2001, the first portion of the International Riverfront was completed as a part of the city's 300th anniversary celebration, with miles of parks and associated landscaping completed in succeeding years. In 2011, the Port Authority Passenger Terminal opened with the river walk connecting Hart Plaza to the Renaissance Center.Bailey, Ruby L.(August 22, 2007). \"The D is a draw: Most suburbanites are repeat visitors,\" Detroit Free Press. Quote: A Local 4 poll conducted by Selzer and Co., finds, \"nearly two-thirds of residents of suburban Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties say they at least occasionally dine, attend cultural events or take in professional games in Detroit.\"\n\nSince 2006, $9 billion has been invested in downtown and surrounding neighborhoods; $5.2 billion of that in has come in 2013 and 2014. Construction activity, particularly rehabilitation of historic downtown buildings, has increased markedly. The number of vacant downtown buildings has dropped from nearly 50 to around 13.Kramer, Mary (September 28, 2014). \"Rebuilding city takes patience, vision,\" Crain's Detroit Business\|url\nhttp://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20140928/BLOG018/309289997/rebuilding-city-takes-patience-vision Among the most notable redevelopment projects are the Book Cadillac Hotel and the Fort Shelby Hotel; the David Broderick Tower; and the David Whitney Building. Meanwhile, work is underway or set to begin on the historic, vacant Wurlitzer Building and Strathmore Hotel.\n\n21-st century financial crisis, corruption and bankruptcy\n\nDetroit's protracted decline has resulted in severe urban decay and thousands of empty buildings around the city. Some parts of Detroit are so sparsely populated that the city has difficulty providing municipal services. The city has considered various solutions, such as demolishing abandoned homes and buildings; removing street lighting from large portions of the city; and encouraging the small population in certain areas to move to more populated locations. While some have estimated 20,000 stray dogs roam the city, studies have shown the true number to be around 1,000-3,000. \nRoughly half of the owners of Detroit's 305,000 properties failed to pay their 2011 tax bills, resulting in about $246 million in taxes and fees going uncollected, nearly half of which was due to Detroit; the rest of the money would have been earmarked for Wayne County, Detroit Public Schools, and the library system. \n\nIn September 2008, Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick (who had served for six years) resigned following felony convictions. In 2013, Kilpatrick was convicted on 24 federal felony counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud, and racketeering, and was sentenced to 28 years in federal prison. The former mayor's activities cost the city an estimated $20 million. In 2013, felony bribery charges were brought against seven building inspectors. In 2016, further corruption charges were brought against 12 principals, a former school superintendent and supply vendor for a $12 million kickback scheme. Law professor Peter Henning argues that Detroit's corruption is not unusual for a city its size, especially when compared with Chicago. \n\nThe city's financial crisis resulted in the state of Michigan taking over administrative control of its government. The state governor declared a financial emergency in March 2013, appointing Kevyn Orr as emergency manager. On July 18, 2013, Detroit became the largest U.S. city to file for bankruptcy. It was declared bankrupt by U.S. District Court on December 3, 2013, in light of the city's $18.5 billion debt and its inability to fully repay its thousands of creditors.\n\nOn August 11, 2014, historic flooding occurred after a storm brought about five inches of rain in a period of several hours.Lainter, Bill (August 12, 2014). \"Metro communities struggle with flooding after torrential rain,\" Detroit Free Press\|url\nhttp://www.freep.com/article/20140811/NEWS05/308110181/Freeway-flooding-heavy-rain\nA new arena for the Detroit Red Wings, with attached residential, hotel, and retail use is under construction set to open in fall 2017.Gallagher, John (July 14, 2014). \"Hockey, housing and more: Ilitches unveil 'bold vision' for Red Wings arena district\"\|work\nDetroit Free Press\|url=http://archive.freep.com/article/20140720/BUSINESS06/307200102/Ilitch-Red-Wings-arena-Midtown The plans for the project call for mixed-use residential on the blocks surrounding the arena and the renovation the vacant 14-story Eddystone Hotel.\n\nGeography\n\nMetropolitan area\n\nDetroit is the center of a three-county urban area (population 3,734,090, area of 1337 sqmi, a 2010 United States Census) six-county metropolitan statistical area (2010 Census population of 4,296,250, area of 3913 sqmi), and a nine-county Combined Statistical Area (2010 Census population of 5,218,852, area of 5814 sqmi). \n\nTopography\n\nAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Detroit is the principal city in Metro Detroit and Southeast Michigan situated in the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region.\n\nThe Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge is the only international wildlife preserve in North America, uniquely located in the heart of a major metropolitan area. The Refuge includes islands, coastal wetlands, marshes, shoals, and waterfront lands along 48 mi of the Detroit River and Western Lake Erie shoreline.\n\nThe city slopes gently from the northwest to southeast on a till plain composed largely of glacial and lake clay. The most notable topographical feature in the city is the Detroit Moraine, a broad clay ridge on which the older portions of Detroit and Windsor sit atop, rising approximately 62 ft above the river at its highest point. The highest elevation in the city is located directly north of Gorham Playground on the northwest side approximately three blocks south of 8 Mile Road, at a height of 675 to. Detroit's lowest elevation is along the Detroit River, at a surface height of 572 ft. \n\nBelle Isle Park is a 982 acre island park in the Detroit River, between Detroit and Windsor, Ontario. It is connected to the mainland by the MacArthur Bridge in Detroit. Belle Isle Park contains such attractions as the James Scott Memorial Fountain, the Belle Isle Conservatory, the Detroit Yacht Club on an adjacent island, a half-mile (800 m) beach, a golf course, a nature center, monuments, and gardens. The city skyline may be viewed from the island.\n\nThree road systems cross the city: the original French template, with avenues radiating from the waterfront; and true north–south roads based on the Northwest Ordinance township system. The city is north of Windsor, Ontario. Detroit is the only major city along the U.S.–Canadian border in which one travels south in order to cross into Canada.\n\nDetroit has four border crossings: the Ambassador Bridge and the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel provide motor vehicle thoroughfares, with the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel providing railroad access to and from Canada. The fourth border crossing is the Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry, located near the Windsor Salt Mine and Zug Island. Near Zug Island, the southwest part of the city was developed over a 1500 acre salt mine that is 1100 ft below the surface. The Detroit Salt Company mine has over 100 mi of roads within. \n\nClimate\n\nDetroit and the rest of southeastern Michigan have a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa) which is influenced by the Great Lakes; the city and close-in suburbs are part of USDA Hardiness zone 6b, with farther-out northern and western suburbs generally falling in zone 6a. Winters are cold, with moderate snowfall and temperatures not rising above freezing on an average 44 days annually, while dropping to or below 0 °F on an average 4.4 days a year; summers are warm to hot with temperatures exceeding 90 °F on 12 days. The warm season runs from May to September. The monthly daily mean temperature ranges from in January to in July. Official temperature extremes range from 105 °F on July 24, 1934 down to on January 21, 1984; the record low maximum is on January 19, 1994, while, conversely the record high minimum is 80 °F on August 1, 2006, the most recent of five occurrences. A decade or two may pass between readings of 100 °F or higher, which last occurred July 17, 2012. The average window for freezing temperatures is October 20 thru April 22, allowing a growing season of 180 days.\n\nPrecipitation is moderate and somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year, although the warmer months such as May and June average more, averaging annually, but historically ranging from in 1963 to in 2011. Snowfall, which typically falls in measurable amounts between November 15 through April 4 (occasionally in October and very rarely in May), averages per season, although historically ranging from in 1881−82 to in 2013−14. A thick snowpack is not often seen, with an average of only 27.5 days with 3 in or more of snow cover. Thunderstorms are frequent in the Detroit area. These usually occur during spring and summer. \n\nCityscape\n\nArchitecture\n\nSeen in panorama, Detroit's waterfront shows a variety of architectural styles. The post modern Neo-Gothic spires of the One Detroit Center (1993) were designed to blend with the city's Art Deco skyscrapers. Together with the Renaissance Center, they form a distinctive and recognizable skyline. Examples of the Art Deco style include the Guardian Building and Penobscot Building downtown, as well as the Fisher Building and Cadillac Place in the New Center area near Wayne State University. Among the city's prominent structures are United States' largest Fox Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, and the Detroit Institute of Arts.\n\nWhile the Downtown and New Center areas contain high-rise buildings, the majority of the surrounding city consists of low-rise structures and single-family homes. Outside of the city's core, residential high-rises are found in upper-class neighborhoods such as the East Riverfront extending toward Grosse Pointe and the Palmer Park neighborhood just west of Woodward. The University Commons-Palmer Park district in northwest Detroit, near the University of Detroit Mercy and Marygrove College, anchors historic neighborhoods including Palmer Woods, Sherwood Forest, and the University District.\n\nThe National Register of Historic Places lists several area neighborhoods and districts. Neighborhoods constructed prior to World War II feature the architecture of the times, with wood-frame and brick houses in the working-class neighborhoods, larger brick homes in middle-class neighborhoods, and ornate mansions in upper-class neighborhoods such as Brush Park, Woodbridge, Indian Village, Palmer Woods, Boston-Edison, and others.\n\nSome of the oldest neighborhoods are along the Woodward and East Jefferson corridors. Some newer residential construction may also be found along the Woodward corridor, the far west, and northeast. Some of the oldest extant neighborhoods include West Canfield and Brush Park, which have both seen multimillion-dollar restorations and construction of new homes and condominiums.. City of Detroit Partnership. Retrieved on November 24, 2007. \n\nMany of the city's architecturally significant buildings have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places; the city has one of United States' largest surviving collections of late 19th- and early 20th-century buildings. Architecturally significant churches and cathedrals in the city include St. Joseph's, Old St. Mary's, the Sweetest Heart of Mary, and the Cathedral of the Most Blessed Sacrament.\n\nThe city has substantial activity in urban design, historic preservation, and architecture. A number of downtown redevelopment projects—of which Campus Martius Park is one of the most notable—have revitalized parts of the city. Grand Circus Park stands near the city's theater district, Ford Field, home of the Detroit Lions, and Comerica Park, home of the Detroit Tigers. Other projects include the demolition of the Ford Auditorium off of Jefferson St.\n\nThe Detroit International Riverfront includes a partially completed three-and-one-half mile riverfront promenade with a combination of parks, residential buildings, and commercial areas. It extends from Hart Plaza to the MacArthur Bridge accessing Belle Isle Park (the largest island park in a U.S. city). The riverfront includes Tri-Centennial State Park and Harbor, Michigan's first urban state park. The second phase is a two-mile (3 km) extension from Hart Plaza to the Ambassador Bridge for a total of five miles (8 km) of parkway from bridge to bridge. Civic planners envision that the pedestrian parks will stimulate residential redevelopment of riverfront properties condemned under eminent domain.\n\nOther major parks include River Rouge (in the southwest side), the largest park in Detroit; Palmer (north of Highland Park) and Chene Park (on the east river downtown). \n\nNeighborhoods\n\nDetroit has a variety of neighborhood types. The revitalized Downtown, Midtown, and New Center areas feature many historic buildings and are high density, while further out, particularly in the northeast and on the fringes, high vacancy levels are problematic, for which a number of solutions have been proposed. In 2007, Downtown Detroit was recognized as a best city neighborhood in which to retire among the United States' largest metro areas by CNN Money Magazine editors. \n\nLafayette Park is a revitalized neighborhood on the city's east side, part of the Ludwig Mies van der Rohe residential district.Vitullo-Martin, Julio, (December 22, 2007). [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119827404882045751.html The Biggest Mies Collection: His Lafayette Park residential development thrives in Detroit].The Wall Street Journal.Retrieved July 5, 2012. The 78 acre development was originally called the Gratiot Park. Planned by Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell it includes a landscaped, 19 acre park with no through traffic, in which these and other low-rise apartment buildings are situated. Immigrants have contributed to the city's neighborhood revitalization, especially in southwest Detroit. Southwest Detroit has experienced a thriving economy in recent years, as evidenced by new housing, increased business openings and the recently opened Mexicantown International Welcome Center.Williams, Corey (February 28, 2008).[http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-02-28-2962316916_x.htm New Latino Wave Helps Revitalize Detroit]. USA Today. Retrieved July 5, 2012.\n\nThe city has numerous neighborhoods consisting of vacant properties resulting in low inhabited density in those areas, stretching city services and infrastructure. These neighborhoods are concentrated in the northeast and on the city's fringes. A 2009 parcel survey found about a quarter of residential lots in the city to be undeveloped or vacant, and about 10% of the city's housing to be unoccupied.[http://www.detroitparcelsurvey.org/ Detroit Parcel Survey]. Retrieved on July 23, 2011. The survey also reported that most (86%) of the city's homes are in good condition with a minority (9%) in fair condition needing only minor repairs. Kavanaugh, Kelli B. (March 2, 2010).[http://www.modeldmedia.com/devnews/ressurvey030210.aspx Intensive property survey captures state of Detroit housing, vacancy]. Model D. Retrieved July 5, 2012.\n\nTo deal with vacancy issues, the city has begun demolishing the derelict houses, razing 3,000 of the total 10,000 in 2010, but the resulting low density creates a strain on the city's infrastructure. To remedy this, a number of solutions have been proposed including resident relocation from more sparsely populated neighborhoods and converting unused space to urban agricultural use, including Hantz Woodlands, though the city expects to be in the planning stages for up to another two years.. City of Detroit. Retrieved July 5, 2012. \n\nPublic funding and private investment have also been made with promises to rehabilitate neighborhoods. In April 2008, the city announced a $300-million stimulus plan to create jobs and revitalize neighborhoods, financed by city bonds and paid for by earmarking about 15% of the wagering tax. The city's working plans for neighborhood revitalizations include 7-Mile/Livernois, Brightmoor, East English Village, Grand River/Greenfield, North End, and Osborn. Private organizations have pledged substantial funding to the efforts..DEGA. Retrieved on January 2, 2009.[http://www.cfsem.org/grants/special_grants/PDFs/CF_DetroitNeighborhoodsSingle.pdf Detroit Neighborhood Fund].Community Foundation for Southeast Michigan. Retrieved January 2, 2009. Additionally, the city has cleared a 1200 acre section of land for large-scale neighborhood construction, which the city is calling the Far Eastside Plan. In 2011, Mayor Bing announced a plan to categorize neighborhoods by their needs and prioritize the most needed services for those neighborhoods. \n\nDemographics\n\nIn the 2010 United States Census, the city had 713,777 residents, ranking it the 18th most populous city in the United States. \n\nOf the large shrinking cities of the United States, Detroit has had the most dramatic decline in population of the past 60 years (down 1,135,971) and the second largest percentage decline (down 61.4%, second only to St. Louis, Missouri's 62.7%). While the decline in Detroit's population has been ongoing since 1950, the most dramatic period was the significant 25% decline between the 2000 and 2010 Census.\n\nThe population collapse has resulted in large numbers of abandoned homes and commercial buildings, and areas of the city hit hard by urban decay. \n\nDetroit's 713,777 residents represent 269,445 households, and 162,924 families residing in the city. The population density was 5,144.3 people per square mile (1,895/km²). There were 349,170 housing units at an average density of 2,516.5 units per square mile (971.6/km²). Housing density has declined. The city has demolished thousands of Detroit's abandoned houses, planting some areas and in others allowing the growth of urban prairie.\n\nOf the 269,445 households, 34.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.5% were married couples living together, 31.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 39.5% were non-families, 34.0% were made up of individuals, and 3.9% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. Average household size was 2.59, and average family size was 3.36.\n\nThere is a wide distribution of age in the city, with 31.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.\n\nAccording to a 2014 study, 67% of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians, with 49% professing attendance Protestant churches, and 16% professing Roman Catholic beliefs, while 24% claim no religious affiliation. Other religions collectively make up about 8% of the population\n\nIncome and employment\n\nThe loss of industrial and working-class jobs in the city has resulted in high rates of poverty and associated problems. From 2000 to 2009, the city's estimated median household income fell from $29,526 to $26,098. the mean income of Detroit is below the overall U.S. average by several thousand dollars. Of every three Detroit residents, one lives in poverty. Luke Bergmann, author of Getting Ghost: Two Young Lives and the Struggle for the Soul of an American City, said in 2010, \"Detroit is now one of the poorest big cities in the country.\" \n\nIn the 2010 American Community Survey, median household income in the city was $25,787, and the median income for a family was $31,011. The per capita income for the city was $14,118. 32.3% of families had income at or below the federally defined poverty level. Out of the total population, 53.6% of those under the age of 18 and 19.8% of those 65 and older had income at or below the federally defined poverty line.\n\nOakland County in Metro Detroit, once rated amongst the wealthiest US counties per household, is no longer shown in the top 25 listing of Forbes magazine. But internal county statistical methods – based on measuring per capita income for counties with more than one million residents – show that Oakland is still within the top 12, slipping from the 4th-most affluent such county in the U.S. in 2004 to 11th-most affluent in 2009. Detroit dominates Wayne County, which has an average household income of about $38,000, compared to Oakland County's $62,000. \n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nThe city's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century, fed largely by an influx of European, Middle Eastern (Lebanese, Assyrian/Chaldean), and Southern migrants to work in the burgeoning automobile industry. In 1940, Whites were 90.4% of the city's population. Since 1950 the city has seen a major shift in its population to the suburbs. In 1910, fewer than 6,000 blacks called the city home; in 1930 more than 120,000 blacks lived in Detroit. The thousands of African Americans who came to Detroit were part of the Great Migration of the 20th century. \n\nDetroit remains one of the most racially segregated cities in the United States. From the 1940s to the 1970s a second wave of Blacks moved to Detroit to escape Jim Crow laws in the south and find jobs. However, they soon found themselves excluded from white areas of the city—through violence, laws, and economic discrimination (e.g., redlining). White residents attacked black homes: breaking windows, starting fires, and exploding bombs. The pattern of segregation was later magnified by white migration to the suburbs. One of the implications of racial segregation, which correlates with class segregation, may be overall worse health for some populations.\n\nWhile Blacks/African-Americans comprised only 13 percent of Michigan's population in 2010, they made up nearly 82 percent of Detroit's population. The next largest population groups were Whites, at 10 percent, and Hispanics, at 6 percent. According to the 2010 Census, segregation in Detroit has decreased in absolute and in relative terms. In the first decade of the 21st century, about two-thirds of the total black population in metropolitan area resided within the city limits of Detroit. The number of integrated neighborhoods has increased from 100 in 2000 to 204 in 2010. The city has also moved down the ranking, from number one most segregated to number four. A 2011 op-ed in The New York Times attributed the decreased segregation rating to the overall exodus from the city, cautioning that these areas may soon become more segregated. This pattern already happened in the 1970s, when apparent integration was actually a precursor to white flight and resegregation. Over a 60-year period, white flight occurred in the city. According to an estimate of the Michigan Metropolitan Information Center, from 2008 to 2009 the percentage of non-Hispanic White residents increased from 8.4% to 13.3%. Some empty nesters and many younger White people moved into the city while many African Americans moved to the suburbs.Wisely, John. \"[http://www.ksdk.com/news/local/story.aspx?storyid=219112 Number of whites living in Detroit goes up for first time in 60 years].\" Detroit Free Press at KSDK. September 29, 2010. Retrieved on January 7, 2013.\n\nDetroit has a Mexican-American population. In the early 20th century thousands of Mexicans came to Detroit to work in agricultural, automotive, and steel jobs. During the Mexican Repatriation of the 1930s many Mexicans in Detroit were willingly repatriated or forced to repatriate. By the 1940s the Mexican community began to settle what is now Mexicantown. The population significantly increased in the 1990s due to immigration from Jalisco. In 2010 Detroit had 48,679 Hispanics, including 36,452 Mexicans. The number of Hispanics was a 70% increase from the number in 1990.Denvir, Daniel. \"[http://www.theatlanticcities.com/neighborhoods/2012/09/paradox-mexicantown-detroits-uncomfortable-relationship-immigrants-it-desperately-needs/3357/ The Paradox of Mexicantown: Detroit's Uncomfortable Relationship With the Immigrants it Desperately Needs].\" ([http://www.webcitation.org/6GjhBkQ2c Archive]) The Atlantic Cities. September 24, 2012. Retrieved on January 15, 2013.\n\nAfter World War II, many people from Appalachia settled in Detroit. Appalachians formed communities and their children acquired southern accents. Many Lithuanians settled in Detroit during the World War II era, especially on the city's Southwest side in the West Vernor area, where the renovated Lithuanian Hall reopened in 2006. \n\nIn 2001, 103,000 Jews, or about 1.9% of the population, were living in the Detroit area, in both Detroit and Ann Arbor. \n\nAsians and Asian Americans\n\nAs of 2002, of all of the municipalities in the Wayne County-Oakland County-Macomb County area, Detroit had the second largest Asian population. As of that year Detroit's percentage of Asians was 1%, far lower than the 13.3% of Troy.Metzger, Kurt and Jason Booza. \"[http://www.cus.wayne.edu/content/publications/Asians7.pdf Asians in the United States, Michigan and Metropolitan Detroit].\" Center for Urban Studies, Wayne State University. January 2002 Working Paper Series, No. 7. p. 8. Retrieved on November 6, 2013. By 2000 Troy had the largest Asian American population in the tricounty area, surpassing Detroit.Metzger, Kurt and Jason Booza. \"[http://www.cus.wayne.edu/content/publications/Asians7.pdf Asians in the United States, Michigan and Metropolitan Detroit].\" Center for Urban Studies, Wayne State University. January 2002 Working Paper Series, No. 7. p. 10. Retrieved on November 6, 2013.\n\nAs of 2002 there are four areas in Detroit with significant Asian and Asian American populations. Northeast Detroit has population of Hmong with a smaller group of Lao people. A portion of Detroit next to eastern Hamtramck includes Bangladeshi Americans, Indian Americans, and Pakistani Americans; nearly all of the Bangladeshi population in Detroit lives in that area. Many of those residents own small businesses or work in blue collar jobs, and the population in that area is mostly Muslim. The area north of Downtown Detroit; including the region around the Henry Ford Hospital, the Detroit Medical Center, and Wayne State University; has transient Asian national origin residents who are university students or hospital workers. Few of them have permanent residency after schooling ends. They are mostly Chinese and Indian but the population also includes Filipinos, Koreans, and Pakistanis. In Southwest Detroit and western Detroit there are smaller, scattered Asian communities including an area in the westside adjacent to Dearborn and Redford Township that has a mostly Indian Asian population, and a community of Vietnamese and Laotians in Southwest Detroit.\n\n the city has one of the U.S.'s largest concentrations of Hmong Americans. In 2006, the city had about 4,000 Hmong and other Asian immigrant families. Most Hmong live east of Coleman Young Airport near Osborn High School. Hmong immigrant families generally have lower incomes than those of suburban Asian families.Archambault, Dennis. \"[http://www.modeldmedia.com/features/asianyouth70.aspx Young and Asian in Detroit].\" ([http://www.webcitation.org/6GWK0UQn4 Archive]) Model D Media. Issue Media Group, LLC. Tuesday November 14, 2006. Retrieved on November 5, 2012.\n\nEconomy\n\nSeveral major corporations are based in the city, including three Fortune 500 companies. The most heavily represented sectors are manufacturing (particularly automotive), finance, technology, and health care. The most significant companies based in Detroit include: General Motors, Quicken Loans, Ally Financial, Compuware, Shinola, American Axle, Little Caesars, DTE Energy, Lowe Campbell Ewald, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan, and Rossetti Architects.\n\nAbout 80,500 people work in downtown Detroit, comprising one-fifth of the city's employment base.The Urban Markets Initiative, Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program, The Social Compact Inc., University of Michigan Graduate Real Estate Program, (October 2006).[http://www.downtowndetroit.org/ddp/newsroom/Downtown_Detroit_in_Focus.pdf Downtown Detroit in Focus: A Profile of Market Opportunity].Detroit Economic Growth Corporation and Downtown Detroit Partnership. Retrieved on June 14, 2008. Aside from the numerous Detroit-based companies listed above, downtown contains large offices for Comerica, Chrysler, HP Enterprise, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, KPMG, and Ernst & Young. Ford Motor Company is located in the adjacent city of Dearborn.\n\nThousands more employees work in Midtown, north of the central business district. Midtown's anchors are the city's largest single employer Detroit Medical Center, Wayne State University, and the Henry Ford Health System in New Center. Midtown is also home to watchmaker Shinola and an array of small and/or startup companies. New Center bases TechTown, a research and business incubator hub that is part of the WSU system. Like downtown and Corktown, Midtown also has a fast-growing retailing and restaurant scene.\n\nA number of the city's downtown employers are relatively new, as there has been a marked trend of companies moving from satellite suburbs around Metropolitan Detroit into the downtown core. Compuware completed its world headquarters in downtown in 2003. OnStar, Blue Cross Blue Shield, and HP Enterprise Services are located at the Renaissance Center. PricewaterhouseCoopers Plaza offices are adjacent to Ford Field, and Ernst & Young completed its office building at One Kennedy Square in 2006. Perhaps most prominently, in 2010, Quicken Loans, one of the largest mortgage lenders, relocated its world headquarters and 4,000 employees to downtown Detroit, consolidating its suburban offices.Howes, Daniel (November 12, 2007).[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\n/20071112/UPDATE/711120450/1361 Quicken moving to downtown Detroit].The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 12, 2007. In July 2012, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office opened its Elijah J. McCoy Satellite Office in the Rivertown/Warehouse District as its first location outside Washington, D.C.'s metropolitan area. \n\nIn April 2014, the Department of Labor reported the city's unemployment rate at 14.5%.\n\nThe city of Detroit and other private-public partnerships have attempted to catalyze the region's growth by facilitating the building and historical rehabilitation of residential high-rises in the downtown, creating a zone that offers many business tax incentives, creating recreational spaces such as the Detroit RiverWalk, Campus Martius Park, Dequindre Cut Greenway, and Green Alleys in Midtown. The city itself has cleared sections of land while retaining a number of historically significant vacant buildings in order to spur redevelopment;Morice, Zach (September 21, 2007).[http://info.aia.org/aiarchitect/thisweek07/0921/0921p_detroit.cfm Planting community in fallow fields].American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on December 23, 2009. though it has struggled with finances, the city issued bonds in 2008 to provide funding for ongoing work to demolish blighted properties. Two years earlier, downtown reported $1.3 billion in restorations and new developments which increased the number of construction jobs in the city. In the decade prior to 2006, downtown gained more than $15 billion in new investment from private and public sectors.The Urban Markets Initiative, Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program The Social Compact, Inc. University of Michigan Graduate Real Estate Program (October 2006).[http://www.downtowndetroit.org/ddp/market_data.htm Downtown Detroit In Focus: A Profile of Market Opportunity]. Downtown Detroit Partnership. Retrieved on July 10, 2010. \n\nDespite the city's recent financial issues, many developers remain unfazed by Detroit's problems. Midtown is one of the most successful areas within Detroit to have a residential occupancy rate of 96%. Numerous developments have been recently completely or are in various stages of construction. These include the $82 million reconstruction of downtown's David Whitney Building (now an Aloft Hotel and luxury residences), the Woodward Garden Block Development in Midtown, the residential conversion of the David Broderick Tower in downtown, the rehabilitation of the Book Cadillac Hotel (now a Westin and luxury condos) and Fort Shelby Hotel (now Doubletree) also in downtown, and various smaller projects. \n\nDowntown's population of young professionals is growing and retail is expanding. A study in 2007 found out that Downtown's new residents are predominantly young professionals (57% are ages 25 to 34, 45% have bachelor's degrees, and 34% have a master's or professional degree), a trend which has hastened over the last decade. John Varvatos is set to open a downtown store in 2015, and Restoration Hardware is rumored to be opening a store nearby.Haimerl, Amy (December 11, 2014).[http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20141211/BLOG017/141219963/restoration-hardware-to-open-outlet-store-in-downtown-detroit Restoration Hardware to Open].Crain's Detroit Business. Retrieved on February 5, 2015.\n\nOn July 25, 2013, Meijer, a midwestern retail chain, opened its first supercenter store in Detroit,; this was a 20 million dollar, 190,000-square-foot store in the northern portion of the city and it also is the centerpiece of a new 72 million dollar shopping center named Gateway Marketplace. On June 11, 2015, Meijer opened its second supercenter store in the city. \n\nOn May 21, 2014, JPMorgan Chase announced that it was injecting $100 million over five years into Detroit's economy, providing development funding for a variety of projects that would increase employment. It is the largest commitment made to any one city by the nation's biggest bank. Of the $100 million, $50 million will go toward development projects, $25 million will go toward city blight removal, $12.5 million will go for job training, $7 million will go for small businesses in the city, and $5.5 million will go toward the M-1 light rail project. On May 19, 2015, JPMorgan Chase announced that it has invested $32 million for two redevelopment projects in the city's Capitol Park district, the Capitol Park Lofts (the former Capitol Park Building) and the Detroit Savings Bank building at 1212 Griswold. Those investments are separate from Chase's five-year, $100-million commitment. \n\nCulture and contemporary life\n\nIn the central portions of Detroit, the population of young professionals, artists, and other transplants is growing and retail is expanding.Harrison, Sheena (June 25, 2007). [http://www.crainsdetroit.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\n/20070625/SUB/70623003/-1/newsletter02 DEGA enlists help to spur Detroit retail]. Crain's Detroit Business. Retrieved on November 28, 2007. \"New downtown residents are largely young professionals according to Social Compact.\"Halaas, Jaime (December 20, 2005).[http://www.modeldmedia.com/features/loftdesign.aspx Inside Detroit Lofts]. Model D Media. Retrieved on November 28, 2007. This dynamic is luring additional new residents, and former residents returning from other cities, to the city's Downtown along with the revitalized Midtown and New Center areas.Reppert, Joe (October 2007).[http://downtowndetroit.org/ddp/newsroom/Detroit_Drill_Down_Report.pdf Detroit Neighborhood Market Drill Down]. Social Compact. Retrieved on July 10, 2010. \n\nA desire to be closer to the urban scene has also attracted some young professionals to reside in inner ring suburbs such as Grosse Pointe and Royal Oak, Michigan. Detroit's proximity to Windsor, Ontario, provides for views and nightlife, along with Ontario's minimum drinking age of 19. A 2011 study by Walk Score recognized Detroit for its above average walkability among large U.S. cities. About two-thirds of suburban residents occasionally dine and attend cultural events or take in professional games in the city of Detroit. \n\nNicknames\n\nKnown as the world's automotive center, \"Detroit\" is a metonym for that industry. Detroit's auto industry, some of which was converted to wartime defense production, was an important element of the American \"Arsenal of Democracy\" supporting the Allied powers during World War II. It is an important source of popular music legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, the Motor City and Motown. Other nicknames arose in the 20th century, including City of Champions, beginning in the 1930s for its successes in individual and team sport; The D; Hockeytown (a trademark owned by the city's NHL club, the Red Wings); Rock City (after the Kiss song \"Detroit Rock City\"); and The 313 (its telephone area code). \n\nMusic\n\nLive music has been a prominent feature of Detroit's nightlife since the late 1940s, bringing the city recognition under the nickname 'Motown'. The metropolitan area has many nationally prominent live music venues. Concerts hosted by Live Nation perform throughout the Detroit area. Large concerts are held at DTE Energy Music Theatre and The Palace of Auburn Hills. The city's theatre venue circuit is the United States' second largest and hosts Broadway performances. \n\nThe city of Detroit has a rich musical heritage and has contributed to a number of different genres over the decades leading into the new millennium. Important music events in the city include: the Detroit International Jazz Festival, the Detroit Electronic Music Festival, the Motor City Music Conference (MC2), the Urban Organic Music Conference, the Concert of Colors, and the hip-hop Summer Jamz festival.\n\nIn the 1940s, Detroit blues artist John Lee Hooker became a long-term resident in the city's southwest Delray neighborhood. Hooker, among other important blues musicians migrated from his home in Mississippi bringing the Delta blues to northern cities like Detroit. Hooker recorded for Fortune Records, the biggest pre-Motown blues/soul label. During the 1950s, the city became a center for jazz, with stars performing in the Black Bottom neighborhood. Prominent emerging Jazz musicians of the 1960s included: trumpet player Donald Byrd who attended Cass Tech and performed with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers early in his career and Saxophonist Pepper Adams who enjoyed a solo career and accompanied Byrd on several albums. The Graystone International Jazz Museum documents jazz in Detroit. \n\nOther, prominent Motor City R&B stars in the 1950s and early 1960s was Nolan Strong, Andre Williams and Nathaniel Mayer – who all scored local and national hits on the Fortune Records label. According to Smokey Robinson, Strong was a primary influence on his voice as a teenager. The Fortune label was a family-operated label located on Third Avenue in Detroit, and was owned by the husband and wife team of Jack Brown and Devora Brown. Fortune, which also released country, gospel and rockabilly LPs and 45s, laid the groundwork for Motown, which became Detroit's most legendary record label.\n\nBerry Gordy, Jr. founded Motown Records which rose to prominence during the 1960s and early 1970s with acts such as Stevie Wonder, The Temptations, The Four Tops, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, Diana Ross & The Supremes, the Jackson 5, Martha and the Vandellas, The Spinners, Gladys Knight & the Pips, The Marvelettes, The Elgins, The Monitors, The Velvelettes and Marvin Gaye. Artists were backed by in-house vocalists The Andantes and The Funk Brothers, the Motown house band that was featured in Paul Justman's 2002 documentary film Standing in the Shadows of Motown, based on Allan Slutsky's book of the same name.\n\nThe Motown Sound played an important role in the crossover appeal with popular music, since it was the first African American owned record label to primarily feature African-American artists. Gordy moved Motown to Los Angeles in 1972 to pursue film production, but the company has since returned to Detroit. Aretha Franklin, another Detroit R&B star, carried the Motown Sound; however, she did not record with Berry's Motown Label.\n\nLocal artists and bands rose to prominence in the 1960s and 70s including: the MC5, The Stooges, Bob Seger, Amboy Dukes featuring Ted Nugent, Mitch Ryder and The Detroit Wheels, Rare Earth, Alice Cooper, and Suzi Quatro. The group Kiss emphasized the city's connection with rock in the song Detroit Rock City and the movie produced in 1999. In the 1980s, Detroit was an important center of the hardcore punk rock underground with many nationally known bands coming out of the city and its suburbs, such as The Necros, The Meatmen, and Negative Approach.\n\nIn the 1990s and the new millennium, the city has produced a number of influential hip hop artists, including Eminem, the hip-hop artist with the highest cumulative sales, hip-hop producer J Dilla, rapper and producer Esham and hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse. The city is also home to rappers Big Sean and Danny Brown. The band Sponge toured and produced music, with artists such as Kid Rock and Uncle Kracker. The city also has an active garage rock genre that has generated national attention with acts such as: The White Stripes, The Von Bondies, The Detroit Cobras, The Dirtbombs, Electric Six, and The Hard Lessons.\n\nDetroit is cited as the birthplace of techno music in the early 1980s. The city also lends its name to an early and pioneering genre of electronic dance music, \"Detroit techno\". Featuring science fiction imagery and robotic themes, its futuristic style was greatly influenced by the geography of Detroit's urban decline and its industrial past. Prominent Detroit techno artists include Juan Atkins, Derrick May, and Kevin Saunderson. The Detroit Electronic Music Festival, now known as \"Movement\", occurs annually in late May on Memorial Day Weekend, and takes place in Hart Plaza. In the early years (2000-2002), this was a landmark event, boasting over a million estimated attendees annually, coming from all over the world to celebrate Techno music in the city of its birth.\n\nEntertainment and performing arts\n\nMajor theaters in Detroit include the Fox Theatre (5,174 seats), Music Hall (1,770 seats), the Gem Theatre (451 seats), Masonic Temple Theatre (4,404 seats), the Detroit Opera House (2,765 seats), the Fisher Theatre (2,089 seats), The Fillmore Detroit (2,200 seats), Saint Andrew's Hall, the Majestic Theater, and Orchestra Hall (2,286 seats) which hosts the renowned Detroit Symphony Orchestra. The Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated with the purchase of the Detroit Opera House in 1922 by the Nederlander family.\n\nMotown Motion Picture Studios with 535000 sqft produces movies in Detroit and the surrounding area based at the Pontiac Centerpoint Business Campus for a film industry expected to employ over 4,000 people in the metro area. \n\nTourism\n\nMany of the area's prominent museums are located in the historic cultural center neighborhood around Wayne State University and the College for Creative Studies. These museums include the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Historical Museum, Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, the Detroit Science Center, as well as the main branch of the Detroit Public Library. Other cultural highlights include Motown Historical Museum, the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant museum (birthplace of the Ford Model T and the world's oldest car factory building open to the public), the Pewabic Pottery studio and school, the Tuskegee Airmen Museum, Fort Wayne, the Dossin Great Lakes Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Art Detroit (MOCAD), the Contemporary Art Institute of Detroit (CAID), and the Belle Isle Conservatory.\n\nIn 2010, the G.R. N'Namdi Gallery opened in a 16000 sqft complex in Midtown. Important history of America and the Detroit area are exhibited at The Henry Ford in Dearborn, the United States' largest indoor-outdoor museum complex. The Detroit Historical Society provides information about tours of area churches, skyscrapers, and mansions. Inside Detroit, meanwhile, hosts tours, educational programming, and a downtown welcome center. Other sites of interest are the Detroit Zoo in Royal Oak, the Cranbrook Art Museum in Bloomfield Hills, the Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory on Belle Isle, and Walter P. Chrysler Museum in Auburn Hills.\n\nThe city's Greektown and three downtown casino resort hotels serve as part of an entertainment hub. The Eastern Market farmer's distribution center is the largest open-air flowerbed market in the United States and has more than 150 foods and specialty businesses. On Saturdays, about 45,000 people shop the city's historic Eastern Market..Model D Media (April 5, 2008). Retrieved January 24, 2011. The Midtown and the New Center area are centered on Wayne State University and Henry Ford Hospital. Midtown has about 50,000 residents and attracts millions of visitors each year to its museums and cultural centers;.Model D Media (April 4, 2008). Retrieved on January 24, 2011. for example, the Detroit Festival of the Arts in Midtown draws about 350,000 people.\n\nAnnual summer events include the Electronic Music Festival, International Jazz Festival, the Woodward Dream Cruise, the African World Festival, the country music Hoedown, Noel Night, and Dally in the Alley. Within downtown, Campus Martius Park hosts large events, including the annual Motown Winter Blast. As the world's traditional automotive center, the city hosts the North American International Auto Show. Held since 1924, America's Thanksgiving Parade is one of the nation's largest. River Days, a five-day summer festival on the International Riverfront lead up to the Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival fireworks, which draw super sized-crowds ranging from hundreds of thousands to over three million people.Fifth Third Bank rocks the Winter Blast.Michigan Chronicle. (March 14, 2006).\n\nAn important civic sculpture in Detroit is \"The Spirit of Detroit\" by Marshall Fredericks at the Coleman Young Municipal Center. The image is often used as a symbol of Detroit and the statue itself is occasionally dressed in sports jerseys to celebrate when a Detroit team is doing well. A memorial to Joe Louis at the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward Avenues was dedicated on October 16, 1986. The sculpture, commissioned by Sports Illustrated and executed by Robert Graham, is a 24 ft long arm with a fisted hand suspended by a pyramidal framework. \n\nArtist Tyree Guyton created the controversial street art exhibit known as the Heidelberg Project in 1986, using found objects including cars, clothing and shoes found in the neighborhood near and on Heidelberg Street on the near East Side of Detroit. Guyton continues to work with neighborhood residents and tourists in constantly evolving the neighborhood-wide art installation.\n\nSports\n\nDetroit is one of 12 American metropolitan areas that are home to professional teams representing the four major sports in North America. All these teams but one play within the city of Detroit itself (the NBA's Detroit Pistons play in suburban Auburn Hills at The Palace of Auburn Hills). There are three active major sports venues within the city: Comerica Park (home of the Major League Baseball team Detroit Tigers), Ford Field (home of the NFL's Detroit Lions), and Joe Louis Arena (home of the NHL's Detroit Red Wings). A 1996 marketing campaign promoted the nickname \"Hockeytown\".\n\nThe Detroit Tigers have won four World Series titles. The Detroit Red Wings have won 11 Stanley Cups (the most by an American NHL franchise). The Detroit Pistons have won three NBA titles. With the Pistons' first of three NBA titles in 1989, the city of Detroit has won titles in all four of the major professional sports leagues. Two new downtown stadiums for the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions opened in 2000 and 2002, respectively, returning the Lions to the city proper.\n\nIn college sports, Detroit's central location within the Mid-American Conference has made it a frequent site for the league's championship events. While the MAC Basketball Tournament moved permanently to Cleveland starting in 2000, the MAC Football Championship Game has been played at Ford Field in Detroit since 2004, and annually attracts 25,000 to 30,000 fans. The University of Detroit Mercy has a NCAA Division I program, and Wayne State University has both NCAA Division I and II programs. The NCAA football Little Caesars Pizza Bowl is held at Ford Field each December.\n\nThe local soccer team is called the Detroit City Football Club and was founded in 2012. The team plays in the National Premier Soccer League, and its nickname is Le Rouge. \n\nThe city hosted the 2005 MLB All-Star Game, 2006 Super Bowl XL, 2006 and 2012 World Series, WrestleMania 23 in 2007, and the NCAA Final Four in April 2009. \nThe city hosted the Detroit Indy Grand Prix on Belle Isle Park from 1989 to 2001, 2007 to 2008, and 2012 and beyond. In 2007, open-wheel racing returned to Belle Isle with both Indy Racing League and American Le Mans Series Racing.\n\nIn the years following the mid-1930s, Detroit was referred to as the \"City of Champions\" after the Tigers, Lions, and Red Wings captured all three major professional sports championships in a seven-month period of time (the Tigers won the World Series in October 1935; the Lions won the NFL championship in December 1935; the Red Wings won the Stanley Cup in April 1936). In 1932, Eddie \"The Midnight Express\" Tolan from Detroit won the 100- and 200-meter races and two gold medals at the 1932 Summer Olympics. Joe Louis won the heavyweight championship of the world in 1937.\n\nDetroit has made the most bids to host the Summer Olympics without ever being awarded the games: seven unsuccessful bids for the 1944, 1952, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1968 and 1972 games.\n\nLaw and government\n\nThe city is governed pursuant to the Home Rule Charter of the City of Detroit. The city government is run by a mayor and a nine-member city council and clerk elected on an at-large nonpartisan ballot. Since voters approved the city's charter in 1974, Detroit has had a \"strong mayoral\" system, with the mayor approving departmental appointments. The council approves budgets but the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking. City ordinances and substantially large contracts must be approved by the council. The Detroit City Code is the codification of Detroit's local ordinances.\n\nThe city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records. Municipal elections for mayor, city council and city clerk are held at four-year intervals, in the year after presidential elections. Following a November 2009 referendum, seven council members will be elected from districts beginning in 2013 while two will continue to be elected at-large.Nelson, Gabe (November 3, 2009).[http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20091103/FREE/911039978 Voters overwhelmingly approve Detroit Proposal D].Crains Detroit Business. Retrieved on December 23, 2009.\n\nDetroit's courts are state-administered and elections are nonpartisan. The Probate Court for Wayne County is located in the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center in downtown Detroit. The Circuit Court is located across Gratiot Ave. in the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice, in downtown Detroit. The city is home to the Thirty-Sixth District Court, as well as the First District of the Michigan Court of Appeals and the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. The city provides law enforcement through the Detroit Police Department and emergency services through the Detroit Fire Department.\n\nCrime\n\nDetroit has struggled with high crime for decades. Detroit held the title of murder capital between 1985-1987 with a murder rate around 58 per 100,000. Crime has since decreased and, in 2014, the murder rate was 43.4 per 100,000, lower than in St. Louis, Missouri. Although the murder rate increased by 6% during the first half of 2015, it was surpassed by St Louis and Baltimore which saw much greater spikes in violence. At year-end 2015, Detroit had 295 criminal homicides, down slightly from 299 in 2014. \n\nNearly two-thirds of all murders in Michigan in 2011 occurred in Detroit. Although the rate of violent crime dropped 11 percent in 2008, violent crime in Detroit has not declined as much as the national average from 2007 to 2011. The violent crime rate is one of the highest in the United States. Neighborhoodscout.com reported a crime rate of 62.18 per 1,000 residents for property crimes, and 16.73 per 1,000 for violent crimes (compared to national figures of 32 per 1,000 for property crimes and 5 per 1,000 for violent crime in 2008). \n\nThe city's downtown typically has lower crime than national and state averages.Booza, Jason C. (July 23, 2008).[http://thedetroithub.com/site/user/files/2007RealityvsPerceptionsCrimeReport.pdf Reality v. Perceptions: An Analysis of Crime and Safety in Downtown Detroit]. ([http://www.webcitation.org/6DUJ7jtQb Archive]) Michigan Metropolitan Information Center, Wayne State University Center for Urban Studies. Retrieved August 14, 2011. According to a 2007 analysis, Detroit officials note that about 65 to 70 percent of homicides in the city were drug related,Shelton, Steve Malik (January 30, 2008).. Michigan Chronicle. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. with the rate of unsolved murders roughly 70%.\n\nAreas of the city closer to the Detroit River are also patrolled by the United States Border Patrol.\n\nIn 2012, crime in the city was among the reasons for more expensive car insurance. \n\nPolitics\n\nBeginning with its incorporation in 1802, Detroit has had a total of 74 mayors. Detroit's last mayor from the Republican Party was Louis Miriani, who served from 1957 to 1962. In 1973, the city elected its first black mayor, Coleman Young. Despite development efforts, his combative style during his five terms in office was not well received by many suburban residents. Mayor Dennis Archer, a former Michigan Supreme Court Justice, refocused the city's attention on redevelopment with a plan to permit three casinos downtown. By 2008, three major casino resort hotels established operations in the city.\n\nIn 2000, the City requested an investigation by the United States Justice Department into the Detroit Police Department which was concluded in 2003 over allegations regarding its use of force and civil rights violations. The city proceeded with a major reorganization of the Detroit Police Department. \n\nPublic finances\n\nIn March 2013, Governor Rick Snyder declared a financial emergency in the city, stating that the city has a $327 million budget deficit and faces more than $14 billion in long-term debt. It has been making ends meet on a month-to-month basis with the help of bond money held in a state escrow account and has instituted mandatory unpaid days off for many city workers. Those troubles, along with underfunded city services, such as police and fire departments, and ineffective turnaround plans from Bing and the City Council led the state of Michigan to appoint an emergency manager for Detroit on March 14, 2013. On June 14, 2013 Detroit defaulted on $2.5 billion of debt by withholding $39.7 million in interest payments, while Emergency Manager Kevyn Orr met with bondholders and other creditors in an attempt to restructure the city's $18.5 billion debt and avoid bankruptcy. On July 18, 2013, the City of Detroit filed for Chapter 9 bankruptcy protection. It was declared bankrupt by U.S. judge Stephen Rhodes on December 3, with its $18.5 billion debt he said in accepting the city's contention that it is broke and that negotiations with its thousands of creditors were infeasible.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges and universities\n\nDetroit is home to several institutions of higher learning including Wayne State University, a national research university with medical and law schools in the Midtown area offering hundreds of academic degrees and programs. The University of Detroit Mercy, located in Northwest Detroit in the University District, is a prominent Roman Catholic co-educational university affiliated with the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) and the Sisters of Mercy. The University of Detroit Mercy offers more than a hundred academic degrees and programs of study including business, dentistry, law, engineering, architecture, nursing and allied health professions. The University of Detroit Mercy School of Law is located Downtown across from the Renaissance Center.\n\nSacred Heart Major Seminary, originally founded in 1919, is affiliated with Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome and offers pontifical degrees as well as civil undergraduate and graduate degrees. Sacred Heart Major Seminary offers a variety of academic programs for both clerical and lay students. Other institutions in the city include the College for Creative Studies, Lewis College of Business, Marygrove College and Wayne County Community College. In June 2009, the Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine which is based in East Lansing opened a satellite campus located at the Detroit Medical Center. The University of Michigan was established in 1817 in Detroit and later moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. In 1959, University of Michigan–Dearborn was established in neighboring Dearborn.\n\nPrimary and secondary schools\n\nPublic schools and charter schools\n\nWith about 66,000 public school students (2011–12), the Detroit Public Schools (DPS) district is the largest school district in Michigan. Detroit has an additional 56,000 charter school students for a combined enrollment of about 122,000 students. there are about as many students in charter schools as there are in district schools. \n\nIn 1999, the Michigan Legislature removed the locally elected board of education amid allegations of mismanagement and replaced it with a reform board appointed by the mayor and governor. The elected board of education was re-established following a city referendum in 2005. The first election of the new 11-member board of education occurred on November 8, 2005. \n\nDue to growing Detroit charter schools enrollment as well as a continued exodus of population, the city planned to close many public schools.Hing, Julianne (March 17, 2010).[http://colorlines.com/archives/2010/03/45_dps_schools_to_close_where_have_all_of_detroits_students_gone.html Where Have All The Students Gone?].Color Lines.com. Retrieved on August 19, 2010. State officials report a 68% graduation rate for Detroit's public schools adjusted for those who change schools. \n\nPublic and charter school students in the city have performed poorly on standardized tests. While Detroit public schools scored a record low on national tests, the publicly funded charter schools did even worse than the public schools. \n\nPrivate schools\n\nDetroit is served by various private schools, as well as parochial Roman Catholic schools operated by the Archdiocese of Detroit. there are four Catholic grade schools and three Catholic high schools in the City of Detroit, with all of them in the city's west side.\"[http://www.freep.com/article/20130201/NEWS01/302010079/Detroit-area-s-Catholic-schools-shrink-but-tradition-endures Detroit area's Catholic schools shrink, but tradition endures]\" ([http://www.webcitation.org/6SY5NJ0zC Archive]). Detroit Free Press. February 1, 2013. Retrieved on September 13, 2014. The Archdiocese of Detroit lists a number of primary and secondary schools in the metro area as Catholic education has emigrated to the suburbs. Of the three Catholic high schools in the city, two are operated by the Society of Jesus and the third is co-sponsored by the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary and the Congregation of St. Basil. \n\nIn the 1964-1965 school year there were about 110 Catholic grade schools in Detroit, Hamtramck, and Highland Park and 55 Catholic high schools in those three cities. The Catholic school population in Detroit has decreased due to the increase of charter schools, increasing tuition at Catholic schools, the small number of African-American Catholics, White Catholics moving to suburbs, and the decreased number of teaching nuns.\n\nMedia\n\nThe Detroit Free Press and The Detroit News are the major daily newspapers, both broadsheet publications published together under a joint operating agreement called the Detroit Newspaper Partnership. Media philanthropy includes the Detroit Free Press high school journalism program and the Old Newsboys' Goodfellow Fund of Detroit. In March 2009, the two newspapers reduced home delivery to three days a week, print reduced newsstand issues of the papers on non-delivery days and focus resources on Internet-based news delivery. The Metro Times, founded in 1980, is a weekly publication, covering news, arts & entertainment. \n\nAlso founded in 1935 and based in Detroit the Michigan Chronicle is one of the oldest and most respected African-American weekly newspapers in America. Covering politics, entertainment, sports and community events. The Detroit television market is the 11th largest in the United States;[http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html Nielsen Media Research Local Universe Estimates (September 24, 2005)] The Nielson Company according to estimates that do not include audiences located in large areas of Ontario, Canada (Windsor and its surrounding area on broadcast and cable TV, as well as several other cable markets in Ontario, such as the city of Ottawa) which receive and watch Detroit television stations.\n\nDetroit has the 11th largest radio market in the United States, though this ranking does not take into account Canadian audiences. Nearby Canadian stations such as Windsor's CKLW (whose jingles formerly proclaimed \"CKLW-the Motor City\") are popular in Detroit.\n\nHardcore Pawn, an American documentary reality television series produced for truTV, features the day-to-day operations of American Jewelry and Loan, a family-owned pawn shop on Greenfield Road.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nHealth systems\n\nWithin the city of Detroit, there are over a dozen major hospitals which include the Detroit Medical Center (DMC), Henry Ford Health System, St. John Health System, and the John D. Dingell VA Medical Center. The DMC, a regional Level I trauma center, consists of Detroit Receiving Hospital and University Health Center, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Harper University Hospital, Hutzel Women's Hospital, Kresge Eye Institute, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, Sinai-Grace Hospital, and the Karmanos Cancer Institute. The DMC has more than 2,000 licensed beds and 3,000 affiliated physicians. It is the largest private employer in the City of Detroit. Wayne State University Retrieved January 24, 2011. The center is staffed by physicians from the Wayne State University School of Medicine, the largest single-campus medical school in the United States, and the United States' fourth largest medical school overall.\n\nDetroit Medical Center formally became a part of Vanguard Health Systems on December 30, 2010, as a for profit corporation. Vanguard has agreed to invest nearly $1.5 B in the Detroit Medical Center complex which will include $417 M to retire debts, at least $350 M in capital expenditures and an additional $500 M for new capital investment.Anstett, Patricia (March 20, 2010).[http://www.dmc.org/upload/docs/News/FREEP3202010.pdf $1.5 billion for new DMC].Detroit Free Press. DMC.org. Retrieved on June 12, 2010. Vanguard has agreed to assume all debts and pension obligations. The metro area has many other hospitals including William Beaumont Hospital, St. Joseph's, and University of Michigan Medical Center.\n \nIn 2011, Detroit Medical Center and Henry Ford Health System substantially increased investments in medical research facilities and hospitals in the city's Midtown and New Center.Greene, Jay (April 5, 2010).[http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20100405/FREE/100409959 Henry Ford Health System plans $500 million expansion]. Crains Detroit Business. Retrieved on June 12, 2010.\n\nIn 2012, two major construction projects were begun in New Center, the Henry Ford Health System started the first phase of a $500 million, 300-acre revitalization project, with the construction of a new $30 million, 275,000-square-foot, Medical Distribution Center for Cardinal Health, Inc. and Wayne State University started construction on a new $93 million, 207,000-square-foot, Integrative Biosciences Center (IBio).Henderson, Tom (April 15, 2012).[http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20120415/FREE/304159964/wsu-to-build-93m-biotech-hub WSU to build $93M biotech hub]. Crains Detroit Business. Retrieved on March 15, 2015. As many as 500 researchers, and staff will work out of the IBio Center.\n \n\nTransportation\n\nWith its proximity to Canada and its facilities, ports, major highways, rail connections and international airports, Detroit is an important transportation hub. The city has three international border crossings, the Ambassador Bridge, Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and Michigan Central Railway Tunnel, linking Detroit to Windsor, Ontario. The Ambassador Bridge is the single busiest border crossing in North America, carrying 27% of the total trade between the U.S. and Canada. \n\nOn February 18, 2015, Canadian Transport Minister Lisa Raitt announced that Canada has agreed to pay the entire cost to build a $250 million U.S. Customs plaza adjacent to the planned new Detroit–Windsor bridge, now the Gordie Howe International Bridge. Canada had already planned to pay for 95 per cent of the bridge, which will cost $2.1 billion, and is expected to open in 2020. \"This allows Canada and Michigan to move the project forward immediately to its next steps which include further design work and property acquisition on the U.S. side of the border,\" Raitt said in a statement issued after she spoke in the House of Commons.\n \n\nAirports\n\nDetroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW), the principal airport serving Detroit, is located in nearby Romulus. DTW is a primary hub for Delta Air Lines (following its acquisition of Northwest Airlines), and a secondary hub for Spirit Airlines.\n\nColeman A. Young International Airport (DET), previously called Detroit City Airport, is on Detroit's northeast side; the airport now maintains only charter service and general aviation. Willow Run Airport, in far-western Wayne County near Ypsilanti, is a general aviation and cargo airport.\n\nTransit systems\n\nMass transit in the region is provided by bus services. The Detroit Department of Transportation (DDOT) provides service to the outer edges of the city. From there, the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) provides service to the suburbs. Cross border service between the downtown areas of Windsor and Detroit is provided by Transit Windsor via the Tunnel Bus.\n\nAn elevated rail system known as the People Mover, completed in 1987, provides daily service around a loop downtown. The under construction (to open in 2016) M-1 Rail Line (see below) will serve as a link between the Detroit People Mover and SEMCOG Commuter Rail/Detroit Amtrak station. The SEMCOG Commuter Rail line will extend from Detroit's New Center area to The Henry Ford, Dearborn, Detroit Metropolitan Airport, Ypsilanti, and Ann Arbor when it is opened.[http://www.semcog.org/AADD.aspx Ann Arbor – Detroit Regional Rail Project] SEMCOG. Retrieved on February 4, 2010.\n\nThe Regional Transit Authority (RTA) was established by an act of the Michigan legislature in December 2012 to oversee and coordinate all existing regional mass transit operations, and to develop new transit services in the region. The M-1 Rail Line is expected to open in mid-2017, running along Woodward Avenue from downtown to the New Center area. \n\nAmtrak provides service to Detroit, operating its Wolverine service between Chicago and Pontiac. The Amtrak station is located in the New Center area north of downtown. The J. W. Westcott II, which delivers mail to lake freighters on the Detroit River, is the world's only floating post office. \n\nFreeways\n\nMetro Detroit has an extensive toll-free network of freeways administered by the Michigan Department of Transportation. Four major Interstate Highways surround the city. Detroit is connected via Interstate 75 (I-75) and I-96 to Kings Highway 401 and to major Southern Ontario cities such as London, Ontario and the Greater Toronto Area. I-75 (Chrysler and Fisher freeways) is the region's main north–south route, serving Flint, Pontiac, Troy, and Detroit, before continuing south (as the Detroit–Toledo and Seaway Freeways) to serve many of the communities along the shore of Lake Erie. \n\nI-94 (Edsel Ford Freeway) runs east–west through Detroit and serves Ann Arbor to the west (where it continues to Chicago) and Port Huron to the northeast. The stretch of the current I-94 freeway from Ypsilanti to Detroit was one of America's earlier limited-access highways. Henry Ford built it to link the factories at Willow Run and Dearborn during World War II. A portion was known as the Willow Run Expressway. The I-96 freeway runs northwest–southeast through Livingston, Oakland and Wayne counties and (as the Jeffries Freeway through Wayne County) has its eastern terminus in downtown Detroit.\n\nI-275 runs north–south from I-75 in the south to the junction of I-96 and I-696 in the north, providing a bypass through the western suburbs of Detroit. I-375 is a short spur route in downtown Detroit, an extension of the Chrysler Freeway. I-696 (Reuther Freeway) runs east–west from the junction of I-96 and I-275, providing a route through the northern suburbs of Detroit. Taken together, I-275 and I-696 form a semicircle around Detroit. Michigan state highways designated with the letter M serve to connect major freeways.\n\nNotable people\n\nSister cities\n\n \n\n* Chongqing, China\n* Dubai, United Arab Emirates\n* Kitwe, Zambia\n* Minsk, Belarus\n* Nassau, Bahamas\n* Toyota, Aichi Prefecture, Japan \n* Turin, Italy", "Diana Ernestine Earle Ross (born March 26, 1944) is an American singer, songwriter, actress and record producer. Born and raised in Detroit, she rose to fame as a founding member and lead singer of the vocal group The Supremes, which, during the 1960s, became Motown's most successful act and is to this day America's most successful vocal group as well as one of the world's best-selling girl groups of all time.\nAs part of the Supremes, her success made it possible for future African American R&B and soul acts to find mainstream success. The group released a record setting, twelve number-one hit singles on the Billboard Hot 100 including the hits \"Where Did Our Love Go\", \"Baby Love\", \"Come See About Me\", \"Stop! In the Name of Love\", \"You Can't Hurry Love\", \"You Keep Me Hangin' On\", \"Love Child\" and \"Someday We'll Be Together\".\n\nFollowing her departure from the Supremes in 1970, Ross released her debut solo album, Diana Ross, which contained the hits \"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)\" and the number-one hit \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\". She released the album Touch Me in the Morning in 1973. Its title track reached number 1, becoming her second solo hit. By 1975, the Mahogany soundtrack included her 3rd number-one hit \"Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\". Her 1976 album Diana Ross included her fourth number-one hit \"Love Hangover\". In 1979, Ross released the album The Boss. Her 1980 album Diana which reached number 2 on the Billboard albums chart and spawned the number-one hit \"Upside Down\" and the international hit \"I'm Coming Out\". After leaving Motown, Ross achieved her sixth and final number-one hit with the duet \"Endless Love\".\n\nRoss also ventured into acting, with a Golden Globe Award and Academy Award nominated performance in Lady Sings the Blues (1972). She also starred in two other feature films, Mahogany (1975) and the The Wiz (1978); later acting included roles in the television films Out of Darkness (1994), for which she also was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, and Double Platinum (1999).\n\nRoss was named the \"Female Entertainer of the Century\" by Billboard magazine. In 1993, the Guinness Book of World Records declared Ross the most successful female music artist in history due to her success in the United States and United Kingdom for having more hits than any female artist in the charts with a career total of 70 hit singles with her work with the Supremes and as a solo artist. Ross has sold more than 100 million records worldwide when her releases with the Supremes and as a solo artist are tallied.\n\nIn 1988, Ross was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as member of the Supremes alongside Mary Wilson and Florence Ballard. She is the recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors in 2007. She is a 12-time Grammy nominee, never earning a competitive honor, but later becoming the recipient of the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2012.\n\nEarly life\n\nDiana Ross was born at Hutzel Women's Hospital in Detroit on March 26, 1944. She was the second eldest child of Ernestine (née Moten; January 27, 1916 - October 9, 1984), a schoolteacher, and Fred Ross, Sr. (July 4, 1920 - November 21, 2007), a former Army soldier. Much has been made of whether her first name ends in an \"a\" or an \"e\". According to Ross, her mother actually named her \"Diane\" but a clerical error resulted in her name being recorded as \"Diana\" on her birth certificate. Although she was sometimes listed as \"Diana\" during the first Supremes records, she introduced herself as \"Diane\" until early in the group's heyday. Her friends still call her \"Diane\". Ross's grandfather John E. Ross, a native of Gloucester County, Virginia, was born to Washington Ross and Virginia Baytop. Virginia Baytop's mother Francis \"Frankey\" Baytop was a former slave who had become a midwife after the Civil War.\n\nRoss and her family originally lived at Belmont Road in the North End section of Detroit, near Highland Park, MI, where she was neighbors with singer Smokey Robinson. When Ross was seven, her mother contracted tuberculosis, causing her to become seriously ill. Ross' father moved his children to live with relatives in Bessemer, Alabama. After her mother recovered, her family moved back to Detroit. On her 14th birthday in 1958, her family relocated to the working-class Brewster-Douglass housing projects settling at St. Antoine Street. Attending Cass Technical High School, a three-year college preparatory magnet school, in downtown Detroit, Ross began taking up classes including design, millinery, pattern-marking and seamstress skills, as she had aspired to become a fashion designer. Ross also took up modeling and cosmetology classes at the school and at least participated in three or four other extracurricular activities. Ross also worked at Hudson's Department Store where, it was claimed in biographies, she was the first black employee \"allowed outside the kitchen\". For extra income, she provided hairdressing services for her neighbors. Ross graduated from Cass Tech in January 1962.\n\nCareer\n\nThe Supremes: 1959–70\n\nAt fifteen, Ross joined the Primettes, a sister group of a male vocal group called the Primes, after being brought to the attention of music manager Milton Jenkins by Primes member Paul Williams. Along with Ross, the other members included Florence Ballard, Mary Wilson and Betty McGlown. Following a talent competition win in Windsor, Ontario, in 1960, the Primettes auditioned for Motown Records. In Berry Gordy's autobiography, To Be Loved, Gordy recalled he was heading to a business meeting when he heard Ross singing \"There Goes My Baby\" and Ross's voice \"stopped me in my tracks\". He then approached the group and asked them to perform it again. Learning of their ages, Gordy advised them to come back after graduation.\n\nUndeterred, Ross brought the group to Motown's Hitsville U.S.A. headquarters daily, offering to provide extra help for Motown's recordings, often including hand-claps and background vocals. That year, the group recorded two tracks for Lu Pine Records, with Ross singing lead on one of the tracks. During the group's early years, Ross served as hair stylist, make-up artist, seamstress and costume designer. In late 1960, having replaced McGlown with Barbara Martin, the Primettes were allowed to record songs by themselves at Hitsville's studio. In January 1961, Gordy agreed to sign the group on the condition they change their name. Eventually Janie Bradford had Florence Ballard pick out one of three names, to which Ballard went with \"Supremes\". Upon hearing of the new name, the other members weren't impressed, with Ross telling Ballard she feared the group would be mistaken for a male vocal group. Gordy signed the group under that name on January 15. A year later, Barbara Martin left the group, reducing the quartet to a trio. In late 1963, the group had their first hit with \"When the Lovelight Starts Shining Through His Eyes\". At the end of the year, Gordy assigned Ross as the group's lead singer, as the group originally did not have a designated lead vocalist.\n\nThe group scored their first number-one hit with \"Where Did Our Love Go\", paving the way for unprecedented success: between August 1964 and May 1967, Ross, Wilson and Ballard sang on ten number-one hit singles, all of which also made the UK top 40. The group had also become a hit with audiences both domestically and abroad, going on to become Motown's most successful vocal act throughout the sixties. Following significant issues with her comportment, weight, and alcoholism, Florence Ballard was fired from the Supremes by Gordy in July 1967, hiring Cindy Birdsong from Patti LaBelle and the Blue-Bells as Ballard's replacement. Simultaneously, Gordy renamed the group Diana Ross & the Supremes, made it easier to charge a larger performance fee for a solo star and a backing group, as it did for other renamed Motown groups. Gordy initially thought of Ross leaving the Supremes for a solo career in 1966, changing his mind when he figured the group's success was still too significant for Ross to pursue solo obligations. Ross would remain with the group until early 1970.\n\nThe group appeared as a trio of singing nuns in a 1968 episode of the popular NBC TV series Tarzan. Between their early 1968 single \"Forever Came Today\" and their final single with Ross, \"Someday We'll Be Together\", Ross would be the only Supremes member to be featured on many of their recordings, accompanied by session singers the Andantes. Gordy worked Ross diligently throughout this period and Ross, due to anxiety arising from Gordy's demands of her, began suffering from anorexia nervosa, according to her autobiography, Secrets of A Sparrow.\n\nIn 1968, Ross started performing as a solo artist on television specials, including the Supremes' own specials such as TCB and G.I.T. on Broadway, The Dinah Shore Show and a Bob Hope special, among others. In mid-1969, Gordy decided that Ross would depart the group by the end of that year, and Ross began recording her initial solo work that July. One of the first plans for Ross to establish her own solo career was to publicly introduce a new Motown recording act. Though she herself did not claim their discovery, Motown pinned Ross as having discovered the Jackson 5. Ross would introduce the group during several public events, including The Hollywood Palace. In November, Ross confirmed a split from the Supremes in Billboard. Ross' presumed first solo recording, \"Someday We'll Be Together\", was eventually released as a Supremes recording and became the group's final number-one hit on the Hot 100. It was also the final number-one Billboard Hot 100 single of the 1960s. Ross made her final appearance with the Supremes at the Frontier Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada on January 14, 1970\n\nEarly solo career: 1970–81\n\nIn May 1970, Ross released her eponymous solo debut, which included her signature songs, \"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)\" and \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\", the latter becoming Ross' first number-one solo single. Follow-up albums, Everything Is Everything and Surrender , came out shortly afterwards. In 1971, the ballad \"I'm Still Waiting\" became her first number-one single in the UK. Later in 1971, Ross starred in her first solo television special, Diana!, which included The Jackson 5. In 1972, the soundtrack to her film debut, Lady Sings the Blues, reached number one on the Billboard 200, selling two million units. In 1973, Ross had her second number-one hit with the ballad \"Touch Me in the Morning\". Later in the year, Motown issued Diana & Marvin, a duet album with fellow Motown artist Marvin Gaye. The album became an international hit. Touring throughout 1973, Ross became the first entertainer in Japan's history to receive an invitation to the Imperial Palace for a private audience with the Empress Nagako, wife of Emperor Hirohito.\n\nAfter the release of a modestly successful LP, Last Time I Saw Him, Ross had a third number-one hit with \"Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\", from her second feature film, Mahogany. A year later, in 1976, she began recording disco music, scoring with the international hit, \"Love Hangover\", which gave the singer a fourth chart-topper in the US. A two-week stint at Broadway's Palace Theatre in 1977 led to the Emmy-nominated television special, An Evening with Diana Ross, and a Special Tony Award. After the albums, Baby It's Me and Ross, tanked, she released The Boss, in 1979. That album continued her popularity with dance audiences as the title song became a number-one dance single. That year, Ross hosted her own HBO special, Standing Room Only, taken place in Las Vegas during Ross' \"Tour '79\" concert tour, with most of the performances coming from The Boss album. In 1980, Ross released her most successful album to date, diana. Composed by Chic's Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards, the album included the hits \"I'm Coming Out\" and \"Upside Down\", the latter becoming her fifth chart-topping single. Prior to leaving Motown, Ross recorded the duet ballad \"Endless Love\", with Lionel Richie. The song would become her sixth and final single to reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100.\n\nRoss began negotiating to leave Motown at the end of 1980 after discovering she only had access to $300,000 USD, despite making millions of dollars for the label. Ross eventually was offered a $20 million deal with RCA Records. Before making the decision, she had a conversation with Berry Gordy over the deal to see if he could match it. When Gordy told her it was impossible to match, Ross eventually decided to sign with RCA, doing so on May 20, 1981, making the deal at the time, the most lucrative contract in music.\n\nFilm career: 1972–99\n\nIn 1971, Diana Ross began working on her first film, Lady Sings the Blues, which was a loosely based biography on singer Billie Holiday. Despite some criticism of her for taking the role, once the film opened in October 1972, Ross won critical acclaim for her performance in the film. Jazz critic Leonard Feather, a friend of Holiday's, praised Ross for \"expertly capturing the essence of Lady Day\". Ross's role in the film won her Golden Globe Award and Academy Award nominations for Best Actress. The soundtrack to Lady Sings the Blues became just as successful, reaching No. 1 on the Billboard 200 staying there for two weeks. \n\nRoss's second film, Mahogany, was released in 1975. The film reunited her with Billy Dee Williams, her co-star in Lady Sings the Blues, and featured costumes designed by Ross herself. The story of an aspiring fashion designer who becomes a runway model and the toast of the industry, Mahogany was a troubled production from its inception. The film's original director, Tony Richardson, was fired during production, and Berry Gordy assumed the director's chair himself. In addition, Gordy and Ross clashed during filming, with Ross leaving the production before shooting was completed, forcing Gordy to use secretary Edna Anderson as a body double for Ross. While a box office success, the film was not well received by the critics: Time magazine's review of the film chastised Gordy for \"squandering one of America's most natural resources: Diana Ross\". \n\nIn 1977, Motown acquired the film rights to the Broadway play The Wiz, an African-American reinterpretation of L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. The film initially was to include the stage actors who had performed on the play. However, the role of Dorothy, which had been performed onstage by Stephanie Mills, would be given to Ross after she convinced film producer Rob Cohen to cast her in the role of Dorothy. This decision eventually led to a change in the film's script in which Dorothy went from a schoolgirl to a schoolteacher. The role of the Scarecrow, also performed by someone else onstage, was eventually given to Ross's former Motown label mate, Michael Jackson. The film adaptation of The Wiz had been a $24 million production, but upon its October 1978 release, it earned only $21,049,053 at the box office. Though pre-release television broadcast rights had been sold to CBS for over $10 million, the film produced a net loss of $10.4 million for Motown and Universal. At the time, it was the most expensive film musical ever made. The film's failure ended Ross's short career on the big screen and contributed to the Hollywood studios's reluctance to produce the all-black film projects which had become popular during the blaxploitation era of the early to mid-1970s for several years. The Wiz was Ross's final film for Motown.\n\nRoss had success with movie-themed songs. While her version of Holiday's \"Good Morning Heartache\" only performed modestly well in early 1973, her recording of \"Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\" gave Ross her third number-one hit, in late 1975. Three years later, Ross and Michael Jackson had a modest dance hit with their recording of \"Ease on Down the Road\". Their second duet, actually as part of the ensemble of The Wiz, \"Brand New Day\", found some success overseas. Ross scored a Top 10 hit in late 1980 with the theme song to the 1980 film It's My Turn. The following year, she collaborated with former Commodores singer-songwriter Lionel Richie on the theme song for the film Endless Love. The Academy Award-nominated title single became her final hit on Motown Records, and the number-one record of the year. Several years later, in 1988, Ross recorded the theme song to The Land Before Time. \"If We Hold on Together\" became an international hit, reaching number one in Japan.\n\nIn 1993, Ross returned to acting with a dramatic role in the television film, Out of Darkness. Ross won acclaim for her role in the TV movie and earned her third Golden Globe nomination, although she did not win. In 1999, she and Brandy Norwood co-starred in the television movie, Double Platinum, which was aired prior to the release of Ross's album, Every Day Is a New Day.\n\nContinued solo career and development: 1981–99\n\nIn October 1981, Ross released her first RCA album, Why Do Fools Fall in Love. The album sold over a million copies and featured hit singles such as her remake of the classic hit of the same name and \"Mirror Mirror\". At this same approximate time, Ross established her own production company, which she named Anaid Productions (the \"Anaid\" being \"Diana\" backwards), and also started investing in real estate, while also touring extensively in the United States and abroad. Before the release of Why Do Fools Fall in Love, Ross hosted her first TV special in four years, featuring Michael Jackson in the special. In early 1982, Ross sang the \"Star-Spangled Banner\" at Super Bowl XVI and appeared on the dance show Soul Train. The program devoted a full episode to her and Ross performed several songs from the Why Do Fools Fall in Love album.\n\nIn 1982, she followed up the success of Why Do Fools Fall in Love with Silk Electric, which featured the Michael Jackson-written and -produced, \"Muscles\", resulting in another top-ten success for Ross. The album eventually went gold on the strength of that song. In 1983, Ross ventured further out of her earlier soul-based sound for a more pop rock-oriented sound following the release of the Ross album. Though the album featured the hit single, \"Pieces of Ice\", whose music video garnered heavy rotation on video channel stations, except on MTV, the Ross album failed to generate any more hits and failed to go gold, dropping out of the charts as quickly as it entered. On July 21, 1983, Ross performed a concert in Central Park for a taped Showtime special. Proceeds of the concert would be donated to build a playground in the singer's name. Midway through the beginning of the show, a torrential downpour occurred. Ross tried to keep on performing, but the severe weather required that the show be stopped. Ross urged the large crowd to exit the venue safely, promising to perform the next day.\n\nThe second concert held the very next day was without rain. The funds for the playground were to be derived from sales of different items at the concert; however, all profits earned from the first concert were spent on the second. When the mainstream media discovered the exorbitant costs of the two concerts, Ross faced criticism and poor publicity. Although her representatives originally refused to pay anything for the proposed playground, Ross herself later paid, out of pocket, the $150,000 required to build the park. The Diana Ross Playground was finally built three years later. \n\nIn 1984, Ross released Swept Away. This featured a duet with Julio Iglesias, \"All of You\", which was featured on both the albums they had then released—his 1100 Bel Air Place as well as her Swept Away. It became international hit, as did the ballad \"Missing You\", which was a tribute to Marvin Gaye, who had died earlier that year after the moving poignant music video made a rare premiere on that year's American Music Awards show. Swept Away proved to be a success garnering gold level sales.\n\nHer 1985 album, Eaten Alive, found major success overseas with the title track and \"Chain Reaction\", although neither of the songs became the best-sellers she was once accustomed to in America. Both songs had strong music videos that propelled the tracks to success. The Eaten Alive video was patterned after the 1960s horror film, The Island of Dr. Moreau, while the \"Chain Reaction\" music video saluted the 1960s American Bandstand. \"Experience\", the third international single's video reignited the \"Eaten Alive\" romantic storyline with Diana and American actor, Joseph Gian. The track, Eaten Alive, a collaboration with Barry Gibb and Michael Jackson, became a top 20 hit internationally. The Barry Gibb-produced album garnered an international number one in \"Chain Reaction\" and a Top 20 selling album.\n\nEarlier in 1985, she had appeared as part of USA for Africa on the '\"We Are the World\"' charity single, which sold over 20 million copies worldwide. Ross's 1987 followup to Eaten Alive, Red Hot Rhythm & Blues, found less success than the prior album. However, the accompanying acclaimed television special was nominated for several Emmys (4).\n\nIn 1988, Ross chose to not renew her RCA contract. Around this same time, Ross had been in talks with her former mentor Berry Gordy to return to Motown. When she learned of Gordy's plans to sell Motown, Ross tried advising him against the decision though he sold it to MCA Records in 1988. (The first and only single, \"If We Hold on Together\", theme song from the Steven Spielberg animated film, The Land Before Time, became a huge number-one international single in Japan and currently ranks as the #24th Best Selling International Single of All Time in Japan). Following this decision, Gordy offered Ross a new contract to return to Motown with the condition that she have shares in the company as a part-owner. Ross accepted the offer.\n\nDespite its heavy promotion, Diana's next album, Workin' Overtime, was a critical and commercial failure. Subsequent follow-ups such as The Force Behind the Power (1991), Take Me Higher (1995), and Every Day Is a New Day (1999) produced similarly disappointing sales. Ross had more success overseas with the albums than she did in America.\n\nIn 1991, Ross became one of the few American artists to have headlined the annual Royal Variety Performance, when she performed a selection of her UK hits in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh at the Victoria Palace Theatre, London.\n\n\"The Force Behind the Power\" sparked an international comeback of sorts, when the album went double platinum in the UK. led by the No. 2 UK hit single \"When You Tell Me That You Love Me\". Ross would see the album perform successfully across Europe to Japan as \"The Force Behind the Power\" went gold there. That single would be a lucky charm when a duet version with Irish group, Westlife also hit No. 2 in the UK in 2005. The album produced an astounding 9 singles across international territories, including another Top 10, \"One Shining Moment\".\n\nRoss had success in the UK through 1994, when \"One Woman: The Ultimate Collection\", a career retrospective compilation, would become number one in the UK, selling quadruple platinum in the UK. That album did well across Europe and in the anglosphere. The retrospective was EMI's alternative to Motown's box set Forever Diana: Musical Memoirs. Ross's music sold well in international markets from 1991 to 1994.\n\nRoss performed during the Opening Ceremony of the 1994 FIFA World Cup held in Chicago and during the pre-match entertainment of the 1995 Rugby League World Cup final at Wembley Stadium. On January 28, 1996, she performed the Halftime Show at Super Bowl XXX.\n\nIn 1999, she was named the most successful female singer in the history of the United Kingdom charts, based upon a tally of her career hits. Madonna would eventually succeed Ross as the most successful female artist in the UK. Later that year, Ross presented at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards in September of the year and shocked the audience by touching rapper Lil' Kim's exposed breast, pasty-covered nipple, amazed at the young rapper's brashness.[http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,345909__339339_4,00.html \"Diana Ross and Lil' Kim's wild VMA moment\"], Lisa Costantini, August 21, 2002, Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved March 26, 2007.\n\nSupremes reunions, Return to Love, 2002 solo tour\n\nRoss reunited with Mary Wilson first in 1976 to attend the funeral service of Florence Ballard, who had died in February of that year. In March 1983, Ross agreed to reunite with Wilson and Cindy Birdsong for the television special \"Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever\". Wilson's arrival at the Pasadena Civic auditorium was late due to a delayed flight. The Supremes did not rehearse their performance for that evening. A medley of hits was eliminated by request of Ross. Before the special was taped later that evening, Wilson allegedly planned with Birdsong to take a step forward every time Ross did the same. This appeared to frustrate Ross, causing her to push Wilson's shoulder. Ross momentarily forgot the lyrics to \"Someday We'll Be Together\". Wilson began singing lead. Later, Wilson was not aware of the script set by producer Suzanne DePasse, in which Ross was to introduce Berry Gordy. Wilson did so, at which point Ross pushed down Wilson's hand-held microphone, stating: \"It's been taken care of.\" Ross, then, introduced Gordy. These incidents were excised from the final edit of the taped special, but still made their way into the news media; People magazine reported that \"Ross [did] some elbowing to get Wilson out of the spotlight.\" \n\nIn 1999, Ross and mega-tour promoter SFX (which later became LiveNation) began negotiations regarding a Diana Ross tour which would include a Supremes segment. Due to public response the promoters floated the idea of a Supremes Tour instead. Some fans suggested a Supremes tour in which all living former Supremes would participate. Neither Jean Terrell nor late 1970s member Susaye Greene chose to participate. Lynda Laurence and Scherrie Payne were then touring as members of the Former Ladies of the Supremes. Mary Wilson agreed to begin negotiations, as did Cindy Birdsong. Negotiations however to have the 1967–70 lineup of the group perform together for the first time in a concert tour since 1970 failed when Wilson and SFX could not to come to terms. SFX hired Payne and Laurence to sing with Ross on the tour. Ross, Payne and Laurence had never performed together during their Supremes' tenures. Laurence and Payne would later say they got on well with Ross. The Return to Love tour launched in June 2000, to a capacity audience in Philadelphia, PA. The reunion tour, however, never made it through the first half due to a fan backlash public lack of interest. It was cancelled mid-tour due to lagging ticket sales. Some arenas barely filled to 25% capacity. Most believe there was lack of interest because of high ticket prices,overly large venues & Mary Wilson's negative campaign towards Ross & the former \"Supremes\" she had worked with in the '70s. \n\nIn 2002, Ross entered rehabilitation in May, launched and cancelled a North America solo tour, and was arrested for a DUI in December. Ross cancelled the remaining dates of her summer concert tour of the United States and Canada two months after entering drug and alcohol rehabilitation center Promises, in Malibu, California in May to \"clear up some personal issues\". No reason was given for halting the 10-city North American tour, which began in April at New York's Westbury Music Fair. The 58-year-old singer performed gigs in Boston, Massachusetts, and Ontario, Canada, before her spokeswoman confirmed reports she had cancelled the rest of the dates.\n\nLater career: 2004–present\n\nIn 2002, after spending two years away from the spotlight and after a stint in jail for committing a DUI, Ross returned to live touring, first in Europe and then in the United States all within the same year.\nIn 2005, she participated in Rod Stewart's Thanks for the Memory: The Great American Songbook, Volume IV recording a duet version of the Gershwin standard, \"I've Got a Crush on You\". The song was released as promotion for the album and later reached number 19 on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart, marking her first Billboard chart entry since 2000. Ross was featured in another hit duet, this time with Westlife, on a cover of Ross's 1991 hit \"When You Tell Me You Love Me\", repeating the original recording's chart success, garnering a number 2 UK Billboard hit (number 1 in Ireland).\n\nIn June 2006, Universal released Ross's shelved 1972 Blue album. It peaked at number 2 on Billboard′s jazz albums chart. Later in 2006, Ross released her first studio album in seven years with I Love You. It would be released on EMI/Manhattan Records in the United States in January 2007. EMI Inside later reported the album had sold more than 622,000 copies worldwide. Ross later ventured on a world tour to promote I Love You, which garnered rave reviews. In 2007, she was honored twice, first with the Lifetime Achievement Award at the BET Awards, and later as one of the honorees at the Kennedy Center Honors. \n\nIn January 2008, at Jamaica's Air Jamaica Jazz & Blues Festival, Ross's performance was booed by audience members-seated near the rear of the venue-who were annoyed by her decision to turn off the large video screens adjacent to the stage. Later, the entire audience booed the festival's organizers, when Ross announced that the shortening of her set, in order to accommodate the schedule of r&b singer, Mary J. Blige, who arrived late and insisted upon being allowed to leave the festival earlier than previously planned. Ross returned to the festival in 2009, garnering positive reviews.\n\nIn 2010, Ross embarked on her first headlining tour in three years titled the More Today Than Yesterday: The Greatest Hits Tour. Dedicated to the memory of her late friend Michael Jackson, the concert tour received positive reviews, nationwide.\n\nIn February 2012, Ross received her first ever Grammy Award, for Lifetime Achievement, and announced the nominees for the Album of the Year. In May, a DVD of her Central Park concert performances, For One & For All, was released and featured commentary from Steve Binder, who directed the special.\nOn November 6, 2012, Ross performed for a crowd in India for Naomi Campbell's then billionaire boyfriend, Vladimir Doronin, at his 50th birthday, earning $500,000 for the performance. Following her final stage exit, Ross tripped and broke her ankle. A month later, on December 9, she performed as the marquee and headlining performer at the White House-hosted Christmas in Washington concert, where she performed(in a leg cast)before President Barack Obama, America's first African-American president. The event was later broadcast as an annual special on TNT.\n\nRoss continues to tour, completing a 2013 South American tour with concerts in Brazil, Argentina and Chile. And a multi-city US late summer tour(Launched: August 2, in Los Angeles – September 13, in Dallas).\n\nOn July 3, 2014, Ross was awarded the Ella Fitzgerald Award for \"her extraordinary contribution to contemporary jazz vocals\", at the Festival International de Jazz de Montréal.\n\nOn November 20, 2014, Ross presented for the very first time the Dick Clark Award for Excellence to Taylor Swift at the American Music Awards.\n\nIn 2015, Ross appeared in the video for the song \"How To Live Alone\" performed by her son Evan Ross.\n\nOn April 1, 2015, Ross began the first of nine performances as a part of her mini-residency, The Essential Diana Ross: Some Memories Never Fade at The Venetian Las Vegas Hotel and Casino, in Las Vegas, Nevada. \n\nOn November 27, 2015, Motown Records/Universal released the album Sings Songs From The Wiz recorded in 1978. The album features Ross' versions of songs from the film version of the musical The Wiz, in which she starred along with Michael Jackson.\n\nIn February 2016, Ross resumed her In the Name of Love Tour which began in 2013.\n\nPersonal life\n\nRoss has been married twice and has five children.\n\nIn 1965, Ross became romantically involved with Motown CEO Berry Gordy. The relationship lasted several years, resulting in the birth of Ross's eldest child, Rhonda Suzanne Silberstein, in August 1971. Two months into her pregnancy with Rhonda, in January 1971, Ross married music executive Robert Ellis Silberstein, who chose to raise Rhonda as his own daughter. With Silberstein, Ross has two additional daughters, Tracee Joy and Chudney Lane Silberstein, born in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Ross and Silberstein divorced in 1977, and Ross moved to New York City in the early 1980s, after living in Los Angeles since Motown relocated to the area in the early 1970s.\n\nRoss dated Gene Simmons, bass guitar and vocals for the band Kiss, from 1980 to 1983. \n\nRoss met her second husband, Norwegian shipping magnate Arne Næss, Jr. in 1985 and married him the following year. They have two sons together: Ross Arne (born in 1987) and Evan Olav (born in 1988). Ross and Næss divorced in 2000. Ross considers Næss the love of her life. Næss was later killed in a South African mountain climbing accident in 2004. \n\nRoss has four grandchildren: grandsons Raif-Henok (born in 2009 to Ross's daughter Rhonda) and Leif (born on June 5, 2016, to Ross's son Ross Næss) and granddaughters Callaway Lane (born in 2012 to Ross's daughter Chudney) and Jagger Snow (born in 2015 to Ross's son Evan). In 2014, singer Ashlee Simpson became Ross's daughter-in-law, through her marriage to Ross's son Evan. \n\nRoss was arrested for DUI on December 30, 2002 in Tucson, Arizona, while undergoing substance abuse treatment at a local rehabilitation facility. She later served a two-day sentence near her Connecticut estate.\n\nLegacy\n\nRoss has influenced many artists including Mariah Carey, Beyoncé, The Ting Tings, Janet Jackson, Michael Jackson, Christina Aguilera, Lil' Kim, Solange, Taylor Swift, Ashley Tisdale, Katy Perry, Kelly Key, Fergie, Victoria Justice, Jennifer Lopez, Leona Lewis, Tamar Braxton, and Nicole Scherzinger among others. As a member of the Supremes, Ross helped influenced other African-American women who have succeeded the Supremes in popular music, such as the Three Degrees, the Emotions and Destiny's Child.\n\nVarious works have been inspired by Ross's career and life. The character of Deena Jones in Dreamgirls was inspired by Ross. \n\nSeveral of Ross's songs has been covered and sampled. \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\" has been featured in the film Chicken Little. The song has also been covered live and on albums by Jennifer Lopez, Amy Winehouse . \"Love Hangover\" was sampled in Monica's 1998 number 1 \"The First Night\" as well as being sampled by Will Smith, Master P (who also sampled \"Missing You\"), Heavy D and Bone Thugs N Harmony.\n\"It's My House\" has been referenced in music by Snoop Dogg and MC Hammer. \"Upside Down\" has been covered and sampled by Salt-n-Pepa, Sean Combs, Kid Rock, Missy Elliot and MC Lyte. \"I'm Coming Out\" has been sampled in music recorded by The Notorious B.I.G. (who also sampled \"Missing You\"), Keyshia Cole featuring Iggy Azalea and Ariana Grande. \"Endless Love\" was recorded by Luther Vandross and Mariah Carey, and Ross's partner Lionel Richie later recorded a version with Shania Twain singing Ross's part. \"Muscles\" was sampled by Lil' Kim and Young Jeezy. \"When You Tell Me That You Love Me\" was recorded as a duet with Dolly Parton and Julio Iglesias. \"You Can't Hurry Love\" was a number one hit [UK] for Phil Collins in 1983.\n\nMotown: The Musical is a Broadway musical that launched on April 14, 2013. It is the story of Berry Gordy's creation of Motown Records and his romance with Diana Ross.\n\nAs a member of the Supremes, her songs \"Stop! In the Name of Love\" and \"You Can't Hurry Love\" are among the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1994, and entered into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1998. In 2004, Rolling Stone placed the group at number 96 on their list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". \n\nAs lead singer of the Supremes and as a solo artist, Ross has earned 18 number-one singles (12 as lead singer of the The Supremes and 6 as a solo artist). The only other female artist to have 18 number-one singles is Mariah Carey – who holds the record as the only solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history because she was never in a group – but not the only female due Ross' chart success. Ross is also credited for singing on the number-one single \"We Are the World\" as part of the USA for Africa collective. Ross was featured on the Notorious B.I.G.'s 1997 number-one hit, \"Mo Money Mo Problems\" as her voice from her 1980 hit, \"I'm Coming Out\", was sampled for the song. Billboard magazine named Ross the \"female entertainer of the century\" in 1976. In 1993, she earned a Guinness World Record, due to her success in the United States and United Kingdom for having more hits than any other female artist in the charts with a career total of 70 hit singles. Ross is also one of the few recording artists to have two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame—one as a solo artist and the other as a member of the Supremes. After her 1983 concert in Central Park, Diana Ross Playground was named in her honor with a groundbreaking opening ceremony in 1986.\n\nRoss was given credit for the discovery of The Jackson 5 although her \"discovery\" was part of Motown's marketing and promotions plan for the Jackson 5. Consequently, their debut album was titled Diana Ross Presents the Jackson 5.\n\nIn 2006, Diana was one of 25 African American women saluted at Oprah Winfrey's Legends Ball, a three-day celebration, honoring their contributions to art, entertainment and civil rights.\n\nDiana Ross was named one of the Five Mighty Pop Divas of the Sixties along with Dusty Springfield, Aretha Franklin, Martha Reeves and Dionne Warwick. Among other titles, Ross has been named \"The Queen of Motown\".\n\nSolo discography\n\nAlbums\n\n* Diana Ross (1970)\n* Everything Is Everything (1970)\n* Surrender (1971)\n* Touch Me in the Morning (1973)\n* Last Time I Saw Him (1973)\n* Diana Ross (1976)\n* Baby It's Me (1977)\n* Ross (1978)\n* The Boss (1979)\n* Diana (1980)\n* Why Do Fools Fall in Love (1981)\n* Silk Electric (1982)\n* Ross (1983)\n* Swept Away (1984)\n* Eaten Alive (1985)\n* Red Hot Rhythm & Blues (1987)\n* Workin' Overtime (1989)\n* The Force Behind the Power (1991)\n* A Very Special Season (1994)\n* Take Me Higher (1995)\n* Every Day Is a New Day (1999)\n* Blue (2006)\n* I Love You (2006)\n* Diana Ross Sings Songs From The Wiz (2015)\n\nDuets albums\n\n* Diana & Marvin (1973)\n\nLive albums\n\n* Live at Caesars Palace (1974)\n* An Evening with Diana Ross (1977)\n* Greatest Hits Live (1989)\n* Christmas in Vienna (1993)\n* Stolen Moments: The Lady Sings... Jazz and Blues (1993)\n\nSoundtracks\n\n* Diana! (1971)\n* Lady Sings the Blues (1972)\n* Mahogany (1975)\n* The Wiz (1978)\n* Endless Love (1981)\n\nCompilations albums\n\n* Greatest Hits (1972)\n* Diana Ross' Greatest Hits (1976)\n* 20 Golden Greats (1979)\n* To Love Again (1981)\n* All the Great Hits (1981)\n* Collection (1981)\n* Diana´s Duets (1982)\n* Love Songs (1982)\n* Anthology (1982)\n* Portrait (1982)\n* Love Songs (1984)\n* Dance Songs (1985)\n* Love Songs (with Michael Jackson)\n* The Diana Ross Story (1988)\n* Motown´s Greatest Hits (1992)\n* One Woman: The Ultimate Collection (1993)\n* Diana Extended: The Remixes (1994)\n* Voice of Love (1996)\n* A Gift Of Love (1997)\n* Greatest Hits: The RCA Years (1997)\n* 40 Golden Motown Greats (1998)\n* Love & Life: The Very Best of Diana Ross (2001)\n* The Motown Anthology (2001)\n* Diana Ross & the Supremes: The No. 1's (2003)\n* Soul Legends (2006)\n* The Definitive Collection (2006)\n* Playlist Your Way (2008)\n* Complete Collection (2009)\n* The Greatest (2011)\n* Icon (2012)\n* Upside Down: The Collection (2012)\n\nBox sets\n\n* Forever Diana: Musical Memoirs (1993)\n\nFilmography\n\n* Lady Sings the Blues (1972)\n* Mahogany (1975)\n* The Wiz (1978)\n* Out of Darkness * (1994)\n* Double Platinum * (1999)\n(* = made directly for television)\n\nTelevision\n\n* Tarzan (with the Supremes) (1968)\n* TCB (with the Supremes) (1968)\n* Like Hep (with Dinah Shore and Lucille Ball) (1969)\n* GIT on Broadway (with the Supremes and the Temptations) (1969)\n* Diana! (1971)\n* The Jackson 5ive (1971)\n* Make Room for Granddaddy (1971)\n* Here I Am: An Evening with Diana Ross (1977)\n* The Muppets Show (1977)\n* Standing Room Only (HBO) (1980)\n* Diana! (TV Special) (1981)\n* Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever (1983)\n* Diana Ross: Live in Central Park/For One and For All (Showtime) (1983)\n* Diana Ross: Red Hot Rhythm and Blues (1987)\n* Diana Ross: Workin' Overtime HBO: World Stage (1989)\n* Diana Ross Live! The Lady Sings... Jazz & Blues: Stolen Moments (1992)\n* Christmas in Vienna (1992)\n* BET Walk of Fame (1993)\n* Always is Forever: 30th Anniversary (1993)\n* 1994 FIFA World Cup (1994)\n* Super Bowl XXX (1996)\n* Super Concert in Budapest: Carreras, Ross and Domingo (1997)\n* An Audience with Diana Ross (1999)\n* VH1 Divas 2000: A Tribute to Diana Ross (2000)\n* The Making and Meaning of We Are Family (documentary) (2002)\n* Tsunami Aid (2005)\n* BET Awards 2007 (2007)\n* Kennedy Center Honors (2007)\n* Nobel Peace Prize Concert (2008)\n* The Oprah Winfrey Show: Farewell and Salute (2011)\n* Christmas in Washington (2012)\n* The Voice (2014)\n\nStage\n\n* An Evening with Diana Ross (1976)\n\nTours\n\n;Headlining tours\n* The Diana Ross Show (1973–75)\n* Tour '76 (1976)\n* Tour '79 (1979)\n* Diana Ross on Tour (1982)\n* Up Front Tour (1983)\n* Missing You Tour (1984)\n* Eaten Alive Tour (1985–88)\n* Workin´Overtime World Tour (1989)\n* Here & Now Tour (1991–92)\n* Forever Diana!: 30th Anniversary Tour (1993–94)\n* Take Me Higher Tour (1995–96)\n* Voice of Love Tour (1997–98)\n* Always is Forever Tour (1999)\n* Live Love Tour (2004)\n* This is It Tour (2004)\n* I Love You Tour (2006–08)\n* More Today Than Yesterday: The Greatest Hits Tour (2010–11)\n* In the Name of Love Tour (2013–16)\n\n;Co-headlining tours\n* Superconcert of the Century (with Placido Domingo and Jose Carreras) (1997)\n* Return to Love Tour (with The Supremes) (2000)\n\n;Residency shows\n* The Essential Diana Ross: Some Memories Never Fade (2015)\n\nBibliography\n\n* \n* \n* (A scrapbook-style collection of photographs)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Diana Ernestine Earle Ross", "Diana Ross", "Diana Ross (singer)", "Diana Ross (musician)", "Dianna Ross", "Diane Ross" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "diane ross", "diana ross", "diana ernestine earle ross", "diana ross musician", "diana ross singer", "dianna ross" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "diana ross", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Diana Ross" }
Who wrote God Bless America?	tc_1018	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "God_Bless_America.txt" ], "title": [ "God Bless America" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"God Bless America\" is an American patriotic song written by Irving Berlin in 1918 and revised by him in 1938. The later version has notably been recorded by Kate Smith, becoming her signature song. \n\n\"God Bless America\" takes the form of a prayer (intro lyrics \"as we raise our voices, in a solemn prayer\") for God's blessing and peace for the nation (\"...stand beside her and guide her through the night...\").\n\nHistory\n\nIrving Berlin wrote the song in 1918 while serving the U.S. Army at Camp Upton in Yaphank, New York, but decided that it did not fit in a revue called Yip Yip Yaphank, so he set it aside. The lyrics at that time included the line \"Make her victorious on land and foam, God bless America...\" as well as \"Stand beside her and guide her to the right with the light from above\".[http://www.npr.org/2013/09/02/216877219/from-peace-to-patriotism-the-shifting-identity-of-god-bless-america \"From Peace To Patriotism: The Shifting Identity Of 'God Bless America'\"]. Interview of Sheryl Kaskowitz by Robert Siegel. NPR.org. 2 September 2013. Retrieved 10 September 2013.\n\nMusic critic Jody Rosen says that a 1906 Jewish dialect novelty song, \"When Mose with His Nose Leads the Band,\" contains a six-note fragment that is \"instantly recognizable as the opening strains of \"God Bless America\"\". He interprets this as an example of Berlin's \"habit of interpolating bits of half-remembered songs into his own numbers.\" Berlin, born Israel Baline, had himself written several Jewish-themed novelty tunes. \n\nIn 1938, with the rise of Adolf Hitler, Irving Berlin, who was Jewish and had arrived in America from Russia at the age of five, felt it was time to revive it as a \"peace song,\" and it was introduced on an Armistice Day broadcast in 1938, sung by Kate Smith on her radio show. Berlin had made some minor changes; by this time, \"to the right\" might have been considered a call to the political right, so he substituted \"through the night\" instead. He also provided an introduction that is now rarely heard but which Smith always used: \"While the storm clouds gather far across the sea / Let us swear allegiance to a land that's free / Let us all be grateful for a land so fair, / As we raise our voices in a solemn prayer.\" (In her first broadcast of the song, Kate Smith sang \"that we're far from there\" rather than \"for a land so fair\".) This was changed when Berlin published the sheet music in March 1939.\n\nWoody Guthrie criticized the song, which he considered unrealistic and complacent, and in 1940 he wrote \"This Land Is Your Land,\" originally titled \"God Blessed America For Me,\" as a response. Anti-Semitic groups such as the Ku Klux Klan also protest the song due to its authorship by a Jewish immigrant.\n\nIn 1943, Smith's rendition was featured in the patriotic musical \"This is the Army\" along with other Berlin songs. The manuscripts in the Library of Congress reveal the evolution of the song from victory to peace. Berlin gave the royalties of the song to 'The God Bless America Fund' for redistribution to Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts in New York City. Smith performed the song on her two NBC television series in the 1950s and in her short-lived The Kate Smith Show on CBS, which aired on CBS from January 25 to July 18, 1960. \"God Bless America\" also spawned another of Irving Berlin's tunes, \"Heaven Watch The Philippines,\" during the end of World War II after he heard the Filipinos sing a slightly revised version of the song replacing \"America\" with \"The Philippines.\"\n\nThe song was used early in the Civil Rights Movement as well as at labor rallies. During the 1960s, the song was increasingly used by Christian conservatives in the US to signal their opposition to secular liberalism and to silence dissenters who were speaking in favor of communism or in opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.\n\nLater, from December 11, 1969, through the early 1970s, the playing of Smith singing the song before many home games of the National Hockey League's Philadelphia Flyers brought it renewed popularity as well as a reputation for being a \"good luck charm\" to the Flyers long before it became a staple of nationwide sporting events. The Flyers even brought Smith in to perform live before Game 6 of the 1974 Stanley Cup Finals on May 19, 1974, and the Flyers won the Cup that day.Alex McNeil, Total Television (New York: Penguin Books, 4th ed., 1996), pp. 446-447\n\nNotable public performances\n\nUse by American government\n\n\"America\" was the official campaign song for Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940, as well as his Republican opponent, Wendell Willkie. At that time, the song represented cultural and religious tolerance. \n\nDuring a live television broadcast on the evening of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, following addresses by then House and Senate leaders Dennis Hastert and Tom Daschle, members of the United States Congress broke out into an apparently spontaneous verse of \"God Bless America\" on the steps of the Capitol building in Washington, D.C. \n\nOn July 21, 2011, Smith's version of the song was played as NASA's final wakeup call for the space shuttle Atlantis (STS-135), capping the 30-year shuttle program.\n\nSports events\n\nNational Hockey League\n\n\"God Bless America\" has been performed at home games of the National Hockey League's Philadelphia Flyers and those of the Ottawa Senators in which the visiting team is from the United States. (The NHL requires arenas in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" and \"O Canada,\" the Canadian national anthem, at games that involve teams from both countries.)\n\nAt some Flyers' home games, especially during big games and the playoffs, their main anthem singer, Lauren Hart, has sung \"God Bless America\" alternating lyrics with Kate Smith on a video screen. Kate Smith actually appeared in person to sing at select Flyers games, including their 1974 Stanley Cup clinching game against the Boston Bruins, to which she received a thunderous ovation from the passionate Philadelphia fans. Before games whenever \"God Bless America\" is performed, Lou Nolan, the PA announcer for the Flyers at the Wells Fargo Center, would say: \"Ladies and gentlemen, at this time, we ask that you please rise and remove your hats and salute to our flags and welcome the No. 1 ranked anthemist in the NHL, Lauren Hart, as she sings (if the visiting team is from Canada, O Canada, followed by) God Bless America, accompanied by the great Kate Smith.\" \n\nAt some Senators home games since , if the visiting team is from the U.S., their main anthem singer, Ontario Provincial Police Constable Lyndon Slewidge, has sung \"God Bless America\" and \"O Canada.\" An example of this came during the Senators' home opener during the 2002-03 season, when they were home against the New Jersey Devils. \n\nDuring Tom Golisano's time as owner of the Buffalo Sabres, the team occasionally substituted \"The Star Spangled Banner\" with \"God Bless America\" for certain special events. When this occurred, Ronan Tynan would be brought in to sing the song while usual anthem singer Doug Allen sang \"O Canada.\"\n\nMajor League Baseball\n\nOn August 26, 2008, a fan at a Boston Red Sox game at Yankee Stadium, who had attempted to leave for the restroom during the playing of the song, was restrained and ejected by NYPD officers. As part of the settlement of a subsequent lawsuit, the New York Yankees announced that they would no longer restrict the movement of fans during the playing of the song. \n\nAt Chicago's Wrigley Field during the Vietnam War, the song was often played by the organist as part of his postgame playlist while fans filed out of the stadium. \n\nOn September 15, 2009, three high school teens filed a lawsuit against New Jersey's minor league Newark Bears for being ejected from Eagles Riverfront Stadium over their refusal to stand during the playing of \"God Bless America\" on June 29, 2009. Before being ejected, they were asked to leave the stadium by Bears president and co-owner Thomas Cetnar. \n\nSince the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, \"God Bless America\" is commonly sung during the seventh-inning stretch in Major League Baseball games, most often on Sundays, Opening Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, All-Star Game, Labor Day, September 11, and all post-season Major League Baseball games. Following the attacks, John Dever, then the Assistant Media Relations Director with the San Diego Padres, suggested the song replace \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\", the more traditional 7th inning anthem. MLB quickly followed the Padres lead and instituted it league-wide for the rest of the season; presently, teams decide individually when to play the song. Yankee Stadium, and Turner Field are currently the only Major League ballparks to play \"God Bless America\" in every game during the seventh-inning stretch. The Yankees' YES Network televises its performance during some (mainly home) games before going to a commercial. During major games (playoff contests, Opening Day, national holidays, or games against Boston or the Mets), the Yankees will often have Irish tenor Ronan Tynan perform the song. \n\nAmerican football\n\nTo honor the start of the United States Bicentennial, Kate Smith sang \"God Bless America\" for a national television audience, accompanied by the UCLA Band at the 1976 Rose Bowl.\n\nIndianapolis 500\n\nThe Indianapolis 500 is traditionally run at the end of the month of May, and \"God Bless America\" has been sung there since 2003. The song \"America the Beautiful\" was sung before, but it was switched to \"God Bless America\" in the post-9/11 era. The song has traditionally been performed by Florence Henderson, a native Hoosier, and is a friend of the Hulman-George family, the track's owners. Her performance, often not televised, immediately precedes the national anthem. Henderson routinely sings the entire song, including the prologue, and in some years sings the chorus a second time.\n\nCeline Dion\n\nFollowing the September 11 terrorist attacks, Canadian pop star Celine Dion performed the song on the TV special America: A Tribute to Heroes. Shortly afterwards on October 16, Sony Music Entertainment released a benefit album called God Bless America, which featured Dion singing the song. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 and became the first charity album to reach the top since USA for Africa's \"We Are the World\" in 1985. Dion's version also received enough radio airplay to reach No. 14 on Billboards Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart. The music video was made and aired in September 2001. Dion performed the song also a few times during 2002. In 2003, she performed it at Super Bowl XXXVII, which was the first time that \"God Bless America\" was performed at a Super Bowl. She sang it on July 4, 2004 in her A New Day... show as well. \"God Bless America\" performed by Dion exists in two versions, live and studio. Both included on collections to gather funds for the victims of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and their families. The live version, on America: A Tribute to Heroes, is from the telethon event of the same name that took place on September 21, 2001. The studio version is on the God Bless America album, a patriotic songs CD. It was recorded on September 20, 2001, the day before the American telethon. It was meant to be a replacement for the performance in the event something happened and Dion couldn't appear.\n\nDaniel Rodríguez\n\nThe song was recorded by New York City's \"singing cop,\" Daniel Rodríguez, and charted for one week at No. 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 as a single. Before the 2001 versions, the last time \"God Bless America\" had been a Billboard chart hit was in 1959 when Connie Francis reached No. 36 with her version (the B-side of her Top 10 hit \"Among My Souvenirs\").\n\nOther versions \n\nIn 1996 Yiddish singer Leo Fuld recorded a Dutch version of the song as God Bless The Netherlands, that he presented and sang on April 30 to Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands.\n\nIn 1997, American country music recording artist LeAnn Rimes recorded a cover of the song on her second studio album, You Light Up My Life: Inspirational Songs. After the events of September 11, Rimes rereleased the song on a compilation album by the same name. Rimes also released the song on a CD single. Two versions were released on October 16, 2001. Both versions contain the song as the A-side track, but the B-side tracks were different. One released to the general public was released with the B-side track, \"Put a Little Holiday in Your Heart,\" and the other was released to radio with the B-side track of Rimes's rendition of \"The National Anthem.\" Rimes's version peaked at No. 57 on the Billboard Country Songs chart on October 27, 2001. \n\nIn 2009 keyboardist Bob Baldwin covered the renowned song from his album \"Lookin' Back.\" \n\nIn popular culture\n\n* The song was sung in the 1943 film This is the Army with slightly modified lyrics.\n* The song was sung by the main characters in Michael Cimino's 1978 war film The Deer Hunter. Regarding the song in the film, Roger Ebert says in his March 9, 1979 review: \"It [the film] ends on a curious note: The singing of \"God Bless America\". I won't tell you how it arrives at that particular moment... but I do want to observe that the lyrics of \"God Bless America\" have never before seemed to me to contain such an infinity of possible meanings, some tragic, some unspeakably sad, some few still defiantly hopeful\".\n* The song is prominently featured in the film Once Upon a Time in America, where it is played during a murder at the beginning of the picture.\n* In the \"Flashback: Mike Meets Archie\" episode of All in the Family from 1971, after Archie Bunker was disgusted with Mike \"Meathead\" Stivic's liberal viewpoints, Archie stood up and sang a butchered version of \"God Bless America\" while Mike was screaming at Archie.\n\nParodies\n\nThe song has spawned numerous parodies.\n\n* An irreverent version of the lyrics was printed in the book The MAD World of William M. Gaines, by Frank Jacobs (1972). MAD magazine's veteran art editor, John Putnam, had prepared some copy and sent it to the printers; the word \"America\" was divided, with a hyphen, at the end of one line. The copy was returned to Putnam by the typesetting foreman, who explained that his union had a rule forbidding the splitting of that word. Putnam obliged, rewriting the copy and sending it back with this enclosure:\n\n:Don't break \"America\";\n:Land we extol;\n:Don't deface it;\n:Upper-case it;\n:Keep it clean, keep it pure, keep it whole;\n:In Bodoni, in Futura,\n:In Old English, in Cabell --\n:Don't break \"America\"--\n:Or we'll—raise—hell!\n\n* \"I am an Anglican\" is sung as an Episcopal church camp song. A midwestern version refers to Lutherans, a mid-Atlantic one to Presbyterians.\nIn \"Temporarily Humboldt County\" on The Firesign Theatre's first album Waiting for the Electrician or Someone Like Him, a group of Native American men briefly and ironically sing \"God bless Vespucciland...\" to the tune of \"God Bless America\" as they fade off into the distance. The reference is a play on the name of Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, whose first name is the source for the name \"America\" for the New World.\n God Bless America, a 2011 film by Bobcat Goldthwait, is a dark comedy that satirizes the present-day American values. The story revolves around a loveless, jobless, possibly terminally ill man and his 16-year-old female companion, who go on a killing spree, offing the stupidest, cruelest, and most repugnant members of American society.\n\nLyrics \n\nWhile the storm clouds gather far across the sea,\nLet us swear allegiance to a land that's free.\nLet us all be grateful for a land so fair,\nAs we raise our voices in a solemn prayer:\n\nGod bless America, land that I love,\nStand beside her and guide her\nThrough the night with a light from above.\nFrom the mountains, to the prairies,\nTo the oceans white with foam,\nGod bless America, my home sweet home.\nGod bless America, my home sweet home.\n\nGod Bless America! \n\nAn earlier and much more obscure song called \"God Bless America!\" was written by Robert Montgomery Bird and published in 1834. Sheet music for this version is [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/mussm:@FILREQ(@field(TITLE+@od1(God+bless+America!++))+@FIELD(COLLID+sm1820)) available online] from the Library of Congress. The lyrics begin:\n\nGod bless the land that gave us birth!\nNo pray'r but this know we.\nGod bless the land, of all the earth,\nThe happy and the free.\nAnd where's the land like ours can brave\nThe splendor of the day.\nAnd find no son of hers a slave?\nGod bless America!\nGod bless the land, the land beloved\nForever and for aye!\nGod bless the land that gave us birth.\nGod bless America!" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Ellin Mackay", "Irving Berlin", "Marie (Irving Berlin song)", "I Love a Piano", "Israel Baline", "Israel Isadore Baline", "Israel Isidore Baline" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ellin mackay", "marie irving berlin song", "israel isidore baline", "israel isadore baline", "irving berlin", "i love piano", "israel baline" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "irving berlin", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Irving Berlin" }
What was Sean Penn's first movie?	tc_1019	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Sean_Penn.txt" ], "title": [ "Sean Penn" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sean Justin Penn (born August 17, 1960) is an American actor, filmmaker, and political activist. He has won two Academy Awards, for his roles in the mystery drama Mystic River (2003) and the biopic Milk (2008).\n\nPenn began his acting career in television with a brief appearance in episode 112 of Little House on the Prairie (December 4, 1974), directed by his father Leo Penn. Following his film debut in the drama Taps (1981) and a diverse range of film roles in the 1980s, including Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), Penn garnered critical attention for his roles in the crime dramas At Close Range (1986), State of Grace (1990), and Carlito's Way (1993). He became known as a prominent leading actor with the drama Dead Man Walking (1995), for which he earned his first Academy Award nomination and the Best Actor Award at the Berlin Film Festival. Penn received another two Oscar nominations for Woody Allen's comedy-drama Sweet and Lowdown (1999) and the drama I Am Sam (2001), before winning his first Academy Award for Best Actor in 2003 for Mystic River and a second one in 2008 for Milk. He has also won a Best Actor Award of the Cannes Film Festival for the Nick Cassavetes-directed She's So Lovely (1997), and two Best Actor Awards at the Venice Film Festival for the indie film Hurlyburly (1998) and the drama 21 Grams (2003).\n\nPenn made his feature film directorial debut with The Indian Runner (1991), followed by the drama film The Crossing Guard (1995) and the mystery film The Pledge (2001). Penn directed one of the 11 segments of 11'09\"01 September 11 (2002), a compilation film made in response to the September 11 attacks. His fourth feature film, the biographical drama survival movie Into the Wild (2007), garnered critical acclaim and two Academy Award nominations.\n\nIn addition to his film work, Penn is known for his political and social activism, most notably his criticism of the George W. Bush administration, his contact with the Presidents of Cuba and Venezuela, and his humanitarian work in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina (2005) and the 2010 Haiti earthquake. In January 2016, Penn published an interview (conducted in October 2015) with Mexican drug lord Joaquín \"El Chapo\" Guzmán in Rolling Stone. Mexican authorities dismissed the level of importance given by American media to Penn in regards to Guzman's eventual recapture, instead placing importance on actress Kate del Castillo's continued communications with Guzman. \n\nEarly life \n\nPenn was born in Los Angeles County, California, the son of actor and director Leo Penn, and actress Eileen Ryan (née Annucci). His older brother is musician Michael Penn. His younger brother, actor Chris Penn, died in 2006. His paternal grandparents were Ashkenazi Jewish emigrants from Lithuania and Russia, while his mother is a Catholic of Irish and Italian descent. Penn was raised in a secular home and attended Santa Monica High School. He began making short films with some of his childhood friends, including actors Emilio Estevez and Charlie Sheen, who lived near his home.Stated on Inside the Actors Studio, 1999\n\nCareer \n\nActing \n\nPenn appeared in a 1974 episode of the Little House on the Prairie television series as an extra when his father, Leo, directed some of the episodes. Penn launched his film career with the action-drama Taps (1981), where he played a military high school cadet. A year later, he appeared in the hit comedy Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982), in the role of surfer-stoner Jeff Spicoli; his character helped popularize the word \"dude\" in popular culture. Next, Penn appeared as Mick O'Brien, a troubled youth, in the drama Bad Boys (1983). The role earned Penn favorable reviews and jump-started his career as a serious actor.\n\n \nPenn played Andrew Daulton Lee in the film The Falcon and the Snowman (1985), which closely followed an actual criminal case. Lee was a former drug dealer by trade, convicted of espionage for the Soviet Union and originally sentenced to life in prison, but was paroled in 1998. Penn later hired Lee as his personal assistant, partly because he wanted to reward Lee for allowing him to play Lee in the film; Penn was also a firm believer in rehabilitation and thought Lee should be successfully reintegrated into society, since he was a free man again. \n\nPenn starred in the drama At Close Range (1986) which received critical acclaim. He stopped acting for a few years in the early 1990s, having been dissatisfied with the industry, and focused on making his directing debut.\n\nThe Academy Awards first recognized his work in nominating him for playing a racist murderer on death row in the drama film Dead Man Walking (1995). He was nominated again for his comedic performance as an egotistical jazz guitarist in the film Sweet and Lowdown (1999). He received his third nomination after portraying a mentally handicapped father in I am Sam (2001). Penn finally won for his role in the Boston crime-drama Mystic River (2003). In 2004, Penn played Sam Byck, who in 1974 attempted and failed to assassinate President Richard Nixon, in The Assassination of Richard Nixon (2004). The same year, he was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Next, Penn portrayed governor Willie Stark (based on Huey Long) in an adaptation of Robert Penn Warren's classic 1946 American novel All the King's Men (2006). The film was a critical and commercial failure, named by a 2010 Forbes article as the biggest flop in the last five years. \n\nIn November 2008, Penn earned positive reviews for his portrayal of real-life gay-rights icon and politician Harvey Milk in the biopic Milk (2008), and was nominated for best actor for the 2008 Independent Spirit Awards. The film also earned Penn his fifth nomination and second win for the Academy Award for Best Actor. Penn starred as Joseph C. Wilson in Fair Game (2010), a film adaptation of Valerie Plame's 2007 memoir. He co-starred in the drama The Tree of Life (2011), which won the Palme d'Or at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival. In 2015, Penn starred in The Gunman, a French-American action thriller based on the novel The Prone Gunman, by Jean-Patrick Manchette. Jasmine Trinca, Idris Elba, Ray Winstone, Mark Rylance and fellow Oscar-winner Javier Bardem appear in supporting roles. Penn plays Jim Terrier, a sniper on a mercenary assassination team who kills the minister of mines of the Congo.\n\nDirecting \n\nPenn made his directorial debut with The Indian Runner (1991), a crime drama film based on Bruce Springsteen's song \"Highway Patrolman\", from the album Nebraska (1982). He also directed music videos, such as Shania Twain's \"Dance with the One That Brought You\" (1993), Lyle Lovett's \"North Dakota\" (1993), and Peter Gabriel's \"The Barry Williams Show\" (2002). He has since directed three more films, all well received by critics: the indie thriller The Crossing Guard (1995), the mystery film The Pledge (2001), and the biographical drama survival film Into the Wild (2007). Penn's fifth directorial feature The Last Face (2016) premiered at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival.\n\nPersonal life\n\nPenn was engaged to actress Elizabeth McGovern, his co-star in Racing with the Moon (1984).\n\nHe met pop singer Madonna in February 1985, and they married that August on her birthday. The two starred in the panned and much-derided Shanghai Surprise (1986), directed by Jim Goddard, and Madonna dedicated her third studio album True Blue (1986) to Penn, referring to him in the liner notes as \"the coolest guy in the universe\". The relationship was marred by violent outbursts against the press, including one incident when Penn was arrested for assaulting a photographer on a film set; Penn was sentenced to 60 days in jail in mid-1987, of which he served 33 days. Madonna filed for divorce in December 1987 but later withdrew the papers, only to file them again in January 1989. Penn was alleged to have struck Madonna on multiple occasions, but in 2015 Madonna stated the allegations were \"completely outrageous, malicious, reckless, and false”. \n\nAt the end of his first marriage, Penn moved in with actress Robin Wright, and their first child, a daughter named Dylan Frances, was born in 1991. Their second child, a son whom they named Hopper Jack, was born in 1993.\n\nPenn and Wright separated in 1995, during which time he developed a relationship with Jewel, after he spotted her performing on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. He invited her to compose a song for his film The Crossing Guard (1995) and followed her on tour. \n\nPenn and Wright reconciled, married on April 27, 1996, and lived in Ross, California. The couple filed for divorce in December 2007 but reconciled several months later, requesting a court dismissal of their divorce case. \n\nIn April 2009, Penn filed for legal separation, only to withdraw the case once again when the couple reconciled in May. On August 12, 2009, Wright Penn filed for divorce again. The couple's divorce was finalized on July 22, 2010; the couple reached a private agreement on child and spousal support, division of assets, and custody of Hopper, who was almost 17 at the time. \n\nIn December 2013, Penn began dating actress Charlize Theron. The two announced their engagement in December 2014. Theron ended their relationship in June 2015. \n\nPolitical views\n\nPenn has been outspoken in supporting numerous political and social causes. On December 13–16, 2002, he visited Iraq to protest the Bush Administration's apparent plans for a military strike on Iraq. On June 10, 2005, Penn made a visit to Iran. Acting as a journalist on an assignment for the San Francisco Chronicle, he attended a Friday prayer at Tehran University. \nOn January 7, 2006, Penn was a special guest at the Progressive Democrats of America, where he was joined by author and media critic Norman Solomon, Democratic congressional candidate Charles Brown, and activist Cindy Sheehan. The \"Out of Iraq Forum\", which took place in Sacramento, California, was organized to promote the anti-war movement calling for an end to the War in Iraq.\n\nOn December 18, 2006, Penn received the Christopher Reeve First Amendment Award from the Creative Coalition for his commitment to free speech. \nIn August 2008, Penn made an appearance at one of Ralph Nader's \"Open the Debates\" Super Rallies. He protested the political exclusion of Nader and other third parties. \nIn October 2008, Penn traveled to Cuba, where he met with and interviewed President Raúl Castro. \nIn February 2012, he stood beside Hugo Chávez while Venezuela supported the Syrian government during the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising. \n\nCriticism of President Bush\n\nOn October 18, 2002, Penn placed a US$56,000 advertisement in the Washington Post asking then President George W. Bush to end a cycle of violence. It was written as an open letter and referred to the planned attack on Iraq and the War on Terror. \n\nIn the letter, Penn also criticized the Bush administration for its \"deconstruction of civil liberties\" and its \"simplistic and inflammatory view of good and evil.\" Penn visited Iraq briefly in December 2002. \"Sean is one of the few,\" remarked his ex-wife Madonna. \"Good for him. Most celebrities are keeping their heads down. Nobody wants to be unpopular. But then Americans, by and large, are pretty ignorant of what's going on in the world.\" \nThe Post advertisement was cited as a primary reason for the development of his relationship with Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez. In one of his televised speeches, Chávez used and read aloud an open letter Penn wrote to Bush. The letter condemned the Iraq War, called for Bush to be impeached, and also called Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice \"villainously and criminally obscene people.\"In August 2007, Penn met with Chávez in Caracas for two hours, after which Chávez praised him for urging Americans to impeach Bush. Penn also visited a new film studio on the outskirts of Caracas, though he did not speak publicly. \n\nOn April 19, 2007, Penn appeared on The Colbert Report and had a \"Meta-Free-Phor-All\" versus Stephen Colbert that was judged by Robert Pinsky. This stemmed from some of Penn's criticisms of Bush. His exact quote was \"We cower as you point your fingers telling us to support our troops. You and the smarmy pundits in your pocket– those who bathe in the moisture of your soiled and blood-soaked underwear– can take that noise and shove it.\" He won the contest with 10,000,000 points to Colbert's 1. \nOn December 7, 2007, Penn said he supported Ohio Congressman Dennis J. Kucinich for U.S. President in 2008, and criticized Bush's handling of the Iraq war. Penn questioned whether Bush's twin daughters supported the war in Iraq. \n\nHurricane Katrina \n\nIn September 2005, Penn traveled to New Orleans, Louisiana, to aid Hurricane Katrina victims. He was physically involved in rescuing people, although there was criticism that his involvement was a PR stunt as he hired a photographer to come along with his entourage. Penn denied such accusations in an article he wrote for The Huffington Post. Director Spike Lee interviewed Penn for Lee's documentary about Hurricane Katrina, When the Levees Broke: A Requiem in Four Acts (2006).\n\nSupport for same-sex marriage \n\nOn February 22, 2009, Penn received the Academy Award for Best Actor for the film Milk. In his acceptance speech, he said: \"I think that it is a good time for those who voted for the ban against gay marriage to sit and reflect and anticipate their great shame and the shame in their grandchildren's eyes if they continue that way of support. We've got to have equal rights for everyone!\" \n\nRelief efforts following 2010 Haiti earthquake \n\nAfter the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Penn founded the J/P Haitian Relief Organization, which has been running a 55,000 person tent camp. \nDue to his visibility as an on-the-ground advocate for rescue and aid efforts in the aftermath, Penn was designated by president Michel Martelly as Ambassador-at-Large for Haiti, the first time that a non-Haitian citizen has been designated as such in the country's history. Penn received the designation on January 31, 2012. \n\nPakistan\n\nPenn gained significant attention in the Pakistan media when he visited Karachi and Badin in 2012. On March 23, 2012, he visited flood-stricken villages of Karim Bux Jamali, Dargah Shah Gurio and Peero Lashari in Badin District. He was accompanied by US Consul General Willian J. Martin and distributed blankets, quilts, kitchen items and other goods amongst flood survivors. \n\nOn March 24, 2012, Penn also visited Bilquis Edhi Female Child Home and met Pakistan’s iconic humanitarian worker Abdul Sattar Edhi and his wife, Bilquis Edhi. He also laid floral wreaths and paid respect at the shrine of Abdullah Shah Ghazi. \n\nRelease of Jacob Ostreicher from Bolivian prison\n\nPenn is believed to have played a role in getting American entrepreneur Jacob Ostreicher released from a Bolivian prison in 2013, and was credited by Ostreicher for having personally nursed him back to health upon his release. \n\nControversies\n\nDefense of Hugo Chávez\n\nIn March 2010, Penn called for the arrest of those referring to Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez as a dictator. The two were friends, and when Chávez died, Penn said: \"Venezuela and its revolution will endure under the proven leadership of Vice President (Nicolás) Maduro. Today the United States lost a friend it never knew it had. And poor people around the world lost a champion. I lost a friend I was blessed to have.\" \n\nFalkland Islands controversy\n\nIn February 2012, Penn met with the President of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, in Buenos Aires where he made a statement on the long-running dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the Falkland Islands, saying: \"I know I came in a very sensitive moment in terms of diplomacy between Argentina and the UK over the Falkland Islands. And I hope that diplomats can establish true dialogue in order to solve the conflict as the world today cannot tolerate ridiculous demonstrations of colonialism. The way of dialogue is the only way to achieve a better solution for both nations.\" \n\nThe comments were taken as support of Argentina's claim to the islands and evoked strong reactions in the British media, with one satirical article in The Daily Telegraph requesting that Penn \"return his Malibu estate to the Mexicans\". Lauren Collins of The New Yorker wrote: \"As of today, Sean Penn is the new Karl Lagerfeld—the man upon whom, having disrespected something dear to the United Kingdom, the British papers most gleefully pile contempt\". \n\nPenn later claimed that he had been misrepresented by the British press and that his criticism of \"colonialism\" was a reference to the deployment of Prince William as an air-sea rescue pilot, describing it as a \"message of pre-emptive intimidation\". He claimed that the Prince's posting meant \"the automatic deployment of warships\", and stated: \"My oh my, aren't people sensitive to the word 'colonialism', particularly those who implement colonialism.\" In a piece written in The Guardian, Penn wrote that \"the legalisation of Argentinian immigration to the Malvinas/Falkland Islands is one that it seems might have been addressed, but for the speculative discovery of booming offshore oil in the surrounding seas this past year\". He further wrote that \"irresponsible journalism\" had suggested \"that I had taken a specific position against those currently residing in the Malvinas/Falkland Islands, that they should either be deported or absorbed into Argentine rule. I neither said, nor insinuated that\". \n\nOscar green card joke\n\nAt the 87th Academy Awards, Penn presented the award for Best Picture. Before presenting the award to Mexican Alejandro González Iñárritu for Birdman, Penn questioned, \"Who gave this son of a bitch his green card?\".\n\nThis caused some people to be offended by the comments, deeming them racist towards Latin Americans, and offensive to those who attempt to legally immigrate into the United States. \n\nIñarritu said that it was a joke between him and Penn, who worked together on 21 Grams, and that he found it \"hilarious\". Penn later went on record defending his comments, saying, \"I have absolutely no apologies. In fact, I have a big fuck you for every...anybody who is so stupid not to have gotten the irony when you've got a country that is so xenophobic. If they had their way, you wouldn't have great filmmakers like Alejandro working in this country. Thank God we do.\" \n\nLee Daniels lawsuit\n\nIn an interview published September 16, 2015, director and showrunner Lee Daniels responded to criticism about Terrence Howard's continued career in light of his domestic violence issues by referencing Penn's rumored history of domestic violence, saying: \"[Terrence] ain't done nothing different than Marlon Brando or Sean Penn, and all of a sudden he's some f—in' demon.\" In response, Penn launched a $10-million defamation suit against Daniels, alleging that he had never been arrested for or charged with domestic violence. \n\nEl Chapo interview \n\nA day after Mexican officials announced the capture of Joaquín \"El Chapo\" Guzmán in a bloody raid, Rolling Stone revealed on January 9, 2016 that Sean Penn, along with actress Kate del Castillo, had conducted a secret interview with El Chapo prior to his arrest. Del Castillo was contacted by Guzman's lawyer (who was under CISEN surveillance) to talk about producing a biographical film over Guzman and communication increased following Guzman's escape from prison in July 2015. The deal for the interview was brokered by del Castillo. According to published text messages with del Castillo, Guzman did not know who Sean Penn was. CISEN released photographs of del Castillo at the meetings with Guzman's lawyers and of the arrival of the actress and Penn to Mexico.\n\nThe interview was criticized by some, including the White House, which called the interview \"maddening\". Mexican authorities said they were seeking to question Penn over the interview, which had not been approved by either the American or Mexican government. Penn and del Castillo's meeting with Guzman is under investigation by the Attorney General of Mexico.\n\nFilmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Butterfield's Lullaby", "Taps", "Taps (bugle call)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "butterfield s lullaby", "taps", "taps bugle call" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "taps", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Taps" }
Who had and 80s NO 1 with The Tide is High?	tc_1021	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Tide_Is_High.txt" ], "title": [ "The Tide Is High" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"The Tide Is High\" is a 1966 song written by John Holt, originally produced by Duke Reid and performed by the Jamaican group the Paragons, with John Holt as lead singer. The song gained international attention in 1980, when a version by the American band Blondie became a US/UK number one hit. The British girl group Atomic Kitten also had a number one hit with their version of the song in 2002, and a version of the song was a minor hit for Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall in 2008.\n\nThe Paragons version\n\nThe song was written by John Holt and originally recorded by the Paragons, the rocksteady vocal trio of which he was a member, and accompanied by Tommy McCook and the Suspersonic Band. It was produced by Duke Reid and released as a 7-inch single on Reid's Treasure Isle and Trojan labels and as the B-side of the \"Only a Smile\" single. \n\nThe song features the violin of \"White Rum\" Raymond, and was popular in Jamaica and became popular amongst West Indians and skinheads in the UK when a deejay version by U-Roy was released in 1971. Both tracks from the single were included on the 1970 collection On the Beach.\n\nTrack list\n\n# \"Only a Smile\"\n# \"The Tide Is High\" – 2:53\n\nGregory Isaacs version\n\nThe song was released as a single in 1978 by Gregory Isaacs; this version was produced by \"Prince\" Tony Robinson. It was released on the State Line label in the US, on Isaacs' own African Museum label in Jamaica, and on the Front Line label in Jamaica as a 12-inch discomix featuring a new deejay version by U-Roy.\n\nTrack list\n\n#\"The Tide Is High\" (Gregory Isaacs/U Roy)\n#\"Step It Out a Yard\"\n\nBlondie version\n\n\"The Tide Is High\" was covered by the American new wave band Blondie in 1980, in a reggae style that included horns and strings. It was released as the lead single from the band's fifth studio album, Autoamerican (1980). It was Blondie's third number one smash on the Billboard Hot 100 and their fifth in the UK. It also went on to reach the top three of Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart, and was popular throughout the world, reaching no. 4 in Australia, and no. 15 in Germany. It was the last UK number one single for the band until \"Maria\" in 1999. The B-side of \"The Tide Is High\" was \"Suzie and Jeffrey\", which appeared as a bonus track on the original 1980 cassette edition of the album Autoamerican and was also included on EMI-Capitol's re-issue of Autoamerican in 2001.\n\nVersions\n\nOfficial remixes of the Blondie version have been issued twice. First by Coldcut in 1988 on the Blondie/Debbie Harry remix compilation Once More into the Bleach and the second time in 1995 by Pete Arden and Vinny Vero on the album Remixed Remade Remodeled: The Remix Project (UK edition: Beautiful: The Remix Album).\n\nBlondie re-recorded the song for the 2014 compilation album Greatest Hits Deluxe Redux. The compilation was part of a 2-disc set called Blondie 4(0) Ever which included their 10th studio album Ghosts of Download and marked the 40th anniversary of the forming of the band.\n\nMusic video\n\nA music video was produced, directed by Hart Perry. It depicts the band waiting out on the street for singer Debbie Harry, who appears to be trapped in a flooding apartment. All the while, she is being monitored from outer space by what appears to be a Darth Vader-like alien being. She soon reunites with the band on the street and they drive to a rocket launch and fly into space. They then crash into the spaceship or space station. Harry confronts the alien being and begins dancing with him.\n\nAccolades\n\n() indicates the list is unordered.\n\nTrack listings\n\n7\"\n# \"The Tide Is High\" (7\" Edit) – 3:54\n# \"Suzy & Jeffrey\" – 4:09\n\nUS 7\" (Chrysalis Classics Re-Issue)\n# \"The Tide Is High\" (7\" Edit) – 3:54\n# \"Rapture\" – 4:59\n\nUS 7\" (promo only)\n# \"The Tide Is High\" (7\" Edit) – 3:54\n# \"The Tide Is High\" (7\" Edit) – 3:54\n\nUS 7\" (Collectables Record Corp. COL 6115)\n# \"The Tide Is High\"\n# \"Heart of Glass\"\n\nCharts and certifications\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications\n\n\|-\n\nPapa Dee version\n\nIn 1996, Papa Dee covered the song on his album The Journey. It was released only as a CD single and the bonus track is a mix of \"Funky Raggamuffin\"/\"Let the Music Play\".\n\nTrack listings\n\nCD Single\n# \"The Tide Is High\" – 3:55\n# \"Funky Raggamuffin/Let the Music Play\" – 5:01\n\nCharts\n\nAtomic Kitten version\n\nIn 2002, the song was covered by English girl group Atomic Kitten, and was released as the second single from their second studio album, Feels So Good (2002). Their version of the song also added a new bridge, hence the subtitle \"Get the Feeling\". The full song was played during the opening credits of The Lizzie McGuire Movie, and was also used for a TV commercial featuring Japanese beer company, Asahi Breweries. This was the group's third and final number-one single. The Atomic Kitten version was selected by The Daily Telegraph writer David Cheal as one of his \"Top five awful cover versions\" in 2002, describing it as \"a ghastly, sickly confection that has none of the wistfulness or soulfulness of either Blondie's version or the Paragons' original\". \n\nThe group performed this for the first time ever with the original line-up for their 2012 reformation on The Big Reunion with Kerry Katona performing Frost's vocals.\n\nSpanish version\n\nAtomic Kitten also recorded a Spanish version of the single, titled \"Ser tu pasión\". It was released in Colombia, Mexico and Spain, but failed to chart. However, the song promoted Atomic Kitten's second studio album Feels So Good in Mexico, and as a result, the album peaked at number 69 on the albums chart; it was also included on the Spanish version of Atomic Kitten's Greatest Hits album.\n\nMusic video\n\nThe music video is invariably Atomic Kitten's most famous music video due to the fact of band member Natasha Hamilton being heavily pregnant in the video. The music video begins with the group walking up to the screen. A flashing rainbow can be seen in the background, behind the scenes shots are behind a green screen. Whenever the chorus of the song is on, a dance accompanies it. Hamilton, Liz McClarnon and Jenny Frost do a simplistic dance that they also did during live performances. Whilst they dance, four men are also dancing alongside the group with slightly different moves—they also accompanied the live performances. Behind them is a sign that says \"Atomic\" that flashes throughout the music video and on clips on the behind the scenes version shows one girl dancing and three girls dancing. Each of the group has a different set for their solo. Liz's is next to a silver tree, with a purple background with a repeating pattern of the same tree that she is dancing next to. Jenny's is next to a car and Natasha's is in a pink room with number 1 signs. It also show the shots of three Atomic Kitten girls dancing near fluorescent purple lights during the bridge section of the song.\n\nTrack listings\n\nUK CD1 (Green)\n# \"The Tide Is High (Get the Feeling)\" (Radio Mix) – 3:28\n# \"Album Medley\" – 5:10 \n# \"Dancing In The Street\" – 3:39\n# \"The Tide Is High (Get the Feeling)\" (Video)\n\nUK CD2 (Red)\n# \"The Tide Is High (Get the Feeling)\" (Radio Mix) – 3:28\n# \"The Tide Is High (Get the Feeling)\" (Groove Brothers 12\" Remix) – 5:27\n# \"The Tide Is High (Get the Feeling)\" (Lasgo Remix) – 5:40\n\nUK Cassette\n# \"The Tide Is High (Get the Feeling)\" (Radio Mix) – 3:28\n# \"Album Medley\" – 5:10\n# \"The Tide Is High (Get the Feeling)\" (Groove Brothers Edit) – 3:20\n\nOfficial versions\n\nThe Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) – 3:27\nThe Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) (Version en español 'Ser tu pasión eres mi obsesión') – 3:27\nThe Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) (Groove Brothers Radio Edit) – 3:23\nThe Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) (Groove Brothers 12\" Mix) – 5:37\nThe Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) (Lasgo Remix) – 5:41\n\nChart performance\n\nThe song did extremely well in the charts, managing to sell over 1.5 million copies worldwide. The single peaked at no. 3 in the European charts, and no. 6 in the worldwide singles chart. It became their second best charting and selling single of their career. In the United Kingdom, the single sold 145,000 copies in its first week and topped the charts for three simultaneous weeks. It was eventually certified Gold and sold over 410,000 copies in the UK. In Oceania, the song did particularly well. It went platinum in both New Zealand, and Australia, selling approximately 150,000 copies over there. It spent twelve weeks in the Australian top ten, four of which were at no. 4—its peak position. This was better than \"Whole Again\", which only spent ten weeks in the top 10. \"The Tide Is High\" was also a Christmas hit over there.\n\nIn New Zealand, the song spent four weeks at no. 1, and three weeks at no. 2. The song also spent four weeks at no. 1 in Ireland. In Germany, the single debuted at no. 8. In its next week, it peaked at no. 3 on the chart becoming their second highest charting single over there, where it stayed for 2 weeks. It managed to stay in the top 10 for five weeks. It sold over 100,000 copies. In the rest of German-speaking Europe, it also peaked at no. 3 in Austria for two simultaneous weeks. In Switzerland, it peaked at number 4 and spent four weeks in the top 10. The song did exceptionally well all over Europe, becoming a top 20 hit everywhere—except for Italy, where it peaked at no. 30, and France, where it only managed to peak at no. 42. Atomic Kitten's only single or album to get anywhere into the top 20 in France was \"Eternal Flame\", making them one-hit wonders over there. \"The Tide Is High\" was also a huge success in Asia, becoming the \"Best British Single\" of 2002.\n\nCharts and certifications\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications\n\nKardinal Offishall version\n\n\"Numba 1 (Tide Is High)\" is a 2008 version of \"The Tide Is High\", performed by Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall featuring Keri Hilson. Produced by Supa Dups, the song – a percussive, dancehall-infused hip hop update – was released in September 2008 as the fourth single from his fourth album Not 4 Sale. It was released on iTunes on 14 October. In March 2010, the single was certified Gold by the CRIA.\n\nAside from the album version, which features Rihanna, there are three other versions of \"Numba 1 (Tide Is High)\". The second is the original version, featuring Nicole Scherzinger. A third version features Rihanna and Nicole Scherzinger. The fourth version is the official single and features Keri Hilson. There is also a mash-up version which features Rihanna, Nicole Scherzinger and Keri Hilson.\n\nThe music video premiered on 24 October 2008 at Yahoo! Music. It was directed by Gil Green, and Akon makes a cameo appearance. The song \"Nina\" is featured at the end of the video.\n\nTrack list\n\n12\" single\n#\"Numba 1 (Tide Is High)\" (Radio Version) – 3:41\n#\"Numba 1 (Tide Is High)\" (Instrumental) – 3:41\n\n7\" single\n#\"Numba 1 (Tide Is High)\"\n#\"Nina\"\n\nRemixes\n\n\"Numba 1 (Tide Is High) (Dutty South Remix)\" (featuring David Banner, Alfamega, Lindo P, Darryl Riley, and Yummy Bingham) \n\"Numba 1 (Tide Is High) (Dutty Remix)\" (featuring Barrington Levy, Busta Rhymes, Lindo P, Darryl Riley, and Yummy Bingham)\n\nCharts\n\n1Rihanna and Nicole Scherzinger versions" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Blondie", "Blondie (movie)", "Blondie (TV series)", "Blondie (disambiguation)", "Blondie (film)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "blondie", "blondie disambiguation", "blondie tv series", "blondie film", "blondie movie" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "blondie", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Blondie" }
In which Bond film did Britt Ekland appear?	tc_1022	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "James_Bond.txt", "Britt_Ekland.txt" ], "title": [ "James Bond", "Britt Ekland" ], "wiki_context": [ "The James Bond series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections. Since Fleming's death in 1964, eight other authors have written authorised Bond novels or novelizations: Kingsley Amis, Christopher Wood, John Gardner, Raymond Benson, Sebastian Faulks, Jeffery Deaver, William Boyd and Anthony Horowitz. The latest novel is Trigger Mortis by Anthony Horowitz, published in September 2015. Additionally Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond, and Kate Westbrook wrote three novels based on the diaries of a recurring series character, Moneypenny.\n\nThe character has also been adapted for television, radio, comic strip, video games and film. The films are the longest continually running and the third-highest-grossing film series to date, which started in 1962 with Dr. No, starring Sean Connery as Bond. As of , there have been twenty-four films in the Eon Productions series. The most recent Bond film, Spectre (2015), stars Daniel Craig in his fourth portrayal of Bond; he is the sixth actor to play Bond in the Eon series. There have also been two independent productions of Bond films: Casino Royale (a 1967 spoof) and Never Say Never Again (a 1983 remake of an earlier Eon-produced film, Thunderball).\n\nThe Bond films are renowned for a number of features, including the musical accompaniment, with the theme songs having received Academy Award nominations on several occasions, and two wins. Other important elements which run through most of the films include Bond's cars, his guns, and the gadgets with which he is supplied by Q Branch. The films are also noted for Bond's relationships with various women, who are sometimes referred to as \"Bond girls\".\n\nPublication history\n\nCreation and inspiration\n\nAs the central figure for his works, Ian Fleming created the fictional character of James Bond, an intelligence officer in the Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6. Bond was also known by his code number, 007, and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander.\n\nFleming based his fictional creation on a number of individuals he came across during his time in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II, admitting that Bond \"was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war\". Among those types were his brother, Peter, who had been involved in behind-the-lines operations in Norway and Greece during the war. Aside from Fleming's brother, a number of others also provided some aspects of Bond's make up, including Conrad O'Brien-ffrench, Patrick Dalzel-Job and Bill \"Biffy\" Dunderdale.\n\nThe name James Bond came from that of the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies. Fleming, a keen birdwatcher himself, had a copy of Bond's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist's wife that \"It struck me that this brief, unromantic, Anglo-Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed, and so a second James Bond was born\". He further explained that:\n\nOn another occasion, Fleming said: \"I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, 'James Bond' was much better than something more interesting, like 'Peregrine Carruthers'. Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure—an anonymous, blunt instrument wielded by a government department.\"\n\nFleming decided that Bond should resemble both American singer Hoagy Carmichael and himself and in Casino Royale, Vesper Lynd remarks, \"Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless.\" Likewise, in Moonraker, Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is \"certainly good-looking ... Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way. That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow. Much the same bones. But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth, and the eyes were cold.\"\n\nFleming also endowed Bond with many of his own traits, including sharing the same golf handicap, the taste for scrambled eggs and using the same brand of toiletries. Bond's tastes are also often taken from Fleming's own as was his behaviour, with Bond's love of golf and gambling mirroring Fleming's own. Fleming used his experiences of his espionage career and all other aspects of his life as inspiration when writing, including using names of school friends, acquaintances, relatives and lovers throughout his books.\n\nIt was not until the penultimate novel, You Only Live Twice, that Fleming gave Bond a sense of family background. The book was the first to be written after the release of Dr. No in cinemas and Sean Connery's depiction of Bond affected Fleming's interpretation of the character, to give Bond both a sense of humour and Scottish antecedents that were not present in the previous stories. In a fictional obituary, purportedly published in The Times, Bond's parents were given as Andrew Bond, from the village of Glencoe, Scotland, and Monique Delacroix, from the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. Fleming did not provide Bond's date of birth, but John Pearson's fictional biography of Bond, James Bond: The Authorized Biography of 007, gives Bond a birth date on 11 November 1920, while a study by John Griswold puts the date at 11 November 1921.\n\nNovels and related works\n\nIan Fleming novels\n\nWhilst serving in the Naval Intelligence Division, Fleming had planned to become an author and had told a friend, \"I am going to write the spy story to end all spy stories.\" On 17 February 1952, he began writing his first James Bond novel, Casino Royale at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica, where he wrote all his Bond novels during the months of January and February each year. He started the story shortly before his wedding to his pregnant girlfriend, Ann Charteris, in order to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials.\n\nAfter completing the manuscript for Casino Royale, Fleming showed the manuscript to his friend (and later editor) William Plomer to read. Plomer liked it and submitted it to the publishers, Jonathan Cape, who did not like it as much. Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming's older brother Peter, an established travel writer. Between 1953 and 1966, two years after his death, twelve novels and two short-story collections were published, with the last two books – The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy and The Living Daylights – published posthumously. All the books were published in the UK through Jonathan Cape.\n\nPost-Fleming novels\n\nAfter Fleming's death a continuation novel, Colonel Sun, was written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham) and published in 1968. Amis had already written a literary study of Fleming's Bond novels in his 1965 work The James Bond Dossier. Although novelizations of two of the Eon Productions Bond films appeared in print, James Bond, The Spy Who Loved Me and James Bond and Moonraker, both written by screenwriter Christopher Wood, the series of novels did not continue until the 1980s. In 1981 the thriller writer John Gardner picked up the series with Licence Renewed. Gardner went on to write sixteen Bond books in total; two of the books he wrote – Licence to Kill and GoldenEye – were novelizations of Eon Productions films of the same name. Gardner moved the Bond series into the 1980s, although he retained the ages of the characters as they were when Fleming had left them. In 1996 Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health. \n\nIn 1996 the American author Raymond Benson became the author of the Bond novels. Benson had previously been the author of The James Bond Bedside Companion, first published in 1984. \nBy the time he moved on to other, non-Bond related projects in 2002, Benson had written six Bond novels, three novelizations and three short stories. \n\nAfter a gap of six years, Sebastian Faulks was commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to write a new Bond novel, which was released on 28 May 2008, the 100th anniversary of Fleming's birth. The book—titled Devil May Care—was published in the UK by Penguin Books and by Doubleday in the US. American writer Jeffery Deaver was then commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to produce Carte Blanche, which was published on 26 May 2011. The book updated Bond into a post-9/11 agent, independent of MI5 or MI6. On 26 September 2013 Solo, written by William Boyd, was published, set in 1969. In October 2014 it was announced that Anthony Horowitz was to write a Bond continuation novel. Set in the 1950s two weeks after the events of Goldfinger, it contains material written, but previously unreleased, by Fleming. Trigger Mortis was released on 8 September 2015. \n\nYoung Bond\n\nThe Young Bond series of novels was started by Charlie Higson and, between 2005 and 2009, five novels and one short story were published. The first Young Bond novel, SilverFin was also adapted and released as a graphic novel on 2 October 2008 by Puffin Books. In October 2013 Ian Fleming Publications announced that Stephen Cole would continue the series, with the first edition scheduled to be released in Autumn 2014. \n\nThe Moneypenny Diaries\n\nThe Moneypenny Diaries are a trilogy of novels chronicling the life of Miss Moneypenny, M's personal secretary. The novels are penned by Samantha Weinberg under the pseudonym Kate Westbrook, who is depicted as the book's \"editor\". The first instalment of the trilogy, subtitled Guardian Angel, was released on 10 October 2005 in the UK. A second volume, subtitled Secret Servant was released on 2 November 2006 in the UK, published by John Murray. A third volume, subtitled Final Fling was released on 1 May 2008. \n\nAdaptations\n\nTelevision\n\nIn 1954 CBS paid Ian Fleming $1,000 ($ in dollars) to adapt his novel Casino Royale into a one-hour television adventure as part of its Climax! series. The episode aired live on 21 October 1954 and starred Barry Nelson as \"Card Sense\" James Bond and Peter Lorre as Le Chiffre. The novel was adapted for American audiences to show Bond as an American agent working for \"Combined Intelligence\", while the character Felix Leiter—American in the novel—became British onscreen and was renamed \"Clarence Leiter\".\n\nIn 1973 a BBC documentary Omnibus: The British Hero featured Christopher Cazenove playing a number of such title characters (e.g. Richard Hannay and Bulldog Drummond). The documentary included James Bond in dramatised scenes from\nGoldfinger—notably featuring 007 being threatened with the novel's circular saw, rather than the film's laser beam—and Diamonds Are Forever. In 1991 a TV cartoon series James Bond Jr. was produced with Corey Burton in the role of Bond's nephew, also called James Bond. \n\nRadio\n\nIn 1956 the novel Moonraker was adapted for broadcast on South African radio, with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond. According to The Independent, \"listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination\". \n\nThe BBC have adapted five of the Fleming novels for broadcast: in 1990 You Only Live Twice was adapted into a 90-minute radio play for BBC Radio 4 with Michael Jayston playing James Bond. The production was repeated a number of times between 2008 and 2011. On 24 May 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation of Dr. No. The actor Toby Stephens, who played Bond villain Gustav Graves in the Eon Productions version of Die Another Day, played Bond, while Dr. No was played by David Suchet. Following its success, a second story was adapted and on 3 April 2010 BBC Radio 4 broadcast Goldfinger with Stephens again playing Bond. Sir Ian McKellen was Goldfinger and Stephens' Die Another Day co-star Rosamund Pike played Pussy Galore. The play was adapted from Fleming's novel by Archie Scottney and was directed by Martin Jarvis. \nIn 2012 the novel From Russia, with Love was dramatized for Radio 4; it featured a full cast again starring Stephens as Bond. In May 2014 Stephens again played Bond, in On Her Majesty's Secret Service, with Alfred Molina as Blofeld, and Joanna Lumley as Irma Bunt. \n\nComics medium\n\nIn 1957 the Daily Express approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips, offering him £1,500 per novel and a share of takings from syndication. After initial reluctance, Fleming, who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing, agreed. To aid the Daily Express in illustrating Bond, Fleming commissioned an artist to create a sketch of how he believed James Bond looked. The illustrator, John McLusky, however, felt that Fleming's 007 looked too \"outdated\" and \"pre-war\" and changed Bond to give him a more masculine look. The first strip, Casino Royale was published from 7 July 1958 to 13 December 1958 and was written by Anthony Hern and illustrated by John McLusky.\n\nMost of the Bond novels and short stories have since been adapted for illustration, as well as Kingsley Amis's Colonel Sun; the works were written by Henry Gammidge or Jim Lawrence with Yaroslav Horak replacing McClusky as artist in 1966. After the Fleming and Amis material had been adapted, original stories were produced, continuing in the Daily Express and Sunday Express until May 1977.\n\nSeveral comic book adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years: at the time of Dr. No's release in October 1962, a comic book adaptation of the screenplay, written by Norman J. Nodel, was published in Britain as part of the Classics Illustrated anthology series. It was later reprinted in the United States by DC Comics as part of its Showcase anthology series, in January 1963. This was the first American comic book appearance of James Bond and is noteworthy for being a relatively rare example of a British comic being reprinted in a fairly high-profile American comic. It was also one of the earliest comics to be censored on racial grounds (some skin tones and dialogue were changed for the American market). \n\nWith the release of the 1981 film For Your Eyes Only, Marvel Comics published a two-issue comic book adaptation of the film. When Octopussy was released in the cinemas in 1983, Marvel published an accompanying comic; Eclipse also produced a one-off comic for Licence to Kill, although Timothy Dalton refused to allow his likeness to be used. New Bond stories were also drawn up and published from 1989 onwards through Marvel, Eclipse Comics and Dark Horse Comics.\n\nFilms\n\nThe Eon Productions films\n\nIn 1962 Eon Productions, the company of Canadian Harry Saltzman and American Albert R. \"Cubby\" Broccoli, released the first cinema adaptation of an Ian Fleming novel, Dr. No, featuring Sean Connery as 007. Connery starred in a further four films before leaving the role after You Only Live Twice, which was taken up by George Lazenby for On Her Majesty's Secret Service. Lazenby left the role after just one appearance and Connery was tempted back for his last Eon-produced film Diamonds Are Forever.\n\nIn 1973 Roger Moore was appointed to the role of 007 for Live and Let Die and played Bond a further six times over twelve years before being replaced by Timothy Dalton for two films. After a six-year hiatus, during which a legal wrangle threatened Eon's productions of the Bond films, Irish actor Pierce Brosnan was cast as Bond in GoldenEye, released in 1995; he remained in the role for a total of four films, before leaving in 2002. In 2006, Daniel Craig was given the role of Bond for Casino Royale, which rebooted the series. The twenty-third Eon produced film, Skyfall, was released on 26 October 2012. The series has grossed almost $7 billion to date, making it the third-highest-grossing film series (behind Harry Potter and the Marvel Cinematic Universe), and the single most successful adjusted for inflation. \n\nNon-Eon films\n\nIn 1967 Casino Royale was adapted into a parody Bond film starring David Niven as Sir James Bond and Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd. Niven had been Fleming's preference for the role of Bond. The result of a court case in the High Court in London in 1963 allowed Kevin McClory to produce a remake of Thunderball titled Never Say Never Again in 1983. The film, produced by Jack Schwartzman's Taliafilm production company and starring Sean Connery as Bond, was not part of the Eon series of Bond films. In 1997 the Sony Corporation acquired all or some of McClory's rights in an undisclosed deal, which were then subsequently acquired by MGM, whilst on 4 December 1997, MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to Never Say Never Again from Taliafilm. As at 2015 Eon holds the full adaptation rights to all of Fleming's Bond novels. \n\nMusic\n\nThe \"James Bond Theme\" was written by Monty Norman and was first orchestrated by the John Barry Orchestra for 1962's Dr. No, although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years. In 2001, Norman won £30,000 in libel damages from the The Sunday Times newspaper, which suggested that Barry was entirely responsible for the composition. The theme, as written by Norman and arranged by Barry, was described by another Bond film composer, David Arnold, as \"bebop-swing vibe coupled with that vicious, dark, distorted electric guitar, definitely an instrument of rock 'n' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want: It was cocky, swaggering, confident, dark, dangerous, suggestive, sexy, unstoppable. And he did it in two minutes.\" Barry composed the scores for eleven Bond films and had an uncredited contribution to Dr. No with his arrangement of the Bond Theme.\n\nA Bond film staple are the theme songs heard during their title sequences sung by well-known popular singers. Several of the songs produced for the films have been nominated for Academy Awards for Original Song, including Paul McCartney's \"Live and Let Die\", Carly Simon's \"Nobody Does It Better\", Sheena Easton's \"For Your Eyes Only\", Adele's \"Skyfall\", and Sam Smith's \"Writing's on the Wall\". Adele won the award at the 85th Academy Awards, and Smith won at the 88th Academy Awards. For the non-Eon produced Casino Royale, Burt Bacharach's score included \"The Look of Love\", which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song. \n\nVideo games\n\nIn 1983 the first Bond video game, developed and published by Parker Brothers, was released for the Atari 2600, the Atari 5200, the Atari 800, the Commodore 64 and the ColecoVision. Since then, there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines. In 1997 the first-person shooter video game GoldenEye 007 was developed by Rare for the Nintendo 64, based on the 1995 Pierce Brosnan film GoldenEye. The game received very positive reviews, won the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for UK Developer of the Year in 1998 and sold over eight million copies worldwide, grossing $250 million. \n\nIn 1999 Electronic Arts acquired the licence and released Tomorrow Never Dies on 16 December 1999. In October 2000, they released The World Is Not Enough for the Nintendo 64 followed by 007 Racing for the PlayStation on 21 November 2000. In 2003, the company released James Bond 007: Everything or Nothing, which included the likenesses and voices of Pierce Brosnan, Willem Dafoe, Heidi Klum, Judi Dench and John Cleese, amongst others. In November 2005, Electronic Arts released a video game adaptation of 007: From Russia with Love, which involved Sean Connery's image and voice-over for Bond. In 2006 Electronic Arts announced a game based on then-upcoming film Casino Royale: the game was cancelled because it would not be ready by the film's release in November of that year. With MGM losing revenue from lost licensing fees, the franchise was removed from EA to Activision. Activision subsequently released the 007: Quantum of Solace game on 31 October 2008, based on the film of the same name. \n\nA new version of GoldenEye 007 featuring Daniel Craig was released exclusively for the Nintendo Wii and a handheld version for the Nintendo DS in November 2010. A year later another new version was released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 under the title GoldenEye 007: Reloaded. In October 2012 007 Legends was released, which featured one mission from each of the Bond actors of the Eon Productions' series. \n\nGuns, vehicles and gadgets\n\nGuns\n\nFor the first five novels, Fleming armed Bond with a Beretta 418 until he received a letter from a thirty-one-year-old Bond enthusiast and gun expert, Geoffrey Boothroyd, criticising Fleming's choice of firearm for Bond, calling it \"a lady's gun – and not a very nice lady at that!\" Boothroyd suggested that Bond should swap his Beretta for a Walther PPK 7.65mm and this exchange of arms made it to Dr. No. Boothroyd also gave Fleming advice on the Berns-Martin triple draw shoulder holster and a number of the weapons used by SMERSH and other villains. In thanks, Fleming gave the MI6 Armourer in his novels the name Major Boothroyd and, in Dr. No, M introduces him to Bond as \"the greatest small-arms expert in the world\". Bond also used a variety of rifles, including the Savage Model 99 in \"For Your Eyes Only\" and a Winchester .308 target rifle in \"The Living Daylights\". Other handguns used by Bond in the Fleming books included the Colt Detective Special and a long-barrelled Colt .45 Army Special.\n\nThe first Bond film, Dr. No, saw M ordering Bond to leave his Beretta behind and take up the Walther PPK, which the film Bond used in eighteen films. In Tomorrow Never Dies and the two subsequent films, Bond's main weapon was the Walther P99 semi-automatic pistol.\n\nVehicles\n\nIn the early Bond stories Fleming gave Bond a battleship-grey Bentley 4½ Litre with an Amherst Villiers supercharger. After Bond's car was written off by Hugo Drax in Moonraker, Fleming gave Bond a Mark II Continental Bentley, which he used in the remaining books of the series. During Goldfinger, Bond was issued with an Aston Martin DB Mark III with a homing device, which he used to track Goldfinger across France. Bond returned to his Bentley for the subsequent novels.\n\nThe Bond of the films has driven a number of cars, including the Aston Martin V8 Vantage, during the 1980s, the V12 Vanquish and DBS during the 2000s, as well as the Lotus Esprit; the BMW Z3, BMW 750iL and the BMW Z8. He has, however, also needed to drive a number of other vehicles, ranging from a Citroën 2CV to a Routemaster Bus, amongst others.\n\nBond's most famous car is the silver grey Aston Martin DB5, first seen in Goldfinger; it later featured in Thunderball, GoldenEye, Tomorrow Never Dies, Casino Royale and Skyfall. The films have used a number of different Aston Martins for filming and publicity, one of which was sold in January 2006 at an auction in the US for $2,090,000 to an unnamed European collector. \n\nGadgets\n\nFleming's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as the booby-trapped attaché case in From Russia with Love, although this situation changed dramatically with the films. However, the effects of the two Eon-produced Bond films Dr. No and From Russia with Love had an effect on the novel The Man with the Golden Gun, through the increased number of devices used in Fleming's final story.\n\nFor the film adaptations of Bond, the pre-mission briefing by Q Branch became one of the motifs that ran through the series. Dr. No provided no spy-related gadgets, but a Geiger counter was used; industrial designer Andy Davey observed that the first ever onscreen spy-gadget was the attaché case shown in From Russia with Love, which he described as \"a classic 007 product\". The gadgets assumed a higher profile in the 1964 film Goldfinger. The film's success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to Bond, although the increased use of technology led to an accusation that Bond was over-reliant on equipment, particularly in the later films.\n\nDavey noted that \"Bond's gizmos follow the zeitgeist more closely than any other ... nuance in the films\" as they moved from the potential representations of the future in the early films, through to the brand-name obsessions of the later films. It is also noticeable that, although Bond uses a number of pieces of equipment from Q Branch, including the Little Nellie autogyro, a jet pack and the exploding attaché case, the villains are also well-equipped with custom-made devices, including Scaramanga's golden gun, Rosa Klebb's poison-tipped shoes, Oddjob's steel-rimmed bowler hat and Blofeld's communication devices in his agents' vanity case.\n\nCultural impact\n\nCinematically, Bond has been a major influence within the spy genre since the release of Dr. No in 1962, with 22 secret agent films released in 1966 alone attempting to capitalise on the Bond franchise's popularity and success. The first parody was the 1964 film Carry On Spying, which shows the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included James Bind (Charles Hawtry) and Daphne Honeybutt (Barbara Windsor). One of the films that reacted against the portrayal of Bond was the Harry Palmer series, whose first film, The Ipcress File was released in 1965. The eponymous hero of the series was what academic Jeremy Packer called an \"anti-Bond\", or what Christoph Lindner calls \"the thinking man's Bond\". The Palmer series were produced by Harry Saltzman, who also used key crew members from the Bond series, including designer Ken Adam, editor Peter R. Hunt and composer John Barry. The four \"Matt Helm\" films starring Dean Martin (released between 1966 and 1969), the \"Flint\" series starring James Coburn (comprising two films, one each in 1966 and 1969), while The Man from U.N.C.L.E. also moved onto the cinema screen, with eight films released: all were testaments to Bond's prominence in popular culture. More recently, the Austin Powers series by writer, producer and comedian Mike Myers, and other parodies such as the 2003 film Johnny English, have also used elements from or parodied the Bond films.\n\nFollowing the release of the film Dr. No in 1962, the line \"Bond ... James Bond\", became a catch phrase that entered the lexicon of Western popular culture: writers Cork and Scivally said of the introduction in Dr. No that the \"signature introduction would become the most famous and loved film line ever\". In 2001, it was voted as the \"best-loved one-liner in cinema\" by British cinema goers, and in 2005, it was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the American Film Institute as part of their 100 Years Series. The 2005 American Film Institute's '100 Years' series recognised the character of James Bond himself as the third greatest film hero. He was also placed at number 11 on a similar list by Empire and as the fifth greatest movie character of all time by Premiere. \n\nThe 23 James Bond films produced by Eon Productions, which have grossed $4,910,000,000 in box office returns alone, have made the series one of the highest-grossing ever. It is estimated that since Dr. No, a quarter of the world's population have seen at least one Bond film. The UK Film Distributors' Association have stated that the importance of the Bond series of films to the British film industry cannot be overstated, as they \"form the backbone of the industry\". \n\nTelevision also saw the effect of Bond films, with the NBC series The Man from U.N.C.L.E., which was described as the \"first network television imitation\" of Bond, largely because Fleming provided advice and ideas on the development of the series, even giving the main character the name Napoleon Solo. Other 1960s television series inspired by Bond include I Spy, and Get Smart.\n\nBy 2012, James Bond had become such a symbol of the United Kingdom that the character, played by Craig, appeared in the opening ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics as Queen Elizabeth II's escort. \n\nThroughout the life of the film series, a number of tie-in products have been released.\n\nCriticisms of James Bond \n\nThe James Bond character and related media have triggered a number of criticisms and reactions across the political spectrum, and are still highly debated in popular culture studies. Left-leaning observers often accuse Bond novels and films of misogyny and sexism. Geographers have considered the role of exotic locations in the movies in the dynamics of the Cold War, with power struggles among blocs playing out in the peripheral areas. Other critics claim that 21st century Bond movies reflect imperial nostalgia. American conservative critics, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s, saw Bond as a nihilistic, hedonistic, and amoral character that challenged family values.", "Britt Ekland (born Britt-Marie Eklund; 6 October 1942) is a Swedish film, stage, and television actress, and singer. She appeared in numerous films in her heyday throughout the 1960s and 1970s, including critically acclaimed roles in William Friedkin's The Night They Raided Minsky's (1968), and the British crime film Get Carter (1971), which established her as a movie sex symbol. She also starred in the British cult horror film The Wicker Man (1973) and appeared as a Bond girl in The Man with the Golden Gun (1974). \n\nHer high-profile social life and her 1964 marriage to actor Peter Sellers attracted considerable press attention, leading to her being one of the most photographed celebrities in the world during the 1970s.\n\nEarly life\n\nEkland was born Britt-Marie Eklund in Stockholm, Sweden to Maj Britt, a secretary, and Sven Axel Eklund, who ran an upscale clothing store in Stockholm and was captain of the Swedish national curling team. Ekland's mother died of Alzheimer's disease in the 1980s, which had a profound effect on her. \n\nEkland grew up with three younger brothers, and has said that she was overweight for much of her childhood: \"I was very heavy. God, I was brutal-looking. I always tried to be funny to make up for the fact that I was fat and ugly.\" As a teenager, Ekland left school to travel with a theater company, and was spotted by a talent agent in a coffee shop while in Italy, who sent her to London to audition for films.\n\nFilm career\n\nEarly roles: 1960–1970\n\nEkland began her career with bit parts and uncredited walk-on roles, including her first onscreen role in G.I. Blues (1960). This was followed with a small supporting part in The Happy Thieves (1960). She had small roles in the Swedish films Kort är sommaren (1962) and Det är hos mig han har varit (1963), before landing her first major supporting part in the George Marshall Western Advance to the Rear (1964). \n\nIn 1964, she appeared in the Christmas television film A Carol for Another Christmas, meeting her future husband, Peter Sellers, her co-star in the film. She followed this with After the Fox (1966), also starring Sellers; she made one more film with Sellers, The Bobo (1967). This was followed with a lead role as an Amish girl-turned New York City burlesque dancer in William Friedkin's musical The Night They Raided Minsky's (1968), which earned Ekland critical acclaim. Next came Stiletto (1969), a crime drama, based on a novel by Harold Robbins, co-starring Alex Cord. She then starred in a string of Italian films, Machine Gun McCain (1969), The Conspirators (1969), and as Antigone in The Cannibals (1970).\n\nSex symbol and horror roles: 1971–1988\n\nIn 1971, she was cast as a leading lady and gun moll in the iconic crime film Get Carter, opposite Michael Caine, which firmly established her as a blonde bombshell. The 1970s also saw Ekland in several horror films, including What the Peeper Saw (1972) as a disturbed bride; the Agatha Christie adaptation Endless Night (1972), playing the friend and companion of an American heiress; and as a hallucinatory figure in the anthology film Asylum (1972) opposite Charlotte Rampling. Her most iconic horror role came in the 1973 cult horror film The Wicker Man, in which she played a Pagan villager and seductress; however, her voice was dubbed in the film to disguise her Swedish-accented English. \n\nOther roles included in the thriller The Ultimate Thrill (1974) and the British drama Baxter! (1973). On television, she was cast in the TV film The Six Million Dollar Man: Wine, Women and War (1973) opposite Lee Majors. Ekland's next prominent role came when she was cast as the lead Bond girl, Mary Goodnight, in the 1974 James Bond film The Man with the Golden Gun, which received mixed reviews but furthered Ekland's status as a sex symbol. In 1976 she provided the French spoken part at the end of then boyfriend Rod Stewart's hit single \"Tonight's the Night (Gonna Be Alright)\". Ekland also portrayed biographical characters, such as the one based on real-life actress Anny Ondra (boxer Max Schmeling's wife) in the television movie Ring of Passion (1978). Ekland was also featured in the horror pictures The Monster Club (1980) and Satan's Mistress (1982). \n\nEkland had supporting roles in independent films, and appeared in the 1985 comedy Fraternity Vacation, followed by a role in the slasher film Moon in Scorpio (1988) and as prostitute Mariella Novotny in the feature film Scandal (1989) about the Profumo Affair.\n\nStage and television: 1989–present\n\nShe has guest-starred on various TV shows, including an appearance on the popular TV series Superboy, playing an alien disguised as Lara, Superboy's biological mother, during the show's second season in 1990. Ekland published a beauty and fitness book in 1984 Sensual Beauty: How to achieve it, followed by a fitness video in 1992. In the 1999 BBC television series I Love the '70s she hosted the 1971 episode in homage to her role as \"Anna\" in the film), and The Wicker Man.\n\nEkland's later career has mainly consisted of stage and television, with her last feature film role being in The Children (1990). She appeared on stage as a cast member in Cinderella at the Regent Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent in December 1999 and January 2000. She also appeared in Grumpy Old Women Live, participated in December 2007 in the Swedish reality show Stjärnorna på slottet (The stars at the castle) along with Peter Stormare, Arja Saijonmaa, Jan Malmsjö and Magnus Härenstam, and in December 2007 and January 2008 she starred again in Cinderella at the Wyvern Theatre, Swindon. She appeared as a guest on the British daytime television show Loose Women, in January 2008. From December 2008 to January 2009, Britt starred in Cinderella at the Shaw Theatre in London. In a rare instance of her singing, she performed the song My Prince, originally recorded by Lara Pulver on the album Act One – Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange. In 2009–10 she played the Fairy Godmother in Cinderella at Princess Theatre, Torquay. In December 2010 she starred as the 'Fairy Pea Pod' in Jack and the Beanstalk at the Kings Theatre, Southsea. She starred in further Pantomimes at the Theatre Royal, Windsor, in 2011 and 2012.\n\nEkland was one of the housewives of Svenska Hollywoodfruar (en:Swedish Hollywoodwives) on TV3 during the 2013 season.\nIn 2010 Ekland took part in the reality TV show I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! where she was fourth to be voted off. During the program she developed a close relationship with Stacey Solomon and Nigel Havers, while making an enemy of Gillian McKeith. \n\nPersonal life\n\nEkland and Peter Sellers, 1964\nEkland is fluent in English, French, and German, in addition to her native Swedish.\nRelationships and family\n\nEkland became famous overnight as a result of her 1964 whirlwind romance and marriage to English actor and comedian, Peter Sellers, who proposed after seeing her photograph in the paper and then meeting in London. She stood by him after he suffered a series of massive heart attacks shortly after their marriage. Ekland was stepmother to Sellers' children Sarah and Michael (who died of a heart attack at about the same age as his father). In January 1965 they had a daughter, Victoria. The couple made three films together—A Carol for Another Christmas in 1964, After the Fox in 1966 and The Bobo in 1967—before divorcing in 1968.\n\nIn June 1973 she had a son, Nic Adler, with record producer Lou Adler.\n\nShe also had a much publicised romance with rock star Rod Stewart; they were introduced in 1975 by Joan Collins and lived together for more than two years, with Ekland giving up her career to focus on the relationship. \n\nFrom 1979–1981 she dated and became engaged to Girl frontman and future L.A. Guns singer Phil Lewis.\n\nIn 1984 she married Stray Cats drummer Slim Jim Phantom, who was almost two decades her junior. They had a son, Thomas Jefferson (born in 1988), and divorced in 1992. A close friend of Sharon and Ozzy Osbourne, she is still a regular fixture on the rock'n'roll social scene.\n\nHealth problems\n\nShe was diagnosed with osteoporosis at the age of 53, which she attributes to yo-yo dieting and a low-calcium diet, after falling at an awards show and fracturing her wrist and ankle. She has been associated with both Alzheimer's and osteoporosis organisations.\n\nLegacy\n\nIn the 1970s Ekland was one of the most photographed and talked-about celebrities in the world and in 1980 her best-selling autobiography, True Britt, was published. \n\nWhile Rod Stewart's domestic partner, Ekland inspired his hit song Tonight's the Night (Gonna Be Alright)—1977's overall #1 song. The song features a French spoken part from Ekland.\n\nAfter years of being renowned for her fantastic figure, Ekland produced her own workout video 'Britt Fit' in 1993, at the age of 51.\n\nIn 2004 Ekland was portrayed by Charlize Theron in The Life and Death of Peter Sellers. Theron invited her to be her date at the Cannes Film Festival, where she became highly emotional when she saw the film. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nDiscography\n\n*\"Do it to Me once more (with feeling)\" / \"Private Party\" (1979) No. 15 SWE" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Man with the Golden Gun", "The man with the golden gun", "The Man with the Golden Gun (disambiguation)", "TMWTGG", "Man with the golden gun", "The Man With the Golden Gun", "The Man With The Golden Gun" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "man with golden gun", "man with golden gun disambiguation", "tmwtgg" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "man with golden gun", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Man With The Golden Gun" }
What is Mick Jagger's middle name?	tc_1025	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mick_Jagger.txt" ], "title": [ "Mick Jagger" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sir Michael Philip \"Mick\" Jagger (born 26 July 1943) is an English singer, songwriter and actor, best known as the lead singer and a co-founder of the Rolling Stones.\n\nJagger's career has spanned over 50 years, and he has been described as \"one of the most popular and influential frontmen in the history of Rock & Roll\". Jagger's distinctive voice and performance, along with Keith Richards' guitar style, have been the trademark of the Rolling Stones throughout the career of the band. Jagger gained press notoriety for his admitted drug use and romantic involvements, and was often portrayed as a countercultural figure. \n\nIn the late 1960s, Jagger began acting in films (starting with Performance and Ned Kelly), to mixed reception. In 1985, he released his first solo album, She's the Boss. In early 2009, Jagger joined the electric supergroup SuperHeavy. In 1989 he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and in 2004 into the UK Music Hall of Fame with the Rolling Stones. In 2003, he was knighted for his services to popular music.\n\n1943–61: Early years\n\nMichael Philip Jagger was born into a middle-class family in Dartford, Kent. His father, Basil Fanshawe \"Joe\" Jagger (13 April 1913 – 11 November 2006), and grandfather, David Ernest Jagger, were both teachers. His mother, Eva Ensley Mary (née Scutts; 6 April 1913 – 18 May 2000), born in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, of English descent, was a hairdresser and an active member of the Conservative Party. Jagger's younger brother, Chris (born 19 December 1947), is also a musician. The two have performed together. \n\nAlthough brought up to follow his father's career path, Jagger \"was always a singer\" as he stated in According to the Rolling Stones. \"I always sang as a child. I was one of those kids who just liked to sing. Some kids sing in choirs; others like to show off in front of the mirror. I was in the church choir and I also loved listening to singers on the radio--the BBC or Radio Luxembourg--or watching them on TV and in the movies.\" \n\nIn September 1950, Keith Richards and Jagger were classmates at Wentworth Primary School, Dartford, Kent. In 1954, Jagger passed the eleven-plus and went to Dartford Grammar School, which now has the Mick Jagger Centre installed within the school's site, named for its most famous alumnus. Jagger and Richards lost contact with each other when they went to different schools, but after a chance encounter at Dartford Station in July 1960, resumed their friendship and discovered their shared love of rhythm and blues, which for Jagger had begun with Little Richard.White, Charles. (2003), pp. 119-120, The Life and Times of Little Richard: The Authorised Biography, Omnibus Press.\n\nJagger left school in 1961 after obtaining seven O-levels and three A-levels. Jagger and Richards moved into a flat in Edith Grove in Chelsea, London with a guitarist they had encountered named Brian Jones. While Richards and Jones planned to start their own rhythm and blues group, Jagger continued to study business as an undergraduate student at the London School of Economics,\"Mick Jagger\" entry, Contemporary Musicians, Volume 53. Thomson Gale, 2005. and had seriously considered becoming either a journalist or a politician, comparing the latter to a pop star.Christopher Andersen, Jagger, published by Delacorte Press, New York, 1993, p. 49George Tremlet, The Rolling Stones Story, Futura Publications Ltd., London, 1974, pp. 109–10\n\n1962–present: The Rolling Stones\n\n1960s\n\nIn their earliest days the members played for no money in the interval of Alexis Korner's gigs at a basement club opposite Ealing Broadway tube station (subsequently called \"Ferry's\" club). At the time, the group had very little equipment and needed to borrow Alexis' gear to play. This was before Andrew Loog Oldham became their manager. The group's first appearance under the name the Rollin' Stones (after one of their favourite Muddy Waters tunes) was at the Marquee Club in London, a jazz club, on 12 July 1962. They would later change their name to \"the Rolling Stones\" as it seemed more formal. Victor Bockris states that the band members included Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Brian Jones, Ian Stewart on piano, Dick Taylor on bass and Tony Chapman on drums. However, Richards states in Life that \"The drummer that night was Mick Avory--not Tony Chapman, as history has mysteriously handed it down...\" \n\nAvory himself has categorically denied \"on many occasions\" that he played with the Rollin' Stones that night. In fact he only rehearsed twice with them in the Bricklayers Arms pub, before they became known as the Rollin' Stones. Some time later the band went on their first tour in the United Kingdom; this was known as the \"training ground\" tour, because it was a new experience for all of them. The line-up did not at that time include drummer Charlie Watts or bassist Bill Wyman. By 1963 they were finding their musical stride as well as popularity. By 1964 two unscientific opinion polls rated them as Britain's most popular group, even outranking the Beatles.\n\nBy autumn 1963 Jagger had left the London School of Economics in favour of his promising musical career with the Rolling Stones. The group continued to mine the works of American rhythm and blues artists such as Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley, but with the strong encouragement of Andrew Loog Oldham, Jagger and Richards soon began to write their own songs. This core songwriting partnership would flourish in time; one of their early compositions, \"As Tears Go By\", was a song written for Marianne Faithfull, a young singer Loog Oldham was promoting at the time. For the Rolling Stones, the duo would write \"The Last Time\", the group's third No. 1 single in the UK (their first two UK No. 1 hits had been cover versions) based on \"This May Be the Last Time\", a traditional Negro spiritual song recorded by the Staple Singers in 1955. Another fruit of this collaboration was their first international hit, \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\". It also established the Rolling Stones' image as defiant troublemakers in contrast to the Beatles' \"lovable moptop\" image.\n\nJagger told Stephen Schiff in a 1992 Vanity Fair profile: \"I wasn't trying to be rebellious in those days; I was just being me. I wasn't trying to push the edge of anything. I'm being me and ordinary, the guy from suburbia who sings in this band, but someone older might have thought it was just the most awful racket, the most terrible thing, and where are we going if this is music?... But all those songs we sang were pretty tame, really. People didn't think they were, but I thought they were tame.\"Vanity Fair, February 1992.\n\nThe group released several successful albums, including December's Children (And Everybody's), Aftermath and Between the Buttons, but in their personal lives their behaviour was brought into question. In 1967 Jagger and Richards were arrested on drug charges and were given unusually harsh sentences: Jagger was sentenced to three months' imprisonment for possession of four over-the-counter pep pills he had purchased in Italy. The traditionally conservative editor of The Times, William Rees-Mogg, wrote an article critical of the sentences; and on appeal Richards' sentence was overturned and Jagger's was amended to a conditional discharge (although he ended up spending one night inside London's Brixton Prison). However the Rolling Stones continued to face legal battles for the next decade. \n\n1970s\n\nIn 1970 Jagger bought \"Stargroves\", a manor house and estate in Hampshire. The Rolling Stones and several other bands recorded there using a mobile studio.\n\nAfter Jones's death and their move in 1971 to the south of France as tax exiles, Jagger and the rest of the band changed their look and style as the 1970s progressed. He also learned to play guitar and contributed guitar parts for certain songs on Sticky Fingers (1971) and all subsequent albums (with the exception of Dirty Work in 1986). For the Rolling Stones' highly publicised 1972 American tour, Jagger wore glam-rock clothing and glittery makeup on stage. Later in the decade they ventured into genres like disco and punk with the album Some Girls (1978). Their interest in the blues, however, had been made manifest in the 1972 album Exile on Main St. His emotional singing on the gospel-influenced \"Let It Loose\", one of the album's tracks, has been described by music critic Russell Hall as having been Jagger's finest-ever vocal achievement. \n\nAfter the band's acrimonious split with their second manager, Allen Klein, in 1971, Jagger took control of their business affairs after speaking with an up-and-coming front man, J. B. Silver, and has managed them ever since in collaboration with his friend and colleague, Rupert Löwenstein. Mick Taylor, Brian Jones's replacement, left the band in December 1974 and was replaced by Faces guitarist Ronnie Wood in 1975, who also operated as a mediator within the group, and between Jagger and Richards in particular. \n\n1980s\n\nWhile continuing to tour and release albums with the Rolling Stones, Jagger began a solo career. In 1985 he released his first solo album She's the Boss, produced by Nile Rodgers and Bill Laswell, and featuring Herbie Hancock, Jeff Beck, Jan Hammer, Pete Townshend and the Compass Point All Stars. It sold fairly well, and the single \"Just Another Night\" was a Top Ten hit. During this period, he collaborated with the Jacksons on the song \"State of Shock\", sharing lead vocals with Michael Jackson.\n\nFor his own personal contributions in the 1985 Live Aid multi-venue charity concert, he performed at Philadelphia's JFK Stadium; he did a duet with Tina Turner of \"It's Only Rock and Roll\", and the performance was highlighted by Jagger tearing away Turner's skirt. He also did a cover of \"Dancing in the Street\" with David Bowie, who himself appeared at Wembley Stadium. The video was shown simultaneously on the screens of both Wembley and JFK Stadiums. The song reached number one in the UK the same year. In 1987 he released his second solo album, Primitive Cool. While it failed to match the commercial success of his debut, it was critically well received. In 1988 he produced the songs \"Glamour Boys\" and \"Which Way to America\" on Living Colour's album Vivid. Between 15 and 28 March he had a solo concert tour in Japan (Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka). \n\n1990s\n\nWandering Spirit was the third solo album by Jagger and was released in 1993. It would be his only solo album release of the 1990s. Jagger aimed to re-introduce himself as a solo artist in a musical climate vastly changed from that of his first two albums, She's the Boss and Primitive Cool.\n\nFollowing the successful comeback of the Rolling Stones' Steel Wheels (1989), which saw the end of Jagger and Richards' well-publicised feud, after acquiring Rick Rubin as co-producer in January 1992 Jagger began recording the album in Los Angeles over seven months until September 1992, recording simultaneously as Richards was making Main Offender.\n\nJagger would keep the celebrity guests to a minimum on Wandering Spirit, only having Lenny Kravitz as a vocalist on his cover of Bill Withers' \"Use Me\" and bassist Flea from Red Hot Chili Peppers on three tracks. Following the end of the Rolling Stones' Sony Music contract and their signing to Virgin Records, Jagger signed with Atlantic Records (which had signed the Stones in the 1970s) to distribute what would be his only album with the label. Released in February 1993, Wandering Spirit was commercially successful, reaching No.12 in the UK and No.11 in the US. \n\n2000s\n\nIn 2001 Jagger released Goddess in the Doorway spawning the hit single \"Visions of Paradise\". In the same year he also joined Keith Richards in the Concert for New York City, a charity concert in response to the 11 September attacks, to sing \"Salt of the Earth\" and \"Miss You\". \n\nHe celebrated the Rolling Stones' 40th anniversary by touring with them on the year-long Licks Tour in support of their career retrospective Forty Licks double album. \n\nIn 2007 the Rolling Stones made US$437 million on their A Bigger Bang Tour, which got them into the current edition of Guinness World Records for the most lucrative music tour. Jagger has refused to say when the band will retire, stating in 2007: \"I'm sure the Rolling Stones will do more things and more records and more tours. We've got no plans to stop any of that really.\" \n\nIn October 2009 Jagger and U2 performed \"Gimme Shelter\" (with Fergie and will.i.am) and \"Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of\" at the 25th Anniversary Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Concert. \n\n2010s\n\nOn 20 May 2011 Jagger announced the formation of a new supergroup, SuperHeavy, which includes Dave Stewart, Joss Stone, Damian Marley and A.R. Rahman. Jagger has featured on will.i.am's 2011 single \"T.H.E. (The Hardest Ever)\". It was officially released to iTunes on 4 February 2012. \n\nOn 21 February 2012 Mick Jagger, B.B. King, Buddy Guy and Jeff Beck, along with a blues ensemble, performed at the White House concert series before President Barack Obama. When Jagger held out a mic to him, Obama sang twice the line \"Come on, baby don't you want to go\" of the blues cover 'Sweet Home Chicago', the blues anthem of Obama's home town. \n\nJagger hosted the season finale of Saturday Night Live on 19 and 20 May 2012, doing several comic skits and playing some of the Rolling Stones' hits with Arcade Fire, Foo Fighters, and Jeff Beck. \n\nJagger performed in 12-12-12: The Concert for Sandy Relief with the Rolling Stones on 12 December 2012. The Stones finally played the Glastonbury festival in 2013, headlining on Saturday 29 June. This was followed by two concerts in London's Hyde Park as part of their 50th anniversary celebrations, their first in the Park since their famous 1969 performance. In 2013 Mick Jagger teamed up with his brother Chris Jagger for two new duets to mark the 40th anniversary of Chris' debut album. \n\nFriendship with Keith Richards\n\nJagger's relationship with band mate Richards is frequently described as \"love/hate\" by the media. \n\nRichards himself said in a 1998 interview: \"I think of our differences as a family squabble. If I shout and scream at him, it's because no one else has the guts to do it or else they're paid not to do it. At the same time I'd hope Mick realises that I'm a friend who is just trying to bring him into line and do what needs to be done.\" Richards, along with Johnny Depp, tried unsuccessfully to persuade Jagger to appear in Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, alongside Depp and Richards. \n\nRichards' autobiography, Life, was released on 26 October 2010. On 15 October 2010, the Associated Press published an article stating that Richards refers to Jagger as \"unbearable\" in the book and notes that their relationship has been strained \"for decades.\" \n\nActing and film production\n\nJagger has also had an intermittent acting career, most notably in Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg's Performance (1968) and as Australian bushranger Ned Kelly (1970). He composed an improvised soundtrack for Kenneth Anger's film Invocation of My Demon Brother on the Moog synthesiser in 1969. He auditioned for the role of Dr. Frank N. Furter in the 1975 film adaptation of The Rocky Horror Show, a role that was eventually played by the original performer from its run on London's West End, Tim Curry. The same year he was personally approached by director Alejandro Jodorowsky to play the role of Feyd-Rautha in Jodorowsky's proposed adaptation of Frank Herbert's Dune, but the movie never made it to the screen. He appeared as himself in the Rutles' film All You Need Is Cash in 1978. In the late 1970s Jagger was cast as Wilbur, a main character in Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo. However, the illness of main actor Jason Robards (later replaced by Klaus Kinski) and a delay in the film's notoriously difficult production resulted in his being unable to continue, due to schedule conflicts with a band tour; some of the footage of Jagger's work is shown in the documentaries Burden of Dreams and My Best Fiend. In 1983 he starred in Faerie Tale Theatre's The Nightingale as the emperor. He developed a reputation for playing the heavy later in his acting career in films including Freejack (1992), Bent (1997), and The Man From Elysian Fields (2002).\n\nIn 1995 Jagger founded Jagged Films with Victoria Pearman. Its first release was the World War II drama Enigma in 2001. That same year it produced a documentary on Jagger entitled Being Mick. The programme, which first aired on television 22 November, coincided with the release of his fourth solo album, Goddess in the Doorway. In 2008 the company began work on The Women, an adaptation of the George Cukor film of the same name. It was directed by Diane English. \n\nThe Rolling Stones have been the subjects of numerous documentaries, including Gimme Shelter, which was filmed during the band's 1969 tour of the US, and 1968's Sympathy for the Devil directed by French New Wave director Jean-Luc Godard. Martin Scorsese worked with Jagger on Shine a Light, a documentary film featuring the Rolling Stones with footage from the A Bigger Bang Tour during two nights of performances at New York's Beacon Theatre. It screened in Berlin in February 2008. Varietys Todd McCarthy said the film \"takes full advantage of heavy camera coverage and top-notch sound to create an invigorating musical trip down memory lane, as well as to provoke gentle musings on the wages of ageing and the passage of time.\" He predicted the film would fare better once released to video than in its limited theatrical runs. Jagger was a co-producer of, and guest-starred in the first episode of, the short-lived comedy American television series The Knights of Prosperity. He also co-produced the 2014 James Brown biopic, Get On Up. \n\nPersonal life\n\nRelationships\n\nJagger has been married (and divorced) once, and also has had several other relationships.\n\nFrom 1966 to 1970 he had a relationship with Marianne Faithfull, the singer/songwriter/actress with whom he wrote \"Sister Morphine\", a song on the Rolling Stones' 1971 album Sticky Fingers. \n\nIn 1970 he met Nicaraguan-born Bianca De Macias. They married on 12 May 1971 in a Catholic ceremony in Saint-Tropez, France. They separated in 1977, and in May 1978 she filed for divorce on the grounds of his adultery. \n\nIn late 1977 Jagger began seeing model Jerry Hall; they moved in together and had four children. They attended an unofficial private marriage ceremony in Bali, Indonesia, on 21 November 1990, and lived at Downe House in Richmond, London. The marriage and the marriage ceremony were declared invalid, unlawful, and null and void by the High Court of England and Wales in London in 1999.\n\nJagger had a relationship with fashion designer L'Wren Scott from 2001 until her suicide in 2014. She left her entire estate, estimated at about US$9 million, to him. Jagger set up the The L'Wren Scott scholarship at London's prestigious Central Saint Martins college for 2015, 2016, & 2017. \n\nJagger is currently expecting baby number eight with American ballerina Melanie Hamrick (updated July 2016).\n\nChildren\n\nJagger has seven children with four women and is expecting his eighth child with ballerina Melanie Hamrick. \nWith Marsha Hunt, he has daughter Karis Hunt Jagger (born 4 November 1970).\nWith wife Bianca Jagger, he has daughter Jade Sheena Jezebel Jagger (born 21 October 1971). \nWith Jerry Hall, he has daughter Elizabeth 'Lizzie' Scarlett Jagger (born 2 March 1984), son James Leroy Augustin Jagger (born 28 August 1985), daughter Georgia May Ayeesha Jagger (born 12 January 1992), and son Gabriel Luke Beauregard Jagger (born 9 December 1997).\nWith Luciana Gimenez, he has a son, Lucas Maurice Morad Jagger (born 18 May 1999).\n\nHe also has five grandchildren, and became a great-grandfather on 19 May 2014, when Jade's daughter Assisi gave birth to a daughter. \n\nHells Angels\n\nIn 2008, it was revealed that members of the Hells Angels had plotted to murder Jagger in 1975. They were angered by Jagger having publicly blamed the Angels, who had been hired to provide security at the Altamont Free Concert in December 1969, for much of the crowd violence at the event, in which Meredith Hunter, a black man, was stabbed and beaten to death by several Angels. Three other people also died at the event, attended by 350,000 people.\n\nMeredith Curly Hunter, Jr. (24 October 1951 – 6 December 1969) was an 18-year-old African-American man who was killed at the 1969 Altamont Free Concert. During the performance by The Rolling Stones, Hunter approached the stage, and was violently driven off by members of the Hells Angels motorcycle club who had been contracted to serve as ushers and security guards. He subsequently returned to the stage area, drew a revolver, and was stabbed to death by Hells Angel Alan Passaro.\n\nThe incident was caught on camera and became a central scene in the documentary Gimme Shelter. Passaro was charged with murder. After an eight-man, four-woman jury deliberated for 12 and a half hours, following 17 days of testimony, Passaro was acquitted on grounds of self-defense.\n\nThe Hells Angels reportedly conspired to murder Jagger using a boat to approach a residence he was staying at on Long Island. The plot failed when the boat nearly sank in a storm and the plotters were forced to swim for their lives. \n\nOther\n\nJagger's father, Basil \"Joe\" Jagger died of pneumonia on 11 November 2006 at age 93. Although the Rolling Stones were on the A Bigger Bang Tour, Jagger flew to Britain on Friday to see his father before returning to Las Vegas the same day, where he was to perform on Saturday night. The show went ahead as scheduled. \n\nJagger is an avid cricket fan. He founded Jagged Internetworks to cover English cricket. Jagger is an avid supporter of the England national football team and has regularly attended FIFA World Cup games, appearing at France 98, Germany 2006, South Africa 2010 and Brazil 2014. In August 2014 Jagger was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue. His personal fortune was estimated in 2010 at £190 million (~$298 million US). \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nJagger is a supporter of music in schools, and is the Patron of The Mick Jagger Centre in Dartford, United Kingdom, and sponsors music through his Red Rooster Programme in local schools. The Red Rooster name is taken from the title of one of the Rolling Stones earliest singles.\n\nKnighthood\n\nJagger was honoured with a knighthood for services to popular music in the Queen's Birthday Honours 2002 and on 12 December 2003 he received the accolade by The Prince of Wales. Mick Jagger's knighthood received mixed reactions. Some fans were disappointed when he accepted the honour as it seemed to contradict his anti-establishment stance. As UPI noted in December 2003, Jagger has no \"known record of charitable work or public services\" although he is a patron of the British Museum. Jagger was on record as saying \"apart from the Rolling Stones, the Queen is the best thing Britain has got\", but was absent from the Queen's Golden Jubilee pop concert at Buckingham Palace that marked her 50 years on the throne. Queen Elizabeth II [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/theroyalfamily/9391107/Why-the-Queen-refused-to-hand-Mick-Jagger-a-knighthood.html reportedly] refused to award Jagger in person, sharing as she did many of the popular prejudices against the singer.\nCharlie Watts was quoted in the book According to the Rolling Stones as saying, \"Anybody else would be lynched: 18 wives and 20 children and he's knighted, fantastic!\" The ceremony took place in December 2003. Jagger’s father and daughters Karis and Elizabeth were in attendance.\n\nJagger's knighthood also caused some friction between him and bandmate Keith Richards, who was irritated when Jagger accepted the \"paltry honour\". Richards said that he did not want to take the stage with someone wearing a \"coronet and sporting the old ermine. It's not what the Stones is about, is it?\" Jagger retorted: \"I think he would probably like to get the same honour himself. It's like being given an ice cream—one gets one and they all want one.\"\n\nIn popular culture\n\nFrom the time that the Rolling Stones developed their anti-establishment image in the mid-1960s, Mick Jagger, with guitarist Keith Richards, has been an enduring icon of the counterculture. This was enhanced by his controversial drug-related arrests, sexually charged on-stage antics, provocative song lyrics, and his role of the bisexual Turner in the 1970 film Performance. One of his biographers, Christopher Andersen, describes him as \"one of the dominant cultural figures of our time\", adding that Jagger was \"the story of a generation\". \n\nJagger, who at the time described himself as an anarchist and espoused the leftist slogans of the era, took part in a demonstration against the Vietnam War outside the US Embassy in London in 1968. This event inspired him to write \"Street Fighting Man\" that same year. A variety of celebrities attended a lavish party at New York's St. Regis Hotel to celebrate Jagger's 29th birthday and the end of the band's 1972 American tour. The party made the front pages of the leading New York newspapers. \n\nPop artist Andy Warhol painted a series of silkscreen portraits of Jagger in 1975, one of which was owned by Farah Diba, wife of the Shah of Iran. It hung on a wall inside the royal palace in Tehran. In 1967 Cecil Beaton photographed Jagger's naked buttocks, a photo that sold at Sotheby's auction house in 1986 for $4,000. \n\nJagger was allegedly a contender for the anonymous subject of Carly Simon's 1973 hit song \"You're So Vain\", in which he sings backing vocals. Although Don McLean does not use Jagger's name in his famous song \"American Pie\", he alludes to Jagger onstage at Altamont, calling him Satan. \n\nIn 2010 a retrospective exhibition of portraits of Mick Jagger was presented at the festival Rencontres d'Arles, in France. The catalogue of the exhibition is the first photo album of Mick Jagger and shows his evolution over 50 years. He was listed as one of the fifty best-dressed over 50s by the Guardian in March 2013. \n\nMaroon 5's popular song \"Moves like Jagger\" is about Jagger. Jagger himself acknowledged the song in an interview, calling the concept \"very flattering.\" Jagger is also referenced in Kesha's song \"Tik Tok\", the Black Eyed Peas' hit \"The Time (Dirty Bit)\", and his vocal delivery is referenced by rapper Kanye West in the T.I. and Jay-Z single \"Swagga Like Us\".\n\nThe 2000 film Almost Famous, set in 1973, refers to Jagger: \"Because if you think Mick Jagger'll still be out there, trying to be a rock star at age 50... you're sadly, sadly mistaken.\" \n\nLegacy \n\nIn the words of British dramatist and novelist Philip Norman, \"the only point concerning Mick Jagger's influence over 'young people' that doctors and psychologists agreed on was that it wasn't, under any circumstances, fundamentally harmless.\" According to Norman, even Elvis Presley at his most scandalous had not exerted a \"power so wholly and disturbingly physical\": \"Presley\", he wrote in 1984, \"while he made girls scream, did not have Jagger's ability to make men feel uncomfortable.\" Norman also associates the early performances of Jagger with the Rolling Stones in the 1960s as a male ballet dancer, with \"his conflicting and colliding sexuality: the swan's neck and smeared harlot eyes allied to an overstuffed and straining codpiece.\"\n\nOther authors also attribute similar connotations to Jagger. His performance style has been studied in the academic field as an analysis concerning gender, image and sexuality. It has been written for example that his performance style \"opened up definitions of gendered masculinity and so laid the foundations for self-invention and sexual plasticity which are now an integral part of contemporary youth culture\". His stage personas also contributed significantly to the British tradition of popular music that always featured the character song and where the art of singing becomes a matter of acting—which creates a question concerning the singer's relationship to his own words. His voice has been described as a powerful expressive tool for communicating feelings to his audience and expressing an alternative vision of society. To express \"virility and unrestrained passion\" he developed techniques previously used by African American preachers and gospel singers such as \"the roar, the guttural belt style of singing, and the buzz, a more nasal and raspy sound\". Steven Van Zandt also wrote: \"The acceptance of Jagger's voice on pop radio was a turning point in rock & roll. He broke open the door for everyone else. Suddenly, Eric Burdon and Van Morrison weren't so weird – even Bob Dylan.\" \n\nAllMusic has described Jagger as \"one of the most popular and influential frontmen in the history of rock & roll\". Musician David Bowie joined many rock bands with blues, folk and soul orientations in his first attempts as a musician in the mid-1960s, and he was to recall: \"I used to dream of being their Mick Jagger\". Bowie would also offer that \"I think Mick Jagger would be astounded and amazed if he realized that to many people he is not a sex symbol, but a mother image.\" Jagger appeared on Rolling Stone List of 100 Greatest Singers at number 16; in the article, Lenny Kravitz wrote: \"I sometimes talk to people who sing perfectly in a technical sense who don't understand Mick Jagger. [...] His sense of pitch and melody is really sophisticated. His vocals are stunning, flawless in their own kind of perfection.\" This edition also cites Mick Jagger as a key influence on Jack White, Steven Tyler and Iggy Pop.\n\nMore recently, his cultural legacy is also associated with his ageing accompanied by some vitality. Bon Jovi frontman Jon Bon Jovi, also a veteran, has said: \"We continue to make Number One records and fill stadiums. But will we still be doing 150 shows per tour? I just can't see it. I don't know how the hell Mick Jagger does it at 67. That would be the first question I'd ask him. He runs around the stage as much as I do yet he's got almost 20 years on me.\" Since his early career Jagger has embodied what some authors describes as a \"Dionysian archetype\" of \"eternal youth\" personified by many rock stars and the rock culture. As wrote biographer Laura Jackson, \"It is impossible to imagine current culture without the unique influence of Mick Jagger.\" \n\nDiscography\n\nSolo albums\n\nCompilation\n\nCollaborative albums\n\nSingles\n\nFilmography\n\nJagger has appeared in the following films:\n\nJagger was slated to appear in the 1982 film Fitzcarraldo and some scenes were shot with him, but he had to leave for a Rolling Stones tour and his character was eliminated. \n\nAs producer\n\n* Enigma (2001)\n* Get on Up (2014)\n* Vinyl (2016)\n\nAs writer\n\n* Blame It on the Night (1984)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Phillip (disambiguation)", "Filipp", "Phillip", "Phélyp", "Phil", "Philip (disambiguation)", "Philip (European rulers)", "Philip", "King Philippe", "Phelyp" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "philip", "phil", "king philippe", "phillip disambiguation", "filipp", "phelyp", "phillip", "phélyp", "philip european rulers", "philip disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "philip", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Philip" }
Boxer Jack Dempsey hailed from which state?	tc_1027	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jack_Dempsey.txt" ], "title": [ "Jack Dempsey" ], "wiki_context": [ "William Harrison \"Jack\" Dempsey (June 24, 1895 – May 31, 1983), also known as \"Kid Blackie\" and \"The Manassa Mauler\", was an American professional boxer who became a cultural icon of the 1920s. Dempsey held the World Heavyweight Championship from 1919 to 1926, and his aggressive style and exceptional punching power made him one of the most popular boxers in history. Many of his fights set financial and attendance records, including the first million-dollar gate. Listed at #10 on The Ring's list of all-time heavyweights and #7 among its Top 100 Greatest Punchers, in 1950 the Associated Press voted Dempsey as the greatest fighter of the past 50 years. Dempsey is a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame, and was inducted into The Ring magazine's Boxing Hall of Fame in 1951.\n\nEarly life and career\n\nBorn William Harrison Dempsey in Manassa, Colorado, he grew up in a poor family in Colorado, West Virginia, and Utah.According to a January 11, 1955 Sports Illustrated article The son of Mary Celia (née Smoot) and Hiram Dempsey, his family's lineage consisted of Irish, Cherokee, and Jewish ancestry. Following his parents' conversion to Mormonism, Dempsey was baptized into the LDS Church in 1903 following his 8th birthday, the \"age of accountability\", according to Mormon doctrine. Because his father had difficulty finding work, the family traveled often and Dempsey dropped out of elementary school to work and left home at the age of 16. Due to his lack of money, he frequently traveled underneath trains and slept in hobo camps.\n\nDesperate for money, Dempsey would occasionally visit saloons and challenge for fights, saying \"I can't sing and I can't dance, but I can lick any SOB in the house.\" If anyone accepted the challenge, bets would be made. According to Dempsey's autobiography, he rarely lost these barroom brawls. For a short time, Dempsey was a part-time bodyguard for Thomas F. Kearns, president of The Salt Lake Tribune and son of Utah's U.S. Senator Thomas Kearns. The two men remained friends for years afterward.\n\nBecause he occasionally fought under the pseudonym \"Kid Blackie\" until 1916, Dempsey's complete boxing record is not known. He first competed as \"Jack Dempsey\" in 1914 as a tribute to middleweight boxer Jack \"Nonpareil\" Dempsey. Following the name change, Dempsey won six bouts in a row by knockout before losing on a disqualification in four rounds to Jack Downey. During this early part of his career, Dempsey campaigned in Utah, frequently entering fights in towns in the Wasatch Mountain Range region. He followed his loss against Downey with a knockout win and two draws versus Johnny Sudenberg in Nevada. Three more wins and a draw followed when he met Downey again, this time resulting in a four-round draw. Following these wins, Dempsey racked up ten more wins that included matches against Sudenberg and Downey, knocking out Downey in two rounds. These wins were followed with three no-decision matches, though at this point in the history of boxing, the use of judges to score a fight was often forbidden, so if a fight went the distance, it was called a draw or a no decision, depending on the state or county where the fight was held.\n\nAfter the United States entered World War I in 1917, Dempsey worked in a shipyard and continued to box. Afterward, he was accused by some boxing fans of being a slacker for not enlisting. This remained a black mark on his reputation until 1920, when evidence produced showed he had attempted to enlist in the U.S. Army, but had been classified 4-F. After the war, Dempsey spent two years in Salt Lake City, \"bumming around\" as he called it, before returning to the ring. \n\nWorld Heavyweight Champion\n\nAmong his opponents for World Heavyweight Champion were Fireman Jim Flynn, the only boxer ever to beat Dempsey by a knockout when Dempsey lost to him in the first round (although some boxing historians believe the fight was a \"fix\"), and Gunboat Smith, formerly a highly ranked contender who had beaten both World Champion Jess Willard and Hall of Famer Sam Langford. Dempsey beat Smith for the third time on a second-round knockout.\n\nBefore he employed the long-experienced Jack Kearns as his manager, Dempsey was first managed by John J. Reisler.\n\nOne year later, in 1918, Dempsey fought in 17 matches, going 15–1 with one no decision. One of those fights was with Flynn, who was knocked out by Dempsey, coincidentally, in the first round. Among other matches won that year were against Light Heavyweight Champion Battling Levinsky, Bill Brennan, Fred Fulton, Carl E. Morris, Billy Miske, heavyweight Lefty Jim McGettigan, and Homer Smith. In 1919, he won five consecutive regular bouts by knockout in the first round as well as a one-round special bout. \n\nTitle fight and controversy\n\nOn July 4, 1919, Dempsey and World Heavyweight Champion Jess Willard met at Toledo for the world title. Pro lightweight fighter Benny Leonard predicted a victory for the 6'1\", 187 pound Dempsey even though Willard, known as the \"Pottawatamie Giant\", was 6'6½\" tall and 245 pounds. Ultimately, Willard was knocked down seven times by Dempsey in the first round. \n\nAccounts of the fight reported that Willard suffered a broken jaw, broken ribs, several broken teeth, and a number of deep fractures to his facial bones. This aroused suspicion that Dempsey had cheated, with some questioning how the force capable of causing such damage had been transmitted through Dempsey's knuckles without fracturing them.\n\nOther reports, however, failed to mention Willard suffered any real injuries. The New York Times account of the fight described severe swelling visible on one side of Willard's face, but did not mention any broken bones. A still photograph of Willard following the fight appears to show discoloration and swelling on his face.\n\nFollowing the match, Willard was quoted as saying, \"Dempsey is a remarkable hitter. It was the first time that I had ever been knocked off my feet. I have sent many birds home in the same bruised condition that I am in, and now I know how they felt. I sincerely wish Dempsey all the luck possible and hope that he garnishes all the riches that comes with the championship. I have had my fling with the title. I was champion for four years and I assure you that they'll never have to give a benefit for me. I have invested the money I have made\". Willard later claimed to have been defeated by \"gangsterism\".\n\nAfter being fired by Dempsey, manager Jack Kearns gave an account of the fight in the January 20, 1964 issue of Sports Illustrated that has become known as the \"loaded gloves theory\". In the interview, Kearns claimed to have informed Dempsey he had wagered his share of the purse favoring a Dempsey win with a first-round knockout. Kearns further stated he had applied plaster of Paris to the wrappings on the fighter's hands.\n\nBoxing historian J. J. Johnston said, \"the films show Willard upon entering the ring walking over to Dempsey and examining his hands.\" That, along with an experiment conducted by a boxing magazine designed to re-enact the fight have been noted as proof that Kearns' story was false.\n\nThe Ring magazine founder and editor Nat Fleischer claimed to be present when Dempsey's hands were wrapped, stating, \"Jack Dempsey had no loaded gloves, and no plaster of Paris over his bandages. I watched the proceedings and the only person who had anything to do with the taping of Jack's hands was Deforest. Kearns had nothing to do with it, so his plaster of Paris story is simply not true.\n\nDeforest himself said that he regarded the stories of Dempsey's gloves being loaded as libel, calling them \"trash\", and said he did not apply any foreign substance to them, which I can verify since I watched the taping.\" Sports writer Red Smith, in Dempsey's obituary published by The New York Times was openly dismissive of the claim. \n\nAnother rumor is that Dempsey used a knuckleduster during the first round. Some speculated that the object used was a rail spike. In the Los Angeles Times on July 3, 1979, Joe Stone, an ex-referee and boxing writer, asserted that in a film taken of the fight an object on the canvas could be seen after the final knockdown. He further asserted that the object appears to be removed by someone from Dempsey's corner. In the same film, however, Dempsey can be seen at various times during the fight pushing and holding with Willard with the palm of the glove in question, making it unlikely that he had any foreign object embedded in his glove.\n\nFurther controversy was fueled by the fact that Dempsey left the ring at the end of the first round, thinking the fight was over. This was seen as a violation of the rules, however, Willard's corner did not ask for enforcement in order for the referee to disqualify Dempsey.\n\nTitle defenses\n\nFollowing his victory, Jack Dempsey traveled around the country, making publicity appearances with circuses, staging exhibitions, and a low-budget Hollywood movie. Dempsey did not defend his title until September 1920, with a fight against Billy Miske in Benton Harbor, Michigan. Miske was knocked out in three rounds.\n\nDempsey's second title defense was in December 1920 against Bill Brennan at Madison Square Garden, New York City. After 10 rounds, Brennan was ahead on points, and Dempsey's left ear was bleeding profusely. Dempsey rebounded to stop Brennan in the 12th round.\n\nDempsey's next defending fight was against French World War I hero Georges Carpentier, a fighter popular on both sides of the Atlantic. The bout was promoted by Tex Rickard and George Bernard Shaw, who claimed that Carpentier was \"the greatest boxer in the world\". \n\nThe Dempsey–Carpentier contest took place on July 2, 1921, at Boyle's Thirty Acres in Jersey City, New Jersey. It generated the first million-dollar gate in boxing history; a crowd of 91,000 watched the fight. Though it was deemed \"the Fight of the Century\", experts anticipated a one-sided win for Dempsey. Radio pioneer RCA arranged for live coverage of the match via KDKA, making the event the first national radio broadcast. \n\nCarpentier wobbled Dempsey with a hard right in the second round. A reporter at ringside, however, counted 25 punches from Dempsey in a single 31-second exchange soon after he was supposedly injured by the right. Carpentier also broke his thumb in that round, which crippled his chances. Dempsey ended up winning the match in the fourth round.\n\nDempsey did not defend his title again until July 1923 against Tommy Gibbons in Shelby, Montana. Dempsey won the match as result of a 15-round decision.\n\nThe last successful title defense for Dempsey was in September 1923 at New York's Polo Grounds in Dempsey vs. Firpo. Attendance was 85,000, with another 20,000 trying to get inside the arena. Firpo was knocked down repeatedly by Dempsey, yet continued to battle back, even knocking Dempsey down twice. On the second occasion he was floored, Dempsey flew head-first through the ring ropes, landing on a ringside reporter's typewriter. At this point he was out of the ring for approximately 14 seconds, less than the 20 second rule for out-of-ring knockouts. Ultimately, Dempsey beat Argentinian contender Luis Ángel Firpo with a second-round KO. The fight was transmitted live by radio to Buenos Aires. \n\nDempsey's heavyweight title-defending fights, exhibition fights, movies, and endorsements, made Dempsey one of the richest athletes in the world, putting him on the cover of TIME Magazine. \n\nTime off from boxing\n\nDempsey did not defend his title for three years following the Firpo fight. There was pressure from the public and the media for Dempsey to defend his title against Black contender Harry Wills. Disagreement exists among boxing historians as to whether Dempsey avoided Wills, though Dempsey claimed he was willing to fight him. When he originally won the title, however, he had said he would no longer fight Black boxers. \n\nInstead of continuing to defend his title, Dempsey earned money with boxing exhibitions, appearing in films, and endorsing products. Dempsey also did a lot of traveling, spending, and partying. During this time away from competitive fighting, Dempsey married actress Estelle Taylor and fired his long-time trainer/manager Jack \"Doc\" Kearns. Kearns repeatedly sued Dempsey for large sums of money following his firing. \n\nIn April 1924, Dempsey was appointed to an executive position in the Irish Worker League (IWL). The IWL was a Soviet-backed Communist group founded in Dublin by Irish labour leader Jim Larkin in Dublin. \n\nLoss of title\n\nIn September 1926, Dempsey fought the Irish American and former U.S. Marine Gene Tunney in Philadelphia, a fighter who had only lost once in his career. In spite of his record, Tunney was considered the underdog against Dempsey.\n\nThe match ended in an upset, with Dempsey losing his title on points in 10 rounds. Attendance for this fight was a record 120,557, the largest attendance ever for a sporting event outside motor racing and soccer. When the defeated Dempsey returned to his dressing room, he explained his loss to his wife by saying, \"Honey, I forgot to duck.\" Fifty five years later president Ronald Reagan borrowed this quote when his wife Nancy visited him in the emergency room after the attempt on his life. \n\nPost title loss\n\nFollowing his loss of the heavyweight title, Dempsey contemplated retiring, but decided to try a comeback. It was during this time period that tragedy struck his family when his brother, John Dempsey, shot his wife Edna, then killed himself in a murder-suicide. Dempsey was called upon to identify the bodies and was said to be emotionally affected by the incident.\n\nDuring a July 21, 1927 fight at Yankee Stadium, Dempsey knocked out future Heavyweight Champion Jack Sharkey in the seventh round. The fight was an elimination bout for a title shot against Tunney. Sharkey was beating Dempsey until the end. The fight ended controversially when Sharkey claimed Dempsey had been hitting him below the belt. When Sharkey turned to the referee to complain, he left himself unprotected. Dempsey crashed a left hook onto Sharkey's chin, knocking him out and the referee counting Sharkey out on a ten-count.\n\nTunney rematch: \"The Long Count\"\n\nThe Dempsey-Tunney rematch took place in Chicago, Illinois, on September 22, 1927 one day less than a year after losing his title to Tunney. Generating more interest than the Carpentier and Firpo bouts, the fight brought in a record-setting $2 million gate. Reportedly, gangster Al Capone offered to fix the rematch in his favor, but Dempsey refused. Millions around the country listened to the match by radio while hundreds of reporters covered the event. Tunney was paid a record one million dollars for the rematch. Today's equivalent in U.S currency would be approximately $.00.\n\nDempsey was losing the fight on points when in the seventh round he knocked Tunney down with a left hook to the chin then landed several more punches. A new rule instituted at the time of the fight mandated that when a fighter knocked down an opponent, he must immediately go to a neutral corner. Dempsey, however, refused to immediately move to the neutral corner when instructed by the referee. The referee had to escort Dempsey to the neutral corner, which bought Tunney at least an extra five seconds to recover. Even though the official timekeeper clocked 14 seconds Tunney was down, Tunney got up at the referee's count of 9. Dempsey then attempted to finish Tunney off before the end of the round, but failed to do so. Tunney dropped Dempsey for a count of one in round eight and won the final two rounds of the fight, retaining the title of World Heavyweight Champion on a unanimous decision. Ironically, the neutral corner rule was requested during negotiations by members of the Dempsey camp. Another discrepancy was, when Tunney knocked Dempsey down, the timekeeper started the count immediately, not waiting for Tunney to move to a neutral corner. Because of the controversial nature of the fight due to the neutral corner rule and conflicting counts, the Dempsey-Tunney rematch remains known as \"The Long Count Fight\".\n\nPost-retirement\n\nDempsey retired from boxing following the Tunney rematch, but continued with numerous exhibition bouts. Following retirement, Dempsey became known as a philanthropist. In June 1932, he sponsored the \"Ride of Champions\" bucking horse event at Reno, Nevada with the \"Dempsey Trophy\" going to legendary bronc rider Pete Knight. In 1933, Dempsey was approached by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to portray a boxer in the film, The Prizefighter and the Lady, directed by W. S. Van Dyke and co-starring Myrna Loy.\n\nIn Ensenada, Mexico, Riviera del Pacifico Cultural and Convention Center built in 1930 Ensenada, Baja California was a gambling casino supposedly financed by Al Capone and managed by Jack Dempsey. Its clientele included Myrna Loy, Lana Turner and Dolores del Rio.\n\nIn 1935, Dempsey opened Jack Dempsey's Restaurant in New York City on Eighth Avenue and 50th Street, across from the third Madison Square Garden. The restaurant's name was later changed to Jack Dempsey's Broadway Restaurant when it relocated to Times Square on Broadway between 49th and 50th Streets. It remained open until 1974. Dempsey was also a co-owner of the Howard Manor in Palm Springs, California. (with correction on: [http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jun/22/news/la-a4-0622-correx-20120622 \"For the record\" (June 22, 2012). Los Angeles Times])\n\nDempsey married four times; his first two wives were Maxine Gates (married from 1916 to 1919) and Estelle Taylor (married in 1925).[http://www.biography.com/people/jack-dempsey-9271466 Jack Dempsey]. biography.com Dempsey divorced Taylor in 1930, and married Broadway singer and recent divorcee Hannah Williams in 1933. Williams was previously married to bandleader Roger Wolfe Kahn. Dempsey and Williams had two children together and divorced in 1943. Dempsey then married Deanna Piatelli, remaining married to her until his death in 1983. The couple had one child, a daughter whom they adopted together and would later write a book on Dempsey's life with Piatelli.\n\nService during WWII\n\nWhen the United States entered World War II, Dempsey had an opportunity to refute any remaining criticism of his war record of two decades earlier. Dempsey joined the New York State Guard and was given a commission as a first lieutenant, later resigning that commission to accept a commission as a lieutenant in the Coast Guard Reserve. Dempsey reported for duty in June 1942 at Coast Guard Training Station, Manhattan Beach, Brooklyn, New York, where he was assigned as \"Director of Physical Education.\" As part of the ongoing war effort, Dempsey made personal appearances at fights, camps, hospitals and War Bond drives. Dempsey was promoted to lieutenant commander in December 1942 and commander in March 1944. In 1944, Dempsey was assigned to the transport . In 1945, he was on board the attack transport for the invasion of Okinawa. Dempsey also spent time aboard the , where he spent time showing the crew sparring techniques. Dempsey was released from active duty in September 1945 and received an honorable discharge from the Coast Guard Reserve in 1952. \n\nLater life and legacy\n\nDempsey authored a book on boxing titled Championship Fighting: Explosive Punching and Aggressive Defense and published in 1950. The book emphasizes knockout power derived from enabling fast motion from one's heavy bodyweight. Dempsey's book became and remains the recognized treatise in boxing. During World War II while in the Coast Guard, he co-authored How to Fight Tough with professional wrestler Bernard J. Cosneck. The book was used by the Coast Guard to instruct guardsmen on close-quarters hand-to-hand combat while incorporating boxing, wrestling, and jiujitsu.\n\nAfter the world-famous Louis-Schmeling fight, Dempsey stated he was glad he never had to face Joe Louis in the ring. When Louis eventually fell on hard times financially, Dempsey served as honorary chairman of a relief fund to assist him.\n\nDempsey made friends with former opponents Wills and Tunney after retirement, with Dempsey campaigning for Tunney's son, Democrat John V. Tunney, when he ran for the U.S. Senate, from California. One of Dempsey's best friends was Judge John Sirica, who presided over the Watergate trials. \n\nIn tribute to his legacy and boxing career, a PBS documentary summarized: \"Jack Dempsey's boxing style consisted of constantly bobbing and weaving. His attacks were furious and sustained. Behind it all was rage. His aggressive behavior prompted a rule that boxers had to retreat to a neutral corner and give opponents who had been knocked down a chance to get up.\" According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, constant attack was his strategic defense.\n\nIn 1971, Dempsey recounted an incident when he was mugged while walking home at night. According to Dempsey, the two young muggers attempted to grab his arms, but Dempsey broke free and laid them both out cold on the sidewalk. The story of the encounter appeared in the Hendersonville Times-News in July 1971. In the print-story, the incident was reported to have taken place \"a few years ago\". \n\nIn 1977, in collaboration with his daughter Barbara Lynn, Dempsey published his autobiography, titled Dempsey.\n\nDempsey was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954. The street where Madison Square Garden is located is called Jack Dempsey Corner. A segment of Montgomery Avenue in Jersey City running past the old Boyle's Thirty Acres was renamed Jack Dempsey Way.\n\nIn 1970, Jack Dempsey was inducted as part of the charter class into the Utah Sports Hall of Fame. \n\nIn 2011, Dempsey was posthumously inducted into the Irish American Hall of Fame. \n\nDempsey was a Freemason and member of Kenwood Lodge #800 in Chicago, Illinois. \n\nDeath\n\nOn May 31, 1983, Jack Dempsey died of heart failure at age 87 in New York City. With his wife Deanna at his side, his last words were, \"Don't worry honey, I'm too mean to die.\" He is buried in the Southampton Cemetery in Southampton, New York. His widow, Deanna Dempsey died in 2003.\n\nProfessional boxing record\n\nPublished works\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ISBN 9780491023016" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Colorado (State)", "Colorful Colorado", "Special districts of Colorado", "Insignia of the State of Colorado", "List of military facilities in Colorado", "Coloradan", "Cuisines of Colorado", "Colorado (U.S. state)", "List of professional sports teams in Colorado", "Religion in Colorado", "Professional sport teams of Colorado", "Rocky Mountain Empire", "Thirty-eighth State", "38th State", "Coloradans", "Colorado, United States", "The Centennial State", "Colo.", "List of professional sports teams of Colorado", "Protected areas of Colorado", "Education in Colorado", "State of Colorado", "Columbine State", "Thirty-Eighth State", "Colorado (state)", "List of former professional sports teams of Colorado", "US-CO", "Colorado protected areas", "Mother of Rivers", "List of Colorado state insignia", "Fine arts in Colorado", "Climate of Colorado", "Professional sports in Colorado", "Colorado state nickname", "Emblems of the State of Colorado", "Colorado", "Colorado military facilities", "Demographics of Colorado", "Colorada", "Kolorado", "Culture of Colorado", "Colarado", "Centennial State", "CO (state)", "Buffalo Plains State", "Military facilities in Colorado" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "climate of colorado", "colarado", "colorado state", "state of colorado", "colorado", "colorada", "us co", "38th state", "colorado protected areas", "demographics of colorado", "protected areas of colorado", "list of professional sports teams in colorado", "kolorado", "coloradans", "insignia of state of colorado", "list of military facilities in colorado", "mother of rivers", "fine arts in colorado", "colorful colorado", "coloradan", "colorado united states", "colo", "list of professional sports teams of colorado", "professional sports in colorado", "religion in colorado", "co state", "colorado military facilities", "list of former professional sports teams of colorado", "colorado u s state", "education in colorado", "buffalo plains state", "thirty eighth state", "special districts of colorado", "culture of colorado", "centennial state", "military facilities in colorado", "list of colorado state insignia", "columbine state", "colorado state nickname", "cuisines of colorado", "emblems of state of colorado", "professional sport teams of colorado", "rocky mountain empire" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "colorado", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Colorado" }
Which British liner was sunk by a German submarine in 1915?	tc_1030	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ocean_liner.txt" ], "title": [ "Ocean liner" ], "wiki_context": [ "An ocean liner is a ship designed to transport people from one seaport to another along regular long-distance maritime routes according to a schedule. Liners may also carry cargo or mail, and may sometimes be used for other purposes (e.g., for pleasure cruises or as hospital ships). \n\nCargo vessels running to a schedule are sometimes called liners. The category does not include ferries or other vessels engaged in short-sea trading, nor dedicated cruise ships where the voyage itself, and not transportation, is the prime purpose of the trip. Nor does it include tramp steamers, even those equipped to handle limited numbers of passengers. Some shipping companies refer to themselves as \"lines\" and their container ships, which often operate over set routes according to established schedules, as \"liners\".\n\nOcean liners are usually strongly built with a high freeboard to withstand rough seas and adverse conditions encountered in the open ocean. Additionally, they are often designed with thicker hull plating than is found on cruise ships, and have large capacities for fuel, food and other consumables on long voyages. \n\nOnce the dominant form of travel between continents, ocean liners were rendered largely obsolete by the emergence of long-distance aircraft after World War II. As of 2015, was the only ship still in service as an ocean liner.\n\nOverview\n\nOcean liners were the primary mode of intercontinental travel for over a century, from the mid-19th century until they began to be supplanted by airliners in the 1950s. In addition to passengers, liners carried mail and cargo. Ships contracted to carry British Royal Mail used the designation RMS. Liners were also the preferred way to move gold and other high-value cargoes. \n\nThe busiest route for liners was on the North Atlantic with ships travelling between Europe and North America. It was on this route that the fastest, largest and most advanced liners travelled. But while in contemporary popular imagination the term \"ocean liners\" evokes these transatlantic superliners, most ocean liners historically were mid-sized vessels which served as the common carriers of passengers and freight between nations and among mother countries and their colonies and dependencies in the pre-jet age. Such routes included Europe to African and Asian colonies, Europe to South America, and migrant traffic from Europe to North America in the 19th and first two decades of the 20th centuries, and to Canada and Australia after the Second World War.\n\nShipping lines are companies engaged in shipping passengers and cargo, often on established routes and schedules. Regular scheduled voyages on a set route are called \"line voyages\" and vessels (passenger or cargo) trading on these routes to a timetable are called liners. The alternative to liner trade is \"tramping\" whereby vessels are notified on an ad-hoc basis as to the availability of a cargo to be transported. (In older usage, \"liner\" also referred to ships of the line, that is, line-of-battle ships, but that usage is now rare.) The term \"ocean liner\" has come to be used interchangeably with \"passenger liner\", although it can refer to a cargo liner or cargo-passenger liner.\n\nBeginning at the advent of the Jet Age, where transoceanic ship service declined, a gradual transition from passenger ships as mean of transportation to nowadays cruise ships started. In order for ocean liners to remain profitable, cruise lines have modified some of them to operate on cruise routes, such as the Queen Elizabeth 2 and . Certain characteristics of older ocean liners made them unsuitable for cruising, such as high fuel consumption, deep draught preventing them from entering shallow ports, and cabins (often windowless) designed to maximize passenger numbers rather than comfort. The Italian Line's and , the last ocean liners to be built primarily for crossing the North Atlantic, could not be converted economically and had short careers. \n\nHistory\n\nThe 19th century\n\nIn 1818, the Black Ball Line, with a fleet of sailing ships, offered the first regular passenger service with emphasis on passenger comfort, from England to the United States. From the early 19th century, steam engines began to appear in ships, but initially they were inefficient and offered little advantage over sailing ships.\n\nThe clipper domination was challenged when , designed by railway engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, began its first Atlantic service in 1837. She took 15 days to cross the Atlantic, as compared with two months by sail-powered ships. Unlike the clippers, steamers offered a consistent speed and the ability to keep to a schedule. The early steamships still had sails as well, though, as engines at this time had very inefficient consumption of fuel. Having sails enabled vessels like the Great Western to take advantage of favourable weather conditions and minimise fuel consumption.\n\nIn 1840, Cunard Line’s began its first regular passenger and cargo service by a steamship, sailing from Liverpool to Boston. Despite some advantages offered by the steamships, clippers remained dominant. In 1847, the became the first iron-hulled screw-driven ship to cross the Atlantic. More efficient propellers began to replace the paddle wheels used by earlier ocean liners.\nIn 1870, the White Star Line’s set a new standard for ocean travel by having its first-class cabins amidships, with the added amenity of large portholes, electricity and running water. The size of ocean liners increased from 1880 to meet the needs of immigration to the United States and Australia.\n\n and her sister ship were the last two Cunard liners of the period to be fitted with auxiliary sails. Both ships were built by John Elder & Co. of Glasgow, Scotland, in 1884. They were record breakers by the standards of the time, and were the largest liners then in service, plying the Liverpool to New York route.\n\n was a 6814-ton steamship owned by the Orient Steamship Co., and was fitted with refrigeration equipment. She plied the Suez Canal route from England to Australia during the 1890s, up until the years leading to World War I, when she was converted to an armed merchant cruiser.\n\nThe 20th century\n\nThe period between the end of the 19th century and World War II is considered the \"golden age\" of ocean liners. Driven by strong needs created by European emigration to the Americas, international competition between passenger lines and a new emphasis on comfort, shipping companies built increasingly larger and faster ships. \n\nCanadian Pacific Railway (CPR) became one of the largest transportation systems in the world, combining ships and railways operating from Canada. In 1891, the CPR shipping division began its first Pacific operation. In 1903, CPR began its first Atlantic service because of the rising migration of Europeans to western Canada, as the result of free land offered by the Canadian government.\n\nSince the 1830s, passenger liners had unofficially been competing for the honour of making the fastest North Atlantic crossing. This honour came to be known as the Blue Riband; in 1897, Germany took the award with a series of new ocean liners, starting with . In 1905, the British Cunard Line fitted , with steam turbines, which then outperformed her nearly-identical sister, , which was powered by quadruple-expansion steam engines. At the time, these were the largest ships in the Cunard fleet, and the use of the different propulsion methods in otherwise similar ships allowed the company to evaluate the merits of both. The engines in Carmania were successful and, consequently, in 1907, Cunard introduced the much larger and , both powered by steam turbines. Mauretania won the Blue Riband and held it for an astonishing 20 years. \n\nCunard's dominance of the Blue Riband did not keep other lines from competing in terms of size and luxury. In 1910, White Star Line launched , the first of a trio of 45,000 plus gross ton liners, along with and . These ships were almost 15,000 tonnes larger and 100 ft longer than Lusitania and Mauretania. Like most other White Star Liners, these three ships were born of a special effort by the line to attract more immigrants by treating them with respect and making their crossings pleasurable.\n\nHamburg-America Line also ordered three giant ships, , and , all over 51,500 gross tons. Imperator was launched in 1912, and Bismarck would be the largest ship in the world until 1935. These ships did little or no service with Hamburg-America before World War I. After the war, they were awarded as war reparations and given to British and American lines. Vaterland became the SS Leviathan of United States Lines; Imperator became RMS Berengaria and Bismarck (completed only five weeks before the beginning of World War I) became RMS Majestic, both of Cunard/White Star.\n\nThe surge in ocean liner size outpaced the shipping regulations. In 1912, the Titanic sank after hitting an iceberg, with more than 1,500 fatalities. A factor contributing to the high loss of life was that there were not enough lifeboats for everyone. After the Titanic disaster, regulations were revised to require all ocean liners to carry enough lifeboats for all passengers and crew. In addition, the International Ice Patrol was established to monitor the busy North Atlantic shipping lanes for icebergs, and the Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, first signed in January 1914, required continuous radio watches. \n\nThe outbreak of World War I greatly disrupted commercial trans-Atlantic travel. While some companies continued to maintain a regular schedule of voyages, the sinking of the Lusitania off the coast of Ireland by a German U-boat in May 1915 with the loss of nearly 1,200 passengers and crew highlighted the dangers involved. Britain requisitioned a number of large liners for use in the war effort; Olympic and Mauretania were pressed into service as troopships, while Britannic became a hospital ship, only to be sunk by a mine in the Aegean Sea in November 1916.\n\nUntil the 1920s, most shipping lines relied heavily on emigration for passengers; thus, they were hard hit when the United States Congress introduced a bill to limit immigration into the United States. As a result, many ships took on cruising, and the least expensive cabins were reconfigured from third-class to tourist-class. To make matters worse, the Great Depression put many shipping lines into bankruptcy.\n\nDespite the harsh economic conditions, a number of companies continued to build larger and faster ships. In 1929, the German ships and bested the speed record set by Mauretania 20 years earlier with an average speed of almost 28 kn. The ships used bulbous bows and steam turbines to reach these high speeds while maintaining economical operating costs. In 1933, the Italian Line's 51,100-ton ocean liner , with a time of four days and thirteen hours, captured the westbound Blue Riband, which she held for two years. In 1935, French liner used a revolutionary new hull design and powerful turbo-electric transmission to take the Blue Riband from Rex. Due to poor economic conditions, the British government amalgamated the Cunard Line and White Star Lines. The newly merged company countered with liners and . Queen Mary held the Blue Riband in 1936-37 and from 1938-52. \n\nIn World War II many liners were used as troop ships. Notable ocean liners, such as , , , , , and all helped transport troops. While some ocean liners survived the war, many others were lost.\n\nThe post-WWII era was a brief but busy period. Notable ships included the fastest transatlantic liner ever built, , which, in 1952, bested the records set by Queen Mary to become the holder of the Blue Riband, a designation she retains to this day. However, the industry was shaken by the highly publicized sinking of the Italian liner Andrea Doria in July 1956 after a collision with the Swedish liner Stockholm off Nantucket, Massachusetts, with 46 people aboard both ships killed.\n\nAlso significant was the 1961-built (later renamed Norway) which held the record for the longest passenger ship from when she entered service in 1961, until the launch of in 2003. Australian government-sponsored immigration resulted in a busy trade between Europe and Australia, producing such notable ships as and . These two ships, operating on the P&O-Orient Lines service, were the largest, fastest and last liners built for the Australian route.\n\nDecline of long-distance line voyages\n\nBefore World War II, aircraft had not been a significant threat to ocean liners. Most pre-war aircraft were noisy, vulnerable to bad weather, few had the range needed for transoceanic flights, and all were expensive and had a small passenger capacity. However, World War II necessitated the accelerated development of large, long-ranged aircraft. Four-engined bombers, such as the Avro Lancaster and Boeing B-29 Superfortress, with their range and massive carrying capacity, were natural prototypes for post-war next-generation airliners. Jet engine technology also accelerated after the development of jet aircraft in World War II. In 1953, the De Havilland Comet became the first commercial jet airliner; the Sud Aviation Caravelle, Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 followed, and much long-distance travel was done by air. The Italian Line's and , launched in 1962 and 1963, were two of the last ocean liners to be built primarily for liner service across the North Atlantic. Cunard's transatlantic liner, Queen Elizabeth 2, was also used as a cruise ship. By the early 1970s, many passenger ships continued their service in cruising.\n\nThe 21st century\n\nBy the first decade of the 21st century, only a few former ocean liners were still sailing, while others, like , were preserved as museums or floating hotels. After the retirement of Queen Elizabeth 2 in 2008, the only ocean liner in service was , built in 2003-04, used for both point-to-point line voyages and for cruises.\n\nIn 2012, Australian businessman, Clive Palmer, announced plans to construct a modern-day replica of the , to be named Titanic II. However, the project was halted in 2014 and abandoned in 2015. The idea of a Titanic II was not new, with various proposals being made since at least 1989.\n\nAt war\n\nOcean liners were often used in wartime as troopships; indeed, it was sometimes national policy to encourage the construction of liners in peacetime so that they could be used in the event of war to transport large numbers of troops at speeds outpacing warships and submarines. \n\nIn World War I ocean liners played a major role. Large ocean liners, such as and , were used as troopships and hospital ships, while smaller ocean liners were converted to armed merchant cruisers. , sister ship to and , never served on the liner trade for which she was built. Instead, she entered war service as a hospital ship as soon as she was completed, and lasted a year before being sunk by a mine. Other liners were converted to innocent-looking armed Q-ships to entrap submarines. In 1915 , still in service as a civilian passenger vessel, was torpedoed with many casualties by a German U-boat.\n\nOcean liners were also used as troopships in World War II. Many were sunk with huge loss of life; in World War II the three worst disasters were the loss of the Cunarder in 1940 off Saint-Nazaire to German bombing while attempting to evacuate troops of the British Expeditionary Force from France, with the loss of more than 3,000 lives; the sinking of with more than 9,000 lives lost; and the sinking of with more than 7,000 lives lost, both in the Baltic Sea, in 1945.\n\n caught fire, capsized and sank in New York in 1942 while being converted for troop duty. Many of the superliners of the 'twenties and 'thirties were victims of U-boats, mines or enemy aircraft. was attacked by German planes, then torpedoed by a U-boat when tugs tried to tow her to safety. She was the largest British ocean liner sunk during World War II. In 1941 Germany's speed queen, , fell victim to an arsonist, believed to be a disgruntled crew member, and became a total loss. SS Europa was confiscated by the U.S. in 1945 and later became the French Line's SS Liberté. Italy's giant was destroyed by the Royal Air Force, and by retreating German forces. The United States lost the American President Lines vessel when she steamed into an Allied mine in the South Pacific. No shipping line was left untouched by World War II.\n\nIn 1982, during the Falklands War, three active or former liners were requisitioned for war service by the British Government. The liners Queen Elizabeth 2 and , were requisitioned from Cunard and P&O to serve as troopships, carrying British Army personnel to Ascension Island and the Falkland Islands to recover the Falklands from the invading Argentine forces. The P&O educational cruise ship and former British India Steam Navigation Company liner was requisitioned as a hospital ship, and served after the war as a troopship until the RAF Mount Pleasant station was built at Stanley, which could handle trooping flights. \n\nSurvivors\n\nOf the pre-World War II ocean liners, four survive today. was preserved after her retirement in 1967 as a hotel and museum in Long Beach, California. The Japanese ocean liner Hikawa Maru (1929), has been preserved in Naka-ku, Yokohama, Japan, as a museum ship, since 1961. is preserved in Bristol, England, and is awaiting preservation in Bintan Island, Indonesia as a dry berthed hotel.\n\nPost-war ocean liners that are preserved are (1952), docked in Philadelphia since 1996; (1958), moored in Rotterdam as a museum and hotel since 2008; and Queen Elizabeth 2 (1967), laid up in Port Rashid, since 2009; her owners stated that they would not scrap her. MS Veronica (1966) (former ), was converted into a floating hotel in Duqm, Oman in 2012 but the hotel closed operations a year later. In October 2015 the ship was sold for scrap; she was towed to Alang, India where as of December 2015 she remained beached. It is not known if she has been scrapped or if talks to save her are underway.\n\nTwo former ocean liners remain in service as cruise ships operating under Cruise & Maritime Voyages: (1965) (former MS Alexandr Pushkin), and MV Astoria (1948), originally which is famous for colliding with Andrea Doria in 1956." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Roman Lusitania", "Luso-", "Lusitânia", "Lusitania", "Hispania Lusitania", "Lusitania (ancient region)", "Roman province Lusitania", "Lusitania (Roman province)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "roman province lusitania", "luso", "lusitania ancient region", "roman lusitania", "lusitânia", "lusitania roman province", "lusitania", "hispania lusitania" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "lusitania", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Lusitania" }
Which role as 'the other woman' won Glenn Close her first Oscar nomination?	tc_1031	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Glenn_Close.txt" ], "title": [ "Glenn Close" ], "wiki_context": [ "Glenn Close (born March 19, 1947) is an American actress. Throughout her long and varied career, she has been consistently acclaimed for her versatility and is widely regarded as one of the finest actresses of her generation. She has won three Emmy Awards, three Tony Awards and received six Academy Award nominations.\n\nClose began her professional stage career in 1974 in Love for Love, and was mostly a New York stage actress through the rest of the 1970s and early 1980s, appearing in both plays and musicals, including the Broadway productions of Barnum in 1980 and The Real Thing in 1983, for which she won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play. Her first film role was in The World According to Garp (1982), which she followed up with supporting roles in The Big Chill (1983), and The Natural (1984); all three earned her nominations for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She would later receive nominations for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performances in Fatal Attraction (1987), Dangerous Liaisons (1988), and Albert Nobbs (2011). In the 1990s, she won two more Tony Awards, for Death and the Maiden in 1992 and Sunset Boulevard in 1995, while she won her first Emmy Award for the 1995 TV film Serving in Silence: The Margarethe Cammermeyer Story.\n\nShe starred as Eleanor of Aquitaine in the 2003 TV film The Lion in Winter, winning a Golden Globe Award. In 2005, she starred in the drama series The Shield. Then from 2007 to 2012, she starred as Patty Hewes in the FX drama series Damages, a role that won her a Golden Globe and two Emmys. She returned to Broadway in November 2014, in a revival of Edward Albee's A Delicate Balance. Her other films include Jagged Edge (1985), Hamlet (1990), Reversal of Fortune (1990), 101 Dalmatians (1996), Paradise Road (1997), Air Force One (1997), Cookie's Fortune (1999), Nine Lives (2005) and Guardians of the Galaxy (2014).\n\nClose is a six-time Academy Award nominee, tying the record for being the actress with the most nominations never to have won (along with Deborah Kerr and Thelma Ritter). In addition, she has been nominated for four Tonys (three wins), fourteen Emmys (three wins), thirteen Golden Globes (two wins), two Drama Desk Awards (one win) and eight Screen Actors Guild Awards (one win). She has also won an Obie award and has been nominated for three Grammy Awards and a BAFTA.\n\nEarly life and family\n\nClose was born and raised in Greenwich, Connecticut on March 19, 1947, the daughter of William Taliaferro Close, a doctor who operated a clinic in the Belgian Congo and served as a personal physician to Mobutu Sese Seko, and socialite Bettine Moore Close.\n\nHer father was a descendant of the Taliaferros of Virginia; her paternal grandfather, Edward Bennett Close, a stockbroker and director of the American Hospital Association, was first married to Post Cereals' heiress Marjorie Merriweather Post. Close is also a second cousin once-removed of actress Brooke Shields (Shields's great-grandmother Mary Elsie Moore was a sister of Close's maternal grandfather, Charles Arthur Moore, Jr.). \n\nDuring her childhood, Close lived with her parents in a stone cottage on her maternal grandfather's estate in Greenwich.Stated on Inside the Actors Studio, 1995 Close has credited her acting abilities to her early years: \"I have no doubt that the days I spent running free in the evocative Connecticut countryside with an unfettered imagination, playing whatever character our games demanded, is one of the reasons that acting has always seemed so natural to me.\" When she was seven years old, her parents joined a \"cult group,\" the Moral Re-Armament (MRA), in which her family remained involved for fifteen years, living in communal centers. Close has stated that the family \"struggled to survive the pressures of a culture that dictated everything about how we lived our lives.\" She spent time in Switzerland when studying at St. George's School in Switzerland. Close traveled for several years in the mid-to-late 1960s with an MRA singing group called Up With People, and attended Rosemary Hall (now Choate Rosemary Hall), graduating in 1965. \n\nWhen she was 22, Close broke away from MRA, attending the College of William & Mary, and double majoring in theatre and anthropology. It was in the College's theatre department that she began to train as a serious actor, under Howard Scammon, W&M's long-time professor of theatre. During her years at school in Williamsburg, she also starred in the summer-time outdoor drama, \"The Common Glory,\" written by Pulitzer Prize author Paul Green. She was elected to membership in the honor society of Phi Beta Kappa. Through the years, Close has returned to W&M to lecture and visit the theatre department. In 1989, Close was the commencement speaker at W&M and received an honorary doctor of arts degree.\n\nCareer\n\nFilm and television\n\nIn 1974, Close started her professional stage career and her film work in 1982. She appeared in many Broadway and Off-Broadways in the 1970s and early 1980s. In 1979 she made her television debut. Three years later she appeared in her first film The World According to Garp.\n\nShe has been nominated for six Academy Awards, for Best Actress in Dangerous Liaisons, Fatal Attraction, and Albert Nobbs and for Best Supporting Actress in The Natural, The Big Chill, and The World According to Garp (her first film). Her six nominations have her tied with Deborah Kerr and Thelma Ritter as the most nominated actress not to win an Oscar. Close is the only living actor with the most Oscar nominations without a win.After her sixth Oscar nomination, Close was asked about the fact of not having an Oscar, for which she answered: \"And I remember being astounded that I met some people who were really kind of almost hyper-ventilating as to whether they were going to win or not [the Oscar], and I have never understood that. Because if you just do the simple math, the amount of people who are in our two unions, the amount of people who in our profession are out of work at any given time, the amount of movies that are made every year, and then you're one of five. How could you possibly think of yourself as a loser?\"\n\nIn total she has been nominated fourteen times for an Emmy (winning three) and thirteen times at the Golden Globes (winning two).\n\nIn 1984, Close starred in the critically acclaimed drama Something About Amelia, a Golden Globe-winning television movie about a family destroyed by sexual abuse. In 1987 she played the disturbed book editor Alex in Fatal Attraction, this role later propelled Close into stardom. The movie became the highest-grossing film worldwide in that year and has been considered one of Close's most iconic roles. During the re-shoot of the ending, Close suffered a concussion from one of the takes when her head smashed against a mirror. After being rushed to the hospital, she discovered, much to her horror, that she was actually a few weeks pregnant with her daughter. To this day, Close said watching the ending makes her uncomfortable because of how much she unknowingly put her unborn daughter at risk from the physically demanding shoot. In 1988 she played the scheming aristocrat The Marquise de Merteuil in Dangerous Liaisons. Close was nominated for her first BAFTA for that role but did not win. She later went on to play the role of Sunny von Bülow in the 1990 film Reversal of Fortune to critical acclaim. In 1995, Close guest starred on Inside the Actors Studio. James Lipton described her as an actor who \"can find an outstanding number of layers in a role or a single moment; she is a supple actor who performs subtle feats.\" Close has also hosted Saturday Night Live twice, once in 1989 and once in 1992. \n\nIn the 1990s, she starred in the highly rated Hallmark Hall of Fame television movie Sarah, Plain and Tall (1991), as well as its two sequels. She also played the title role in the made-for-TV movie Serving in Silence: The Margarethe Cammermeyer Story in 1995, for which she won her first Emmy. She also appeared in the newsroom comedy-drama The Paper (1994), Steven Spielberg's Hook, the alien invasion satire Mars Attacks! (1996, as The First Lady), the Disney hit 101 Dalmatians (1996, as the sinister Cruella de Vil) and its sequel 102 Dalmatians (2000), and the blockbuster Air Force One (1997), as the trustworthy vice president to Harrison Ford's president. In 2001, she starred in a production of Rodgers and Hammerstein's classic musical South Pacific.\n\nIn 2005, Close joined the FX crime series The Shield, in which she played a no-nonsense precinct captain, this became her first TV role in a series. Close stated that she made the right move because television was in a \"golden era\" and the quality of some programs had already risen to the standards of film. She starred in a series of her own for 2007, Damages (also on FX) instead of continuing her character on The Shield. Close was met with rave reviews for her character Patty Hewes, and went on to win the 2008 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama series. Close also won the Emmy Award for the same role the following year, as well as a Golden Globe award. In an interview after her win, Close stated that her role of Patty Hewes in the series was the role of her life. Close also kept in contact with her co-star Rose Byrne, and the two have become great friends. After the series ended, Close stated that she would not return to television in a regular role. As of 2016, Close holds the record for the most nominations for an Oscar by an Emmy Winner. \n\nIn December 2010, Close began filming Albert Nobbs in Dublin. She had previously won an Obie in 1982 for her role in the play on stage. She had been working on the film, in which she appeared alongside 101 Dalmatians co-star Mark Williams, for 10 years, and aside from starring in it, she co-wrote the screenplay and produced the film. \n\nIn the film, Close played the title role of Albert Nobbs, a woman living her life as a man in 1800s Ireland after being sexually assaulted as a young girl. For the film, she sat through hours of makeup to transform herself into a man. While the film itself received mixed reviews, Close and Janet McTeer received rave reviews for their performances. Close's performance was noted for being her most subtle and introverted performance yet and a departure from her other roles. She received Academy Award, Golden Globe, Screen Actors Guild, and multiple critics nominations for her performance in Albert Nobbs.\n\nRecently Close along with Viola Davis and Uma Thurman was featured in the Documentary Love, Marilyn reading excerpts from Marilyn Monroe's diaries. Critic Stephen Farber has described the film as \"One of the most skillful and entertaining summaries of Marilyn's endlessly fascinating rise and fall.\" She played Nova Prime Rael in the science fiction film Guardians of the Galaxy (2014). In 2014, Close received good reviews for her role in the independent drama Low Down. Her next films are The Great Gilly Hopkins and Anesthesia. In 2015, she will appear in She Who Brings Gifts, filmed in England, What Happened to Monday?, and The Wife, her first lead role since Albert Nobbs. In 2015, Glenn is filming Wilde Wedding with actors John Malkovich (her co-star in Dangerous Liaisons), and Patrick Stewart, whom she worked with in The Lion in Winter.\n\nStage\n\nClose has had an extensive career performing in Broadway musicals. She began performing in 1974, and received her first Tony Award nomination in 1980 for Barnum. One of her most notable roles on stage was Norma Desmond in the Andrew Lloyd Webber production of Sunset Boulevard, for which Close won a Tony Award, playing the role on Broadway in 1993-94. At the time, Close was met with great reviews. David Richards of the The New York Times said that \"Glenn is giving one of those legendary performances people will be talking about years from now.\" Close was also a guest star at the Andrew Lloyd Webber fiftieth birthday party celebration in the Royal Albert Hall in 1998. She appeared as Norma Desmond and performed songs from Sunset Boulevard. Close has also won Tony Awards in 1984 for The Real Thing, and in 1992 for Death and the Maiden. Close performed at Carnegie Hall, narrating the violin concerto The Runaway Bunny, a concerto for reader, violin and orchestra, composed and conducted by Glen Roven.\n\nClose provided the voice of the \"Giant\" in the Summer 2012 production of the musical Into the Woods at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park. The production also featured Amy Adams as The Baker's Wife and Donna Murphy as The Witch. In 2014 she starred in a production of the Pirates of Penzance for the Public Theater in New York, playing the role of Ruth. This production featured Kevin Kline, Martin Short and Anika Noni Rose.\n\nIn October 2014, Close returned to Broadway in the starring role of Agnes in Pam MacKinnon's revival of Edward Albee's A Delicate Balance at the Golden Theatre. Her co-stars were John Lithgow as Tobias, Martha Plimpton as Julia and Lindsay Duncan as Claire. The production received mixed reviews although the cast was praised\n\nIn April 2016 she returned as Norma Desmond in the musical Sunset Boulevard on the West End stage. Close was met with rave reviews after returning to this same role twenty-three years later. Both The Times and The Daily Telegraph gave the production five stars and praised Close's performance. During the production Close was forced to cancel three shows due to a chest infection. She was hospitalized but later recovered and finished the remaining shows. \n\nClose has stated that she prefers the stage over television and film, \"I love the chemistry that can be created onstage between the actors and the audience. It's molecular even, the energies that can go back and forth. I started in theater and when I first went into movies I felt that my energy was going to blow out the camera.\" \n\nPersonal life and causes\n\nFrom 1969 to 1971, Close was married to Cabot Wade, a guitarist and songwriter, with whom she had performed during her time at Up with People. From 1979 to 1983 she dated Broadway actor Len Cariou. She was married to businessman James Marlas from 1984 to 1987. Soon afterwards, she began a relationship with producer John Starke, whom she had previously met on the set of The World According to Garp. In 1988 the two had a daughter together, Annie Starke, who is currently an aspiring actress. They separated in 1991. Close also dated actor Woody Harrelson from 1991 to 1994 after co-starring together in the play Brooklyn Laundry. \nIn 1995 Close was engaged to carpenter Steve Beers, who had worked on Sunset Boulevard, but the two never married, and they separated in 1999. Actor Robert Pastorelli and Close were also romantically linked in the late 90's, they acted alongside each other in the ABC made-for-TV production of South Pacific (musical). In February 2006, Close married executive and venture capitalist David Evans Shaw in Maine. The couple divorced in August 2015. Close currently resides in Westchester County, New York, but she still owns property in Bedford Hills, New York and a condo in the West Village. \n\nClose is a second cousin once removed to actress Brooke Shields. Through her fourth generation great-grandfather Samuel Addams, Close is a third cousin twice removed of cartoonist Charles Addams (1912-1988).\n\nClose is an LGBT supporter, and throughout her career she has portrayed various lesbian, bisexual, and transgender characters. She was honored with a GLAAD Media Award in 2002.\n\nIn 2011, she ended her 18-year feud with Patti LuPone at the Kennedy Center Honors, where they both paid tribute to Broadway actress Barbara Cook. LuPone was set to star as Norma Desmond in Sunset Boulevard, but was fired by Andrew Lloyd Webber. Close replaced her and went on to win a Tony Award for her performance.\n\nDue to her upbringing, Close has become irreligious. Close is a dog lover and writes a blog for Fetchdog.com, where she interviews other famous people about their relationships with their dogs. Close announced to the public that she has had her DNA sequenced. \n\nClose has donated money to the election campaigns of many Democratic politicians, including Hillary Rodham Clinton, Howard Dean, John Edwards and Barack Obama. In a 2016 interview with Andrew Marr for the BBC, Close criticized Donald Trump's presidential campaign, calling it \"terribly frightening.\" \n\nClose was a founder and is chairperson of BringChange2Mind, a US campaign to eradicate the stigma and discrimination surrounding mental illness, supporting her sister Jessie who has bipolar disorder. \nDuring the month of July 2013, Close put up over 380 designer items up for auction on eBay from the wardrobe her character Patty Hewes wore on Damages. All proceeds were raised to go to her charity BringChange2Mind. She was awarded the WebMD Health Hero award in 2015 for her contributions to mental health initiatives. Glenn Close is also a member of the CuriosityStream Advisory Board. In 2016, she admitted that she suffered from depression and continues to take low dosages of medication for her condition. Close joined Twitter in 2015. \n\nOn June 16, 2016, Close donated $75,000 to the Mental Health Association of Central Florida, in order to give counselling and help to victims of the Orlando nightclub shooting. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nFilmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bunny boiler", "Bunny boiling", "I Won't Be Ignored, Dan", "Fatal Attraction", "Bunny Boiler" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bunny boiler", "i won t be ignored dan", "bunny boiling", "fatal attraction" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "fatal attraction", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Fatal Attraction" }
Who wrote the novel The Godfather?	tc_1032	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "The_Godfather.txt", "The_Godfather_(novel).txt" ], "title": [ "The Godfather", "The Godfather (novel)" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Godfather is a 1972 American crime film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and produced by Albert S. Ruddy, based on Mario Puzo's best-selling novel of the same name. It stars Marlon Brando and Al Pacino as the leaders of a fictional New York crime family. The story, spanning 1945 to 1955, chronicles the family under the patriarch Vito Corleone, focusing on the transformation of Michael Corleone (Pacino) from reluctant family outsider to ruthless Mafia boss.\n\nParamount Pictures obtained the rights to the novel before it gained popularity for the price of $80,000. Studio executives had trouble finding a director, as their first few candidates turned down the position. They and Coppola disagreed over who would play several characters, in particular Vito and Michael. Filming was done on location and completed earlier than scheduled. The musical score was composed primarily by Nino Rota with additional pieces by Carmine Coppola.\n\nThe film was the highest-grossing film of 1972 and was for a time the highest-grossing film ever made. It won the Oscars for Best Picture, Best Actor (Brando) and Best Adapted Screenplay (for Puzo and Coppola). Its seven other Oscar nominations included Pacino, James Caan, and Robert Duvall for Best Supporting Actor and Coppola for Best Director. It was followed by sequels The Godfather Part II (1974) and Part III (1990).\n\nThe Godfather is widely regarded as one of the greatest films in world cinema and one of the most influential, especially in the gangster genre. It was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1990 and is ranked the second-greatest film in American cinema (behind Citizen Kane) by the American Film Institute.\n\nPlot\n\nIn 1945, at his daughter Connie's wedding, Vito Corleone hears requests in his role as the Godfather, the Don of a New York crime family. Vito's youngest son, Michael, who was a Marine during World War II, introduces his girlfriend, Kay Adams, to his family at the reception. Johnny Fontane, a famous singer and godson to Vito, seeks Vito's help in securing a movie role; Vito dispatches his consigliere, Tom Hagen, to Los Angeles to talk the obnoxious studio head, Jack Woltz, into giving Johnny the part. Woltz refuses until he wakes up in bed with the severed head of his prized stallion.\n\nShortly before Christmas, drug baron Virgil \"The Turk\" Sollozzo, backed by the Tattaglia crime family, asks Vito for investment in his narcotics business and protection through his political connections. Wary of involvement in a dangerous new trade that risks alienating political insiders, Vito declines. Suspicious, Vito sends his enforcer, Luca Brasi, to spy on them. Sollozzo has Vito gunned down in the street, then kidnaps Hagen. With Corleone first-born Sonny in command, Hagen is pressured to persuade Sonny to accept Sollozzo's deal, then released. The family receives fish wrapped in Brasi's bullet-proof vest, indicating that Luca \"sleeps with the fishes\". Vito survives, and at the hospital Michael thwarts another attempt on his father; Michael's jaw is broken by NYPD Captain Marc McCluskey, Sollozzo's bodyguard. Sonny retaliates with a hit on Tattaglia's son. Michael plots to murder Sollozzo and McCluskey: on the pretext of settling the dispute, Michael agrees to meet them in a Bronx restaurant. There, retrieving a planted handgun, he kills both men.\n\nDespite a clampdown by the authorities, the Five Families erupt in open warfare and Vito's sons fear for their safety. Michael takes refuge in Sicily, and his brother, Fredo, is sheltered by the Corleone's Las Vegas casino partner, Moe Greene. Sonny attacks his brother-in-law Carlo on the street for abusing his sister and threatens to kill him if it happens again. When it does, Sonny speeds to their home, but is ambushed at a highway toll booth and riddled with submachine gun fire. While in Sicily, Michael meets and marries Apollonia Vitelli, but a car bomb intended for him takes her life.\n\nDevastated by Sonny's death, Vito moves to end the feuds. Realizing that the Tattaglias are controlled by the now-dominant Don Emilio Barzini, Vito assures the Five Families that he will withdraw his opposition to their heroin business and forgo avenging his son's murder. His safety guaranteed, Michael returns home to enter the family business and marry Kay, who gives birth to two children by the early 1950s.\n\nWith his father at the end of his career and his brother too weak, Michael takes the family reins, promising his wife the business will be legitimate within five years. To that end, he insists Hagen relocate to Las Vegas and relinquish his role to Vito because Tom is not a \"wartime consigliere\"; Vito agrees Tom should \"have no part in what will happen\" in the coming battles with rival families. When Michael travels to Las Vegas to buy out Greene's stake in the family's casinos, their partner derides the Corleones for being run out of New York; Michael is dismayed to see that Fredo has fallen under Greene's sway.\n \nVito suffers a fatal heart attack. At the funeral, Tessio, a Corleone capo, asks Michael to meet with Don Barzini, signalling the betrayal that Vito had forewarned. The meeting is set for the same day as the christening of Connie’s baby. While Michael stands at the altar as the child's godfather, Corleone assassins murder the other New York dons and Moe Greene. Tessio is executed for his treachery; Michael extracts Carlo’s confession to his complicity in setting up Sonny's murder for Barzini. After Clemenza garrotes Carlo with a wire, Connie accuses Michael of the murder, telling Kay that Michael ordered all the killings. Kay is relieved when Michael finally denies it, but when the capos arrive, they address her husband as Don Corleone. She watches fearfully as they close the door on her.\n\nCast\n\n* Marlon Brando, in the title role, is Vito Corleone (born Vito Andolini), the Don of the Corleone crime family. A native Sicilian, he is married to Carmela Corleone and the father of Tom (adoptive), Sonny, Fredo, Michael, and Connie.\n* Al Pacino as Michael Corleone, the Don's third son, recently returned from World War II. The only college-educated family member, he is initially steered from the family business. His progression from the family's last-born son to its ruthless boss is the main subject matter of the film.\n* James Caan as Santino \"Sonny\" Corleone, Don Corleone's hot-headed eldest son. As underboss, he is the heir apparent to succeed his father as head of the Corleone family.\n* Richard S. Castellano as Peter Clemenza, a caporegime for the Corleone family. He is an old friend of Vito Corleone and Salvatore Tessio.\n* Robert Duvall as Tom Hagen, Don Corleone's informally adopted son, he is the family lawyer and consigliere (counselor). Unlike the Corleones, he is of German-Irish descent, not Sicilian.\n* Diane Keaton as Kay Adams-Corleone, initially Michael's non-Italian girlfriend and then his second wife and the mother of his two children.\n* John Cazale as Alfredo \"Fredo\" Corleone, the middle son of the Corleone family. Deeply insecure and not very bright, he is considered the weakest Corleone brother.\n* Talia Shire as Constanzia \"Connie\" Corleone, the youngest child and only daughter of the Corleone family. Her wedding reception begins the film.\n* Gianni Russo as Carlo Rizzi, Connie's abusive husband. Introduced to the Corleone family by Sonny, whom he ultimately betrays to the Barzini family.\n* Abe Vigoda as Salvatore Tessio, a caporegime for the Corleone family. He is an old friend of Vito Corleone and Peter Clemenza.\n* Al Lettieri as Virgil \"The Turk\" Sollozzo, a heroin dealer associated with the Tattaglia family. He seeks both financial investment and the protection of the Tattaglia family's narcotics business through Don Corleone's political connections.\n* Sterling Hayden as Captain Mark McCluskey, a corrupt NYPD police captain on Sollozzo's payroll.\n* Lenny Montana as Luca Brasi, Vito Corleone's enforcer.\n* Richard Conte as Emilio Barzini, Don of the Barzini family.\n* Al Martino as Johnny Fontane, a world-famous singer and Vito's godson. The character is loosely based on Frank Sinatra.\n* John Marley as Jack Woltz, a powerful Hollywood producer.\n* Alex Rocco as Moe Greene, a longtime associate of the Corleone family who owns a Las Vegas hotel. The character is based on Bugsy Siegel.\n* Morgana King as Carmela Corleone, Vito's wife and mother of Sonny, Fredo, Michael, and Connie, and adoptive mother to Tom Hagen.\n* Salvatore Corsitto as Amerigo Bonasera, a mortician who, in the opening scene, asks Don Corleone for revenge against two boys who severely beat and attempted to rape his daughter.\n* Corrado Gaipa as Don Tommasino, an old friend of Vito Corleone, who shelters Michael during his exile in Sicily.\n* Franco Citti as Calò, Michael's bodyguard in Sicily.\n* Angelo Infanti as Fabrizio, Michael's bodyguard in Sicily. He helped set up the assassination attempt on Michael that kills Apollonia.\n* Johnny Martino as Paulie Gatto, a soldier under Peter Clemenza and Vito's driver. He is executed for his part in the assassination attempt on Vito.\n* Victor Rendina as Philip Tattaglia, Don of the Tattaglia family.\n* Tony Giorgio as Bruno Tattaglia, Philip Tattaglia's son and underboss of the Tattaglia family. Sonny Corleone has him assassinated in retaliation for the shooting of Vito Corleone.\n* Simonetta Stefanelli as Apollonia Vitelli-Corleone, a young woman Michael meets and marries while in Sicily. She is killed a few months later in an assassination attempt on Michael.\n* Rudy Bond as Don Cuneo, head of the New York-based Cuneo family.\n* Louis Guss as Don Zaluchi, Don of the Zaluchi family of Detroit.\n* Tom Rosqui as Rocco Lampone, a soldier under Clemenza who eventually becomes a caporegime in the Corleone family.\n* Joe Spinell as Willi Cicci, a soldier in the Corleone family.\n* Richard Bright as Al Neri, Michael Corleone's personal bodyguard and hitman who eventually becomes a caporegime.\n* Julie Gregg as Sandra Corleone, Sonny's wife and later widow, and the mother of their four children.\n* Jeannie Linero as Lucy Mancini, Sonny's mistress.\n* Sofia Coppola (uncredited) as infant Michael Francis Rizzi, the nephew and godson of Michael Corleone.\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nThe film is based on Mario Puzo's novel The Godfather, a well-received novel that remained on The New York Times Best Seller list for 67 weeks and sold over nine million copies in two years. The novel became the best selling published work in history for several years. Paramount Pictures originally found out about Puzo's novel in 1967 when a literary scout for the company contacted then Paramount Vice President of Production Peter Bart about Puzo's sixty-page unfinished manuscript. Bart believed the work was \"much beyond a Mafia story\" and offered Puzo a $12,500 option for the work, with an option for $80,000 if the finished work were made into a film. Despite Puzo's agent telling him to turn down the offer, Puzo was desperate for money and accepted the deal. In March 1967, Paramount announced that they backed Puzo's upcoming work and planned to make a feature-length film out of it. In 1969, Paramount confirmed their intentions to make a film out of the novel for the price of $80,000, with aims to have the film released on Christmas Day in 1971. On March 23, 1970, Albert S. Ruddy was officially announced as the film's producer, in part because studio executives were impressed with his interview and because he was known for bringing his films in under budget.\n\nDirection\n\nParamount production head Robert Evans wanted the picture to be directed by an Italian American to make the film \"ethnic to the core.\" Sergio Leone was Paramount's first choice to direct the film. Leone turned down the option to work on his own gangster film Once Upon a Time in America. Peter Bogdanovich was then approached but he also declined the offer because he was not interested in the mafia. In addition, Peter Yates, Richard Brooks, Arthur Penn, Costa-Gavras, and Otto Preminger were all offered the position and declined. Peter Bart wanted Francis Ford Coppola to get the job as director because he believed Coppola would work for a low sum and budget. Coppola initially turned down the job because he did not finish Puzo's novel. At the time Coppola's studio, American Zoetrope, owed over $400,000 to Warner Bros. for budget overruns with the film THX 1138 and when coupled with his poor financial standing, along with advice from friends and family, Coppola reversed his initial decision and took the job. Coppola was officially announced as director of the film on September 28, 1970. Paramount had offered twelve other directors the job with The Godfather before Coppola agreed. Coppola agreed to receive $125,000 and six percent of the gross rentals.\n\nCoppola and Paramount\n\nBefore The Godfather was in production, Paramount had been going through an unsuccessful period. Their latest mafia based movie, The Brotherhood, had been a box office bomb. In addition, the studio had usurped their budget for their recent films: Darling Lili, Paint Your Wagon, and Waterloo. The budget for the film was originally $2.5 million but as the book grew in popularity and Coppola argued for, and ultimately received a larger budget. Paramount executives wanted the movie to be set in then modern-day Kansas City and shot in the studio backlot in order to cut down on costs. Coppola objected and wanted to set the movie in the same time period as its eponymous novel, the 1940s and 1950s; Coppola's reasons included: Michael Corleone's Marine Corps stint, the emergence of corporate America, and America in the years after World War II. The executives eventually agreed to Coppola's wish as the novel became increasingly successful. The studio heads subsequently let Coppola film on location in New York and Sicily.\n\nGulf & Western executive Charles Bluhdorn was frustrated with Coppola over the number of screen tests he had performed without finding a person to play the various roles. Production quickly fell behind because of Coppola's indecisiveness and conflicts with Paramount, which led to costs being around $40,000 per day. With the rising costs, Paramount had then Vice President Jack Ballard keep a close eye on production costs. While filming, Coppola stated that he felt he could be fired at any point as he knew Paramount executives were not happy with many of the decisions he had made. Around the time when shooting the Sollozzo dinner scene was taking place, it was known that some had been talking down the footage to Paramount executives. Paramount even forbade Coppola to film the scene again, which Coppola took as a sign he was going to be fired. Coppola fired the\nmen and re-shot the dinner scene, which made it harder for Paramount to fire him and keep costs low. It was revealed later on that Brando told executives that he would quit the project if Coppola were fired.\n\nParamount wanted The Godfather to appeal to a wide audience and threatened Coppola with a \"violence coach\" to make the film more exciting. Coppola added a few more violent scenes to keep the studio happy. The scene in which Connie smashes crockery after finding out Carlo has been cheating was added for this reason.\n\nWriting\n\nOn April 14, 1970, it was revealed that Puzo was hired by Paramount for $100,000, along with a percentage of the film's profits, to work on the screenplay for the film. Working from the book, Coppola wanted to have the themes of culture, character, power, and family at the forefront of the film, whereas Puzo wanted to retain aspects from his novel and his initial draft of 150 pages was finished on August 10, 1970. After Coppola was hired as director, both Puzo and Coppola worked on the screenplay, but separately. Puzo worked on his draft in Los Angeles, while Coppola wrote his version in San Francisco. Coppola created a book where he tore pages out of Puzo's book and pasted them into the book. There, he made notes about each of the book's fifty scenes, which related to major themes prevalent in the scene, whether the scene should be included in the film, along with ideas and concepts that could be used when filming to make the film true to Italian culture. The two remained in contact while they wrote their respective screenplays and made decisions on what to include and what to remove for the final version. A second draft was completed on March 1, 1971 and was 173 pages long. The final screenplay was finished on March 29, 1971, wound up being 163 pages long, 40 pages over what Paramount had asked for. When filming, Coppola referred to the notebook he had created over the final draft of the screenplay. Screenwriter Robert Towne did uncredited work on the script, particularly on the Pacino-Brando garden scene. Despite finishing the third draft, some scenes in the film were still not written yet and were written during production.\n\nThe Italian-American Civil Rights League wanted all uses of the words \"mafia\" and \"Cosa Nostra\" to be removed from the script, in addition to feeling that the film emphasized stereotypes about Italian-Americans. The league also requested that all the money earned from the premier be donated to the league's fund to build a new hospital. Coppola claimed that Puzo's screenplay only contained two instances of the word \"mafia\" being used, while \"Cosa Nostra\" was not used at all. Those two uses were removed and replaced with other terms, which Coppola felt did not change the story at all. The league eventually gave its support for the script.\n\nCasting\n\nPuzo was first to show interest in having Marlon Brando portray Don Vito Corleone by sending a letter to Brando in which he stated Brando was the \"only actor who can play the Godfather.\" Despite Puzo's wishes, the executives at Paramount were against having Brando play the part due to the poor success of his recent films and short temper. Coppola favored Brando or Laurence Olivier for the role, but Olivier's agent refused the role claiming Olivier was sick; however, Olivier went on to star in Sleuth later that year. The studio mainly pushed for Ernest Borgnine to receive the part. Other actors that were considered for the part were: George C. Scott, Richard Conte, Anthony Quinn, Carlo Ponti. \n\nAfter months of debate between Coppola and Paramount over Brando, the two finalists for the role were Borgnine and Brando, the latter of which Paramount president Stanley Jaffe required to perform a screen test. Coppola did not want to offend Brando and stated that he needed to test equipment in order to set up the screen test at Brando's California residence. For make-up, Brando stuck cotton balls in his cheeks, put shoe polish in his hair to darken it, and rolled his collar. Coppola placed Brando's audition tape in the middle of the videos of the audition tapes as the Paramount executives watched them. The executives were impressed with Brando's efforts and allowed Coppola to cast Brando for the role if Brando accepted a lower salary and put up a bond to insure he would not cause any delays in production.\n\nFrom the start of production, Coppola wanted Robert Duvall to play the part of Tom Hagen. After screen testing several other actors, Coppola eventually got his wish and Duvall was awarded the part of Tom Hagen. Al Martino, a then famed singer in nightclubs, was notified of the character Johnny Fontane by a friend who read the eponymous novel and felt Martino represented the character of Johnny Fontane. Martino then contacted producer Al Ruddy, who gave him the part. However, Martino was stripped of the part after Coppola became director and then awarded the role to Italian singer Vic Damone. Damone eventually dropped the role because he did not want to play an anti-Italian American character, in addition to being paid too little. According to Martino, after being stripped of the role, he went to his godfather and crime boss Russ Bufalino who then orchestrated the publication of various news articles that talked of how Coppola was unaware of Ruddy giving Martino the part; that, when coupled with pressure from the mafia who felt Martino deserved the role, led Damone to quit as Fontane. Either way, the part of Johnny Fontane ended up with Martino.\n\nRobert De Niro originally was given the part of Paulie Gatto. A spot in The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight opened up after Pacino quit the project in favor of The Godfather, which led De Niro to audition for the role and leave The Godfather after receiving the part. After De Niro quit, Johnny Martino was given the role of Gatto. Coppola cast Diane Keaton for the role of Kay Adams due to her reputation for being eccentric. John Cazale was given the part of Fredo Corleone after Coppola saw him perform in an Off Broadway production. Gianni Russo was given the role of Carlo Rizzi after he was asked to perform a screen test in which he acted out the fight between Rizzi and Connie.\n\nNearing the start of filming on March 29, Michael Corleone had yet to be cast. Paramount executives wanted a popular actor, either Warren Beatty or Robert Redford. Producer Robert Evans wanted Ryan O'Neal to receive the role in part due to his recent success in Love Story. Al Pacino was Coppola's favorite for the role as he could picture Pacino roaming the Sicilian countryside and wanted an unknown actor who looked like an Italian-American. However, Paramount executives found Pacino to be too short to play Michael. Dustin Hoffman, Martin Sheen, and James Caan also auditioned. Caan was well received by the Paramount executives and was given the part of Michael initially, while the role of Sonny Corleone was awarded to Carmine Caridi. Coppola still pushed for Pacino to play Michael after the fact and Evans eventually conceded, allowing Pacino to have the role of Michael as long as Caan played Sonny. Evans preferred Caan over Caridi because Caan was seven inches shorter than Caridi, which was much closer to Pacino's height. Despite agreeing to play Michael Corleone, Pacino was contracted to star in MGM's The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight, but the two studios agreed on a settlement and Pacino was signed by Paramount three weeks before shooting began. \n\nCoppola gave several roles in the film to family members. He gave his sister, Talia Shire, the role of Connie Corleone. His daughter Sofia played Michael Francis Rizzi, Connie's and Carlo's newborn son. Carmine Coppola, his father, appeared in the film as an extra playing a piano during a scene. Coppola's wife, mother, and two sons all appeared as extras in the picture. Several smaller roles, like Luca Brasi, were cast after the filming had started.\n\nFilming\n\nBefore the filming began, the cast received a two-week period for rehearsal, which included a dinner where each actor and actress had to assume character for its duration. Filming was scheduled to begin on March 29, 1971 with the scene between Michael Corleone and Kay Adams as they leave Best & Co. in New York City after shopping for Christmas gifts. The weather on March 23 predicted snow flurries, which caused Ruddy to move the filming date forward; however snow never materialized and a snow machine was used. Principal filming in New York continued until July 2, 1971. Coppola asked for a three-week break before heading overseas to film in Sicily. Following the crew's departure for Sicily, Paramount announced that the release date would be moved from December to spring 1972.\n\nCinematographer Gordon Willis initially turned down the opportunity to film The Godfather because the production seemed \"chaotic\" to him. After Willis later accepted the offer, he and Coppola agreed to not use any modern filming devices, helicopters, or zoom lenses. Willis and Coppola chose to use a \"tableau format\" of filming to make it seem if it was viewed like a painting. He made use of shadows and low light levels throughout the film to showcase psychological developments. Willis and Coppola agreed to interplay light and dark scenes throughout the film. Willis underexposed the film in order to create a \"yellow tone.\" The scenes in Sicily were shot to display the countryside and \"display a more romantic land,\" giving these scenes a \"softer, more romantic\" feel than the New York scenes.\n\nOne of the film's most shocking moments involved a real severed horse head, which was obtained from plant that slaughtered horses from a horse that was to be slaughtered regardless of the film. Animal rights groups protested the inclusion of the scene. On June 22, the scene where Sonny is killed was shot on a runway at Mitchel Field in Mineola, where three tollbooths were built, along with guard rails, and billboard to set the scene. Sonny's car was a 1941 Lincoln Continental with holes drilled in it to resemble bullet holes. The scene took three days to film and cost over $100,000.\n\nPer the request of Coppola, much of the movie was filmed on location. Around 90 percent of the film was shot in New York City or its surrounding suburbs, using over 120 unique locations. Several scenes were filmed at the Filmways Studio in East Harlem. The remaining portions were filmed in California, or on-site in Sicily, except for the scenes set in Las Vegas because there were insufficient funds to travel there. Savoca and Forza d'Agrò were the Sicilian towns featured in the film. The opening wedding scene was shot in a Staten Island neighborhood using almost 750 locals as extras. The house used as the Corleone household and the wedding location was on Longfellow Road in the Todt Hill neighborhood of Staten Island. The wall around the Coreleone compound was made from styrofoam. Scenes set in and around the Corleone olive oil business were filmed on Mott Street.\n\nAfter filming had ended on August 7, post-production efforts were focused on trimming the film to a manageable length. In addition, producers and directors still were including and removing different scenes from the end product, along with trimming certain sequences. In September, the first rough cut of the film was viewed. Of the scenes removed from the film, many were centered around Sonny because they did not advance the plot. By November, Coppola and Ruddy finished the semifinal cut. Debates over personnel involvement with the final editing of the film even 25 years after the release of the film. The film began to be shown to Paramount staff and exhibitors in late December and going into the new year.\n\nMusic\n\nCoppola hired Italian composer Nino Rota to create the underscore for the film, including the main theme, \"Speak Softly Love\". For the score, Rota was to relate to the situations and characters in the film. Rota synthesized new music for the film and took some parts from his Fortunella score, in order to create an Italian feel and evoke the tragic film's themes. Paramount executive Evans found the score to be too \"highbrow\" and did not want to use it; however, it was used after Coppola managed to get Evans to agree. Coppola believed that Rota's musical piece gave the film even more of an Italian feel. Coppola's father, Carmine, created some additional music for the film, particularly the music played by the band during the opening wedding scene. There are a total of nine instances within the film where incidental music can be heard.\n\nThere was a soundtrack released for the film in 1972 in vinyl form by Paramount Records, on CD in 1991 by Geffen Records, and digitally by Geffen on August 18, 2005. The album contains over 31 minutes of music coming from the movie, with most being composed by Rota, along with a song from Coppola and one by Johnny Farrow and Marty Symes. Allmusic gave the album five out of five stars, with editor Zach Curd saying it is a \"dark, looming, and elegant soundtrack.\" An editor for Filmtracks believed that Rota did a great job of relating the music to the core aspects of the film, which the editor believed to be \"tradition, love, and fear.\"\n\nRelease\n\nThe world premiere for The Godfather took place in New York City on March 15, 1972, almost three months after the planned release date of Christmas Day in 1971, with profits from the premiere donated to The Boys Club of New York. Before the film premiered, the film had already made $15 million from rentals from over 400 theaters. The following day, the film opened in New York at five theaters. The film next opened in Los Angeles at two theaters on March 22. The Godfather was commercially released on March 24, 1972 throughout the rest of the United States. The film reached 316 theaters around the country five days later.\n\nBox office\n\nThe Godfather was a blockbuster, breaking many box office records to become the highest grossing film of 1972. It earned $81.5 million in theatrical rentals in North America during its initial release, increasing its earnings to $85.7 million through a reissue in 1973, and including a limited re-release in 1997 it ultimately earned an equivalent exhibition gross of $135 million. It displaced Gone with the Wind to claim the record as the top rentals earner, a position it would retain until the release of Jaws in 1975. News articles at the time proclaimed it was the first film to gross $100 million in North America, but such accounts are erroneous since this record in fact belongs to The Sound of Music, released in 1965. The film repeated its native success overseas, earning in total an unprecedented $142 million in worldwide theatrical rentals, to become the highest net earner. Profits were so high for The Godfather that earnings for Gulf & Western Industries, Inc., which owned Paramount, jumped from 77 cents per share to $3.30 a share for the year, according to a Los Angeles Times article, dated December 13, 1972. To date, it has grossed between $245 million and $286 million in worldwide box office receipts, and adjusted for ticket price inflation in North America, ranks among the top 25 highest-grossing films. \n\nCritical response\n\nSince its release, The Godfather has received critical acclaim and is seen as one of the most influential films of all time, particularly in the gangster genre. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 99% rating based on 84 reviews. It has an average score of 9.2. Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a perfect weighted average score of 100 out of 100, based on 14 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be \"universal acclaim\". The film is ranked at the top of Metacritic's top 100 list, and is ranked 6th on Rotten Tomatoes' all-time best list (100% \"Certified Fresh\"). \n\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times praised Coppola's efforts to follow the storyline of the eponymous novel, the choice to set the film in the same time as the novel, and the film's ability to \"absorb\" the viewer over its three-hour run time. While Ebert was mainly positive, he criticized Brando's performance, saying his movements lacked \"precision\" and his voice was \"wheezy.\" The Chicago Tribunes Gene Siskel gave the film four out of four stars, commenting that it was \"very good.\" Village Voice's Andrew Sarris believed Brando portrayed Vito Corleone well and that his character dominated each scene it appeared in, but felt Puzo and Coppola had the character of Michael Corleone too focused on revenge. In addition, Sarris stated that Richard Castellano, Robert Duvall, and James Caan were good in their respective roles. Desson Howe of the Washington Post believed that the film is a \"jewel\" and that Coppola deserves most of the credit for the film. The New York Times Vincent Canby felt that Coppola had created one of the \"most brutal and moving chronicles of American life\" and went on to say that it \"transcends its immediate milieu and genre.\" Director Stanley Kubrick thought the film had the best cast ever and could be the best movie ever made. \n\nPrevious Mafia films had looked at the gangs from the perspective of an outraged outsider. In contrast, The Godfather presents the gangster's perspective of the Mafia as a response to corrupt society. Although the Corleone family is presented as immensely rich and powerful, no scenes depict prostitution, gambling, loan sharking or other forms of racketeering. Some critics argue that the setting of a criminal counterculture allows for unapologetic gender stereotyping, and is an important part of the film's appeal (\"You can act like a man!\", Don Vito tells a weepy Johnny Fontane).\n\nReal-life gangsters responded enthusiastically to the film, with many of them feeling it was a portrayal of how they were supposed to act. Salvatore \"Sammy the Bull\" Gravano, the former underboss in the Gambino crime family, stated: \"I left the movie stunned ... I mean I floated out of the theater. Maybe it was fiction, but for me, then, that was our life. It was incredible. I remember talking to a multitude of guys, made guys, who felt exactly the same way.\" According to Anthony Fiato after seeing the film, Patriarca crime family members Paulie Intiso and Nicky Giso altered their speech patterns closer to that of Vito Corleone's. Intiso would frequently swear and use poor grammar; but after the movie came out, he started to articulate and philosophize more.\n\nRemarking on the fortieth anniversary of the film's release, film critic John Podhoretz praised The Godfather as \"arguably the great American work of popular art\" and \"the summa of all great moviemaking before it\". Two years before, Roger Ebert wrote in his journal that it \"comes closest to being a film everyone agrees... is unquestionably great.\" \n\nNew Republic wrote negatively of the film, claiming that \"Pacino rattles around in a part too demanding for him,\" while also criticizing Brando's make-up.\n\nAccolades\n\nThe Godfather was nominated for seven awards at the 30th Golden Globe Awards: Best Picture – Drama, James Caan for Best Supporting Actor, Al Pacino and Marlon Brando for Best Actor – Drama, Best Score, Best Director, and Best Screenplay. When the winners were announced on January 28, 1973, the film had won the categories for: Best Screenplay, Best Director, Best Actor - Drama, Best Original Score, and Best Picture – Drama. The Godfather won a record five Golden Globes, which still stands today. \n\nRota's score was also nominated for Grammy Award for Best Original Score for a Motion Picture or TV Special at the 15th Grammy Awards. Rota was announced the winner of the category on March 3 at the Grammys' ceremony in Nashville, Tennessee.\n\nWhen the nominations for the 45th Academy Awards were revealed on February 12, 1973, The Godfather was nominated for eleven awards. The nominations were for: Best Picture, Best Costume Design, Marlon Brando for Best Actor, Mario Puzo and Francis Ford Coppola for Best Adapted Screenplay, Pacino, Caan, and Robert Duvall for Best Supporting Actor, Best Film Editing, Nino Rota for Best Original Score, Coppola for Best Director, and Best Sound. Upon further review of Rota's love theme from The Godfather, the Academy found that Rota had used a similar score in Eduardo De Filippo's 1958 comedy Fortunella. This led to re-balloting, where members of the music branch chose from six films: The Godfather and the five films that had been on the shortlist for best original dramatic score but did not get nominated. John Addison's score for Sleuth won this new vote, and thus replaced Rota's score on the official list of nominees. Going into the awards ceremony, The Godfather was seen as the favorite to take home the most awards. From the nominations that The Godfather had remaining, it only won three of the Academy Awards: Best Actor, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Picture. \n\nBrando, who had also not attended the Golden Globes ceremony two months earlier, boycotted the Academy Awards ceremony and refused to accept the Oscar, becoming the second actor to refuse a Best Actor award after George C. Scott in 1970. Brando sent American Indian Rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather in his place, to announce at the awards podium Brando's reasons for declining the award which were based on his objection to the depiction of American Indians by Hollywood and television. In addition, Pacino boycotted the ceremony. He was insulted at being nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor award, noting that he had more screen time than his co-star and Best Actor winner Brando and thus he should have received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. \n\nThe Godfather had five nominations for awards at the 26th British Academy Film Awards. The nominees were: Pacino for Most Promising Newcomer, Rota for the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, Duvall for Best Supporting Actor, and Brando for Best Actor, the film's costume designer Anna Hill Johnstone for Best Costume Design. All of The Godfathers nominations failed to win except for Rota.\n\nIn 1990, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". In 1998, Time Out conducted a poll and The Godfather was voted the best film of all time. In 2002, Sight & Sound polled film directors voted the film and its sequel as the second best film ever; the critics poll separately voted it fourth. Also in 2002, The Godfather was ranked the second best film of all time by Film4, after Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back. In 2005, it was named one of the 100 greatest films of the last 80 years by Time magazine (the selected films were not ranked). In 2006, the Writers Guild of America, west agreed, voting it the number two in its list of the 101 greatest screenplays, after Casablanca. In 2008, the film was voted in at No. 1 on Empire magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. Entertainment Weekly named it the greatest film ever made. The film has been selected by the American Film Institute for many of their lists.\n\nAmerican Film Institute recognition\n\n* 1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #3 \n* 2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – #11 \n* 2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:\n** Vito Corleone – Nominated Villain \n* 2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:\n \"I'm going to make him an offer he can't refuse.\" – #2 \n \"Leave the gun. Take the cannolis.\" – Nominated \n** \"It's a Sicilian message. It means Luca Brasi sleeps with the fishes.\" – Nominated\n* 2006: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – #5 \n* 2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #2 \n* 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 – #1 Gangster Film \n\nCinematic influence\n\nAlthough many films about gangsters preceded The Godfather, Coppola's heavy infusion of Italian culture and stereotypes, and his portrayal of mobsters as characters of considerable psychological depth and complexity was unprecedented. Coppola took it further with The Godfather Part II, and the success of those two films, critically, artistically and financially, opened the doors for numerous other depictions of Italian Americans as mobsters, including films such as Martin Scorsese's Goodfellas and TV series such as David Chase's The Sopranos. A comprehensive study of Italian American culture on film, conducted from 1996 to 2001 by the Italic Institute of America, showed that close to 300 movies featuring Italian Americans as mobsters (mostly fictitious) have been produced since The Godfather, an average of nine per year. \n\nThe image of the Mafia as a feudal organization with the Don as both the protector of the small fry and the collector of obligations from them for his services is now a commonplace Italian stereotype which The Godfather helped to create. Similarly, the recasting of the Don's family as a figurative \"royal family\" has spread beyond fictional boundaries into the real world as well – (cf. John Gotti – the \"Dapper Don\", and his celebrity family.) This portrayal is echoed in the more sordid reality of lower level Mafia \"familial\" entanglements depicted in various post-Godfather Mafia fare, such as Scorsese's Mean Streets and Casino.\n\nIn the DVD commentary for Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, George Lucas states that the interwoven scenes of Anakin Skywalker killing Separatist leaders and Palpatine announcing the beginning of the Galactic Empire was an homage to the christening and assassination sequence in The Godfather.\n\nIn popular culture and legacy\n\nThe Godfather epic, encompassing the original trilogy and the additional footage Coppola incorporated later, is by now thoroughly integrated into American life and, together with a succession of mob-theme imitators, has led to a highly stereotyped concept of Italian American culture. The first film had the largest impact and, unlike any film before it, its depiction of Italians who immigrated to the United States in the early decades of the 20th century is perhaps attributable to the Italian American director, presenting his own understanding of their experience. The films explain through their action the integration of fictional Italian American criminals into American society. Though the story is set in the period of mass immigration to the U.S., it is rooted in the specific circumstances of the Corleones, a family that lives outside of the law. Although some critics have refashioned the Corleone story into one of universality of immigration, other critics have posited that it leads the viewer to identify organized crime with Italian American culture. Released in a period of intense national cynicism and self-criticism, the American film struck a chord about the dual identities inherent in a nation of immigrants. The Godfather increased Hollywood's negative portrayals of immigrant Italians in the aftermath of the film and was a recruiting tool for organized crime. \n\nThe concept of a mafia \"Godfather\" was an invention of Mario Puzo's and the film's effect was to add the fictional nomenclature to the language. Similarly, Don Vito Corleone's unforgettable \"I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse\"voted the second most memorable line in cinema history in AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes by the American Film Institutewas adopted by actual gangsters. In the French novel Le Père Goriot, Honoré de Balzac wrote of Vautrin telling Eugene: \"In that case I will make you an offer that no one would decline.\" According to Anthony Fiato, Patriarca crime family members Paulie Intiso and Nicky Giso modeled their speech on Brando's portrayal. Intiso would frequently swear and use poor grammar; but after the movie came out, he started to articulate and philosophize more.\n\nAn indication of the continuing influence of The Godfather and its sequels can be gleaned from the many references to it and Italian American culture which have appeared in every medium of popular culture in the decades since the film's initial release. That these homages, quotations, visual references, satires and parodies continue to pop up even now shows clearly the film's enduring impact.\n\nIn film\n\nThe 1999 film Analyze This made many references both directly and indirectly to The Godfather, with a dream scene repeating almost shot for shot the attack on Vito Corleone. Brando virtually reprised the role of the Don in the 1990 comedy The Freshman, and the 2004 animation Shark Tale nodded at this and other Mafia-related films. Similarly, Rugrats in Paris, based on a Nickelodeon children's show, began with an extended parody of The Godfather.\n\nIn Set it Off, four women - Lita \"Stoney\" Newsome (Jada Pinkett), Cleopatra \"Cleo\" Sims (Queen Latifah), Francesca \"Frankie\" Sutton (Vivica A. Fox), and Tisean \"T.T.\" Williams (Kimberly Elise) - meet around a conference table at the office building they clean to plan a series of bank heists, during which time they do imitations of The Godfather. \n\nIn You've Got Mail, Joe Fox (played by Tom Hanks) quotes The Godfather, positing:\n\"The Godfather is the I Ching. The Godfather is the sum of all wisdom. The Godfather is the answer to any question. What should I pack for my summer vacation? 'Leave the gun, take the cannoli'. What day of the week is it? 'Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Wednesday'.\"\n\nIn television\n\nThe Warner Bros. animated series Animaniacs featured several segments called \"Goodfeathers\", with pigeons spoofing characters from various gangster films. One of the characters is \"The Godpigeon\", an obvious parody of Brando's portrayal of Vito Corleone.\n\nJohn Belushi appeared in a Saturday Night Live sketch as Vito Corleone in a therapy session trying to properly express his inner feelings towards the Tattaglia Family, who, in addition to muscling in on his territory, \"also, they shot my son Santino 56 times\". \n\nThe Simpsons makes numerous references to The Godfather, including a scene in the episode \"Strong Arms of the Ma\" that parodies the Sonny-Carlo street fight scene, with Marge Simpson beating a mugger in front of an animated version of the same New York street-scape, including using the lid of a trash can during the fight. The \"All's Fair in Oven War\" final scene shows James Caan being ambushed by hillbillies (Cletus relatives) at a toll booth, a parody of the scene when Sonny (portrayed by Caan) is shot and killed; the tollbooth scene is also parodied in \"Mr. Plow\", except Bart Simpson is ambushed by a barrage of snowballs by Nelson, and other students lie in wait behind a snow fortress (in place of the tollbooth). A later episode \"The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer\" parodies the film's ending scene, with Lisa Simpson taking Kay Adams' role and Fat Tony's son Michael standing in for Michael Corleone. The horse-head scene is also parodied in the episode \"Lisa's Pony\".\n\nIn the television show The Sopranos, Tony Soprano's topless bar is named Bada Bing, echoing the line in The Godfather when Sonny Corleone says, \"You've gotta get up close like this and bada-bing! You blow their brains all over your nice Ivy League suit.\" \n\nAn episode of SCTV satirizes the film as a story about how the four American TV networks of the time (ABC, CBS, NBC, & PBS) are run like the Mob, with SCTV president Guy Caballero being asked to invest in a pay-TV channel by the Ugatzo family as a way to control of TV; when Caballero refuses, a 'network war' starts, with many of the scenes in the episode being similar to that of the film.\n\nThe Modern Family episode, \"Fulgencio (Modern Family)\" makes various references to The Godfather.\n\nAn episode of Seinfeld, The Bris, features Jerry Seinfeld being ask to serve as godfather to a new-born baby boy, allowing him to imitate Brando's famous line \"see how they've massacred my boy!\". Later, the baby's parents decide instead to make Kramer the child's godfather and pay homage to him in a parody of the final scene in the film, calling him \"Godfather\" and kissing his hand, as the closing music from the film plays—and the door closes to shut out Jerry and Elaine.\n\nIn the episode of How I Met Your Mother, Canning Randy, Lily Aldrin places a severed stuffed-horse head next to a troublesome child during nap time to get the child to behave.\n\nIn an episode of Family Guy, Peter Griffin gets mixed up with the Mob, inadvertently requests \"a hit\" on his long-suffering wife, Lois, but then has a chance to cancel the assassination when he and Lois are invited to the wedding of the Don's daughter and are allowed to ask for a favor—a parody of the opening scene of The Godfather.\n\nHome media\n\nThe theatrical version of The Godfather debuted on American network television on November 16, 1974 on NBC, and again two days later, with only minor edits. The airing on television attracted a large audience and helped generate anticipation for the upcoming sequel. The next year, Coppola created The Godfather Saga expressly for American television in a release that combined The Godfather and The Godfather Part II with unused footage from those two films in a chronological telling that toned down the violent, sexual, and profane material for its NBC debut on November 18, 1977. In 1981, Paramount released the Godfather Epic boxed set, which also told the story of the first two films in chronological order, again with additional scenes, but not redacted for broadcast sensibilities. The Godfather Trilogy was released in 1992, in which the films are fundamentally in a chronological order.\n\nThe Godfather Family: A Look Inside was a 73-minute documentary released in 1991. Directed by Jeff Warner, the film featured some behind the scenes content from all three films, interviews with the actors, and screen tests. The Godfather DVD Collection was released on October 9, 2001 in a package that contained all three films—each with a commentary track by Coppola—and a bonus disc containing The Godfather Family: A Look Inside. The DVD also held a Corleone family tree, a \"Godfather\" timeline, and footage of the Academy Award acceptance speeches.\n\nThe Godfather: The Coppola Restoration\n\nDuring the film's original theatrical release, the original negatives were worn down due to the reel being printed so much to meet demand. In addition, the duplicate negative was lost in Paramount archives. In 2006 Coppola contacted Steven Spielberg—whose studio DreamWorks had recently been bought out by Paramount—about restoring The Godfather. Robert A. Harris was hired to oversee the restoration of The Godfather and its two sequels, with the film's cinematographer Willis participated in the restoration. Work began in November 2008 by repairing the negatives so they could go through a digital scanner to produce high resolution 4k files. If a negative were damaged and discolored, work was done digitally to restore it to its original look. After a year and a half of working on the restoration, the project was complete. Paramount called the finished product The Godfather: The Coppola Restoration and released it to the public on September 23, 2008 on both DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Dave Kehr of the New York Times believed the restoration brought back the \"golden glow of their original theatrical screenings\". As a whole, the restoration of the film was well received by critics and Coppola. The Godfather: The Coppola Restoration contains several new special features that play in high definition, along with additional scenes.\n\nVideo game\n\nA video game based on the film was developed by Electronic Arts and first released in 2006. Duvall, Caan, and Brando supplied voiceovers and their likenesses, but Pacino did not. Francis Ford Coppola openly voiced his disapproval of the game.", "The Godfather is a famous crime novel written by Italian American author Mario Puzo, originally published in 1969 by G. P. Putnam's Sons. It details the story of a fictional Mafia family based in New York City (and Long Beach, New York), headed by Don Vito Corleone, who became synonymous with the Italian Mafia. The novel covers the years 1945 to 1955, and also provides the back story of Vito Corleone from early childhood to adulthood.\n\nThe book introduced Italian criminal terms like consigliere, caporegime, Cosa Nostra, and omertà to an English-speaking audience.\n\nIt inspired a 1972 film of the same name. Two film sequels, including new contributions by Puzo himself, were made in 1974 and 1990. The first and second films are widely held in high esteem as examples of the cinematic arts. \n\nSummary\n\nThe novel deals the Corleone family and the mob war fought with the other four mafia families in New York. After Don Vito Corleone is shot by men working for drug dealer Virgil \"The Turk\" Sollozzo, Corleone's two sons, Santino and Michael, must run the family business with the help of consigliere Tom Hagen and the two caporegime Peter Clemenza and Salvatore Tessio. When Michael murders Sollozzo and Captain McCluskey, an Irish police officer on the drug lord's payroll, the conflict escalates into a full-scale war; this ultimately results in Santino's murder and Michael's ascension to the head of the family. He initially desires to legitimize the family business, but gradually becomes even more ruthless than his father, orchestrating the murder of all of the family's enemies, including his brother-in-law Carlo Rizzi, who played a part in Santino's murder. Michael then sells all the family's businesses in New York and moves the Corleones to Lake Tahoe, Nevada.\n\nMain characters\n\nThe Corleone family patriarch is Vito Corleone (The Don), whose surname (Italian for \"Lionheart\") recalls the town of Corleone, Sicily. His birth name is Vito Andolini, but after emigrating to America, he refused to tell the immigration official his last name. The person in charge of the lines said the boy was from Corleone, and the official recorded his name as Vito Corleone. Vito fathered four children: Santino \"Sonny\" Corleone, Frederico \"Fredo\" Corleone, Michael \"Mike\" Corleone, and Constanzia \"Connie\" Corleone. He also has an informally-adopted son, Tom Hagen, who became the Corleone Family's' consigliere (counsellor). Vito Corleone is also godfather to the famous singer and movie star Johnny Fontane. The godfather referred to in the title is generally taken to be Vito. However, the story's central character is Michael Corleone. The novel's central theme follows that Michael's destiny is to succeed his father as the head of the family empire, despite his desire to lead an Americanized life with his girlfriend (and eventual wife) Kay Adams.\n\nThe Corleone family is a criminal organization with national influence, notably protection, gambling and union racketeering. Serving as the Don's underboss is his oldest son, Santino. The operational side of the organization is headed by two caporegimes, Peter Clemenza and Salvatore Tessio. Other significant members of the organization include enforcers Luca Brasi and Albert Neri and upcoming soldier Rocco Lampone.\n\nFilm adaptation\n\nThe 1972 film adaptation of the novel was released with Marlon Brando as Don Vito Corleone and Al Pacino as Michael Corleone, directed by Francis Ford Coppola. Mario Puzo assisted with both writing of the screenplay and other production tasks. The film grossed approximately $269 million worldwide and won various awards, including: three Academy Awards, five Golden Globes and one Grammy. The film is considered to be tremendously significant in cinematic history. The sequel, The Godfather Part II won six Oscars, and became the first sequel to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.\n\nThe film's plot follows the novel except for such details as backstories of some characters that are excluded, although they were filmed. Some of this footage was included in later re-edited versions such as, \"The Godfather Saga.\" The subplot involving Johnny Fontane in Hollywood was not filmed. The most significant deviation between the film from the novel was that the latter had a more upbeat ending than the film in which Kay Corleone accepts Michael's decision to take over his father's business. The film ends with Kay's realization of Michael's ruthlessness, a theme that would develop in the second and third films, which are largely not based on the original novel. Vito Corleone's backstory appeared in the second film, with his character performed by Robert De Niro.\n\nOther adaptations\n\nThe video game company Electronic Arts released a video game adaptation of The Godfather on March 21, 2006. The player assumes the role of a \"soldier\" in the Corleone family. Prior to his death, Marlon Brando provided some voice work for Vito, which was eventually deemed unusable and was dubbed over by a Brando impersonator. Francis Ford Coppola said in April 2005 that he was not informed of Paramount's decision to allow the game to be made and he did not approve of it. Al Pacino also did not participate, and his likeness was replaced with a different depiction of Michael Corleone.\n\nSequels\n\nIn 1984, Puzo's literary sequel to The Godfather was published. Entitled The Sicilian, it chronicles the life of \"Giuliano\" (Salvatore Giuliano) but the Corleone family is featured heavily throughout, Michael Corleone in particular. Chronologically this story sits between Michael's exile to Sicily in 1950 to his return to the USA. For copyright reasons, the Corleone family involvement was cut from the Michael Cimino film adaptation, which is not considered part of the Godfather film series.\n\nIn 2004, Random House published a sequel to Puzo's The Godfather, The Godfather Returns, by Mark Winegardner. A further sequel by Winegardner, The Godfather's Revenge, was released in 2006. The sequel novels continue the story from Puzo's novel.\n\nThe Godfather Returns picks up the story immediately after the end of Puzo's The Godfather. It covers the years 1955 to 1962, as well as providing significant backstory for Michael Corleone's character prior to the events of the first novel. The events of the film The Godfather Part II all take place within the time frame of this novel, but are only mentioned in the background. The novel contains an appendix that attempts to correlate the events of the novels with the events of the films.\n\nThe Godfather's Revenge covers the years 1963 to 1964.\n\nContinuing Puzo's habit, as seen in The Godfather, of featuring characters who are close analogues of real life events and public figures (as Johnny Fontane is an analogue of Frank Sinatra), Winegardner features in his two Godfather novels analogues of Joseph, John, and Robert F. Kennedy, as well as an analogue for alleged organized crime figure Carlos Marcello (Carlo Tramonti). In The Godfather Returns, Winegardner also dramatizes the sweep of organized crime arrests that took place in Apalachin, New York, in 1957.\n\nWinegardner uses all of the characters from the Puzo novels, and created a few of his own, most notably Nick Geraci, a Corleone soldier who plays a pivotal role in the sequel novels. Winegardner further develops characters from the original novel, such as Fredo Corleone, Tom Hagen, and Johnny Fontane.\n\nIn 2012, a prequel, based on an unproduced screenplay by Mario Puzo, titled The Family Corleone was written by Ed Falco. It tells the story of how Vito Corleone rises to Don and how Sonny Corleone and Tom Hagen enter the family business.\n\nLiterary reference\n\nHonoré de Balzac's “Le Père Goriot” (1834) has been the inspiration for notable lines that have gained wide popularity in cinema history. Puzo opened his 1969 novel with an epigraph popularly attributed to Balzac: \"Behind every great fortune there is a crime.\" The saying is most likely evolved over time from Balzac's original text: \"The secret of a great success for which you are at a loss to account is a crime that has never been found out, because it was properly executed.\" \n\n\"I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse\" was included in both the original Puzo novel, The Godfather (1969), and used in the film adaptation (1972). It is the second ranking cinematic quote included in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes (2005) by the American Film Institute. Its origin very well may be from the same work to which Balzac is credited with the opening epigraph. Balzac wrote of Vautrin telling Eugene: \"In that case I will make you an offer that no one would decline.\" \n\nReal-life influences\n\nLarge parts of the novel are based upon reality, notably the history of the so-called 'Five Families', the Mafia-organization in New York and the surrounding area. The novel also includes many allusions to real-life mobsters and their associates. For example, Johnny Fontane is based on Frank Sinatra, and Moe Greene on Bugsy Siegel. In addition, the character of Vito Corleone was a composite of real-life organized crime bosses Frank Costello and Carlo Gambino." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mario Cleri", "Puzo, Mario", "Puzo", "Mario Puzo" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "mario puzo", "puzo mario", "puzo", "mario cleri" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mario puzo", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mario Puzo" }
Jack Sharkey was a world champion in which sport?	tc_1036	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jack_Sharkey.txt", "Olympic_sports.txt" ], "title": [ "Jack Sharkey", "Olympic sports" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jack Sharkey (October 26, 1902 – August 17, 1994) was an American heavyweight boxing champion. He was born Joseph Paul Zukauskas (his birth surname is sometimes given as Cukoschay), the son of Lithuanian immigrants, in Binghamton, New York but moved to Boston, Massachusetts as a young man. Sources report little of his early life until, at the outset of the First World War, teenaged Joseph repeatedly tried to enlist in the Navy. Turned down because of his age, he was not able to enlist until after the end of the war.\n\nIt was during his tenure in the Navy that he first showed interest in boxing. Tall and husky for a man of his generation, Joseph was encouraged by his friends in the service to box. He quickly established notoriety as the best boxer aboard any vessel on which he served. During his brief returns home to Boston he took part in his first fights for pay, the first on January 24, 1924, against one Billy Muldoon, whom he knocked out in the first round. By the time of his honorable discharge just short of a month later, he had won a second fight and was already earning write-ups in the Boston papers.\n\nBoxing career\n\nHe took his ring name from his two idols, heavyweight contender Tom Sharkey and heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey. He won an important fight in 1926 over black heavyweight contender Harry Wills, but his first big year was 1927, when he defeated former light heavyweight champ Mike McTigue in twelve rounds and Boston rival Jim Maloney in five. That put him in the ring on July 21, 1927, with his idol, Dempsey, the winner to meet heavyweight champion Gene Tunney for the title. For six rounds Sharkey out-boxed Dempsey, who probed low with his punches. In the seventh round Sharkey turned his head to complain to the referee about Dempsey's low punches and Dempsey landed a classic left hook that knocked Sharkey out.\n\nIn 1928 Sharkey defeated heavyweight contender Tom Heeney and former light-heavyweight champion Jack Delaney. In 1929, in a fight held in Yankee Stadium, Sharkey knocked out former light-heavyweight champion Tommy Loughran to win the United States heavyweight title. His victory earned him the opportunity to fight for the vacant world title against the German contender, Max Schmeling on June 12, 1930. Sharkey was disqualified in the fourth round after delivering a punch that landed below Schmeling's belt. This is the only occasion in boxing history when the heavyweight championship was won by disqualification.\n\nIn October 1931, Sharkey defeated Italian heavyweight, Primo Carnera, and was then given another chance to fight for the title. On June 21, 1932, at the Madison Square Garden Bowl in Long Island City, New York, Sharkey defeated Schmeling in a controversial split decision to win the championship. Sharkey lost the title on June 29, 1933 in his second fight with Primo Carnera. Later in life, Sharkey would allege both his 2nd fights with Schmeling and Carnera were fixed. He took a year off, fought four mediocre fights, and then fought Joe Louis on August 18, 1936, losing by knockout in the 3rd round. This made him the only man to fight both Dempsey and Louis.\n\nSharkey then retired with a record of 38-14-3 with 13 knockouts. As the Cyber Boxing Zone website describes him, \"Sharkey had good skills, could hit with power, box well and take punishment when he set his mind to fight; But, he was an erratic, 'up-and-down' boxer who never seemed to put all his skills together consistently; when he was good, he was very good but when he was bad, he was awful.\" \n\nLife after boxing\n\nSharkey saved most of the money he earned in the ring and, in retirement, owned a bar, worked as a boxing and wrestling referee in the United States and Canada, often earned money from personal appearances, and entertained troops in North Africa during World War II. He also pursued his love of fly fishing, and teamed and toured with baseball great Ted Williams in fly fishing promotions. He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1994 and died a few months later, on August 17, age 91, due to respiratory arrest.\n\nWhile demonstrating fly fishing at the New York Sportsman Show in 1965, he was asked if he preferred fly fishing to boxing. \"It doesn't pay as much,\" he replied, \"but then the fish don't hit back.\"\n\nNotable bouts refereed\n\nEx-world heavyweight champion Jack Sharkey refereed the world light heavyweight title defense by Archie Moore against Yvon Durelle on December 10, 1958, at The Forum, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, one of boxing's first championship televised bouts. Moore came off the canvas three times in the first round, and again in the fifth round, to knock out Durelle in the eleventh round. Sharkey also refereed the rematch at The Forum, in which Moore knocked down Durelle four times in the third round before knocking him out on August 12, 1959. Both bouts were world televised in black and white from Canada, with commentary and post-fight interviews.\n\nProfessional boxing record\n\n\|-\n\|align\"center\" colspan\n8\|38 Wins (13 knockouts, 25 decisions), 14 Losses (4 knockouts, 10 decisions), 3 Draws \n\|-\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Result\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Record\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Opponent\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Type\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Round\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Date\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Location\n\| align\"center\" style\n\"border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3\"\|Notes\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|\n\|align=left\| Joe Louis\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|18/08/1936\n\|align=left\| Yankee Stadium, Bronx, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|\n\|align=left\| Phil Brubaker\n\|UD\n\|10\n\|25/06/1936\n\|align=left\| Fenway Park, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|style=\"background:#abcdef;\"\|Draw\n\|\n\|align=left\| Tony Shucco\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|14/04/1936\n\|align=left\| Boston Garden, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|\n\|align=left\| Tony Shucco\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|07/02/1936\n\|align=left\| Boston Garden, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|\n\|align=left\| Unknown Winston\n\|KO\n\|2 \n\|22/11/1935\n\|align=left\| Boston Garden, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|\n\|align=left\| Tommy Loughran\n\|SD\n\|15\n\|27/09/1933\n\|align=left\| Phillies Ballpark, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|\n\|align=left\| King Levinsky\n\|UD\n\|15\n\|18/09/1933\n\|align=left\| Comiskey Park, Chicago, Illinois, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|\n\|align=left\| Primo Carnera\n\|KO\n\|6 \n\|29/06/1933\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|36-9-2\n\|align=left\| Max Schmeling\n\|SD\n\|15\n\|21/06/1932\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|35-9-2\n\|align=left\| Primo Carnera\n\|PTS\n\|15\n\|12/10/1931\n\|align=left\| Ebbet's Field, Brooklyn, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|style=\"background:#abcdef;\"\|Draw\n\|34-9-2\n\|align=left\| Mickey Walker\n\|PTS\n\|15\n\|22/07/1931\n\|align=left\| Ebbet's Field, Queens, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|34-9-1\n\|align=left\| Max Schmeling\n\|DQ\n\|4 \n\|12/06/1930\n\|align=left\| Yankee Stadium, Bronx, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|34-8-1\n\|align=left\| Phil Scott\n\|TKO\n\|3 \n\|27/02/1930\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|33-8-1\n\|align=left\| Tommy Loughran\n\|TKO\n\|3 \n\|26/09/1929\n\|align=left\| Yankee Stadium, Bronx, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|32-8-1\n\|align=left\| Young Stribling\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|27/02/1929\n\|align=left\| Flamingo Park, Miami Beach, Florida, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|31-8-1\n\|align=left\| K O Christner\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|25/01/1929\n\|align=left\| Madison Square Garden, New York, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|30-8-1\n\|align=left\| Arthur De Kuh\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|10/12/1928\n\|align=left\| Arena, Boston, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|29-8-1\n\|align=left\| Leo Gates\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|21/06/1928\n\|align=left\| Battery A Arena, Saint Louis, Missouri, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|28-8-1\n\|align=left\| Jack Delaney\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|30/04/1928\n\|align=left\| Madison Square Garden, New York, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|27-8-1\n\|align=left\| Johnny Risko\n\|SD\n\|15\n\|12/03/1928\n\|align=left\| Madison Square Garden, New York, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|style=\"background:#abcdef;\"\|Draw\n\|27-7-1\n\|align=left\| Tom Heeney\n\|PTS\n\|12\n\|13/01/1928\n\|align=left\| Madison Square Garden, New York, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|27–7\n\|align=left\| Jack Dempsey\n\|KO\n\|7 \n\|21/07/1927\n\|align=left\| Yankee Stadium, Bronx, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|27–6\n\|align=left\| Jim Maloney\n\|TKO\n\|5 \n\|20/05/1927\n\|align=left\| Yankee Stadium, Bronx, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|26–6\n\|align=left\| Mike McTigue\n\|TKO\n\|12 \n\|03/03/1927\n\|align=left\| Yankee Stadium, Bronx, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|25–6\n\|align=left\| Homer Smith\n\|TKO\n\|7 \n\|15/12/1926\n\|align=left\| State Fair Coliseum, Syracuse, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|24–6\n\|align=left\| Harry Wills\n\|DQ\n\|13 \n\|12/10/1926\n\|align=left\| Ebbet's Field, Queens, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|23–6\n\|align=left\| George Godfrey\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|21/09/1926\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|22–6\n\|align=left\| Orlando Reverberi\n\|TKO\n\|3 \n\|13/09/1926\n\|align=left\| Laurel Garden, Newark, New Jersey, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|21–6\n\|align=left\| Bud Gorman\n\|DQ\n\|1 \n\|25/06/1926\n\|align=left\| Braves Field, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|20–6\n\|align=left\| Pat McCarthy\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|19/04/1926\n\|align=left\| Arena, Boston, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|19–6\n\|align=left\| Emilio \"King\" Solomon\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|01/04/1926\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|18–6\n\|align=left\| Eddie Huffman\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|12/02/1926\n\|align=left\| Madison Square Garden, New York, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|17–6\n\|align=left\|Mexican Joe Lawson\n\|KO\n\|2 \n\|18/01/1926\n\|align=left\| Armory, Hartford, Connecticut, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|16–6\n\|align=left\| Jim Maloney\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|11/12/1925\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|15–6\n\|align=left\| Johnny Risko\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|17/09/1925\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|14–6\n\|align=left\| Bud Gorman\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|17/08/1925\n\|align=left\| Arena, Boston, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|14–5\n\|align=left\| Emilio \"King\" Solomon\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|31/07/1925\n\|align=left\| Braves Field, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|13–5\n\|align=left\| Jim Maloney\n\|DQ\n\|9 \n\|05/06/1925\n\|align=left\| Braves Field, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|12–5\n\|align=left\| George Cook\n\|SD\n\|10\n\|25/05/1925\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|11–5\n\|align=left\| Jack Renault\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|06/04/1925\n\|align=left\| Arena, Boston, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|10–5\n\|align=left\| Charley Weinert\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|10/02/1925\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|10–4\n\|align=left\| Sully Montgomery\n\|UD\n\|10\n\|20/01/1925\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|9–4\n\|align=left\| Jack DeMave\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|08/01/1925\n\|align=left\| Manhattan Casino, New York, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|8–4\n\|align=left\| Charley Weinert\n\|NWS\n\|12\n\|15/12/1924\n\|align=left\| 113th Regiment Armory, Newark, New Jersey, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|8–3\n\|align=left\| Jim Maloney\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|05/11/1924\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|8–2\n\|align=left\| Quintin Romero Rojas\n\|KO\n\|9 \n\|29/08/1924\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|8–1\n\|align=left\| Young Jack Johnson\n\|NWS\n\|6\n\|20/08/1924\n\|align=left\| Fair Grounds Auditorium, Bangor, Maine, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|7–1\n\|align=left\| Al Roberts\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|23/07/1924\n\|align=left\| Kinsley Park, Providence, Rhode Island, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|6–1\n\|align=left\| Homer Smith\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|15/07/1924\n\|align=left\| Braves Field, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|5–1\n\|align=left\| Floyd Johnson\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|23/06/1924\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|4–1\n\|align=left\| Eddie Record\n\|KO\n\|7 \n\|25/04/1924\n\|align=left\| Arena, Boston, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Loss\n\|3–1\n\|align=left\| Eddie Record\n\|PTS\n\|10\n\|18/03/1924\n\|align=left\| Grand Opera House, Boston, New York, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|3–0\n\|align=left\| Dan Lucas\n\|KO\n\|2 \n\|26/02/1924\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|2–0\n\|align=left\| Pat Hance\n\|DQ\n\|2 \n\|08/02/1924\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center\n\|Win\n\|1–0\n\|align=left\| Billy Muldoon\n\|TKO\n\|1 \n\|29/01/1924\n\|align=left\| Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n\|align=left\|\n\|-align=center", "Olympic sports are sports contested in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The 2012 Summer Olympics included 26 sports, with two additional sports due to be added to the 2016 Summer Olympics. The 2014 Winter Olympics included seven sports. The number and kinds of events may change slightly from one Olympiad to another. Each Olympic sport is represented by an international governing body, namely an International Federation (IF). The International Olympic Committee (IOC) establishes a hierarchy of sports, disciplines, and events. According to this hierarchy, the Olympic sports can be subdivided into multiple disciplines, which are often assumed to be distinct sports. Examples include swimming and water polo (disciplines of Aquatics, represented by the International Swimming Federation), or figure skating and speed skating (disciplines of Skating, represented by the International Skating Union). In their turn, disciplines can be subdivided into events, for which medals are actually awarded. A sport or discipline is included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries that compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport's prevalence. The IOC's requirements reflect participation in the Olympic Games as well—more stringent toward men (as they are represented in higher numbers) and Summer sports (as more nations compete in the Summer Olympics).\n\nPrevious Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. These sports, known as \"discontinued sports\", were later removed either because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body. Archery and tennis are examples of sports that were competed at the early Games and were later dropped by the IOC, but managed to return to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1988, respectively). Demonstration sports have often been included in the Olympic Games, usually to promote a local sport from the host country or to gauge interest and support for the sport. Some such sports, like baseball and curling, were added to the official Olympic program (in 1992 and 1998, respectively). Baseball, however, was discontinued after the 2008 Summer Olympics.\n\nOlympic sports definitions\n\nThe term \"sport\" in Olympic terminology refers to all the events that are sanctioned by one international sport federation, a definition that may be different from the common meaning of the word sport. One sport, by Olympic definition, may be divided into several disciplines, which are often regarded as separate sports in common language.\n\nFor example: Aquatics is a summer Olympic sport that includes six disciplines: Swimming, synchronized swimming, diving, water polo, open water swimming, and high diving (the last of which is a non-Olympic discipline), since all these disciplines are governed at international level by the International Swimming Federation. Skating is a winter Olympic sport represented by the International Skating Union, and includes four disciplines: figure skating, speed skating (on a traditional long track), short track speed skating and synchronized skating (the latter is a non-Olympic discipline). The sport with the largest number of Olympic disciplines is skiing, with six: alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, nordic combined, snowboarding and freestyle skiing.\n\nOther notable multi-discipline sports are gymnastics (artistic, rhythmic and trampoline), cycling (road, track, mountain and BMX), volleyball (indoors and beach), wrestling (freestyle and Greco-Roman), canoeing (flatwater and slalom) and bobsleigh (includes skeleton). The disciplines listed here are only those contested in the Olympics—gymnastics has two non-Olympic disciplines, while cycling and wrestling have three each.\n\nIt should also be noted that the IOC definition of a \"discipline\" may differ from that used by an international federation. For example, the IOC considers artistic gymnastics a single discipline, but the International Federation of Gymnastics (FIG) classifies men's and women's artistic gymnastics as separate disciplines. Similarly, the IOC considers freestyle wrestling to be a single discipline, but United World Wrestling uses \"freestyle wrestling\" strictly for the men's version, classifying women's freestyle wrestling as the separate discipline of \"female wrestling\". \n\nOn some occasions, notably in the case of snowboarding, the IOC agreed to add sports which previously had a separate international federation to the Olympics on condition that they dissolve their governing body and instead affiliate with an existing Olympic sport federation, therefore not increasing the number of Olympic sports.\n\nAn event, by IOC definition, is a competition that leads to the award of medals. Therefore, the sport of aquatics includes a total of 46 Olympic events, of which 32 are in the discipline of swimming, eight in diving, and two each in synchronized swimming, water polo, and open water swimming. The number of events per sport ranges from a minimum of two (until 2008 there were sports with only one event) to a maximum of 47 in athletics, which despite its large number of events and its diversity is not divided into disciplines.\n\nChanges in Olympic sports\n\nThe list of Olympic sports has changed considerably during the course of Olympic history, and has gradually increased until the early 2000s, when the IOC decided to cap the number of sports in the Summer Olympics at 28.\n\nThe only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program are athletics, aquatics (the discipline of swimming has been in every Olympics), cycling, fencing, and gymnastics (the discipline of artistic gymnastics has been in every Olympics).\n\nThe only winter sports that were included in all Winter Olympic Games are skiing (only nordic skiing), skating (figure skating and speed skating) and ice hockey. Figure skating and ice hockey were also included in the Summer Olympics before the Winter Olympics were introduced in 1924.\n\nFor most of the 20th century, demonstration sports were included in many Olympic Games, usually to promote a non-Olympic sport popular in the host country, or to gauge interest and support for the sport.\nThe competitions and ceremonies in these sports were identical to official Olympic sports, except that the medals were not counted in the official record.\nSome demonstration sports, like baseball and curling, were later added to the official Olympic program.\nThis changed when the International Olympic Committee decided in 1989 to eliminate demonstration sports from Olympics Games after 1992. An exception was made in 2008, when the Beijing Organizing Committee received permission to organize a wushu tournament. \n\nA sport or discipline may be included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines that it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries and continents that regularly compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport's prevalence. The requirements for winter sports are considerably lower than for summer sports since many fewer nations compete in winter sports. The IOC also has lower requirements for inclusion of sports and disciplines for women for the same reason. \nWomen are still barred from several disciplines; but on the other hand, there are women-only disciplines, such as rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized swimming.\n\nSports that depend primarily on mechanical propulsion, such as motor sports, may not be considered for recognition as Olympic sports, though there were power-boating events in the early days of the Olympics before this rule was enacted by the IOC. Part of the story of the founding of aviation sports' international governing body, the FAI, originated from an IOC meeting in Brussels, Belgium on June 10, 1905. \n\nThese criteria are only a threshold for consideration as Olympic sport. In order to be admitted to the Olympic program, the IOC Session has to approve its inclusion. There are many sports that easily make the required numbers but are not recognized as Olympic sports, mainly because the IOC has decided to put a limit on the number of sports, as well as events and athletes, in the Summer Olympics in order not to increase them from the 28 sports, 300 events and 10,000 athletes of the 2000 Summer Olympics.\n\nNo such limits exist in the Winter Olympics and the number of events and athletes continue to increase, but no sport has been added since 1998. The latest winter sport added to the Winter Olympics was curling in 1998.\n\nPrevious Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. In the early days of the modern Olympics, the organizers were able to decide which sports or disciplines were included on the program, until the IOC took control of the program in 1924. As a result, a number of sports were on the Olympic program for relatively brief periods before 1924. These sports, known as discontinued sports, were removed because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body, or because they became fully professional at the time that the Olympic Games were strictly for amateurs, as in the case of tennis.\nSeveral discontinued sports, such as archery and tennis, were later readmitted to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1984, respectively). Curling, which was an official sport in 1924 and then discontinued, was reinstated as Olympic sport in 1998.\n\nThe Olympic Charter decrees that Olympic sports for each edition of the Olympic Games should be decided at an IOC Session no later than seven years prior to the Games.\n\nChanges since 2000\n\nThe only sports that have been dropped from the Olympics since 1936 are baseball and softball, which were both voted out by the IOC Session in Singapore on July 11, 2005, a decision that was reaffirmed on February 9, 2006. These sports were last included in 2008, although officially they remain recognized as Olympic sports in the Olympic Charter. Therefore, the number of sports in the 2012 Summer Olympics was dropped from 28 to 26.\n\nFollowing the addition of women's boxing in 2012, and women's ski jumping in 2014, there are no Olympic sports that are only for men in those Games.\n\nTwo discontinued sports, golf and rugby, are due to return for the 2016 Summer Olympics. On August 13, 2009, the IOC Executive Board proposed that golf and rugby sevens be added to the Olympic program for the 2016 Games. On 9 October 2009, during the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen, the IOC voted to admit both sports as official Olympic sports and to include them in the 2016 Summer Olympics. The IOC voted 81–8 in favor of including rugby sevens and 63–27 in favor of reinstating golf, thus bringing the number of sports back to 28. \n\nIn February 2013, the IOC considered dropping a sport from the 2020 Summer Olympics to make way for a new sport. Modern pentathlon and taekwondo were thought to be vulnerable, but instead the IOC recommended dismissing wrestling. On September 8, 2013, the IOC added wrestling to the 2020 and 2024 Summer Games. \n\nSummer Olympics\n\nAt the first Olympic Games, nine sports were contested. Since then, the number of sports contested at the Summer Olympic Games has gradually risen to twenty-eight on the program for 2000-2008. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, however, the number of sports fell back to twenty-six following an IOC decision in 2005 to remove baseball and softball from the Olympic program. These sports retain their status as Olympic sports with the possibility of a return to the Olympic program in future games. At the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen on 9 October 2009, the IOC voted to reinstate both golf and rugby to the Olympic program, meaning that the number of sports to be contested in 2016 will once again be 28. \n\nIn order for a sport or discipline to be considered for inclusion in the list of Summer Olympics sports, it must be widely practiced in at least 75 countries, spread over four continents.\n\nCurrent and discontinued summer program\n\nThe following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current and discontinued Summer Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically according to the name used by the IOC. The discontinued sports were previously part of the Summer Olympic Games program as official sports, but are no longer on the current program. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport contested at the respective Games; a bullet () denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport.\n\nSeven of the 28 sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:\n\n Aquatics –\n Canoeing/Kayak –\n Cycling –\n Gymnastics –\n Volleyball –\n Equestrian –\n Wrestling\n\nDemonstration summer sports\n\nThe following sports or disciplines have been demonstrated at the Summer Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:\n\n* American football (1932)\n* Australian football (1956)\n* Ballooning (1900)\n* Bowling (1988)\n* Boules (1900)\n* Budō (1964)\n* Finnish baseball (1952)\n* Glima (1912)\n* Gliding (1936)\n* Kaatsen (1928)\n* Korfball (1920 and 1928)\n* La canne (1924)\n* Surf lifesaving (1900)\n* Longue paume (1900)\n* Motorsport (1900)\n* Roller hockey (1992)\n* Savate (1924)\n* Swedish (Ling) gymnastics (1948)\n* Weight training with dumbbells (1904)\n* Water skiing (1972)\n\nGliding was promoted from demonstration sport to an official Olympic sport in 1936 in time for the 1940 Summer Olympics, but the Games were cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II. \n\nClassification of Olympic sports for revenue share\n\nSummer Olympic sports are divided into categories based on popularity, gauged by: television viewing figures (40%), internet popularity (20%), public surveys (15%), ticket requests (10%), press coverage (10%), and number of national federations (5%). The category determines the share the sport's International Federation receives of Olympic revenue. \n\nThe current categories are listed below. Category A represents the most popular sports; category E lists either the sports that are the least popular or that are new to the Olympics (golf and rugby).\n\nWinter Olympics\n\nBefore 1924, when the first Winter Olympic Games were celebrated, sports held on ice, like figure skating and ice hockey, were held at the Summer Olympics. These two sports made their debuts at the 1908 and the 1920 Summer Olympics, respectively, but were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics program as of the first edition. The International Winter Sports Week, later dubbed the I Olympic Winter Games and retroactively recognized as such by the IOC, consisted of nine sports. The number of sports contested at the Winter Olympics has since been decreased to seven, comprising a total of fifteen disciplines. \n\nA sport or discipline must be widely practiced in at least 25 countries on three continents in order to be included on the Winter Olympics program.\n\nCurrent winter program\n\nThe following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current Winter Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically, according to the name used by the IOC. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport that were contested at the respective Games (the red cells indicate that those sports were held at the Summer Games); a bullet denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport. On some occasions, both official medal events and demonstration events were contested in the same sport at the same Games.\n\nThree out of the seven sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:\n\n Skating –\n Skiing –\n Bobsleigh\n\n1 As military patrol, see below.\n\nDemonstration winter sports\n\nThe following sports have been demonstrated at the Winter Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:\n\n* Bandy (1952)\n* Disabled skiing (1984 and 1988)\n* Ice stock sport (1936, 1964)\n* Military patrol (1928, 1936 and 1948)\n* Ski ballet (acroski) (1988 and 1992)\n* Skijoring (1928)\n* Sled-dog racing (1932)\n* Speed skiing (1992)\n* Winter Pentathlon (1948)\n\nMilitary patrol was an official skiing event in 1924 but the IOC currently considers it an event of biathlon in those games, and not as a separate sport. Ski ballet, similarly, was simply a demonstration event falling under the scope of freestyle skiing. Disabled sports are now part of the Winter Paralympic Games.\n\nRecognized international federations\n\nMany sports are not recognized as Olympic sports although their governing bodies are recognized by the IOC. Such sports, if eligible under the terms of the Olympic Charter, may apply for inclusion in the program of future Games, through a recommendation by the IOC Olympic Programme Commission, followed by a decision of the IOC Executive Board and a vote of the IOC Session. When Olympic demonstration sports were allowed, a sport usually appeared as such before being officially admitted. An International Sport Federation (IF) is responsible for ensuring that the sport's activities follow the Olympic Charter. When a sport is recognized the IF become an official Olympic sport federation and can assemble with other Olympic IFs in the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF, for summer sports contested in the Olympic Games), Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations (AIOWS, for winter sports contested in the Olympic Games) or Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF, for sports not contested in the Olympic Games). A number of recognized sports are included in the program of the World Games, a multi-sport event run by the International World Games Association, an organization that operates under the patronage of the IOC. Since the start of the World Games in 1981, a number of sports, including badminton, taekwondo and triathlon have all subsequently been incorporated into the Olympic program.\n\nThe governing bodies of the following sports, though not contested in the Olympic Games, are recognized by the IOC: \n\n* Air sports1,3\n* American football \n* Auto racing3\n* Bandy\n* Baseball and Softball1,2,4\n* Billiard sports1\n* Boules1\n* Bowling1\n* Bridge\n* Chess\n* Cricket2\n* Dance sport1\n* Floorball\n* Karate1\n* Korfball1\n* Lifesaving1\n* Motorcycle racing3\n* Mountaineering and Climbing1\n* Netball\n* Orienteering1\n* Pelota Vasca\n* Polo2\n* Powerboating3\n* Racquetball1\n* Roller sports1\n* Ski Mountaineering\n* Sport climbing\n* Squash1\n* Sumo1\n* Surfing\n* Tug of war1,2\n* Underwater sports1 \n* Ultimate (Flying disc)1 \n* Water ski3\n* Wushu\n\n1 Official sport at the World Games\n2 Discontinued Olympic sport\n3 Ineligible to be included because the Olympic Charter bans sports with motorization elements\n4 The governing bodies for baseball and softball merged into a single international federation in 2013." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Prize fight", "Prize fighting", "Fistfighting", "Corner men", "Corner persons", "Prize-fighter", "Noble art", "Boxing", "Sports boxing", "Western boxing", "English boxing", "Boxing match", "Fistfight", "Cornermen", "Prizefighter", "Low guard", "Boxing (sport)", "Boxing moves", "Corner-man", "Cornerpersons", "Pugilism", "Corner-person", "Fist fight", "Boxing punches", "Round (boxing)", "Pugilist", "Boxer", "Fist-fighting", "Gentleman's sport", "Fist-fight", "拳闘", "Cornerperson", "Prizefights", "History of professional boxing", "Corner-persons", "Fist fighting", "Prize fighter", "Boxers", "Parrying (boxing)", "History of boxing", "Fist Fighting", "Prize Fighter", "Pugilistic", "Corner-men", "Corner person", "Ring second", "Hit and Away", "Boxing Styles and Techniques" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "history of boxing", "fistfighting", "fist fighting", "corner person", "history of professional boxing", "prize fighter", "boxing styles and techniques", "boxing match", "low guard", "boxing sport", "boxer", "ring second", "corner man", "cornerpersons", "round boxing", "fist fight", "拳闘", "pugilist", "cornerperson", "boxers", "boxing", "prizefights", "corner men", "noble art", "pugilism", "fistfight", "cornermen", "sports boxing", "corner persons", "boxing punches", "prize fight", "english boxing", "pugilistic", "boxing moves", "western boxing", "prize fighting", "prizefighter", "gentleman s sport", "hit and away", "parrying boxing" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "boxing", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Boxing" }
What was Marilyn Monroe's last film?	tc_1038	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Marilyn_Monroe.txt" ], "title": [ "Marilyn Monroe" ], "wiki_context": [ "Marilyn Monroe (born Norma Jeane Mortenson; June 1, 1926 – August 5, 1962) was an American actress and model. Famous for playing \"dumb blonde\" characters, she became one of the most popular sex symbols of the 1950s, emblematic of the era's attitudes towards sexuality. Although she was a top-billed actress for only a decade, her films grossed $200 million by the time of her unexpected death in 1962. She continues to be considered a major popular culture icon.\n\nBorn and raised in Los Angeles, Monroe spent most of her childhood in foster homes and an orphanage and married for the first time at the age of sixteen. While working in a factory as part of the war effort in 1944, she met a photographer and began a successful pin-up modeling career. The work led to short-lived film contracts with Twentieth Century-Fox (1946–47) and Columbia Pictures (1948). After a series of minor film roles, she signed a new contract with Fox in 1951. Over the next two years, she became a popular actress with roles in several comedies, including As Young as You Feel and Monkey Business, and in the dramas Clash by Night and Don't Bother to Knock. Monroe faced a scandal when it was revealed that she had posed for nude photos before becoming a star, but rather than damaging her career, the story increased interest in her films.\n\nBy 1953, Monroe was one of the most bankable Hollywood stars, with leading roles in three films: the noir Niagara, which focused on her sex appeal, and the comedies Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and How to Marry a Millionaire, which established her star image as a \"dumb blonde\". Although she played a significant role in the creation and management of her public image throughout her career, she was disappointed at being typecast and underpaid by the studio. She was briefly suspended in early 1954 for refusing a film project, but returned to star in one of the biggest box office successes of her career, The Seven Year Itch (1955). When the studio was still reluctant to change her contract, Monroe founded a film production company in late 1954, Marilyn Monroe Productions (MMP). She dedicated 1955 to building her company and began studying method acting at the Actors Studio. In late 1955, Fox awarded her a new contract, which gave her more control and a larger salary. After a critically acclaimed performance in Bus Stop (1956) and acting in the first independent production of MMP, The Prince and the Showgirl (1957), she won a Golden Globe for Best Actress for Some Like It Hot (1959). Her last completed film was the drama The Misfits (1961).\n\nMonroe's troubled private life received much attention. She struggled with addiction, depression, and anxiety. She had two highly publicized marriages, to baseball player Joe DiMaggio and playwright Arthur Miller, which both ended in divorce. She died at the age of 36 from an overdose of barbiturates at her home in Los Angeles on August 5, 1962. Although the death was ruled a probable suicide, several conspiracy theories have been proposed in the decades following her death.\n\nLife and career\n\nChildhood and first marriage (1926–44)\n\nMonroe was born Norma Jeane Mortenson at the Los Angeles County Hospital on June 1, 1926, as the third child of Gladys Pearl Baker (née Monroe, 1902–84). Gladys, the daughter of two poor Midwestern migrants to California, was a flapper and worked as a film negative cutter at Consolidated Film Industries. When she was fifteen, she married a man nine years her senior, John Newton Baker, and had two children by him, Robert (1917–33) and Berniece (born 1919). She filed for divorce in 1921, and Baker took the children with him to his native Kentucky. Monroe was not told that she had a sister until she was twelve, and met her for the first time as an adult. Gladys married her second husband Martin Edward Mortensen in 1924, but they separated before she became pregnant with Monroe; they divorced in 1928. The identity of Monroe's father is unknown and Baker was most often used as her surname.\n\nMonroe's early childhood was stable and happy. While Gladys was mentally and financially unprepared for a child, she was able to place Monroe with foster parents Albert and Ida Bolender in the rural town of Hawthorne soon after the birth. They raised their foster children according to the principles of evangelical Christianity. At first, Gladys lived with the Bolenders and commuted to work in Los Angeles, until longer work shifts forced her to move back to the city in early 1927. She then began visiting her daughter on the weekends, often taking her to the cinema and to sightsee in Los Angeles. Although the Bolenders wanted to adopt Monroe, by the summer of 1933, Gladys felt stable enough for Monroe to move in with her and bought a small house in Hollywood. They shared it with lodgers, actors George and Maude Atkinson and their daughter, Nellie. Some months later, in January 1934, Gladys had a mental breakdown and was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. After several months in a rest home, she was committed to the Metropolitan State Hospital. She spent the rest of her life in and out of hospitals, and was rarely in contact with Monroe.\n\nMonroe was declared a ward of the state, and her mother's friend, Grace McKee Goddard, took responsibility over her and her mother's affairs. In the following four years, she lived with several foster families, and often switched schools. For the first sixteen months, she continued living with the Atkinsons; she was sexually abused during this time. Always a shy girl, she now also developed a stutter and became withdrawn. In the summer of 1935, she briefly stayed with Grace and her husband Erwin \"Doc\" Goddard and two other families, until Grace placed her in the Los Angeles Orphans Home in Hollywood in September 1935. While the orphanage was \"a model institution\", and was described in positive terms by her peers, Monroe found being placed there traumatizing, as to her \"it seemed that no one wanted me\".\n\nEncouraged by the orphanage staff, who thought that Monroe would be happier living in a family, Grace became her legal guardian in 1936, although she was not able to take her out of the orphanage until the summer of 1937. Monroe's second stay with the Goddards lasted only a few months, as Doc molested her. After staying with various of her and Grace's relatives and friends in Los Angeles and Compton, Monroe found a more permanent home in September 1938, when she began living with Grace's aunt, Ana Atchinson Lower, in the Sawtelle district. She was enrolled in Emerson Junior High School and was taken to weekly Christian Science services with Lower. While otherwise a mediocre student, Monroe excelled in writing and contributed to the school's newspaper. Due to the elderly Lower's health issues, Monroe returned to live with the Goddards in Van Nuys in either late 1940 or early 1941. After graduating from Emerson, she began attending Van Nuys High School.\n\nIn early 1942, the company that Doc Goddard worked for required him to relocate to West Virginia. California laws prevented the Goddards from taking Monroe out of state, and she faced the possibility of having to return to the orphanage. As a solution, she married their neighbors' son, 21-year-old factory worker James \"Jim\" Dougherty, on June 19, 1942, just after her 16th birthday. Monroe subsequently dropped out of high school and became a housewife; she later stated that the \"marriage didn't make me sad, but it didn't make me happy, either. My husband and I hardly spoke to each other. This wasn't because we were angry. We had nothing to say. I was dying of boredom.\" In 1943, Dougherty enlisted in the Merchant Marine. He was initially stationed on Catalina Island, where she lived with him until he was shipped out to the Pacific in April 1944; he would remain there for most of the next two years. After Dougherty's departure, Monroe moved in with his parents and began working at the Radioplane Munitions Factory to participate in the war effort and to earn her own income.\n\nModeling and first film roles (1945–49)\n\nIn late 1944, Monroe met photographer David Conover, who had been sent by the U.S. Army Air Forces' First Motion Picture Unit (FMPU) to the factory to shoot morale-boosting pictures of female workers. Although none of her pictures were used by the FMPU, she quit working at the factory in January 1945 and began modeling for Conover and his friends. She moved out of her in-laws' home, and defying them and her husband, signed a contract with the Blue Book Model Agency in August 1945. She began to occasionally use the name Jean Norman when working, and had her curly brunette hair straightened and dyed blond to make her more employable. As her figure was deemed more suitable for pin-up than fashion modeling, she was employed mostly for advertisements and men's magazines. According to the agency's owner, Emmeline Snively, Monroe was one of its most ambitious and hard-working models; by early 1946, she had appeared on 33 magazine covers for publications such as Pageant, U.S. Camera, Laff, and Peek.\n\nImpressed by her success, Snively arranged a contract for Monroe with an acting agency in June 1946. After an unsuccessful interview with producers at Paramount Pictures, she was given a screentest by Ben Lyon, a 20th Century-Fox executive. Head executive Darryl F. Zanuck was unenthusiastic about it, but he was persuaded to give her a standard six-month contract to avoid her being signed by rival studio RKO Pictures. Monroe began her contract in August 1946, and together with Lyon selected the screen name of \"Marilyn Monroe\". The first name was picked by Lyon, who was reminded of Broadway star Marilyn Miller; the last was picked by Monroe after her mother's maiden name. In September 1946, she was granted a divorce from Dougherty, who was against her having a career.\n\nMonroe had no film roles during the first months of her contract and instead dedicated her days to acting, singing and dancing classes. Eager to learn more about the film industry and to promote herself, she also spent time at the studio lot to observe others working. Her contract was renewed in February 1947, and she was soon given her first two film roles: nine lines of dialogue as a waitress in the drama Dangerous Years (1947) and a one-line appearance in the comedy Scudda Hoo! Scudda Hay! (1948). The studio also enrolled her in the Actors' Laboratory Theatre, an acting school teaching the techniques of the Group Theatre; she later stated that it was \"my first taste of what real acting in a real drama could be, and I was hooked\". Monroe's contract was not renewed in August 1947, and she returned to modeling while also doing occasional odd jobs at the studio.\n\nDetermined to make it as an actor, Monroe continued studying at the Actors' Lab, and in October appeared as a blonde vamp in the short-lived play Glamour Preferred at the Bliss-Hayden Theater, but the production was not reviewed by any major publication. To promote herself, she frequented producers' offices, befriended gossip columnist Sidney Skolsky, and entertained influential male guests at studio functions, a practice she had begun at Fox. She also became a friend and occasional sexual partner of Fox executive Joseph M. Schenck, who persuaded his friend Harry Cohn, the head executive of Columbia Pictures, to sign her in March 1948.\n\nWhile at Fox her roles had been that of a \"girl next door\", at Columbia she was modeled after Rita Hayworth. Monroe's hairline was raised by electrolysis and her hair was bleached even lighter, to platinum blond. She also began working with the studio's head drama coach, Natasha Lytess, who would remain her mentor until 1955. Her only film at the studio was the low-budget musical Ladies of the Chorus (1948), in which she had her first starring role as a chorus girl who is courted by a wealthy man. During the production, she began an affair with her vocal coach, Fred Karger, who paid to have her slight overbite corrected. Despite the starring role and a subsequent screen test for the lead role in Born Yesterday (1950), Monroe's contract was not renewed. Ladies of the Chorus was released in October and was not a success.\n\nAfter leaving Columbia in September 1948, Monroe became a protégée of Johnny Hyde, vice president of the William Morris Agency. Hyde began representing her and their relationship soon became sexual, although she refused his proposals of marriage. To advance Monroe's career, he paid for a silicone prosthesis to be implanted in her jaw and possibly for a rhinoplasty, and arranged a bit part in the Marx Brothers film Love Happy (1950). Monroe also continued modeling, and in May 1949 posed for nude photos taken by Tom Kelley. Although her role in Love Happy was very small, she was chosen to participate in the film's promotional tour in New York that year.\n\nBreakthrough (1950–52)\n\nMonroe appeared in six films released in 1950. She had bit parts in Love Happy, A Ticket to Tomahawk, Right Cross and The Fireball, but also made minor appearances in two critically acclaimed films: John Huston's crime film The Asphalt Jungle and Joseph Mankiewicz's drama All About Eve. In the former, Monroe played Angela, the young mistress of an aging criminal. Although only on the screen for five minutes, she gained a mention in Photoplay and according to Spoto \"moved effectively from movie model to serious actress\". In All About Eve, Monroe played Miss Caswell, a naïve young actress.\n\nFollowing Monroe's success in these roles, Hyde negotiated a seven-year contract with 20th Century-Fox in December 1950. He died of a heart attack only days later, leaving her devastated. Despite her grief, 1951 became the year in which she gained more visibility. In March, she was a presenter at the 23rd Academy Awards, and in September, Collier's became the first national magazine to publish a full-length profile of her. She had supporting roles in four low-budget films: in the MGM drama Home Town Story, and in three moderately successful comedies for Fox, As Young as You Feel, Love Nest, and Let's Make It Legal. According to Spoto all four films featured her \"essentially [as] a sexy ornament\", but she received some praise from critics: Bosley Crowther of The New York Times described her as \"superb\" in As Young As You Feel and Ezra Goodman of the Los Angeles Daily News called her \"one of the brightest up-and-coming [actresses]\" for Love Nest. To further develop her acting skills, Monroe began taking classes with Michael Chekhov and mime Lotte Goslar. Her popularity with audiences was also growing: she received several thousand letters of fan mail a week, and was declared \"Miss Cheesecake of 1951\" by the army newspaper Stars and Stripes, reflecting the preferences of soldiers in the Korean War. In her private life, Monroe was in a relationship with director Elia Kazan, and also briefly dated several other men, including directors Nicholas Ray and Yul Brynner and actor Peter Lawford.\n\nThe second year of the Fox contract saw Monroe become a top-billed actress, with gossip columnist Florabel Muir naming her the year's \"it girl\" and Hedda Hopper describing her as the \"cheesecake queen\" turned \"box office smash\". In February, she was named the \"best young box office personality\" by the Foreign Press Association of Hollywood, and began a highly publicized romance with retired New York Yankee Joe DiMaggio, one of the most famous sports personalities of the era.\nThe following month, a scandal broke when she revealed in an interview that she had posed for nude pictures in 1949, which were featured in calendars. The studio had learned of the photographs some weeks earlier, and to contain the potentially disastrous effects on her career, they and Monroe had decided to talk about them openly while stressing that she had only posed for them in a dire financial situation. The strategy succeeded in getting her public sympathy and increased interest in her films: the following month, she was featured on the cover of Life as \"The Talk of Hollywood\". Monroe added to her reputation as a new sex symbol with other publicity stunts that year, such as wearing a revealing dress when acting as Grand Marshal at the Miss America Pageant parade, and by stating to gossip columnist Earl Wilson that she usually wore no underwear.\n\nWith co-star Keith Andes in Clash by Night (1952). The film allowed Monroe to display more of her acting range in a dramatic role.Regardless of the popularity her sex appeal brought, Monroe wished to present more of her acting range, and in the summer of 1952 appeared in two commercially successful dramas. The first was Fritz Lang's Clash by Night, for which she was loaned to RKO and played a fish cannery worker; to prepare, she spent time in a real fish cannery in Monterey. She received positive reviews for her performance: The Hollywood Reporter stated that \"she deserves starring status with her excellent interpretation\", and Variety wrote that she \"has an ease of delivery which makes her a cinch for popularity\". The second film was the thriller Don't Bother to Knock, in which she starred as a mentally disturbed babysitter and which Zanuck had assigned for her to test her abilities in a heavier dramatic role. It received mixed reviews from critics, with Crowther deeming her too inexperienced for the difficult role, and Variety blaming the script for the film's problems. \n\nMonroe's three other films in 1952 continued her typecasting in comic roles which focused on her sex appeal. In We're Not Married!, her starring role as a beauty pageant contestant was created solely to \"present Marilyn in two bathing suits\", according to its writer Nunnally Johnson. In Howard Hawks' Monkey Business, in which she was featured opposite Cary Grant, she played a secretary who is a \"dumb, childish blonde, innocently unaware of the havoc her sexiness causes around her\". In O. Henry's Full House, her final film of the year, she had a minor role as a prostitute.\n\nDuring this period Monroe gained a reputation for being difficult on film sets, which worsened as her career progressed: she was often late or did not show up at all, did not remember her lines, and would demand several re-takes before she was satisfied with her performance. A dependence on her acting coaches, first Natasha Lytess and later Paula Strasberg, also irritated directors. Monroe's problems have been attributed to a combination of perfectionism, low self-esteem, and stage fright; she disliked the lack of control she had on her work on film sets, and never experienced similar problems during photo shoots, in which she had more say over her performance and could be more spontaneous instead of following a script. To alleviate her anxiety and chronic insomnia, she began to use barbiturates, amphetamines and alcohol, which also exacerbated her problems, although she did not become severely addicted until 1956. According to Sarah Churchwell, some of Monroe's behavior especially later in her career was also in response to the condescension and sexism of her male co-stars and directors. Similarly, Lois Banner has stated that she was bullied by many of her directors.\n\nRising star (1953)\n\nMonroe starred in three movies released in 1953, emerging as a major sex symbol and one of Hollywood's most bankable performers. The first of these was the Technicolor film noir Niagara, in which she played a femme fatale scheming to murder her husband, played by Joseph Cotten. By then, Monroe and her make-up artist Allan \"Whitey\" Snyder had developed the make-up look that became associated with her: dark arched brows, pale skin, \"glistening\" red lips and a beauty mark. According to Sarah Churchwell, Niagara was one of the most overtly sexual films of Monroe's career, and it included scenes in which her body was covered only by a sheet or a towel, considered shocking by contemporary audiences. Its most famous scene is a 30-second long shot of Monroe shown walking from behind with her hips swaying, which was heavily used in the film's marketing.\n\nUpon Niagaras release in January, women's clubs protested against it as immoral, but it proved popular with audiences, grossing $6 million in the box office. While Variety deemed it \"clichéd\" and \"morbid\", The New York Times commented that \"the falls and Miss Monroe are something to see\", as although Monroe may not be \"the perfect actress at this point ... she can be seductive – even when she walks\". \nMonroe continued to attract attention with her revealing outfits in publicity events, most famously at the Photoplay awards in January 1953, where she won the \"Fastest Rising Star\" award. She wore a skin-tight gold lamé dress, which prompted veteran star Joan Crawford to describe her behavior as \"unbecoming an actress and a lady\" to the press.\n\nWhile Niagara made Monroe a sex symbol and established her \"look\", her second film of the year, the satirical musical comedy Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, established her screen persona as a \"dumb blonde\". Based on Anita Loos' bestselling novel and its Broadway version, the film focuses on two \"gold-digging\" showgirls, Lorelei Lee and Dorothy Shaw, played by Monroe and Jane Russell. The role of Lorelei was originally intended for Betty Grable, who had been 20th Century-Fox's most popular \"blonde bombshell\" in the 1940s; Monroe was fast eclipsing her as a star who could appeal to both male and female audiences. As part of the film's publicity campaign, she and Russell pressed their hand and footprints in wet concrete outside Grauman's Chinese Theatre in June. Gentlemen Prefer Blondes was released shortly after and became one of the biggest box office successes of the year by grossing $5.3 million, more than double its production costs. Crowther of The New York Times and William Brogdon of Variety both commented favorably on Monroe, especially noting her performance of \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\"; according to the latter, she demonstrated the \"ability to sex a song as well as point up the eye values of a scene by her presence\". \n\nIn September, Monroe made her television debut in the Jack Benny Show, playing Jack's fantasy woman in the episode \"Honolulu Trip\". Her third movie of the year, How to Marry a Millionaire, co-starred Betty Grable and Lauren Bacall and was released in November. It featured Monroe in the role of a naïve model who teams up with her friends to find rich husbands, repeating the successful formula of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. It was the second film ever released in CinemaScope, a widescreen format which Fox hoped would draw audiences back to theaters as television was beginning to cause losses to film studios. Despite mixed reviews, the film was Monroe's biggest box office success so far, earning $8 million in world rentals.\n\nMonroe was listed in the annual Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll in both 1953 and 1954, and according to Fox historian Aubrey Solomon became the studio's \"greatest asset\" alongside CinemaScope. Monroe's position as a leading sex symbol was confirmed in December, when Hugh Hefner featured her on the cover and as centerfold in the first issue of Playboy. The cover image was a shot of her at the Miss America Pageant parade in 1952, and the centerfold featured one of her 1949 nude photographs.\n\nConflicts with 20th Century-Fox and marriage to Joe DiMaggio (1954–55)\n\nAlthough Monroe had become one of 20th Century-Fox's biggest stars, her contract had not changed since 1950, meaning that she was paid far less than other stars of her stature and could not choose her projects or co-workers. She was also tired of being typecast, and her attempts to appear in films other than comedies or musicals had been thwarted by Zanuck, who had a strong personal dislike of her and did not think she would earn the studio as much revenue in dramas. When she refused to begin shooting yet another musical comedy, a film version of The Girl in Pink Tights, which was to co-star Frank Sinatra, the studio suspended her on January 4, 1954.\n\nThe suspension was front page news and Monroe immediately began a publicity campaign to counter any negative press and to strengthen her position in the conflict. On January 14, she and Joe DiMaggio, whose relationship had been subject to constant media attention since 1952, were married at the San Francisco City Hall. They then traveled to Japan, combining a honeymoon with his business trip. From there, she traveled alone to Korea, where she performed songs from her films as part of a USO show for over 60,000 U.S. Marines over a four-day period. After returning to Hollywood in February, she was awarded Photoplays \"Most Popular Female Star\" prize. She reached a settlement with the studio in March: it included a new contract to be made later in the year, and a starring role in the film version of the Broadway play The Seven Year Itch, for which she was to receive a bonus of $100,000.\n\nThe following month saw the release of Otto Preminger's Western River of No Return, in which Monroe appeared opposite Robert Mitchum. She called it a \"Z-grade cowboy movie in which the acting finished second to the scenery and the CinemaScope process\", although it was popular with audiences. The first film she made after returning to Fox was the musical There's No Business Like Show Business, which she strongly disliked but the studio required her to do in exchange for dropping The Girl in Pink Tights. The musical was unsuccessful upon its release in December, and Monroe's performance was considered vulgar by many critics.\n\nIn September 1954, Monroe began filming Billy Wilder's comedy The Seven Year Itch, in which she starred opposite Tom Ewell as a woman who becomes the object of her married neighbor's sexual fantasies. Although the film was shot in Hollywood, the studio decided to generate advance publicity by staging the filming of one scene on Lexington Avenue in New York. In it, Monroe is standing on a subway grate with the air blowing up the skirt of her white dress, which became one of the most famous scenes of her career. The shoot lasted for several hours and attracted a crowd of nearly 2,000 spectators, including professional photographers.\n\nWhile the publicity stunt placed Monroe on front pages all over the world, it also marked the end of her marriage to DiMaggio, who was furious about it. The union had been troubled from the start by his jealousy and controlling attitude; Spoto and Banner have also asserted that he was physically abusive. After returning to Hollywood, Monroe hired famous attorney Jerry Giesler and announced that she was filing for divorce in October 1954. The Seven Year Itch was released the following June, and grossed over $4.5 million at the box office, making it one of the biggest commercial successes that year.\n\nAfter filming for Itch wrapped in November, Monroe began a new battle for control over her career and left Hollywood for the East Coast, where she and photographer Milton Greene founded their own production company, Marilyn Monroe Productions (MMP) – an action that has later been called \"instrumental\" in the collapse of the studio system. Announcing its foundation in a press conference in January 1955, Monroe stated that she was \"tired of the same old sex roles. I want to do better things. People have scope, you know.\" She asserted that she was no longer under contract to Fox, as the studio had not fulfilled its duties, such as paying her the promised bonus for The Seven Year Itch. This began a year-long legal battle between her and the studio. The press largely ridiculed Monroe for her actions and she was parodied in Itch writer George Axelrod's Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (1955), in which her lookalike Jayne Mansfield played a dumb actress who starts her own production company.\n\nMonroe dedicated 1955 to studying her craft. She moved to New York and began taking acting classes with Constance Collier and attending workshops on method acting at the Actors Studio, run by Lee Strasberg. She grew close to Strasberg and his wife Paula, receiving private lessons at their home due to her shyness, and soon became like a family member. She dismissed her old drama coach, Natasha Lytess, and replaced her with Paula; the Strasbergs remained an important influence for the rest of her career. Monroe also started undergoing psychoanalysis at the recommendation of Strasberg, who believed that an actor must confront their emotional traumas and use them in their performances.\n\nIn her private life, Monroe continued her relationship with DiMaggio despite the ongoing divorce proceedings while also dating actor Marlon Brando and playwright Arthur Miller. She had first been introduced to Miller by Kazan in the early 1950s. The affair between Monroe and Miller became increasingly serious after October 1955, when her divorce from DiMaggio was finalized, and Miller separated from his wife. The studio feared that Monroe would be blacklisted and urged her to end the affair, as Miller was being investigated by the FBI for allegations of communism and had been subpoenaed by the House Un-American Activities Committee. The FBI also opened a file on her. Despite the risk to her career, Monroe refused to end the relationship, later calling the studio heads \"born cowards\".\n\nBy the end of the year, Monroe and Fox had come to an agreement about a new seven-year contract. It was clear that MMP would not be able to finance films alone, and the studio was eager to have Monroe working again. The contract required her to make four movies for Fox during the seven years. The studio would pay her $100,000 for each movie, and granted her the right to choose her own projects, directors and cinematographers. She would also be free to make one film with MMP per each completed film for Fox.\n\nCritical acclaim and marriage to Arthur Miller (1956–59)\n\nMonroe began 1956 by announcing her win over 20th Century-Fox; the press, which had previously derided her, now wrote favorably about her decision to fight the studio. Time called her a \"shrewd businesswoman\" and Look predicted that the win would be \"an example of the individual against the herd for years to come\". She also officially changed her name to Marilyn Monroe in March. Her relationship with Miller prompted some negative comments from the press, including Walter Winchell's statement that \"America's best-known blonde moving picture star is now the darling of the left-wing intelligentsia.\" Monroe and Miller were married at the Westchester County Court in White Plains, New York on June 29, and two days later had a Jewish ceremony at his agent's house at Waccabuc, New York. Monroe converted to Judaism with the marriage, which led Egypt to ban all of her films. The media saw the union as mismatched given her star image as a sex symbol and his position as an intellectual, as demonstrated by Varietys headline \"Egghead Weds Hourglass\".\n\nThe first film that Monroe chose to make under the new contract was the drama Bus Stop, released in August 1956. She played Chérie, a saloon singer whose dreams of stardom are complicated by a naïve cowboy who falls in love with her. For the role, she learnt an Ozark accent, chose costumes and make-up that lacked the glamour of her earlier films, and provided deliberately mediocre singing and dancing. Broadway director Joshua Logan agreed to direct, despite initially doubting her acting abilities and knowing of her reputation for being difficult. The filming took place in Idaho and Arizona in early 1956, with Monroe \"technically in charge\" as the head of MMP, occasionally making decisions on cinematography and with Logan adapting to her chronic lateness and perfectionism. The experience changed Logan's opinion of Monroe, and he later compared her to Charlie Chaplin in her ability to blend comedy and tragedy. Bus Stop became a box office success, grossing $4.25 million, and received mainly favorable reviews. The Saturday Review of Literature wrote that Monroe's performance \"effectively dispels once and for all the notion that she is merely a glamour personality\" and Crowther proclaimed: \"Hold on to your chairs, everybody, and get set for a rattling surprise. Marilyn Monroe has finally proved herself an actress.\" She received a Golden Globe for Best Actress nomination for her performance.\n\nIn August 1956, Monroe began filming MMP's first independent production, The Prince and the Showgirl, at Pinewood Studios in England. It was based on Terence Rattigan's The Sleeping Prince, a play about an affair between a showgirl and a prince in the 1910s. The main roles had first been played on stage by Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh; he reprised his role and directed and co-produced the film. The production was complicated by conflicts between him and Monroe. He angered her with the patronizing statement \"All you have to do is be sexy\", and by wanting her to replicate Leigh's interpretation. He also disliked the constant presence of Paula Strasberg, Monroe's acting coach, on set.\n\nIn retaliation to what she considered Olivier's \"condescending\" behavior, Monroe started arriving late and became uncooperative, stating later that \"if you don't respect your artists, they can't work well.\" Her drug use increased and, according to Spoto, she became pregnant and miscarried during the production. She also had arguments with Greene over how MMP should be run, including whether Miller should join the company. Despite the difficulties, the film was completed on schedule by the end of the year. It was released in June 1957 to mixed reviews, and proved unpopular with American audiences. It was better received in Europe, where she was awarded the Italian David di Donatello and the French Crystal Star awards, and was nominated for a BAFTA.\n\nAfter returning to the United States, Monroe took an 18-month hiatus from work to concentrate on married life on the East Coast. She and Miller split their time between their apartment in New York and an eighteenth-century farmhouse they purchased in Roxbury, Connecticut, and spent the summer in Amagansett, Long Island. She became pregnant in mid-1957, but it was ectopic and had to be terminated. She suffered a miscarriage a year later. Her gynecological problems were largely caused by endometriosis, a disease from which she suffered throughout her adult life. Monroe was also briefly hospitalized during this time due to a barbiturate overdose. During the hiatus, she dismissed Greene from MMP and bought his share of the company as they could not settle their disagreements and she had begun to suspect that he was embezzling money from the company.\n\nMonroe returned to Hollywood in July 1958 to act opposite Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis in Billy Wilder's comedy on gender roles, Some Like It Hot. Although she considered the role of Sugar Kane another \"dumb blonde\", she accepted it due to Miller's encouragement and the offer of receiving ten percent of the film's profits in addition to her standard pay. The difficulties of the film's production have since become \"legendary\". Monroe would demand dozens of re-takes, and could not remember her lines or act as directed – Curtis famously stated that kissing her was \"like kissing Hitler\" due to the number of re-takes. Monroe herself privately likened the production to a sinking ship and commented on her co-stars and director saying \"[but] why should I worry, I have no phallic symbol to lose.\" Many of the problems stemmed from a conflict between her and Wilder, who also had a reputation for being difficult, on how she should play the character. Monroe made Wilder angry by asking him to alter many of her scenes, which in turn made her stage fright worse, and it is suggested that she deliberately ruined several scenes to act them her way.\n\nIn the end, Wilder was happy with Monroe's performance, stating: \"Anyone can remember lines, but it takes a real artist to come on the set and not know her lines and yet give the performance she did!\" Despite the difficulties of its production, when Some Like It Hot was released in March 1959, it became a critical and commercial success. Monroe's performance earned her a Golden Globe for Best Actress, and prompted Variety to call her \"a comedienne with that combination of sex appeal and timing that just can't be beat\". It has been voted one of the best films ever made in polls by the American Film Institute and Sight & Sound. \n\nCareer decline and personal difficulties (1960–62)\n\nAfter Some Like It Hot, Monroe took another hiatus until late 1959, when she returned to Hollywood to star in the musical comedy Let's Make Love, about an actress and a millionaire who fall in love when performing in a satirical play. She chose George Cukor to direct and Miller re-wrote portions of the script, which she considered weak; she accepted the part solely because she was behind on her contract with Fox, having only made one of four promised films. Its production was delayed by her frequent absences from set. She had an affair with Yves Montand, her co-star, which was widely reported by the press and used in the film's publicity campaign. Let's Make Love was unsuccessful upon its release in September 1960; Crowther described Monroe as appearing \"rather untidy\" and \"lacking ... the old Monroe dynamism\", and Hedda Hopper called the film \"the most vulgar picture she's ever done\". Truman Capote lobbied for her to play Holly Golightly in a film adaptation of Breakfast at Tiffany's, but the role went to Audrey Hepburn as its producers feared that Monroe would complicate the production.\n\nThe last film that Monroe completed was John Huston's The Misfits, which Miller had written to provide her with a dramatic role. She played a recently divorced woman who becomes friends with three aging cowboys, played by Clark Gable, Eli Wallach and Montgomery Clift. Its filming in the Nevada desert between July and November 1960 was again difficult. Monroe and Miller's four-year marriage was effectively over, and he began a new relationship. Monroe disliked that he had based her role partly on her life, and thought it inferior to the male roles; she also struggled with Miller's habit of re-writing scenes the night before filming. Her health was also failing: she was in pain from gallstones, and her drug addiction was so severe that her make-up usually had to be applied while she was still asleep under the influence of barbiturates. In August, filming was halted for her to spend a week detoxing in a Los Angeles hospital.Monroe and Miller separated after filming wrapped, and she was granted a quick divorce in Mexico in January 1961. The Misfits was released the following month, failing at the box office. Its reviews were mixed, with Bosley Crowther calling Monroe \"completely blank and unfathomable\" and stating that \"unfortunately for the film's structure, everything turns upon her\". Despite the film's initial failure, in 2015 Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute described it as a classic. \n\nMonroe was next to star in a television adaptation of W. Somerset Maugham's short story Rain for NBC, but the project fell through as the network did not want to hire her choice of director, Lee Strasberg. Instead of working, she spent the first six months of 1961 preoccupied by health problems, undergoing surgery for her endometriosis and a cholecystectomy, and spending four weeks in hospital care – including a brief stint in a mental ward – for depression. She was helped by her ex-husband Joe DiMaggio, with whom she now rekindled a friendship. In spring 1961, Monroe also moved back to California after six years on the East Coast. She dated Frank Sinatra for several months, and in early 1962 purchased a house in Brentwood, Los Angeles.\n\nMonroe returned to the public eye in spring 1962: she received a \"World Film Favorite\" Golden Globe award and began to shoot a new film for 20th Century-Fox, Something's Got to Give, a re-make of My Favorite Wife (1940). It was to be co-produced by MMP, directed by George Cukor and to co-star Dean Martin and Cyd Charisse. Days before filming began, Monroe caught sinusitis; despite medical advice to postpone the production, Fox began it as planned in late April. Monroe was too ill to work for the majority of the next six weeks, but despite confirmations by multiple doctors, the studio tried to pressurize her by alleging publicly that she was faking it. On May 19, she took a break to sing \"Happy Birthday\" on stage at President John F. Kennedy's birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden in New York. She drew attention with her costume: a beige, skintight dress covered in rhinestones, which made her appear nude. Monroe's trip to New York caused even more irritation in Fox executives, who had wanted her to cancel it.\n\nMonroe next filmed a scene for Something's Got to Give in which she swam naked in a swimming pool. To generate advance publicity, the press were invited to take photographs of the scene, which were later published in Life; this was the first time that a major star had posed nude while at the height of their career. When she was again on sick leave for several days, Fox decided that it could not afford to have another film running behind schedule when it was already struggling to cover the rising costs of Cleopatra (1963). On June 7, Monroe was fired and sued for $750,000 in damages. She was replaced by Lee Remick, but after Martin refused to make the film with anyone other than Monroe, Fox sued him as well and shut down the production. The studio blamed Monroe for the film's demise and began spreading negative publicity about her, even alleging that she was mentally disturbed.\n\nFox soon regretted its decision, and re-opened negotiations with Monroe later in June; a settlement about a new contract, including re-commencing Something's Got to Give and a starring role in the black comedy What a Way to Go! (1964), was reached later that summer. To repair her public image, Monroe engaged in several publicity ventures, including interviews for Life and Cosmopolitan and her first photo shoot for Vogue. For Vogue, she and photographer Bert Stern collaborated for two series of photographs, one a standard fashion editorial and another of her posing nude, which were both later published posthumously with the title The Last Sitting. In the last weeks of her life, she was also planning on starring in a biopic of Jean Harlow.\n\nDeath\n\nMonroe was found dead in the bedroom of her Brentwood home by her psychiatrist, Dr. Ralph Greenson, in the early morning hours of August 5, 1962. Greenson had been called there by her housekeeper Eunice Murray, who was staying overnight and had awoken at 3:00a.m. \"sensing that something was wrong\". Murray had seen light from under Monroe's bedroom door, but had not been able to get a response and found the door locked. The death was officially confirmed by Monroe's physician, Dr. Hyman Engelberg, who arrived at the house at around 3:50a.m. At 4:25a.m., they notified the Los Angeles Police Department.\n\nThe Los Angeles County Coroners Office was assisted in their investigation by experts from the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Team. It was estimated that Monroe had died between 8:30 and 10:30p.m., and the toxicological analysis concluded that the cause of death was acute barbiturate poisoning, as she had 8 mg% of chloral hydrate and 4.5 mg% of pentobarbital (Nembutal) in her blood, and a further 13 mg% of pentobarbital in her liver. Empty bottles containing these medicines were found next to her bed. The possibility of Monroe having accidentally overdosed was ruled out as the dosages found in her body were several times over the lethal limit. Her doctors and psychiatrists stated that she had been prone to \"severe fears and frequent depressions\" with \"abrupt and unpredictable\" mood changes, and had overdosed several times in the past, possibly intentionally. Due to these facts and the lack of any indication of foul play, her death was classified a probable suicide.\n\nMonroe's unexpected death was front-page news in the United States and Europe. According to Lois Banner, \"it's said that the suicide rate in Los Angeles doubled the month after she died; the circulation rate of most newspapers expanded that month\", and the Chicago Tribune reported that they had received hundreds of phone calls from members of the public requesting information about her death. French artist Jean Cocteau commented that her death \"should serve as a terrible lesson to all those, whose chief occupation consists of spying on and tormenting film stars\", her former co-star Laurence Olivier deemed her \"the complete victim of ballyhoo and sensation\", and Bus Stop director Joshua Logan stated that she was \"one of the most unappreciated people in the world\". Her funeral, held at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery on August 8, was private and attended by only her closest associates. It was arranged by Joe DiMaggio and her business manager Inez Melson. Hundreds of spectators crowded the streets around the cemetery. Monroe was later interred at crypt No. 24 at the Corridor of Memories. \n\nSeveral conspiracy theories about Monroe's death have been proposed in the decades afterwards, including murder and accidental overdose. The murder speculations first gained mainstream attention with the publication of Norman Mailer's Marilyn: A Biography in 1973, and in the following years became widespread enough for the Los Angeles County District Attorney John Van de Kamp to conduct a \"threshold investigation\" in 1982 to see whether a criminal investigation should be opened. No evidence of foul play was found.\n\nScreen persona and reception\n\nWhen beginning to develop her star image, 20th Century-Fox wanted Monroe to replace the aging Betty Grable, their most popular \"blonde bombshell\" of the 1940s. While the 1940s had been the heyday of actresses perceived as tough and smart, such as Katharine Hepburn and Barbara Stanwyck, who appealed to women-dominated audiences, the studio wanted Monroe to be a star of the new decade that would draw men to movie theaters. She played a significant part in the creation of her public image from the beginning, and towards the end of her career exerted almost full control over it. Monroe devised many of her publicity strategies, cultivated friendships with gossip columnists such as Sidney Skolsky and Louella Parsons, and controlled the use of her images. Besides Grable, she was often compared to another iconic blonde, 1930s film star Jean Harlow. The comparison was partly prompted by Monroe, who named Harlow as her childhood idol, wanted to play her in a biopic, and even employed Harlow's hair stylist to color her hair. \n\nMonroe's screen persona centered on her blond hair, and the stereotypes associated with it, especially dumbness, naïveté, sexual availability and artificiality. She often used a breathy, childish voice in her films, and in interviews gave the impression that everything she said was \"utterly innocent and uncalculated\", parodying herself with double entendres that came to be known as \"Monroeisms\". For example, when she was asked what she had on in the 1949 nude photo shoot, she replied, \"I had the radio on\". Having begun her career as a pin-up model, Monroe's hourglass figure was one of her most often noted features. Film scholar Richard Dyer has written that Monroe was often positioned so that her curvy silhouette was on display, and in her publicity photos often posed like a pin-up. Her distinctive, hip-swinging walk also drew attention to her body, earning her the nickname \"the girl with the horizontal walk\". \n\nClothing played an important part in Monroe's star image. She often wore white to emphasize her blondness, and drew attention by wearing revealing outfits that showed off her figure. Her publicity stunts often revolved around her clothing exposing large amounts of her body or even malfunctioning, such as when one of the shoulder straps of her dress suddenly snapped during a press conference. In press stories, Monroe was portrayed as the embodiment of the American Dream, as a girl who had risen from a miserable childhood to Hollywood stardom. Stories of her time spent in foster families and an orphanage were exaggerated and even partly fabricated in her studio biographies. \n\nAlthough Monroe's screen persona as a dim-witted but sexually attractive blonde was a carefully crafted act, audiences and film critics believed it to be her real personality and that she was not acting in her comedies. This became an obstacle in her later career, when she wanted to change her public image and pursue other kinds of roles, or to be respected as a businesswoman. Academic Sarah Churchwell, who has studied narratives about Monroe, has stated: \n\nLois Banner has written that she often subtly parodied her status as a sex symbol in her films and public appearances. Monroe stated that she was influenced by Mae West, saying that she \"learned a few tricks from her – that impression of laughing at, or mocking, her own sexuality\". In the 1950s, she also studied comedy in classes given by mime and dancer Lotte Goslar, famous for her comic stage performances, and had her accompany her on film sets to instruct her. In Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, one of the films in which she played an archetypal dumb blonde, Monroe had the sentence \"I can be smart when it's important, but most men don't like it\" added to her character's lines in the script.\n\nDyer has stated Monroe's star image was created mainly for the male gaze and that she usually played \"the girl\", who is defined solely by her gender, in her films. Her roles were almost always chorus girls, secretaries, or models; occupations where \"the woman is on show, there for the pleasure of men.\" Film scholar Thomas Harris, who analyzed Monroe's public image in 1957, wrote that her working class roots and lack of family made her appear more sexually available, \"the ideal playmate\", in contrast to her contemporary Grace Kelly, who was also marketed as an attractive blonde, but due to her upper-class background came to be seen as a sophisticated actress, unattainable for the majority of male viewers.\n\nAccording to Dyer, Monroe became \"virtually a household name for sex\" in the 1950s and \"her image has to be situated in the flux of ideas about morality and sexuality that characterised the fifties in America\", such as Freudian ideas about sex, the Kinsey report (1953), and Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963). By appearing vulnerable and unaware of her sex appeal, Monroe was the first sex symbol to present sex as natural and without danger, in contrast to the 1940s femme fatales. Spoto likewise describes her as the embodiment of \"the postwar ideal of the American girl, soft, transparently needy, worshipful of men, naïve, offering sex without demands\", which is echoed in Molly Haskell's statement that \"she was the fifties fiction, the lie that a woman had no sexual needs, that she is there to cater to, or enhance, a man's needs.\" Monroe's contemporary Norman Mailer wrote that \"Marilyn suggested sex might be difficult and dangerous with others, but ice cream with her\", while Groucho Marx characterized her as \"Mae West, Theda Bara, and Bo Peep all rolled into one\". According to Haskell, due to her status as a sex symbol, Monroe was less popular with women than with men, as they \"couldn't identify with her and didn't support her\", although this would change after her death. \n\nDyer has also argued that platinum blonde hair became such a defining feature of Monroe because it made her \"racially unambiguous\" and exclusively white just as the Civil Rights Movement was beginning, and that she should be seen as emblematic of racism in twentieth-century popular culture. Banner agrees that it may not be a coincidence that Monroe launched a trend of platinum blonde actresses during the Civil Rights Movement, but has also criticized Dyer, pointing out that in her highly publicized private life Monroe associated with people who were seen as \"white ethnics\", such as Joe DiMaggio (Italian-American) and Arthur Miller (Jewish). According to Banner, she sometimes challenged prevailing racial norms in her publicity photographs; for example, in an image featured in Look in 1951, she was shown in revealing clothes while practicing with African-American singing coach Phil Moore.\nMonroe was perceived as a specifically American star, \"a national institution as well known as hot dogs, apple pie, or baseball\" according to Photoplay. Banner calls her the symbol of populuxe, a star whose joyful and glamorous public image \"helped the nation cope with its paranoia in the 1950s about the Cold War, the atom bomb, and the totalitarian communist Soviet Union\". Historian Fiona Handyside writes that the French female audiences associated whiteness/blondness with American modernity and cleanliness, and so Monroe came to symbolize a modern, \"liberated\" woman whose life takes place in the public sphere. Film historian Laura Mulvey has written of her as an endorsement for American consumer culture:\n\nTo profit from Monroe's popularity, 20th Century-Fox cultivated several lookalike actresses, including Jayne Mansfield and Sheree North. Other studios also attempted to create their own Monroes: Universal Pictures with Mamie Van Doren, Columbia Pictures with Kim Novak, and Rank Organisation with Diana Dors. \n\nLegacy\n\nAccording to The Guide to United States Popular Culture, \"as an icon of American popular culture, Monroe's few rivals in popularity include Elvis Presley and Mickey Mouse ... no other star has ever inspired such a wide range of emotions – from lust to pity, from envy to remorse.\" Art historian Gail Levin has stated that Monroe may have been \"the most photographed person of the 20th century\", and The American Film Institute has named her the sixth greatest female screen legend in American film history. The Smithsonian Institution has included her on their list of \"100 Most Significant Americans of All Time\", and both Variety and VH1 have placed her in the top ten in their rankings of the greatest popular culture icons of the twentieth century. Hundreds of books have been written about Monroe, she has been the subject of films, plays, operas, and songs, and has influenced artists and entertainers such as Andy Warhol and Madonna. She also remains a valuable brand: her image and name have been licensed for hundreds of products, and she has been featured in advertising for multinational corporations such as Max Factor, Chanel, Mercedes-Benz, and Absolut Vodka. \n\nMonroe's enduring popularity is linked to her conflicted public image. On the one hand, she remains a sex symbol, beauty icon and one of the most famous stars of classical Hollywood cinema. On the other, she is also remembered for her troubled private life, unstable childhood, struggle for professional respect, and her death and the conspiracy theories surrounding it. She has been written about by scholars and journalists interested in gender and feminism, such as Gloria Steinem, Jacqueline Rose, Molly Haskell, Sarah Churchwell, and Lois Banner. Some, such as Steinem, have viewed her as a victim of the studio system. Others, such as Haskell, Rose, and Churchwell, have instead stressed Monroe's proactive role in her career and her participation in the creation of her public persona.\n\nDue to the contrast between her stardom and troubled private life, Monroe is closely linked to broader discussions about modern phenomena such as mass media, fame, and consumer culture. According to academic Susanne Hamscha, because of her continued relevance to ongoing discussions about modern society, Monroe is \"never completely situated in one time or place\" but has become \"a surface on which narratives of American culture can be (re-)constructed\", and \"functions as a cultural type that can be reproduced, transformed, translated into new contexts, and enacted by other people\". Similarly, Banner has called Monroe the \"eternal shapeshifter\" who is re-created by \"each generation, even each individual ... to their own specifications\". \n\nWhile Monroe remains a cultural icon, critics are divided on her legacy as an actress. David Thomson called her body of work \"insubstantial\" and Pauline Kael wrote that she could not act, but rather \"used her lack of an actress's skills to amuse the public. She had the wit or crassness or desperation to turn cheesecake into acting – and vice versa; she did what others had the 'good taste' not to do\". In contrast, according to Peter Bradshaw, Monroe was a talented comedian who \"understood how comedy achieved its effects\", and Roger Ebert wrote that \"Monroe's eccentricities and neuroses on sets became notorious, but studios put up with her long after any other actress would have been blackballed because what they got back on the screen was magical\". Similarly, Jonathan Rosenbaum stated that \"she subtly subverted the sexist content of her material\" and that \"the difficulty some people have discerning Monroe's intelligence as an actress seems rooted in the ideology of a repressive era, when superfeminine women weren't supposed to be smart\". \n \n\nFilmography\n\nDangerous Years (1947)\nScudda Hoo! Scudda Hay! (1948)\nLadies of the Chorus (1948)\nLove Happy (1949)\nA Ticket to Tomahawk (1950)\nThe Asphalt Jungle (1950)\nAll About Eve (1950)\nThe Fireball (1950)\nRight Cross (1951)\nHome Town Story (1951)\nAs Young as You Feel (1951)\nLove Nest (1951)\nLet's Make It Legal (1951)\nClash by Night (1952)\nWe're Not Married! (1952)\nDon't Bother to Knock (1952)\nMonkey Business (1952)\nO. Henry's Full House (1952)\nNiagara (1953)\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953)\nHow to Marry a Millionaire (1953)\nRiver of No Return (1954)\nThere's No Business Like Show Business (1954)\nThe Seven Year Itch (1955)\nBus Stop (1956)\nThe Prince and the Showgirl (1957)\nSome Like It Hot (1959)\nLet's Make Love (1960)\nThe Misfits (1961)\nSomething's Got to Give (1962)\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Misfits (disambiguation)", "The Misfits", "Misfits (album)", "Misfits" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "misfits album", "misfits disambiguation", "misfits" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "misfits", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Misfits" }
What was Bix Beiderbecke's principal musical instrument?	tc_1039	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bix_Beiderbecke.txt" ], "title": [ "Bix Beiderbecke" ], "wiki_context": [ "Leon Bismark \"Bix\" Beiderbecke (March 10, 1903 – August 6, 1931) was an American jazz cornetist, jazz pianist, and composer.\n\nWith Louis Armstrong and Muggsy Spanier, Beiderbecke was one of the most influential jazz soloists of the 1920s. His turns on \"Singin' the Blues\" and \"I'm Coming, Virginia\" (both 1927), in particular, demonstrated an unusual purity of tone and a gift for improvisation. With these two recordings, especially, he helped to invent the jazz ballad style and hinted at what, in the 1950s, would become cool jazz. \"In a Mist\" (1927), one of a handful of his piano compositions and one of only two he recorded, mixed classical (Impressionist) influences with jazz syncopation.\n\nA native of Davenport, Iowa, Beiderbecke taught himself to play cornet largely by ear, leading him to adopt a non-standard fingering some critics have connected to his original sound. He first recorded with Midwestern jazz ensembles, The Wolverines and The Bucktown Five in 1924, after which he played briefly for the Detroit-based Jean Goldkette Orchestra before joining Frankie \"Tram\" Trumbauer for an extended gig at the Arcadia Ballroom in St. Louis. Beiderbecke and Trumbauer joined Goldkette in 1926. The band toured widely and famously played a set opposite Fletcher Henderson at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City in . He made his greatest recordings in 1927 (see above). In 1928, Trumbauer and Beiderbecke left Detroit to join the best-known and most prestigious dance orchestra in the country: the New-York-based Paul Whiteman Orchestra.\n\nBeiderbecke's most influential recordings date from his time with Goldkette and Whiteman, although they were generally recorded under his own name or Trumbauer's. The Whiteman period also marked a precipitous decline in Beiderbecke's health, brought on by the demand of the bandleader's relentless touring and recording schedule in combination with Beiderbecke's persistent alcoholism. A few stints in rehabilitation centers, as well as the support of Whiteman and the Beiderbecke family in Davenport, did not check Beiderbecke's decline in health. He left the Whiteman band in 1930 and the following summer died in his Queens apartment at the age of 28. \n\nHis death, in turn, gave rise to one of the original legends of jazz. In magazine articles, musicians' memoirs, novels, and Hollywood films, Beiderbecke has been reincarnated as a Romantic hero, the \"Young Man with a Horn\". His life has been portrayed as a battle against such common obstacles to art as family and commerce, while his death has been seen as a martyrdom for the sake of art. The musician-critic Benny Green sarcastically called Beiderbecke \"jazz's Number One Saint,\" while Ralph Berton compared him to Jesus. Beiderbecke remains the subject of scholarly controversy regarding his true name, the cause of his death, and the importance of his contributions to jazz.\n\nEarly life\n\nBeiderbecke was born on March 10, 1903, in Davenport, Iowa, the son of Bismark Herman and Agatha Jane (Hilton) Beiderbecke. There is disagreement over whether Beiderbecke was christened Leon Bismark (and nicknamed \"Bix\") or Leon Bix. His father was nicknamed \"Bix\", as, for a time, was his older brother, Charles Burnette \"Burnie\" Beiderbecke. Burnie Beiderbecke claimed that the boy was named Leon Bix and subsequent biographers have reproduced birth certificates to that effect. However, more recent research—which takes into account church and school records in addition to the will of a relative—has suggested that he was originally named Leon Bismark. Regardless, his parents called him Bix, which seems to have been his preference. In a letter to his mother when he was nine years old, Beiderbecke signed off, \"frome your Leon Bix Beiderbecke not Bismark Remeber \". \n\nBeiderbecke's father, the son of German immigrants, was a well-to-do coal and lumber merchant, named after the Iron Chancellor of his native Germany. Beiderbecke's mother was the daughter of a Mississippi riverboat captain. She played the organ at Davenport's First Presbyterian Church, and encouraged young Bix's interest in the piano. Beiderbecke was the youngest of three children. His brother, Burnie, was born in 1895, and his sister, Mary Louise, in 1898. He began playing piano at age two or three. His sister recalls that he stood on the floor and played it with his hands over his head. Five years later, he was the subject of an admiring article in the Davenport Daily Democrat that proclaimed: \"Seven-year-old boy musical wonder! Little Bickie Beiderbecke plays any selection he hears.\" \n\nAt age ten, his older brother Burnie recalled that he stopped coming home for supper, instead hurrying down to the riverfront and slipping aboard one or another of the excursion boats to play the Calliope. A friend remembered that the plots of the silent matinees Bix and his friends watched on Saturdays didn't interest him much, but as soon as the lights came on he would rush home to see if he could duplicate the melodies the accompanist had played during the action. \n\nWhen his brother Burnie returned to Davenport at the end of 1918 after serving stateside during World War I, he brought with him a Victrola phonograph and several records, including \"Tiger Rag\" and \"Skeleton Jangle\" by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band. From these records, Bix first learned to love hot jazz; he taught himself to play cornet by listening to Nick LaRocca's horn lines. Beiderbecke also listened to jazz music off the riverboats that docked in downtown Davenport. Louis Armstrong and the drummer Baby Dodds claimed to have met Beiderbecke when their New-Orleans-based excursion boat stopped in Davenport. Historians disagree over whether that is true. \n\nBeiderbecke attended Davenport High School from 1919 to 1921. During this time, he sat in and played professionally with various bands, including those of Wilbur Hatch, Floyd Bean and Carlisle Evans. In the spring of 1920 he performed for the school's Vaudeville Night, singing in a vocal quintet called the Black Jazz Babies and playing his horn. He also performed, at the invitation of his friend Fritz Putzier, in Neal Buckley's Novelty Orchestra. The group was hired for a gig in December 1920, but a complaint was lodged with the American Federation of Musicians, Local 67, that the boys did not have union cards. In an audition before a union executive, Beiderbecke was forced to sight read and failed. He did not earn his card. \n\nOn April 22, 1921, a month after he turned 18, Beiderbecke was arrested by two Davenport police officers on a charge brought by the father of a young girl. According to biographer Jean Pierre Lion, \"Bix was accused of having taken this man's five-year-old daughter into a garage and committing on her an act qualified by the police report as 'lewd and lascivious.'\" Although Beiderbecke was briefly taken into custody and held on a $1,500 bond, the charge was dropped after the girl was not made available to testify. According to an affidavit submitted by her father, this was because \"of the child's age and the harm that would result to her in going over this case.\" It is not clear from the father's affidavit if the girl had identified Beiderbecke. Until recently, biographers have largely ignored this incident in Beiderbecke's life, and Lion was the first, in 2005, to print the police blotter and affidavit associated with the arrest. He dismissed the seriousness of the charge, but speculated that the arrest nevertheless might have led Beiderbecke to \"feel abandoned and ashamed: he saw himself as suspect of perversion.\" \n\nBeiderbecke's parents enrolled him in the exclusive Lake Forest Academy, north of Chicago in Lake Forest, Illinois. While historians have traditionally suggested that his parents sent him to Lake Forest to discourage his interest in jazz, others have begun to doubt this version of events, believing that he may have been sent away in response to his arrest. Regardless, Mr. and Mrs. Beiderbecke apparently felt that a boarding school would provide their son with both the necessary faculty attention and discipline to improve his academic performance. His interests, however, remained limited to music and sports. In pursuit of the former, Beiderbecke took the train into Chicago to catch the hot jazz bands at clubs and speakeasies, including the infamous Friar's Inn, where he listened to and sometimes sat in with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings. He also traveled to the predominantly African-American South Side to listen to what he called \"real\" jazz musicians. \"Don't think I'm getting hard, Burnie,\" he wrote to his brother, \"but I'd go to hell to hear a good band.\" On campus, he helped organize the Cy-Bix Orchestra with drummer Walter \"Cy\" Welge and almost immediately got into trouble with the Lake Forest headmaster for performing indecorously at a school dance.\n\nBeiderbecke often failed to return to his dormitory before curfew, and sometimes stayed off-campus the next day. In the early morning hours of May 20, he was caught on the fire escape to his dormitory, attempting to climb back into his room. The faculty voted to expel him the next day, due both to his academic failings and his extracurricular activities, which included drinking. The headmaster informed Beiderbecke's parents by letter that following his expulsion school officials confirmed that Beiderbecke \"was drinking himself and was responsible, in part at least, in having liquor brought into the School.\" Soon after, Beiderbecke began pursuing a career in music. \n\nHe returned to Davenport briefly in the summer of 1922, then moved to Chicago to join the Cascades Band, working that summer on Lake Michigan excursion boats. He gigged around Chicago until the fall of 1923, at times returning to Davenport to work for his father.\n\nCareer\n\nWolverines\n\nBeiderbecke joined the Wolverine Orchestra late in 1923, and the seven-man group first played a speakeasy called the Stockton Club near Hamilton, Ohio. Specializing in hot jazz and recoiling from so-called sweet music, the band took its name from one of its most frequent numbers, Jelly Roll Morton's \"Wolverine Blues.\" During this time, Beiderbecke also took piano lessons from a young woman who introduced him to the works of Eastwood Lane. Lane's piano suites and orchestral arrangements were both self-consciously American and influenced by the French Impressionists, and it is said to have greatly influenced Beiderbecke's style, especially on \"In a Mist.\" A subsequent gig at Doyle's Dance Academy in Cincinnati became the occasion for a series of band and individual photographs that resulted in the most famous image of Beiderbecke—sitting fresh-faced, his hair perfectly combed, his horn resting on his right knee. \n\nOn February 18, 1924, the Wolverines first recorded at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana. Their two sides that day included \"Fidgety Feet\", written by Nick LaRocca and Larry Shields from the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, and \"Jazz Me Blues.\" Beiderbecke's solo on the latter suggested something new and significant in jazz, according to biographers Richard M. Sudhalter and Philip R. Evans:\n\nBoth qualities—complementary or \"correlated\" phrasing and cultivation of the vocal, \"singing\" middle-range of the cornet—are on display in Bix's \"Jazz Me Blues\" solo, along with an already discernible inclination for unusual accidentals and inner chordal voices. It is a pioneer record, introducing a musician of great originality with a pace-setting band. And it astonished even the Wolverines themselves. \n\nThe Wolverines recorded 15 sides for Gennett Records between February and October 1924. The titles revealed a tough and well-formed cornet talent. His lip had toughened from earlier, more tentative years; on nine of the Wolverines' recorded titles he proceeds commandingly from lead to opening solo without any need for a respite from playing. \n\nBeiderbecke made his first recordings 21 months before Armstrong recorded as a leader with the Hot Five. Beiderbecke's style was very different from that of Louis Armstrong according to The Oxford Companion to Jazz:\n\nWhere Armstrong emphasized showmanship and virtuosity, Beiderbecke emphasized melody, even when improvising, and—different from Armstrong and contrary to how the Bix Beiderbecke of legend would be portrayed—he rarely strayed into the upper reaches of the register. Paul Mares of the New Orleans Rhythm Kings insisted that Beiderbecke's chief influence was the New Orleans cornetist Emmett Hardy, who died in 1925 at the age of 23. Indeed, Beiderbecke had met Hardy and the clarinetist Leon Roppolo in Davenport in 1921 when the two joined a local band and played in town for three months. Beiderbecke apparently spent time with them, but the degree to which Hardy's style influenced Beiderbecke's is difficult to know because Hardy never recorded. In some respects, Beiderbecke's playing was sui generis, but he nevertheless listened to and studied the music around him: from Armstrong and Joe \"King\" Oliver to the Original Dixieland Jazz Band and the New Orleans Rhythm Kings to Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. \n\nSoon, he was listening to Hoagy Carmichael, too. A law student and aspiring pianist and songwriter, Carmichael invited the Wolverines to Bloomington, Indiana, late in April 1924. Beiderbecke had met Carmichael a couple of times before and the two became friends. On May 6, 1924, the Wolverines recorded a tune Carmichael had written especially for Beiderbecke and his colleagues: \"Riverboat Shuffle\". \n\nBeiderbecke left the Wolverines in October 1924 for a spot with Jean Goldkette in Detroit, but the job didn't last long. Goldkette recorded for the Victor Talking Machine Company, whose musical director, Eddie King, objected to Beiderbecke's hot-jazz style of soloing; it wasn't copacetic with the commercial obligations that came with the band's recording contract. King also was frustrated by the cornetist's inability to deftly sight read. After a few weeks, Beiderbecke was bounced from the Goldkette band, but soon arranged a recording session back in Richmond with some of its members. On January 26, 1925, Bix and His Rhythm Jugglers set two tunes to wax: \"Toddlin' Blues\", another number by LaRocca and Shields, and Beiderbecke's own composition, \"Davenport Blues\". Beiderbecke biographer Lion has complained that the second number was marred by the alcohol consumed by the musicians. In subsequent years, \"Davenport Blues\" has been recorded by musicians from Bunny Berigan to Ry Cooder to Geoff Muldaur. \n\nThe following month, Beiderbecke enrolled at the University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa. His stint in academia was even briefer than his time in Detroit, however. When he attempted to pack his course schedule with music, his guidance counselor forced him instead to take religion, ethics, physical education, and military training. It was an institutional blunder that Benny Green described as being, in retrospect, \"comical,\" \"fatuous,\" and \"a parody.\" Beiderbecke promptly began to skip classes, and after he participated in a drunken bar fight, he was expelled. That summer he played with his friends Don Murray and Howdy Quicksell at a lake resort in Michigan. The band was run by Goldkette, and it put Beiderbecke in touch with another musician he had met before: the C-melody saxophone player Frankie Trumbauer. The two hit it off, both personally and musically, despite Trumbauer having been warned by other musicians: \"Look out, he's trouble. He drinks and you'll have a hard time handling him.\" They were inseparable for much of the rest of Beiderbecke's career, with Trumbauer acting as a father figure to Beiderbecke. When Trumbauer organized a band for an extended run at the Arcadia Ballroom in St. Louis, Beiderbecke joined him. There he also played alongside the clarinetist Pee Wee Russell, who praised Beiderbecke's ability to drive the band. \"He more or less made you play whether you wanted to or not,\" Russell said. \"If you had any talent at all he made you play better.\" \n\nGoldkette\n\nIn the spring of 1926, Trumbauer closed up shop in St. Louis and, with Beiderbecke, moved to Detroit, this time to play with Goldkette's headline ensemble. They played the summer at Hudson Lake, a resort in northern Indiana, and split the next year between touring, recording, and performing at Detroit's Graystone Ballroom. In October 1926, Goldkette's \"Famous Fourteen\", as they came to be called, opened at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City opposite the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, one of the East Coast's outstanding African American big bands. The Roseland promoted a \"Battle of the Bands\" in the local press and, on October 12, after a night of furious playing, Goldkette's men were declared the winners. \"We […] were amazed, angry, morose, and bewildered,\" Rex Stewart, Fletcher's lead trumpeter, said of listening to Beiderbecke and his colleagues play. He called the experience \"most humiliating\". \n\nAlthough the band recorded numerous sides for Victor during this period, none of them showcases Beiderbecke's most famous solos. Much of Goldkette's money was made through these records, but they were subject—as Eddie King had well understood—to the forces of the commercial market. As a result, their sound was often \"sweeter\" than what many of the hot jazz musicians would have preferred. In addition to their sessions with Goldkette, Beiderbecke and his friends recorded under their own names for the Okeh label. For instance, on February 4, 1927, Frank Trumbauer and His Orchestra recorded \"Trumbology\", \"Clarinet Marmalade\", and \"Singin' the Blues\", all three of which featured some of Beiderbecke's best work. Again with Trumbauer, Beiderbecke re-recorded Carmichael's \"Riverboat Shuffle\" in May and delivered two of his best known solos a few days later on \"I'm Coming, Virginia\" and \"Way Down Yonder in New Orleans\". Beiderbecke earned co-writing credit with Trumbauer on \"For No Reason at All in C\", recorded under the name Tram, Bix and Eddie (in their Three Piece Band). Beiderbecke switched between cornet and piano on that number, and then in September played only piano for his recording of \"In A Mist\". This was perhaps the most fruitful year of his short career.\n\nUnder financial pressure, Goldkette folded his premier band in September in New York. Paul Whiteman hoped to snatch up Goldkette's best musicians for his traveling orchestra, but Beiderbecke, Trumbauer, Murray, Bill Rank, Eddie Lang, Joe Venuti, Chauncey Morehouse, and Frank Signorelli instead joined the bass saxophone player Adrian Rollini at the Club New Yorker. When that job ended sooner than expected, in October 1927, Beiderbecke and Trumbauer signed on with Whiteman. They joined his orchestra in Indianapolis on October 27. \n\nWhiteman\n\nThe Paul Whiteman Orchestra was the most popular and highest paid band of the day. In spite of Whiteman's nickname, \"The King of Jazz\", his was not a jazz ensemble, but a popular music outfit that played bits of jazz and classical music according to the demands of its record-buying and concert-going audience. Whiteman was perhaps best known for having premiered George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue in New York in 1924, and the orchestrator of that piece, Ferde Grofé, continued to be an important part of the band in 1928. At three hundred pounds, Whiteman was huge both physically and culturally—\"a man flabby, virile, quick, coarse, untidy and sleek, with a hard core of shrewdness in an envelope of sentimentalism,\" according to a 1926 New Yorker profile. And many Beiderbecke partisans have turned Whiteman into a villain in the years since. \n\nBenny Green, in particular, derided Whiteman for being a mere \"mediocre vaudeville act,\" and suggesting that \"today we only tolerate the horrors of Whiteman's recordings at all in the hope that here and there a Bixian fragment will redeem the mess.\" Richard Sudhalter has responded by suggesting that Beiderbecke saw Whiteman as an opportunity to pursue musical ambitions that did not stop at jazz:\n\nColleagues have testified that, far from feeling bound or stifled by the Whiteman orchestra, as Green and others have suggested, Bix often felt a sense of exhilaration. It was like attending a music school, learning and broadening: formal music, especially the synthesis of the American vernacular idiom with a more classical orientation, so much sought-after in the 1920s, were calling out to him. \n\nThe education that Beiderbecke did not receive from the University of Iowa, in other words, he sought through Whiteman. In the meantime, Beiderbecke played on four number-one records in 1928, all under the Whiteman name: \"Together\", \"Ramona\", \"My Angel\", and \"Ol' Man River\", which featured Bing Crosby on vocals. This accomplishment says less about the jazz excellence of these records than it does about the tastes of the largely white, record-buying public to which Whiteman (and Goldkette before him) catered. \n\nFor Beiderbecke, the downside of being with Whiteman was the relentless touring and recording schedule, exacerbated by Beiderbecke's alcoholism. On November 30, 1928, in Cleveland, Beiderbecke suffered what Lion terms \"a severe nervous crisis\" and Sudhalter and Evans suggest \"was in all probability an acute attack of delirium tremens,\" presumably triggered by Beiderbecke's attempt to curb his alcohol intake. \"He cracked up, that's all,\" trombonist Bill Rank said. \"Just went to pieces; broke up a roomful of furniture in the hotel.\" \n\nIn February 1929, Beiderbecke returned home to Davenport to convalesce and was hailed by the local press as \"the world's hottest cornetist.\" He then spent the summer with Whiteman's band in Hollywood in preparation for the shooting of a new talking picture, The King of Jazz. Production delays prevented any real work from being done on the film, leaving Beiderbecke and his pals plenty of time to drink heavily. By September, he was back in Davenport, where his parents helped him to seek treatment. He spent a month, from October 14 until November 18, at the Keeley Institute in Dwight, Illinois. \n\nWhile he was away, Whiteman famously kept a chair empty in Beiderbecke's honor. But when he returned to New York at the end of January 1930, the renowned soloist did not rejoin Whiteman and performed only sparingly. On his last recording session, in New York, on September 15, 1930, Beiderbecke played on the original recording of Hoagy Carmichael's new song, \"Georgia on My Mind\", with Carmichael doing the vocal, Eddie Lang on guitar, Joe Venuti on violin, Jimmy Dorsey on clarinet and alto saxophone, Jack Teagarden on trombone, and Bud Freeman on tenor saxophone. The song would go on to become a jazz and popular music standard. In 2014, the 1930 recording of \"Georgia on My Mind\" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.\n\nTwo years earlier, Beiderbecke had influenced another Carmichael standard, \"Star Dust\". A Beiderbecke riff caught in Carmichael's head and became the tune's chorus. Bing Crosby, who sang with Whiteman, also cited Beiderbecke as an important influence. \"Bix and all the rest would play and exchange ideas on the piano,\" he said.\n\nWith all the noise [of a New York pub] going on, I don't know how they heard themselves, but they did. I didn't contribute anything, but I listened and learned […] I was now being influenced by these musicians, particularly horn men. I could hum and sing all of the jazz choruses from the recordings made by Bix, Phil Napoleon, and the rest. \n\nFollowing the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the once-booming music industry contracted and work became more difficult to find. For a while, Beiderbecke's only income came from a radio show booked by Whiteman, The Camel Pleasure Hour. However, during a live broadcast on October 8, 1930, Beiderbecke's seemingly limitless gift for improvisation finally failed him: \"He stood up to take his solo, but his mind went blank and nothing happened,\" recalled a fellow musician, Frankie Cush. Whiteman finally let Beiderbecke go. The cornetist spent the rest of the year at home in Davenport and then, in February 1931, he returned to New York one last time.\n\nDeath\n\nBeiderbecke died in his apartment, No. 1G, 43-30 46th Street, in Sunnyside, Queens, on August 6, 1931. The week had been quite hot, making sleep difficult, and late into the evenings, Beiderbecke had played piano, both to the annoyance and to the delight of his neighbors. On the evening of August 6, at about 9.30 pm, his rental agent, George Kraslow, heard noises coming from across the hallway. \"His hysterical shouts brought me to his apartment on the run,\" Kraslow told Philip Evans in 1959.\n\nHe pulled me in and pointed to the bed. His whole body was trembling violently. He was screaming there were two Mexicans hiding under his bed with long daggers. To humor him, I looked under the bed and when I rose to assure him there was no one hiding there, he staggered and fell, a dead weight, in my arms. I ran across the hall and called in a woman doctor, Dr. Haberski, to examine him. She pronounced him dead. \n\nHistorians have disagreed over the identity of the doctor who pronounced Beiderbecke dead. The official cause of death, meanwhile, was lobar pneumonia, with scholars continuing to debate the extent to which his alcoholism was also a factor. Beiderbecke's mother and brother took the train to New York and brought his body home to Davenport. He was buried there on August 11 in the family plot at Oakdale Cemetery. \n\nLegend and legacy\n\nAt the time of his death Beiderbecke was little known except among fellow musicians, and for several years critics paid little attention to his music. As Jean Pierre Lion has pointed out, \"The only serious and analytical obituary to have been published in the months\" after his death was by a Frenchman, Hugues Panassié. The notice appeared in October 1931 and began with a bit of hyperbole and an incorrect fact, two hallmarks of much of the subsequent writing about Beiderbecke: \"The announcement of Bix Beiderbecke's death plunged all jazz musicians into despair. We first believed it was a false alarm, as we had heard so often before about Bix. Unfortunately, precise information has been forthcoming, and we even know the day—August 7—when he passed away.\" \n\nThe New Republic critic Otis Ferguson wrote two short articles for the magazine, \"Young Man with a Horn\" (July 29, 1936) and \"Young Man with a Horn Again\" (November 18, 1940), that worked to revive interest not only in Beiderbecke's music but also in his biography. Beiderbecke \"lived very briefly […] in what might be called the servants' entrance to art,\" Ferguson wrote. \"His story is a good story, quite humble and right.\" The romantic notion of the short-lived, doomed jazz genius can be traced back at least as far as Beiderbecke, and lived on in Glenn Miller, Charlie Parker, Billie Holiday, Jaco Pastorius and many more. \n\nFerguson's sense of what was \"right\" became the basis for the Beiderbecke Romantic legend, which has traditionally emphasized the musician's Iowa roots, his often careless dress, his difficulty sight reading, the purity of his tone, his drinking, and his early death. These themes were repeated by Beiderbecke's friends in various memoirs, including The Stardust Road (1946) and Sometimes I Wonder (1965) by Hoagy Carmichael, Really the Blues (1946) by Mezz Mezzrow, and We Called It Music (1947) by Eddie Condon. Beiderbecke was portrayed as a tragic genius along the lines of Ludwig van Beethoven. \"For his talent there were no conservatories to get stuffy in, no high-trumpet didoes to be learned doggedly, note-perfect as written,\" Ferguson wrote, \"because in his chosen form the only writing of any account was traced in the close shouting air of Royal Gardens, Grand Pavilions, honkeytonks, etc.\" He was \"this big overgrown kid, who looked like he'd been snatched out of a cradle in the cornfields,\" Mezzrow wrote. \"The guy didn't have an enemy in the world,\" recalled Beiderbecke's friend Russ Morgan, \"[b]ut he was out of this world most of the time.\" According to Ralph Berton, he was \"as usual gazing off into his private astronomy,\" but his cornet, Condon famously quipped, sounded \"like a girl saying yes.\" \n\nIn 1938, Dorothy Baker borrowed the titles of her friend Otis Ferguson's two articles and published the novel Young Man with a Horn. Her story of the doomed trumpet player Rick Martin was inspired, she wrote, by \"the music, but not the life\" of Beiderbecke, but the image of Martin quickly became the image of Beiderbecke: His story is about \"the gap between the man's musical ability and his ability to fit it to his own life.\" In 1950, Michael Curtiz directed the film Young Man with a Horn, starring Kirk Douglas, Lauren Bacall, and Doris Day. In this version, in which Hoagy Carmichael also plays a role, the Rick Martin character lives.\n\nIn Blackboard Jungle, a 1955 film starring Glenn Ford and Sidney Poitier, Beiderbecke's music is briefly featured, but as a symbol of cultural conservatism in a nation on the cusp of the rock and roll revolution.\n\nIn 1971, on the 40th anniversary of Beiderbecke's death, the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival was founded in Davenport, Iowa, to honor the musician. In 1974, Sudhalter and Evans published their biography, Bix: Man and Legend, which was nominated for a National Book Award. In 1977, the Beiderbecke childhood home at 1934 Grand Avenue in Davenport was added to the National Register of Historic Places. \n\nBeiderbecke's music was featured in three British comedy drama television series, all written by Alan Plater: The Beiderbecke Affair (1984), The Beiderbecke Tapes (1987), and The Beiderbecke Connection (1988). In 1991, the Italian director Pupi Avati released Bix: An Interpretation of a Legend. Filmed partially in the Beiderbecke home, which Avati had purchased and renovated, Bix was screened at the Cannes Film Festival. \n\nAt the beginning of the 21st century, Beiderbecke's music continues to reside mostly out of the mainstream and some of the facts of his life are still debated, but scholars largely agree—due in part to the influence of Sudhalter and Evans—that he was an important innovator in early jazz; jazz cornetists, including Sudhalter (before his death in 2008), and Tom Pletcher, closely emulate his style. In 2003, to mark the hundredth anniversary of his birth, the Greater Astoria Historical Society and other community organizations, spearheaded by Paul Maringelli and The Bix Beiderbecke Sunnyside Memorial Committee, erected a plaque in Beiderbecke's honor at the apartment building in which he died in Queens. That same year, Frederick Turner published his novel 1929, which followed the facts of Beiderbecke's life fairly closely, focusing on his summer in Hollywood and featuring appearances by Al Capone and Clara Bow. The critic and musician Digby Fairweather sums up Beiderbecke's musical legacy, arguing that \"with Louis Armstrong, Bix Beiderbecke was the most striking of jazz's cornet (and of course, trumpet) fathers; a player who first captivated his 1920s generation and after his premature death, founded a dynasty of distinguished followers beginning with Jimmy McPartland and moving on down from there.\" \n\nMusic\n\nStyle and influence\n\nBix Beiderbecke and Louis Armstrong were among jazz's first soloists. In New Orleans, jazz had been ensemble playing, with the various instruments weaving their parts into a single and coherent aural tapestry. There had been soloists, to be sure, with the clarinetist Sidney Bechet the best known among them, but these players \"lacked the technical resources and, even more, the creative depth to make the solo the compelling centerpiece of jazz music.\" That changed in 1924 when Beiderbecke and Armstrong began to make their most important records. According to the critic Terry Teachout, they are \"the two most influential figures in the early history of jazz\" and \"the twin lines of descent from which most of today's jazz can be traced.\" \n\nBeiderbecke's cornet style is often described by contrasting it with Armstrong's markedly different approach. Armstrong was a virtuoso on his instrument, and his solos often took advantage of that fact. Beiderbecke was largely, although not completely, self-taught, and the constraints imposed by that fact were evident in his music. While Armstrong often soared into the upper register, Beiderbecke stayed in the middle range, more interested in exploring the melody and harmonies than in dazzling the audience. Armstrong often emphasized the performance aspect of his playing, while Beiderbecke tended to stare at his feet while playing, uninterested in personally engaging his listeners. Armstrong was deeply influenced by the blues, while Beiderbecke was influenced as much by modernist composers such as Debussy and Ravel as by his fellow jazzmen. \n\nBeiderbecke's most famous solo was on \"Singin' the Blues\", recorded February 4, 1927. It has been hailed as an important example of the \"jazz ballad style\"—\"a slow or medium-tempo piece played gently and sweetly, but not cloyingly, with no loss of muscle.\" The tune's laid-back emotions hinted at what would become, in the 1950s, the cool jazz style, personified by Chet Baker and Bill Evans. More than that, though, \"Singin' the Blues\" has been noted for the way its improvisations feel less improvised than composed, with each phrase building on the last in a logical fashion. Benny Green describes the solo's effect on practiced ears:\n\nWhen a musician hears Bix's solo on 'Singing the Blues', he becomes aware after two bars that the soloist knows exactly what he is doing and that he has an exquisite sense of discord and resolution. He knows also that this player is endowed with the rarest jazz gift of all, a sense of form which lends to an improvised performance a coherence which no amount of teaching can produce. The listening musician, whatever his generation or his style, recognizes Bix as a modern, modernism being not a style but an attitude. \n\nLike Green, who made particular mention of Beiderbecke's \"amount of teaching,\" the jazz historian Ted Gioia also has emphasized Beiderbecke's lack of formal instruction, suggesting that it caused him to adopt \"an unusual, dry embouchure\" and \"unconventional fingerings,\" which he retained for the rest of his life. Gioia points to \"a characteristic streak of obstinacy\" in Beiderbecke that provokes \"this chronic disregard of the tried-and-true.\" He argues that this stubbornness was behind Beiderbecke's decision not to switch from cornet to trumpet when many other musicians, including Armstrong, did so. In addition, Gioia highlights Beiderbecke's precise timing, relaxed delivery, and pure tone, which contrasted with \"the dirty, rough-edged sound\" of King Oliver and his protégé Armstrong, whose playing was often more energetic and whose style held more sway early in the 1920s than Beiderbecke's. Gioia further wonders whether the many hyperbolic and quasi-poetic descriptions of Beiderbecke's style—most notably Condon's \"like a girl saying yes\"—may indicate that Beiderbecke's sound was muddled on recordings. \n\nEddie Condon, Hoagy Carmichael, and Mezz Mezzrow, all of whom hyperbolically raved about his playing, also saw Beiderbecke play live or performed alongside him. Condon, for instance, wrote of being amazed by Beiderbecke's piano playing: \"All my life I had been listening to music […] But I had never heard anything remotely like what Beiderbecke played. For the first time I realized music isn't all the same, it had become an entirely new set of sounds\" \"I tried to explain Bix to the gang,\" Carmichael wrote, but \"[i]t was no good, like the telling of a vivid, personal dream […] the emotion couldn't be transmitted.\" \n\nMezzrow described Beiderbecke's tone as being \"pickled in alcohol […] I have never heard a tone like he got before or since. He played mostly open horn, every note full, big, rich and round, standing out like a pearl, loud but never irritating or jangling, with a powerful drive that few white musicians had in those days.\" \n\nSome critics have highlighted \"Jazz Me Blues\", recorded with the Wolverines on February 18, 1924, as being particularly important to understanding Beiderbecke's style. Although it was one of his earliest recordings, the hallmarks of his playing were evident. \"The overall impression we get from this solo, as in all of Bix at his best,\" writes the trumpeter Randy Sandke, \"is that every note is spontaneous yet inevitable.\" Richard Hadlock describes Beiderbecke's contribution to \"Jazz Me Blues\" as \"an ordered solo that seems more inspired by clarinetists Larry Shields of the ODJB and Leon Roppolo of the NORK than by other trumpet players.\" He goes on to suggest that clarinetists, by virtue of their not being tied to the melody as much as cornetists and trumpet players, could explore harmonies.\n\n\"Jazz Me Blues\" was also important because it introduced what has been called the \"correlated chorus\", a method of improvising that Beiderbecke's Davenport friend Esten Spurrier attributed to both Beiderbecke and Armstrong. \"Louis departed greatly from all cornet players in his ability to compose a close-knit individual 32 measures with all phrases compatible with each other\", Spurrier told the biographers Sudhalter and Evans, \"so Bix and I always credited Louis as being the father of the correlated chorus: play two measures, then two related, making four measures, on which you played another four measures related to the first four, and so on ad infinitum to the end of the chorus. So the secret was simple—a series of related phrases.\" \n\nBeiderbecke plays piano on his recordings \"Big Boy\" (October 8, 1924), \"For No Reason at All in C\" (May 13, 1927), \"Wringin' and Twistin'\" (September 17, 1927)—all with ensembles—and his only solo recorded work, \"In a Mist\" (September 8, 1927). Critic Frank Murphy argues that many of the same characteristics that mark Beiderbecke on the cornet mark him on the keyboard: the uncharacteristic fingering, the emphasis on inventive harmonies, and the correlated choruses. Those inventive harmonies, on both cornet and piano, eventually helped point the way to bebop, which abandoned melody almost entirely. \n\nCompositions\n\nBix Beiderbecke wrote or co-wrote six instrumental compositions during his career:\n\n* \"Davenport Blues\" (1925)\n* \"In a Mist (Bixology)\" (1927)\n* \"For No Reason at All in C\" (1927) with Frank Trumbauer\n* \"Candlelights\" (1930)\n* \"Flashes\" (1931)\n* \"In the Dark\" (1931)\n\n\"Candlelights\", \"Flashes\", and \"In the Dark\" are piano compositions transcribed with the help of Bill Challis but never recorded by Beiderbecke. Two additional compositions were attributed to him by two other jazz composers: \"Betcha I Getcha\", attributed to Beiderbecke as a co-composer by Joe Venuti, the composer of the song, and \"Cloudy\", attributed to Beiderbecke by composer Charlie Davis as a composition from circa 1924. \n\nMajor recordings\n\n;Bix Beiderbecke's first recordings were as a member of the Wolverine Orchestra:\n* \"Fidgety Feet\" / \"Jazz Me Blues\", recorded on February 18, 1924, in Richmond, Indiana, and released as Gennett 5408\n* \"Copenhagen\", recorded on May 6, 1924, and released as Gennett 5453B and Claxtonola 40336B\n* \"Riverboat Shuffle\" / \"Susie (Of the Islands)\", recorded on May 6, 1924, and released as Gennett 5454\n\n;As Bix Beiderbecke and his Rhythm Jugglers:\n* \"Toddlin' Blues\" / \"Davenport Blues\", recorded on January 26, 1925, in Richmond, Indiana, and released as Gennett 5654\n\n;With the Jean Goldkette Orchestra in 1926–1927:\n* \"My Pretty Girl\" / \"Cover Me Up with Sunshine\", recorded on February 1, 1927, in New York and released as Victor 20588\n* \"Sunny Disposish\" / \"Fox Trot\" from \"Americana\", recorded on February 3, 1927, in New York and released as Victor 20493B\n* \"Clementine\", recorded on September 15, 1927 in New York and released on Victor 20994 [http://www.redhotjazz.com/goldo.html \"Jean Goldkette and his Orchestra\"].\n\n;With Frankie Trumbauer and His Orchestra and guitarist Eddie Lang:\n* \"Clarinet Marmalade\" / \"Singin' the Blues\", recorded on February 4, 1927, in New York and released as Okeh 40772\n* \"Riverboat Shuffle\" / \"Ostrich Walk\", recorded on May 9, 1927 in New York and released as Okeh 40822\n* \"I'm Coming, Virginia\" / \"Way Down Yonder in New Orleans\", recorded on May 13, 1927, in New York and released as Okeh 40843\n* \"For No Reason at All in C\" / \"Trumbology\", recorded on May 13, 1927, in New York and released as Okeh 40871, Columbia 35667, and Parlophone R 3419\n* \"In a Mist\" / \"Wringin' an' Twistin'\", recorded on September 9, 1927, in New York and released as Okeh 40916 and Vocalion 3150\n* \"Borneo\" / \"My Pet\", recorded on April 10, 1928, in New York and released as Okeh 41039\n\n;As Bix Beiderbecke and His Gang:\n* \"At the Jazz Band Ball\" / \"Jazz Me Blues\", recorded on October 5, 1927, in New York and released as Okeh 40923\n* \"Royal Garden Blues\" / \"Goose Pimples\", recorded on October 5, 1927, in New York and released as Okeh 8544\n* \"Sorry\" / \"Since My Best Gal Turned Me Down\", recorded on October 25, 1927, in New York and released as Okeh 41001\n* \"Wa-Da-Da (Everybody's Doin' It Now)\", recorded on July 7, 1928 in Chicago, Illinois and released as Okeh 41088\n* \"Rhythm King\", recorded on September 21, 1928 in New York and released as Okeh 41173\n\n;With the Paul Whiteman Orchestra:\n* \"Lonely Melody\" [Take 3] / \"Mississippi Mud\" [Take 2], with Bing Crosby, the Rhythm Boys, and Izzy Friedman, recorded on January 4, 1928, in New York and released as Victor 25366\n* \"Ramona\", recorded on January 4, 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21214-A. No. 1 for 3 weeks\n* \"Ol' Man River\" (From Show Boat), recorded on January 11, 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21218-A and Victor 25249 with Bing Crosby on vocals. No. 1 for 1 week\n* \"San\" [Take 6], recorded on January 12, 1928 in New York and released as Victor 24078-A\n* \"Together\", recorded on January 21, 1928 in New York and released as Victor 35883-A. No. 1 for 2 weeks\n* \"Mississippi Mud\" [Take 3] / \"From Monday On\" [Take 6], with vocals by Bing Crosby, recorded on February 28, 1928, in New York and released as Victor 21274\n* \"My Angel\", recorded on April 21, 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21388-A. No. 1 for 6 weeks\n* \"My Melancholy Baby\", recorded on May 15, 1928, in New York and released as Columbia 50068-D \n* \"Sweet Sue\", recorded on September 18, 1928, in New York and released as Columbia 50103-D\n\n;As Bix Beiderbecke and His Orchestra:\n* \"I Don't Mind Walking in the Rain\" / \"I'll Be a Friend with Pleasure\", recorded on September 8, 1930, in New York and released as Victor 23008\n\n;With Hoagy Carmichael and His Orchestra:\n* \"Barnacle Bill, the Sailor\" / \"Rockin' Chair\", with vocals by Carson Robison, recorded on May 21, 1930, in New York and released as Victor V-38139 and Victor 25371\n* \"Georgia on My Mind\", with Hoagy Carmichael on vocals, recorded on September 15, 1930, in New York and released as Victor 23013\n\nGrammy Hall of Fame\n\nBix Beiderbecke was posthumously inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have \"qualitative or historical significance.\"\n\nHonors\n\n* 1962, inducted into Down Beats Jazz Hall of Fame, critics' poll \n* 1971, Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Society established in Davenport, Iowa; founded annual jazz festival and scholarship \n* 1977, Beiderbecke's 1927 recording of \"Singin' the Blues\" inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame \n* 1979, statue presented at LeClaire Park, in Davenport, Iowa \n* 1979, inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame \n* 1980, Beiderbecke's 1927 recording of \"In a Mist\" inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame \n* 1989, Asteroid 23457 Beiderbecke named after him.\n* 1993, inducted into the International Academy of Jazz Hall of Fame \n* 2000, statue dedicated in Davenport \n* 2000, ASCAP Jazz Wall of Fame \n* 2004, inducted into the inaugural class of the Lincoln Center's Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame \n* 2006, the 1927 recording of \"Singin' the Blues\" with Frankie Trumbauer and Eddie Lang was placed on the U.S. Library of Congress National Recording Registry.\n* 2007, inducted into the Gennett Records Walk of Fame in Richmond, Indiana \n* 2014, the 1930 recording of \"Georgia on My Mind\" by Hoagy Carmichael and His Orchestra, featuring Beiderbecke on cornet, inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Kornett", "Cornetist", "Echo cornet", "Cornettist", "Cornet", "Cornets" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cornet", "cornetist", "echo cornet", "kornett", "cornettist", "cornets" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "cornet", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Cornet" }
US-born Adulyadej Bhumibol became king of which Asian country?	tc_1040	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bhumibol_Adulyadej.txt", "Monarchy_of_Thailand.txt", "Asian_Americans.txt" ], "title": [ "Bhumibol Adulyadej", "Monarchy of Thailand", "Asian Americans" ], "wiki_context": [ "Bhumibol Adulyadej (; ;; see full title below; born 5 December 1927) is the King of Thailand. He is also known as Rama IX, as he is the ninth monarch of the Chakri Dynasty. Having reigned since 9 June 1946, he is the world's longest-serving current head of state and the longest-reigning monarch in Thai history, serving for .\n\nIn 1957, the military overthrew the government with allegations of lèse majesté, which is an offense against the dignity of the monarch, punishable under Thai law, starting a new and long-lasting relationship between the monarch and military in governmental matters. Although Bhumibol did invite public criticism in a 2005 speech, the lèse majesté laws have not been revoked by the Thai parliament.\n\nForbes estimated Bhumibol's fortune—including property and investments managed by the Crown Property Bureau (CPB), a unique body that is neither private nor government-owned—to be US$30 billion in 2010, and he was the head of the magazine's list of the \"world's richest royals\" from 2008 to 2013. In May 2014, Bhumibol's wealth was once again listed as US$30 billion. Officially the assets managed by the CPB are owned by the crown as an institution, not Bhumibol Adulyadej as an individual. \n\nSince 2006, Bhumibol has suffered declining health and has spent extended periods at Siriraj Hospital. Bhumibol is generally highly revered by the people in Thailand, but his heir Vajiralongkorn does not share the popularity of his father, leading to concerns that the Thai monarchy will lose prestige and influence after Bhumibol's death. \n\nEarly life\n\nBhumibol was born at Cambridge Hospital (now Mount Auburn Hospital) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the United States, on 5 December 1927. He was the youngest son of HRH Prince Mahidol Adulyadej, the Prince of Songkla, and his commoner wife Mom Sangwan (later HRH Princess Srinagarindra, the Princess Mother). His U.S. birth certificate reads simply \"Baby Songkla\", as the parents had to consult his uncle, King Rama VII (Prajadhipok), then head of the House of Chakri, for an auspicious name. The king chose Bhumibol Adulyadej, meaning \"strength of the land, incomparable power\" (from Sanskrit भूमिबल अतुल्यतेज, bhūmibala atulyatēja). His father was enrolled in the public health program at Harvard University, which explains his being the only monarch to be born in the US. Bhumibol had an older sister, Princess Galyani Vadhana, and an older brother, Prince Ananda Mahidol.\n\nBhumibol came to Thailand in 1928, after his father obtained a certificate from Harvard. His father died of kidney failure in September 1929, when Bhumibol was less than two years old. He briefly attended Mater Dei school in Bangkok, but in 1933 his mother took her family to Switzerland, where he continued his education at the École nouvelle de la Suisse romande in Lausanne. In 1934 Bhumibol was given his first camera, which ignited his lifelong enthusiasm for photography. When Bhumibol's childless uncle Prajadhipok abdicated in 1935, his nine-year-old brother Ananda became the new King Rama VIII. However, the family remained in Switzerland and the affairs of the head of state were conducted by a regency council. They returned to Thailand for only two months in 1938. In 1942, Bhumibol became a jazz enthusiast, and started to play the saxophone, a passion that he has kept throughout his life. He received the baccalauréat des lettres (high-school diploma with a major in French literature, Latin, and Greek) from the Gymnase Classique Cantonal of Lausanne, and by 1945 had begun studying sciences at the University of Lausanne, when World War II ended and the family was able to return to Thailand.\n\nSuccession and marriage\n\nBhumibol ascended the throne following the death by gunshot wound of his brother, King Ananda Mahidol, on 9 June 1946, under circumstances that remain unclear. While a first government statement stated that Ananda had accidentally shot himself, an investigation committee ruled this was virtually impossible. Two palace aides were eventually convicted of regicide and executed. A third possibility, that Bhumibol accidentally shot his brother while the brothers played with their pistols, was never seriously considered, despite the British official investigation's chronology placing Bhumibol as being the last visitor to the sleeping king's bedroom 20 minutes prior to the shot.\n\nBhumibol succeeded his brother, but returned to Switzerland before the end of the 100-day mourning period. Despite his interest in science and technology, he changed his major and enrolled in law and political science to prepare for his duties as head of state. His uncle, Rangsit, Prince of Chainat, was appointed Prince Regent. In Bhumibol's name, Prince Rangsit authorized a military coup that overthrew the government of Thamrongnawasawat in November 1947. The regent also signed the 1949 constitution, which returned to the monarchy many of the powers it had lost by the 1932 Revolution.\n\nWhile finishing his degree in Switzerland, Bhumibol visited Paris frequently. In Paris he met Mom Rajawongse Sirikit Kitiyakara, daughter of the Thai ambassador to France. \n\nOn 4 October 1948, while Bhumibol was driving a Fiat Topolino on the Geneva-Lausanne road, he collided with the rear of a braking truck 10 km outside Lausanne. He injured his back and incurred cuts on his face that cost him the sight of his right eye. While he was hospitalised in Lausanne, Sirikit visited him frequently. She met his mother, who asked her to continue her studies nearby so that Bhumibol could get to know her better. Bhumibol selected for her a boarding school in Lausanne, Riante Rive. A quiet engagement in Lausanne followed on 19 July 1949, and they were married on 28 April 1950, just a week before his coronation.\n\nBhumibol and his Queen Sirikit have four children:\n* (Formerly HRH) Princess Ubolratana Rajakanya, born 5 April 1951 in Lausanne, Switzerland; married Peter Ladd Jensen (now divorced), and has two daughters. Her autistic son, Bhumi Jensen, was killed in the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. \n* HRH Crown Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn, born 28 July 1952; married Mom Luang Soamsawali Kitiyakara (later divorced and became HRH the Princess Niece); one daughter. Then married Yuvadhida Polpraserth; four sons and a daughter. Third marriage was to Srirasmi Suwadee; one son.\n* HRH Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, born 2 April 1955; unmarried\n* HRH Princess Chulabhorn Walailak, born 4 July 1957; married Virayudh Tishyasarin, (now divorced); two daughters\n\nCoronation and titles\n\nBhumibol was crowned King of Thailand on 5 May 1950 at the Royal Palace in Bangkok where he pledged that he would \"reign with righteousness for the benefit and happiness of the Siamese people\" (\"เราจะครองแผ่นดินโดยธรรม เพื่อประโยชน์สุขแห่งมหาชนชาวสยาม\"). Notable elements associated with the coronation included the Bahadrabith Throne beneath the Great White Umbrella of State; and he was presented with the royal regalia and utensils. \n\nIn 1950 on Coronation Day, Bhumibol's consort was made Queen (Somdej Phra Boromarajini). The date of his coronation is celebrated each 5 May in Thailand as Coronation Day, a public holiday. On 9 June 2006, Bhumibol celebrated his 60th anniversary as the King of Thailand, becoming the longest reigning monarch in Thai history.\n\nFollowing the death of his grandmother Queen Savang Vadhana, Bhumibol entered a 15-day monkhood (22 October 1956 - 5 November 1956) at Wat Bowonniwet, as is customary for Buddhist males on the death of elder relatives. During this time, Sirikit was appointed his regent. She was later appointed Queen Regent (Somdej Phra Boromarajininat) in recognition of this.\n\nAlthough Bhumibol is sometimes referred to as King Rama IX in English, Thais refer to him as Nai Luang or Phra Chao Yu Hua (ในหลวง or พระเจ้าอยู่หัว) which translate to \"the King\" and \"Lord Upon our Heads,\" respectively. He is also called Chao Chiwit (\"Lord of Life\"). Formally, he would be referred to as Phrabat Somdet Phra Chao Yu Hua (พระบาทสมเด็จพระเจ้าอยู่หัว) or, in legal documents, Phrabat Somdet Phra Paraminthara Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej (พระบาทสมเด็จพระปรมินทรมหาภูมิพลอดุลยเดช), and in English as His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej. He signs his name as ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช ป.ร. (Bhumibol Adulyadej Por Ror; this is the Thai equivalent of Bhumibol Adulyadej R[ex]).\n\nRole in Thai politics\n\nPlaek Pibulsonggram era\n\nIn the early years of his reign, during the government of military dictator Plaek Pibulsonggram, Bhumibol had no real power and was little more than a ceremonial figure under the military-dominated government. In August 1957, six months after parliamentary elections, General Sarit Dhanarajata accused the government of Field Marshal Pibulsonggram of lèse majesté due to its conduct of the 2,500th anniversary celebration of Buddhism. On 16 September 1957, Pibulsonggram went to Bhumibol to seek support for his government. Bhumibol advised the Field Marshal to resign to avoid a coup; however, Pibulsonggram refused. That evening, Sarit Dhanarajata seized power. Two hours later Bhumibol imposed martial law throughout the Kingdom. Bhumibol issued a Proclamation appointing Sarit as \"Military Defender of the Capital\" without anyone countersigning the Proclamation. It included the following: \n\nWhereas it appears that the public administration by the government under the premiership of Field Marshal P. Phibunsonggram is untrustworthy, and that the government could not maintain the public order; and whereas the military, led by Field Marshal Sarit Dhanarajata, has successfully taken over the public administration and now acts as the Military Defender of the Capital; Now, therefore, I do hereby appoint Field Marshal Sarit Dhanarajata as the Military Defender of the Capital, and command that all the citizens shall remain calm whilst all the government officers shall serve the orders issued by Field Marshal Sarit Dhanarajat. This Proclamation shall come into force immediately. Done this 16th Day of September, Buddhist Era 2500 (1957).\n\nSarit Dhanarajata era\n\nDuring Sarit's dictatorship, the monarchy was revitalised. Bhumibol attended public ceremonies, toured the provinces and patronised development projects. Under Sarit, the practice of crawling in front of royalty during audiences, banned by King Chulalongkorn, was revived in certain situations and the royal-sponsored Thammayut Nikaya order was revitalised. For the first time since the absolute monarchy was overthrown, a king was conveyed up the Chao Phraya River in a Royal Barge Procession to offer robes at temples. \n\nOther disused ceremonies from the classical period of the Chakri Dynasty, such as the royally-patronised ploughing ceremony (Thai: พิธีพืชมงคล), were also revived. Bhumibol's birthday (5 December) was declared the national day, replacing the previous national day, the anniversary of the Siamese Revolution of 1932 (24 June). Upon Sarit's death on 8 December 1963, an unprecedented 21 days of mourning were declared in the palace. A royal five-tier umbrella shaded his body while it lay in state. Long-time royal adviser Phraya Srivisarn Vacha later noted that no Prime Minister ever had such an intimate relationship with Bhumibol as Sarit. \n\nContemporary thinkers differ in their views about the relationship between Bhumibol and Sarit. Paul Handley, writer of The King Never Smiles, views Sarit as Bhumibol's tool, whereas political scientist Thak Chaloemtiarana asserts that Sarit used Bhumibol in order to build his own credibility. \n\nPrem Tinsulanonda era\n\nThe ensuing chaos was used as a pretext for a military coup. The junta submitted three names to the king to choose from to become the next premier: Deputy President of the king's Privy Council Prakob Hutasingh, right-wing Bangkok Governor Thamnoon Thien-ngern, and conservative Supreme Court judge Thanin Kraivixien. Bhumibol chose Thanin as the most suitable. However, Thanin proved to be very right-wing himself, causing student protesters to flee to join the communists in the jungle. Thanin was himself overthrown in a military coup in October 1977 led by General Kriangsak Chomanan. Kriangsak was succeeded in 1980 by the popular Army Commander-in-Chief, General Prem Tinsulanond, later the Privy Council President.\n\nBhumibol's refusal to endorse military coups in 1981 (the April Fool's Day coup) and 1985 (the Share Rebellion) ultimately led to the victory of forces loyal to the government, despite some violence – including in 1981, the seizure of Bangkok by rebel forces. The coups led many to believe that Bhumibol had misjudged Thai society and that his credibility as an impartial mediator between various political and military factions had been compromised. \n\nCrisis of 1992\n\nIn 1992, Bhumibol played a key role in Thailand's transition to a democratic system. A coup on 23 February 1991 returned Thailand to military dictatorship. After a general election in 1992, the majority parties invited General Suchinda Kraprayoon, a leader of the coup group, to be prime minister. This caused much dissent, which escalated into demonstrations that led to a large number of deaths when the military was brought in to control protesters. The situation became increasingly critical as police and military forces clashed with protesters. Violence and riots spread to many areas of the capital with rumours of a rift among the armed forces. \n\nAmidst the fear of civil war, Bhumibol intervened. He summoned Suchinda and the leader of the pro-democracy movement, retired Major General Chamlong Srimuang, to a televised audience, and urged them to find a peaceful resolution. At the height of the crisis, the sight of both men appearing together on their knees (in accordance with royal protocol) made a strong impression on the nation, and led to Suchinda's resignation soon afterwards.\n\nIt was one of the few occasions in which Bhumibol directly and publicly intervened in a political conflict. A general election was held shortly afterward, leading to a civilian government. \n\n2003 War on Drugs\n\nIn his 4 December 2002 speech on the eve of his birthday, King Bhumibol spoke about the rise in drug use, the high social costs and deaths caused by drugs, and called for a \"war on drugs.\" Privy Councillor General Phichit Kunlawanit called on the Thaksin Shinawatra government to use its majority in parliament to establish a special court to deal with drug dealers, stating that \"if we execute 60,000 the land will rise and our descendants will escape bad karma\". \n\nOn 14 January 2003, Thaksin launched a campaign to rid \"every square inch of the country\" of drugs. His \"war on drugs\" campaign consisted of setting provincial arrest and seizure targets including \"blacklists\", awarding government officials for achieving targets, and threatening punishment for those who failed to make the quota, targeting dealers, and ruthless implementation. In the first three months, Human Rights Watch reported that 2,275 people were killed, almost double the number normally killed in drug-related violence. Human rights critics claimed a large number were extrajudicially executed.\n[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9405E7DF1038F93BA35757C0A9659C8B63 \"A Wave of Drug Killings Is Linked to Thai Police\"] By Seth Mydans, 8 April 2003 New York Times [http://www.akha.org/content/drugwar/drugwarsethmydansnyt.html]Amnesty International report: [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA39/008/2003 Thailand: Grave developments – Killings and other abuses] The War on Drugs was widely criticized by the international community. \n\nAccording to the Narcotics Control Board, the campaign was effective in reducing drug consumption, especially in schools. The War on Drugs was one of the most popular policies of the Thaksin government. Bhumibol, in a 2003 birthday speech, praised Thaksin and criticized those who counted only dead drug dealers while ignoring deaths caused by drugs. \n\n\"Victory in the War on Drugs is good. They may blame the crackdown for more than 2,500 deaths, but this is a small price to pay. If the prime minister failed to curb [the drug trade], over the years the number of deaths would easily surpass this toll.\" \n\nBhumibol also asked the commander of the police to investigate the killings. Police Commander Sant Sarutanond reopened investigations into the deaths, and again claimed that few of the deaths were at the hands of the police.\n\nAfter the 2006 coup, the military junta appointed a committee led by former Attorney General Kanit Na Nakorn to investigate deaths in the war on drugs. The committee found that over half of those killed in 2003 had no links to the drug trade and blamed the violence on a government \"shoot-to-kill\" policy based on flawed blacklists. However, no one has been prosecuted, with interim Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont stating that there was insufficient evidence to take legal action.[http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id\n10566797 \"Thailand's drug wars. Back on the offensive\"] 24 January 2008 The Economist\n\nWhile he was opposition leader, Abhisit Vejjajiva accused Thaksin of crimes against humanity in the war on drugs. After he became Prime Minister, Abhisit opened an investigation led by former attorney-general Kampee Kaewcharoen, claiming that a successful probe could lead to prosecution by the International Criminal Court. Abhisit's investigation failed to find or publicize any evidence linking Thaksin or members of his government to extrajudicial killings.\n\nCrisis of 2005–2006 and the September 2006 coup\n\nBackground to the coup\n\nWeeks before the April 2006 legislative election, the Democrat Party-led opposition and the People's Alliance for Democracy petitioned Bhumibol to appoint a replacement prime minister and cabinet. Demands for royal intervention met with much criticism from the public. Bhumibol, in a speech on 26 April 2006, responded, \"Asking for a Royally-appointed prime minister is undemocratic. It is, pardon me, a mess. It is irrational\". \n\nAfter publicly claiming victory in the boycotted April parliamentary elections, Thaksin Shinawatra had a private audience with the king. A few hours later, Thaksin appeared on national television to announce that he would be taking a break from politics.\n\nIn May 2006, the Sondhi Limthongkul-owned Manager Daily newspaper published a series of articles describing the \"Finland Plot\", alleging that Thaksin and former members of the Communist Party of Thailand planned to overthrow the king and seize control of the nation. No evidence was ever produced to verify the existence of such a plot, and Thaksin and his Thai Rak Thai party vehemently denied the accusations and sued the accusers.\n\nIn a rare, televised speech to senior judges, Bhumibol requested the judiciary to take action to resolve the political crisis. On 8 May 2006, the Constitutional Court invalidated the results of the April elections and ordered new elections scheduled for 15 October 2006. The Criminal Court later jailed the Election Commissioners. \n\nOn 14 July 2006, Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda addressed graduating cadets of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy, telling them that the Thai military must serve the king—not the government. \n\nOn 20 July, Bhumibol signed a royal decree endorsing new House elections for 15 October 2006. In an unprecedented act, the King wrote a note on the royal decree calling for a clean and fair election. That very day, Bhumibol underwent spinal surgery. \n\nThe coup\n\nOn the evening of 19 September, the Thai military overthrew the Thaksin government and seized control of Bangkok in a bloodless coup. The junta, led by the Sonthi Boonyaratglin, Commander of the Army, called itself the Council for Democratic Reform under the Constitutional Monarchy. It accused the deposed prime minister and his regime of crimes, including lèse majesté, and pledged its loyalty to Bhumibol. Martial law was declared, the constitution repealed and the October elections cancelled. Protests and political meetings were banned. \n\nThe King's role in the coup was the subject of much speculation among Thai analysts and the international media, although publication of such speculation was banned in Thailand. The King had an audience with Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda at the same time that special forces troops were mobilised. Anti-coup protesters claimed that Prem was the mastermind of the coup, although the military claimed otherwise and banned any discussion of the topic. In a BBC interview, Thitinan Pongsudhirak of Chulalongkorn University noted, \"This coup was nothing short of Thaksin versus the King... He [the King] is widely seen as having implicitly endorsed the coup.\" In the same interview, social critic Sulak Sivaraksa claimed, \"Without his [the King's] involvement, the coup would have been impossible.\" Sulak added that the King is \"very skillful. He never becomes obviously involved. If this coup goes wrong, Sonthi will get the blame, but whatever happens, the King will only get praise.\" On Saturday, 23 September 2006, the junta warned they would \"urgently retaliate against foreign reporters whose coverage has been deemed insulting to the monarchy.\" The President of Bhumibol's Privy Council, General Prem Tinsulanonda, supported the coup. The junta later appointed Privy Council member General Surayud Chulanont as prime minister.\n\nOn 20 April 2009, Thaksin claimed in an interview with the Financial Times that Bhumibol had been briefed by Privy Councillors Prem Tinsulanonda and Surayud Chulanont about their plans to stage the 2006 coup. He claimed that General Panlop Pinmanee, a leader of the People's Alliance for Democracy, had told him of the briefing. The Thai embassy in London denied Thaksin's claims.\n\nAfter the coup\n\nThe junta appointed a constitutional tribunal to rule on alleged polling fraud involving the Thai Rak Thai and Democrat political parties. Guilty rulings would have dissolved both parties, Thailand's largest and oldest, respectively, and banned the parties' leadership from politics for five years. The weeks leading up to the verdicts saw rising political tensions. On 24 May 2007, about a week before the scheduled verdict, Bhumibol gave a rare speech to the Supreme Administrative Court (the president of which is also a member of the constitutional tribunal). \"You have the responsibility to prevent the country from collapsing,\" he warned them in the speech, which was shown on all national television channels simultaneously during the evening. \"The nation needs political parties.... In my mind, I have a judgment but I cannot say,\" he said. \"Either way the ruling goes, it will be bad for the country, there will be mistakes.\" The tribunal later acquitted the Democrat Party, but dissolved the Thai Rak Thai Party and banned 111 of its executives from politics for five years.\n\nThe junta-appointed Constitution Drafting Assembly later tried to use the King in a propaganda campaign to increase public support for its widely criticised draft constitution. The CDA placed billboards saying, \"Love the King. Care about the King. Vote in the referendum\" throughout northeast Thailand, where opposition to the junta was greatest. \n\n2008 crisis\n\nThe military's constitution passed the referendum, and a general election was held in December 2007. The People's Power Party, consisting of many former Thai Rak Thai Party MPs and supporters, won the majority and formed a government. The People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) refused to accept the election results and started protests, eventually laying siege to Government House, Don Muang Airport, and Suvarnabhumi Airport. Although the PAD claimed they were defending the monarchy, Bhumibol remained silent. However, after a PAD supporter died in a clash with police, Queen Sirikit presided over her cremation. Princess Sirindhorn, when asked at a US press conference whether the PAD was acting on behalf of the monarchy, replied, \"I don't think so. They do things for themselves.\" Questioning and criticism over Bhumibol's role in the crisis increased, particularly from the international press. \"It is more and more difficult for them to hold the illusion that the monarchy is universally adored,\" says a Thai academic. \n\nIn April 2008, Bhumibol appointed alleged coup plotter General Surayud Chulanont to the Privy Council of Thailand. In the weeks leading up to the 2011 general election, Bhumibol appointed Air Chief Marshal Chalit Pukbhasuk, a leader of the 2006 military coup, to his Privy Council. \n\nDeclining health\n\nBhumibol suffers from lumbar spinal stenosis, and received a microsurgical decompression for the condition in July 2006. He was admitted to hospital in October 2007 and diagnosed with a blood shortage to his brain. He received treatment for various ailments including heart problems and was released after three weeks. \n\nBhumibol was again admitted to Siriraj Hospital in September 2009, apparently suffering from flu and pneumonia. In 2011, it was revealed as part of WikiLeaks's leak of United States diplomatic cables that he had suffered from Parkinson's disease and depression. He was diagnosed with diverticulitis in hospital in November 2011, and was treated for the condition in January 2012. Bhumibol suffered minute subdural bleeding in the left frontal area of his brain for which he was treated in July 2012. Bhumibol left hospital in July 2013. \n\nHe was discharged from Siriraj Hospital to travel to Klai Kangwon Palace at Hua Hin on 2 August 2013, but returned intermittently in the following years, most recently on 1 June 2015. Bhumibol was too ill to appear for the public celebration of his birthday on 5 December 2015, but made a televised appearance on 14 December, his first in several months. The King temporarily left hospital to visit Chitralada Royal Villa on 11 January 2016 but returned later that day. \n\nRoyal powers\n\nConstitutional powers\n\nFor a historical perspective on how Bhumibol's constitutional powers have changed over time, see the Constitutions of Thailand article\n\nBhumibol retains enormous powers, partly because of his immense popularity and partly because his powers – although clearly defined in the Thai constitution – are often subject to conflicting interpretations. This was highlighted by the controversy surrounding the appointment of Jaruvan Maintaka as Auditor-General. Jaruvan had been appointed by The State Audit Commission, but in July 2004, the Constitutional Court ruled that her appointment was unconstitutional. Jaruvan refused to vacate her office without an explicit order from Bhumibol, on the grounds that she had previously been royally approved. When the Senate elected a replacement for Jaruvan, Bhumibol refused to approve him. The Senate declined to vote to override Bhumibol's veto. Finally in February 2006 the Audit Commission reinstated Jaruvan when it became clear from a memo from the Office of the King's Principal Private Secretary that King Bhumibol supported her appointment.\nBhumibol has vetoed legislation very rarely. In 1976, when the Parliament voted 149–19 to extend democratic elections down to district levels, Bhumibol refused to sign the law. The Parliament refused to vote to overturn the King's veto. In 1954, Bhumibol vetoed parliamentary-approved land reform legislation twice before consenting to sign it. The law limited the maximum land an individual could hold to 50 rai (80000 m2), at a time when the Crown Property Bureau was the kingdom's largest land-owner. The law was not enforced as General Sarit soon overthrew the elected government in a coup and repealed the law.\n\nBhumibol has the constitutional prerogative to pardon criminals, although there are several criteria for receiving a pardon, including age and remaining sentence. The 2006 pardoning of several convicted child rapists, including an Australian rapist and child pornographer, caused controversy. However, under the Thai constitution, the king has the prerogative to grant pardons and all laws, royal rescripts, and royal commands relating to state affairs must be countersigned by a minister unless otherwise provided for in the constitution.\n\nNetwork monarchy and extraconstitutional powers\n\nSeveral academics outside Thailand, including Duncan McCargo and Federico Ferrara, have noted the active political involvement of Bhumibol through a \"network monarchy,\" whose most significant proxy is Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda. McCargo claimed that Bhumibol's conservative network worked behind the scenes to establish political influence in the 1990s, but was threatened by the landslide election victories of Thaksin Shinawatra in 2001 and 2005. Ferrara claimed, shortly before the Thai Supreme Court delivered its verdict to seize Thaksin Shinawatra's assets, that the judiciary was a well-established part of Bhumibol's network and represented his main avenue to exercise extra-constitutional prerogatives despite having the appearance of being constitutional. He also noted how, in comparison to the Constitutional Court's 2001 acquittal of Thaksin, the judiciary was a much more important part of the \"network\" than it was in the past. \n\nThe network's ability to exercise power is based partly on Bhumibol's popularity and strict control of Bhumibol's popular image. According to Jost Pachaly of the Heinrich Böll Foundation, Bhumibol \"plays an important role behind the scenes. But the role is difficult to assess because nothing is reported about it and no one really knows anything specific,\" due to lese majeste laws forbidding discussion about Bhumibol's political activities. Bhumibol's popularity was demonstrated following the 2003 Phnom Penh riots in Cambodia, when hundreds of Thai protesters, enraged by rumors that Cambodian rioters had stomped on photographs of Bhumibol, gathered outside the Cambodian embassy in Bangkok. Photographs of the stomping were not published in Thailand, but were available on the internet. The situation was resolved peacefully only when Police General Sant Sarutanonda told the crowd that he had received a call from royal secretary Arsa Sarasin conveying Bhumibol's request for calm. The crowd dispersed. \n\nRoyal projects\n\nHistory\n\nBhumibol has been involved in many social and economic development projects. The nature of his involvement has varied by political regime. \n\nThe government of Plaek Pibulsonggram (1951–1957) limited Bhumibol to a ceremonial role. During that period Bhumibol produced some films and operated a radio station from Chitlada Palace using personal funds.\n\nIn the military governments of Sarit Dhanarajata and his successors (1958–1980), Bhumibol was portrayed as the \"development King\" and the inspiration for the economic and political goals of the regime. Royally-ordered projects were implemented under the financial and political support of the government, including projects in rural areas and communities under the influence of the Communist Party of Thailand. Bhumibol's visits to these projects were heavily promoted by the Sarit government and broadcast in state-controlled media.\n\nDuring the governments of General Prem Tinsulanond (1981–1987), the relationship between the Thai state and the monarch was at its closest. Prem, later to become President of Bhumibol's Privy Council, officially allocated government budgets and manpower to support royal projects. Most activities in this period involved the development of large-scale irrigation projects in rural areas.\n\nDuring the modern period (post-1988), the structured development of the royal projects reached its apex. Bhumibol's Chaipattana Foundation was established, promoting his \"sufficiency economy\" theory, an alternative to the export-oriented policies adopted by the period's elected governments. Following the 2006 coup, establishment of a \"sufficiency economy\" was enshrined in the constitution as being a primary goal of the government, and government financial support for royal projects was boosted.\n\nProject samplings\n\nRama VIII Bridge. Suggested by Bhumibol, funded by the government\nHuai Ongkod land reform project, Kanchanaburi Province. Suggested by Bhumibol, using government-owned land.\nRoyal Medical Team. Bhumibol's private physicians accompanying him on village tours were encouraged to provide medical care for local residents. In addition, the Royal Household sends letters of support to physicians who volunteer to serve in hospitals in provinces where royal palaces are present. \n\n60th Anniversary celebrations\n\nAlso called the Diamond Jubilee, the 60th anniversary celebrations of the King's accession to the throne were a series of events marking Bhumibol's reign. Events included a royal barge procession on the Chao Phraya River, fireworks displays, art exhibitions, and the pardoning of 25,000 prisoners, concerts, and dance performances.\n\nTied in with the anniversary, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented Bhumibol with the United Nations Development Programme's first Human Development Lifetime Achievement Award on 26 May 2006. National holidays were observed on 9 June and 12–13 June 2006. On 9 June, the King and Queen appeared on the balcony of Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall before hundreds of thousands of people. The official royal barge procession on 12 June was attended by the King and Queen and royal visitors from 26 other countries. On 13 June, a state banquet for the royal visitors was held in the newly constructed Rama IX Throne Hall at the Grand Palace, the first official function of the hall. The Chiang Mai Royal Floral Expo was also held to honour the anniversary.\n\nOn 16 January 2007, the CDRM officially declared the end of the 60th anniversary celebrations and commenced year-long celebrations of Bhumibol's 80th birthday. \n\nPrivate life\n\nBhumibol is a painter, musician, photographer, author and translator. His book Phra Mahachanok is based on a traditional Jataka story of Buddhist scripture. The Story of Thong Daeng is the story of his dog Thong Daeng. \n\nIn his youth, Bhumibol was greatly interested in firearms. He kept a carbine, a Sten gun and two automatic pistols in his bedroom, and he and his elder brother, King Ananda Mahidol, often used the gardens of the palace for target practice.\n\nThere are two English language books that provide extensive detail—albeit not always verifiable—about Bhumibol's life, especially his early years and then throughout his entire reign. One is The Revolutionary King by William Stevenson, the other is The King Never Smiles by Paul M. Handley. A third and earlier work, The Devil's Discus, is also available in Thai and English. The latter two books are banned in Thailand, while the first has never been sold in the country due to its inaccuracies, despite having been written with royal patronage.\n\nBhumibol's creativity in, among other things, music, art and invention, was the focus of a two-minute long documentary created by the government of Abhibisit Vejjajiva that was screened at all branches of the Major Cineplex Group and SF Cinema City, the two largest cinema chains in Thailand. \n\nMusic\n\nBhumibol is an accomplished jazz saxophone player and composer, playing dixieland and New Orleans jazz, and also plays the clarinet, trumpet, guitar, and piano. Bhumibol has performed with Preservation Hall Jazz Band, Benny Goodman, Stan Getz, Lionel Hampton, and Benny Carter. Bhumibol has written 49 compositions, including marches, waltzes, and Thai patriotic songs, but mostly jazz swing. His most popular compositions are Candlelight Blues, Love at Sundown, and Falling Rain, all composed in 1946. Bhumibol's musical influences include Louis Armstrong, Sidney Bechet, Benny Carter, and Johnny Hodges.\n\nBhumibol initially received general music training privately while he was studying in Switzerland, but his older brother, then King Ananda Mahidol, who had bought a saxophone, sent Bhumibol in his place. King Ananda would later join him on the clarinet. On his permanent return to Thailand in 1950, Bhumibol started a jazz band, Lay Kram, whom he performed with on a radio station he started at his palace. The band grew, being renamed the Au Sau Wan Suk Band and he would perform with them live on Friday evenings, occasionally taking telephoned requests. Bhumibol also performed with his band at Thai universities, composing anthems for the universities of Chulalongkorn, Thammasat, and Kasetsart. Bhumibol performed with Benny Goodman in Bangkok's Ambara Throne Hall in 1956, and later played at Goodman's home in New York in 1960. Many bands such as Les Brown and His Band of Renown, Claude Bolling Big Band, and Preservation Hall Jazz Band recorded some of Bhumibol's compositions and can still be heard in Thailand. A 1996 documentary, Gitarajan, was made about Bhumibol's music.\n\nBhumibol is still active in playing music with his Au Sau Wan Suk Band, but is rarely heard in public. In 1964, Bhumibol was inducted to the honorary membership of Vienna's University of Music and Performing Arts. In 2000, he was awarded the Sanford Medal for his contribution in music from Yale School of Music. He was the first Asian in both cases to be honored as such. In 2003, the University of North Texas College of Music awarded him an honorary doctorate in music.\n\nSailing\n\nBhumibol is an accomplished sailor and sailboat designer. He won a gold medal for sailing in the Fourth Southeast Asian Peninsular (SEAP) Games in 1967, together with HRH Princess Ubol Ratana whom he tied for points. This accomplishment is all the more remarkable given Bhumibol's lack of binocular depth perception. Bhumibol has also sailed the Gulf of Thailand from Hua Hin to Toey Harbour in Sattahip, covering 60 nmi in a 14-hour journey on the \"Vega 1,\" an OK Class dinghy he built.\n\nLike his father, a former military naval engineer, Bhumibol was an avid boat designer and builder. He produced several small sailboat designs in the International Enterprise, OK, and Moth classes. His designs in the Moth class include the \"Mod,\" \"Super Mod,\" and \"Micro Mod.\" \n\nPatents\n\nBhumibol is the only Thai monarch to hold a patent. He obtained one in 1993 for a waste water aerator named \"Chai Pattana\", and several patents on rainmaking since 1955: the \"sandwich\" rainmaking patent in 1999 and lately the \"supersandwich\" patent in 2003. \n\nWealth\n\nEstimates of the post-devaluation (c. 1997–1998) wealth of the royal household and the Crown Property Bureau (CPB) range from US$10 billion to $20 billion. In August 2008, Forbes published its 2008 version of The World's Richest Royals and King Bhumibol was listed first, with an estimated wealth of US$35 billion. A few days later, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Thailand issued a statement that the Forbes report incorrectly conflated the wealth of the CPB and that of Bhumibol. In the 2009 Forbes list, the Thai government's objections were acknowledged, but Forbes justified the continued inclusion of the CPB's assets, as the Bureau is responsible for handling the Crown's property and investments. The 2009 estimate was a reduced figure of US$30 billion due to declines in real estate and stocks, and this figure was also published in April 2014 by Business Spectator, which also confirmed that the CPB is the body responsible for the management of the Crown's wealth. \n\nThe wealth and properties of Bhumibol and the royal family are managed by the Privy Purse. The CPB manages the assets of the Crown as an institution. It was established by law, but is directed without the involvement of the Thai Government and reports only to the king. The CPB receives many state privileges. Although the Minister of Finance presides over the CPB's Board of Directors, final decisions are made solely by Bhumibol. Bhumibol is the only person who can view the CPB's annual report, which is not released to the public.\n\nThrough the CPB, the Crown owns land and equity in many companies and massive amounts of land, including 3,320 acres in central Bangkok, as well as 13,200 acres of rural land. The CPB owns 32 per cent of Siam Cement (worth US$12.6 billion), 23 per cent of Siam Commercial Bank (Thailand's largest bank), and interests in Christiani & Nielsen, Deves Insurance and Shin Corporation.\n\nThe CPB also lets or leases about 36,000 properties to third parties, including the sites of the Four Seasons Hotel Bangkok, the Suan Lum Night Bazaar, Siam Paragon and the Central World Tower. The CPB spearheaded a plan to turn Bangkok's historical Ratchadamnoen Avenue into a shopping street known as the \"Champs-Élysées of Asia\" and in 2007, shocked longtime residents of traditional marketplace districts by serving them with eviction notices. The Crown's substantial income from the CPB, estimated to be at least five billion baht in 2004 alone, is exempt from taxes. \n\nKing Bhumibol is the owner of the Golden Jubilee Diamond, the largest faceted diamond in the world, which is estimated to be worth between US$4 million and US$12 million in April 2014.\n\nCriticism\n\nAlthough Bhumibol is held in great respect by many Thais, he is also protected by lèse majesté laws which allow critics to be jailed for three to fifteen years. The laws were toughened during the dictatorship of royalist Premier Tanin Kraivixien, such that criticism of any member of the royal family, the royal development projects, the royal institution, the Chakri Dynasty or any previous Thai king was also banned.\n\nDuring his 2005 birthday speech, Bhumibol invited criticism: \"Actually, I must also be criticised. I am not afraid if the criticism concerns what I do wrong, because then I know. Because if you say the king cannot be criticised, it means that the king is not human\", he claimed. \"If the king can do no wrong, it is akin to looking down upon him because the king is not being treated as a human being. But the king can do wrong.\" A widespread barrage of criticisms resulted, followed by a sharp rise in lèse majesté prosecutions. Lèse majesté cases rose from five or six a year pre-2005 to 478 in 2010. \n\nBiographies\n\nAmerican journalist Paul Handley, who spent thirteen years in Thailand, wrote the biography The King Never Smiles. The Information and Communications Ministry banned the book and blocked the book's page on the Yale University Press website in January 2006. In a statement dated 19 January 2006, Thai National Police Chief General Kowit Wattana said the book has \"contents which could affect national security and the good morality of the people.\" The book provides a detailed discussion of Bhumibol's role in Thai political history and also analyzes the factors behind Bhumibol's popularity.\n\nWilliam Stevenson, who had access to the Royal Court and the Royal Family, wrote the biography The Revolutionary King in 2001. An article in Time says the idea for the book was suggested by Bhumibol. Critics noted that the book displays intimate knowledge about personal aspects of Bhumibol. However, the book has been unofficially banned in Thailand and the Bureau of the Royal Household warned the Thai media about even referring to it in print. An official ban was not possible as it was written with Bhumibol's blessing. The book has been criticised for factual inaccuracies, disrespecting Bhumibol (it refers to him by his personal nickname \"Lek\"), and proposing a controversial theory explaining the mysterious death of King Ananda. Stevenson said, \"The king said from the beginning the book would be dangerous for him and for me.\"\n\nSuccession to the throne\n\nBhumibol's only son, Prince Vajiralongkorn, was given the title \"Somdej Phra Boroma Orasadhiraj Chao Fah Maha Vajiralongkorn Sayam Makutrajakuman\" (Crown Prince of Siam) on 28 December 1972 and made heir apparent (องค์รัชทายาท) to the throne in accordance with the Palace Law on Succession of 1924. \n\nOn 5 December 1977, Princess Sirindhorn was given the title \"Siam Boromrajakumari\" (Princess Royal of Siam). Her title is often translated by the English-language press as \"Crown Princess\", although her official English-language title is simply \"Princess\". \n\nAlthough the constitution was later amended to allow the Privy Council to appoint a princess as successor to the throne, this would only occur in the absence of an heir apparent. This amendment is retained in Section 23 of the 1997 \"People's Constitution.\" This effectively allowed Princess Sirindhorn to potentially be second in line to the throne, but did not affect Prince Vajiralongkorn's status as heir apparent.\n\nRecent constitutions of Thailand have made the amendment of the Palace Law of Succession the sole prerogative of the reigning king. According to Assoc. Prof. Gothom Arya, former election commissioner, this allows the reigning king, if he so chooses, to appoint his son or any of his daughters to the throne. \n\nTitles and styles\n\n 5 December 1927 - September 1929:His Highness Prince Bhumibol Adulyadej \n* September 1929 - 10 July 1935: His Royal Highness Prince Bhumibol Adulyadej\n* 10 July 1935 - 9 June 1946: His Royal Highness Prince Bhumibol Adulyadej, the Prince Brother\n* 9 June 1946 - present: His Majesty the King\n\nKing Bhumibol Adulyadej's Thai full title is \"Phra Bat Somdet Phra Paraminthra Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej Mahitalathibet Ramathibodi Chakkrinaruebodin Sayamminthrathirat Borommanatthabophit\" (; ), which is referred to in the chief legal documents; and in general documents, the title is shorthened to \"Phra Bat Somdet Phra Paraminthra Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej Sayamminthrathirat Borommanatthabophit\" or just \"Phra Bat Somdet Phra Paraminthra Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej.\"\n\nThe literal translation of the title is as follows:\n* Phra—a third person pronoun referring to the person with much higher status than the speaker, meaning \"excellent\" in general. The word is from Sanskrit vara (\"excellent\").\n* Bat—\"foot,\" from Sanskrit pāda.\n* Somdet—\"lord,\" from Khmer samdech (\"excellency\").\n* Paraminthra—\"the great,\" from Sanskrit parama (\"great\") + indra (\"leader\")\n* Maha—\"great,\" from Sanskrit, maha\n* Bhumibol—\"Strength of the Land,\" from Sanskrit bhūmi (\"land\") +bala (\"strength\")\n* Adulyadej—\"Incomparable power,\" from Sanskrit atulya (\"incomparable\") +teja (\"power\")\n* Mahitalathibet—\"Son of Mahidol\"\n* Ramathibodi—\"Rama, the Avatar of God Vishnu to become the great ruler\"; from Sanskrit rāma + adhi (\"great\") + patī (\"president\")\n* Chakkrinaruebodin—\"Leader of the People who is from the House of Chakri\", from Sanskrit cakrī + naṛ (\"men\") + patī (\"president\")\n* Sayamminthrathirat—\"the Great King of Siam,\" from Sanskrit Siam (former name of Thailand) + indra (\"leader\") + adhi (\"great\") + rāja (\"king)\n* Borommanatthabophit— \"the Royalty who is the Great Shelter\", from Sanskrit parama (\"great\") + nātha (\"the one who others can depend on\" or \"Power/Right\") + pavitra (\"royalty\")\n\nIssue\n\nAncestors\n\nWorks\n\n* HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. The Story of Tongdaeng. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 2004. ISBN 974-272-917-4\n* HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. The Story of Mahajanaka: Cartoon Edition. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 1999. ISBN 974-272-074-6\n* HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. The Story of Mahajanaka. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 1997. ISBN 974-8364-71-2\n* HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, Chaturong Pramkaew (Ed.). My Country Thailand...land of Everlasting Smile. Amarin Book, Bangkok. 1995. ISBN 974-8363-53-8\n* HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. His Majesty the King's Photographs in the Development of the Country. Photographic Society of Thailand & Thai E, Bangkok. 1992. ISBN 974-88805-0-8\n* HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. Paintings by his Majesty the King: Special exhibition for the Rattanakosin Bicentennial Celebration at the National Gallery, Chao Fa Road, Bangkok, 1 April – 30 June 1982. National Gallery, Bangkok. 1982. \n\nBiographies \n\n* \n*([https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/account/downloads/get/14995 Review] by Michael J. Montesano, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 34/1 (Apr 2012), pp. 128–132)\n \n([http://www.ufv.ca/jhb/Volume_4/Volume_4_Hewison.pdf Review] by Kevin Hewison, Journal of Historical Biography, Vol. 4 (Autumn 2008), pp. 115–122)\n([https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/account/downloads/get/8647 Review] by Paul W. Chambers, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 29/3 (Dec 2007), pp. 529–532)", "The monarchy of Thailand (whose monarch is referred to as the King of Thailand or historically as King of Siam; , refers to the constitutional monarchy and monarch of the Kingdom of Thailand (formerly Siam). The King of Thailand is the head of state and head of the ruling Royal House of Chakri.\n\nAlthough the current Chakri Dynasty was created only in 1782, the existence of the institution of monarchy in Thailand is traditionally considered to have its roots from the founding of the Sukhothai Kingdom in 1238, with a brief interregnum from the death of Ekkathat to the accession of Taksin in the 18th century. The institution was transformed into a constitutional monarchy in 1932 after the bloodless Siamese Revolution of 1932. The monarchy's official residence is the Grand Palace in Bangkok; however, the present king spends much of his time at the Chitralada Palace, or the Klai Kangwon Villa (Thai: วังไกลกังวล) (\"Palace Far from Worries\") in the beach resort city of Hua Hin.\n\nThe current monarch of Thailand is Bhumibol Adulyadej. The king has reigned since the death of his older brother Ananda Mahidol on 9 June 1946, making him the world's longest reigning current monarch and the world's longest serving head of state. King Bhumibol is not just a symbolic figurehead but possesses some powers, such as being the prerogative of royal assent and the power of pardon. King Bhumibol is loved and revered by most Thai people and is protected by lèse majesté laws.\n\nThe King of Thailand's titles include Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, Adherent of Buddhism, and Upholder of religions. \n\nHistory\n\nOrigin\n\n \nThe current concept of Thai kingship has evolved through 800 years of absolute rule. The first king of a unified Thailand was the founder of the Kingdom of Sukhothai, King Sri Indraditya, in 1238. The idea of this early kingship is said to be based on two concepts derived from Hinduism and Theravada Buddhist beliefs. The first concept is based on the Vedic-Hindu caste of \"Kshatriya\" (, or warrior-ruler, in which the king derives his powers from military might. The second is based on the Theravada Buddhist concept of \"Dhammaraja\" (, Buddhism having been introduced to Thailand somewhere around the 6th century CE The idea of the Dhammaraja (or kingship under Dharma), is that the king should rule his people in accordance with Dharma and the teachings of the Buddha.\n\nThese ideas were briefly replaced in 1279, when King Ramkhamhaeng came to the throne. Ramkhamhaeng departed from tradition and created instead a concept of \"paternal rule\" (, in which the king governs his people as a father would govern his children. This idea is reinforced in the title and name of the king, as he is still known today, Pho Khun Ramkhamhaeng (. This lasted only briefly, however. By the end of the kingdom, the two old concepts had returned as symbolized by the change in the style of the kings: \"Pho\" was changed to \"Phaya\" or Lord.\n\nKings of Ayutthaya\n\nThe Kingdom of Sukhothai was eventually supplanted by the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, which was founded in 1351 by King Ramathibodhi I. During the Ayutthayan period the idea of kingship changed. Due to ancient Khmer tradition in the region, the Hindu concept of kingship was applied to the status of the leader. Brahmins took charge in the royal coronation. The king was treated as a reincarnation of Hindu gods. Ayutthaya historical documents show the official titles of the kings in great variation: Indra, Shiva and Vishnu, or Rama. Seemingly, Rama was the most popular, as in \"Ramathibodhi\". However, Buddhist influence was also evident, as many times the king's title and \"unofficial\" name \"Dhammaraja\", an abbreviation of the Buddhist Dharmaraja. The two former concepts were re-established, with a third, older concept taking hold. This concept was called \"Devaraja\" ( (or \"divine king\"), which was an idea borrowed by the Khmer Empire from the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Java, especially the idea of a scholar class based on Hindu Brahmins. The concept centered on the idea that the king was an incarnation (avatar) of the god Vishnu and that he was a Bodhisattva (enlightened one), therefore basing his power on his religious power, his moral power, and his purity of blood.\n\nThe king, portrayed by state interests as a semi-divine figure, then became—through a rigid cultural implementation—an object of worship and veneration to his people. From then on the monarchy was largely removed from the people and continued under a system of absolute rule. Living in palaces designed after Mount Meru (\"home of the gods\" in Hinduism), the kings turned themselves into a \"Chakravartin\", where the king became an absolute and universal lord of his realm. Kings demanded that the universe be envisioned as resolving around them, and expressed their powers through elaborate rituals and ceremonies. For four centuries these kings ruled Ayutthaya, presiding over some of the greatest period of cultural, economic, and military growth in Thai History.\n\nSakdina and Rachasap \n\nThe Kings of Ayutthaya created many institutions to support their rule, which were similar to the contemporary regulations of the royal court of George V \"the Brilliant\" (r. 1314-1346), but modified to comport with southeast Asian Mueang mandala \"circles of power.\" Whereas feudalism developed in the European Middle Ages, Ayutthayan King Trailokanat instituted Sakdina, (ศักดินา, lit. \"Field Power\"), but usually translated as \"dignity marks.\" This comported with the names of two kingdoms further north: Lanna \"Million Fields\" and Sip Song Phan Na \"Twelve Thousand Fields.\" \"Rachasap\" ( royal language) is required by court etiquette as an honorific register consisting of a special vocabulary used exclusively for addressing the king, or for talking about royalty.\n\nRoyal authority \n\nThe king was chief administrator, chief legislator, and chief judge, with all laws, orders, verdict and punishments theoretically originating from his person. The king's sovereignty was reflected in the titles \"Lord of the Land\" ( Phra Chao Phaen Din) and \"Lord of Life\" ( Chao Chiwit). The king's powers and titles were seen by foreign observers as proof that the king was an absolute monarch in the European sense. However, in Siamese tradition the duty and responsibility of the king was seen as developed from the ancient Indian theories of royal authority, which resemble Enlightened Absolutism, although the emphasis is not on rationality but on Dhamma. This was disrupted in 1767, when Thai digests of the dhammasāt () were lost when a Burmese army under the Alaungpaya Dynasty invaded, sacked and burned the city of Ayutthaya.\n\nKingdom restored\n\nAn interlude filled by civil war was ended when King Taksin restored the dominion under what has been called the Thonburi Kingdom.\n\nChakri Kings\n\nIn 1782, King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke ascended the throne and moved the capital from the Thonburi side to the Bangkok side of the Chao Phraya River. There he established the House of Chakri, the current ruling dynasty of Thailand. (This first reign was later designated as that of Rama I in the list of Rama Kings of Thailand.) He also established the office of Supreme Patriarch as the head of the Sangha, the order of Buddhist monks.\n\nDuring the Rattanakosin Period the Chakri kings tried to continue the concepts of Ayutthayan kingship once again emphasizing the connection between the sovereign and his subjects. On the other hand, they continued to not relinquish any authority of the throne. Kings Buddha Loetla Nabhalai (Rama II) and Nangklao (Rama III) created a semblance of a modern administration by creating a supreme council and appointing chief officers to help with the running of the government.\n\nMongkut (Rama IV) marked a significant break in tradition when he spent the first 27 years of his adult life as a Buddhist monk during which time he became proficient in the English language, before ascending the throne. As king, he continued the appointment of officers to his supreme council, the most notable being Somdet Chao Phraya Prayurawongse and Si Suriyawongse, both of whom acted as Chief Ministers for King Mongkut (and the latter as regent, from the king's death in 1868 until 1873.)\n\nChulalongkorn (Rama V) ascended the throne as a minor at age 15 in 1868, and as King of Siam on 16 November 1873. As a prince, he had been tutored in Western traditions by the governess, Anna Leonowens. Intent on reforming the monarchy along Western lines, during his minority he traveled extensively to observe western administrative methods. He transformed the monarchy along Western lines of an \"enlightened ruler\". He abolished the practice of kneeling and crawling in front of the monarch, and repealed many laws concerning the relationship between the monarch and his people, while continuing many of the ancient aspects and rituals of the old kingship. In 1874, he created a privy council copied from the European tradition, to help him rule his Kingdom. During his reign Siam was pressured to relinquish control of its old tributaries of Laos and northern Malaya to Western powers, Siam itself narrowly avoided being colonized.\n In 1905, 37 years after his coronation, Chulalongkorn ended slavery with the Slave Abolition Act. In 1867 slaves accounted for one-third of Siamese population.\n\nHis son, Vajiravudh (Rama VI), ascended to the throne in 1910 and continued his father's zeal for reform to bring the monarchy into the 20th century. The perceived slow pace of reform resulted in the Palace Revolt of 1912. In 1914, Vajiravudh determined that the act providing for invoking martial law, first promulgated by his father in 1907, was not consistent with modern laws of war, nor convenient for the preservation of the security of the state, so it was amended to a more modern form that, with minor amendments, continued in force through subsequent changes in government. \n\nPrajadhipok (Rama VII) succeeded his brother in 1925. The Eton and Sandhurst educated monarch created a council similar to a cabinet, where the most important government officials could meet to decide state affairs. This advisory and legislative council, styled the Supreme Council of State of Siam (Thai: อภิรัฐมนตรีสภา) was founded on 28 November 1925 and existed until 1932.\n\nConstitutional monarchy\n\nIn June 1932, a group of foreign educated students and military men called \"the promoters\" carried out a bloodless revolution, seizing power and demanded that King Prajadhipok, grant the people of Siam a constitution. The King agreed and in December 1932 the people were granted a constitution, ending 150 years of absolute Chakri rule. From then on the role of the monarch was relegated to that of a symbolic head of state. His powers from then on were exercised by a prime minister and the national assembly.\n\nIn 1935 King Pradhipok (Rama VII) abdicated the throne, following disagreements with the government. He lived in exile in the United Kingdom until his death. The King was replaced by his young nephew Ananda Mahidol (Rama VIII). The new king was 10 years old and was living abroad in Switzerland. A council of regents was appointed in his place. During this period the roles and powers of the King were entirely usurped by the fascist government of Plaek Phibunsongkhram, who changed the name of the kingdom from Siam to Thailand, and aligned it on the side of the Axis powers in the Pacific theatre of World War II. By the end of the war Phibunsongkhram was removed and the young King returned. The Free Thai movement provided resistance to foreign occupation during the war and helped rehabilitate Thailand after the war.\n\nAfter Rama VIII's sudden death from a bullet wound in 1946, Prince Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), aged 19 years old, became the new monarch. As of 2015, he is the world's longest reigning monarch.\n\nThe monarchy in the 21st century\n\nSince c. 2000, the role of the Thai monarchy has been increasingly challenged by scholars, media, observers and traditionalists, and as more educated pro-democracy interests began to express their rights to speech. Many deemed that a series of laws and measures relating to lèse majesté in Thailand, aimed at protecting the king and the royal family, are hindrances to freedom of expression. Dozens of arrests, hundreds of criminal investigations and multiple imprisonments have been made based on these laws. King Bhumibol Adulyadej, in his 2005 national birthday broadcast, also indicated that he could be criticized if the criticism is constructive and not politically motivated.\n\nThe lèse-majesté law is part of Thailand’s Criminal Code, which also contains general provisions on defamation and libel of private individuals.\n\nThe king is assisted in his work and duties by the Private Secretary to the King of Thailand and the Privy Council of Thailand, in consultation with the head of the cabinet, the Prime Minister. In accordance with the constitution the king is no longer the originator of all laws in the kingdom; that prerogative is entrusted to the National Assembly of Thailand. The monarchy's household and finances are managed by the Bureau of the Royal Household and the Crown Property Bureau respectively, these agencies are not considered part of the Thai government and all personnel are appointed by the king. \n\nThe heir apparent to the Thai monarchy is the Crown Prince of Thailand, Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn. The succession to the throne is governed by the 1924 Palace Law of Succession, promulgated by King Vajiravudh. Section 22 of the constitution clearly stated that the amendment of the palace law shall be prerogative of the king. Journalist Andrew MacGregor Marshall has argued that behind the scenes, there are \"endless struggles for the throne\". His book has been banned in Thailand and holding a copy results in three year's imprisonment and a fine.\n\nThe junta which took power in 2014 has been aggressive in jailing critics of the monarchy. In 2015, it will spend US$540 million, more than the budget of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, on a promotional campaign called \"Worship, protect and uphold the monarchy.\" The campaign includes television commercials, seminars in schools and prisons, singing contests, and competitions to write stories and films praising the king. \"This is not propaganda,\" Prayut Chan-o-cha, the leader of the junta, said. \"The youth must be educated on what the king has done.\"\n\nIt its fiscal year 2016 budget, the ruling military government has increased its expenditure for \"upholding, protecting and preserving the monarchy\" to 18 billion baht (US$514 million), an increase of 28 percent for this budget line item since 2014 when it took power. \n\nList of kings\n\nRoyal regalia\n\nThe present set of royal regalia of Thailand ( and the royal utensils was created mostly during the reign of King Rama I and Rama IV, after the previous set was lost during the sack of Ayutthaya by the Burmese in 1767. The Regalia is used mainly during the coronation ceremony of the king at the beginning of every reign. The Regalia is presently on display in the Museum of the Grand Palace in Bangkok. \n\nRoyal Nine-Tiered Umbrella (พระมหาเศวตฉัตร)- the most important regalia; currently there are seven, distributed at various palaces.\nGreat Crown of Victory (พระมหาพิชัยมงกุฎ)- official headgear.\nSword of Victory (พระแสงขรรค์ชัยศรี)- found in Tonlé Sap in 1784, the sword represents military power.\nRoyal Staff (ธารพระกร)- symbol of justice\nRoyal Fan and Flywhisk (วาลวีชนี)- Royal Fan made of gold and the Royal Flywhisk made from the tail of a white elephant.\nRoyal Slippers (ฉลองพระบาท)- official footwear made of gold\n\nThe Thai royal utensils (Phra Khattiya Rajuprapoke) are also for the personal use of the monarch, comprising:\n\n* the Betel Nut Set\n* the Water Urn\n* the Libation Vessel\n* the Receptacle.\n\nThese unique objects are always placed on either side of the king's throne or his seat during royal ceremonies.\n\nOther symbols of kingship\n\nRoyal Thrones of Thailand- currently there are six, distributed at various Throne Halls in the Grand Palace. \nRoyal White Elephant- usually one to represent each reign, the current one resides at Dusit zoo, the king also has 10 others.\nThe Royal Garuda- Emblem of the king and of Thailand\nRoyal Standard of Thailand- Official standard of the king\nRoyal Flags- Personal flags of the king and royal family\n Sansoen Phra Barami- The Royal Anthem\n\nRoyal ceremonies\n\nThe King and other members of his family carry-out many royal ceremonies per year, some dating from the 13th century.\n\nRoyal coronation ceremony\nRoyal Barge Procession\nRoyal Ploughing Ceremony\nThe Changing of the Robes of the Emerald Buddha \nTrooping the Colours\nOath of Allegiance Ceremony\nSpeech from the Throne to the National Assembly of Thailand\n\nRoyal orders and decorations\n\nThe king is sovereign of several Royal Orders and Decorations, the prerogative to appoint and remove any persons from these orders are at the king's discretion. However, sometimes recommendations are made by the Cabinet of Thailand and the Prime Minister.\n\nThe Most Auspicious Order of the Rajamitrabhorn\nThe Most Illustrious Order of the Royal House of Chakri\nThe Ancient and Auspicious Order of the Nine Gems\nThe Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao\nThe Ratana Varabhorn Order of Merit\nThe Honourable Order of Rama\nThe Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant\nThe Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand\nThe Most Admirable Order of the Direkgunabhorn\nThe Vallabhabhorn Order\nThe Order of Ramkeerati\nThe Vajira Mala Order", "Asian Americans are Americans of Asian descent. The term refers to a panethnic group that includes diverse populations who have ancestral origins in East Asia, Southeast Asia, or South Asia, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau. This includes people who indicate their race(s) on the census as \"Asian\" or reported entries such as \"Asian Indian\", \"Chinese\", \"Filipino\", \"Korean\", \"Japanese\", \"Taiwanese\", \"Vietnamese\", or other Asian groups. Asian Americans with no other ancestry comprise 4.8% of the U.S. population, while people who are Asian alone or combined with at least one other race make up 5.6%. \n\nStarting in the first few years of the 2000 decade, Asian-American earnings began exceeding all other racial groups for both men and women. \nFor example, in 2008 Asian Americans had the highest median household income overall of any racial demographic. \nIn 2012, Asian Americans had the highest educational attainment level and median household income of any racial demographic in the country. \nIn 2015, Asian American men were the highest earning racial group as they earned 117% as much as white American men and Asian American women earned 106% as much as white American women.\n\nDespite this, a 2014 report from the Census Bureau reported that 12% of Asian Americans were living below the poverty line, while only 10.1% of non-Hispanic white Americans live below the poverty line. Once country of birth and other demographic factors are taken into account, Asian Americans are no more likely than non-Hispanic whites to live in poverty. \n\nTerminology\n\nAs with other racial and ethnicity based terms, formal and common usage have changed markedly through the short history of this term. Prior to the late 1960s, people of Asian ancestry were usually referred to as Oriental, Asiatic, and Mongoloid. The term Asian American was coined by historian Yuji Ichioka, who is credited with popularizing the term, to frame a new \"inter-ethnic-pan-Asian American self-defining political group\" in the late 1960s. Changing patterns of immigration, and an extensive period of exclusion of Asian immigrants, have resulted in demographic changes that have in turn affected the formal and common understandings of what defines Asian American. For example, since the removal of restrictive \"national origins\" quotas in 1965, the Asian American population has diversified greatly to include more of the peoples with ancestry from various parts of Asia. \n\nToday, Asian American is the accepted term for most formal purposes, such as government and academic research, although it is often shortened to Asian in common usage. The most commonly used definition of Asian American is the US Census Bureau definition, which includes all people with origins in the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent. This is chiefly because the Census definitions determine many government classifications, notably for equal opportunity programs and measurements.\n\nAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, \"Asian person\" in the United States is sometimes thought of as a person of East Asian descent. In vernacular usage, \"Asian\" is often used to refer to those of East Asian descent or anyone else of Asian descent with epicanthic eyefolds. This differs from the U.S. Census definition and the Asian American Studies departments in many universities consider all those of East, South or Southeast Asian descent to be \"Asian\".[http://www.aasp.cornell.edu/courses.php Cornell Asian American Studies]; contains mentions to South Asians[http://sis.berkeley.edu/catalog/gcc_list_crse_req?p_dept_name\nAsian+American+Studies&p_dept_cd=ASAMST UC Berkeley – General Catalog – Asian American Studies Courses]; South and Southeast Asian courses are present \n\nCensus definition \n\nIn the US Census, people with origins or ancestry in the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent are classified as part of the Asian race; while those with origins or ancestry in North Asia (Russians, Siberians), Central Asia (Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Turkmens, etc.), the Middle East (diaspora Jews, Turks, Persians, West Asian Arabs, etc.), and the Caucasus (Georgians, Armenians, Azeris) are classified as \"White\". \n\nBefore 1980, Census forms listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups, along with White and Black or Negro. Asian Americans had also been classified as \"other\". In 1977, the federal Office of Management and Budget issued a directive requiring government agencies to maintain statistics on racial groups, including on \"Asian or Pacific Islander\". The 1980 census marked the first classification of Asians as a large group, combining several individual ancestry groups into \"Asian or Pacific Islander.\" By the 1990 census, \"Asian or Pacific Islander (API)\" was included as an explicit category, although respondents had to select one particular ancestry as a subcategory. The 2000 census onwards separated the category into two separate ones, \"Asian American\" and \"Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.\" \n\nDebates \n\nThe definition of Asian American has variations that derive from the use of the word American in different contexts. Immigration status, citizenship (by birthright and by naturalization), acculturation, and language ability are some variables that are used to define American for various purposes and may vary in formal and everyday usage. For example, restricting American to include only U.S. citizens conflicts with discussions of Asian American businesses, which generally refer both to citizen and non-citizen owners. \n\nIn a PBS interview from 2004, a panel of Asian American writers discussed how some groups include people of Middle Eastern descent in the Asian American category. Asian American author Stewart Ikeda has noted, \"The definition of 'Asian American' also frequently depends on who's asking, who's defining, in what context, and why... the possible definitions of 'Asian-Pacific American' are many, complex, and shifting... some scholars in Asian American Studies conferences suggest that Russians, Iranians, and Israelis all might fit the field's subject of study.\" Jeff Yang, of the Wall Street Journal, writes that the pan-ethnic definition of Asian American is a unique American construct, and as an identity is \"in beta\". \n\nScholars have grappled with the accuracy, correctness, and usefulness of the term Asian American. The term \"Asian\" in Asian American most often comes under fire for encompassing a huge number of people with ancestry from (or who have immigrated from) a wide range of culturally diverse countries and traditions. In contrast, leading social sciences and humanities scholars of race and Asian American identity point out that because of the racial constructions in the United States, including the social attitudes toward race and those of Asian ancestry, Asian Americans have a \"shared racial experience.\" Because of this shared experience, the term Asian American is still a useful panethnic category because of the similarity of some experiences among Asian Americans, including stereotypes specific to people in this category. \n\nDemographics\n\nThe demographics of Asian Americans describe a heterogeneous group of people in the United States who can trace their ancestry to one or more countries in Asia. Because Asian Americans comprise 5% of the entire U.S. population, the diversity of the group is often disregarded in media and news discussions of \"Asians\" or of \"Asian Americans.\" While there are some commonalities across ethnic sub-groups, there are significant differences among different Asian ethnicities that are related to each group's history. \n\nThe demographics of Asian Americans can further be subdivided into:\nEast Asian Americans, including Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, Korean Americans, Mongolian Americans, Taiwanese Americans, and Tibetan Americans.\nSouth Asian Americans, including Bangladeshi Americans, Bhutanese Americans, Indian Americans, Nepalese Americans, Pakistani Americans, and Sri Lankan Americans.\nSoutheast Asian Americans, including Burmese Americans, Cambodian Americans, Filipino Americans, Hmong Americans, Indonesian Americans, Laotian Americans, Malaysian Americans, Mien Americans, Singaporean Americans, Thai Americans, and Vietnamese Americans.\nAsian Americans include multiracial or mixed race persons with origins or ancestry in both the above groups and another race, or multiple of the above groups.\n\nReligion\n\nA 2012 Pew Research Center study found the follow breakdown of religious identity among Asian Americans: \n\n* 42% Christian\n* 26% unaffiliated with any religion\n* 14% Buddhist\n* 10% Hindu\n* 4% Muslim\n* 2% other religion\n* 1% Sikh\n\nHistory\n\nEarly immigration \n\nAs Asian Americans originate from many different countries, each population has its own unique immigration history.\n\nRomani people began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small groups recorded in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale Roma emigration to the United States would follow subsequently.\n\nFilipinos have been in the territories that would become the United States since the 16th century. The earliest known arrival is that of \"Luzonians\" in Morro Bay, California on board the Manila-built galleon ship Nuestra Senora de Esperanza in 1587, when both the Philippines and California were colonies of the Spanish Empire. In 1635, an \"East Indian\" is listed in Jamestown, Virginia; preceding wider settlement of Indian immigrants on the East Coast in the 1790s and the West Coast in the 1800s. In 1763, Filipinos established the small settlement of Saint Malo, Louisiana, after fleeing mistreatment aboard Spanish ships. Since there were no Filipino women with them, these Manilamen, as they were known, married Cajun and Native American women. The first Japanese person to come to the United States, and stay any significant period of time was Nakahama Manjirō who reached the East Coast in 1841, and Joseph Heco became the first Japanese American naturalized US citizen in 1858. \n\nChinese sailors first came to Hawaii in 1789, a few years after Captain James Cook came upon the island. Many settled and married Hawaiian women. Most Chinese, Korean and Japanese immigrants in Hawaii arrived in the 19th century as laborers to work on sugar plantations. There were thousands of Asians in Hawaii when it was annexed to the United States in 1898. Later, Filipinos also came to work as laborers, attracted by the job opportunities, although they were limited. \n\nLarge-scale migration from Asia to the United States began when Chinese immigrants arrived on the West Coast in the mid-19th century. Forming part of the California gold rush, these early Chinese immigrants participated intensively in the mining business and later in the construction of the transcontinental railroad. By 1852, the number of Chinese immigrants in San Francisco had jumped to more than 20,000. A wave of Japanese immigration to the United States began after the Meiji Restorationin 1868. In 1898, all Filipinos in the Philippine Islands became American nationals when the United States took over colonial rule of the islands from Spain following the latter's defeat in the Spanish–American War.\n\nExclusion era \n\nUnder United States law during this period, particularly the Naturalization Act of 1790, only \"free white persons\" were eligible to naturalize as American citizens. Ineligibility for citizenship prevented Asian immigrants from accessing a variety of rights such as voting. In a pair of cases, Ozawa v. United States (1922) and United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), the Supreme Court upheld the racial qualification for citizenship and ruled that Asians were not \"white persons.\" Second-generation Asian Americans, however, could become US citizens due to the birthright citizenship clause of the Fourteenth Amendment; this guarantee was confirmed as applying regardless of race or ancestry by the Supreme Court in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898). \n\nFrom the 1880s to the 1920s, the United States passed laws inaugurating an era of exclusion of Asian immigrants. Although the absolute numbers of Asian immigrants were small compared to that of immigrants from other regions, much of it was concentrated in the West, and the increase caused some nativist sentiment known as the \"yellow peril\". Congress passed restrictive legislation prohibiting nearly all Chinese immigration in the 1880s. Japanese immigration was sharply curtailed by a diplomatic agreement in 1907. The Asiatic Barred Zone Act in 1917 further barred immigration from South Asia (then-British India), Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. The Immigration Act of 1924 provided that no \"alien ineligible for citizenship\" could be admitted as an immigrant to the United States, consolidating the prohibition of Asian immigration. \n\nPostwar immigration \n\nWorld War II-era legislation and judicial rulings gradually increased the ability of Asian Americans to immigrate and become naturalized citizens. Immigration rapidly increased following the enactment of the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965 as well as the influx of refugees from conflicts occurring in Southeast Asia such as the Vietnam War. Asian American immigrants have a significant percentage of individuals who have already achieved professional status, a first among immigration groups. \n\nIn 2009, Asian Americans surpassed Hispanic Americans as the largest plurality of immigrants to the United States. Additionally, from 2000 to 2010, the Asian American population was the fastest growing group according to the 2010 U.S. Census. \n\nAsian American movement\n\nThe Asian American movement refers to a pan-Asian movement in the United States in which Americans of Asian descent came together to fight against their shared oppression and to organize for recognition and advancement of their shared cause during the 1960s to the early 1980s. According to William Wei, the movement was \"rooted in a past history of oppression and a present struggle for liberation.\" This occurred around the same time as the Chicano movement, Civil Rights movement, American Indian Movement and the gay liberation movement.\n\nNotable contributions\n\nArts and entertainment\n\nSee also: Asian-American literature\n\nAsian Americans have been involved in the entertainment industry since the first half of the 19th century, when Chang and Eng Bunker (the original \"Siamese Twins\") became naturalized citizens. Acting roles in television, film, and theater were relatively few, and many available roles were for narrow, stereotypical characters. More recently, young Asian American comedians and film-makers have found an outlet on YouTube allowing them to gain a strong and loyal fanbase among their fellow Asian Americans. There have been several Asian American-centric television shows in American media, beginning with Mr. T and Tina in 1976, and as recent as Fresh Off the Boat in 2015.\nThroughout the 1990s there was a growing amount of Asian American queer writings and today the list of contributing writers is long. To name a few: Merle Woo (1941), [http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-3403600274/kim-willyce.html Willyce Kim] (1946), Russel Leong (1950), [http://www.browsebiography.com/bio-kitty_tsui.html Kitty Tsui] (1952), Dwight Okita (1958), Norman Wong (1963), [https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/timothy-liu Tim Liu] (1965), Chay Yew (1965) and Justin Chin (1969).\n\nBusiness\n\nWhen Asian Americans were largely excluded from labor markets in the 19th century, they started their own businesses. They have started convenience and grocery stores, professional offices such as medical and law practices, laundries, restaurants, beauty-related ventures, hi-tech companies, and many other kinds of enterprises, becoming very successful and influential in American society. They have dramatically expanded their involvement across the American economy. Asian Americans have been disproportionately successful in the hi-tech sectors of California's Silicon Valley, as evidenced by the Goldsea 100 Compilation of America's Most Successful Asian Entrepreneurs. \n\nCompared to their population base, Asian Americans today are well represented in the professional sector and tend to earn higher wages. The Goldsea compilation of Notable Asian American Professionals show that many have come to occupy high positions at leading U.S. corporations, including a surprising number as Chief Marketing Officers. \n\nAsian Americans have made major contributions to the American economy. In 2012, Asian Americans own 1.5 million businesses, employ around 3 million people who earn an annual total payroll of around $80 billion. Fashion designer and mogul Vera Wang, who is famous for designing dresses for high-profile celebrities, started a clothing company, named after herself, which now offers a broad range of luxury fashion products. An Wang founded Wang Laboratories in June 1951. Amar Bose founded the Bose Corporation in 1964. Charles Wang founded Computer Associates, later became its CEO and chairman. David Khym founded hip-hop fashion giant Southpole (clothing) in 1991. Jen-Hsun Huang co-founded the NVIDIA corporation in 1993. Jerry Yang co-founded Yahoo! Inc. in 1994 and became its CEO later. Andrea Jung serves as Chairman and CEO of Avon Products. Vinod Khosla was a founding CEO of Sun Microsystems and is a general partner of the prominent venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers. Steve Chen and Jawed Karim were co-creators of YouTube, and were beneficiaries of Google's $1.65 billion acquisition of that company in 2006. In addition to contributing greatly to other fields, Asian Americans have made considerable contributions in science and technology in the United States, in such prominent innovative R&D regions as Silicon Valley and The Triangle.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nAsian Americans have a high level of political incorporation in terms of their actual voting population. Since 1907, Asian Americans have been active at the national level and have had multiple officeholders at local, state, and national levels.\n\nThe highest ranked Asian American was Senator and President pro tempore Daniel Inouye, who died in office in 2012. There are several active Asian Americans in the United States Congress. With higher proportions and densities of Asian American populations, Hawaii has most consistently sent Asian Americans to the Senate, and Hawaii and California have most consistently sent Asian Americans to the House of Representatives.\n\nJournalism\n\nConnie Chung was one of the first Asian American national correspondents for a major TV news network, reporting for CBS in 1971. She later co-anchored the CBS Evening News from 1993 to 1995, becoming the first Asian American national news anchor. At ABC, Ken Kashiwahara began reporting nationally in 1974. In 1989, Emil Guillermo, a Filipino American born reporter from San Francisco, became the first Asian American male to co-host a national news show when he was senior host at National Public Radio's \"All Things Considered.\" In 1990, Sheryl WuDunn, a foreign correspondent in the Beijing Bureau of The New York Times, became the first Asian American to win a Pulitzer Prize. Ann Curry joined NBC News as a reporter in 1990, later becoming prominently associated with The Today Show in 1997. Carol Lin is perhaps best known for being the first to break the news of 9-11 on CNN. Dr. Sanjay Gupta is currently CNN's chief health correspondent. Lisa Ling, a former co-host on The View, now provides special reports for CNN and The Oprah Winfrey Show, as well as hosting National Geographic Channel's Explorer. Fareed Zakaria, a naturalised Indian-born immigrant, is a prominent journalist, and author specialising in international affairs. He is the editor-at-large of Time magazine, and the host of Fareed Zakaria GPS on CNN. Juju Chang, James Hatori, John Yang, Veronica De La Cruz, Michelle Malkin, Betty Nguyen, and Julie Chen have become familiar faces on television news. John Yang won a Peabody Award. Alex Tizon, a Seattle Times staff writer, won a Pulitzer Prize in 1997.\n\nMilitary\n\nSince the War of 1812 Asian Americans have served and fought on behalf of the United States. Serving in both segregated and non-segregated units until the desegregation of the US Military in 1948, 31 have been awarded the nation's highest award for combat valor, the Medal of Honor. Twenty-one of these were conferred upon members of the mostly Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team of World War II, the most highly decorated unit of its size in the history of the United States Armed Forces. \n\nScience and technology\n\nAsian Americans have made many prominent and notable contributions to Science and Technology.\n\nChien-Shiung Wu was known to many scientists as the \"First Lady of Physics\" and played a pivotal role in experimentally demonstrating the violation of the law of conservation of parity in the field of particle physics. Fazlur Rahman Khan, also known as named as \"The Father of tubular designs for high-rises\", was highlighted by President Barack Obama in a 2009 speech in Cairo, Egypt, and has been called \"Einstein of Structural engineering\". Min Chueh Chang was the co-inventor of the combined oral contraceptive pill and contributed significantly to the development of in vitro fertilisation at the Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology. David T. Wong was one of the scientists credited with the discovery of ground-breaking drug Fluoxetine as well as the discovery of atomoxetine, duloxetine and dapoxetine with colleagues. Michio Kaku has popularized science and has appeared on multiple programs on television and radio.\n\nAward recipients\n\nTsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang received the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work demonstrating that the conservation of parity did not always hold and later became American citizens. Har Gobind Khorana shared the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in genetics and protein synthesis. Samuel Chao Chung Ting received the 1976 Nobel Prize in physics for discovery of the subatomic particle J/ψ. The mathematician Shing-Tung Yau won the Fields Medal in 1982 and Terence Tao won the Fields Medal in 2006. The geometer Shiing-Shen Chern received the Wolf Prize in Mathematics in 1983. Andrew Yao was awarded the Turing Award in 2000. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics and had the Chandra X-ray Observatory named after him. In 1984, Dr. David D. Ho first reported the \"healthy carrier state\" of HIV infection, which identified HIV-positive individuals who showed no physical signs of AIDS. Charles J. Pedersen shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his methods of synthesizing crown ethers. Steven Chu shared the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research in cooling and trapping atoms using laser light. Daniel Tsui shared the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998 for helping discover the fractional Quantum Hall effect. In 2008, biochemist Roger Tsien won the Nobel in Chemistry for his work on engineering and improving the green fluorescent protein (GFP) that has become a standard tool of modern molecular biology and biochemistry. Yoichiro Nambu received the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the consequences of spontaneously broken symmetries in field theories. In 2009, Charles K. Kao was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics \"for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibres for optical communication\" and Venkatraman Ramakrishnan won the prize in Chemistry \"for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome\". Ching W. Tang was the inventor of the Organic light-emitting diode and Organic solar cell and was awarded the 2011 Wolf Prize in Chemistry for this achievement. Manjul Bhargava, an American Canadian of Indian origins won the Fields Medal in mathematics in 2014. Shuji Nakamura won the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes. Yitang Zhang is a Chinese-born American mathematician working in the area of number theory. While working for the University of New Hampshire as a lecturer, Zhang submitted an article to the Annals of Mathematics in 2013 which established the first finite bound on gaps between prime numbers, which lead to a 2014 MacArthur award.\n\nSpace\n\nLTC Ellison Onizuka became the first Asian American (and third person of Asian descent) when he made his first space flight aboard STS-51-C in 1985. Onizuka later died aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986. Taylor Gun-Jin Wang became the first person of Chinese ethnicity and first Chinese American, in space in 1985; he has since been followed by Leroy Chiao in 1994, and Ed Lu in 1997. In 1986, Franklin Chang-Diaz became the first Asian Latin American in space. Eugene H. Trinh became the first Vietnamese American in space in 1992. In 2001, Mark L. Polansky, a Jewish Korean American, made his first of three flights into space. In 2003, Kalpana Chawla became the first Indian American in space, but died aboard the ill fated Space Shuttle Columbia. She has since been followed by CDR Sunita Williams in 2006.\n\nSports\n\nBasketball\n\nWataru Misaka broke the NBA color barrier when he played for the New York Knicks in the 1947–48 season. The next Asian American NBA player was Raymond Townsend, who played for the Golden State Warriors and Indiana Pacers from 1978 to 1982. Rex Walters, played from 1993 to 2000 with the Nets, Philadelphia 76ers and Miami Heat; he is presently the head coach for the University of San Francisco basketball team. After playing basketball at Harvard University, point guard Jeremy Lin signed with the NBA's Golden State Warriors in 2010 and now plays for the Brooklyn Nets.\n\nCurrent Kansas Jayhawks assistant coach Kurtis Townsend is Raymond Townsend's brother. \n\nErik Spoelstra became the youngest coach ever in NBA history. He is currently the head coach of the Miami Heat. \n\nFootball\n\nIn football, Wally Yonamine played professionally for the San Francisco Giants in 1947. Norm Chow is currently the head coach for the University of Hawaii and former offensive coordinator for UCLA after a short stint with the Tennessee Titans of the NFL, after 23 years of coaching other college teams, including four years as offensive coordinator at USC. In 1962, half Filipino Roman Gabriel was the first Asian American to start as an NFL quarterback. Dat Nguyen was an NFL middle linebacker who was an all-pro selection in 2003 for the Dallas Cowboys. In 1998, he was named an All-American and won the Bednarik Award as well as the Lombardi Award, while playing for Texas A&M University. Hines Ward who was born to a Korean mother and an African American father, is a former NFL wide receiver who was the MVP of Super Bowl XL and Ward also won the 12th season of the Dancing with the Stars television series. Former Patriot's linebacker Tedy Bruschi is of Filipino and Italian descent. While playing for the Patriots, Bruschi won three Super Bowl rings and was a two-time All-Pro selection. Bruschi is currently a NFL analyst at ESPN.\n\nMixed martial arts\n\nThere are several top ranked Asian American mixed martial artists. BJ Penn is a former UFC lightweight and welterweight champion. Cung Le is a former Strikeforce middleweight champion. Benson Henderson is the former WEC lightweight champion and a former UFC lightweight champion. Nam Phan is UFC featherweight fighter.\n\nOlympics\n\nAsian Americans first made an impact in Olympic sports in the late 1940s and in the 1950s. Sammy Lee became the first Asian American to earn an Olympic Gold Medal, winning in platform diving in both 1948 and 1952. Victoria Manalo Draves won both gold in platform and springboard diving in the 1948. Harold Sakata won a weightlifting silver medal in the 1948 Olympics, while Tommy Kono (weightlifting), Yoshinobu Oyakawa (100-meter backstroke), and Ford Konno (1500-meter freestyle) each won gold and set Olympic records in the 1952 Olympics. Konno won another gold and silver swimming medal at the same Olympics and added a silver medal in 1956, while Kono set another Olympic weightlifting record in 1956. Also at the 1952 Olympics, Evelyn Kawamoto won two bronze medals in swimming.\n\nAmy Chow was a member of the gold medal women's gymnastics team at the 1996 Olympics; she also won an individual silver medal on the uneven bars. Gymnast Mohini Bhardwaj won a team silver medal in the 2004 Olympics. Bryan Clay who is of Half-Japanese descent won the decathlon gold medal in the 2008 Olympics, the silver medal in the 2004 Olympics, and was the sport's 2005 world champion.\n\nSince Tiffany Chin won the women's US Figure Skating Championship in 1985, Asian Americans have been prominent in that sport. Kristi Yamaguchi won three national championships, two world titles, and the 1992 Olympic Gold medal. Michelle Kwan has won nine national championships and five world titles, as well as two Olympic medals (silver in 1998, bronze in 2002).\n\nApolo Ohno who is of Half-Japanese descent is a short track speed skater and an eight-time Olympic Medalist as well as the most decorated American Winter Olympic athlete of all time. He became the youngest U.S. national champion in 1997 and was the reigning champion from 2001 to 2009, winning the title a total of 12 times. In 1999, he became the youngest skater to win a World Cup event title, and became the first American to win a World Cup overall title in 2001, which he won again in 2003 and 2005. He won his first overall World Championship title at the 2008 championships.\n\nNathan Adrian who is also a Hapa of Half-Chinese descentAmerica's Olympic Crush [http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2012/08/nathan-adrian-olympic-crush-america-needs/55337] Retrieved December 15, 2012 is a professional American swimmer and three-time Olympic gold medalist who currently holds the American record in the 50 and 100-yard freestyle (short course) events. He has won a total of fifteen medals in major international competitions, twelve gold, two silver, and one bronze spanning the Olympics, the World, and the Pan Pacific Championships.\n\nOther sports\n\nMichael Chang was a top-ranked tennis player for most of his career, and the youngest ever winner of a Grand Slam tennis tournament in men's singles. He won the French Open in 1989. Tiger Woods, who is partially of Asian descent, is the most successful golfer of his generation and one of the most famous athletes in the world. Eric Koston is one of the top street skateboarders and placed first in the 2003 X-Games street competition. Richard Park is a Korean American ice hockey player who currently plays for the Swiss team HC Ambri-Piotta.\n\nBrian Ching, whose father was Chinese, represented the United States Men's National Soccer Team, scoring 11 goals in 45 caps. He participated in the 2006 World Cup and won the 2007 Gold Cup. \n\nJulie Chu, who is three-quarter Chinese and one-quarter Puerto Rican, is an American Olympic ice hockey player who played for the United States women's ice hockey team. She was also also US Olympic Team Flag Bearer for the 2014 Winter Olympic Closing Ceremonies. \n\nCultural influence\n\nIn recognition of the unique culture, traditions, and history of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, the United States government has permanently designated the month of May to be Asian Pacific American Heritage Month. \n\nHealth and medicine\n\nAsian immigrants are also changing the American medical landscape through increasing number of Asian medical practitioners in the United States. Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, the US government invited a number of foreign physicians particularly from India and the Philippines to address the acute shortage of physicians in rural and medically underserved urban areas. The trend in importing foreign medical practitioners, however, became a long-term, chronic solution as US medical schools failed to produce enough physicians to match the increasing American population. Amid decreasing interest in medicine among American college students due to high educational costs and high rates of job dissatisfaction, loss of morale, stress, and lawsuits, Asian American immigrants maintained a supply of healthcare practitioners for millions of Americans. It is well documented that Asian American international medical graduates including highly skilled guest workers using the J1 Visa program for medical workers, tend to serve in health professions shortage areas (HPSA) and specialties that are not filled by US medical graduates especially primary care and rural medicine. Thus, Asian American immigrants play a key role in averting a medical crisis in the US.\n\nA lasting legacy of Asian American involvement in medicine is the forcing of US medical establishment to accept minority medical practitioners. One could speculate that the introduction of Asian physicians and dentists to the American society could have triggered an acceptance of other minority groups by breaking down stereotypes and encouraging trust. \n\nTraditional Asian concepts and practices in health and medicine have attracted greater acceptance and are more widely adopted by American doctors. India's Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine (which also includes acupuncture) are two alternative therapy systems that have been studied and adopted to a great extent. For instance, in the early 1970s the US medical establishment did not believe in the usefulness of acupuncture. Since then studies have proven the efficacy of acupuncture for different applications, especially for treatment of chronic pain. and It is now covered by many health insurance plans.\n\nHerbalism and massage therapy (from Ayurveda) are sweeping the spas across America. Meditation and yoga (from India) have also been widely adopted by health spas, and spiritual retreats of many religious bases. They are also part of the spiritual practice of the many Americans who are not affiliated with a mainline religious group.\n\nEducation\n\nAmong America's major racial categories, Asian Americans have the highest educational qualifications. This varies, however, for individual ethnic groups. Dr. C.N. Le, Director of the Asian & Asian American Studies Certificate Program at the University of Massachusetts, writes that although 42% of all Asian American adults have at least a college degree, Vietnamese Americans have a degree attainment rate of only 16% while Laotians and Cambodians only have rates around 5%. It has been noted, however, that 2008 US Census statistics put the bachelor's degree attainment rate of Vietnamese Americans at 26%, which is not very different from the rate of 27% for all Americans. According to the US Census Bureau in 2010, while the high school graduation rate for Asian Americans is on par with those of other ethnic groups, 50% of Asian Americans have attained at least a bachelor's degree as compared with the national average of 28%, and 34% for non-Hispanic Whites. Indian Americans have some of the highest education rates, with nearly 71% having attained at least a bachelor's degree in 2010. According to Carolyn Chen, director of the Asian American Studies Program at Northwestern University, Asian Americans made up twelve to eighteen percent of the student population at Ivy League schools, larger than their share of the population. For example, the Harvard Class of 2016 is 21% Asian American.\n\nIn the years immediately preceding 2012, 61% of Asian American adult immigrants have a bachelor or higher level college education.\n\nSocial and political issues\n\nIllegal immigration\n\nIn 2012, there are 1.3 million alien Asian Americans; and for those awaiting visas, there are lengthy backlogs with over 450 thousand Filipinos, over 325 thousand Indians, over 250 thousand Vietnamese, and over 225 thousand Chinese are awaiting visas. As of 2009, Filipinos and Indians accounted for the highest number of alien immigrants for \"Asian Americans\" with an estimated illegal population of 270,000 and 200,000 respectively. Indian Americans are also the fastest growing alien immigrant group in the United States, an increase in illegal immigration of 125% since 2000. This is followed by Koreans (200,000) and Chinese (120,000).\n\nDue to the stereotype of Asian Americans being successful as a group and having the lowest crime rates in the United States, illegal immigration is mostly focused on those from Mexico and Latin America while leaving out Asians. Asians are the second largest racial/ethnic alien immigrant group in the U.S. behind Hispanics and Latinos. While the majority of Asian immigrants to the United States immigrate legally, up to 15% of Asian immigrants immigrate without legal documents. \n\nDeportation of Cambodians from the United States\n\nDeportation of Cambodians from the United States typically refers to the forced repatriation of Cambodians who are convicted criminals in the United States and lack United States citizenship.\n\nRace-based violence\n\nAsian Americans have been the target of violence based on their race and or ethnicity. This includes, but are not limited to, such events as the Rock Springs massacre, Watsonville Riots, attacks upon Japanese Americans following the attack on Pearl Harbor., and Korean American businesses targeted during the 1992 Los Angeles riots. According to historian Arif Dirlik: \"Indian massacres of Chinese was a commonplace experience on the frontier, the most notable being the \"legendary slaughter by Paiute Indians of forty to sixty Chinese miners in 1866. In the late 1980s, South Asians in New Jersey faced assault and other hate crimes by a group known as the Dotbusters.\n\nAfter the September 11 attacks, Sikh Americans were targeted, being the recipient of numerous hate crimes including murder. Other Asian Americans have also been the victim of race based violence in Brooklyn, Philadelphia, San Francisco. and Bloomington, Indiana. Furthermore, it has been reported that young Asian Americans are more likely to be a target of violence than their peers. Racism and discrimination still persists against Asian Americans occurring not only to recent immigrants but also towards well-educated and highly trained professionals. \n\nRecent waves of immigration of Asian Americans to largely African American neighborhoods have led to cases of severe racial tensions. Acts of large-scale violence against Asian Americans students by their Black classmates have been reported in multiple cities. In October 2008, 30 black students chased and attacked 5 Asian students at South Philadelphia High School,Teague, Matthew. \"Heroes: South Philly High’s Protesters.\" Philadelphia (magazine). August 2010. [http://www.phillymag.com/articles/heroes-south-philly-high-s-protesters/4/ 4]. Retrieved on May 4, 2016, and a similar attack on Asian students occurred at the same school one year later, prompting a protest by Asian students in response.Teague, Matthew. \"Heroes: South Philly High’s Protesters.\" Philadelphia (magazine). August 2010. [http://www.phillymag.com/articles/heroes-south-philly-high-s-protesters/8/ 8]. Retrieved on January 31, 2013.\n\nAsian-owned businesses have been a frequent target of tensions between Black and Asian Americans. During the 1992 Los Angeles riots, more than 2000 Korean-owned businesses were looted or burned by groups of African Americans. From 1990 to 1991, a high-profile, racially-motivated boycott of an Asian-owned shop in Brooklyn was organized by a local black nationalist activist, eventually resulting in the owner being forced to sell his business. Another racially-motivated boycott against an Asian-owned business occurred in Dallas in 2012, after an Asian American clerk fatally shot an African American who had robbed his store. \n\nStereotypes\n\nUntil the late 20th century, the term \"Asian American\" was adopted mostly by activists, while the average person of Asian ancestries identified with their specific ethnicity. The murder of Vincent Chin in 1982 was a pivotal civil rights case, and it marked the emergence of Asian Americans as a distinct group in United States.\n\nStereotypes of Asians have been largely collectively internalized by society and these stereotypes have mainly negative repercussions for Asian Americans and Asian immigrants in daily interactions, current events, and governmental legislation. In many instances, media portrayals of East Asians often reflect a dominant Americentric perception rather than realistic and authentic depictions of true cultures, customs and behaviors. Asians have experienced discrimination and have been victims of hate crimes related to their ethnic stereotypes. \n\nStudy has indicated that most non-Asian Americans do not generally differentiate between Asian Americans of different ethnicities. Stereotypes of both groups are nearly identical. A 2002 survey of Americans' attitudes toward Asian Americans and Chinese Americans indicated that 24% of the respondents disapprove of intermarriage with an Asian American, second only to African Americans; 23% would be uncomfortable supporting an Asian American presidential candidate, compared to 15% for an African American, 14% for a woman and 11% for a Jew; 17% would be upset if a substantial number of Asian Americans moved into their neighborhood; 25% had somewhat or very negative attitude toward Chinese Americans in general. The study did find several positive perceptions of Chinese Americans: strong family values (91%); honesty as business people (77%); high value on education (67%).\n\nThere is a widespread perception that Asian Americans are not \"American\" but are instead \"perpetual foreigners\". Asian Americans often report being asked the question, \"Where are you really from?\" by other Americans, regardless of how long they or their ancestors have lived in United States and been a part of its society. Many Asian Americans are themselves not immigrants but rather born in the United States. Many East Asian Americans are asked if they are Chinese or Japanese, an assumption based on major groups of past immigrants.\n\nModel minority\n\nAsian Americans are sometimes characterized as a model minority in the United States because many of their cultures encourage a strong work ethic, a respect for elders, a high degree of professional and academic success, a high valuation of family, education and religion. Statistics such as high household income and low incarceration rate, low rates of many diseases and higher than average life expectancy are also discussed as positive aspects of Asian Americans.\n\nThe implicit advice is that the other minorities should stop protesting and emulate the Asian American work ethic and devotion to higher education. Some critics say the depiction replaces biological racism with cultural racism, and should be dropped. According to the Washington Post, \"the idea that Asian Americans are distinct among minority groups and immune to the challenges faced by other people of color is a particularly sensitive issue for the community, which has recently fought to reclaim its place in social justice conversations with movements like #ModelMinorityMutiny.\" \n\nThe model minority concept can also affect Asians' public education. By comparison with other minorities, Asians often achieve higher test scores and grades compared to other Americans. Stereotyping Asian American as over-achievers can lead to harm if school officials or peers expect all to perform higher than average. The very high educational attainments of Asian Americans has often been noted; in 1980, for example, 74% of Chinese Americans, 62% of Japanese Americans, and 55% of Korean Americans aged 20–21 were in college, compared to only a third of the whites. The disparity at postgraduate levels is even greater, and the differential is especially notable in fields making heavy use of mathematics. By 2000, a plurality of undergraduates at such elite public California schools as UC Berkeley and UCLA, which are obligated by law to not consider race as a factor in admission, were Asian American. The pattern is rooted in the pre-World War II era. Native-born Chinese and Japanese Americans reached educational parity with majority whites in the early decades of the 20th century. \n\nThe \"model minority\" stereotype fails to distinguish between different ethnic groups with different histories. When divided up by ethnicity, it can be seen that the economic and academic successes supposedly enjoyed by Asian Americans are concentrated into a few ethnic groups. Cambodians, Hmong, and Laotians (and to a lesser extent, Vietnamese), all of whose relatively low achievement rates are possibly due to their refugee status, and that they are non-voluntary immigrants; additionally, one in five Hmong and Bangladeshi people live in poverty.\n\nFurthermore, the model minority concept can be emotionally damaging to some Asian Americans, particularly since they are expected to live up to those peers who fit the stereotype. Studies have shown that some Asian Americans suffer from higher rates of stress, depression, mental illnesses, and suicides in comparison to other races, indicating that the pressures to achieve and live up to the model minority image may take a mental and psychological toll on some Asian Americans. \n\nBamboo ceiling\n\nThis concept appears to elevate Asian Americans by portraying them as an elite group of successful, highly educated, intelligent, and wealthy individuals, but it can also be considered an overly narrow and overly one-dimensional portrayal of Asian Americans, leaving out other human qualities such as vocal leadership, negative emotions, risk taking, ability to learn from mistakes, and desire for creative expression. Furthermore, Asian Americans who do not fit into the model minority mold can face challenges when people's expectations based on the model minority myth do not match with reality. Traits outside of the model minority mold can be seen as negative character flaws for Asian Americans despite those very same traits being positive for the general American majority (e.g., risk taking, confidence, empowered). For this reason, Asian Americans encounter a \"bamboo ceiling,\" the Asian American equivalent of the glass ceiling in the workplace, with only 1.5% of Fortune 500 CEOs being Asians, a percentage smaller than their percentage of the total United States population. \n\nThe Bamboo ceiling is defined as a combination of individual, cultural, and organisational factors that impede Asian Americans' career progress inside organizations. Since then, a variety of sectors (including nonprofits, universities, the government) have discussed the impact of the ceiling as it relates to Asians and the challenges they face. As described by Anne Fisher,the \"bamboo ceiling\" refers to the processes and barriers that serve to exclude Asians and American people of Asian descent from executive positions on the basis of subjective factors such as \"lack of leadership potential\" and \"lack of communication skills\" that cannot actually be explained by job performance or qualifications. Articles regarding the subject have been written in Crains, Fortune magazine, and The Atlantic. \n\nProgress as a Group within American Society\n\nAsian Americans have been making progress in American society. A key indicator is the salary of Asian Americans compared to other racial groups.\n\nIn 2015, the racial group with the highest earnings was Asian American men at $24/hour. Asian American men earned 117% as much as the reference group in the study (white American men at $21/hour) and have been the highest earning racial group since about 2000. Similarly, in 2015 Asian American women ($18/hour) was the highest earning female racial group and earned 106% as much as white American women ($17/hour). Asian American women have been the highest earning female group for more than 10 years in a row.\n\nFor 2005, income statistics from US Census data are shown in the corresponding histogram figures." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Muang Thai", "Taihland", "ISO 3166-1:TH", "Thai Empire", "Prathet Thai", "Muang-Thai", "Kingdom of Thailand", "Skateboarding in Thailand", "THAILAND", "Siam", "Sport in Thailand", "Etymology of Thailand", "Thayland", "Name of Thailand", "The Kingdom Of Thailand", "เมืองไทย", "Thailand", "ราชอาณาจักรไทย", "Sayam", "Thailande", "Siam (Thailand)", "ประเทศไทย", "Kingdom Of Thailand", "Tailand", "Thai Kingdom", "Ratcha Anachak Thai", "Kingdom of the Thai" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "thailand", "kingdom of thailand", "kingdom of thai", "เมืองไทย", "prathet thai", "name of thailand", "thayland", "taihland", "muang thai", "iso 3166 1 th", "skateboarding in thailand", "thai kingdom", "sport in thailand", "siam thailand", "sayam", "siam", "ratcha anachak thai", "ราชอาณาจักรไทย", "etymology of thailand", "tailand", "thailande", "ประเทศไทย", "thai empire" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "thailand", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Thailand" }
In 1971 Leonard Bernstein wrote a Mass in whose memory?	tc_1041	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Leonard_Bernstein.txt" ], "title": [ "Leonard Bernstein" ], "wiki_context": [ "Leonard Bernstein (; August 25, 1918 – October 14, 1990) was an American composer, conductor, author, music lecturer, and pianist. He was among the first conductors born and educated in the US to receive worldwide acclaim. According to music critic Donal Henahan, he was \"one of the most prodigiously talented and successful musicians in American history.\"\n\nHis fame derived from his long tenure as the music director of the New York Philharmonic, from his conducting of concerts with most of the world's leading orchestras, and from his music for West Side Story, Peter Pan, Candide, Wonderful Town, On the Town, On the Waterfront, his Mass, and a range of other compositions, including three symphonies and many shorter chamber and solo works.\n\nBernstein was the first conductor to give numerous television lectures on classical music, starting in 1954 and continuing until his death. He was a skilled pianist, often conducting piano concertos from the keyboard.\n\nAs a composer he wrote in many styles encompassing symphonic and orchestral music, ballet, film and theatre music, choral works, opera, chamber music and pieces for the piano. Many of his works are regularly performed around the world, although none has matched the tremendous popular and critical success of West Side Story.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nHe was born Louis Bernstein in Lawrence, Massachusetts, the son of Ukrainian-Jewish parents Jennie (née Resnick) and Samuel Joseph Bernstein, a hairdressing supplies wholesaler originating from Rovno (now Ukraine). He was not related to film composer Elmer Bernstein, but the two men were friends, and even shared a certain physical similarity. Within the world of professional music, they were distinguished from each other by the use of the nicknames Bernstein West (Elmer) and Bernstein East (Leonard). \n\nHis family spent their summers at their vacation home in Sharon, Massachusetts. His grandmother insisted that his first name be Louis, but his parents always called him Leonard, which they preferred. He officially changed his name to Leonard when he was fifteen, shortly after his grandmother's death. To his friends and many others he was simply known as \"Lenny.\"\n\nHis father, Sam Bernstein, was a businessman and owner of a hair product store in downtown Lawrence; it is standing today on the corners of Amesbury and Essex Streets. Sam initially opposed young Leonard's interest in music. Despite this, the elder Bernstein took him to orchestral concerts in his teenage years and eventually supported his music education. At a very young age, Bernstein listened to a piano performance and was immediately captivated; he subsequently began learning the piano seriously when the family acquired his cousin Lillian Goldman's unwanted piano. As a child, Bernstein attended the Garrison Grammar School and Boston Latin School. As a child he was very close to his younger sister Shirley, and would often play entire operas or Beethoven symphonies with her at the piano. He had a variety of piano teachers in his youth, including Helen Coates, who later became his secretary.\n\nAfter graduation from Boston Latin School in 1935, Bernstein attended Harvard University, where he studied music with, among others, Edward Burlingame Hill and Walter Piston. Although he majored in music with a final year thesis (1939) entitled \"The Absorption of Race Elements into American Music\" (reproduced in his book Findings), Bernstein's main intellectual influence at Harvard was probably the aesthetics Professor David Prall, whose multidisciplinary outlook on the arts Bernstein shared for the rest of his life. One of his friends at Harvard was philosopher Donald Davidson, with whom he played piano four hands. Bernstein wrote and conducted the musical score for the production Davidson mounted of Aristophanes' play The Birds in the original Greek. Bernstein reused some of this music in the ballet Fancy Free. During his time at Harvard he was briefly an accompanist for the Harvard Glee Club. Bernstein also mounted a student production of The Cradle Will Rock, directing its action from the piano as the composer Marc Blitzstein had done at the premiere. Blitzstein, who heard about the production, subsequently became a friend and influence (both musically and politically) on Bernstein.\n\nBernstein also met the conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos at the time. Although he never taught Bernstein, Mitropoulos's charisma and power as a musician was a major influence on Bernstein's eventual decision to take up conducting. Mitropoulos was not stylistically that similar to Bernstein, but he probably influenced some of Bernstein's later habits such as his conducting from the keyboard, his initial practice of conducting without a baton and perhaps his interest in Mahler. The other important influence that Bernstein first met during his Harvard years was composer Aaron Copland, whom he met at a concert and then at a party afterwards on Copland's birthday in 1938. At the party Bernstein played Copland's Piano Variations, a thorny work Bernstein loved without knowing anything about its composer until that evening. Although he was not formally Copland's student as such, Bernstein would regularly seek advice from Copland in the following years about his own compositions and would often cite him as \"his only real composition teacher\".See for instance Bernstein's 1980 TV Documentary, Teachers and Teaching available on a Deutsche Grammophon DVD.\n\nAfter completing his studies at Harvard in 1939 (graduating with a B.A. cum laude), he enrolled at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia. During his time at Curtis, Bernstein studied conducting with Fritz Reiner (who anecdotally is said to have given Bernstein the only \"A grade\" he ever awarded), piano with Isabelle Vengerova, orchestration with Randall Thompson, counterpoint with Richard Stöhr, and score reading with Renée Longy Miquelle. Unlike his years at Harvard, Bernstein appears not to have greatly enjoyed the formal training environment of Curtis, although often in his later life he would mention Reiner when discussing important mentors.\n\n1940–1950\n\nAfter he left Curtis, Bernstein lived in New York. He shared a flat with his friend Adolph Green and often accompanied Green, Betty Comden and Judy Holliday in a comedy troupe called The Revuers who performed in Greenwich Village. He took jobs with a music publisher, transcribing music or producing arrangements under the pseudonym Lenny Amber. (Bernstein in German = Amber in English.) During this period in New York City, Bernstein enjoyed an exuberant social life that included relationships with both men and women. In 1940, Bernstein began his study at the Boston Symphony Orchestra's summer institute, Tanglewood, in the conducting class of the orchestra's conductor, Serge Koussevitzky.\n\nBernstein's friendships with Copland (who was very close to Koussevitsky) and Mitropoulos were important in him being recommended for a place in the class. Other students in the class included Lukas Foss, who also became a lifelong friend. Koussevitsky perhaps did not teach Bernstein much basic conducting technique (which he had already developed under Reiner) but instead became a sort of father figure to him and was perhaps the major influence on Bernstein's emotional way of interpreting music. Bernstein later became Koussevitzky's conducting assistant and would later dedicate his Symphony No. 2, The Age of Anxiety, to him. \n\nOn November 14, 1943, having recently been appointed assistant conductor to Artur Rodzinski of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, he made his major conducting debut at sudden notice—and without any rehearsal—after guest conductor Bruno Walter came down with the flu. The next day, The New York Times carried the story on their front page and their editorial remarked, \"It's a good American success story. The warm, friendly triumph of it filled Carnegie Hall and spread far over the air waves.\" He became instantly famous because the concert was nationally broadcast, and afterwards started to appear as a guest conductor with many U.S. orchestras. The program included works by Schumann, Miklos Rozsa, Wagner and Richard Strauss's Don Quixote with soloist Joseph Schuster, solo cellist of the orchestra. Before the concert Bernstein briefly spoke to Bruno Walter, who discussed particular difficulties in the works he was to perform. It is possible to hear this concert (apart from the Wagner work) on a recording of the CBS radio broadcast that has been issued on CD by the orchestra.\n\nFrom 1945 to 1947 Bernstein was the Music Director of the New York City Symphony Orchestra, which had been founded the previous year by the conductor Leopold Stokowski. The orchestra (with support from the Mayor) was aimed at a different audience with more modern programs and cheaper tickets than the New York Philharmonic.\n\nAlso in regard to a different audience, in 1945 Bernstein discussed the possibility of acting in a film with Greta Garbo—playing Tchaikovsky opposite her starring role as the composer's patron Nadezhda von Meck.\n\nIn addition to becoming known as a conductor, Bernstein also emerged as a composer in the same period. In January 1944 he conducted the premiere of his Jeremiah Symphony in Pittsburgh. His score to the ballet Fancy Free choreographed by Jerome Robbins opened in New York in April 1944 and this was later developed into the musical On the Town with lyrics by Comden and Green that opened on Broadway in December 1944.\n\nAfter World War II, Bernstein's career on the international stage began to flourish. In 1946, he made his overseas debut with the Czech Philharmonic in Prague. He also recorded Ravel's Piano Concerto in G as soloist and conductor with the Philharmonia Orchestra. On July 4, 1946, Bernstein conducted the European premiere of Fancy Free with the Ballet Theatre at the Royal Opera House in London. In 1946, he conducted opera for the first time, with the American première at Tanglewood of Benjamin Britten's Peter Grimes, which had been a Koussevitzky commission. That same year, Arturo Toscanini invited Bernstein to guest conduct two concerts with the NBC Symphony Orchestra, one of which again featured Bernstein as soloist in the Ravel concerto. \n\nIn 1947, Bernstein conducted in Tel Aviv for the first time, beginning a lifelong association with Israel. The next year he conducted an open-air concert for troops at Beersheba in the middle of the desert during the Arab-Israeli war. In 1957, he conducted the inaugural concert of the Mann Auditorium in Tel Aviv; he subsequently made many recordings there. In 1967, he conducted a concert on Mt. Scopus to commemorate the reunification of Jerusalem. During the 1970s, Bernstein recorded his symphonies and other works with the Israel Philharmonic for Deutsche Grammophon.\n\nIn 1949, he conducted the world première of the Turangalîla-Symphonie by Olivier Messiaen, with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Part of the rehearsal for the concert was released on CD by the orchestra. When Koussevitzky died two years later, Bernstein became head of the orchestral and conducting departments at Tanglewood, holding this position for many years.\n\n1951–1959\n\nAfter much personal struggle and a turbulent on-off engagement, he married the Chilean-born American actress Felicia Cohn Montealegre on September 10, 1951. One suggestion is that he chose to marry partly to dispel rumors about his private life to help secure a major conducting appointment, following advice from his mentor Dimitri Mitropoulos about the conservative nature of orchestra boards. In a book released in October 2013, The Leonard Bernstein Letters, his wife reveals his homosexuality. Felicia writes: \"you are a homosexual and may never change—you don’t admit to the possibility of a double life, but if your peace of mind, your health, your whole nervous system depend on a certain sexual pattern what can you do?\" Arthur Laurents (Bernstein's collaborator in West Side Story) said that Bernstein was \"a gay man who got married. He wasn't conflicted about it at all. He was just gay.\" Shirley Rhoades Perle, another friend of Bernstein, said that she thought \"he required men sexually and women emotionally.\" But the early years of his marriage seem to have been happy, and no one has suggested Bernstein and his wife didn't love each other. They had three children, Jamie, Alexander, and later Nina. There are reports, though, that Bernstein did sometimes have brief extramarital liaisons with young men, which several family friends have said his wife knew about.\n\nIn 1951, Bernstein conducted the New York Philharmonic in the world première of the Symphony No. 2 of Charles Ives, which was written around half a century earlier but had never been performed. Throughout his career, Bernstein often talked about the music of Ives, who died in 1954. The composer, old and frail, was unable (some reports say unwilling) to attend the concert, but his wife did. He reportedly listened to a radio broadcast of it on a radio in his kitchen some days later. A recording of the \"premiere\" was released in a 10-CD box set Bernstein LIVE by the orchestra, but the notes indicate it was a repeat performance from three days later, and this is perhaps what Ives heard. In any case, reports also differ on Ives's exact reaction, but some suggest he was thrilled and danced a little jig. Bernstein recorded the 2nd symphony with the orchestra in 1958 for Columbia and 1987 for Deutsche Grammophon. There is also a 1987 performance with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra available on DVD.\n\nBernstein was a visiting music professor from 1951 to 1956 at Brandeis University, and he founded the Creative Arts Festival there in 1952. He conducted various productions at the first festival, including the premiere of his opera Trouble in Tahiti and Blitzstein's English version of Kurt Weill's Threepenny Opera. The festival was named after him in 2005, becoming the Leonard Bernstein Festival of the Creative Arts. In 1953 he was the first American conductor to appear at La Scala in Milan, conducting Maria Callas in Cherubini's Medea. This Opera had been virtually abandoned in the performance archive and the two of them learnt in a week. It was to prove a unique collaboration and Callas and Bernstein went on to perform together many times - he found her vocal reach and dramatic powers of interpretation inspiring; they developed a very close musical relationship which enhanced both their careers. That same year, he produced his score to the musical Wonderful Town at very short notice, working again with his old friends Comden and Green, who wrote the lyrics.\n\nIn 1954 Bernstein made the first of his television lectures for the CBS arts program Omnibus. The live lecture, entitled \"Beethoven's Fifth Symphony\", involved Bernstein explaining the work with the aid of musicians from the former NBC Symphony Orchestra (recently renamed the \"Symphony of the Air\") and a giant page of the score covering the floor. Bernstein subsequently performed concerts with the orchestra and recorded his Serenade for Violin with Isaac Stern. Further Omnibus lectures followed from 1955 to 1958 (later on ABC and then NBC) covering jazz, conducting, American musical comedy, modern music, J.S. Bach, and grand opera. These programs were made available in the U.S. in a DVD set in 2010.\n\nIn late 1956, Bernstein conducted the New York Philharmonic in concerts that were to have been conducted by Guido Cantelli, who had died in an air crash in Paris. This was the first time Bernstein had conducted the orchestra in subscription concerts since 1951. Partly due to these appearances, Bernstein was named the music director of the New York Philharmonic in 1957, replacing Dimitri Mitropoulos. He began his tenure in that position in 1958, having held the post jointly with Mitropoulos from 1957 to 1958. In 1958, Bernstein and Mitropoulos took the New York Philharmonic on tour to South America. In his first season in sole charge, Bernstein included a season-long survey of American classical music. Themed programming of this sort was fairly novel at that time compared to the present day. Bernstein held the music directorship until 1969 (with a sabbatical in 1965) although he continued to conduct and make recordings with the orchestra for the rest of his life and was appointed \"laureate conductor\".\n\nHe became a well-known figure in the United States through his series of fifty-three televised Young People's Concerts for CBS, which grew out of his Omnibus programs. His first Young People's Concert was televised a few weeks after his tenure began as principal conductor of the New York Philharmonic. He became as famous for his educational work in those concerts as for his conducting. The Bernstein Young People's Concerts were the first and probably the most influential series of music appreciation programs ever produced on television, and they were highly acclaimed by critics. Some of Bernstein's music lectures were released on records; a recording of Humor in Music was awarded a Grammy award for Best Documentary or Spoken Word Recording (other than comedy) in 1961. The programs were shown in many countries around the world, often with Bernstein dubbed into other languages. All of them were released on DVD by Kultur Video (half of them in 2013).\n\nAround the time he was appointed music director of the New York Philharmonic, Bernstein composed the music for two shows. The first was for the operetta Candide, which was first performed in 1956 with a libretto by Lillian Hellman based on Voltaire's novella. The second was Bernstein's collaboration with the choreographer Jerome Robbins, the writer Arthur Laurents, and the lyricist Stephen Sondheim to produce the musical West Side Story. The first three had worked on it intermittently since Robbins first suggested the idea in 1949. Finally, with the addition of Sondheim to the team and a period of concentrated effort, it received its Broadway premiere in 1957 and has since proven to be Bernstein's most popular and enduring score.\n\nIn 1959, he took the New York Philharmonic on a tour of Europe and the Soviet Union, portions of which were filmed by CBS Television. A highlight of the tour was Bernstein's performance of Dmitri Shostakovich's Fifth Symphony, in the presence of the composer, who came on stage at the end to congratulate Bernstein and the musicians. In October, when Bernstein and the orchestra returned to the U.S., they recorded the symphony for Columbia. He recorded it for a second time with the orchestra on tour in Japan in 1979. Bernstein seems to have limited himself to only conducting certain Shostakovich symphonies, namely the numbers 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 14. He made two recordings of Shostakovich's Leningrad Symphony, one with the New York Philharmonic in the 1960s and another recorded live in 1988 with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (one of the few recordings he made with them, also including the Symphony No. 1).\n\n1960–1969\n\nIn 1960 Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic held a Mahler Festival to mark the centenary of the composer's birth. Bernstein, Walter and Mitropoulos conducted performances. The composer's widow, Alma, attended some of Bernstein's rehearsals. In 1960 Bernstein also made his first commercial recording of a Mahler symphony (the fourth) and over the next seven years he made the first complete cycle of recordings of all nine of Mahler's completed symphonies. (All featured the New York Philharmonic except the 8th Symphony which was recorded with the London Symphony Orchestra following a concert in the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1966.) The success of these recordings, along with Bernstein's concert performances and television talks, was an important, if not vital, part of the revival of interest in Mahler in the 1960s, especially in the U.S.\n\nOther non-U.S. composers that Bernstein championed to some extent at the time include the Danish composer Carl Nielsen (who was then only little known in the U.S.) and Jean Sibelius, whose popularity had by then started to fade. Bernstein eventually recorded a complete cycle in New York of Sibelius's symphonies and three of Nielsen's symphonies (Nos. 2, 4, and 5), as well as conducting recordings of his violin, clarinet and flute concertos. He also recorded Nielsen's 3rd Symphony with the Royal Danish Orchestra after a critically acclaimed public performance in Denmark. Bernstein championed U.S. composers, especially those that he was close to like Aaron Copland, William Schuman and David Diamond. He also started to more extensively record his own compositions for Columbia Records. This included his three symphonies, his ballets, and the Symphonic Dances from West Side Story with the New York Philharmonic. He also conducted an LP of his 1944 musical On The Town, the first (almost) complete recording of the original featuring several members of the original Broadway cast, including Betty Comden and Adolph Green. (The 1949 film version only contains four of Bernstein's original numbers.) Bernstein also collaborated with the experimental jazz pianist and composer Dave Brubeck resulting in the recording \"Bernstein Plays Brubeck Plays Bernstein\" (1961).\n\nIn one oft-reported incident, in April 1962 Bernstein appeared on stage before a performance of the Brahms Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor with the pianist Glenn Gould. During rehearsals, Gould had argued for tempi much broader than normal, which did not reflect Bernstein's concept of the music. Bernstein gave a brief address to the audience starting with \"Don't be frightened; Mr Gould is here...\" and going on to \"In a concerto, who is the boss (audience laughter)—the soloist or the conductor?\" (Audience laughter grows louder). The answer is, of course, sometimes the one and sometimes the other, depending on the people involved.\" This speech was subsequently interpreted by Harold C. Schonberg, music critic for The New York Times, as abdication of personal responsibility and an attack on Gould, whose performance Schonberg went on to criticize heavily. Bernstein always denied that this had been his intent and has stated that he made these remarks with Gould's blessing. In the book Dinner with Lenny, published in October 2013, author Jonathan Cott provided a thorough debunking, in the conductor's own words, of the legend which Bernstein himself described in the book as \"one ... that won't go away\". Throughout his life, he professed admiration and friendship for Gould. Schonberg was often (though not always) harshly critical of Bernstein as a conductor during his tenure as Music Director. However, his views were not shared by the audiences (with many full houses) and probably not by the musicians themselves (who had greater financial security arising from Bernstein's many TV and recording activities amongst other things).\n\nIn 1962 the New York Philharmonic moved from Carnegie Hall to Philharmonic Hall (now David Geffen Hall) in the new Lincoln Center. The move was not without controversy because of acoustic problems with the new hall. Bernstein conducted the gala opening concert featuring vocal works by Mahler, Beethoven and Vaughan Williams, and the premiere of Aaron Copland's Connotations, a serial-work that was merely politely received. During the intermission Bernstein kissed the cheek of the President's wife Jacqueline Kennedy, a break with protocol that was commented on at the time. In 1961 Bernstein had conducted at President John F. Kennedy's pre-inaugural gala, and he was an occasional guest in the Kennedy White House. He also conducted at the funeral mass in 1968 for the late President Kennedy's brother Robert Kennedy.\n\nIn 1964 Bernstein conducted Franco Zeffirelli's production of Verdi's Falstaff at the Metropolitan Opera in New York. In 1966 he made his debut at the Vienna State Opera conducting Luchino Visconti's production of the same opera with Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau as Falstaff. During his time in Vienna he also recorded the opera for Columbia Records and conducted his first subscription concert with the Vienna Philharmonic (which is made up of players from the Vienna State Opera) featuring Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde with Fischer-Dieskau and James King. He returned to the State Opera in 1968 for a production of Der Rosenkavalier and in 1970 for Otto Schenk's production of Beethoven's Fidelio. Sixteen years later, at the State Opera, Bernstein conducted his sequel to Trouble in Tahiti, A Quiet Place. with the ORF orchestra. Bernstein's final farewell to the State Opera happened accidentally in 1989: following a performance of Modest Mussorgsky's Khovanshchina, he unexpectedly entered the stage and embraced conductor Claudio Abbado in front of a cheering audience.\n\nWith his commitment to the New York Philharmonic and his many other activities, Bernstein had little time for composition during the 1960s. The two major works he produced at this time were his Kaddish Symphony dedicated to the recently assassinated President John F. Kennedy and the Chichester Psalms which he produced during a sabbatical year he took from the Philharmonic in 1965 to concentrate on composition. To try to have more time for composition was probably a major factor in his decision to step down as Music Director of the Philharmonic in 1969, and to never accept such a position anywhere again.\n\n1970–1979\n\nAfter stepping down from the New York Philharmonic, Bernstein continued to appear with them in most years until his death, and he toured with them to Europe in 1976 and to Asia in 1979. He also strengthened his relationship with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra – he conducted all nine completed Mahler symphonies with them (plus the adagio from the 10th) in the period from 1967 to 1976. All of these were filmed for Unitel with the exception of the 1967 Mahler 2nd, which instead Bernstein filmed with the London Symphony Orchestra in Ely Cathedral in 1973. In the late 1970s Bernstein conducted a complete Beethoven symphony cycle with the Vienna Philharmonic, and cycles of Brahms and Schumann were to follow in the 1980s. Other orchestras he conducted on numerous occasions in the 1970s include the Israel Philharmonic, the Orchestre National de France, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra.\n\nIn 1970 Bernstein wrote and narrated a ninety-minute program filmed on location in and around Vienna as a celebration of Beethoven's 200th birthday. It featured parts of Bernstein's rehearsals and performance for the Otto Schenk production of Fidelio, Bernstein playing the 1st piano concerto and the Ninth Symphony with the Vienna Philharmonic and the young Plácido Domingo amongst the soloists. The program was first telecast in 1970 on Austrian and British television, and then on CBS in the U.S. on Christmas Eve 1971. The show, originally entitled Beethoven's Birthday: A Celebration in Vienna, won an Emmy and was issued on DVD in 2005. In the summer of 1970, during the Festival of London, he conducted Verdi's Requiem Mass in St. Paul's Cathedral, with the London Symphony Orchestra.\n\nLike many of his friends and colleagues, Bernstein had been involved in various left wing causes and organizations since the 1940s. He was blacklisted by the US State Department and CBS in the early 1950s, but unlike others his career was not greatly affected, and he was never required to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee. His political life received substantial press coverage though in 1970, due to a gathering hosted at his Manhattan apartment on January 14, 1970. Bernstein and his wife held the event seeking to raise awareness and money for the defense of several members of the Black Panther Party against a variety of charges. The New York Times initially covered the gathering as a lifestyle item, but later posted an editorial harshly unfavorable to Bernstein following generally negative reaction to the widely publicized story. This reaction culminated in June 1970 with the appearance of \"Radical Chic: That Party at Lenny's\", an essay by satirist Tom Wolfe featured on the cover of New York Magazine. The article contrasted the Bernsteins' comfortable lifestyle in one of the world's most expensive neighborhoods with the anti-establishment politics of the Black Panthers. It led to the popularization of \"radical chic\" as a critical term. Both Bernstein and his wife Felicia responded to the criticism, arguing that they were motivated not by a shallow desire to express fashionable sympathy but by their concern for civil liberties. \n\nBernstein's major compositions during the 1970s were his MASS: A Theatre Piece for Singers, Players, and Dancers; his score for the ballet Dybbuk; his orchestral vocal work Songfest; and his U.S. bicentenary musical 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue written with lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner which was his first real theatrical flop, and last original Broadway show. The world premiere of Bernstein's MASS took place on September 8, 1971. Commissioned by Jacqueline Kennedy for the opening of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., it was partly intended as an anti-war statement. Hastily written in places, the work represented a fusion not only of different religious traditions (Latin liturgy, Hebrew prayer, and plenty of contemporary English lyrics) but also of different musical styles, including classical and rock music. It was originally a target of criticism from the Roman Catholic Church on the one hand and contemporary music critics who objected to its Broadway/populist elements on the other. In the present day, it is perhaps seen as less blasphemous and more a piece of its era: in 2000 it was even performed in the Vatican.\n\nIn 1972 Bernstein recorded Bizet's Carmen, with Marilyn Horne in the title role and James McCracken as Don Jose, after leading several stage performances of the opera at the Metropolitan Opera. The recording was one of the first in stereo to use the original spoken dialogue between the sung portions of the opera, rather than the musical recitatives that were composed by Ernest Guiraud after Bizet's death. The recording was Bernstein's first for Deutsche Grammophon and won a Grammy.\n\nBernstein was appointed in 1973 to the Charles Eliot Norton Chair as Professor of Poetry at his alma mater, Harvard University, and delivered a series of six televised lectures on music with musical examples played by the Boston Symphony Orchestra. However, these lectures were not televised until 1976. Taking the title from a Charles Ives work, he called the series The Unanswered Question; it was a set of interdisciplinary lectures in which he borrowed terminology from contemporary linguistics to analyze and compare musical construction to language. The lectures are presently available in both book and DVD form. The DVD video was not taken directly from the lectures at Harvard, rather they were recreated again at the WGBH studios for filming. This appears to be the only surviving Norton lectures series available to the general public in video format. Noam Chomsky wrote in 2007 on the Znet forums about the linguistic aspects of the lecture: \"I spent some time with Bernstein during the preparation and performance of the lectures. My feeling was that he was onto something, but I couldn't really judge how significant it was.\"\n\nChevy Chase states in his biography that Lorne Michaels wanted Bernstein to host Saturday Night Live in the show's first season (1975–76). Chase was seated next to Bernstein at a birthday party for Kurt Vonnegut and made the request in person. However, the pitch involved a Bernstein-conducted SNL version of West Side Story, and Bernstein was uninterested. \n \nA major period of upheaval in Bernstein's personal life began in 1976 when he decided that he could no longer conceal his bisexuality and he left his wife Felicia for a period to live with the musical director of the classical music radio station KKHI-FM in San Francisco, Tom Cothran. The next year she was diagnosed with lung cancer and eventually Bernstein moved back in with her and cared for her until she died on June 16, 1978. Bernstein is reported to have often spoken of his terrible guilt over his wife's death. Most biographies of Bernstein state that his lifestyle became more excessive and his personal behavior sometimes cruder after her death. However, his public standing and many of his close friendships appear to have remained unaffected, and he resumed his busy schedule of musical activity.\n\nIn 1978, Bernstein returned to the Vienna State Opera to conduct a revival of the Otto Schenk production of Fidelio, now featuring Gundula Janowitz and Rene Kollo in the lead roles. At the same time, Bernstein made a studio recording of the opera for Deutsche Grammophon and the opera itself was filmed by Unitel and released on DVD by Deutsche Grammophon in late 2006. In May 1978, the Israel Philharmonic played two U.S. concerts under his direction to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Orchestra under that name. On consecutive nights, the Orchestra, with the Choral Arts Society of Washington, performed Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and Bernstein's Chichester Psalms at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., and at Carnegie Hall in New York.\n\nIn 1979, Bernstein conducted the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra for the first time, in two charity concerts for Amnesty International involving performances of Mahler's Ninth Symphony. The invitation for the concerts had come from the orchestra and not from its principal conductor Herbert von Karajan. There has been speculation about why Karajan never invited Bernstein to conduct his orchestra. (Karajan did conduct the New York Philharmonic during Bernstein's tenure.) The full reasons will probably never be known – reports suggest they were on friendly terms when they met, but sometimes practiced a little mutual one-upmanship. One of the concerts was broadcast on radio and was posthumously released on CD by Deutsche Grammophon. One oddity of the recording is that the trombone section fails to enter at the climax of the finale, as a result of an audience member fainting just behind the trombones a few seconds earlier.\n\n1980–1990\n\nBernstein received the Kennedy Center Honors award in 1980. For the rest of the 1980s he continued to conduct, teach, compose, and produce the occasional TV documentary. His most significant compositions of the decade were probably his opera A Quiet Place, which he wrote with Stephen Wadsworth and which premiered (in its original version) in Houston in 1983; his Divertimento for Orchestra; his Halil for flute and orchestra; his Concerto for Orchestra \"Jubilee Games\"; and his song cycle Arias and Barcarolles, which was named after a comment President Dwight D. Eisenhower had made to him in 1960.\n\nIn 1982 in the U.S., PBS aired an 11-part series of Bernstein's late 1970s films for Unitel of the Vienna Philharmonic playing all nine Beethoven symphonies and various other Beethoven works. Bernstein gave spoken introduction and actor Maximilian Schell was also featured on the programs, reading from Beethoven's letters. The original films have since been released on DVD by Deutsche Grammophon. In addition to conducting in New York, Vienna and Israel, Bernstein was a regular guest conductor of other orchestras in the 1980s. These included the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam, with whom he recorded Mahler's First, Fourth, and Ninth Symphonies amongst other works; the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra in Munich, with whom he recorded Wagner's Tristan und Isolde; Haydn's Creation; Mozart's Requiem and Great Mass in C minor; and the orchestra of Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome, with whom he recorded some Debussy and Puccini's La bohème.\n\nIn 1982, he and Ernest Fleischmann founded the Los Angeles Philharmonic Institute as a summer training academy along the lines of Tanglewood. Bernstein served as artistic director and taught conducting there until 1984. Around the same time, he performed and recorded some of his own works with the Los Angeles Philharmonic for Deutsche Grammophon. Bernstein was also at the time a committed supporter of nuclear disarmament. In 1985 he took the European Community Youth Orchestra in a \"Journey for Peace\" tour around Europe and to Japan.\n\nIn 1985, he conducted a recording of West Side Story, the first time he had conducted the entire work. The recording, featuring what some critics felt were miscast opera singers such as Kiri Te Kanawa, José Carreras, and Tatiana Troyanos in the leading roles, was nevertheless an international bestseller. A TV documentary showing the making of the recording was made at the same time and is available on DVD. Bernstein also continued to make his own TV documentaries during the 1980s, including The Little Drummer Boy, in which he discussed the music of Gustav Mahler, perhaps the composer he was most passionately interested in, and The Love of Three Orchestras, in which he discussed his work in New York, Vienna, and Israel.\n\nIn his later years, Bernstein's life and work was celebrated around the world (as it has been since his death). The Israel Philharmonic celebrated his involvement with them at Festivals in Israel and Austria in 1977. In 1986 the London Symphony Orchestra mounted a Bernstein Festival in London with one concert that Bernstein himself conducted attended by the Queen. In 1988 Bernstein's 70th birthday was celebrated by a lavish televised gala at Tanglewood featuring many performers who had worked with him over the years.\n\nIn December 1989, Bernstein conducted live performances and recorded in the studio his operetta Candide with the London Symphony Orchestra. The recording starred Jerry Hadley, June Anderson, Adolph Green, and Christa Ludwig in the leading roles. The use of opera singers in some roles perhaps fitted the style of operetta better than some critics had thought was the case for West Side Story, and the recording (released posthumously in 1991) was universally praised. One of the live concerts from the Barbican Centre in London is available on DVD. Candide had had a troubled history, with many rewrites and writers involved. Bernstein's concert and recording were based on a \"final\" version that had been first performed by Scottish Opera in 1988. The opening night (which Bernstein attended in Glasgow) was conducted by Bernstein's former student John Mauceri.\n\nOn December 25, 1989, Bernstein conducted Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 in East Berlin's Schauspielhaus as part of a celebration of the fall of the Berlin Wall. He had conducted the same work in West Berlin the previous day. The concert was broadcast live in more than twenty countries to an estimated audience of 100 million people. For the occasion, Bernstein reworded Friedrich Schiller's text of the Ode to Joy, substituting the word Freiheit (freedom) for Freude (joy). Bernstein, in his spoken introduction, said that they had \"taken the liberty\" of doing this because of a \"most likely phony\" story, apparently believed in some quarters, that Schiller wrote an \"Ode to Freedom\" that is now presumed lost. Bernstein added, \"I'm sure that Beethoven would have given us his blessing.\"\n\nIn the summer of 1990, Bernstein and Michael Tilson Thomas founded the Pacific Music Festival in Sapporo, Japan. Like his earlier activity in Los Angeles, this was a summer training school for musicians modeled on Tanglewood, and is still in existence. Bernstein was already at this time suffering from the lung disease that would lead to his death. In his opening address Bernstein said that he had decided to devote what time he had left to education. A video showing Bernstein speaking and rehearsing at the first Festival is available on DVD in Japan.\n\nIn 1990, Leonard Bernstein received the Praemium Imperiale, an international prize awarded by the Japan Arts Association for lifetime achievement in the arts. Bernstein used the $100,000 prize to establish The Bernstein Education Through the Arts (BETA) Fund, Inc. Leonard Bernstein provided this grant to develop an arts-based education program. The Leonard Bernstein Center was established in April 1992, and initiated extensive school-based research, resulting in the Bernstein Model, the Leonard Bernstein Artful Learning Program. \n\nBernstein made his final performance as a conductor at Tanglewood on August 19, 1990, with the Boston Symphony playing Benjamin Britten's \"Four Sea Interludes\" from Peter Grimes, and Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. He suffered a coughing fit during the Third Movement of the Beethoven Symphony, however the maestro continued to conduct the piece until its conclusion, leaving the stage during the ovation, appearing exhausted and in pain. The concert was later issued on CD as \"Leonard Bernstein - The Final Concert\" by Deutsche Grammophon (catalog number 431 768). \n\nHe announced his retirement from conducting on October 9, 1990, and died of a heart attack five days later. He was 72 years old. A longtime heavy smoker, he had battled emphysema from his mid-50s. On the day of his funeral procession through the streets of Manhattan, construction workers removed their hats and waved, yelling \"Goodbye, Lenny.\" Bernstein is buried in Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York, next to his wife and with a copy of Mahler's Fifth lying across his heart. \n\nSocial activism\n\nWhile Bernstein was very well known for his music compositions and conducting, he was also known for his outspoken political views and his strong desire to further social change. His first aspirations for social change were made apparent in his producing (as a student) a recently banned opera, The Cradle Will Rock, by Marc Blitzstein, about the disparity between the working and upper class. His first opera, Trouble in Tahiti, was dedicated to Blitzstein and has a strong social theme, criticizing American civilization and suburban upper-class life in particular. As he went on in his career Bernstein would go on to fight for everything from the influences of \"American Music\" to the disarming of western nuclear weapons. \n\nBernstein was named in the book Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television as a Communist along with Aaron Copland, Lena Horne, Pete Seeger, Artie Shaw and other prominent figures of the performing arts. Red Channels was issued by the right-wing journal Counterattack and was edited by Vincent Hartnett, who was later found to have libeled and defamed the noted radio personality John Henry Faulk. \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nAmong the many awards Bernstein earned throughout his life one allowed him to make one of his philanthropic dreams a reality. He had for a long time wanted to develop an international school to help promote the integration of arts into education. When he won the Japan Arts Association award for lifetime achievement, he used the $100,000 that came with the award to build such a school in Nashville, that would strive to teach teachers how to better integrate music, dance, and theater into the school system which was \"not working\". Unfortunately, the school was not able to open until shortly after Bernstein's death.\n\nIn a 1990 Rolling Stone interview Bernstein outlined his conception of a school called [http://www.aloveoflearning.org The Academy for the Love of Learning]. \n\nI and a musician friend named Aaron Stern have conceived of an institution called the Academy for the Love of Learning. We haven't done too much with the idea yet, but it's registered as a nonprofit corporation, and besides the obvious attempts to get music and kids together, there will be the overriding goal of teaching teachers to discover their own love of learning.\n\nThe Academy for the Love of Learning was completed in 1998 and is located in Santa Fe, New Mexico where it continues to explore Bernstein's dream of integrated arts in education by offering courses in transformational learning.\n\nArtful Learning\n\nArtful Learning is based on Bernstein's philosophy that the arts can strengthen learning and be incorporated in all academic subjects. The program is based on \"units of study,\" which each consist of four core elements: experience, inquire, create, and reflect. After two decades of research and implementation across the United States, Artful Learning Schools demonstrate that Units of Study that utilize rigor, cognitive complexity and deep understanding through a commitment to collaborative and independent learning demonstrate high levels of student engagement and academic achievement. \n\nInfluence and characteristics as a conductor\n\nBernstein was one of the major figures in orchestral conducting in the second half of the 20th century. He was held in high regard amongst many musicians, including the members of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, evidenced by his honorary membership; the London Symphony Orchestra, of which he was President; and the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, with which he appeared regularly as guest conductor. He was probably the main conductor from the 1960s onwards who acquired a sort of superstar status similar to that of Herbert von Karajan, although unlike Karajan he conducted relatively little opera and part of Bernstein's fame was based on his role as a composer. As the first American-born music director of the New York Philharmonic, his rise to prominence was a factor in overcoming the perception of the time that the top conductors were necessarily trained in Europe.\n\nBernstein's conducting was characterized by extremes of emotion with the rhythmic pulse of the music conveyed visually through his balletic podium manner. Musicians often reported that his manner in rehearsal was the same as in concert. As he got older his performances tended to be overlaid to a greater extent with a personal expressiveness which often divided critical opinion. Extreme examples of this style can be found in his Deutsche Grammophon recordings of Nimrod from Elgar's Enigma Variations (1982), the end of Mahler's 9th Symphony (1985), and the finale of Tchaikovsky's Pathetique Symphony (1986), where in each case the tempos are well below those typically chosen.\n\nBernstein performed a wide repertoire from the baroque era to the 20th century, although perhaps from the 1970s onwards he tended to focus more on music from the romantic era. He was considered especially accomplished with the works of Gustav Mahler and with American composers in general, including George Gershwin, Aaron Copland, Charles Ives, Roy Harris, William Schuman, and of course himself. Some of his recordings of works by these composers would likely appear on many music critics' lists of recommended recordings. A list of his other well-thought-of recordings would probably include individual works from Haydn, Beethoven, Berlioz, Schumann, Liszt, Nielsen, Sibelius, Stravinsky, Hindemith, and Shostakovich, among others. His recordings of Rhapsody in Blue (full-orchestra version) and An American in Paris for Columbia Records, released in 1959, are considered definitive by many, although Bernstein cut the Rhapsody slightly, and his more 'symphonic' approach with slower tempi is quite far from Gershwin's own conception of the piece, evident from his two recordings. (Oscar Levant, Earl Wild, and others come closer to Gershwin's own style.) Bernstein never conducted Gershwin's Piano Concerto in F, or more than a few excerpts from Porgy and Bess, although he did discuss the latter in his article Why Don't You Run Upstairs and Write a Nice Gershwin Tune?, originally published in The New York Times and later reprinted in his 1959 book The Joy of Music.\n\nIn addition to being an active conductor, Bernstein was an influential teacher of conducting. During his many years of teaching at Tanglewood and elsewhere, he directly taught or mentored many conductors who are performing now, including John Mauceri, Marin Alsop, Herbert Blomstedt, Edo de Waart, Alexander Frey, Paavo Järvi, Eiji Oue, Maurice Peress, Seiji Ozawa (who made his American TV debut as the guest conductor on one of the Young People's Concerts), Carl St.Clair, Helmuth Rilling, Michael Tilson Thomas, and Jaap van Zweden. He also undoubtedly influenced the career choices of many American musicians who grew up watching his television programmes in the 1950s and 60s.\n\nRecordings\n\nBernstein recorded extensively from the mid-1940s until just a few months before his death. Aside from those 1940s' recordings, which were made for RCA Victor, Bernstein recorded primarily for Columbia Masterworks Records, especially when he was music director of the New York Philharmonic between 1958 and 1971. His typical pattern of recording at that time was to record major works in the studio immediately after they were presented in the orchestra's subscription concerts or on one of the Young People's Concerts, with any spare time used to record short orchestral showpieces and similar works. Many of these performances were digitally remastered and reissued by Sony as part of their 100 Volume, 125 CDs \"Royal Edition\" and their later \"Bernstein Century\" series. In 2010 many of these recordings were repackaged in a 60 CD \"Bernstein Symphony Edition\".\n\nHis later recordings (starting with Bizet's Carmen in 1972) were mostly made for Deutsche Grammophon, though he would occasionally return to the Columbia Masterworks label. Notable exceptions include recordings of Gustav Mahler's Song of the Earth and Mozart's 15th piano concerto and \"Linz\" symphony with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra for Decca Records (1966); Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique and Harold in Italy (1976) for EMI; and Wagner's Tristan und Isolde (1981) for Philips Records, a label that like Deutsche Grammophon was part of PolyGram at that time. Unlike his studio recordings for Columbia Masterworks, most of his later Deutsche Grammophon recordings were taken from live concerts (or edited together from several concerts with additional sessions to correct errors).\nMany replicate repertoire that he recorded in the 1950s and 60s.\n\nIn addition to his audio recordings, many of Bernstein's concerts from the 1970s onwards were recorded on motion picture film by the German film company Unitel. This included a complete cycle of the Mahler symphonies (with the Vienna Philharmonic and London Symphony Orchestra), as well as complete cycles of the Beethoven, Brahms and Schumann symphonies recorded at the same series of concerts as the audio recordings by Deutsche Grammophon. Many of these films appeared on Laserdisc and are now on DVD.\n\nIn total Bernstein was awarded 16 Grammys for his recordings in various categories, including several for posthumously released recordings. He was also awarded a Lifetime Achievement Grammy in 1985.\n\nInfluence and characteristics as a composer\n\nBernstein was an eclectic composer whose music fused elements of jazz, Jewish music, theatre music and the work of earlier composers like Aaron Copland, Igor Stravinsky, Darius Milhaud, George Gershwin, and Marc Blitzstein. Some of his works, especially his score for West Side Story, helped bridge the gap between classical and popular music. His music was rooted in tonality but in some works like his Kaddish Symphony and the opera A Quiet Place he mixed in 12-tone elements. Bernstein himself said his main motivation for composing was \"to communicate\" and that all his pieces, including his symphonies and concert works, \"could in some sense be thought of as 'theatre' pieces.\"In the 1978 Peter Rosen documentary Leonard Bernstein: Reflections, now available on a Medici Arts DVD. According to the League of American orchestras, he was the second most frequently performed American composer by U.S. orchestras in 2008-9 behind Copland, and he was the 16th most frequently performed composer overall by U.S. orchestras. (Some performances were probably due to the 90th anniversary of his birth in 2008.) His most popular pieces were the Overture to Candide, the Symphonic Dances from West Side Story, the Serenade for Violin, Strings, Harp and Percussion and the Three Dance Episodes from On the Town. His shows West Side Story, On the Town, Wonderful Town and Candide are regularly performed, and his symphonies and concert works are programmed from time to time by orchestras around the world. Since his death many of his works have been commercially recorded by artists other than himself. The Serenade, which has been recorded more than 10 times, is probably his most recorded work not taken from an actual theatre piece.\n\nDespite the fact that he was a popular success as a composer, Bernstein himself is reported to have been disillusioned that some of his more serious works were not rated more highly by critics, and that he himself had not been able to devote more time to composing because of his conducting and other activities. Professional criticism of Bernstein's music often involves discussing the degree to which he created something new as art versus simply skillfully borrowing and fusing together elements from others. In the late 1960s, Bernstein himself reflected that his eclecticism was in part due to his lack of lengthy periods devoted to composition, and that he was still seeking to enrich his own personal musical language in the manner of the great composers of the past, all of whom had borrowed elements from others. Perhaps the harshest criticism he received from some critics in his lifetime though was directed at works like his Kaddish Symphony, his MASS and the opera A Quiet Place, where they found the underlying message of the piece or the text as either mildly embarrassing, clichéd or offensive. Despite this, all these pieces have been performed, discussed and reconsidered since his death.\n\nBernstein's works were performed several times for Pope John Paul II, including at World Youth Day in Denver on August 14, 1993 (excerpts from \"MASS\"), and at the Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah on April 7, 1994, with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (\"Chichester Psalms\" and Symphony No. 3, \"Kaddish\" [excerpt]) in the Sala Nervi at the Vatican. Both performances were conducted by Gilbert Levine.\n\nAlthough he taught conducting, Bernstein was not a teacher of composition as such, and he has no direct composing heirs. Perhaps the closest are composers like John Adams, who from the 1970s onwards indirectly adopted elements of his eclectic, theatrical style.\n\nWorks\n\nBallet\n\n* Fancy Free, 1944\n* Facsimile – Choreographic Essay for Orchestra, 1946\n* Dybbuk (ballet), 1974\n\nOpera\n\n* Trouble in Tahiti, 1952\n* Candide, 1956 (new libretto in 1973, operetta final revised version in 1989)\n* A Quiet Place, 1983, revised in 1986\n\nMusicals\n\n* On The Town, 1944\n* Wonderful Town, 1953\n* West Side Story, 1957\n* The Race to Urga (incomplete), 1969\n* \"By Bernstein\" (a Revue), 1975\n* 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, 1976\n* \"A Party with Betty Comden and Adolph Green\", 1977\n* The Madwoman of Central Park West, (contributed to) 1979\n\nIncidental music and other theatre\n\n* Peter Pan, 1950\n* The Lark, 1955\n* The Firstborn, 1958\n* Mass (theatre piece for singers, players and dancers), 1971\n\"Side by Side by Sondheim\" 1976\n\nFilm scores\n\n* On the Town, 1949 (only part of his music was used)\n* On the Waterfront, 1954\n* West Side Story, 1961\n\nOrchestral\n\nSymphony No. 1, Jeremiah, 1942\nFancy Free and Three Dance Variations from \"Fancy Free\", concert premiere 1946\nThree Dance Episodes from \"On the Town\", concert premiere 1947\nSymphony No. 2, The Age of Anxiety, (after W. H. Auden) for Piano and Orchestra, 1949 (revised in 1965)\nSerenade for Solo Violin, Strings, Harp and Percussion (after Plato's \"Symposium\"), 1954\nPrelude, Fugue, and Riffs for Solo Clarinet and Jazz Ensemble, 1949\nSymphonic Suite from \"On the Waterfront\", 1955\nSymphonic Dances from \"West Side Story\", 1961\nSymphony No. 3, Kaddish, for Orchestra, Mixed Chorus, Boys' Choir, Speaker and Soprano Solo, 1963 (revised in 1977)\nDybbuk, Suites No. 1 and 2 for Orchestra, concert premieres 1975\nSongfest: A Cycle of American Poems for Six Singers and Orchestra, 1977\nThree Meditations from \"Mass\" for Violoncello and Orchestra, 1977\nSlava! A Political Overture for Orchestra, 1977\nDivertimento for Orchestra, 1980\nHalil, nocturne for Solo Flute, Piccolo, Alto Flute, Percussion, Harp and Strings, 1981\nConcerto for Orchestra, 1989 (Originally Jubilee Games from 1986, revised in 1989)\n\nChoral\n\nHashkiveinu for Cantor (tenor), Mixed Chorus and Organ, 1945\nMissa Brevis for Mixed Chorus and Countertenor Solo, with Percussion, 1988\nChichester Psalms for Boy Soprano (or Countertenor), Mixed Chorus, and Orchestra, 1965 (Reduced version for Organ, Harp and Percussion)\n\nChamber music\n\nPiano Trio, 1937, Boosey & Hawkes\nSonata for Clarinet and Piano, 1942\nBrass Music, 1959\nDance Suite, 1988\nVariations on an Octatonic Scale for recorder and cello, 1988\n\nVocal music\n\nI Hate Music: A cycle of Five Kids Songs for Soprano and Piano, 1943\nBig Stuff, sung by Billie Holiday\nLa Bonne Cuisine: Four Recipes for Voice and Piano, 1948\nSilhouette (Galilee), 1951\nTwo Love Songs, 1960\nSo Pretty, 1968\nPiccola Serenata, 1979\nArias and Barcarolles for Mezzo-Soprano, Baritone and Piano four-hands, 1988\n\nPiano music\n\nMusic for Two Pianos, 1937\nPiano Sonata, 1938\n7 Anniversaries, 1944\n4 Anniversaries, 1948\n5 Anniversaries, 1952\nBridal Suite, 1960\nMoby Diptych, 1981 (republished as Anniversaries nos. 1 and 2 in Thirteen Anniversaries)\nTouches, 1981\n13 Anniversaries, 1988\n\nOther music\n\nOther occasional works, written as gifts and other forms of memorial and tribute\n\"The Skin of Our Teeth\": An aborted work from which Bernstein took material to use in his \"Chichester Psalms\"\n\"Simhu Na\" (arrangement of traditional song)\n\"Waltz for Mippy III\" for Tuba and Piano\n\"Elegy for Mippy II\" for Trombone alone\n\"Elegy for Mippy I\" for Horn and Piano\n\"Rondo for Lifey\" for Trumpet and Piano\n\"Fanfare for Bima\" for Brass Quartet: composed in 1947 as a birthday tribute to Koussevitzky using the tune he whistled to call his cocker spaniel \n\"Shivaree: A Fanfare\" for Double Brass Ensemble and Percussion. 1970. Commissioned by and dedicated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in honor of its Centenary. Musical material later used in \"Mass.\"\n\nBibliography\n\n\n\n\n\n* Bernstein, Leonard. [1976] [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674920019 The Unanswered Question: Six Talks at Harvard], Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-92001-5.\n* Bernstein, Leonard. [2013] [http://yalebooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9780300179095The Leonard Bernstein Letters], Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17909-5.\n\nVideography\n\n* The Unanswered Question: Six Talks at Harvard. West Long Branch, New Jersey: Kultur Video. VHS ISBN 1-56127-570-0. DVD ISBN 0-7697-1570-2. (videotape of the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures given at Harvard in 1973.)\nLeonard Bernstein's Young People's Concerts with the New York Philharmonic. West Long Branch, New Jersey: Kultur Video. DVD ISBN 0-7697-1503-6.\nBernstein on Beethoven: A Celebration in Vienna/Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 1. West Long Branch, Kultur Video. DVD\nLeonard Bernstein: Omnibus – The Historic TV Broadcasts, 2010, E1 Ent.\nBernstein: Reflections (1978), Euroarts.\nBernstein/Beethoven (1982), Deutsche Grammophon, DVD\nBernstein Conducts \"West Side Story\" (1985) (retitled The Making of West Side Story in re-releases) Deutsche Grammophon. DVD\n\"The Rite of Spring\" in Rehearsal\n\"Leonard Bernstein: Reaching for the Note\" (1998) Documentary on his life and music. Originally aired on PBS's American Masters series. DVD\n\nAwards\n\n* Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1951\n* Sonning Award (Denmark), 1965\n* Ditson Conductor's Award, 1958\n* George Peabody Medal – Johns Hopkins University, 1980\n* Ernst von Siemens Music Prize 1987\n* Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medal (UK), 1987\n* Knight Grand Cross Order of Merit (Italy), 1989\n* Grammy Award for Best Album for Children\n* Grammy Award for Best Orchestral Performance\n* Grammy Award for Best Choral Performance\n* Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording\n* Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Performance\n* Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance\n* Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition\n* Grammy Award for Best Classical Album\n* Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\n* Tony Award for Best Musical\n* Special Tony Award\n* Japan Arts Association Lifetime Achievement Award\nGramophone Hall of Fame entrant \n Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur, 1986\n\nLeonard Bernstein is also a member of both the American Theater Hall of Fame, and the Television Hall of Fame. In 2015 he was inducted into the Legacy Walk." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "JFK", "J.F.K", "J.F.K. Administration", "Kennedy administration", "JFK (President)", "J.F. Kennedy", "J. F. Kennedy", "John f kennedy", "John fitzgerald kennady", "John Kennedy", "My God, I'm hit", "John F.Kennedy", "Kennedyesque", "JFK administration", "President John F. Kennedy", "Jack Kennedy", "John F Kennedy", "35th President of the United States", "JF Kennedy", "Kennedy Administration", "President John Kennedy", "John f kenedy", "John F. Kennedy", "J.F.K.", "JFK (president)", "Jfk", "Jhon F Kennedy", "John F. Kennedy and civil rights", "John f. kennedy", "J F Kennedy", "J. F. 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Who had a big 50s No 1 with A Big Hunk O' Love?	tc_1042	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "1950s_in_music.txt", "A_Big_Hunk_o'_Love.txt" ], "title": [ "1950s in music", "A Big Hunk o' Love" ], "wiki_context": [ "For music from a year in the 1950s, go to 50 \| 51 \| 52 \| 53 \| 54 \| 55 \| 56 \| 57 \| 58 \| 59\n\nThis article includes an overview of the major events and trends in popular music in the 1950s.\n\nIn the First World, rock and roll, doo-wop, pop, swing, rhythm and blues, blues, country and rockabilly dominated and defined the decade's music.\n\nThe U.S.\n\nRock and roll \n\nRock and roll dominated popular music in the later half of the 1950s. The musical style originated and evolved in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s, and quickly spread to much of the rest of the world. Its immediate origins lay in a mixing together of various black musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music; with country and western and Pop. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience, and is credited with first using the phrase \"rock and roll\" to describe the music. \n\nThe 1950s saw the growth in popularity of the electric guitar (developed and popularized by Les Paul). Paul's hit records like \"How High the Moon\", and \"The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise\", helped lead to the development of a specifically rock and roll style of playing of such exponents as Chuck Berry, Link Wray, and Scotty Moore. Chuck Berry, who is considered to be one of the pioneers of Rock and roll music, refined and developed the major elements that made rock and roll distinctive, focusing on teen life and introducing guitar solos and showmanship that would be a major influence on subsequent rock music.M. Campbell, ed., Popular Music in America: And the Beat Goes on (Cengage Learning, 3rd edn., 2008), pp. 168-9.\n\nArtists such as Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, Big Joe Turner, and Gene Vincent released the initial rhythm and blues-influenced early rock and roll hits. Rock and roll forerunners in the popular music field included Johnnie Ray, The Crew-Cuts, The Fontane Sisters, and Les Paul and Mary Ford. The Rock and Roll Era is generally dated from 25 March 1955 premiere of the motion picture, \"The Blackboard Jungle\". This film’s use of Bill Haley and His Comets' \"(We’re Gonna) Rock Around the Clock\" over its opening credits, caused a national sensation when teenagers started dancing in the aisles.\n\nPat Boone became one of the most successful artists of the 50s with his heavily Pop-influenced \"covers\" of R&B hits like \"Two Hearts, Two Kisses (Make One Love)\", \"Ain't That a Shame\", and \"At My Front Door (Crazy Little Mama)\". Boone's traditional pop approach to rock and roll, coupled with his All-American, clean-cut image helped bring the new sound to a much wider audience. Elvis Presley, who began his career in the mid-1950s, soon became the leading figure of the newly popular sound of rock and roll with a series of network television appearances, motion pictures, and chart-topping records. His energized interpretations of songs, many from African American sources, and his uninhibited performance style made him enormously popular—and controversial during that period. Boone and Presley's styles/images represented opposite ends of the burgeoning musical form, which competed with one another throughout the remainder of the decade.\n\nIn 1957, a popular television show featuring rock and roll performers, American Bandstand, went national. Hosted by Dick Clark, the program helped to popularize the more clean-cut, All-American brand of rock and roll. By the end of the decade, teen idols like Bobby Darin, Ricky Nelson, Frankie Avalon, Paul Anka, Neil Sedaka, Bobby Rydell, Connie Francis, and Fabian Forte were topping the charts. Some commentators have perceived this as the decline of rock and roll; citing the deaths of Buddy Holly, The Big Bopper and Richie Valens in a tragic plane crash in 1959 and the departure of Elvis for the army as causes.\n\nOn the other side of the spectrum, R&B-influenced acts like The Crows, The Penguins, The El Dorados and The Turbans all scored major hits, and groups like The Platters, with songs including \"The Great Pretender\" (1955), and The Coasters with humorous songs like \"Yakety Yak\" (1958), ranked among the most successful rock and roll acts of the period.V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra and S. T. Erlewine, All Music Guide to Rock: the Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul (Milwaukee, WI: Backbeat Books, 3rd edn., 2002), ISBN 0-87930-653-X, pp. 1306–7.\n\nRock and roll has also been seen as leading to a number of distinct subgenres, including rockabilly (see below) in the 1950s, combining rock and roll with \"hillbilly\" country music, which was usually played and recorded in the mid-1950s by white singers such as Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Buddy Holly and with the greatest commercial success, Elvis Presley.[ \"Rockabilly\"], Allmusic, retrieved 6 August 2009. Another subgenre, Doo Wop, entered the pop charts in the 1950s . Its popularity soon spawns the parody \"Who Put the Bomp\".\n\nNovelty songs, long a music industry staple, continued their popularity in the Rock and Roll medium with hits such as \"Beep Beep\".\n\nClassic pop\n\nPopular music dominated the charts for the first half of the decade. Vocal driven classic pop replaced big band/swing at the end of World War II, although it often used orchestras to back the vocalists. 1940s style Crooners vied with a new generation of big voiced singers, many drawing on Italian Canto Bella traditions. Mitch Miller, A&R man at the era's most successful label, Columbia Records, set the tone for the development of popular music well into the middle of the decade. Show 1. Miller integrated country, Western, rhythm & blues, and folk music into the musical mainstream, by having many of his label's biggest artists record them in a style that corresponded to Pop traditions. Miller often employed novel and ear-catching arrangements featuring classical instruments (whooping french horns, harpsichord), or sound effects (whip cracks). He approached each record as a miniature story, often \"casting\" the vocalist according to type. \n\n(Mitch) Miller and the producers who followed his model were creating a new sort of pop record. Instead of capturing the sound of live groups, they were making three-minute musicals, matching singers to songs in the same way that movie producers matched stars to film roles. As Miller told \"Time\" magazine in 1951, \"Every singer has certain sounds he makes better than others. Frankie Laine is sweat and hard words—he's a guy beating the pillow, a purveyor of basic emotions. Guy Mitchell is better with happy-go-lucky songs; he's a virile young singer, gives people a vicarious lift. Rosemary Clooney is a barrelhouse dame, a hillbilly at heart.\" It was a way of thinking perfectly suited to the new market in which vocalists were creating unique identities and hit songs were performed as television skits. \n\nWhereas big band/swing music placed the primary emphasis on the orchestration, post-war/early 1950s era Pop focused on the song’s story and/or the emotion being expressed. By the early 1950s, emotional delivery had reached its apex in the miniature psycho-drama songs of writer-singer Johnnie Ray. Known as \"The Cry Guy\" and \"The Prince of Wails\", Ray's on-stage emotion wrought \"breakdowns\" provided a release for the pent-up angst of his predominantly teenage fans. As Ray described it, \"I make them feel, I exhaust them, I destroy them.\" It was during this period that the fan hysteria, which began with Frank Sinatra during the Second World War, really began to take hold.\n\nAlthough often ignored by musical historians, Pop music played a significant role in the development of rock 'n' roll as well:\n\n[Mitch] Miller also conceived of the idea of the pop record \"sound\" per se: not so much an arrangement or a tune, but an aural texture (usually replete with extramusical gimmicks) that could be created in the studio and then replicated in live performance, instead of the other way around. Miller was hardly a rock 'n' roller, yet without these ideas there could never have been rock 'n' roll. \"Mule Train\", Miller's first major hit (for Frankie Laine) and the foundation of his career, set the pattern for virtually the entire first decade of rock. The similarities between it and, say, \"Leader of the Pack,\" need hardly be outlined here. \n\nPatti Page kicked things off with what would become the decade's biggest hit, \"Tennessee Waltz\". Her other hits from this period included: \"Mister and Mississippi\", \"Mockin' Bird Hill\", \"Detour\", \"(How Much Is That) Doggie in the Window\", and \"Old Cape Cod\". Frankie Laine's 1949 hits, \"That Lucky Old Sun (Just Rolls Around Heaven All Day)\" and \"Mule Train\", were still riding high on the charts when the decade began. He continued to score with such hits as: \"Georgia on My Mind\", \"Cry of the Wild Goose\", \"Jezebel\", \"Rose, Rose, I Love You\", \"Jealousy (Jalousie)\", \"High Noon (Do Not Forsake Me)\", \"I Believe\", \"Granada\", \"Moonlight Gambler\", and \"Rawhide\". Johnnie Ray had a long run of hits in the early half of the decade, often backed by The Four Lads, including: \"Cry\", \"The Little White Cloud That Cried\", \"Walking My Baby Back Home\", \"Please, Mr. Sun\", and \"Just Walkin' in the Rain\". The Four Lads racked up some hits on their own with \"Who Needs You\", \"No, Not Much\", \"Standin' on the Corner\", and \"Moments to Remember\". Nat \"King\" Cole dominated the charts throughout the decade with such timeless classics as \"Unforgettable\", \"Mona Lisa\", \"Too Young\", \"Darling, Je Vous Aime Beaucoup\", \"Pretend\", \"Smile\", and \"A Blossom Fell\". Perry Como was another frequent visitor to the charts with hits like: \"If\", \"Round and Round\", \"Don't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes\", \"Tina Marie\", \"Papa Loves Mambo\", and \"Catch a Falling Star\".\n\nOther major stars in the early 1950s included Frank Sinatra (\"Young at Heart\", \"Three Coins in the Fountain\", \"Witchcraft\"), Tony Bennett (\"Cold, Cold Heart\", \"Because of You\", \"Rags to Riches\"), Kay Starr (\"Bonaparte's Retreat\", \"Wheel of Fortune\", \"Rock and Roll Waltz\"), Rosemary Clooney (\"Come On-a My House\", \"Mambo Italiano\", \"Half as Much\", \"This Ole House\"), Dean Martin (\"That's Amore\", \"Return to Me\", \"Sway\"), Georgia Gibbs (\"Kiss of Fire\", \"Dance With Me, Henry\", \"Tweedle Dee\"), Eddie Fisher (\"Anytime\", \"Wish You Were Here\", \"Thinking of You\", \"I'm Walking Behind You\", \"Oh! My Pa-Pa\", \"Fanny\"), Teresa Brewer (\"Music! Music! Music!\", \"Till I Waltz Again With You\", \"Ricochet(Rick-O-Shay)\"), Doris Day (\"Secret Love\", \"Whatever Will Be Will Be (Que Sera Sera)\", \"Teacher's Pet\"), Guy Mitchell (\"My Heart Cries for You\", \"The Roving Kind\", \"Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\", \"Singing the Blues\"), Bing Crosby (\"Play a Simple Melody with son Gary Crosby, \"True Love with Grace Kelly), Dinah Shore (\"Lavender Blue\"), Kitty Kallen (\"Little Things Mean a Lot\"), Joni James (\"Have You Heard\", \"Wishing Ring\", \"Your Cheatin' Heart\"), Peggy Lee (\"Lover\", \"Fever\"), Julie London (\"Cry Me a River\"), Toni Arden (\"Padre\"), June Valli (\"Why Don't You Believe Me\"), Arthur Godfrey (\"Slowpoke\"), Tennessee Ernie Ford (\"Sixteen Tons\"), Les Paul and Mary Ford (\"Vaya Con Dios\", \"Tiger Rag\"), and vocal groups like The Mills Brothers (\"Glow Worm\"), The Weavers \"(Goodnight Irene\"), The Four Aces (\"Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing\", \"(It's No) Sin\"), The Chordettes (\"Mister Sandman\"), Fontane Sisters (\"Hearts of Stone\"), The Hilltoppers (\"Trying\", \"P.S. I Love You\"), The McGuire Sisters (\"Sincerely\", \"Goodnite, Sweetheart, Goodnite\", \"Sugartime\") and The Ames Brothers (\"Ragmop\" \"The Naughty Lady of Shady Lane\").\n\nClassic pop declined in popularity as Rock and roll entered the mainstream and became a major force in American record sales. Crooners such as Eddie Fisher, Perry Como, and Patti Page, who had dominated the first half of the decade, found their access to the pop charts significantly curtailed by the decade's end. However, new Pop vocalists continued to rise to prominence throughout the decade, many of whom started out singing Rock ‘n’ Roll. These include: Pat Boone (\"Don’t Forbid Me\", \"April Love\", \"Love Letters in the Sand\"), Connie Francis (\"Who’s Sorry Now\", \"Among My Souvenirs\", \"My Happiness\"), Gogi Grant (\"Suddenly There’s a Valley\", \"The Wayward Wind\"), Bobby Darin (\"Dream Lover\", \"Beyond the Sea\", \"Mack the Knife\"), and Andy Williams (\"Canadian Sunset\", \"Butterfly\", \"Hawaiian Wedding Song\"). Even Rock ‘n’ Roll icon Elvis Presley spent the rest of his career alternating between Pop and Rock (\"Love Me Tender\", \"Loving You\", \"I Love You Because\"). Pop would resurface on the charts in the mid-1960s as \"Adult Contemporary\".\n\nR&B\n\nIn 1951, Little Richard Penniman began recording for RCA Records in the late-1940s jump blues style of Joe Brown and Billy Wright. However, it wasn't until he prepared a demo in 1954, that caught the attention of Specialty Records, that the world would start to hear his new, uptempo, funky rhythm and blues that would catapult him to fame in 1955 and help define the sound of rock and roll. A rapid succession of rhythm-and-blues hits followed, beginning with \"Tutti Frutti\" and \"Long Tall Sally\", which would influence performers such as James Brown, Elvis Presley, and Otis Redding. \n\nAt the urging of Leonard Chess at Chess Records, Chuck Berry had reworked a country fiddle tune with a long history, entitled \"Ida Red\". The resulting \"Maybellene\" was not only a #3 hit on the R&B charts in 1955, but also reached into the top 30 on the pop charts.\n\nStax Records was founded in 1957 as Satellite Records. The label was a major factor in the creation of the Southern soul and Memphis soul styles.\n\nIn 1959, two black-owned record labels, one of which would become hugely successful, made their debut: Sam Cooke's Sar, and Berry Gordy's Motown Records. \n\nBlues\n\nBlues had a huge influence on mainstream American popular music in the 1950s with the enthusiastic playing styles of popular musicians like Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry, departed from the melancholy aspects of blues and influenced Rock and roll music.\n\nRay Charles and Fats Domino help bring blues into the popular music scene. Domino provides a boogie-woogie style that heavily influences rock 'n' roll.\n\nBig Mama Thornton records the original versions of \"Hound Dog\" and \"Ball and Chain\". \n\nCountry music \n\nCountry music stars in the early 1950s included Hank Williams, Patsy Cline, Bill Monroe, Eddy Arnold, Gene Autry, Tex Ritter, Jim Reeves, Tennessee Ernie Ford, Chet Atkins and Kitty Wells.\n\nWells' 1952 hit \"It Wasn't God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels\" became the first single by a solo female artist to top the U.S. country charts. \"It Wasn't God ... \" was a landmark single in several ways; it began a trend of \"answer\" songs, or songs written and recorded in response to (or to counterpoint) a previously popular song – in this case, \"The Wild Side of Life\" by Hank Thompson – and for Wells, began a trend of female singers who defied the typical stereotype of being submissive to men and putting up with their oft-infidel ways, both in their personal lives and in their songs.\n\nEarly in the decade, the honky-tonk style dominated country music, with songs of heartbreak, loneliness, alcoholism and despair the overriding themes. Long regarded the master of these themes was Hank Williams, whose critically acclaimed songwriting resulted in a string of legendary hits and songs, such as \"Cold, Cold Heart\", \"Your Cheating Heart\", \"Why Don't You Love Me\" and many more titles. Williams also lived hard, and on January 1, 1953, died. His legacy, however, would live on in country music for decades to come, and be vastly influential to new stars including a young Saratoga, Texas native named George Jones.\n\nJones, just 23 when he had his first national hit -- \"Why Baby Why\" -- would go on to become one of country music's most iconic figures for the next 55-plus years. Although some of his early songs included rockabilly (usually recorded under the pseudonym Thumper Jones), he stayed true to the honky-tonk style for most of his career. In addition to \"Why Baby Why,\" his biggest 1950s hits included \"What Am I Worth\", \"Treasure of Love\", \"Just One More\" and his first No. 1 hit, \"White Lightning\", and by the end of the 1990s, that number would increase to more than 100 hit songs.\n\nBesides Williams and Jones, the most popular honky tonk-styled singers included Lefty Frizzell, Carl Smith and Webb Pierce.\n\nIn 1955, Ozark Jubilee nearly began a nearly six-year run on ABC-TV, the first national TV show to feature country's biggest stars.\n\nBy the late 1950s, the Nashville sound became country music's response to continued encroachment of genre by rock artists. This new style emphasized string sections, background vocals and crooning lead vocals in the vein of mainstream popular music, but utilizing production styles and themes seen in country music. Artists like Eddy Arnold and Jim Reeves, both whom had been well established earlier in the decade, were early pioneers in this style, which went on to see its greatest success in the 1960s. One of the first major Nashville Sound hits was \"Oh, Lonesome Me\" by Don Gibson. Also popular was the \"saga song\", often a song with a historical background or having themes of violence, adultery and so forth. Songs by artists such as Johnny Horton (\"The Battle of New Orleans\" and \"When It's Springtime in Alaska\"), Stonewall Jackson (\"Waterloo\"), Marty Robbins (\"El Paso\") and Lefty Frizzell (\"Long Black Veil\") dominated the charts starting in 1959 and continuing into the early 1960s.\n\nThe late 1950s saw the emergence of the Lubbock sound, but by the end of the decade, backlash as well as traditional country music artists such as Ray Price, Marty Robbins, and Johnny Horton began to shift the industry away from the rock n' roll influences of the mid-1950s.\n\nRockabilly emerged in the early 1950s as a fusion of rock and roll and country music. Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s. The music was propelled by catchy beats, an electric guitar and an acoustic bass which was played using the slap-back technique. Rockabilly is generally considered to have begun in the early 1950s, when musicians like Bill Haley began mixing jump blues and electric country. In 1954, however, Elvis Presley truly began the popularization of the genre with a series of recordings for Sun Records. \"Rock Around the Clock\" (1955, Bill Haley) was the breakthrough success for the style, and it launched the careers of several rockabilly entertainers.\n\nDuring this period Elvis Presley converted over to country music. He played a huge role in the music industry during this time. The number two, three and four songs on Billboard's charts for that year were Elvis Presley, \"Heartbreak Hotel;\" Johnny Cash, \"I Walk the Line;\" and Carl Perkins, \"Blue Suede Shoes\". Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No. 3 \"Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In, Stranger\" by Cash, and No. 5 by Presley \"Don't/I Beg Of You\". Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style, saying \"The coloured folk been singin' and playin' it just the way I'm doin' it now, man for more years than I know.\" But he also said, \"My stuff is just hopped-up country.\" By 1958, many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style and rockabilly had largely disappeared from popular music, although its influences would remain into the future.\n\nJazz\n\nBebop, Hard bop, Cool jazz and the Blues gained popularity during the 1950s while prominent Jazz musicians who came into prominence in these genres included Lester Young, Ben Webster, Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk, Charles Mingus, Art Tatum, Bill Evans, Ahmad Jamal, Oscar Peterson, Gil Evans, Gerry Mulligan, Cannonball Adderley, Stan Getz, Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Art Blakey, Max Roach, the Miles Davis Quintet, the Modern Jazz Quartet, Ella Fitzgerald, Ray Charles, Sarah Vaughan, Dinah Washington, Nina Simone, and Billie Holiday.\n\nOther trends\n\nIn 1956 the American musician of Jamaican descent Harry Belafonte popularized the Calypso music Caribbean musical style which became a worldwide craze with the release of his rendition traditional Jamaican folk song \"Banana Boat Song\" from his 1956 album Calypso. The album later became the first full-length record to sell more than a million copies, and Belafonte was dubbed the \"King of Calypso\".\n\nFolk music\n\nThe Weavers, Pete Seeger, Woody Guthrie, The Kingston Trio, Odetta, and several other performers were instrumental in launching the folk music revival of the 1950s and 1960s.\n\nEurope \n\nDuring the 1950s European popular music give way to the influence of American forms of music including jazz, swing and traditional pop, mediated through film and records. The significant change of the mid-1950s was the impact of American rock and roll, which provided a new model for performance and recording, based on a youth market. Initially this was dominated by American acts, or re-creations of American forms of music, but soon distinctly European Bands and individual artists began in early attempts to produce local Rock and roll music.\n\nLatin America \n\n* In 1958 the American musician Ritchie Valens's \"La Bamba\" popularized Spanish language rock music throughout Latin America.\n* In 1958 Daniel Flores, who some call the \"godfather of Latin Rock\", performed his hit song \"Tequila\".\n* Argentinian band Los Cinco Latinos released their first album Maravilloso Maravilloso, which was met with success in Latin America and the United States. \n\nHispanics, young and old, could find comfort in the popular rhythmic sounds of Latin music that reminded them of home; mambo, cha-cha, merengue and salsa. Tito Puente, an American born Boricua (Puerto Rican), revolutionized the Latin music of the time. He incorporated many new percussion and woodwind instruments into the popular Latin sound. The Hispanics in the U.S. certainly were able to conform with the popular vibes.\n\nAustralia and New Zealand \n\nBy the end of the decade, as the Rock n Roll style had spread throughout the world, it soon caught on with Australian teens. Johnny O'Keefe became perhaps the first modern rock star of the country, and began the field of Australian rock.\n\nNew Zealand was introduced to Rock n Roll by Johnny Cooper's cover of \"Rock around the Clock\".\n\nAfter Rock n Roll had been introduced the most famous of New Zealand's cover artists were: Johnny Devlin, Max Merit and the Meteors, Ray Columbus and the Invaders and Dinah Lee.", "\"A Big Hunk o' Love\" is a song written by Aaron Schroeder and Sid Wyche, aka Sid Jaxon. The former is best known for writing the jazz standard \"Alright, Okay, You Win\", whereas Aaron Schroeder co-wrote a whole bunch of hits from the rock`n`roll area, from \"Fools Hall of Fame\" (Pat Boone) to \"Because They're Young\" (Duane Eddy). In an interview conducted by Jan-Erik Kjeseth, he also revealed that in fact he worked with his partner Wally Gold in order to improve a song submitted by another writer, and the end result was \"It's My Party\", a big hit for Lesley Gore. Schroeder and Gold tossed a coin as to whose name should go on the record, and Gold \"won\". Other titles written by the duo include \"It's Now or Never\" and \"Good Luck Charm\"; both of which - like \"A Big Hunk o' Love\" - were originally recorded by American rock and roll icon Elvis Presley. \"A Big Hunk o'Love\" was released as a single on June 23, 1959 by RCA Victor and later topped the Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks. \n\nThe song was revived by Presley in 1972 during his engagements at the Las Vegas Hilton in February 1972 and was used in his live shows until mid-1973. It was performed live for the last time on January 26, 1974. The song is included in the 1972 documentary Elvis On Tour and his 1973 show broadcast via satellite, Aloha from Hawaii. During this time period, it was played by the Elvis' TCB Band, and featured Glen D. Hardin and James Burton.\n\nRecording \n\n\"A Big Hunk o' Love\", a hard, driving rocker, was recorded at Elvis' first and only session during his two years of army service. The session took place on June 10, 1958 in Nashville, Tennessee. It was the first session that did not include guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, who had both worked with Elvis since his first recordings for Sam Phillips at the Memphis Recording Service, which later became known as Sun Studios. The recording featured Elvis' regular drummer D.J. Fontana and backing vocalists the Jordanaires, who would continue to work with Elvis until Elvis' appearance at the Hilton in Las Vegas. The rest of the musicians were top Nashville session men, such as guitarist Hank Garland on Gibson Byrdland guitar, Floyd Cramer on piano, Bob Moore on double bass, Buddy Harman and D.J.Fontana on a drums. The song was recorded in four takes, the released version is actually spliced from takes three and four. \n\nPersonnel\n\nElvis Presley – lead vocals\nHank Garland – lead guitar\nBob Moore – double bass\nD.J. Fontana, Buddy Harman – drums\nFloyd Cramer – piano\nSteve Sholes – producer\n*Bob Ferris – engineer\n\nRelease and chart performance \n\nRCA Victor had paired \"A Big Hunk o' Love\" for release as an a-side single with \"My Wish Came True\" as the b-side in both the United States and England. When the single was released on June 23, it was the second release to come from Elvis' army session after \"I Need Your Love Tonight\" b/w \"(Now and Then There's) A Fool Such as I\" on March 10, 1959.\n\nAs stated above, the a-side spent two weeks at #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 while the b-side peaked at #12. The single was less successful on the Cashbox Top 100 with the a-side peaking at #2 and the b-side at #23. On the UK Singles Chart the a-side peaked at #4, while the b-side did not appear on the chart. The a-side also peaked at #10 on Billboard magazine's R&B Singles chart. \n\nDue to the songs success, Elvis' next single was another Aaron Schroeder co-composition, \"Stuck on You\". \"A big Hunk o' Love\" was the first of four of Schroeder's songs that became #1 hits for Elvis.\n\nSingle track listings" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Elvis Aron Presley", "Oh, How I Love Jesus", "Elvis Presley's political beliefs", "He's Only a Prayer Away", "Jesse Garon Presley", "Elvis Pressly", "Elvis Pressley", "Elvis Aaron Pressly", "The King (entertainer)", "Elvis A. Presley", "Elvis prestly", "(Keep Your) Hands Off (Of It)", "Presleyesque", "It's No Fun Being Lonely", "Elvis Presley", "Mr. Aaron", "Ginger Alden", "Gladys Presley", "Political beliefs of elvis presley", "Cattle Call/Yodel", "Dainty Little Moonbeams", "Elvis The Pelvis", "I Asked the Lord", "Elvis discography", "Elvis", "Show Me Thy Ways, O, Lord", "Gladys Love Presley", "Jesse Presley", "Lovely Mamie", "Elvis presley", "Mary Lou Brown", "Elvis Presely", "Elvis Pres;ey", "Long, Lonely Highway", "Elvis aaron", "Death of Elvis Presley", "Elvis Presley discography", "Apron Strings", "Elvis Pres", "Frank Page (radio)", "Vernon Presley", "Little Mama", "Elvis Aron Pressley", "Gladys love presley", "Elivs", "Vernon Elvis Presley", "I Ain't About to Sing", "Elvis Aaron Presley", "Elvisesque", "Elvis Extravaganza", "Political beliefs of Elvis Presley", "Gladys Love Smith", "Elvis aron", "Elvis Presly", "Elvis Aaron Pressley", "Elvis presley discography", "Elvis Aron Pressly", "I Didn't Make It On Playing Guitar", "The King (actor-singer)", "Elvis Presley Discography", "Vernon and Gladys Presley", "Presley, Elvis" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "elivs", "gladys love presley", "apron strings", "elvis aaron presley", "elvis presly", "elvis aaron pressley", "king actor singer", "elvis pres", "presleyesque", "elvisesque", "mr aaron", "elvis pres ey", "jesse presley", "elvis aron presley", "lovely mamie", "keep your hands off of it", "gladys presley", "cattle call yodel", "elvis pressly", "elvis aron pressley", "oh how i love jesus", "i asked lord", "i ain t about to sing", "vernon elvis presley", "vernon presley", "presley elvis", "elvis aaron", "i didn t make it on playing guitar", "elvis presley", "elvis presley s political beliefs", "dainty little moonbeams", "he s only prayer away", "it s no fun being lonely", "ginger alden", "mary lou brown", "elvis aaron pressly", "king entertainer", "vernon and gladys presley", "elvis pressley", "elvis", "elvis pelvis", "little mama", "elvis prestly", "show me thy ways o lord", "elvis extravaganza", "elvis presley discography", "jesse garon presley", "death of elvis presley", "gladys love smith", "long lonely highway", "frank page radio", "political beliefs of elvis presley", "elvis discography", "elvis aron", "elvis presely", "elvis aron pressly" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "elvis presley", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Elvis Presley" }
Whose first hit was Maybellene in 1955?	tc_1043	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Maybellene.txt" ], "title": [ "Maybellene" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Maybellene\" is a song recorded by Chuck Berry, adapted from the traditional fiddle tune \"Ida Red\". Berry's song tells the story of a hot rod race and a broken romance. It was released in July 1955 as a single by Chess Records, of Chicago, Illinois. It was Berry's first single and his first hit. \"Maybellene\" is considered one of the pioneering rock-and-roll songs: Rolling Stone magazine wrote, \"Rock & roll guitar starts here.\" The record is an early instance of the complete rock-and-roll package: youthful subject matter; a small, guitar-driven combo; clear diction; and an atmosphere of unrelenting excitement. The lyrics describe a man driving a V8 Ford chasing his unfaithful girlfriend in her Cadillac Coupe DeVille.\n\nThe song was a major hit with both black and white audiences. It has received numerous honors and awards. Soon after its initial release, cover versions were recorded by several other artists. The title is misspelled \"Maybelline\" on several releases.\n\nOrigins and writing of the song\n\n\"Maybellene\" has been described as an adaptation of the country song \"Ida Red\", as recorded by Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys in 1938. According to Berry, Wills's version, an uptempo dance number, was his favorite song to sing at racially integrated clubs (“salt and pepper clubs”, as he called them). Encouraged by Muddy Waters, in 1955 Berrry brought to Chess Records a recording of his version of Wills's song, which he had renamed \"Ida May\", and a blues song he wrote, “Wee Wee Hours”, which he saidd was inspired by Big Joe Turner’s “Wee Baby Blue”. To Berry’s surprise, Leonard Chess showed little interest in the blues material but was enthusiastic about the commercial possibilities in a “hillbilly song sung by a black man”. Chess wanted a bigger beat for the song and added a bass and a maracas player to Berry's trio at the recording session. He also thought the titles “Ida Red” and “Ida May” were “too rural”. Spotting a mascara box on the floor of the studio, according to Berry’s pianist Johnnie Johnson, Chess said, “Well, hell, let’s name the damn thing Maybellene” altering the spelling to avoid a suit by the cosmetic company. The lyrics were rewritten, also at the direction of Chess. “The kids wanted the big beat, cars and young love,” Chess recalled. “It was the trend and we jumped on it.” \n\nIt has been asserted that it was a common practice in the 1950s to alter the instrumental parts and lyrics of old songs and represent them as new songs. With such changes the original songs were often not identifiable, particularly if the melody was modified. This practice took place because copyrights on older recordings were rarely asserted.\n\nAs Chess had predicted, the lyrics appealed to teenagers fascinated by cars, speed and sexuality. \"Maybellene” was one of the first records to be a hit on the rhythm and blues, country and western, and pop charts. Featuring some inimitable Chuck Berry riffs, some blues-style picking on a guitar and Johnson’s piano, which added a hummable rhythm to the steady backbeat, \"Maybellene\" was a pivotal song in the emergence of rock and roll. This exciting fusion of a rhythm-and-blues beat with a rural country style was the catalyst for the emergence of rock and roll in the mid-1950s. \n\nPersonnel\n\nRecorded May 21, 1955\n* Chuck Berry, vocals, guitar\n* Johnnie Johnson, piano\n* Willie Dixon, bass\n* Jerome Green, maracas\n* Jasper Thomas or Ebby Hardy, drums\n\nCo-composers\n\nIn the 1950s, some record companies assigned publishing credits to disc jockeys and others who helped to promote a record, a form of payola by means of composer royalties. For this reason, the disc jockey Alan Freed received credit as a co-writer of \"Maybellene\". Russ Fratto, who had loaned money to Chess, also received credit. (Some Chess insiders have said that Chess owed money to Fratto, a printer and stationer, for producing record labels.) The Freed and Fratto credits, which do not appear on the original Chess single (see the photograph above), were withdrawn in 1986. However, as of 2014, these credits still appear on some reissues of Berry's recordings.\n\nCharts\n\nIn 1955, the song, a 12-bar blues, peaked at number five on the Billboard pop chart and was number one on the R&B chart. Billboards year-end charts in 1955 ranked \"Maybellene\" number 3 on the Top R&B Records Retail Sales and Juke Box Plays charts. \n\nThe record sold one million copies by the end of 1955. \n\nHonors and awards\n\nIn 1988 \"Maybellene\" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for its influence as a rock-and-roll record. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included \"Maybellene\" in its list of the \"500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll\" (also included are Berry's recordings of \"Rock and Roll Music\" and \"Johnny B. Goode\"). In 1999, National Public Radio included it in the \"NPR 100\", the one hundred most important American musical works of the 20th century, chosen by NPR music editors. \"Maybellene\" is currently ranked as the 98th greatest song of all time, as well as the second best song of 1955, by Acclaimed Music. The song is ranked number 18 on Rolling Stone's list of \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time. \n\nCover versions\n\nColumbia records released a version by Marty Robbins (21351) by the end of August 1955. His version was the number 13 \"Most Played by Jockeys\" in the country-and-western market by mid-October. and soon Columbia was touting it as one of its \"Best Selling Folk Records\". By November it was noted that the record had \"won considerable pop play\". Other versions available in mid-October 1955 were by J. Long (Coral 61478), J. Lowe (Dot 15407) and R. Marterie (Mercury 70682) with the song listed as number 14 top selling in the nation. \n\nAllmusic lists cover versions by more than 70 performers, including Elvis Presley, the Everly Brothers, Simon and Garfunkel (in a medley with \"Kodachrome\"), George Jones, Carl Perkins, Johnny Cash, Bubba Sparks, Foghat, Gerry & the Pacemakers, Johnny Rivers and Chubby Checker. \n\nIn 1964 a cover version by Johnny Rivers reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 9 on RPM magazine's Top 40-5s Singles chart." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Chuck Berrie", "Chuck Berry", "Charles Edward Anderson Berry", "Charles Edward Anderson %22Chuck%22 Berry", "Charles E. A. Berry", "Chuck Barry", "Charles Edward Berry", "Reelin' and Rockin", "Charles E. Berry" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "charles edward anderson berry", "charles e berry", "chuck berrie", "charles edward berry", "chuck barry", "charles edward anderson 22chuck 22 berry", "chuck berry", "reelin and rockin" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chuck berry", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Chuck Berry" }
What goes after Love Will Never Do on Janet Jackson's 1990 hit?	tc_1044	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Love_Will_Never_Do_(Without_You).txt", "Janet_Jackson.txt" ], "title": [ "Love Will Never Do (Without You)", "Janet Jackson" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\" is a song by American singer-songwriter Janet Jackson, recorded for her fourth studio album, Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 (1989). It was written and produced by James Harris III, and Terry Lewis. The song was released as the seventh single from the album on October 2, 1990, by A&M Records. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for one week.\n\nBackground and composition\n\nJimmy Jam and Terry Lewis considered the idea of making this song a duet. According to Fred Bronson's The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, they thought about possibly getting Prince, Johnny Gill, Ralph Tresvant, or someone else working with them at the time. However, there was no concrete plan. During the recording of the first verse, Jimmy Jam told Jackson, \"Sing it low like some guy would sing it.\" As a result, they kept the idea of her singing the first verse in a low octave but go an octave up on the second verse. \n\nIn 1996, the song was remixed by Roger Sanchez. The Single Edit was included on the international release of Jackson's 1996 greatest hits compilation Design of a Decade 1986/1996. Although being one of the album's last singles, it was one of the first songs recorded for Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814. The song's background vocals were recorded in late 1988, while Jackson recorded the lead vocals in January 1989. Herb Alpert plays trumpet on the track. \n\n\"Love Will Never Do\" is written in the key of A major and has a tempo of 103 beats per minute in common time. Jackson's vocals span from F3 to D5 in the song. \n\nMusic video\n\nThe video was directed by photographer Herb Ritts and choreographed by Ritts, Jackson and Tina Landon on September 13, 1990. Jackson originally planned to wear a dress for the video, but Ritts envisioned Jackson in nothing more than a black top, a pair of jeans, and blond hair. The video features cameos by actors Antonio Sabàto, Jr. and Djimon Hounsou. Ritts commented,\n\n\"Because Janet is known for her instinctive talent for dance, as well as being an all around entertainer, Janet and I decided to try something innovative on the video. The video is a departure from her elaborate dance production routines and focuses, instead, on her alone, She is fresh, sensual, womanly and vulnerable as she reveals herself to the camera. We wanted to show this intimate and more personal side of Janet\". \n\nThe video begins with the shadows of Jackson and a dancer, leading to images of a man running through a desert. As she starts singing the song, accompanied by her love interest, a man doing stunts also appears. As the video advances, a black man is seen running in a large wheel, and also begins lip-synching to the song. He then appears on top of a white half circle. The video ends with Jackson sharing caresses with her lover. Calvin Thomas on his book Masculinity, Psychoanalysis, Straight Queer Theory noted a lightening of Jackson's skin tone and a notable transformation of the shape of her body in the music video. Two versions of the video were produced, one in black-and-white, and the other colorized, both of which appear on the Design of a Decade 1986/1996 video compilation.\n\nThe video won for Best Female Video and was nominated for Best Choreography and Best Art Direction at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards. It ranked 13 on Rolling Stones The 100 Top Music Videos, 72 on VH1's 100 Greatest Videos, and 88 on MTV's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made. Britney Spears was inspired by the video for her \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" clip, saying \"he did Janet Jackson-remember when she made her comeback?\" she says, alluding to Janet's makeover, which was orchestrated by Ritts when he directed her \"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\" video.\" American recording artist Nicole Scherzinger revealed that she was inspired by the video for her \"Your Love\" clip. \n\nChart performance\n\nThe song became Jackson's fifth number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100, the final of seven top five singles from the album, making her the only artist to achieve seven top five singles from one album. The success of \"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\" also helped the album to become the only one in history to produce number-one hits on the Billboard Hot 100 in three separate calendar years, those being \"Miss You Much\" in 1989, \"Escapade\" and \"Black Cat\" in 1990, and \"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\" in 1991.\n\nThe single was certified Gold by the RIAA, but achieved even greater airplay success, topping the Airplay Hot 100 for seven consecutive weeks, becoming the longest-running airplay number one single at the time.\n\nLive performances\n\nJackson has performed the song on most of her tours including the janet. Tour, The Velvet Rope Tour, All for You Tour, Rock Witchu Tour, Number Ones, Up Close and Personal, and the Unbreakable World Tour.\n\nLegacy\n\nSally Yeh and Alex To covered the Cantonese version \"信自己\" (Believe Myself) in 1991 on Sally 14th album. Macy Gray sang the song live as a tribute to Jackson during MTV's MTV Icon special in 2001. The song was recorded by Sahara Hotnights in 2009 on their album Sparks.\nManilyn Reynes performed the song on the film, Kung sino pa ang minahal (1991).\n\nTrack listings\n\n;Dutch 7\" single (390 606-7)[http://www.discogs.com/release/994910 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n# Work It Out\" 7\" With Intro – 4:48\n# The Love 7\" – 4:36\n\n;UK 12\" single (AMY 700) (limited edition with tour patch & sticker)[http://www.discogs.com/release/863499 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n;Dutch 12\" single (390 606-1)[http://www.discogs.com/release/814517 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n# The \"Work It Out\" Mix – 7:30\n# UK Funky Mix – 6:25\n# The \"Work It Out\" Dub – 4:50\n\n;UK CD single (AMCD 700)[http://www.discogs.com/release/191301 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n;European CD single (390 606-2)[http://www.discogs.com/release/1021081 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n;U.S. CD single (75021 2400 2)[http://www.discogs.com/release/448515 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n# Work It Out\" 7\" With Intro – 4:48\n# Shep's \"Work It Out\" Mix – 7:37\n# UK Funky Mix – 6:25\n\n;U.S. 12\" single (75021 2346 1)[http://www.discogs.com/release/459117 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n# The \"Work It Out\" Mix – 7:30\n# The \"Work It Out\" Dub – 4:51\n# Work It Out\" 7\" With Intro – 4:48\n# UK Funky Mix – 6:25\n# UK Instrumental – 6:05\n# Single Version – 4:30\n\n;U.S. promo CD single (750217444-2)[http://eil.com/shop/moreinfo.asp?catalogid=88951 Janet Jackson Love Will Never Do USA Promo 5\" CD SINGLE (88951)]\n# Single Version - 4:30\n# Work It Out\" 7\" With Intro – 4:48\n# UK Funky 7\" – 4:29\n# The Love 7\" – 4:36\n# Work It Out 7\" – 4:13\n# The \"Work It Out\" Mix – 7:30\n# UK Funky Mix – 6:25\n# Shep's Love Mix – 6:03\n# UK Funky Instrumental – 6:06\n# The Work It Out Dub – 4:49\n\n;U.S. cassette single (75021-1538-4)[http://www.discogs.com/release/950938 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You)]\n# Single Version – 4:30\n# Work It Out\" 7\" With Intro – 4:48\n\n;Japanese 3\" CD single (PCDY-10021)[http://eil.com/shop/moreinfo.asp?catalogid=10765 Janet Jackson Love Will Never Do Without You Japan 3\" CD SINGLE (10765)]\n# Single Version – 4:30\n# Work It Out\" 7\" With Intro – 4:48\n# \"The 1814 Megamix\" – 7:24\n\n;Japanese CD maxi single (PCCY-10164)[http://www.discogs.com/release/931129 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You) (The Remixes)]\n# Single Version – 4:30\n# Work It Out\" 7\" With Intro – 4:48\n# UK Funky 7\" – 4:29\n# The Love 7\" – 4:36\n# Work It Out\" 7\" – 4:13\n# The \"Work It Out\" Mix – 7:30\n# UK Funky Mix – 6:25\n# Shep's Love Mix – 6:03\n# The \"Work It Out\" Dub – 4:50\n# The Love Dub – 6:07\n# Shep's Original 7\" – 4:28\n# Acapella – 3:49\n# \"The 1814 Megamix\" – 7:24\n# \"You Need Me\" – 4:35\n\n;UK 1996 12\" single[http://www.discogs.com/release/572309 Janet Jackson - Love Will Never Do (Without You) ('96 Mixes)]\n# Roger Sanchez Club Mix – 6:45\n# Roger Sanchez Club Mix Instrumental – 6:45\n# Roger Sanchez Acid Vocal – 9:24\n# Roger Sanchez Club Dub – 6:25\n\nOfficial versions/remixes\n\n;1990 remixes\n* Album Version – 5:50\n* Single Version – 4:35\n* A Capella – 3:48\n* UK Funky 7\" – 4:29\n* UK Funky Mix – 6:56\n* UK Funky Instrumental – 6:06\n* Work It Out 7\" – 4:13\n* Work It Out 7\" with Intro – 4:48\n* Work It Out Mix – 7:37 (also Shep's Work It Out Mix)\n* Work It Out Dub – 4:49\n* Original 7\" – 4:26 (also Shep's Original 7\")\n* The Love 7\" – 4:36\n* The Love Mix – 6:03 (also Shep's Love Mix)\n* The Love Dub – 6:02\n\n;1996 remixes\n* Roger Sanchez Acid Vocal – 9:24\n* Roger Sanchez Acid Dub – 6:45\n* Roger Sanchez Club Mix – 6:45\n* Roger Sanchez Instrumental – 6:45\n* Love To Infinity Acid Club Mix – 6:50\n* Love To Infinity Classic Paradise Radio Mix – 4:08\n* Love To Infinity Radio Master Mix – 4:27\n\nCharts\n\nPeak positions\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications", "Janet Damita Jo Jackson (born May 16, 1966) is an American singer, songwriter, dancer and actress. Known for a series of sonically innovative, socially conscious and sexually provocative records, as well as elaborate stage shows, television and film roles, she has been a prominent figure in popular culture for over 30 years. The youngest child of the Jackson family, she began her career with the variety television series The Jacksons in 1976 and went on to appear in other television shows throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, including Good Times and Fame.\n\nAfter signing a recording contract with A&M Records in 1982, she became a pop icon following the release of her third studio album Control (1986). Her collaborations with record producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis incorporated elements of rhythm and blues, funk, disco, rap, and industrial beats, which led to crossover success in popular music. In addition to receiving recognition for the innovation in her records, choreography, music videos, and prominence on radio airplay and MTV, she was acknowledged as a role model for her socially conscious lyrics.\n\nIn 1991 she signed the first of two record-breaking, multimillion-dollar contracts with Virgin Records, establishing her as one of the highest paid artists in the industry. Her debut album under the label, Janet (1993), saw her develop a public image as a sex symbol as she began to explore sexuality in her work. That same year, she appeared in her first starring film role in Poetic Justice; since then she has continued to act in feature films. By the end of the 1990s, she was named the second most successful recording artist of the decade. The release of her seventh studio album All for You (2001) coincided with a celebration of her impact on popular music as the inaugural MTV Icon. After parting ways with Virgin she released her tenth studio album Discipline (2008), her first and only album with Island Records. In 2015 she partnered with BMG Rights Management to launch her own record label, Rhythm Nation and released her first album in seven years Unbreakable (2015).\n\nHaving sold over 100 million records, she is ranked as one of the best-selling artists in the history of contemporary music. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) lists her as the eleventh best-selling female artist in the United States, with 26 million certified albums. She has amassed an extensive catalog, with singles such as \"Nasty\", \"Rhythm Nation\", \"That's the Way Love Goes\", \"Together Again\" and \"All for You\" among her signature songs; she holds the record for the most consecutive top 10 hits on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart by a female artist with 19. In 2016 Billboard magazine released its list of the Hot 100 All-Time Top Artists, placing her at number seven, while in 2010, ranking her fifth among the \"Top 50 R&B/Hip-Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years\". Three of Jackson's albums appeared in Billboard's Top 200 Best-Selling Albums of All-Time list: Control, Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814, and Janet. One of the world's most awarded artists, her longevity, records and achievements reflect her influence in shaping and redefining the scope of popular music. She has been cited as an inspiration among numerous performers.\n\nLife and career \n\n1966–85: Early life and career beginnings \n\nJanet Jackson was born in Gary, Indiana, the youngest of ten children, to Katherine Esther (née Scruse) and Joseph Walter Jackson. The Jacksons were lower-middle class and devout Jehovah's Witnesses, although Jackson would later refrain from organized religion. At a young age, her brothers began performing as The Jackson 5. In March 1969, the group signed a record deal with Motown, and soon had their first number-one hit. The family then moved to the Encino neighborhood of Los Angeles. Jackson had initially desired to become a horse racing jockey or entertainment lawyer, with plans to support herself through acting. Despite this, she was anticipated to pursue a career in entertainment, and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio. At age seven, Jackson performed at the Las Vegas Strip at the MGM Casino. A biography revealed her father, Joseph Jackson, was emotionally withdrawn, and told her to address him solely by his first name as a child. She began acting in the variety show The Jacksons in 1976. In 1977, she was selected to have a starring role as Penny Gordon Woods in the sitcom Good Times. She later starred in A New Kind of Family and later got a recurring role on Diff'rent Strokes, portraying Charlene Duprey from Seasons 3 to 6. Jackson also played the role of Cleo Hewitt during the fourth season of Fame, but expressed indifference towards the series. \n\nWhen Jackson was sixteen, her father and manager Joseph Jackson, arranged her a contract with A&M Records. Her debut album, Janet Jackson, was released in 1982. It was produced by Angela Winbush, René Moore, Bobby Watson of Rufus (band) and Leon F. Sylvers III, and overseen by her father Joseph. It peaked at number sixty-three on the Billboard 200, and number six on the publication's R&B albums chart, receiving little promotion. Jackson's second album, Dream Street, was released two years later. Dream Street reached one-hundred forty-seven on the Billboard 200, and number nineteen on the R&B albums chart. The lead single \"Don't Stand Another Chance\" peaked at number nine on Billboards R&B singles chart. Both albums consisted primarily of bubblegum pop music. Jackson eloped with singer James DeBarge in 1984, divorcing shortly afterwards, with the marriage annulled the following year. \n\n1986–88: Control \n\nAfter her second album, Jackson terminated business affairs with her family, commenting \"I just wanted to get out of the house, get out from under my father, which was one of the most difficult things that I had to do.\" Attempting a third album, Jackson teamed with producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. They set out to achieve crossover pop appeal, while also creating a strong foundation within the urban market. Within six weeks, Jackson and the duo crafted her third studio album, Control, released in February 1986. The album peaked at number one on the Billboard 200, and was certified fivefold platinum by the RIAA, selling over fourteen million copies worldwide. \n\nControl was declared \"remarkably nervy and mature\" for a teenage act, also considered \"an alternative to the sentimental balladry\" which permeated radio, likening Jackson to Donna Summer's position of \"unwilling to accept novelty status and taking her own steps to rise above it.\" The album spawned five top five singles, \"What Have You Done for Me Lately\", \"Nasty\", \"When I Think of You\", \"Control\", and \"Let's Wait Awhile\", and a top fifteen hit with \"The Pleasure Principle\". \"When I Think of You\" became her first number one hit on the Hot 100. Control received six Billboard Awards, including \"Top Pop Singles Artist\", and three Grammy nominations, most notably \"Album of the Year\". It also won four American Music Awards from twelve nominations, an unbroken record. At this point, Jackson was successfully \"shaking off the experience of being a shadow Jackson child\", becoming \"an artist in her own right\". \n\nThe album's lyrical content included several themes of empowerment, inspired by an incident of sexual harassment, with Jackson recalling \"the danger hit home when a couple of guys started stalking me on the street ... Instead of running to Jimmy or Terry for protection, I took a stand. I backed them down. That's how songs like 'Nasty' and 'What Have You Done for Me Lately' were born, out of a sense of self-defense.\" Its innovative fusion of dance-pop and industrial music with hip-hop and R&B undertones influenced the development of the new jack swing genre by bridging the gap between the latter two styles. The accompanying music videos shot for the album's singles became popular on MTV, and obtainied a then-unknown Paula Abdul a recording contract for her choreography work with Jackson. Billboard stated \"[Jackson's] accessible sound and spectacularly choreographed videos were irresistible to MTV, and helped the channel evolve from rock programming to a broader, beat-driven musical mix.\"\n\n1989–92: Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 \n\nJackson released her fourth album, Rhythm Nation 1814, in September 1989. Although her record label desired a direct sequel to Control, Jackson chose to include a socially conscious theme among various musical styles. She stated, \"I know an album or a song can't change the world. I just want my music and my dance to catch the audience's attention, and to hold it long enough for them to listen to the lyrics.\" The album's central theme of unity was developed in response to various crimes and tragedies reported in the media. \n\nPeaking at number one on the Billboard 200, the album was certified sixfold platinum by the RIAA and sold over fourteen million copies internationally. Rolling Stone observed Jackson's artistic growth shifted from \"personal freedom to more universal concerns—injustice, illiteracy, crime, drugs—without missing a beat.\" The album was also considered \"the exclamation point on her career\", consisting of a \"diverse collection of songs flowing with the natural talent Jackson possesses\", which effectively \"expanded Janet's range in every conceivable direction\", being \"more credibly feminine, more crucially masculine, more viably adult, more believably childlike.\" With singles \"Miss You Much\", \"Rhythm Nation\", \"Escapade\", \"Alright\", \"Come Back to Me\", \"Black Cat\" and \"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\", it became the only album in history to produce number one hits in three separate calendar years, as well as the only album to achieve seven top five singles on the Hot 100. Famous for its choreography and warehouse setting, the \"Rhythm Nation\" video is considered one of the most iconic and popular in history, with Jackson's military ensemble also making her a fashion icon. The video for Love Will Never Do (Without You) is notable for being the first instance of Jackson's transition into sexual imagery and midriff-baring style, becoming her trademark. Rhythm Nation 1814 became the highest selling album of 1990, winning a record fifteen Billboard Awards. The long-form \"Rhythm Nation\" music video won a Grammy Award. \n\nJackson's Rhythm Nation World Tour 1990 became the most successful debut tour in history and set a record for the fastest sell-out of Japan's Tokyo Dome. She established the \"Rhythm Nation Scholarship,\" donating funds from the tour to various educational programs. As Jackson began her tour, she was acknowledged for the cultural impact of her music. Joel Selvin of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote \"the 23-year-old has been making smash hit records for four years, becoming a fixture on MTV and a major role model to teenage girls across the country\", and William Allen, then-executive vice president of the United Negro College Fund, told the Los Angeles Times, \"Jackson is a role model for all young people to emulate and the message she has gotten to the young people of this country through the lyrics of 'Rhythm Nation 1814' is having positive effects.\" She also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in recognition of her impact on the recording industry and philanthropic endeavors. The massive success experienced by Jackson placed her in league with Michael Jackson, Madonna, and Tina Turner for her achievements and influence. Ebony magazine remarked: \"No individual or group has impacted the world of entertainment as have Michael and Janet Jackson,\" arguing that despite many imitators, few could surpass Jackson's \"stunning style and dexterity.\" With her recording contract under A&M Records fulfilled in 1991, she signed a multimillion-dollar deal with Virgin Records—estimated between thirty-two to fifty million dollars—making her the highest paid recording artist at the time. The recording contract also established her reputation as the \"Queen of Pop.\" In 1992, Jackson provided guest vocals on Luther Vandross's \"The Best Things in Life Are Free\", becoming a top ten Billboard hit and reaching the top ten internationally. \n\n1993–96: Janet, Poetic Justice, and Design of a Decade \n\nJackson's fifth studio album Janet, stylized as janet. and read \"Janet, period\", was released in May 1993. The record opened at number one on the Billboard 200, making Jackson the first female artist in the Nielsen SoundScan era to do so. Certified sixfold platinum by the RIAA, it sold over 20 million copies worldwide. Janet spawned five singles and four promotional singles, receiving various certifications worldwide. Lead single \"That's the Way Love Goes\" won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Song and topped the Billboard Hot 100 for eight consecutive weeks. \"Again\" reached number one for three weeks, while \"If\" and \"Any Time, Any Place\" peaked in the top four. \"Because of Love\" and \"You Want This\" charted within the top ten.\n\nThe album experimented with a diverse number of genres, including contemporary R&B, deep house, swing jazz, hip hop, rock, and pop, with Billboard describing each as being \"delivered with consummate skill and passion.\" Jackson took a larger role in songwriting and production than she did on her previous albums, explaining she found it necessary \"to write all the lyrics and half of the melodies\" while also speaking candidly about incorporating her sexuality into the album's content. Rolling Stone wrote \"[a]s princess of America's black royal family, everything Janet Jackson does is important. Whether proclaiming herself in charge of her life, as she did on Control (1986), or commander in chief of a rhythm army dancing to fight society's problems (Rhythm Nation 1814, from 1989), she's influential. And when she announces her sexual maturity, as she does on her new album, Janet., it's a cultural moment.\" \n\nIn July 1993, Jackson made her film debut in Poetic Justice. While the film was critically panned, her performance was described as \"beguiling\" and \"believably eccentric.\" Jackson's ballad \"Again\", which was written for the film, received Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations for \"Best Original Song.\" In September 1993, Jackson appeared topless on the cover of Rolling Stone, with her breasts covered by former husband René Elizondo, Jr. The photograph is the original version of the cropped image used on the Janet album cover, shot by Patrick Demarchelier. The Vancouver Sun reported, \"Jackson, 27, remains clearly established as both role model and sex symbol; the Rolling Stone photo of Jackson ... became one of the most recognizable, and most lampooned, magazine covers.\" The Janet World Tour launched in support of the studio album garnered criticism for Jackson's lack of vocal proficiency and spontaneity, but earned critical acclaim for her showmanship. It was described as erasing the line between \"stadium-size pop music concerts and full-scale theatrical extravaganzas.\" \n\nDuring this time, her brother Michael was immersed in a child sex abuse scandal, of which he denied any wrongdoing. She provided moral support, defending her brother, and denied abuse allegations regarding her parents made by her sister La Toya. She collaborated with Michael Jackson on \"Scream\", the lead single from his album HIStory, released 1995. The song was written by both siblings as a response to media scrutiny. It debuted at number five on the Hot 100 singles chart, becoming the first song ever to debut within the top five. \"Scream\" is listed in Guinness World Records as the \"Most Expensive Music Video Ever Made\", costing $7 million. The clip won the 1995 Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video.\n\nJackson's first compilation album, Design of a Decade: 1986–1996, was released in 1995. It peaked at number three on the Billboard 200. The lead single, \"Runaway\", became the first song by a female artist to debut within the top ten of the Hot 100, reaching number three. Design of a Decade 1986/1996 was certified double platinum by the RIAA and sold ten million copies worldwide. Jackson's influence in pop music continued to garner acclaim, as The Boston Globe remarked \"If you're talking about the female power elite in pop, you can't get much higher than Janet Jackson, Bonnie Raitt, Madonna and Yoko Ono. Their collective influence ... is beyond measure. And who could dispute that Janet Jackson now has more credibility than brother Michael?\" Jackson renewed her contract with Virgin Records for a reported $80 million the following year. The contract established her as the then-highest paid recording artist in history, surpassing the recording industry's then-unparalleled $60 million contracts earned by Michael Jackson and Madonna. \n\n1997–99: The Velvet Rope \n\nJackson began suffering from severe depression and anxiety, leading her to chronicle the experience in her sixth album, The Velvet Rope, released October 1997. Jackson returned with a dramatic change in image, boasting vibrant red hair, nasal piercings, and tattoos. The album is primarily centered on the idea that everyone has an intrinsic need to belong. Aside from encompassing lyrics relating to social issues such as same-sex relationships, homophobia and domestic violence, it also contains themes of sadomasochism and is considered far more sexually explicit in nature than her previous release, Janet. The record was hailed as \"her most daring, elaborate and accomplished album\" by The New York Times, while Billboard ranked it as \"the best American album of the year and the most empowering of her last five.\" The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and was certified triple platinum, selling over ten million worldwide.\n\nLead single \"Got 'til It's Gone\" was released in August 1997, featuring guest vocals from folk singer Joni Mitchell and rapper Q-Tip. The song's music video, depicting a pre-Apartheid celebration, won the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. \"Together Again\" became Jackson's eighth number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100, placing her on par with Elton John, Diana Ross, and The Rolling Stones. It spent a record forty-six weeks on the Hot 100 and nineteen weeks on the United Kingdom's singles chart. It sold six million copies worldwide, becoming one of the best-selling singles of all time. \"I Get Lonely\" peaked at number three on the Hot 100, and received a Grammy nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. As Jackson's eighteenth consecutive top ten hit, it made her the only female artist to garner that achievement, surpassed only by Elvis Presley and The Beatles. Several other singles were released, including \"Go Deep\" and ballad \"Every Time\", which was controversial for the nudity displayed in its music video. \n\nThe album fully established Jackson as a gay icon for its themes regarding homosexuality and protesting homophobia. \"Together Again\", a \"post-Aids pop song\", and \"Free Xone\", considered \"a paean to homosexuality\" and an \"anti-homophobia track\", were praised for their lyrical context, in addition to Jackson's lesbian reinterpretation of Rod Stewart's \"Tonight's the Night\". The Velvet Rope received an award for \"Outstanding Music Album\" at the 9th Annual GLAAD Media Awards and was honored by the National Black Lesbian and Gay Leadership Forum. A portion of the proceeds from \"Together Again\" were donated to the American Foundation for AIDS Research.\n\nJackson embarked on The Velvet Rope World Tour, traveling to Europe, North America, Asia, Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. The tour received praise for its theatrics, choreography, and Jackson's vocal performance. It was likened to \"the ambition and glamour of a Broadway musical\", and exclaimed as \"only fitting that the concert program credits her as the show's 'creator and director'.\" The tour's HBO special, The Velvet Rope: Live in Madison Square Garden, garnered more than fifteen million viewers. It surpassed the ratings of all four major networks among viewers subscribed to the channel. The concert won an Emmy Award from a total of four nominations. Jackson donated a portion of the tour's sales to America's Promise, an organization founded by Colin Powell to assist disenfranchised youth. \n\nAs the tour concluded, Jackson lent guest vocals to several collaborations, including Shaggy's \"Luv Me, Luv Me\", used for the film How Stella Got Her Groove Back, as well as \"Girlfriend/Boyfriend\" with Teddy Riley's group Blackstreet, and \"What's It Gonna Be?!\" with Busta Rhymes. The latter two music videos are both among the most expensive music videos ever produced, with \"What's It Gonna Be?!\" becoming a number-one hit on the Billboard Hip-Hop Singles and Hot Rap Tracks charts, reaching the top three of the Hot 100. Jackson also contributed the ballad \"God's Stepchild\" to the Down in the Delta soundtrack. Jackson recorded a duet with Elton John titled \"I Know the Truth,\" included on the soundtrack to Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida. At the 1999 World Music Awards, Jackson received the Legend Award for \"outstanding contribution to the pop industry\". Billboard ranked Jackson as the second most successful artist of the decade, behind Mariah Carey. \n\n2000–03: Nutty Professor II: The Klumps and All for You \n\nIn July 2000, Jackson appeared in her second film, Nutty Professor II: The Klumps, as the role of Professor Denise Gaines, opposite Eddie Murphy. Director Peter Segal stated \"Janet Jackson was a natural fit, and an obvious choice.\" The film became her second to open at number one, grossing an estimated total of nearly $170 million worldwide. Jackson's single \"Doesn't Really Matter\", used for the film's soundtrack, became her ninth number-one single on the Hot 100. The same year, Jackson's husband Rene Elizondo Jr. filed for divorce, revealing their private marriage to the public. Entertainment Weekly reported for eight of the thirteen years she and Elizondo had been acquainted, \"[they] were married—a fact they managed to hide not only from the international press but from Jackson's own father.\" Elizondo filed a multimillion-dollar lawsuit against her, estimated between $10–25 million, which did not reach a settlement for three years. \n\nPreceding the release of her seventh album, MTV honored Jackson with the network's inaugural \"MTV Icon\" ceremony, honoring her \"significant contributions to music, music video and pop culture while tremendously impacting the MTV generation.\" The event paid tribute to Jackson's career and influence, including commentary from Britney Spears, Jennifer Lopez, Aaliyah, and Jessica Simpson, and performances by 'N Sync, Pink, Destiny's Child, Usher, Buckcherry, and Outkast. The American Music Awards also honored Jackson with the Award of Merit for \"her finely crafted, critically acclaimed and socially conscious, multi-platinum albums.\" Jackson's seventh album, All for You, was released in April 2001. It opened at number one on the Billboard 200 with 605,000 copies sold, the highest first-week sales of her career, and among the highest first-week sales by a female artist in history. The album was a return to an upbeat dance style, receiving generally positive reception. Jackson received praise for indulging in \"textures as dizzying as a new infatuation\", in contrast to other artists attempting to \"match the angularity of hip-hop\" and following trends. All for You was certified double platinum by the RIAA and sold nine million copies worldwide. \n\nThe album's lead single, \"All for You\", debuted on the Hot 100 at number fourteen, setting a record for the highest debut by a single that was not commercially available. Jackson was titled \"Queen of Radio\" by MTV as the single made airplay history, being \"added to every pop, rhythmic and urban radio station\" within its first week. The song broke the overall airplay debut record with a first week audience of seventy million, debuting at number nine on the Radio Songs chart. It topped the Hot 100 for seven weeks, also reaching the top ten in eleven countries. The song received a Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording. \"Someone to Call My Lover\" peaked at number three on the Hot 100. Built around a sample of the iconic 1972 hit \"You're So Vain\" by Carly Simon, \"Son of a Gun (I Betcha Think This Song Is About You)\" featured Simon herself, along with Missy Elliott on remixes of the single.\n\nIn July 2001, Jackson embarked on the All for You Tour, which was also broadcast on a concert special for HBO watched by twelve million viewers. The tour traveled throughout the United States and Japan, although European and Asian dates were required to be canceled following the September 11 terrorist attacks. The Los Angeles Times complimented Jackson's showmanship. Richard Harrington of the Washington Post said Jackson's performance surpassed her contemporaries, but Bob Massy of Spin thought her dancers \"threw crisper moves\" and her supporting singers were mixed nearly as high, though declared \"Janet cast herself as the real entertainment.\" Jackson donated a portion of the tour's proceeds to the Boys & Girls Clubs of America. \n\nThe following year, Jackson began receiving media attention for her rumored relationships with Justin Timberlake, actor Matthew McConaughey, and record producer Jermaine Dupri. Upon the release of Timberlake's debut solo album Justified, Jackson provided vocals on \"(And She Said) Take Me Now\" per Timberlake's request, with the song initially planned as a single. Jackson collaborated with reggae artist Beenie Man for the song \"Feel It Boy\", produced by The Neptunes.\n\n2004–05: Super Bowl XXXVIII controversy and Damita Jo \n\nJackson was chosen by the National Football League and MTV to perform at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show in February 2004. Jackson performed a medley of \"All for You\", \"Rhythm Nation\", and an excerpt of \"The Knowledge\" before performing \"Rock Your Body\" alongside surprise guest Justin Timberlake. As Timberlake sang the lyric \"I'm gonna have you naked by the end of this song\", he tore open her costume, exposing her right breast to 140 million viewers. Jackson issued an apology after the performance, saying the incident was accidental and unintended, explaining that Timberlake was only meant to pull away a bustier and leave the red-lace bra intact. She commented, \"I am really sorry if I offended anyone. That was truly not my intention ... MTV, CBS, the NFL had no knowledge of this whatsoever, and unfortunately, the whole thing went wrong in the end.\" Timberlake also issued an apology, calling the accident a \"wardrobe malfunction.\" The incident became the most recorded and replayed moment in TiVo history, enticing an estimated 35,000 new subscribers. Regarded as one of the most controversial television events in history, Jackson was later listed in Guinness World Records as the \"Most Searched in Internet History\" and the \"Most Searched for News Item\". CBS, the NFL, and MTV (CBS's sister network, which produced the halftime show), denied any knowledge of, and all responsibility for, the incident. The Federal Communications Commission heavily fined all companies involved, and continued an investigation for eight years, ultimately losing its appeal for a $550,000 fine against CBS. \n\nFollowing the incident, CBS permitted Timberlake to appear at the 46th Grammy Awards ceremony but did not allow Jackson to attend, forcing her to withdraw after being scheduled as a presenter. The controversy halted plans for Jackson to star in the biographical film of singer and activist Lena Horne, which was to be produced by American Broadcasting Company. Although Horne was reportedly displeased by the incident, Jackson's representatives stated she withdrew from the project willingly. A Mickey Mouse statue wearing Jackson's iconic \"Rhythm Nation\" outfit was mantled at Walt Disney World theme park the previous year to honor Jackson's legacy, but was removed following Jackson's controversial performance. \n\nJackson's eighth studio album Damita Jo, titled after Jackson's middle name, was released in March 2004. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. The album received mixed to positive reviews, praising the sonic innovation of selected songs and Jackson's vocal harmonies, while others criticized its frequent themes of carnality. However, several critics' reviews focused on the Super Bowl incident, rather than critiquing the album itself. It was certified platinum by the RIAA within a month, and sold over three million copies worldwide. \n\nThe album's performance was largely affected by public backlash and the blacklisting from radio and music channels. Conglomerates involved in the boycott include Viacom and CBS, subsidiaries MTV, Clear Channel Communications, and Infinity Broadcasting, the latter two among the largest radio broadcasters. The blacklist was placed into effect preceding the release of Damita Jo and continued throughout the course of Jackson's following two albums. A senior executive for entertainment conglomerate Viacom, which owns MTV, VH1, and many radio formats, commented they were \"absolutely bailing on the record. The pressure is so great, they can't align with anything related to Janet. The high-ups are still pissed at her, and this is a punitive measure.\" Prior to the incident, Damita Jo was expected to outsell prior release All for You. Its three singles received positive reviews, but failed to achieve high chart positions, although each were predicted to perform extremely well under different circumstances. Billboard reported that Damita Jo \"was largely overshadowed by the Super Bowl fiasco,\" saying \"[t]he three singles it spawned were blacklisted by pop radio—they were also the album's biggest highlights—the electronic guitar studded \"Just a Little While\", Motown-influenced \"I Want You\" and the funky, heavily dance orientated \"All Nite (Don't Stop)\". \"I Want You\" was certified platinum and received a Grammy nomination. \n\nFor the album's promotion, Jackson appeared as a host on Saturday Night Live, performing two songs, and was also a guest star on sitcom Will & Grace, portraying herself. Jackson received several career accolades upon the album's release, including the \"Legend Award\" at the Radio Music Awards, \"Inspiration Award\" from the Japan Video Music Awards, \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" at the Soul Train Music Awards, and a Teen Choice Awards nomination for \"Favorite Female.\" In November 2004, Jackson was honored as a role model by 100 Black Men of America, Inc., presented with the organization's Artistic Achievement Award saluting \"a career that has gone from success to greater success'.\" In response to criticism for honoring Jackson in light of the Super Bowl incident, the organization responded \"an individual's worth can't be judged by a single moment in that person's life.\" In June 2005, she was honored with a Humanitarian Award by the Human Rights Campaign and AIDS Project Los Angeles as recognition for her involvement in raising money for AIDS charities. \n\n2006–07: 20 Y.O. and Why Did I Get Married? \n\nJackson began recording her ninth studio album, 20 Y.O., in 2005. She recorded with producers Dupri, Jam and Lewis for several months during the following year. The album's title was a reference to the two decades since the release of her breakthrough album Control, representing the album's \"celebration of the joyful liberation and history-making musical style.\" To promote the album, Jackson appeared in various magazines, and performed on the Today Show and Billboard Awards. Jackson's Us Weekly cover, revealing her slim figure after heavy media focus was placed on her fluctuations in weight, became the magazine's best-selling issue in history. 20 Y.O. was released in September 2006 and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. The album received mixed reviews, with multiple critics chastising the production and involvement of Jermaine Dupri. Rolling Stone disagreed with the album's reference to Control, saying \"If we were her, we wouldn't make the comparison.\" \n\nJackson's airplay and music channel blacklist remained persistent, massively affecting her chart performance and exposure. However, lead single \"Call on Me\", which featured rapper Nelly, peaked at number twenty-five on the Hot 100, number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and number six in the United Kingdom. The video for the album's second single, \"So Excited\", was directed by Joseph Kahn and portrayed Jackson's clothes disappearing through a complex dance routine. 20 Y.O. was certified platinum by the RIAA and sold 1.2 million worldwide, also receiving a Grammy nomination for Best Contemporary R&B Album. After the album's release, Dupri was condemened for his production and misguidance of the album, and subsequently was removed from his position at Virgin Records. Slant Magazine stated, \"After promising a return to Janet's dance-pop origins, [Dupri] opted to aim for urban audiences, a colossal mistake that cost Dupri his job and, probably, Janet her deal with Virgin.\" \n\nJackson was ranked the seventh richest woman in the entertainment industry by Forbes, having amassed a fortune of over $150 million. In 2007, she starred opposite Tyler Perry as a psychotherapist in the film Why Did I Get Married?. It became her third consecutive film to open at number one at the box office, grossing $60 million in total. Jackson's performance was praised for its \"soft authority\", though also described as \"charming, yet bland\". In February 2008, Jackson won an Image Award for \"Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture\" for the role. Jackson was also approached to record the lead single for the film Rush Hour 3. \n\n2008–09: Discipline and Number Ones \n\nJackson signed with Island Records after her contract with Virgin was fulfilled. She interrupted plans for touring and began recording with various producers, including Rodney \"Darkchild\" Jerkins, Tricky Stewart, and Stargate. Her tenth studio album, Discipline, was released in February 2008, opening at number one. Despite radio blacklisting, the album's first single \"Feedback\" peaked at number nineteen on the Hot 100 and nine on Pop Songs, her highest charting single since \"Someone to Call My Lover\". Jackson was awarded the Vanguard Award at the 19th annual GLAAD Media Awards, honoring her contributions in promoting equal rights among the gay community. The organization's president commented, \"Ms. Jackson has a tremendous following inside the LGBT community and out, and having her stand with us against the defamation that LGBT people still face in our country is extremely significant.\"\n\nJackson's fifth concert tour, the Rock Witchu Tour, began in September 2008. Jackson parted with Island Records through mutual agreement. Billboard disclosed Jackson was dissatisfied with LA Reid's handling of the album and its promotion, saying \"the label agreed to dissolve their relationship with the artist at her request.\" Producer Rodney Jerkins expressed \"I felt like it wasn't pushed correctly.... She just didn't get her just-do as an artist of that magnitude.\" \n\nIn June 2009, Jackson's brother Michael died at age fifty. She spoke publicly concerning his death at the 2009 BET Awards, stating \"I'd just like to say, to you, Michael is an icon, to us, Michael is family. And he will forever live in all of our hearts. On behalf of my family and myself, thank you for all of your love, thank you for all of your support. We miss him so much.\" In an interview, she revealed she had first learned of his death while filming Why Did I Get Married Too?. Amidst mourning with her family, she focused on work to deal with the grief, avoiding any news coverage of her sibling's death. She commented, \"it's still important to face reality, and not that I'm running, but sometimes you just need to get away for a second.\" During this time, she ended her seven-year relationship with Jermaine Dupri. Several months later, Jackson performed a tribute to Michael at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, performing their duet \"Scream\". MTV stated \"there was no one better than Janet to anchor it and send a really powerful message.\" The performance was lauded by critics, with Entertainment Weekly affirming the rendition \"as energetic as it was heartfelt\". \n\nJackson's second hits compilation, Number Ones (retitled The Best for international releases), was released in November 2009. For promotion, she performed a medley of hits at the American Music Awards, Capital FM's Jingle Bell Ball at London's O2 arena, and The X-Factor. The album's promotional single \"Make Me\", produced with Rodney \"Darkchild\" Jerkins, debuted in September. It became Jackson's nineteenth number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart, making her the first artist to have number-one singles in four separate decades. Later that month, Jackson chaired the inaugural benefit of amfAR, The Foundation for AIDS Research, held in Milan in conjunction with fashion week. The foundation's CEO stated \"We are profoundly grateful to Janet Jackson for joining amfAR as a chair of its first event in Milan.... She brings incomparable grace and a history of dedication to the fight against AIDS.\" The event raised a total of $1.1 million for the nonprofit organization.\n\n2010–14: Film projects, True You, concert tour, and philanthropy \n\nIn April 2010, Jackson reprised her role in the sequel to Why Did I Get Married? titled Why Did I Get Married Too?. The film opened at number two, grossing sixty million in total. Jackson's performance was hailed as \"invigorating and oddly funny\", and praised for her \"willingness to be seen at her most disheveled\". Her performance earned an Image Award for \"Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture\". Jackson recorded the film's theme, \"Nothing\", released as a promotional single. The song was performed on the ninth season finale of American Idol along with \"Again\" and \"Nasty\". In July, Jackson modeled for the Blackglama clothing line featuring mink fur. Jackson then helped design a signature line of clothing and accessories for Blackglama, to be sold at Saks Fifth Avenue and Bloomingdales. Universal Music released the hits compilation Icon: Number Ones as the debut of the Icon compilation series.\n\nIn November 2010, Jackson starred as Joanna in the drama For Colored Girls, the film adaptation of Ntozake Shange's 1975 play For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow Is Enuf. The Wall Street Journal stated Jackson \"recites verses written by Ntozake Shange, the author of the play that inspired the film ... But instead of offering up a mannered coffeehouse reading of the lines, Jackson makes the words sound like ordinary—though very eloquent—speech.\" Jackson's portrayal the film was likened to Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly in The Devil Wears Prada. Her performance earned Black Reel Awards nominations in the categories of Outstanding Supporting Actress and Outstanding Ensemble. \n\nJackson announced plans to embark on her largest world tour in support of her second hits collection, Number Ones. The tour, entitled Number Ones, Up Close and Personal, held concerts in thirty-five global cities, selected by fans who submitted suggestions on her official website. During the tour, Jackson performed thirty-five number one hits and dedicated a song to each city. Mattel released a limited-edition Barbie of Jackson titled \"Divinely Janet\", auctioned for over $15,000, with proceeds donated to Project Angel Food. Jackson released the self-help book True You: A Journey to Finding and Loving Yourself in February 2011, co-written with David Ritz. It chronicled her struggle with weight and confidence, also publishing letters from fans. It topped The New York Times Best Seller list the following month. Additionally, she signed a film production contract with Lions Gate Entertainment to \"select, develop and produce a feature film for the independent studio.\" \n\nJackson became the first female pop singer to perform at the I. M. Pei glass pyramid at the Louvre Museum, raising contributions for the restoration of iconic artwork. Jackson was selected to endorse fashion line Blackglama for a second year, being the first celebrity in the line's history chosen to do so. She partnered with the label to release a fifteen-piece collection of luxury products. In 2012, Jackson endorsed Nutrisystem, sponsoring their weight-loss program after struggling with weight fluctuations in the past. With the program, she donated ten million dollars in meals to the hungry. She was honored by amfAR for her contributions to AIDS research when chairing the Cinema Against AIDS gala during the Cannes Film Festival. She also participated in a public service announcement for UNICEF to help starving children. In February 2013, Jackson announced she was married to her third husband, Qatari businessman Wissam Al Mana, during a private ceremony the previous year. \n\n2015–present: Rhythm Nation record label and Unbreakable \n\nOn May 16, 2015, Jackson announced plans to release a new album and to embark on a world concert tour. She outlined her intention to release her new album in the fall of 2015 under her own record label, Rhythm Nation, distributed by BMG Rights Management. The launch of Rhythm Nation established Jackson as one of the few African-American female musicians to own a record label. On June 15, 2015, Jackson announced the first set of dates for the North American leg of her Unbreakable World Tour. On June 22, the lead single \"No Sleeep\" was released from the album. Jackson's solo version of the single debuted on the Hot 100 at number 67, marking her 40th entry on the chart. The song went to number 1 on the Billboard + Twitter Trending 140 immediately following the release. The album version featuring J. Cole enabled it to re-enter the Hot 100 with a new peak position at number 63, while also topping the Adult R&B Songs chart. \n\nBET presented Jackson with their inaugural Ultimate Icon: Music Dance Visual award at the BET Awards 2015, which also featured a dance tribute to her performed by Ciara, Jason Derulo and Tinashe. It was announced she would launch a luxury jewelery line called the \"Janet Jackson Unbreakable Diamonds collection,\" a joint venture between herself and Paul Raps New York. On August 20, she released a preview of a new song \"The Great Forever,\" while also confirming the title of her eleventh studio album as Unbreakable. Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis stated that Jackson's concept for the album was developed simultaneously with the accompanying tour's production and that its composition will differ from the majority of her catalog. They also stated that the album's theme reflects \"being able to be vulnerable and to be able to withstand what comes to you,\" drawing on Jackson's experiences over the past several years. The album's title track \"Unbreakable\" was released on September 3, 2015, debuting on Apple Music's Beats 1 radio station, hosted by Ebro Darden. The album was also made available for pre-order on iTunes the same day. \"Burnitup!\" featuring Missy Elliott debuted on BBC Radio 1 on September 24, 2015. \n\nUnbreakable was released on October 2, 2015. It received largely positive reviews, including those by The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, USA Today, Los Angeles Times, and The Guardian. The following week, Jackson received a nomination to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Her album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, becoming her seventh album to top the chart in the United States. On April 6, 2016, Jackson announced that she was \"planning her family\" with husband Wissam Al Mana, resulting in her postponing her tour. \n\nArtistry \n\nMusic and voice \n\nJackson has a mezzo-soprano vocal range. Over the course of her career, she has received frequent criticism for the limits of her vocal capabilities, especially in comparison to contemporary artists such as Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey. In comparing her vocal technique to Houston and Aretha Franklin, vocal coach Roger Love states that \"[w]hen Janet sings, she allows a tremendous amount of air to come through. She's obviously aiming for a sexy, sultry effect, and on one level that works nicely. But actually, it's fairly limited.\" He adds that while her voice is suitable for studio recording, it doesn't translate well to stage because despite having \"great songs, incredible dancing, and her star like presence, the live show is still magnificent. But the voice is not the star.\" Biographer David Ritz commented, \"on Janet's albums—and in her videos and live performances, which revealed a crisp, athletic dance technique [...] singing wasn't the point,\" saying emphasis was placed on \"her slamming beats, infectious hooks, and impeccable production values.\" Eric Henderson of Slant magazine claimed critics opposing her small voice \"somehow missed the explosive 'gimme a beat' vocal pyrotechnics she unleashes all over 'Nasty' ... Or that they completely dismissed how perfect her tremulous hesitance fits into the abstinence anthem 'Let's Wait Awhile'.\" Classical composer Louis Andriessen has praised Jackson for her \"rubato, sense of rhythm, sensitivity, and the childlike quality of her strangely erotic voice.\" Several critics also consider her voice to often be enveloped within her music's production. Music critic J. D. Considine noted \"on albums, Jackson's sound isn't defined by her voice so much as by the way her voice is framed by the lush, propulsive production of Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis.\" Wendy Robinson of PopMatters said \"the power of Janet Jackson's voice does not lie in her pipes. She doesn't blow, she whispers ... Jackson's confectionary vocals are masterfully complemented by gentle harmonies and balanced out by pulsing rhythms, so she's never unpleasant to listen to.\" Matthew Perpetus of Fluxblog suggested Jackson's vocal techniques as a study for indie rock music, considering it to possess \"a somewhat subliminal effect on the listener, guiding and emphasizing dynamic shifts without distracting attention from its primal hooks.\" Perpetus added: \"Her voice effortlessly transitions from a rhythmic toughness to soulful emoting to a flirty softness without overselling any aspect of her performance ... a continuum of emotions and attitudes that add up to the impression that we're listening to the expression of a formed human being with contradictions and complexities.\" \n\nJackson's music has encompassed a broad range of genres. Her records from the 1980s have been described as being influenced by Prince, as her producers are ex-members of The Time. Sal Cinquemani wrote that in addition to defining Top 40 radio, she \"gave Prince's Minneapolis sound a distinctly feminine—and, with songs like 'What Have You Done for Me Lately?,' 'Nasty,' 'Control,' and 'Let's Wait Awhile,' a distinctly feminist—spin.\" On Control, Richard J. Ripani documented that she, Jam and Lewis had \"crafted a new sound that fuses the rhythmic elements of funk and disco, along with heavy doses of synthesizers, percussion, sound effects, and a rap music sensibility.\" Author Rickey Vincent stated that she has often been credited for redefining the standard of popular music with the industrial-strength beats of the album. She is considered a trendsetter in pop balladry, with Richard Rischar stating \"the black pop ballad of the mid-1980s had been dominated by the vocal and production style that was smooth and polished, led by singers Whitney Houston, Janet Jackson, and James Ingram.\" Jackson continued her musical development by blending pop and urban music with elements of hip-hop in the nineties. This included a softer representation, articulated by lush, soulful ballads and up-tempo dance beats. She has been described as \"an artist who has reshaped the sound and image of rhythm and blues\" within the first decade of her career. Critic Karla Peterson remarked that \"she is a sharp dancer, an appealing performer, and as 'That's the Way Love Goes' proves—an ace pop-song writer.\" Selected material from the following decade has been viewed less favorably, as Sal Cinquemani comments \"except for maybe R.E.M., no other former superstar act has been as prolific with such diminishing commercial and creative returns.\"\n\nJackson has changed her lyrical focus over the years, becoming the subject of analysis in musicology, African American studies, and gender studies. David Ritz compared Jackson's musical style to Marvin Gaye's, stating, \"like Marvin, autobiography seemed the sole source of her music. Her art, also like Marvin's, floated over a reservoir of secret pain.\" Much of her success has been attributed to \"a series of powerful, metallic grooves; her chirpy, multi-tracked vocals; and a lyrical philosophy built on pride and self-knowledge.\" Ritz also stated, \"The mystery is the low flame that burns around the perimeters of Janet Jackson's soul. The flame feeds off the most highly combustible elements: survival and ambition, caution and creativity, supreme confidence and dark fear.\" During the 1980s, her lyrics embodied self-actualization, feminist principles, and politically driven ideology. Gillian G. Gaar, author of She's a Rebel: The History of Women in Rock & Roll (2002), described Control as \"an autobiographical tale about her life with her parents, her first marriage, and breaking free.\" Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture (2010) author Jessie Carney Smith wrote \"with that album, she asserted her independence, individuality, and personal power. She challenged audiences to see her as a transformed person, from an ingénue to a grow-up, multi-talented celebrity.\" Referring to Rhythm Nation 1814 as an embodiment of hope, Timothy E. Scheurer, author of Born in the USA: The Myth of America in Popular Music from Colonial Times to the Present (2007) wrote \"It may remind some of Sly Stone prior to There's a Riot Going On and other African-American artists of the 1970s in its tacit assumption that the world imagined by Dr. King is still possible, that the American Dream is a dream for all people.\" \n\nOn Janet, Jackson began focusing on sexual themes. Shayne Lee, author of Erotic Revolutionaries: Black Women, Sexuality, and Popular Culture (2010), wrote that her music over the following decade \"brand[ed] her as one of the most sexually stimulating vocalists of the 1990s.\" In You've Come A Long Way, Baby: Women, Politics, and Popular Culture (1996), Lilly J. Goren observed \"Jackson's evolution from politically aware musician to sexy diva marked the direction that society and the music industry were encouraging the dance-rock divas to pursue.\" The Washington Post declared Jackson's public image over the course of her career had shifted \"from innocence to experience, inspiring such carnal albums as 1993's 'Janet' and 1997's 'The Velvet Rope', the latter of which explored the bonds—figuratively and literally—of love and lust.\" The song \"Free Xone\" from The Velvet Rope, which portrays same-sex relationships in a positive light, is described by sociologist Shayne Lee as \"a rare incident in which a popular black vocalist explores romantic or sensual energy outside the contours of heteronormativity, making it a significant song in black sexual politics.\" During promotion for Janet, she stated \"I love feeling deeply sexual—and don't mind letting the world know. For me, sex has become a celebration, a joyful part of the creative process.\" Upon the release of Damita Jo, Jackon stated \"Beginning with the earlier albums, exploring—and liberating—my sexuality has been an ongoing discovery and theme,\" adding \"As an artist, that's not only my passion, it's my obligation.\" Stephen Thomas Erlewine has found Jackson's consistent inclusion of sex in her music lacking ingenuity, especially in comparisons to other artists such as Prince, stating \"while sex indisputably fuels much great pop music, it isn't an inherently fascinating topic for pop music—as with anything, it all depends on the artist.\" \n\nVideos and stage \n\nJackson drew inspiration for her music videos and performances from musicals she watched in her youth, and was heavily influenced by the choreography of Fred Astaire and Michael Kidd, among others. Throughout her career, she has worked with and brought numerous professional choreographers to prominence, such as Tina Landon, Paula Abdul, and Michael Kidd. Veronica Chambers declared, \"Her impact on pop music is undeniable and far-reaching,\" adding, \"A quick glance at the Billboard chart reveals any number of artists cast in the Janet Jackson mold.\" Chambers observed numerous videos which \"features not only Ms. Jackson's dancers but choreography and sets remarkably like those she has used.\" Janine Coveney of Billboard observed that \"Jackson's musical declaration of independence [Control] launched a string of hits, an indelible production sound, and an enduring image cemented by groundbreaking video choreography and imagery that pop vocalists still emulate.\" Ben Hogwood of MusicOMH applauded the \"huge influence she has become on younger pretenders to her throne,\" most notably Britney Spears, Jennifer Lopez and Christina Aguilera. Qadree EI-Amin remarked that many pop artists \"pattern their performances after Janet's proven dance-diva persona.\" \n\nBeretta E. Smith-Shomade, author of Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television (2002), wrote that \"Jackson's impact on the music video sphere came largely through music sales successes, which afforded her more visual liberties and control. This assuming of control directly impacted the look and content of her music videos, giving Jackson an agency not assumed by many other artists—male or female, Black or White.\" Parallel Lines: Media Representations of Dance (1993) documents that her videos have often been reminiscent of live concerts or elaborate musical theater. However, in her 30-minute Rhythm Nation 1814 film, Jackson utilizes street dancing techniques in contrast to traditional choreography. The group dynamic visually embodies a gender neutral equality, with Jackson \"performing asexually and anonymously in front of, but as one of the members of the group.\" Her music videos have also contributed to a higher degree of sexual freedom among young women, as Jean M. Twenge, author of Generation Me: Why Today's Young Americans are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled—and More Miserable Than Ever Before (2007), wrote \"[m]usic videos by female artists have contributed to the trend\" of young women enganging in oral sex with Jackson \"heavily implying male-on-female oral sex in music videos by pushing down on a man's head until he's in exactly the right position.\" However, accusations of cosmetic surgery, skin lightening, and increasingly hypersexual imagery have led to her being viewed as conforming to a white, male-dominated view of sexuality, rather than liberating herself or others. Jakcson received the MTV Video Vanguard Award for her contributions to the art form, and became the first recipient of the MTV Icon tribute, celebrating her impact on the music industry as a whole. In 2003, Slant Magazine named \"Rhythm Nation\" and \"Got 'til It's Gone\" among the 100 Greatest Music Videos of all time, ranked at number 87 and number 10, respectively. In 2011, \"Rhythm Nation\" was voted the tenth best music video of the 1980s by Billboard. \n\nThe Independent writer Nicholas Barber stated \"Janet's concerts are the pop equivalent of a summer blockbuster movie, with all the explosions, special effects, ersatz sentimentality, gratuitous cleavage and emphasis on spectacle over coherence that the term implies.\" \nJet magazine reported \"Janet's innovative stage performances during her world tours have won her a reputation as a world-class performer.\" Chris Willman of Los Angeles Times stated the \"enthralling\" choreography of Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 Tour \"represents the pinnacle of what can be done in the popping 'n' locking style—a rapid-fire mixture of rigidly jerky and gracefully fluid movements.\" When Jackson was asked \"do you understand it when people talk about [The Velvet Rope Tour] in terms of Broadway?\", she responded, \"I'm crazy about Broadway ... That's what I grew up on.\" Her \"Number Ones: Up Close and Personal\" tour deviated from the full-scale theatrics found in her previous concert arena settings in favor of smaller venues. Critics noted being scaled down did not affect the impact of her showmanship, and in some cases, enhanced it. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune wrote, \"In past tours, Jackson's thin voice was often swallowed up by the sheer size of her production ... In the more scaled-down setting, Jackson brought a warmth and a passion that wasn't always evident in stadiums ... the best Janet Jackson performance I've covered in 20-plus years.\" \n\nThor Christensen of The Dallas Morning News reported Jackson often lip syncs in concert; he wrote: \"Janet Jackson—one of pop's most notorious onstage lip-syncers—conceded ... she uses 'some' taped vocals to augment her live vocals. But she refused to say what percentage of her concert 'voice' is taped and how much is live.\" Michael MacCambridge of the Austin American-Statesman, who reviewed Jackson's Rhythm Nation World Tour, described lip-syncing as a \"moot point\", stating \"Jackson was frequently singing along with her own pre-recorded vocals, to achieve a sound closer to radio versions of singles.\" MacCambridge also observed \"it seemed unlikely that anyone—even a prized member of the First Family of Soul Music—could dance like she did for 90 minutes and still provide the sort of powerful vocals that the '90s super concerts are expected to achieve.\" Similarly, Chris Willman commented, \"even a classically trained vocalist would be hard-pressed to maintain any sort of level of volume—or, more appropriately, 'Control'—while bounding up and down stairs and whipping limbs in unnatural directions at impeccable, breakneck speed.\" Critics observed that in the smaller scale of her \"Number Ones: Up Close and Personal\" tour, she forewent lip-syncing. Chris Richards of The Washington Post stated \"even at its breathiest, that delicate voice hasn't lost the laserlike precision.\" \n\nInfluences \n\nJackson describes Lena Horne as a profound inspiration, for entertainers of several generations as well as herself. Upon Horne's death, she stated \"[Horne] brought much joy into everyone's lives—even the younger generations, younger than myself. She was such a great talent. She opened up such doors for artists like myself.\" Similarly, she considers Dorothy Dandridge to be one of her idols. Jackson has declared herself \"a very big Joni Mitchell fan\", explaining \"As a kid I was drawn to Joni Mitchell records [...] Joni's songs spoke to me in an intimate, personal way.\" She holds reference for Tina Turner, stating \"Tina has become a heroic figure for many people, especially women, because of her tremendous strength. Personally, Tina doesn't seem to have a beginning or an end in my life. I felt her music was always there, and I feel like it always will be.\" She has also named other socially conscious acts, such as Tracy Chapman, Sly and the Family Stone, U2, and Bob Dylan as sources of inspiration. In her early career, Jackson credited her brothers Michael and Jermaine as musical influences. According to Rolling Stone and MTV, other artists attributed as influences are The Ronettes, Dionne Warwick, Tammi Terrell, Diana Ross, Chaka Khan, Stevie Wonder, Teena Marie, Michael Jackson, Prince, and Tina Turner \n\nLegacy \n\nThe youngest sister of the \"precious Jackson clan\", Janet Jackson has striven to distance her professional career from that of her older brother Michael and the rest of the Jackson family. Steve Dollar of Newsday wrote that \"[s]he projects that home girl-next-door quality that belies her place as the youngest sibling in a family whose inner and outer lives have been as poked at, gossiped about, docudramatized and hard-copied as the Kennedys.\" Phillip McCarthy of The Sydney Morning Herald noted that throughout her recording career, one of her common conditions for interviewers has been that there would be no mention of Michael. Joshua Klein wrote, \"[f]or the first half of her recording career, Janet Jackson sounded like an artist with something to prove. Emerging in 1982 just as big brother Michael was casting his longest shadow, Jackson filled her albums not so much with songs as with declarations, from 'The Pleasure Principle' to the radical-sounding 'Rhythm Nation' to the telling statement of purpose, 'Control'.\" Steve Huey of Allmusic asserted that despite being born into a family of entertainers, Janet Jackson has managed to emerge a \"superstar\" in her own right, rivaling not only several female recording artists including Madonna and Whitney Houston, but also her brother, while \"successfully [shifting] her image from a strong, independent young woman to a sexy, mature adult.\" By forging her own unique identity through her artistry and her business ventures, she has been esteemed as the \"Queen of Pop\". Klein argued that \"stardom was not too hard to predict, but few could have foreseen that Janet—Miss Jackson, if you're nasty—would one day replace Michael as true heir to the Jackson family legacy.\".\n\nJackson has also been recognized for playing a pivotal role in crossing racial boundaries in the recording industry, where black artists were once considered to be substandard. In Right to Rock: The Black Rock Coalition and the Cultural Politics of Race (2004), author Maureen Mahon states: \"In the 1980s, Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, Janet Jackson, and Prince were among the African American artists who crossed over ... When black artists cross over into pop success they cease to be black in the industry sense of the word. They get promoted from racialized black music to universal pop music in an economically driven process of racial transcendence.\" Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge (2000) documented that Jackson, along with other prominent African-American women, had achieved financial breakthroughs in mainstream popular music, receiving \"superstar status\" in the process. She, alongside her contemporaries \"offered viable creative, intellectual, and business paths for establishing and maintaining agency, lyrical potency, marketing and ownership.\" Her business savvy has been compared to that of Madonna, gaining a level of autonomy which enables \"creative latitude and access to financial resources and mass-market distribution.\" A model of reinvention, author Jessie Carney Smith wrote that \"Janet has continued to test the limits of her transformative power\", receiving accolades in music, film and concert tours throughout the course of her career.\n\nMusicologist Richard J. Ripani identified Jackson as a leader in the development of contemporary R&B, as her music created a unique blend of genre and sound effects which ushered in the use of rap vocals into mainstream R&B. He also argues her signature song \"Nasty\" influenced the new jack swing genre developed by Teddy Riley. Leon McDermott of the Sunday Herald wrote: \"Her million-selling albums in the 1980s helped invent contemporary R&B through Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis's muscular, lean production; the sinuous grooves threaded through 1986's Control and 1989's Rhythm Nation 1814 are the foundation upon which today's hot shot producers and singers rely.\" In Bring the Noise: 20 Years of Writing About Hip Rock and Hip Hop (2011), Simon Reynolds described Jackson's collaborations with her record producers as a reinvention of the dance-pop genre, introducing a new sonic palate. Den Berry, Virgin Records CEO and Chairman stated: \"Janet is the very embodiment of a global superstar. Her artistic brilliance and personal appeal transcend geographic, cultural and generational boundaries.\" In July 1999, she placed at number 77 on VH1's \"100 Greatest Women of Rock and Roll\". She also placed at number 134 on their list of the \"200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons of All Time\", number seven on the \"100 Greatest Women In Music\", and at number two on the \"50 Greatest Women of the Video Era\", behind Madonna. In March 2008, Business Wire reported \"Janet Jackson is one of the top ten selling artists in the history of contemporary music; ranked by Billboard magazine as the ninth most successful act in rock and roll history, and the second most successful female artist in pop music history.\" She is the only female artist in the history of the Hot 100 to have 18 consecutive top ten hit singles, from \"Miss You Much\" (1989) to \"I Get Lonely\" (1998). The magazine ranked her at number seven on their Hot 100 50th Anniversary \"All-Time Top Artists\", making her the third most successful female artist in the history of the chart, following Madonna and Mariah Carey. In November 2010, Billboard released its \"Top 50 R&B / Hip-Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years\" list and ranked her at number five. She ranks as the top artist on the chart with 15 number ones in the past twenty-five years, garnering 27 top ten hits between 1985 and 2001, and 33 consecutive top 40 hits from 1985 through 2004. The most awarded artist in the history of the Billboard Music Awards with 33 wins, she is one an elite group of musical acts, such as Madonna, Aerosmith, Garth Brooks and Eric Clapton, whom Billboard credits for \"redefining the landscape of popular music.\" In November 2014, Jackson was voted 'Queen of Pop' by a poll conducted online by VH1.com. In October, 2015, she received a nomination to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.\n\nJackson's music and choreography have inspired numerous performers. Virgin Records executive Lee Trink expressed: \"Janet is an icon and historic figure in our culture. She's one of those gifted artists that people look up to, that people emulate, that people want to believe in ... there's not that many superstars that stand the test of time.\" Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald remarked: \"For every hand-fluttering, overwrought, melisma addict out there aping Mariah's dog calls, there's an equal number trying to match Jackson's bubbling grooves and fancy footwork, including Britney, Aaliyah and Destiny's Child.\" Music critic Gene Stout commented she \"has so broadly influenced a younger generation of performers, from Jennifer Lopez ... to Britney Spears, who has copied so many of Jackson's dance moves.\" 'N Sync and Usher have credited her for teaching them how to develop stage show into theatrical performance. Beyoncé Knowles, Toni Braxton, Aaliyah, Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, Crystal Kay, Kelly Rowland, Rihanna, and Brazilian singer Kelly Key have all named her as one of their biggest inspirations, while others such as Rozonda \"Chilli\" Thomas of TLC, Cassie, Nicki Minaj, Keri Hilson, and DJ/singer Havana Brown, have all expressed desire to emulate her. Elysa Gardner of USA Today wrote: \"Jackson claims not to be bothered by the brigade of barely post-adolescent baby divas who have been inspired by—and, in some cases, have flagrantly aped—the sharp, animated choreography and girlish but decidedly post-feminist feistiness that have long been hallmarks of her performance style.\" Those who are considered to have followed in her footsteps have been referred to as \"Janet-come-lately's.\" Other artists who have drawn comparison to her include Mýa, Brandy, Tatyana Ali, Christina Milian, Lady Gaga, Namie Amuro, and BoA. Sociologist Shayne Lee commented that \"[a]s Janet enters the twilight of her reign as erotic Queen of Pop, Beyoncé Knowles emerges as her likely successor.\" Joan Morgan of Essence magazine remarked: \"Jackson's Control, Rhythm Nation 1814 and janet. established the singer-dancer imprimatur standard in pop culture we now take for granted. So when you're thinking of asking Miss Jackson, 'What have you done for me lately?' remember that Britney, Ciara and Beyoncé live in the house that Janet built.\" \n\nDiscography \n\n* Janet Jackson (1982)\n* Dream Street (1984)\n* Control (1986)\n* Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 (1989)\n* janet. (1993)\n* The Velvet Rope (1997)\n* All for You (2001)\n* Damita Jo (2004)\n* 20 Y.O. (2006)\n* Discipline (2008)\n* Unbreakable (2015)\n\nFilmography \n\n* Good Times (1977–79)\n* Diff'rent Strokes (1980–84)\n* Fame (1984–85)\n* Poetic Justice (1993)\n* Nutty Professor II: The Klumps (2000)\n* Why Did I Get Married? (2007)\n* Why Did I Get Married Too? (2010)\n* For Colored Girls (2010)\n\nTours \n\n* Rhythm Nation World Tour (1990)\n* Janet World Tour (1993–95)\n* The Velvet Rope Tour (1998–99)\n* All for You Tour (2001–02)\n* Rock Witchu Tour (2008)\n* Number Ones, Up Close and Personal World Tour (2011)\n* Unbreakable World Tour (2015–16)\n\nBooks \n\n* True You (2011)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Without You (disambiguation)", "Without You (album)", "Without you", "Without You", "Without You (Song)", "Without You (Fleetwood Mac song)", "Without You (single)", "Without You (song)", "Without You (Album)", "Without You (Fleetwood Mac Song)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "without you album", "without you song", "without you single", "without you disambiguation", "without you", "without you fleetwood mac song" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "without you", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Without you" }
Which Gloria co-founded Ms magazine?	tc_1045	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ms._(magazine).txt" ], "title": [ "Ms. (magazine)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ms. is an American liberal feminist magazine co-founded by second-wave feminists and sociopolitical activists Gloria Steinem and Dorothy Pitman Hughes. Founding editors were Letty Cottin Pogrebin, Mary Thom, Patricia Carbine, Joanne Edgar, Nina Finkelstein, and Mary Peacock. Ms. first appeared in 1971 as an insert in New York magazine. The first stand-alone issue appeared in January 1972 with funding from New York editor Clay Felker. From July 1972 to 1987, it appeared on a monthly basis. \n\nDuring its heyday in the 1970s, it enjoyed great popularity but was not always able to reconcile its ideological concerns with commercial considerations. Since 2001, the magazine has been published by the Feminist Majority Foundation, based in Los Angeles and Arlington, Virginia.\n\nOrigins\n\nCo-founder Gloria Steinem has explained the motivation for starting Ms. magazine, stating, \"I realized as a journalist that there really was nothing for women to read that was controlled by women, and this caused me along with a number of other women to start Ms. magazine.\" As to the origin of the name chosen for the magazine, she has stated, \"We were going to call it 'Sojourner', after Sojourner Truth, but that was perceived as a travel magazine. Then we were going to call it 'Sisters', but that was seen as a religious magazine. We settled on 'Ms.' because it was symbolic and also it was short, which is good for a logo.\"\n\nThe title of Ms. magazine was suggested by a friend of Gloria Steinem who had heard the term in an interview on WBAI radio and suggested it as a title for the new magazine. Modern use of Ms. as an honorific was promoted by Sheila Michaels. Michaels, whose parents were not married to each other, and who was not adopted by her stepfather, had long grappled with finding a title that reflected her situation: not being \"owned\" by a father and not wishing to be \"owned\" by a husband. Her efforts to promote its use were ignored in the nascent Women’s Movement. Around 1971, during a lull in an interview with \"The Feminists\" group, Michaels suggested the use of the title \"Ms.\" (having chosen a pronunciation current for both in Missouri, her home). \n\nControversy raged in the early 1970s over the \"correct\" title for women. Men had Mr. which gave no indication of their marital status since the formal address term \"master\" for an unmarried man had fallen largely into disuse; etiquette and business practices demanded that women use either Miss or Mrs. Many women did not want to be defined by their marital status and, for a growing number of women who kept their last name after marriage, neither Miss nor Mrs. was a correct title in front of that name.\n\nFrom 1972 until 1988 Suzanne Braun Levine was the first editor of Ms. \n\nHistoric milestones\n\nMs. made history in 1972 when it published the names of women admitting to having had abortions when the procedure was still illegal in most of the United States. A year later, Roe v. Wade would legalize abortion throughout the country. Ironically, also in 1972, science-fiction author Samuel R. Delany had a planned story arc for the Wonder Woman comic book that was to culminate in Wonder Woman protecting an abortion clinic. This story arc was cancelled because of Steinem's intervention - her disapproval of Wonder Woman being out of costume was used as a publicity stunt and excuse to remove Delany from the comic book and cancel the controversial storyline. \n\nA 1976 cover story on battered women made Ms. the first national magazine to address the issue of domestic violence. The cover photo featured a woman with a bruised face.\n\nMs. magazine's credibility was damaged in the 1980s and 1990s when it became swept up in the day care sexual abuse frenzy and moral panic about Satanic ritual abuse. \n\nThe \"We Had Abortions\" petition appears in the October 2006 issue as part of the issue's cover story. The petition contains signatures of over 5,000 women declaring that they had an abortion and were \"unashamed of (the) decision\", including actresses Amy Brenneman and Kathy Najimy, comedian Carol Leifer, and Steinem herself. \n\nRecent ownership\n\nIn 1987, it was bought by Fairfax, an Australian media company, which installed the head of its US arm, Sandra Yates, to oversee the magazine's editorial and financial turnaround. In 1989, concerned about a perceived 'Cher cover'-centered editorial direction under Anne Summers, American Feminists bought it back and began publishing the magazine without ads.\n\nRobin Morgan and Marcia Ann Gillespie served respective terms as Editors in Chief of the magazine. Gillespie was the first African American woman to lead Ms. For a period, the magazine was published by MacDonald Communications Corp., which also published Working Woman and Working Mother magazines. Known since its inception for unique feminist analysis of current events, its 1991 change to an ad-free format also made it known for exposing the control that many advertisers assert over content in women's magazines.\n\nIn 1998, Gloria Steinem and other investors created Liberty Media (not the cable/satellite conglomerate of the same name) and brought the magazine under independent ownership. It remained ad-free and won several awards, including an Utne award for social commentary. With Liberty Media facing bankruptcy in November 2001, the Feminist Majority Foundation purchased the magazine, dismissed Gillespie and staff, and moved editorial headquarters from New York to Los Angeles. Formerly bimonthly, the magazine has since published quarterly.\n\nIn the Spring 2002 issue commemorating the magazine's 30th year, Gloria Steinem and Feminist Majority president Eleanor Smeal noted the magazine's increased ability to \"share research and resources, expand investigative journalism, and bring its readers the personal experience that has always been the source of the women's health movement.\"\n\nIn 2005, under editor-in-chief Elaine Lafferty, Ms. was nominated for National Magazine Award for Martha Mendoza's article \"Between a Woman and Her Doctor\". Despite this success, Lafferty left the magazine after only two years following various disagreements including the editorial direction on a cover story on Desperate Housewives, and a perceived generation gap towards third-wave feminists and grunge, a genre that Lafferty had trashed as being oppositional to feminism. \n\nOver the years the magazine has featured articles written by and about many women and men at the forefront of business, politics, activism, and journalism. Writers have included Alice Walker, Angela Davis, Barbara Ehrenreich, and Susan Faludi. The cover has featured comedian Wanda Sykes, performance artist Sarah Jones, Jane Fonda, actress Charlize Theron, Queen Noor of Jordan and former First Lady and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton. The magazine's investigative journalism broke several landmark stories on topics including overseas sweatshops, sex trafficking, the wage gap, the glass ceiling, date rape, and domestic violence.\n\nAdvertising policy \n \nOn January 10, 2008, the American Jewish Congress released an official statement critical of Ms. magazine's refusal to accept from them a full page advertisement honoring three prominent Israeli women: Dorit Beinisch (president of the Supreme Court of Israel), Tzipi Livni (Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel), and Dalia Itzik (speaker of the Knesset).\n\nThe New York Jewish Week reported that a number of Jewish feminists, including Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance founder Blu Greenberg, were mostly disappointed with Ms.s decision to reject the ad. \n\nHowever, Katherine Spillar, executive editor of Ms. magazine responded to these criticisms on Ms. magazine's website, denying an anti-Israel bias. She argued that the proposed advertisement was inconsistent with the magazine's policy to accept only 'mission-driven advertisements from primarily non-profit, non-partisan organizations', suggesting that the advertisement could have been perceived 'as favoring certain political parties within Israel over other parties, but also with its slogan “This is Israel,” the ad implied that women in Israel hold equal positions of power with men.' Spillar stated that the magazine had 'covered the Israeli feminist movement and women leaders in Israel ... eleven times' in its last four years of issues." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "G. Steinem", "Gloria Marie Steinem", "If Men Could Menstruate", "Steinem", "Gloria Steinem" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "g steinem", "gloria steinem", "steinem", "gloria marie steinem", "if men could menstruate" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "steinem", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Steinem" }
A Fistfull of Dollars was filmed on location in which country?	tc_1046	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "A_Fistful_of_Dollars.txt" ], "title": [ "A Fistful of Dollars" ], "wiki_context": [ "A Fistful of Dollars (, lit. \"For a Fistful of Dollars\"), titled on-screen as Fistful of Dollars, is a 1964 Spaghetti Western film directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood in his first leading role, alongside Gian Maria Volontè, Marianne Koch, Wolfgang Lukschy, Sieghardt Rupp, José Calvo, Antonio Prieto, and Joseph Egger. \n\nA Fistful of Dollars was filmed on a low budget (reported to be $200,000), and Eastwood was paid $15,000 for his role. Released in Italy in 1964 and then in the United States in 1967, it initiated the popularity of the spaghetti western film genre. It was followed by For a Few Dollars More and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, also starring Eastwood. Collectively, the films are known as the \"Dollars Trilogy\", or \"The Man With No Name Trilogy\". The film has been identified as an unofficial remake of the Akira Kurosawa film Yojimbo (1961), which resulted in a successful lawsuit by Toho, the producers of Yojimbo. In the United States, the United Artists publicity campaign referred to Eastwood's character in all three films as the \"Man with No Name\".\n\nAs few spaghetti westerns had yet been released in the United States, many of the European cast and crew took on American-sounding stage names. These included Leone himself (\"Bob Robertson\"), Gian Maria Volontè (\"Johnny Wels\"), and composer Ennio Morricone (\"Dan Savio\"). A Fistful of Dollars was shot in Spain, mostly near Hoyo de Manzanares close to Madrid, but also (like its two sequels) in the Tabernas Desert and in the Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park, both in Almería province.\n\nPlot\n\nA stranger arrives at the little Mexican border town of San Miguel. Silvanito, the town's innkeeper, tells the Stranger about a feud between two families vying to gain control of the town: on the one side, the Rojo brothers: Don Miguel, Esteban and Ramón; on the other, the family of the town sheriff, John Baxter. The Stranger decides to play each family against the other in order to make money, and proves his speed and accuracy with his gun to both sides by shooting the four men who teased him as he entered town with ease.\n\nThe Stranger seizes his opportunity when he sees the Rojos massacre a detachment of Mexican soldiers who were escorting a shipment of gold. The Stranger takes two of the dead bodies to a nearby cemetery and sells information to both sides, saying that two Mexican soldiers survived the attack. Both sides race to the cemetery, the Baxters to get the \"survivors\" to testify against the Rojos, the Rojos to silence them. The factions engage in a gunfight, with Ramón managing to \"kill\" the \"survivors\" and Esteban capturing John Baxter's son, Antonio.\n\nWhile the Rojos and the Baxters are fighting, the Stranger searches the Rojo hacienda for the gold. While he is searching he accidentally knocks out a woman, Marisol. He takes her to the Baxters, who, in turn, arrange to return her to the Rojos in exchange for Antonio. During the exchange, Marisol's son runs to her, with her husband following. While the family embraces, Ramón orders one of his men, Rubio, to kill her husband as he has already told him to leave town. Silvanito attempts to protect the family with a shotgun, but is about to be killed himself when the Stranger backs him up, staring down Rubio. Neither Ramón nor any of his men attempt to challenge the Stranger, knowing that he is too fast on the draw.\n\nThe Stranger then tells Marisol to go to Ramón and for her husband (Julián/Julio) to take their son (Jesús) home. Afterwards, the Stranger learns from Silvanito that Ramón had taken Marisol from her husband and forced her to live with him as his prisoner. That night, while the Rojos are celebrating, the Stranger rides out and frees Marisol, shooting the guards and wrecking the house in which she is being held in order to make it appear as though it were attacked by the Baxters. The Stranger gives Marisol, her husband, and their son some money and tells them to leave the town. When the Rojos discover that he freed Marisol, they capture the Stranger and torture him, but he escapes. Believing the Stranger to be protected by the Baxters, the Rojos set fire to the Baxter home and massacre the entire family as they run out of the burning building. Ramon kills John Baxter and Antonio after pretending to spare them. Consuelo, John Baxter's wife, appears and curses the Rojos for killing her husband and son, as they were unarmed. She is then shot and killed by Esteban.\n\nWith help from Piripero, the local coffin-builder, the Stranger escapes town by hiding in a casket. The Stranger hides and convalesces in a nearby mine. When Piripero tells him Silvanito has been captured, the Stranger returns to town and faces the Rojos. With a steel chest-plate hidden beneath his poncho, he taunts Ramón to \"aim for the heart\" as Ramón's shots bounce off. Panicked, Ramón uses up all of the bullets in his Winchester. The Stranger shoots the rifle from Ramón's hand and kills the other Rojos standing nearby, including Don Miguel and Rubio. He then uses the last bullet in his gun to free Silvanito, who had been tied hanging from a post. The Stranger challenges Ramón to reload his rifle faster than he, the Stranger, can reload his pistol. The Stranger shoots and kills Ramón. Esteban Rojo aims at the Stranger from a nearby building, but is shot dead by Silvanito. The Stranger bids farewell and rides away from the town.\n\nCast\n\nClint Eastwood as Joe, the Stranger (the \"Man with No Name\")\nGian Maria Volontè (as John Wells / Johnny Wels) as Ramón Rojo\nMarianne Koch as Marisol\nJosé Calvo (as Jose Calvo) as Silvanito, the Innkeeper\nJoseph Egger (as Joe Edger) as Piripero, the Coffin-Builder\nAntonio Prieto as Don Miguel / Benito Rojo\nSieghardt Rupp (as S. Rupp) as Esteban Rojo\nWolfgang Lukschy (as W. Lukschy) as Sheriff John Baxter\nMargarita Lozano (as Margherita Lozano) as Doña Consuelo Baxter\nBruno Carotenuto (as Carol Brown) as Antonio Baxter\nDaniel Martín as Julián / Julio\nMario Brega (as Richard Stuyvesant) as Chico, Rojo Gang Member\nBenito Stefanelli (as Benny Reeves) as Rubio, Ramón's Rifleman\nAldo Sambrell (as Aldo Sambreli) as Manolo, Rojo Gang Member\nAntonio Moreno as Juan De Dios, the Bell-Ringer (uncredited)\nNino Del Arco as Jesús (uncredited)\nJuan Cortés: Cavalry Captain (uncredited)\nLorenzo Robledo: Baxter Gang Member (uncredited)\nAntonio Molino Rojo: Baxter Gang Member (uncredited)\nJosé Canalejas: Rojo Gang Member (uncredited)\n\nDevelopment \n\nA Fistful of Dollars was at first intended by Leone to reinvent the western genre in Italy. In his opinion, the American westerns of the mid- to late-1950s had become stagnant, overly preachy and not believable. Despite the fact that even Hollywood began to gear down production of such films, Leone knew that there was still a significant market in Europe for westerns. He observed that Italian audiences laughed at the stock conventions of both American westerns and the pastiche work of Italian directors working behind pseudonyms. His approach was to take the grammar of Italian film and to transpose it into a western setting.\n\nEastwood was not the first actor approached to play the main character. Originally, Sergio Leone intended Henry Fonda to play the \"Man with No Name.\" However, the production company could not afford to employ a major Hollywood star. Next, Leone offered Charles Bronson the part. He, too, declined, arguing that the script was bad. Both Fonda and Bronson would later star in Leone's Once Upon a Time in the West (1968). Other actors who turned the role down were Henry Silva, Rory Calhoun, Tony Russel, Steve Reeves, Ty Hardin, and James Coburn. Leone then turned his attention to Richard Harrison, who had recently starred in the very first Italian western, Duello nel Texas. Harrison, however, had not been impressed with his experience on his previous film and refused. The producers later presented a list of available, lesser-known American actors and asked Harrison for advice. Harrison suggested Eastwood, who he knew could play a cowboy convincingly. Harrison later stated, \"Maybe my greatest contribution to cinema was not doing A Fistful of Dollars and recommending Clint for the part.\" Eastwood later spoke about transitioning from a television western to A Fistful of Dollars: \"In Rawhide, I did get awfully tired of playing the conventional white hat...the hero who kisses old ladies and dogs and was kind to everybody. I decided it was time to be an anti-hero.\" \n\nA Fistful of Dollars was an Italian/German/Spanish co-production, so there was a significant language barrier on set. Leone did not speak English, and Eastwood communicated with the Italian cast and crew mostly through stuntman Benito Stefanelli, who also acted as an unlicensed interpreter for the production and would later appear in Leone's other pictures. Similar to other Italian films shot at the time, all footage was filmed silent, and the dialogue and sound effects were dubbed over in post-production. For the Italian version of the film, Eastwood was dubbed by stage and screen actor Enrico Maria Salerno, whose 'sinister' rendition of the Man With No Name's voice contrasted with Eastwood's cocksure and darkly humorous interpretation. \n\nVisual style \n\nA Fistful of Dollars became the first film to exhibit Leone's famously distinctive style of visual direction. This was influenced by both John Ford's cinematic landscaping and the Japanese method of direction, perfected by Akira Kurosawa. Leone wanted an operatic feel to his western and so there are many examples of extreme close-ups on the faces of different characters that function like arias in a traditional opera. The rhythm, emotion and communication within scenes can be attributed to Leone’s meticulous framing of his close-ups. This is quite different from Hollywood's use of close-ups which used them as reaction shots, usually to a line of dialogue that had just been spoken. Leone's close-ups are more akin to portraits, often lit with Renaissance-type lighting effects and are considered by some as pieces of design in their own right. \n\nEastwood was instrumental in creating the Man with No Name's distinctive visual style. He bought black jeans from a sport shop on Hollywood Boulevard, the hat came from a Santa Monica wardrobe firm, and the trademark cigars from a Beverly Hills store. He also brought props from Rawhide including a Cobra-handled Colt, a gunbelt, and spurs. The poncho was acquired in Spain. It was Leone and costume designer Carlo Simi who decided on the Spanish poncho for the Man with No Name. On the anniversary DVD for The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, it was said that while Eastwood himself is a non-smoker, he felt that the foul taste of the cigar in his mouth put him in the right frame of mind for his character. Leone reportedly took to Eastwood's distinctive style quickly and commented that, \"More than an actor, I needed a mask, and Eastwood, at that time, only had two expressions: with hat and no hat.\" \n\nTitle design \n\nIginio Lardani created the film's title design. \n\nSoundtrack \n\nThe film's music was written by Ennio Morricone, credited as Dan Savio.\n\nLeone requested Morricone to write a theme that would be similar to Dimitri Tiomkin’s El Degüello (used in Rio Bravo, 1959). Although the two themes are similar, Morricone states that he used a lullaby he had composed before and developed the theme from that. He adds that what makes the two themes similar is the execution, not the arrangement. \n\n\"Some of the music was written before the film, which is unusual. Leone's films were made like that because he wanted the music to be an important part of it, and he often kept the scenes longer simply because he didn't want the music to end. That's why the films are so slow - because of the music.\" Though not used in the completed film, Peter Tevis recorded lyrics to Morricone's theme for the film. As a movie tie-in to the American release, United Artists Records released a different set of lyrics to Morricone's theme called Restless One by Little Anthony and the Imperials.\n\nTracks (2006 GDM version) \n# Titoli 2:58\n# Quasi morto 1:40\n# Musica sospesa 1:02\n# Square dance 1:36\n# Ramon 1:05\n# Consuelo Baxter 1:18\n# Doppi giochi 1:41\n# Per un pugno di dollari (1) 1:26\n# Scambio di prigionieri 0:55\n# Cavalcata 3:29\n# L'inseguimento 2:25\n# Tortura 9:31\n# Alla ricerca dell'evaso 1:22\n# Senza pietà 2:08\n# La reazione 2:36\n# Per un pugno di dollari (2) 1:49\n# Per un pugno di dollari (finale) 1:09\n\nRelease and reception\n\nA Fistful of Dollars was released in Italy in September 1964. Over the film's theatrical release, it grossed more than any other Italian film up to that point. In January 1967 the film premièred in the United States grossing $4.5 million for the year. It eventually grossed $14.5 million in its American release. In 1969 it was re-released, earning $1.2 million in rentals. \n\nWhen the film was released on the televised network ABC, a four and a half minute prologue was added to the film to contextualise the character and justify the violence. Written and directed by Monte Hellman, it featured an unidentified official (Harry Dean Stanton) offering the Man With No Name a chance at a pardon in exchange for cleaning up the mess in San Miguel. Close-ups of Eastwood's face from archival footage are inserted into the scene alongside Stanton's performance. This prologue appeared on the Special Edition DVD and the more recent Blu-ray, along with an interview with Monte Hellman about its making. \n\nUpon the film's American release in 1967, both Philip French and Bosley Crowther were unimpressed with the film itself. Critic Philip French of The Observer stated: \"The calculated sadism of the film would be offensive were it not for the neutralising laughter aroused by the ludicrousness of the whole exercise. If one didn't know the actual provenance of the film, one would guess that it was a private movie made by a group of rich European Western fans at a dude ranch... A Fistful of Dollars looks awful, has a flat dead soundtrack, and is totally devoid of human feeling.\" Bosley Crowther of the The New York Times treated the film not as pastiche, but as camp-parody, stating that nearly every Western cliche could be found in this \"egregiously synthetic but engrossingly morbid, violent film\". He went on to patronise Eastwood's performance, stating: \"He is simply another fabrication of a personality, half cowboy and half gangster, going through the ritualistic postures and exercises of each... He is a morbid, amusing, campy fraud\". \n\nHowever, in response to these immediate negative reviews, Howard Hughes, in his 2012 book 'Once upon a time in the Italian West', reflected by stating: \"American and British critics largely chose to ignore Fistful's release, few recognising its satirical humour or groundbreaking style, preferring to trash the shoddy production values...\". \n\nThe retrospective reception of A Fistful of Dollars has been much more positive, noting it as a hugely influential film in regards to the rejuvenation of the Western genre. The 67th Cannes Film Festival, held in 2014, celebrated the \"50th anniversary of the birth of the Spaghetti Western... by showing A Fistful of Dollars\". Quentin Tarantino, prior to hosting the event, in a press-release described the film as \"the greatest achievement in the history of Cinema\". A Fistful of Dollars has achieved a 98% freshness rating out of 43 critical reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, whilst being placed 8th on the site's 'Top 100 Westerns'. \n\nLegal dispute \n\nThe film was effectively an unofficial and unlicensed remake of Akira Kurosawa's 1961 film Yojimbo (written by Kurosawa and Ryuzo Kikushima), lifting traditional themes and character tropes usually typified within a Jidaigeki film. Kurosawa insisted that Leone had made \"a fine movie, but it was MY movie.\" Leone ignored the resulting lawsuit, but eventually settled out of court, reportedly for 15% of the worldwide receipts of A Fistful of Dollars and over $100,000. \n\nBritish critic Sir Christopher Frayling identifies three principal sources for A Fistful of Dollars: \"Partly derived from Kurosawa's samurai film Yojimbo, partly from Dashiell Hammett's novel Red Harvest (1929), but most of all from Carlo Goldoni's eighteenth-century play Servant of Two Masters.\" Leone has cited these alternate sources in his defense. He claims a thematic debt, for both Fistful and Yojimbo, to Carlo Goldoni's Servant of Two Masters—the basic premise of the protagonist playing two camps against each other. Leone asserted that this rooted the origination of Fistful/Yojimbo in European, and specifically Italian, culture. The Servant of Two Masters plot can also be seen in Hammett's detective novel Red Harvest. The Continental Op hero of the novel is, significantly, a man without a name. Leone himself believed that Red Harvest had influenced Yojimbo: \"Kurosawa's Yojimbo was inspired by an American novel of the serie-noire so I was really taking the story back home again.\" \n\nLeone also referenced numerous American Westerns in the film, most notably Shane (1953) and My Darling Clementine (1946) which differs from Yojimbo.\n\nDigital restoration\n\nIn 2014, the film was digitally restored by Cineteca di Bologna and Unidis Jolly Film for its Blu-ray debut and 50th anniversary. Frame-by-frame digital restoration by Prasad Corporation removed dirt, tears, scratches and other defects. The directorial credit for Leone, which replaced the \"Bob Robertson\" card years ago, has been retained, but otherwise, the original credits (with pseudonyms, including \"Dan Savio\" for Morricone) remain the same.\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Environment of Italy", "Italiën", "Subdivisions of Italy", "Republic of Italy", "ItalY", "ISO 3166-1:IT", "Etymology of Italy", "Itali", "Pollution in Italy", "Administrative divisions of Italy", "Austrian Empire (Italy)", "Italija", "Italie", "Italia", "Italian Republic", "Second Italian Republic", "Italy", "Italio", "Repubblica Italiana", "Itàlia", "The Italian republic" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "second italian republic", "itàlia", "italio", "iso 3166 1 it", "italija", "etymology of italy", "repubblica italiana", "itali", "italia", "austrian empire italy", "republic of italy", "italiën", "subdivisions of italy", "italy", "pollution in italy", "administrative divisions of italy", "italie", "italian republic", "environment of italy" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "italy", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Italy" }
Which country lies immediately to the south of Estonia?	tc_1047	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Estonia.txt", "Geography_of_Estonia.txt" ], "title": [ "Estonia", "Geography of Estonia" ], "wiki_context": [ "Estonia (; ), officially the Republic of Estonia (), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia (338.6 km). Across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45339 km2 of land, and is influenced by a humid continental climate.\n\nThe territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6,500 BCE, with Finno-Ugric speakers – the linguistic ancestors of modern Estonians – arriving no later than around 1800 BCE. Following centuries of successive Teutonic, Danish, Swedish, and Russian rule, Estonians experienced a national awakening that culminated in independence from the Russian Empire towards the end of World War I. During World War II, Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, then Nazi Germany a year later and again annexed by the Soviets in 1944, after which it was reconstituted as the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian SSR issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of the illegal Soviet rule, and independence was restored on the night of 20 August 1991, during the 1991 attempted coup by the Soviets.\n\nModern Estonia is a democratic parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties, with its capital and largest city being Tallinn. With a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the OECD and the Schengen Area.\n\nEthnic Estonians are a Finnic people, sharing close cultural ties with their northern neighbour, Finland, and the official language, Estonian, is a Finno-Ugric language closely related to Finnish and the Sami languages, and distantly to Hungarian.\n\nEstonia is a developed country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. It ranks very high in the Human Development Index, and performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, education, and press freedom. \n\nEtymology\n\nIn the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was . \n\nOne hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania (ca. 98 AD). However, the historic Aesti appear to have been a Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians have Finno-Ugric origins.\n\nAncient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is still called in Icelandic, and close to the Danish, German, Dutch, Swedish and Norwegian term Estland for the country. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia. \n\nEsthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nHuman settlement in Estonia became possible 11,000 to 13,000 years ago, when the ice from the last glacial era melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago at the beginning of the ninth millennium BC.\n\nEvidence has been found of hunting and fishing communities existing around 6500 BC near the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. Bone and stone artefacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern Lithuania and in southern Finland. The Kunda culture belongs to the middle stone age, or Mesolithic period.\n\nThe end of the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the first and fifth centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia.\n\nIn his book Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. Due to this point, the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples. \n\nA more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external threats coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian Vikings conducted similar raids against the Scandinavian tribes, marking them as a dominant power in the Baltic region. The \"pagan raiders\" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians. \n\nIn the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa. \n\nEarly Estonians practiced a pagan religion centred on a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island). Therapita was also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.\n\nViking Age\n\nThe Oeselians or Osilians (Estonian saarlased; singular: saarlane) were a historical subdivision of Estonians inhabiting Saaremaa (; ; ), an Estonian island in the Baltic Sea. They were first mentioned as early as the second century BC in Ptolemy's Geography III. The Oeselians were known in the Old Norse Icelandic Sagas and in Heimskringla as Víkingr frá Esthland (Estonian Vikings). Their sailing vessels were called pirate ships by Henry of Latvia in his Latin chronicles written at the beginning of the 13th century. \n\nPerhaps the most famous raid by Oeselian pirates occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna by Finnic raiders from Couronia and Oesel. Among the casualties of this raid was the Swedish archbishop Johannes. The city remained occupied for some time, contributing to its decline as a center of commerce in the 13th century and the rise of Uppsala, Visby, Kalmar and Stockholm. The Livonian Chronicle describes the Oeselians as using two kinds of ships, the piratica and the liburna. The former was a warship, the latter mainly a merchant ship. A piratica could carry approximately 30 men and had a high prow shaped like a dragon or a snakehead and a rectangular sail. Viking-age treasures from Estonia mostly contain silver coins and bars. Saaremaa has the richest finds of Viking treasures after Gotland in Sweden. This strongly suggests that Estonia was an important transit country during the Viking era.\n\nThe superior god of Oeselians as described by Henry of Latvia was called Tharapita. According to the legend in the chronicle Tharapita was born on a forested mountain in Virumaa (), mainland Estonia from where he flew to Oesel, Saaremaa The name Taarapita has been interpreted as \"Taara, help!\"/\"Thor, help!\" (Taara a(v)ita in Estonian) or \"Taara keeper\"/\"Thor keeper\" (Taara pidaja) Taara is associated with the Scandinavian god Thor. The story of Tharapita's or Taara's flight from Vironia to Saaremaa has been associated with a major meteor disaster estimated to have happened in 660 ± 85 BC that formed Kaali crater in Saaremaa.\n\nDanish Estonia\n\nDenmark rose as a great military and mercantile power in the 12th century. It fought to end the frequent Estonian Viking attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. Danish fleets attacked Estonia in 1170, 1194 and 1197. In 1206, King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis led a raid on Ösel island (Saaremaa). The Kings of Denmark laid claim to Estonia as their possession, which was recognised by the Pope.\n\nThe capital of Danish Estonia ( ) was Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219. The Danes built the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill. Estonians still call their capital \"Tallinn\", which according to legend derives from Taani linna (meaning Danish town or castle). Reval was granted Lübeck city rights (1248) and joined the Hanseatic League. Even today, Danish influence can be seen in heraldic symbols. The Danish cross is on the city of Tallinn's coat of arms, and Estonia's coat of arms displays three lions similar to those found on the Danish coat of arms.\n\nOn St. George's Night () 23 April 1343, the indigenous Estonian population in the Duchy of Estonia, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the insular territories of the State of the Teutonic Order tried to rid themselves of the Danish and German rulers and landlords, who had conquered the country in the 13th century during the Livonian crusade, and to eradicate the non-indigenous Christian religion. After initial success the revolt was ended by the invasion of the Teutonic Order. In 1346 the Duchy of Estonia was sold for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order by the King of Denmark. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the State of the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.\n\nIn 1559 during the Livonian War the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus, who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560. The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645. \n\nMiddle Ages\n\nAt the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala, sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217. \n\nFrom 1228, after of the Livonian Crusade, through the 1560s, Estonia was part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207 as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire and proclaimed by Pope Innocent III in 1215 as subject to the Holy See. The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as the Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was created out of the northern parts of the country and was a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346, when it was sold to the Teutonic Order and became part of the Ordenstaat. In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345. The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the Baltic German minority. For the subsequent centuries they remained the ruling elite in both cities and in the countryside. \n\nReval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.\n\nAfter the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435. The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s.\nThe Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia also attempted invasions in 1481 and 1558, both of which were unsuccessful .\n\nSwedish Estonia\n\nThe Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation greatly changed the Baltic region. Its ideas came quickly to the Livonian Confederation and by the 1520s were widespread. Language, education, religion and politics were transformed. Church services were now conducted in the vernacular instead of in Latin, previously used. During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. In the 1560s two voivodeships of present-day southern Estonia, Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region), became the autonomous Duchy of Livonia within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia. This division persisted until the early twentieth century.\n\nIn 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained. Under King Charles XI large noble estates reverted to the Swedish Crown, effectively turning serfs into taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Dorpat (known as Tartu since 1918). This period is known in Estonian history as \"the Good Old Swedish Time.\"\n\nThe population of Estonia increased steadily until the outbreak of the plague in 1657. During the Great Famine of 1695–97 some 70,000 people perished – almost 20% of the population.\n\nNational awakening and Russian Empire\n\nFollowing the capitulation of Estonia and Livonia during the Great Northern War (1700–21), the Swedish empire lost Estonia to Russia by the Treaty of Nystad. However, the upper classes and the higher middle class remained primarily Baltic German. The war devastated the population of Estonia, but it recovered quickly. Although the rights of peasants were initially weakened, serfdom was abolished in 1816 in the province of Estonia and in 1819 in Livonia. \n\nAs a result of the abolition of serfdom and the availability of education to the native Estonian-speaking population, an active Estonian nationalist movement developed in the 19th century. It began on a cultural level, resulting in the establishment of Estonian language literature, theatre and professional music and led on to the formation of the Estonian national identity and the Age of Awakening. Among the leaders of the movement were Johann Voldemar Jannsen, Jakob Hurt and Carl Robert Jakobson.\n\nSignificant accomplishments were the publication of the national epic, Kalevipoeg, in 1862 and the organisation of the first national song festival in 1869. In response to a period of Russification initiated by the Russian Empire in the 1890s, Estonian nationalism took on more political tones, with intellectuals first calling for greater autonomy and, later, complete independence from the Russian Empire.\n\nIndependence\n\nFollowing the Bolshevik takeover of power in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917 and German victories against the Russian army, between the Russian Red Army's retreat and the arrival of advancing German troops, the Committee of Elders of the Maapäev issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence in Pärnu on 23 February and in Tallinn on 24 February 1918.\n\nThe country was occupied by German troops, the Treaty of Brest-Litowsk was signed whereby the Russian government waived all claims to Estonia. The Germans stayed until November 1918 when, with the end of the war in the west, the soldiers returned to Germany, leaving an opening that the Bolshevik troops took advantage of, moving onto Estonia. This caused the Estonian War of Independence which was to last 14 months.\n\nAfter winning the Estonian War of Independence against the Soviet Russia and later the German Freikorps and Baltische Landeswehr volunteers, who had earlier fought alongside Estonia, the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed on 2 February 1920. The Republic of Estonia was recognised (de jure) by Finland on 7 July 1920, Poland on 31 December 1920, Argentina on 12 January 1921, by the Western Allies on 26 January 1921 and by India on 22 September 1921.\n\nEstonia maintained its independence for twenty-two years. Initially a parliamentary democracy, the parliament (Riigikogu) was disbanded in 1934, following political unrest caused by the global economic crisis. Subsequently, the country was ruled by decree by Konstantin Päts, who became president in 1938, the year parliamentary elections resumed.\n\nSecond World War\n\nThe fate of Estonia in the Second World War was decided by the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact and its Secret Additional Protocol of August 1939. World War II casualties of Estonia are estimated as around 25% of the population. War and occupation deaths have been estimated at 90,000. These include the Soviet deportations in 1941, the German deportations and Holocaust victims. \n\nSoviet occupation\n\nIn August 1939 Joseph Stalin gained Adolf Hitler's agreement to divide Eastern Europe into \"spheres of special interest\" according to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its Secret Additional Protocol. \n\nOn 24 September 1939, warships of the Red Navy appeared off Estonian ports and Soviet bombers began a patrol over Tallinn and the nearby countryside. The Estonian government was forced to give their assent to an agreement that allowed the USSR to establish military bases and station 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for \"mutual defence\". On 12 June 1940, the order for a total military blockade on Estonia was given to the Soviet Baltic Fleet. \n\nOn 14 June, while the world's attention was focused on the fall of Paris to Nazi Germany a day earlier, the Soviet military blockade on Estonia went into effect, two Soviet bombers downed the Finnish passenger aeroplane \"Kaleva\" flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the US delegations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki. On 16 June, the Soviet Union invaded Estonia. The Red Army exited from their military bases in Estonia on 17 June. The following day, some 90,000 additional troops entered the country. In the face of overwhelming Soviet force, the Estonian government capitulated on 17 June 1940 to avoid bloodshed. \n\nThe military occupation of Estonia was complete by 21 June. \n\nMost of the Estonian Defence Forces surrendered according to the orders of the Estonian government, believing that resistance was useless and were disarmed by the Red Army. Only the Estonian Independent Signal Battalion showed resistance to Red Army and Communist militia \"People's Self-Defence\" units in front of the XXI Grammar School in Tallinn on 21 June. As the Red Army brought in additional reinforcements supported by six armoured fighting vehicles, the battle lasted several hours until sundown. Finally the military resistance was ended with negotiations and the Independent Signal Battalion surrendered and was disarmed. There were two dead Estonian servicemen, Aleksei Männikus and Johannes Mandre, and several wounded on the Estonian side and about ten killed and more wounded on the Soviet side. \n\nOn 6 August 1940, Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR. The provisions in the Estonian constitution requiring a popular referendum to decide on joining a supra-national body were ignored. Instead the vote to join the Soviet Union was taken by those elected in the elections held the previous month. Additionally those who had failed to do their \"political duty\" of voting Estonia into the USSR, specifically those who had failed to have their passports stamped for voting, were condemned to death by Soviet tribunals. The repressions followed with the mass deportations carried out by the Soviets in Estonia on 14 June 1941. Many of the country's political and intellectual leaders were killed or deported to remote areas of the USSR by the Soviet authorities in 1940–1941. Repressive actions were also taken against thousands of ordinary people.\n\nWhen the German Operation Barbarossa started against the Soviet Union, about 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the Red Army, fewer than 30% of whom survived the war. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated were executed by the NKVD. \n\nMany countries, including the UK and US, did not recognise the annexation of Estonia by the USSR de jure. Such countries recognised Estonian diplomats and consuls who still functioned in the name of their former governments. These diplomats persisted in this anomalous situation until the ultimate restoration of Baltic independence. \n\nThe official Soviet and current Russian version claims that Estonians voluntarily gave up their statehood. Anti-communist partisans of 1944–1976 are labelled \"bandits\" or \"Nazis\", though the Russian position is not recognised internationally. \n\nGerman occupation\n\nAfter Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, the Wehrmacht crossed the Estonian southern border on 7 July. The Red Army retreated behind the Pärnu River – Emajõgi line on 12 July. At the end of July the Germans resumed their advance in Estonia working in tandem with the Estonian Forest Brothers. Both German troops and Estonian partisans took Narva on 17 August and the Estonian capital Tallinn on 28 August. After the Soviets were driven out from Estonia, German troops disarmed all the partisan groups. \n\nAlthough initially the Germans were welcomed by most Estonians as liberators from the USSR and its oppressions, and hopes were raised for the restoration of the country's independence, it was soon realised that the Nazis were but another occupying power. The Germans used Estonia's resources for their war effort; for the duration of the occupation Estonia was incorporated into the German province of Ostland. The Germans and their collaborators also carried out The Holocaust in Estonia in which they established a network of concentration camps and murdered thousands of Estonian Jews and Estonian Gypsies, other Estonians, non-Estonian Jews, and Soviet prisoners of war. \n\nSome Estonians, unwilling to side directly with the Nazis, joined the Finnish Army (which was allied with the Nazis) to fight against the Soviet Union. The Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 (Estonian: soomepoisid) was formed out of Estonian volunteers in Finland. Although many Estonians were recruited into the German armed forces (including Estonian Waffen-SS), the majority of them did so only in 1944 when the threat of a new invasion of Estonia by the Red Army had become imminent. In January 1944 Estonia was again facing the prospect of invasion from the Red Army and the last legitimate prime minister of the Republic of Estonia (according to the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia) delivered a radio address asking all able-bodied men born from 1904 through 1923 to report for military service. The call resulted in around 38,000 new enlistments and several thousand Estonians who had joined the Finnish Army came back to join the newly formed Territorial Defense Force, assigned to defend Estonia against the Soviet advance. It was hoped that by engaging in such a war Estonia would be able to attract Western support for Estonian independence. \n\nSoviet Estonia\n\nThe Soviet forces reconquered Estonia in the autumn of 1944 after battles in the northeast of the country on the Narva river, on the Tannenberg Line (Sinimäed), in Southeast Estonia, on the Emajõgi river, and in the West Estonian Archipelago.\n\nIn the face of the country being re-occupied by the Red Army, tens of thousands of Estonians (including a majority of the education, culture, science, political and social specialists) chose to either retreat with the Germans or flee to Finland or Sweden where they sought refuge in other western countries, often by refugee ships such as the SS Walnut. On 12 January 1949, the Soviet Council of Ministers issued a decree \"on the expulsion and deportation\" from Baltic states of \"all kulaks and their families, the families of bandits and nationalists\", and others. \n\nMore than 10% of the entire adult Baltic population was deported or sent to Soviet labour camps. In response to the continuing insurgency against Soviet rule, more than 20,000 Estonians were forcibly deported either to labour camps or Siberia. Almost all of the remaining rural households were collectivised.\n\nAfter the Second World War, as part of the goal to more fully integrate Baltic countries into the Soviet Union, mass deportations were conducted in the Baltic countries and the policy of encouraging Soviet immigration to the Baltic states continued. \n\nHalf the deported perished, and the other half were not allowed to return until the early 1960s (years after Stalin's death). The activities of Soviet forces in 1940–41 and after reoccupation sparked a guerrilla war against Soviet authorities in Estonia by the Forest Brothers, who consisted mostly of Estonian veterans of the German and Finnish armies and some civilians. This conflict continued into the early 1950s. Material damage caused by the world war and the following Soviet era significantly slowed Estonia's economic growth, resulting in a wide wealth gap in comparison with neighbouring Finland and Sweden. \n\nMilitarization was another aspect of the Soviet state. Large parts of the country, especially the coastal areas, were closed to all but the Soviet military. Most of the sea shore and all sea islands (including Saaremaa and Hiiumaa) were declared \"border zones\". People not actually residing there were restricted from travelling to them without a permit. A notable closed military installation was the city of Paldiski, which was entirely closed to all public access. The city had a support base for the Soviet Baltic Fleet's submarines and several large military bases, including a nuclear submarine training centre complete with a full-scale model of a nuclear submarine with working nuclear reactors. The Paldiski reactors building passed into Estonian control in 1994 after the last Russian troops left the country. Immigration was another effect of Soviet occupation. Hundreds of thousands of migrants were relocated to Estonia from other parts of the Soviet Union to assist industrialisation and militarisation, contributing an increase of about half a million people within 45 years. \n\nReturn to independence\n\n \n\nThe United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy and the majority of other Western countries considered the annexation of Estonia by the USSR illegal. They retained diplomatic relations with the representatives of the independent Republic of Estonia, never de jure recognised the existence of the Estonian SSR, and never recognised Estonia as a legal constituent part of the Soviet Union. Estonia's return to independence became possible as the Soviet Union faced internal regime challenges, loosening its hold on the outer empire. As the 1980s progressed, a movement for Estonian autonomy started. In the initial period of 1987–1989, this was partially for more economic independence, but as the Soviet Union weakened and it became increasingly obvious that nothing short of full independence would do, Estonia began a course towards self-determination.\n\nIn 1989, during the \"Singing Revolution\", in a landmark demonstration for more independence, more than two million people formed a human chain stretching through Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, called the Baltic Way. All three nations had similar experiences of occupation and similar aspirations for regaining independence. The Estonian Sovereignty Declaration was issued on 16 November 1988. On 20 August 1991, Estonia declared formal independence during the Soviet military coup attempt in Moscow, reconstituting the pre-1940 state. The Soviet Union recognised the independence of Estonia on 6 September 1991. The first country to diplomatically recognise Estonia's reclaimed independence was Iceland. The last units of the Russian army left on 31 August 1994.\n\nEstonia joined NATO on 29 March 2004.\n\nAfter signing a treaty on 16 April 2003, Estonia was among the group of ten countries admitted to the European Union on 1 May 2004.\n\nEstonia celebrated its 90th anniversary over the period 28 November 2007 to 28 November 2008.\n\nTerritorial history timeline\n\nGeography\n\nEstonia lies on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea immediately across the Gulf of Finland from Finland on the level northwestern part of the rising East European platform between 57.3° and 59.5° N and 21.5° and 28.1° E. Average elevation reaches only 50 m and the country's highest point is the Suur Munamägi in the southeast at 318 m. There is 3794 km of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. The number of islands and islets is estimated at some 2,355 (including those in lakes). Two of them are large enough to constitute separate counties: Saaremaa and Hiiumaa. A small, recent cluster of meteorite craters, the largest of which is called Kaali is found on Saaremaa, Estonia.\n\nEstonia is situated in the northern part of the temperate climate zone and in the transition zone between maritime and continental climate. Estonia has four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from on the Baltic islands to inland in July, the warmest month, and from on the Baltic islands to inland in February, the coldest month. The average annual temperature in Estonia is . The average precipitation in 1961–1990 ranged from 535 to per year.\n\nSnow cover, which is deepest in the south-eastern part of Estonia, usually lasts from mid-December to late March. Estonia has over 1,400 lakes. Most are very small, with the largest, Lake Peipus, being 3555 km2. There are many rivers in the country. The longest of them are Võhandu (162 km), Pärnu (144 km), and Põltsamaa (135 km). Estonia has numerous fens and bogs. Forests cover 61% of Estonia. The most common tree species are pine, spruce and birch. \n\nPhytogeographically, Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Estonia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests.\n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nFile:Eesti maakonnad 2006 blue.svg\|350px\|right\|Counties of Estonia\npoly 149 174 230 291 137 327 40 263 Hiiu County\npoly 197 110 338 228 338 319 263 375 203 242 Lääne County\npoly 225 294 271 387 233 585 38 511 21 363 Saare County\npoly 534 33 567 172 515 174 492 245 421 185 342 240 246 141 Harju County\npoly 531 35 567 168 514 176 572 197 569 221 594 244 597 263 666 247 693 192 670 170 666 85 Lääne-Viru County\npoly 669 77 667 170 693 192 665 246 704 273 805 244 874 107 Ida-Viru County\npoly 340 240 422 185 490 246 475 314 443 318 433 308 374 323 338 322 Rapla County\npoly 270 375 337 318 373 327 433 307 486 314 477 352 453 361 449 408 484 421 446 495 345 546 Pärnu County\npoly 476 309 515 173 573 197 569 223 594 243 596 275 546 317 505 340 484 335 491 313 Järva County\npoly 454 365 479 348 482 334 505 338 545 319 597 366 602 479 591 454 560 462 527 507 458 486 487 418 445 401 Viljandi County\npoly 597 367 546 316 597 265 665 246 707 274 735 310 684 344 Jõgeva County\npoly 600 365 676 347 748 300 809 443 731 412 662 452 637 439 591 461 Tartu County\npoly 525 512 556 461 637 442 662 453 658 495 632 501 652 588 622 598 Valga County\npoly 656 492 660 452 732 412 806 445 840 514 756 522 753 501 Põlva County\npoly 634 502 659 493 756 502 756 521 816 524 765 612 654 619 Võru County\n\nThe Republic of Estonia is divided into fifteen counties (Maakonnad), which are the administrative subdivisions of the country. The first documented reference to Estonian political and administrative subdivisions comes from the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, written in the thirteenth century during the Northern Crusades. \n\nA maakond (county) is the biggest administrative subdivision.\nThe county government (Maavalitsus) of each county is led by a county governor (Maavanem), who represents the national government at the regional level. Governors are appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Several changes were made to the borders of counties after Estonia became independent, most notably the formation of Valga County (from parts of Võru, Tartu and Viljandi counties) and Petseri County (area acquired from Russia with the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty).\n\nDuring the Soviet rule, Petseri County was annexed and ceded to the Russian SFSR in 1945 where it became Pechorsky District of Pskov Oblast. Counties were again re-established on 1 January 1990 in the borders of the Soviet-era districts. Because of the numerous differences between the current and historical (pre-1940, and sometimes pre-1918) layouts, the historical borders are still used in ethnology, representing cultural and linguistic differences better.\n\nEach county is further divided into municipalities (omavalitsus), which is also the smallest administrative subdivision of Estonia. There are two types of municipalities: an urban municipality – linn (town), and a rural municipality – vald (parish). There is no other status distinction between them. Each municipality is a unit of self-government with its representative and executive bodies. The municipalities in Estonia cover the entire territory of the country.\n\nA municipality may contain one or more populated places. Tallinn is divided into eight districts (linnaosa) with limited self-government (Haabersti, Kesklinn (centre), Kristiine, Lasnamäe, Mustamäe, Nõmme, Pirita and Põhja-Tallinn).\n\nMunicipalities range in size from Tallinn with 400,000 inhabitants to Ruhnu with as few as sixty. As over two-thirds of the municipalities have a population of under 3,000, many of them have found it advantageous to co-operate in providing services and carrying out administrative functions. There have also been calls for an administrative reform to merge smaller municipalities together.\n\nAs of March 2013, there are a total of 226 municipalities in Estonia, 33 of them being urban and 193 rural. \n\nPolitics\n\nEstonia is a parliamentary representative democratic republic in which the Prime Minister of Estonia is the head of government and which includes a multi-party system. The political culture is stable in Estonia, where power is held between two and three parties that have been in politics for a long time. This situation is similar to other countries in Northern Europe. The former Prime Minister of Estonia, Andrus Ansip, is also Europe's longest-serving Prime Minister (from 2005 until 2014). The current Estonian Prime Minister is Taavi Rõivas, who is the former Minister of Social Affairs and the head of the Estonian Reform Party.\n\nParliament\n\nThe Parliament of Estonia () or the legislative branch is elected by people for a four-year term by proportional representation. The Estonian political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1992 constitutional document. The Estonian parliament has 101 members and influences the governing of the state primarily by determining the income and the expenses of the state (establishing taxes and adopting the budget). At the same time the parliament has the right to present statements, declarations and appeals to the people of Estonia, ratify and denounce international treaties with other states and international organisations and decide on the Government loans. \n\nThe Riigikogu elects and appoints several high officials of the state, including the President of the Republic. In addition to that, the Riigikogu appoints, on the proposal of the President of Estonia, the Chairman of the National Court, the chairman of the board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Legal Chancellor and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces. A member of the Riigikogu has the right to demand explanations from the Government of the Republic and its members. This enables the members of the parliament to observe the activities of the executive power and the above-mentioned high officials of the state.\n\nGovernment\n\nThe Government of Estonia () or the executive branch is formed by the Prime Minister of Estonia, nominated by the president and approved by the parliament. The government exercises executive power pursuant to the Constitution of Estonia and the laws of the Republic of Estonia and consists of twelve ministers, including the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister also has the right to appoint other ministers and assign them a subject to deal with. These are ministers without portfolio — they don't have a ministry to control.\n\nThe Prime Minister has the right to appoint a maximum of three such ministers, as the limit of ministers in one government is fifteen. It is also known as the cabinet. The cabinet carries out the country's domestic and foreign policy, shaped by parliament; it directs and co-ordinates the work of government institutions and bears full responsibility for everything occurring within the authority of executive power. The government, headed by the Prime Minister, thus represents the political leadership of the country and makes decisions in the name of the whole executive power.\n\nEstonia has pursued the development of the e-state and e-government. Internet voting is used in elections in Estonia. The first internet voting took place in the 2005 local elections and the first in a parliamentary election was made available for the 2007 elections, in which 30,275 individuals voted over the internet. Voters have a chance to invalidate their electronic vote in traditional elections, if they wish to. In 2009 in its eighth Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Estonia sixth out of 175 countries. In the first ever State of World Liberty Index report, Estonia was ranked first out of 159 countries.\n\nLaw\n\nAccording to the Constitution of Estonia () the supreme power of the state is vested in the people. The people exercise their supreme power of the state on the elections of the Riigikogu through citizens who have the right to vote. The supreme judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court or Riigikohus, with nineteen justices. The Chief Justice is appointed by the parliament for nine years on nomination by the president. The official Head of State is the President of Estonia, who gives assent to the laws passed by Riigikogu, also having the right of sending them back and proposing new laws.\n\nThe President, however, does not use these rights very often, having a largely ceremonial role. He or she is elected by Riigikogu, with two-thirds of the votes required. If the candidate does not gain the amount of votes required, the right to elect the President goes over to an electoral body, consisting of the 101 members of Riigikogu and representatives from local councils. As in other spheres, Estonian law-making has been successfully integrated with the Information Age.\n\nForeign relations\n\nEstonia was a member of the League of Nations from 22 September 1921, has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, and of NATO since 29 March 2004, as well as the European Union since 1 May 2004. Estonia is also a member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) and the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB). As an OSCE participating State, Estonia's international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission. Estonia has also signed the Kyoto Protocol.\n\nSince regaining independence, Estonia has pursued a foreign policy of close co-operation with its Western European partners. The two most important policy objectives in this regard have been accession into NATO and the European Union, achieved in March and May 2004 respectively. Estonia's international realignment toward the West has been accompanied by a general deterioration in relations with Russia, most recently demonstrated by the protest triggered by the controversial relocation of the Bronze Soldier World War II memorial in Tallinn. \n\nSince the early 1990s, Estonia is involved in active trilateral Baltic states co-operation with Latvia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the Nordic countries. The Baltic Council is the joint forum of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly (BA) and the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers (BCM). Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB-8) is the joint co-operation of the governments of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway and Sweden. Nordic-Baltic Six (NB-6), comprising Nordic-Baltic countries that are European Union member states, is a framework for meetings on EU related issues. Parliamentary co-operation between the Baltic Assembly and Nordic Council began in 1989. Annual summits take place, and in addition meetings are organised on all possible levels: speakers, presidiums, commissions, and individual members. The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Tallinn with a subsidiary in Tartu and information points in Narva, Valga and Pärnu. Joint Nordic-Baltic projects include the education programme Nordplus and mobility programmes for business and industry and for public administration. \n\nAn important element in Estonia's post-independence reorientation has been closer ties with the Nordic countries, especially Finland and Sweden. Estonians consider themselves a Nordic people rather than Balts, based on their historical ties with Sweden, Denmark and particularly Finland. In December 1999, then Estonian foreign minister (and since 2006, President of Estonia) Toomas Hendrik Ilves delivered a speech entitled \"Estonia as a Nordic Country\" to the Swedish Institute for International Affairs. In 2003, the foreign ministry also hosted an exhibit called \"Estonia: Nordic with a Twist\". \n\nIn 2005, Estonia joined the European Union's Nordic Battle Group. It has also shown continued interest in joining the Nordic Council.\nWhereas in 1992 Russia accounted for 92% of Estonia's international trade, today there is extensive economic interdependence between Estonia and its Nordic neighbours: three quarters of foreign investment in Estonia originates in the Nordic countries (principally Finland and Sweden), to which Estonia sends 42% of its exports (as compared to 6.5% going to Russia, 8.8% to Latvia, and 4.7% to Lithuania). On the other hand, the Estonian political system, its flat rate of income tax, and its non-welfare-state model distinguish it from the Nordic countries and their Nordic model, and from many other European countries. \n\nThe European Union Agency for large-scale IT systems is based in Tallinn, which started operations at the end of 2012. Estonia will hold the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the first half of 2018.\n\nMilitary\n\nThe military of Estonia is based upon the Estonian Defence Forces (), which is the name of the unified armed forces of the republic with Maavägi (Army), Merevägi (Navy), Õhuvägi (Air Force) and a paramilitary national guard organisation Kaitseliit (Defence League). The Estonian National Defence Policy aim is to guarantee the preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the state, the integrity of its land, territorial waters, airspace and its constitutional order. Current strategic goals are to defend the country's interests, develop the armed forces for interoperability with other NATO and EU member forces, and participation in NATO missions.\n\nThe current national military service () is compulsory for men between 18 and 28, and conscripts serve eight-month to eleven-month tours of duty depending on the army branch they serve in. Estonia has retained conscription unlike Latvia and Lithuania and has no plan to transition to a professional army. In 2008, annual military spending reached 1.85% of GDP, or 5 billion kroons, and was expected to continue to increase until 2010, when a 2.0% level was anticipated. \n\nEstonia co-operates with Latvia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives, including Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT), Baltic Naval Squadron (BALTRON), Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) and joint military educational institutions such as the Baltic Defence College in Tartu. Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas (BALTTRAIN) and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force. In January 2011 the Baltic states were invited to join NORDEFCO, the defence framework of the Nordic countries. \n\nIn January 2008, the Estonian military had almost 300 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of various international peacekeeping forces, including 35 Defence League troops stationed in Kosovo; 120 Ground Forces soldiers in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan; 80 soldiers stationed as a part of MNF in Iraq; and 2 Estonian officers in Bosnia-Herzegovina and 2 Estonian military agents in Israeli occupied Golan Heights. \n\nThe Estonian Defence Forces have also previously had military missions in Croatia from March until October 1995, in Lebanon from December 1996 until June 1997 and in Macedonia from May until December 2003. Estonia participates in the Nordic Battlegroup and has announced readiness to send soldiers also to Sudan to Darfur if necessary, creating the first African peacekeeping mission for the armed forces of Estonia. \n\nThe Ministry of Defence and the Defence Forces have been working on a cyberwarfare and defence formation for some years now. In 2007, a military doctrine of an e-military of Estonia was officially introduced as the country was under massive cyberattacks in 2007. The proposed aim of the e-military is to secure the vital infrastructure and e-infrastructure of Estonia. The main cyber warfare facility is the Computer Emergency Response Team of Estonia (CERT), founded in 2006. The organisation operates on security issues in local networks. \n\nThe former President of the US, George W. Bush, announced his support of Estonia as the location of a NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCDCOE). In the aftermath of the 2007 cyberattacks, plans to combine network defence with Estonian military doctrine have been nicknamed as the Tiger's Defence, in reference to Tiigrihüpe. The CCDCOE started its operations in November 2008. \n\nEconomy\n\nAs a member of the European Union, Estonia is considered a high-income economy by the World Bank. The GDP (PPP) per capita of the country, a good indicator of wealth, was in 2015 $28,781 according to the IMF, between that of Slovak Republic and Lithuania, but below that of other long-time EU members such as Italy or Spain. The country is ranked 8th in the 2015 Index of Economic Freedom, and the 4th freest economy in Europe. Because of its rapid growth, Estonia has often been described as a Baltic Tiger beside Lithuania and Latvia. Beginning 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th eurozone member state. \n\nAccording to Eurostat, Estonia had the lowest ratio of government debt to GDP among EU countries at 6.7% at the end of 2010. \n\nA balanced budget, almost non-existent public debt, flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, competitive commercial banking sector, innovative e-Services and even mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's market economy.\n\nEstonia produces about 75% of its consumed electricity. In 2011 about 85% of it was generated with locally mined oil shale. Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Renewable wind energy was about 6% of total consumption in 2009. Estonia imports petroleum products from western Europe and Russia. Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy. The ice-free port of Muuga, near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transshipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and new oil tanker off-loading capabilities. The railroad serves as a conduit between the West, Russia, and other points to the East.\n\nBecause of the global economic recession that began in 2007, the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4th quarter of 2008. The Estonian government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by Riigikogu. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion. In 2010, the economic situation stabilized and started a growth based on strong exports. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Estonian industrial output increased by 23% compared to the year before. The country has been experiencing economic growth ever since. \n\nAccording to Eurostat data, Estonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2008. In March 2016, the average monthly gross salary in Estonia was €1105.\n\nHowever, there are vast disparities in GDP between different areas of Estonia; currently, over half of the country's GDP is created in Tallinn. In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average, which makes the per capita GDP of Tallinn as high as 115% of the European Union average, exceeding the average levels of other counties.\n\nThe unemployment rate in March 2016 was 6.4%, which is below the EU average, while real GDP growth in 2011 was 8.0%, five times the euro-zone average. In 2012, Estonia remained the only euro member with a budget surplus, and with a national debt of only 6%, it is one of the least indebted countries in Europe. \n\nHistoric development\n\nBy 1929, a stable currency, the kroon, was established. It is issued by the Bank of Estonia, the country's central bank.\n\nSince re-establishing independence, Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and aggressively pursued economic reform and integration with the West. Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former COMECON area. In 1994, based on the economic theories of Milton Friedman, Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a flat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced three times, to 24% in January 2005, 23% in January 2006, and finally to 21% by January 2008. The Government of Estonia finalised the design of Estonian euro coins in late 2004, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to continued high inflation. A Land Value Tax is levied which is used to fund local municipalities. It is a state level tax, however 100% of the revenue is used to fund Local Councils. The rate is set by the Local Council within the limits of 0.1–2.5%. It is one of the most important sources of funding for municipalities. The Land Value Tax is levied on the value of the land only with improvements and buildings not considered. Very few exemptions are considered on the land value tax and even public institutions are subject to the tax. The tax has contributed to a high rate (~90%) of owner-occupied residences within Estonia, compared to a rate of 67.4% in the United States. \n\nIn 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991, largely because of the impact of the 1998 Russian financial crisis. Estonia joined the WTO in November 1999. With assistance from the European Union, the World Bank and the Nordic Investment Bank, Estonia completed most of its preparations for European Union membership by the end of 2002 and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the European Union. Estonia joined the OECD in 2010. \n\nResources\n\nAlthough Estonia is in general resource-poor, the land still offers a large variety of smaller resources. The country has large oil shale and limestone deposits, along with forests that cover 48% of the land. In addition to oil shale and limestone, Estonia also has large reserves of phosphorite, pitchblende, and granite that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively. \n\nSignificant quantities of rare earth oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of uranium ore, shale and loparite mining at Sillamäe. Because of the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3000 tonnes per annum, representing around 2% of world production. \n\nIn recent years, public debate has discussed whether Estonia should build a nuclear power plant to secure energy production after closure of old units in the Narva Power Plants, if they are not reconstructed by the year 2016. \n\nIndustry and environment\n\nFood, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry. In 2007, the construction industry employed more than 80,000 people, around 12% of the entire country's workforce. Another important industrial sector is the machinery and chemical industry, which is mainly located in Ida-Viru County and around Tallinn.\n\nThe oil shale based mining industry, which is also concentrated in East-Estonia, produces around 90% of the entire country's electricity. Although the amount of pollutants emitted to the air have been falling since the 1980s,M. Auer (2004). Estonian Environmental Reforms: A Small Nation's Outsized Accomplishments. In: Restoring Cursed Earth: Appraising Environmental Policy Reforms in Eastern Europe and Russia. Rowman & Littlefield. pp 117–144. the air is still polluted with sulphur dioxide from the mining industry that the Soviet Union rapidly developed in the early 1950s. In some areas the coastal seawater is polluted, mainly around the Sillamäe industrial complex. \n\nEstonia is a dependent country in the terms of energy and energy production. In recent years many local and foreign companies have been investing in renewable energy sources. The importance of wind power has been increasing steadily in Estonia and currently the total amount of energy production from wind is nearly 60 MW while at the same time roughly 399 MW worth of projects are currently being developed and more than 2800 MW worth of projects are being proposed in the Lake Peipus area and the coastal areas of Hiiumaa. \n\nCurrently, there are plans to renovate some older units of the Narva Power Plants, establish new power stations, and provide higher efficiency in oil shale based energy production. Estonia liberalised 35% of its electricity market in April 2010. The electricity market as whole will be liberalised by 2013.\n \n\nTogether with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, the country considered participating in constructing the Visaginas nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace the Ignalina.\n However, due to the slow pace of the project and problems with the sector (like Fukushima disaster and bad example of Olkiluoto plant), Eesti Energia has shifted its main focus to shale oil production that is seen as much more profitable business. \n\nEstonia has a strong information technology sector, partly owing to the Tiigrihüpe project undertaken in mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most \"wired\" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of [http://www.valitsus.ee/ e-Government of Estonia]. New direction is to offer those services present in Estonia to the non-residents via e-residency program.\n\nSkype was written by Estonia-based developers Ahti Heinla, Priit Kasesalu, and Jaan Tallinn, who had also originally developed Kazaa. Other notable tech startups include GrabCAD, Fortumo and TransferWise. It is even claimed that Estonia has the most startups per person in world. \n\nTrade\n\nEstonia has had a market economy since the end of the 1990s and one of the highest per capita income levels in Eastern Europe. Proximity to the Scandinavian markets, its location between the East and West, competitive cost structure and a highly skilled labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages in the beginning of the 2000s (decade). As the largest city, Tallinn has emerged as a financial centre and the Tallinn Stock Exchange joined recently with the OMX system. The current government has pursued tight fiscal policies, resulting in balanced budgets and low public debt.\n\nIn 2007, however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on Estonia's currency, which was pegged to the Euro, highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries.\nEstonia exports mainly machinery and equipment, wood and paper, textiles, food products, furniture, and metals and chemical products. Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually. At the same time Estonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, food products and transportation equipment. Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.\n\nBetween 2007 and 2013, Estonia received 53.3 billion kroons (3.4 billion euros) from various European Union Structural Funds as direct supports, creating the largest foreign investments into Estonia. Majority of the European Union financial aid will be invested into to the following fields: energy economies, entrepreneurship, administrative capability, education, information society, environment protection, regional and local development, research and development activities, healthcare and welfare, transportation and labour market.[http://veebiarhiiv.digar.ee/a/20101114110851/http%3A//www%2Efin%2Eee/?404 Archived copy] at (Unknown) (14 November 2010).. Riigi Raha Raamat. 21 July 2011 (in Estonian)\n\nDemographics\n\nBefore World War II, ethnic Estonians constituted 88% of the population, with national minorities constituting the remaining 12%. The largest minority groups in 1934 were Russians, Germans, Swedes, Latvians, Jews, Poles, Finns and Ingrians.\n\nThe share of Baltic Germans in Estonia had fallen from 5.3% (~46,700) in 1881 to 1.3% (16,346) by the year 1934, which was mainly due to emigration to Germany in the light of general Russification in the end of the 19th century and the independence of Estonia in the 20th century.\n\nBetween 1945 and 1989, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within the currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet programme promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and Joseph Stalin's mass deportations and executions. By 1989, minorities constituted more than one-third of the population, as the number of non-Estonians had grown almost fivefold.\n\nAt the end of the 1980s, Estonians perceived their demographic change as a national catastrophe. This was a result of the migration policies essential to the Soviet Nationalisation Programme aiming to russify Estonia – administrative and military immigration of non-Estonians from the USSR coupled with the deportation of Estonians to the USSR. In the decade following the reconstitution of independence, large-scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006.\n\nModern Estonia is a fairly ethnically heterogeneous country, but this heterogeneity is not a feature of much of the country as the non-Estonian population is concentrated in two of Estonia's counties. Thirteen of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80% ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being Hiiumaa, where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of Harju (including the capital city, Tallinn) and Ida-Viru, however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. Russians make up 25.6% of the total population but account for 36% of the population in Harju county and 70% of the population in Ida-Viru county.\n\nThe Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time. Cultural autonomies could be granted to minorities numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Before the Soviet occupation, the Germans and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993. Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by indigenous ethnically Rannarootslased (Coastal Swedes).\n\nIn recent years the numbers of Coastal Swedes has risen again, numbering in 2008 almost 500 people, owing to the property reforms in the beginning of the 1990s. In 2005, the Ingrian Finnish minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedish minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.\n\nSociety\n\nEstonian society has undergone considerable changes over the last twenty years, one of the most notable being the increasing level of stratification, and the distribution of family income. The Gini coefficient has been steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009), although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2012 was 7.7%. \n\nModern Estonia is a multinational country in which 109 languages are spoken, according to a 2000 census. 67.3% of Estonian citizens speak Estonian as their native language, 29.7% Russian, and 3% speak other languages. As of 2 July 2010, 84.1% of Estonian residents are Estonian citizens, 8.6% are citizens of other countries and 7.3% are \"citizens with undetermined citizenship\". Since 1992 roughly 140,000 people have acquired Estonian citizenship by passing naturalisation exams. \n\nThe ethnic distribution in Estonia is very homogeneous, where in most counties over 90% of the people are ethnic Estonians. This is in contrast to large urban centres like Tallinn, where Estonians account for 60% of the population, and the remainder is composed mostly of Russian and other Slavic inhabitants, who arrived in Estonia during the Soviet period.\n\nThe 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council report called \"extremely credible\" the description of the citizenship policy of Estonia as \"discriminatory\". According to surveys, only 5% of the Russian community have considered returning to Russia in the near future. Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognised that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia. When comparing the result with a survey from 2000, then Russians' attitude toward the future is much more positive. \n\nEstonia has been the first post-soviet republic that has recognized and given some civil rights to families formed by same-sex couples. The law was approved in October 2014 and came into effect 1 January 2016.\n\nUrbanization\n\nTallinn is the capital and the largest city of Estonia. It lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the Gulf of Finland. There are 33 cities and several town-parish towns in the country. In total, there are 47 linna, with \"linn\" in English meaning both \"cities\" and \"towns\". More than 70% of the population lives in towns. The 20 largest cities are listed below:\n\nReligion\n\n1Population, persons aged 15 and older.\n\nEstonia was Christianised by the Teutonic Knights in the 13th century. During the Reformation, Protestantism spread, and the Lutheran church was officially established in Estonia in 1686. Many Estonians profess not to be particularly religious, because religion through the 19th century was associated with German feudal rule. Historically, there has been another minority religion, Russian Old-believers, near Lake Peipus area in Tartu County.\n\nToday, Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion. According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Estonia is one of the least religious countries in the world, with 75.7% of the population claiming to be irreligious. The Eurobarometer Poll 2005 found that only 16% of Estonians profess a belief in a god, the lowest belief of all countries studied. According to the Lutheran World Federation, the historic Lutheran denomination remains a large presence with 180,000 registered members. \n\nAccording to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer found that Christianity is the largest religion in Estonia accounting 28.06% of Estonians. The question asked was \"Do you consider yourself to be...?\" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold. Eastern Orthodox are the largest Christian group in Estonia, accounting for 17% of Estonia citizens, while Protestants make up 6%, and Other Christian make up 22%. Non believer/Agnostic account 22%, Atheist accounts for 15%, and undeclared accounts for 15%.\n\n \nThe one largest religious denomination in the country is Evangelical Lutheranism, adhered to by 160,000 Estonians (or 13% of the population), principally ethnic Estonians. Other organizations, such as the World Council of Churches, report that there are as many as 265,700 Estonian Lutherans. Additionally, there are between 8,000–9,000 members abroad.\n\nAnother major group, inhabitants who follow Eastern Orthodox Christianity, practised chiefly by the Russian minority, and the Russian Orthodox Church is the second largest denomination with 150,000 members. The Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church, under the Greek-Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate, claims another 20,000 members. Thus, the number of adherents of Lutheranism and Orthodoxy, without regard to citizenship or ethnicity, is roughly equal. Refer to the Table below. The Catholics have their Latin Apostolic Administration of Estonia.\n\nAccording to the census of 2000 (data in table to the right), there were about 1,000 adherents of the Taara faith or Maausk in Estonia (see Maavalla Koda). The Jewish community has an estimated population of about 1,900 (see History of the Jews in Estonia). Around 68,000 people consider themselves atheists. \n\nLanguages\n\nThe official language, Estonian, belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. Estonian is closely related to Finnish, spoken on the other side of the Gulf of Finland, and is one of the few languages of Europe that is not of an Indo-European origin. Despite some overlaps in the vocabulary due to borrowings, in terms of its origin, Estonian and Finnish are not related to their nearest geographical neighbours, Swedish, Latvian, and Russian, which are all Indo-European languages.\n\nAlthough the Estonian and Germanic languages are of very different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and German, for example. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.\n\nRussian is still spoken as a secondary language by forty- to seventy-year-old ethnic Estonians, because Russian was the unofficial language of the Estonian SSR from 1944 to 1991 and taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era. In 1998, most first- and second-generation industrial immigrants from the former Soviet Union (mainly the Russian SFSR) did not speak Estonian. However, by 2010, 64.1% of non-ethnic Estonians spoke Estonian. The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city of Tallinn and the industrial urban areas in Ida-Virumaa.\n\nFrom the 13th to 20th century, there were Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia, particularly in the coastal areas and on the islands (e.g., Hiiumaa, Vormsi, Ruhnu; in Swedish, known as Dagö, Ormsö, Runö, respectively) along the Baltic sea, communities which today have all but disappeared. The Swedish-speaking minority was represented in parliament, and entitled to use their native language in parliamentary debates.\n\nFrom 1918–1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of World War II, that is, before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of older speakers remain. \nApart from many other areas the influence of Swedish is especially distinct in the Noarootsi Parish in Läänemaa (known as Nuckö kommun in Swedish and Noarootsi vald in Estonian) where there are many villages with bilingual Estonian and/or Swedish names and street signs. \n\nThe most common foreign languages learned by Estonian students are English, Russian, German and French. Other popular languages include Finnish, Spanish and Swedish. \n\nEducation and science\n\nThe history of formal education in Estonia dates back to the 13th and 14th centuries when the first monastic and cathedral schools were founded. The first primer in the Estonian language was published in 1575. The oldest university is the University of Tartu, established by the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf in 1632. In 1919, university courses were first taught in the Estonian language.\n\nToday's education in Estonia is divided into general, vocational, and hobby. The education system is based on four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education. A wide network of schools and supporting educational institutions have been established. The Estonian education system consists of state, municipal, public, and private institutions. There are currently 589 schools in Estonia. \n\nAccording to the Programme for International Student Assessment, the performance levels of gymnasium-age pupils in Estonia is among the highest in the world: in 2010, the country was ranked 13th for the quality of its education system, well above the OECD average. Additionally, around 89% of Estonian adults aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, one of the highest rates in the industrialised world. \n\nAcademic higher education in Estonia is divided into three levels: bachelor's, master's, and doctoral studies. In some specialties (basic medical studies, veterinary, pharmacy, dentistry, architect-engineer, and a classroom teacher programme) the bachelor's and master's levels are integrated into one unit. Estonian public universities have significantly more autonomy than applied higher education institutions.\nIn addition to organising the academic life of the university, universities can create new curricula, establish admission terms and conditions, approve the budget, approve the development plan, elect the rector, and make restricted decisions in matters concerning assets. Estonia has a moderate number of public and private universities. The largest public universities are the University of Tartu, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn University, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Estonian Academy of Arts; the largest private university is Estonian Business School.\n\nThe Estonian Academy of Sciences is the national academy of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). The first computer centres were established in the late 1950s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for ministries of the Soviet Union during the 1980s.\n , Estonia spends around 2.38% of its GDP on Research and Development, compared to an EU average of around 2.0%. \n\nSome of the best known scientists related to Estonia include astronomers Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, Ernst Öpik and Jaan Einasto, biologist Karl Ernst von Baer, Jakob von Uexküll, chemists Wilhelm Ostwald and Carl Schmidt, economist Ragnar Nurkse, matematician Edgar Krahn, medical researchers Ludvig Puusepp and Nikolay Pirogov, physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck, political scientist Rein Taagepera, psychologist Endel Tulving and Risto Näätänen, semiotician Yuri Lotman.\n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Estonia incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the sauna, with mainstream Nordic and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Sweden and Russia.\n\nToday, Estonian society encourages liberty and liberalism, with popular commitment to the ideals of the limited government, discouraging centralised power and corruption. The Protestant work ethic remains a significant cultural staple, and free education is a highly prized institution. Like the mainstream culture in the other Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread egalitarianism out of practical reasons (see: Everyman's right and universal suffrage), and the ideals of closeness to nature and self-sufficiency (see: summer cottage).\n\nThe Estonian Academy of Arts (Estonian: Eesti Kunstiakadeemia, EKA) is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while Viljandi Culture Academy of University of Tartu has an approach to popularise native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design, traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music. In 2010, there were 245 museums in Estonia whose combined collections contain more than 10 million objects. \n\nCustoms and etiquette\n\nMusic\n\nThe earliest mention of Estonian singing dates back to Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum (ca. 1179). Saxo speaks of Estonian warriors who sang at night while waiting for a battle. The older folksongs are also referred to as regilaulud, songs in the poetic metre regivärss the tradition shared by all Baltic Finns. Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when rhythmic folk songs began to replace them.\n\nTraditional wind instruments derived from those used by shepherds were once widespread, but are now becoming again more commonly played. Other instruments, including the fiddle, zither, concertina, and accordion are used to play polka or other dance music. The kannel is a native instrument that is now again becoming more popular in Estonia. A Native Music Preserving Centre was opened in 2008 in Viljandi. \n\nThe tradition of Estonian Song Festivals (Laulupidu) started at the height of the Estonian national awakening in 1869. Today, it is one of the largest amateur choral events in the world. In 2004, about 100,000 people participated in the Song Festival. Since 1928, the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds (Lauluväljak) have hosted the event every five years in July. The last festival took place in July 2014. In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the last of them in 2011, and the next is scheduled for 2017. \n\nProfessional Estonian musicians and composers such as Rudolf Tobias, Miina Härma, Mart Saar, Artur Kapp, Juhan Aavik and Heino Eller emerged in the late 19th century. At the time of this writing, the most known Estonian composers are Arvo Pärt, Eduard Tubin, and Veljo Tormis. In 2014, Arvo Pärt was the world's most performed living composer for the fourth year in a row. \n\nIn the 1950s, Estonian baritone Georg Ots rose to worldwide prominence as an opera singer.\n\nIn popular music, Estonian artist Kerli Kõiv has become popular in Europe, as well as gaining moderate popularity in North America. She has provided music for the 2010 Disney film Alice in Wonderland and the television series Smallville in the United States of America.\n\nEstonia won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2001 with the song \"Everybody\" performed by Tanel Padar and Dave Benton. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event. Maarja-Liis Ilus has competed for Estonia on two occasions (1996 and 1997), while Eda-Ines Etti, Koit Toome and Evelin Samuel owe their popularity partly to the Eurovision Song Contest. Lenna Kuurmaa is a very popular singer in Europe, with her band Vanilla Ninja. \"Rändajad\" by Urban Symphony, was the first ever song in Estonian to chart in the UK, Belgium, and Switzerland.\n\nLiterature\n\nThe Estonian literature refers to literature written in the Estonian language (ca. 1 million speakers). The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia resulted in few early written literary works in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences. The Liber Census Daniae (1241) contains Estonian place and family names. \n\nThe cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few albeit remarkable exceptions, this archaic form has not been much employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in this field is the national epic Kalevipoeg. At a professional level, traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer Veljo Tormis.\n\nOskar Luts was the most prominent prose writer of the early Estonian literature, who is still widely read today, especially his lyrical school novel Kevade (Spring). Anton Hansen Tammsaare's social epic and psychological realist pentalogy Truth and Justice captured the evolution of Estonian society from a peasant community to an independent nation. In modern times, Jaan Kross and Jaan Kaplinski are Estonia's best known and most translated writers. Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are Tõnu Õnnepalu and Andrus Kivirähk, who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into absurd and grotesque. \n\nMedia\n\nThe cinema of Estonia started in 1908 with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King Gustav V's visit to Tallinn. The first public TV broadcast in Estonia was in July 1955. Regular, live radio broadcasts began in December 1926. Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of the 1990s. The first licenses for private TV broadcasters were issued in 1992. The first private radio station went on the air in 1990.\n\nToday the media is a vibrant and competitive sector. There is a plethora of weekly newspapers and magazines, and Estonians have a choice of 9 domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations. The Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, and Estonia has been internationally recognised for its high rate of press freedom, having been ranked 3rd in the 2012 Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders. \n\nEstonia has two news agencies. The Baltic News Service (BNS), founded in 1990, is a private regional news agency covering Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The ETV24 is an agency owned by Eesti Rahvusringhääling who is a publicly funded radio and television organisation created on 30 June 2007 to take over the functions of the formerly separate Eesti Raadio and Eesti Televisioon under the terms of the Estonian National Broadcasting Act. \n\nArchitecture\n\nThe architectural history of Estonia mainly reflects its contemporary development in northern Europe. Worth mentioning is especially the architectural ensemble that makes out the medieval old town of Tallinn, which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In addition, the country has several unique, more or less preserved hill forts dating from pre-Christian times, a large number of still intact medieval castles and churches, while the countryside is still shaped by the presence of a vast number of manor houses from earlier centuries.\n\nHolidays\n\nThe Estonian National Day is the Independence Day celebrated on 24 February, the day the Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued. , there are 12 public holidays (which come with a day off) and 12 national holidays celebrated annually. \n\nCuisine\n\nHistorically, the cuisine of Estonia has been heavily dependent on seasons and simple peasant food, which today is influenced by many countries. Today, it includes many typical international foods. The most typical foods in Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products. Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables, and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today, it is also very popular to grill outside in summer.\n\nTraditionally in winter, jams, preserves, and pickles are brought to the table. Gathering and conserving fruits, mushrooms, and vegetables for winter has always been popular, but today gathering and conserving is becoming less common because everything can be bought from stores. However, preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside.\n\nSports\n\nSport plays an important role in Estonian culture. After declaring independence from Russia in 1918, Estonia first competed as a nation at the 1920 Summer Olympics, although the National Olympic Committee was established in 1923. Estonian athletes took part of the Olympic Games until the country was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. The 1980 Summer Olympics Sailing regatta was held in the capital city Tallinn. After regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has participated in all Olympics. Estonia has won most of its medals in athletics, weightlifting, wrestling and cross-country skiing. Estonia has had very good success at the Olympic games given the country's small population. Estonia's best results were being ranked 13th in the medal table at the 1936 Summer Olympics, and 12th at the 2006 Winter Olympics.\n\nThe list of notable Estonian athletes include wrestlers Kristjan Palusalu, Voldemar Väli, and Georg Lurich, skiers Andrus Veerpalu and Kristina Šmigun-Vähi, decathlete Erki Nool, tennis player Kaia Kanepi, cyclists Jaan Kirsipuu and Erika Salumäe and discus throwers Gerd Kanter and Aleksander Tammert.\n\nKiiking, a relatively new sport, was invented in 1996 by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Kiiking involves a modified swing in which the rider of the swing tries to go around 360 degrees.\n\nPaul Keres, Estonian and Soviet chess grandmaster, was among the world's top players from the mid-1930s to the mid-1960s. He narrowly missed a chance at a World Chess Championship match on five occasions.\n\nBasketball is also a notable sport in Estonia. Estonia national basketball team previously participated in 1936 Summer Olympics, appeared in EuroBasket four times. Estonia national team also qualified for EuroBasket 2015, which was held in Ukraine. BC Kalev/Cramo, which participates in EuroCup, is the most recent Korvpalli Meistriliiga winner after becoming champion of the league for the 6th time. Tartu Ülikool/Rock, which participates in EuroChallenge, is the second strongest Estonian basketball club, previously winning Korvpalli Meistriliiga 22 times. Six Estonian basketball clubs participates in Baltic Basketball League.\n\nAt the 2016 Bandy World Championship the national team will play in Division A for the first time.\n\nKelly Sildaru, an Estonian freestyle skier, won the gold medal in the slopestyle event in the 2016 Winter X Games. At age 13, she became the youngest gold medalist to date at a Winter X Games event, and the first person to win a Winter X Games medal for Estonia. She has also won the women's slopestyle at 2015 Winter Dew Tour.\n\nInternational rankings\n\nThe following are links to international rankings of Estonia.", "Between 57.3 and 59.5 latitude and 21.5 and 28.1 longitude, Estonia lies on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea on the level northwestern part of the rising East European Platform. It borders the Gulf of Finland, between Latvia and Russia. Average elevation reaches only 50 m.\n \nThe climate is maritime, wet, with moderate winters and cool summers. Oil shale and limestone deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over 1,500 lakes, numerous bogs, and 1,393 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. Tallinn's Muuga port offers one of Europe's finest warm-water harbor facilities.\n\nEstonia's strategic location has precipitated many wars that were fought on its territory between other rival powers at its expense. In 1944, under Soviet occupation, the Jaanilinn and Petseri regions were annexed to Russian SFSR territory. The legal status of these territories has not been fully settled yet, though neither Estonia or Russia has not any territorial claims.\n\nGeographic coordinates: .\n\nGeographic features\n\nEstonia is a flat country covering 45339 km2. Estonia has a long, shallow coastline (3794 km) along the Baltic Sea, with 1,520 islands dotting the shore. The two largest islands are Saaremaa (literally, island land), at 2673 km2, and Hiiumaa, at 989 km2. The two islands are favorite Estonian vacation spots. The country's highest point, Suur Munamägi (Egg Mountain), is in the hilly southeast and reaches 318 m above sea level. Estonia is covered by about 18000 km2 of forest. Arable land amounts to about 9260 km2. Meadows cover about 2520 km2, and pastureland covers about 1810 km2. There are more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes in Estonia. The largest of them, Lake Peipus (3555 km2), forms much of the border between Estonia and Russia. Located in central Estonia, Võrtsjärv is the second-largest lake (270 km2). The Narva and Emajõgi are among the most important of the country's many rivers.\n\nA small, recent cluster of meteorite craters, the largest of which is called Kaali are found near Saaremaa, Estonia. It is thought that the impact was witnessed by the Iron Age inhabitants of the area.\n\nEstonia has a temperate climate, with four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from on the Baltic islands to inland in July, the warmest month, and from on the Baltic islands to inland in February, the coldest month. Precipitation averages 568 mm per year and is heaviest in late summer.\n\nEstonia's land border with Latvia runs 333 km; the Russian border runs 324 km. From 1920 to 1945, Estonia's border with Russia, set by the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty, extended beyond the Narva River in the northeast and beyond the town of Petseri in the southeast. This territory, amounting to some 2300 km2, was incorporated into Russia by Joseph Stalin at the end of World War II.\n\nEnvironmental issues\n\nOne of the most burdensome legacies of the Soviet era is widespread environmental pollution. The worst offender in this regard was the Soviet army. Across military installations covering more than 800 km² of Estonian territory, the army dumped hundreds of thousands of tons of jet fuel into the ground, improperly disposed of toxic chemicals, and discarded outdated explosives and weapons in coastal and inland waters. In the 1990s, during the army's withdrawal from Estonia, extensive damage was done to discarded buildings and equipment. In October 1993, the Estonian Ministry of Environment issued a preliminary report summing up part of the degradation it had surveyed thus far. The report described the worst damage as having been done to Estonia's topsoil and underground water supply by the systematic dumping of jet fuel at six Soviet army air bases. At the air base near Tapa, site of the worst damage, officials estimated that six square kilometers of land were covered by a layer of fuel; 11 square kilometers of underground water were said to be contaminated. The water in the surrounding area was undrinkable, and was sometimes set fire by locals to provide heat during the winter. With Danish help, Estonian crews began cleaning up the site, although they estimated the likely cost to be as much as 4 million EEK. The Ministry of Environment assigned a monetary cost of more than 10 billion EEK to the damage to the country's topsoil and water supply. However, the ministry was able to allocate only 5 million EEK in 1993 for cleanup operations.\n\nIn a 1992 government report to the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, Estonia detailed other major environmental concerns. For instance, for several consecutive years Estonia had led the world in the production of sulfur dioxide per capita. Nearly 75% of Estonia's air pollution was reported to come from two oil shale-based thermal power stations operating near Narva. The mining of oil shale in northeastern Estonia has also left large mounds of limestone tailings and ash dotting the region. Near the town of Sillamäe, site of a former uranium enrichment plant, about 1,200 tons of uranium and about 750 tons of thorium had been dumped into a reservoir on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. This was said to have caused severe health problems among area residents. In the coastal town of Paldiski, the removal of waste left by Soviet army nuclear reactors was also a major concern. The combined cost of environmental cleanup at both towns was put at more than EKR3.5 billion.\n\nNatural hazards: flooding occurs frequently in the spring in certain areas\n\nEnvironment – current issues: air polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; however, the amount of pollutants emitted to the air have fallen steadily, the emissions of 2000 were 80% less than in 1980; the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies in 2000 was 1/20 the level of 1980; in connection with the start-up of new water purification plants, the pollution load of wastewater decreased; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and man-made lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas need to be monitored; coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations.\n\nEnvironment – international agreements:\nparty to: Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands\nsigned, but not ratified: none\n\nArea and boundaries\n\nArea:\ntotal: 45,228 km²\nland: 42,288 km²\nwater: 2,840 km²\nnote: includes 1,520 islands in the Baltic Sea\n\nLand boundaries:\ntotal: 657 km\nborder countries: Latvia 333 km, Russia 324 km\n\nCoastline: 3,794 km\n\nMaritime claims:\nterritorial sea: 12 nmi\nexclusive economic zone: limits fixed in coordination with neighboring states\n\nElevation extremes:\nlowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m\nhighest point: Suur Munamägi 317 m \n\nResources and land use\n\nNatural resources: oil shale (kukersite), peat, phosphorite, cambrian blue clay, limestone, sand, dolomite, arable land, forest\n\nLand use:\narable: 14.65%\npermanent crops: 0.14%\nother: 85.21% (2012)\n\nIrrigated land: 4.58 km2\n\nTotal renewable water resources: 12.81 km3 (2011)\n\nFreshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):\ntotal: 1.8 km3/yr (3%/97%/0%)\nper capita: 1,337 m3/yr (2009)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Latvijas Republika", "Lettland", "Letland", "Republic of Latvia", "Republic of Latvia (1919–1940)", "Latvija", "Republic of Latvia (1918-1940)", "Letonia", "Latvia", "Republic of Latvia (1918–1940)", "ISO 3166-1:LV", "LatviA", "Health in Latvia", "Lettonie", "Litavia", "Lettonia", "Latvian Republic" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "letonia", "lettland", "lettonia", "latvia", "republic of latvia 1918–1940", "health in latvia", "latvian republic", "republic of latvia 1918 1940", "letland", "republic of latvia 1919–1940", "lettonie", "latvijas republika", "litavia", "iso 3166 1 lv", "republic of latvia", "latvija" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "latvia", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Latvia" }
In which year was the University of Alaska Anchorage founded?	tc_1049	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "University_of_Alaska_Anchorage.txt" ], "title": [ "University of Alaska Anchorage" ], "wiki_context": [ "The University of Alaska Anchorage (UAA) is a public research university located in Anchorage, Alaska. UAA also administers four community campuses spread across Southcentral Alaska. These include Kenai Peninsula College, Kodiak College, Matanuska–Susitna College, and Prince William Sound College. Between the community campuses and the main Anchorage campus, over 20,000 undergraduate, graduate, and professional students are currently enrolled at UAA. This makes it the largest institution of higher learning in the University of Alaska System, as well as the state.\n\nUAA's main campus is located approximately 4 mi southeast of its downtown area in the University-Medical District, adjacent to the Alaska Native Medical Center, Alaska Pacific University and Providence Alaska Medical Center. Nestled among an extensive green belt, close to scenic Goose Lake Park, UAA has been recognized each of the past three years as a Tree Campus USA by the Arbor Day Foundation. Much of the campus is connected by a network of paved, outdoor trails, as well as an elevated, indoor \"spine\" that extends east to west from Rasmuson Hall, continuing through the student union, and terminating inside the Consortium Library.\n\nUAA is divided into six teaching units at the Anchorage campus: the College of Arts and Sciences, College of Business and Public Policy, the Community and Technical College, College of Education, College of Engineering and the College of Health. UAA offers Master's Degrees and Graduate Certificates in select programs, and the ability to complete certain PhD programs through cooperating universities through its Graduate Division.\"[http://www.uaa.alaska.edu/graduateschool/about/gradprograms.cfm UAA Graduate School Degrees]\". Accessed December 15, 2011. As of May 2012, the university is accredited to confer doctoral degrees. UAA is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities. \n\nHistory\n\nThe University of Alaska Anchorage traces its origins back to 1954, five years before Alaska became the 49th U.S. state. That year, Anchorage Community College (ACC) was founded and began offering evening classes to 414 students at Elmendorf Air Force Base. This was the first time that college-level courses were offered in the Anchorage area. In 1962, ACC, along with other community colleges around the state, was incorporated into the University of Alaska statewide system. Five years later, ACC began offering both day and evening classes at the current campus location. ACC provided academic study for associate degrees, the first two years of work toward baccalaureate degrees, and a wide variety of adult learning, career and continuing education programs.\n\nIn the late 1960s, strong interest in establishing a four-year university in Anchorage brought about the birth of the University of Alaska, Anchorage Senior College (ASC). While ACC administered the lower division college, ASC administered upper division and graduate programs leading to baccalaureate and master’s degrees, as well as continuing education for professional programs. In 1971, the first commencement was held at Anchorage’s West High School, where 265 master’s, baccalaureate and associate degrees were awarded. ASC moved to the Consortium Library Building in 1973. The following year, when the first classroom and office facility was completed, daytime courses were offered for the first time. In 1977, ASC became a four- year university and was renamed the University of Alaska, Anchorage (UA,A). Ten years later, ACC and UA,A merged to become what is now known as the University of Alaska Anchorage (UAA).\n\nSince 1987, the university has continued to grow and expand; it is increasingly a university of first choice. More than 200 programs, ranging from certificate programs to associate, baccalaureate, master's, and doctoral degrees are offered at campuses in Anchorage and community campuses and extension centers throughout Southcentral Alaska. The university's mission is to discover and disseminate knowledge through teaching, research, engagement and creative expression. \n\nToday, UAA remains committed to serving the higher education needs of the state, its communities and its diverse peoples. The University of Alaska Anchorage is an open-access university with roughly 17,000 students and actively seeks to maintain a rich, diverse and inclusive environment. In addition to thousands of students from across the state, the university retains a large commuter population from in and around Anchorage, many of whom are non-traditional or returning students. Nearly ten percent of the student population is from outside of Alaska or the United States. UAA also has the largest population of student veterans in the state. \n\nAcademics\n\n3+3 Law School partnerships\n\nThe University of Alaska Anchorage currently partners with the University of Washington School of Law and Willamette University College of Law in Salem, Oregon to provide qualified students with the opportunity to earn a baccalaureate degree and law degree on an accelerated schedule, typically in six years rather than the usual seven. These are often referred to as 3+3 programs or an Accelerated JD Program because students spend three years as undergraduates and three years in law school. \n\nAviation technology\n\nUAA offers Associate of Applied Science and Bachelor of Science degrees in:\n\nAir Traffic Control\nAviation Administration\nProfessional Piloting\nAn associate of applied science degree is also offered in:\nAviation Maintenance\n\nThe University of Alaska Aviation Technology division is part of Center of Excellence for General Aviation (CGAR) which is a collaborative research effort between the following member universities:\n\nEmbry-Riddle Aeronautical University\nFlorida A&M University\nUniversity of North Dakota\nWichita State University\n\nColleges and schools\n\nCollege of Arts and Sciences\nCollege of Business and Public Policy\nCollege of Education\nCollege of Health and Social Welfare\nCommunity and Technical College\nSchool of Engineering\nSchool of Nursing\nSchool of Social Work\nUniversity Honors Program\nGraduate Division\n\nLibraries\n\nUAA/APU Consortium Library\nAlvin S. Okeson Library (Matanuska-Susitna campus)\nCarolyn Floyd Library (Kodiak College campus)\n\nFinancial-aid\n\n Alaska Advantage Education Grant\n* GEAR UP\n* University of Alaska Grant \n\nCenters and Institutes\n\nAs a center of research and understanding, UAA sponsors research, training, public service and other activities related to northern populations and in support of local and regional economic development. The state’s vast resources and unique challenges are central to these sponsored programs and specialty research. They address concerns of Anchorage and Alaska communities as well as issues of national and international interest. Below is a list of institutes and centers that support the university's mission:\n* Alaska Center for Rural Health/Alaska’s Area Health Education Center (ACRH/AHEC)\n* Alaska Center for Supply Chain Integration (ACSCI)\n* Alaska Natural Heritage Program (AKNHP)\n* Alaska Small Business Development Center (Alaska SBDC)\n* Center for Alaska Education Policy Research (CAEPR)\n* Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies (CAAS)\n* Center for Behavioral Health Research and Services (CBHRS)\n* Center for Community Engagement and Learning (CCEL)\n* Center for Economic Development (CED)\n* Center for Economic Education (CEE)\n* Center for Human Development (CHD)\n* Environment and Natural Resources Institute (ENRI)\n* Ethics Center\n* Institute for Circumpolar Health Studies (ICHS)\n* Institute of Social and Economic Research (ISER)\n* Justice Center\n* Montgomery Dickson Center for Japanese Language and Culture\n* Psychological Services Center (PSC)\n\nRankings\n\nU.S. News & World Report in its 2016 rankings ranked UAA tied for 29th among public regional universities in the West and tied for 79th among all regional universities in the West. Forbes in 2015 ranked UAA 512th among all colleges and universities and 95th in the West.\n\nPublications\n\n* Accolades is the University of Alaska Anchorage Magazine for Alumni and Friends. \n* The Alaska Quarterly Review is a literary magazine published by UAA.\n* The student newspaper is The Northern Light.\n* Understory is a magazine run by Creative Writing and Literary Arts graduate students, open for submissions from any UAA undergraduate student. \n* True North is a yearly magazine produced by students in the Department of Journalism and Public Communications. \n\nThe Pacific Rim Conference on Literature and Rhetoric is a yearly conference showcasing Literary Scholars and Rhetoricians from around the nation, as well as a venue for graduates from UAA and other universities to share their work. See UAA English Web site to learn more about the Pacific Rim Conference.\n\nAthletics\n\nUAA’s highly visible athletic teams, known as the Seawolves, compete in 13 NCAA sports: men’s ice hockey, men’s and women’s basketball, men’s and women’s skiing, men’s and women’s cross country, women’s gymnastics, men’s and women’s indoor and outdoor track and field, and women’s volleyball. The university is a NCAA Division I school for gymnastics and hockey, and a member of the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. UAA is a Division II member of the Great Northwest Athletic Conference in men's and women's basketball, volleyball, men's and women's cross country, men's and women's indoor track & field, and men's and women's outdoor track and field. Other conference affiliations are the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation (gymnastics) and the Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Ski Association.\n\nOver the years, the Seawolves have produced multiple national champions in skiing and gymnastics as well as several NCAA Tournament bids in other sports.\nUAA sports receive national television exposure thanks to the annual GCI Great Alaska Shootout basketball tournament, held at the Alaska Airlines Center. The Kendall Hockey Classic is one of the top preseason college hockey tournaments in the country, and the Seawolf volleyball team hosts some of the top Division II programs every September in the SpringHill Suites Invitational.\n\nThe Seawolves train and compete in some of Alaska’s top facilities, including the Sullivan Arena for hockey and the Alaska Airlines Center for volleyball, gymnastics and basketball. UAA’s alpine skiers take advantage of nearby Mount Alyeska, a world-class slope, while the Nordic skiers and cross-country runners use Anchorage’s intricate trail system to train in a recreational getaway. The 5,000 seat Alaska Airlines Center opened in September 2014, replacing the Wells Fargo Sports Complex as the home of UAA's athletic department and programs.\n\nDemographics\n\nAccording to the College Board, as of July 2012 there were 16,577 undergraduates at the University of Alaska Anchorage campus. Out of that number, 1,965 are first-time degree seeking freshmen. There are 970 graduate students.\n\nThe racial/ethnic breakdown of the student population is as follows:\n\n58% White, 10% Two or more races, 7% American Indian/Alaska Native, 7% Asian, 7% Hispanic/Latino, 4% Black or African American, 5% Ethnicity unknown, and 2% Non-resident alien.\n\nThe average age of full-time students is 24.\n\nThe gender breakdown of the student population is 58% women and 42% men.\n\n91% of matriculants to the university are considered Alaska residents, and 9% of matriculants are considered out-of-state residents. \n\nStudent life\n\nThe University of Alaska Anchorage is an open enrollment institution but remains selective with an acceptance rate of 75-80% between 2010-14. The student-faculty ratio at UAA is 12:1, and 53.1 percent of classes enroll fewer than 20 students. The most popular majors at UAA include: Business, Management, Marketing, and Related Support Services; Health Professions and Related Programs; Engineering; Psychology; and Social Sciences. The average freshman retention rate, an indicator of student satisfaction, is 71.3 percent. \n\nHousing\n\nUAA's student housing comprises nearly 1,000 students:\nThree co-educational residence halls (North, West, and East Halls), completed in 1998. Each holds 230 students, most living in individual bedrooms; rooms are grouped in suites of one, two, or four.\nThe Main Apartment Complex (MAC), completed in 1984, was once family housing. There are 74 four-bedroom apartments in six buildings, each housing four same-sex students.\n*The Templewood Apartments hold 80 students in 20 apartments.\n\nStudent Government\n\nThe Union of Students of the University of Alaska Anchorage (USUAA) is the student governing body for the University of Alaska Anchorage. Each student pays $1 per credit hour for students registered in 3 or more credits. The maximum fee is $12. USUAA is currently led by President Jonathon Taylor and Vice President Matthieu Ostrander.\"[http://www.uaa.alaska.edu/unionofstudents/contact/index.cfm USUAA Student Government Executives]\". University of Alaska Anchorage. May 4, 2015. Accessed June 19, 2015.\n\nThe President, Vice President, 10 Senators, and 16 Delegates are elected at-large to serve on the Assembly. Four representatives from the Residence Hall Association, Club Council, Greek Council and Graduate Student Association complete the assembly. The President and Vice President are elected in the spring for one year terms. Students who serve as elected assembly members, including the President and Vice President, are unpaid and not considered University employees.\n\nThe union has co-sponsored political debates in Anchorage, including a 2004 debate held at the university between Senatorial candidates Tony Knowles and Lisa Murkowski.\"[http://www.kinyradio.com/juneaunews/archives/week_of_10-25-04/juneau_news_10-26-04.html Knowles, Murkowski debate Tuesday]\". KINY/Associated Press. October 26, 2004. Accessed March 9, 2008. In 2015, USUAA sponsored a Mayoral Debate in the Alaska Airlines Center, which was notable for its use of social media to connect and engage with the community.\"[http://www.adn.com/article/20150403/social-media-enhances-anchorage-mayoral-debate-uaa Social media enhances Anchorage mayoral debate at UAA]\". Devin Kelly/Alaska Dispatch News. April 3, 2015. Accessed June 19, 2015.\n\nUSUAA also governs organizations that are created as a result of student ballot initiatives, such as the Concert Board and the Green Fee Board, which collect fees to enhance student life and provide services to students.\n\nStudent Media\n\nUAA has two primary sources of student-run media. Both media organizations are administered by paid student employees and governed by the Media Board, a USUAA organization. The Northern Light is an award winning student newspaper printed every Tuesday with a wide coverage, ranging from school news, sports, community events, and entertainment reviews.\n\nKRUA 88.1FM is the on-campus, non-commercial radio station run by a collective of student staff and a host of volunteers from both the school and greater Anchorage community.\n\nStudent research, scholarship and creativity\n\nThe University Honors College Office of Undergraduate Research and Scholarship (OURS) is the center for undergraduate research and experiential learning at UAA. The Honors College supports and funds research and scholarship for students across all UAA disciplines, schools, colleges, and within a global community of scholars. Fostering inspired teaching and active student learning, OURS advances the involvement of UAA students in research and creative activities—whether they be independent or with UAA faculty. OURS supports a wide variety of opportunities, including 14 campus-wide award programs.\n\nEvery April, the Undergraduate Research and Discovery Symposium celebrates and connects undergraduate research taking place across UAA and fosters scholarly discussion between students, faculty and the community. Participation in the symposium provides undergraduates with opportunities to gain valuable experience in both oral and visual presentation of their research. Attending the symposium is also a great way for students who want to become involved in undergraduate research to learn about the opportunities to do so at UAA. The symposium and UAA’s annual Student Showcase emulate professional meetings wherein student research and creative expressions are reviewed by faculty and culminate in university publications." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1954", "one thousand, nine hundred and fifty-four" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1954", "one thousand nine hundred and fifty four" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1954", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1954" }
What star sign is shared by peter Gabriel and Stevie Wonder?	tc_1050	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Astrological_sign.txt" ], "title": [ "Astrological sign" ], "wiki_context": [ "\|Circles of 9 and 12 - The 108 Human Types\n\|Circles of 9 and 12 - The 108 Human Types\n\nIn Western astrology, astrological signs are the twelve 30° sectors of the ecliptic, starting at the vernal equinox (one of the intersections of the ecliptic with the celestial equator), also known as the First Point of Aries. The order of the astrological signs is Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces.\n\nThe concept of the zodiac originated in Babylonian astrology, and was later influenced by Hellenistic culture. According to astrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of \"as above, so below\", so that the signs are held to represent characteristic modes of expression. \n\nThe twelve sector division of the ecliptic constitutes astrology's primary frame of reference when considering the positions of celestial bodies, from a geocentric point of view, so that we may find, for instance, the Sun in 23° Aries (23° longitude), the Moon in 7° Scorpio (217° longitude), or Jupiter in 29° Pisces (359° longitude). Beyond the celestial bodies, other astrological points that are dependent on geographical location and time (namely, the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Vertex and the houses' cusps) are also referenced within this ecliptic coordinate system.\n\nVarious approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiac's names and symbols remain consistent. Western astrology measures from Equinox and Solstice points (points relating to equal, longest and shortest days of the tropical year), while Jyotiṣa or Vedic astrology measures along the equatorial plane (sidereal year). Precession results in Western astrology's zodiacal divisions not corresponding in the current era to the constellations that carry similar names, while Jyotiṣa measurements still correspond with the background constellations. \n\nIn Western and Asian astrology, the emphasis is on space, and the movement of the Sun, Moon and planets in the sky through each of the zodiac signs. In Chinese astrology, by contrast, the emphasis is on time, with the zodiac operating on cycles of years, months, and hours of the day.\nA common feature of all three traditions however, is the significance of the Ascendant — the zodiac sign that is rising (due to the rotation of the earth) on the eastern horizon at the moment of a person's birth.\n\nWestern zodiac signs \n\nZodiac history and symbolism \n\nWhile Western astrology is essentially a product of Greco-Roman culture, some of its more basic concepts originated in Babylonia. Isolated references to celestial \"signs\" in Sumerian sources are insufficient to speak of a Sumerian zodiac. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction. \n\nBy the 4th century BC, Babylonians' astronomy and their system of celestial omens were influencing the Greek culture and, by the late 2nd century BC, Egyptian astrology was also mixing in. This resulted, unlike the Mesopotamian tradition, in a strong focus on the birth chart of the individual and in the creation of horoscopic astrology, employing the use of the Ascendant (the rising degree of the ecliptic, at the time of birth), and of the twelve houses. Association of the astrological signs with Empedocles' four classical elements was another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs.\n\nThe body of astrological knowledge by the 2nd century AD is described in Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, a work that was responsible for astrology's successful spread across Europe and the Middle East, and remained a reference for almost seventeen centuries as later traditions made few substantial changes to its core teachings.\n\nThe following table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude, with the Latin names (still widely used) and the English translation (gloss). The longitude intervals, being a mathematical division, are closed for the first endpoint (a) and open for the second (b) — for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus, not part of Aries. Association of calendar dates with astrological signs only makes sense when referring to Sun sign astrology.\n\nPolarity and the four elements \n\nEmpedocles, a fifth-century BC Greek philosopher, identified Fire, Earth, Air, and Water as elements. He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles called love and strife manipulating the four elements, and stated that these four elements were all equal, of the same age, that each rules its own province, and each possesses its own individual character. Different mixtures of these elements produced the different natures of things. Empedocles said that those who were born with near equal proportions of the four elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions. \n\nEach sign is associated with one of the classical elements, and these can also be grouped according to polarity: Fire and Air signs are considered positive or extrovert, masculine signs; while Water and Earth signs are considered negative or introvert, feminine signs. The four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent to Hippocrates' personality types (sanguine air; choleric \n fire; melancholic water; phlegmatic \n earth). A modern approach looks at elements as \"the energy substance of experience\" and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords. \n\nClassification according to element has gained such importance, that some astrologers start their interpretation of a natal chart, by studying the balance of elements shown by the position of planets and angles (especially the Sun, the Moon and the Ascendant).\n\nThe three modalities \n\nEach of the four elements manifests in three modalities: Cardinal, Fixed and Mutable. As each modality comprehends four signs, these are also known as Quadruplicities. They are occasionally referred to as crosses because each modality forms a cross when drawn across the zodiac. Christian astrology relates the three qualities to the three aspects of God in the trinity.\n\nThe combination of element and modality provides a basic sign characterization. For instance, Capricorn is a cardinal earth sign, meaning that it is associated with action (cardinal modality) in the material world (earth element). That can translate into ambition or practical application to the concrete, everyday necessities of life. \nThe next table displays the twelve combinations of elements and modalities.\n\nPlanetary rulerships \n\nRulership is the connection between planet and correlated sign and house. In traditional Western astrology, each sign is ruled by one and only one of the seven visible planets (note that in astrology, the Sun and Moon are termed The Lights, while the other bodies are called planets, which literally means wanderers, i.e. wandering stars as opposed to the fixed stars). The traditional rulerships are as follows: Aries (Mars), Taurus (Venus), Gemini (Mercury), Cancer (Moon), Leo (Sun), Virgo (Mercury), Libra (Venus), Scorpio (Mars), Sagittarius (Jupiter), Capricorn (Saturn), Aquarius (Uranus), Pisces (Jupiter). \n\nPsychologically-oriented astrologers often believe that Uranus is the ruler or co-ruler of Aquarius instead of Saturn; Neptune is the ruler or co-ruler of Pisces instead of Jupiter, and that Pluto is the ruler or co-ruler of Scorpio instead of Mars. Some astrologers believe that the planetoid Chiron may be the ruler of Virgo, while other group of modern astrologers claim that Ceres is the ruler of Taurus instead. Other astrologers, still, use the former planets Pallas, Vesta, Juno and Hygiea in their delineations and rulerships, for example Vesta to Taurus and Pallas to Virgo.\n\nDebate continues between those who consider the newly discovered planets as rulers or co-rulers of certain signs and those that do not. Some astrologers do not even use the astrological signs at all (mostly Cosmobiologists and Uranian Astrologers/Hamburg School). Therefore, they do not take into account planetary rulerships and the essential dignities when interpreting an astrological chart.\n\nNote that, if one starts from Leo and Cancer, the traditional planetary rulers are arrayed outward in the same order from the sun as they occur in the natural solar system. The Lights ruling Leo and Cancer, Mercury ruling Virgo and Gemini, Venus ruling Libra and Taurus, Mars ruling Scorpio and Aries, Jupiter ruling Sagittarius and Pisces, Saturn ruling Capricorn and Aquarius. The result is a symmetry of traditional rulerships across the 0° Leo/Aquarius axis. Note that modern rulerships, which attribute Pluto as ruler of Scorpio, break this symmetry.\n\nThe following table shows both, traditional and modern, rulerships.\n\nDignity and detriment, exaltation and fall \n\nA traditional belief of astrology, known as essential dignity, is the idea that the Sun, Moon and planets are more powerful and effective in some signs than others, because the basic nature of both is held to be in harmony. By contrast, they are held to find some signs to be weak or difficult to operate in because their natures are thought to be in conflict. The most important of these categories are Dignity, Detriment, Exaltation and Fall.\n\n* Dignity and Detriment : A planet is strengthened or dignified if it falls within the sign that it rules. In other words, it is said to exercise Rulership of the sign. For example, the Moon in Cancer is considered \"strong\" (well-dignified). Seventeenth century astrologer William Lilly compared rulership to a king on his throne, with considerable dignity. If a planet is in the sign opposite that which it rules (or is dignified), it is said to be weakened or in Detriment (for example, the Moon in Capricorn). \n\nIn traditional astrology, other levels of Dignity are recognised in addition to Rulership. These are known as Exaltation (see below), Triplicity, Terms or bounds, and Face or Decan, which together are known as describing a planet's Essential dignity, the quality or ability to give of one's true nature. Contemporary traditional astrologers like John Frawley or J Lee Lehman explain further on the concept of Essential Dignity.\n\n* Exaltation and Fall : In addition, a planet is also strengthened when it is in its sign of Exaltation. In traditional horary astrology, Exaltation denotes a level of dignity somewhat exaggerated compared to rulership. Exaltation was considered to give the planet (or what it signified in a horary chart) dignity, with the metaphor of an honoured guest – who is the centre of attention but the extent of their ability to act is limited. Examples of planets in their Exaltation are: Saturn (Libra), Sun (Aries), Venus (Pisces), Moon (Taurus), Mercury (Virgo, although some disagree to this classification), Mars (Capricorn), Jupiter (Cancer). A planet in the opposite sign of its Exaltation is said to be in its Fall, and thus weakened, perhaps seemingly more so than Detriment. The Planet in fall is passively rejected or ignored by the sign that it's in. It can be likened to a mayor of a rival city trying to make suggestions to the hosting mayor for how he should run his city: The host mayor finds it difficult to trust him and cannot see how his input could have relevancy to his city. The people of the city feel the same as their ruler. The result is impasse and failure on behalf of both mayors and the city. There is no agreement as to the signs in which the three extra-Saturnian planets may be considered to be exalted. \n\nThe following table summarizes the positions described above:\n\nIn addition to essential dignity, the traditional astrologer considers Accidental dignity of planets. This is placement by house in the chart under examination. Accidental dignity is the planet's \"ability to act.\" So we might have, for example, Moon in Cancer, dignified by rulership, is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature. The 12th is a cadent house as are the 3rd, 6th and 9th and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted. On the other hand, Moon in the 1st, 4th, 7th or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses. Planets in Succedent houses of the chart (2nd, 5th, 8th, 11th) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act. Besides Accidental Dignity, there are a range of Accidental Debilities, such as retrogradation, Under the Sun's Beams, Combust, and so forth.\n\nAdditional classifications \n\nEach sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates, though these have fallen into disuse. The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler. The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling the next sign in the same triplicity. The last decanate is sub-ruled by the next in order in the same triplicity. \n\nWhile the element and modality of a sign are together sufficient to define it, they can be grouped to indicate their symbolism. The first four signs, Aries, Taurus, Gemini and Cancer, form the group of personal signs. The next four signs, Leo, Virgo, Libra and Scorpio form the group of interpersonal signs. The last four signs of the zodiac, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces, form the group of transpersonal signs. \n\nDane Rudhyar presented the tropical zodiac primary factors, used in the curriculum of the RASA School of Astrology. The tropical zodiac is the zodiac of seasonal factors as opposed to the sidereal zodiac (constellation factors). The primary seasonal factors are based on the changing ratio of sunlight and darkness across the year. The first factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when daylight is increasing, or the half of the year when darkness is increasing. The second factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when there is more daylight than darkness, or the half when there is more darkness than daylight. The third factor is which of the four seasons the chosen time falls in, defined by the first two factors. Thus\"The Signs and the Houses\", by Robin Armstrong, RASA School of Astrology 2009 http://www.rasa.ws/index.php/rasa-library-articles-signs-and-houses- \n* the 'winter' season is when daylight is increasing and there is more darkness than daylight.\n* the 'spring' season is when daylight is increasing and there is more daylight than darkness.\n* the 'summer' season is when darkness is increasing and there is more daylight than darkness.\n* the 'autumn' season is when darkness is increasing and there is more darkness than daylight.\n\nIndian astrology \n\nIn Indian astrology, there are four elements: fire, earth, air, and water. The master of fire is Mars, while Mercury is of earth, Saturn of air, and Venus of water.\n\nJyotish astrology recognises twelve zodiac signs (Rāśi), that correspond to those in Western astrology. The relation of the signs to the elements is the same in the two systems.\n\nNakshatras \n\nA nakshatra (Devanagari: नक्षत्र, Sanskrit ', from ' 'approach', and ' 'guard') or lunar mansion is one of the 27 divisions of the sky, identified by the prominent star(s) in them, as used in Hindu astronomy and astrology (Jyotisha). \n\nChinese zodiac signs \n\nUnlike the Western or Indian zodiacs, the Chinese zodiac signs are not derived from constellations, and are not assigned to sections of the ecliptic. Instead, Chinese astrological signs operate on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (also known as shichen). A particular feature of the Chinese zodiac is its operation in a 60-year cycle in combination with the Five Phases of Chinese astrology (Wood, Fire, Metal, Water, and Earth). \nNevertheless, some researches say that there is an obvious relationship between the Chinese 12-year cycle and zodiac constellations: each year of the cycle corresponds to a certain disposal of Jupiter. For example, in the year of Snake Jupiter is in the Sign of Gemini, in the year of Horse Jupiter is in the Sign of Cancer and so on. So the Chinese 12-year calendar is a solar-lunar-jovian calendar.\n\nZodiac symbolism \n\nThe following table shows the twelve signs and their attributes.\n\nThe twelve signs \n\nIn Chinese astrology the zodiac of twelve animal sign represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and there are many stories about the Origins of the Chinese Zodiac which explain why this is so. When the twelve zodiac signs are part of the 60-year calendar in combination with the four elements, they are traditionally called the twelve Earthly Branches. The Chinese Zodiac follows the lunisolar Chinese calendar and thus the \"changeover\" days in a month (when one sign changes to another sign) vary each year. The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order.Theodora Lau, Ibid, pp 2–8, 30–5, 60–4, 88–94, 118–24, 148–53, 178–84, 208–13, 238–44, 270–78, 306–12, 338–44, 2005\n\n# Rat (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Water): Rat years include 1900, 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008, 2020, 2032. The Rat also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rat are 11pm – 1am.\n# Ox (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Earth: Ox years include 1901, 1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009, 2021, 2033. The Ox also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Ox are 1am – 3am.\n# Tiger (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Tiger years include 1902, 1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010, 2022, 2034. The Tiger also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Tiger are 3am – 5am.\n# Rabbit (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Rabbit Years include 1903, 1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011, 2023, 2035. The Rabbit also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rabbit are 5am – 7am.\n# Dragon (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Earth): Dragon years include 1904, 1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012, 2024, 2036. The Dragon also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Dragon are 7am – 9am.\n# Snake (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Fire): Snake years include 1905, 1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001, 2013, 2025, 2037. The Snake also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Snake are 9am – 11am.\n# Horse (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Fire): Horse years include 1906, 1918, 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014, 2026, 2038. The Horse also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Horse are 11am – 1pm.\n# Goat (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Earth): Goat years include 1907, 1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015, 2027, 2039. The Goat also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Goat are 1pm – 3pm.\n# Monkey (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Metal): Monkey years include 1908, 1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016, 2028, 2040. The Monkey also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Monkey are 3pm – 5pm.\n# Rooster (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Metal): Rooster years include 1909, 1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017, 2029, 2041. The Rooster also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rooster are 5pm – 7pm.\n# Dog (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Earth): Dog years include 1910, 1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018, 2030, 2042. The Dog also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Dog are 7pm – 9pm.\n# Pig (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Water): Pig years include 1911, 1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019, 2031, 2043. The Pig also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Pig are 9pm – 11pm.\n\nThe five elements \n\n* Wood: The wood person has high morals, is self-confident, expansive and co-operative, with wide and varied interests and idealistic goals. The direction associated with Wood is East, and the season is spring, which makes it the fixed element for the animal signs Tiger and Rabbit.\n* Fire: The fire person has leadership qualities, dynamic passion, and is decisive, self-confident, positive and assertive. The direction associated with Fire is South, and the season is summer, which makes it the fixed element for the animal signs Snake and Horse.\n* Earth: The earth person is serious, logical and methodical, intelligent, objective and good at planning. The direction associated with Earth is Center. The season for Earth is the changeover point of the four seasons. It is the fixed element for the animal signs Ox, Dragon, Goat and Dog.\n* Metal: The metal person is sincere, has fixed values and opinions, is strong of will, and has eloquence of speech. The direction associated with Metal is West. The season for Metal is Autumn. It is the fixed element for the animal signs Monkey and Rooster.\n* Water: The water person is persuasive, intuitive, and empathetic. The water person is objective and often sought out for their counsel. The direction associated with water is North. The season for Water is Winter. It is the fixed element for the animal signs Rat and Pig.\n\nThe five elements operate together with the twelve animal signs in a 60-year calendar. The four elements appear in the calendar in both their yin and yang forms and are known as the eight heavenly stems. When trying to calculate the relevant year of the cycle in relation to the Western calendar, an easy rule to follow is that years that end in an odd number are Yang (representing masculine, active and light), those that end with an even number are Yin (representing feminine, passive and darkness).Chinese Astrology: Exploring the Eastern Zodiac by Shelly Wu\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Tarus", "Taurus (disambiguation)", "Taurus (song)", "Taurus" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "taurus disambiguation", "taurus song", "tarus", "taurus" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "taurus", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Taurus" }
What was John Huston's last movie?	tc_1051	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "John_Huston.txt" ], "title": [ "John Huston" ], "wiki_context": [ "John Marcellus Huston (August 5, 1906 – August 28, 1987) was an American film director, screenwriter and actor. He wrote the screenplays for most of the 37 feature films he directed, many of which are today considered classics: The Maltese Falcon (1941), The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), Key Largo (1948), The Asphalt Jungle (1950), The African Queen (1951), Moulin Rouge (1952), The Misfits (1961), and The Man Who Would Be King (1975). During his 46-year career, Huston received 15 Oscar nominations, won twice, and directed both his father, Walter Huston, and daughter, Anjelica Huston, to Oscar wins in different films.\n\nHuston was known to direct with the vision of an artist, having studied and worked as a fine art painter in Paris in his early years. He continued to explore the visual aspects of his films throughout his career: sketching each scene on paper beforehand, then carefully framing his characters during the shooting. While most directors rely on post-production editing to shape their final work, Huston instead created his films while they were being shot, making them both more economical and cerebral, with little editing needed.\n\nMost of Huston's films were adaptations of important novels, often depicting a \"heroic quest,\" as in Moby Dick, or The Red Badge of Courage. In many films, different groups of people, while struggling toward a common goal, would become doomed, forming \"destructive alliances,\" giving the films a dramatic and visual tension. Many of his films involved themes such as religion, meaning, truth, freedom, psychology, colonialism and war.\n\nBefore becoming a Hollywood filmmaker, he had been an amateur boxer, reporter, short-story writer, portrait artist in Paris, a cavalry rider in Mexico, and a documentary filmmaker during World War II. Huston has been referred to as \"a titan\", \"a rebel\", and a \"renaissance man\" in the Hollywood film industry. Author Ian Freer describes him as \"cinema's Ernest Hemingway\"—a filmmaker who was \"never afraid to tackle tough issues head on.\"\n\nEarly life\n\nJohn Huston was born on August 5, 1906, in Nevada, Missouri. He was the only child of Rhea (née Gore) and Canadian-born Walter Huston, originally Walter Houghston. His father was an actor, initially in vaudeville, and later in films. His mother initially worked as a sports editor for various publications but gave it up after Huston was born. Similarly, his father gave up his stage acting career for steady employment as a civil engineer, although he returned to stage acting within a few years. He would later become highly successful on both Broadway and then in motion pictures. He had Scottish, Scots-Irish, English and Welsh ancestry.\n\nHuston's parents divorced in 1913, when he was 6, and as a result much of his childhood was spent living in boarding schools. During summer vacations, he traveled with each of his parents separately — with his father on vaudeville tours, and with his mother to racetracks or other sports events. The young Huston benefited greatly from seeing his father act on stage, as he was later drawn to the world of acting.Flint, Peter. [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0805.html?scp\n1&sqJohn%20Huston%20dies&st\ncse \"John Huston, Film Director, Writer and Actor, Dies at 81\"] New York Times, August 29, 1987. Some critics, such as Lawrence Grobel, surmise that his relationship with his mother may have been the cause of his five marriages, and why few of his relationships lasted. Grobel wrote, \"When I interviewed some of the women who had loved him, they inevitably referred to his mother as the key to unlocking Huston's psyche.\"Grobel, Lawrence. The Art of the Interview: Lessons from a Master of the Craft, Random House (2004). According to actress Olivia de Havilland, \"she [his mother] was the central character. I always felt that John was ridden by witches. He seemed pursued by something destructive. If it wasn't his mother, it was his idea of his mother.\"\n \nAs a child he was often ill and was treated for an enlarged heart and kidney ailments. He recovered after an extended bedridden stay in Arizona, and moved with his mother to Los Angeles, where he went to Lincoln Heights High School. He dropped out of high school after two years to become a professional boxer, and by age 15 was already a top-ranking amateur lightweight boxer in California. He ended his brief boxing career after suffering a broken nose.\n\nHe also \"plunged\" himself into a multitude of interests, including abstract painting, ballet, English and French literature, opera, and horseback riding. Living in Los Angeles he became \"infatuated\" with the new film industry and motion pictures, but as a spectator only. To Huston, \"Charlie Chaplin was a god.\"\n\nHe moved back to New York to live with his father, who was then acting in off-Broadway productions, and John had a few small roles.Goodwin, James; Morsberger, Robert E. (editor) American Screenwriters, Gale Research Co. (1984), pp. 164–171. He remembers, while watching his father rehearse, being fascinated with the mechanics of acting:\n\nWhat I learned there, during those weeks of rehearsal, would serve me for the rest of my life.Wakeman, John. (Ed.) World Film Directors, Vol. I, 1890–1945, New York, The H. W. Wilson Co. (1987), pp. 485–493.\n\nAfter a short period acting on stage, and having undergone surgery, he traveled on his own to Mexico. During his two years there, among his other adventures, he got a position riding as an honorary member of the Mexican cavalry. He returned to Los Angeles and married a girlfriend from high school, Dorothy Harvey. Their marriage lasted seven years, (1926-1933.)\n\nEarly career as writer\n\nDuring his stay in Mexico, he wrote a play called \"Frankie and Johnny\", based on the ballad of the same title. After selling it easily, he decided that writing would be a viable career, and he focused on it. His self-esteem was enhanced when H. L. Mencken, editor of the popular magazine, American Mercury, bought two of his stories, \"Fool\" and \"Figures of Fighting Men.\" During subsequent years his stories and feature articles were published in Esquire, Theatre Arts, and The New York Times. He also worked for a period on the New York Graphic. In 1931, when he was 25, he moved back to Los Angeles with his hopes aimed at writing for the blossoming film industry, where the silent film industry had given way to \"talkies\", and writers were in demand. In addition, his father had earlier moved there where he was already successful in a number of films.\n\nHe received a script editing contract with Samuel Goldwyn Productions, but after six months of receiving no assignments, quit to work for Universal Studios, where his father was by then a star. At Universal, he got a job in the script department, and began by writing dialogue for a number of films in 1932, including Murders in the Rue Morgue, A House Divided, and Law and Order. The last two also starred his father, Walter Huston. In addition, House Divided was directed by William Wyler, who gave Huston his first real \"inside view\" of the filmmaking process during all stages of production. Wyler and Huston would also later become close friends and collaborators on a number of leading films.\n\nHuston gained a reputation as a \"lusty, hard-drinking libertine\" during his first years as a writer in Hollywood. Huston describes those years as a \"series of misadventures and disappointments\", however. His brief career as a Hollywood writer ended suddenly after a car he was driving struck and killed a young female pedestrian. He was absolved of blame by a coroner's jury, but the incident left him \"traumatized\" nonetheless, and he moved to London and Paris, living as a \"drifter.\"\n\nBy 1937, after five years, the 31-year-old Huston returned to Hollywood intent on being a \"serious writer.\" He also married Lesley Black. His first job was as scriptwriter with Warner Brothers Studio, with his personal longterm goal of directing his own scripts. For the next four years, he co-wrote scripts for major films such as Jezebel, The Amazing Dr. Clitterhouse, Juarez, Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet and Sergeant York (1941). He was nominated for an Academy Award for his writing both Ehrlich and Sergeant York. Huston writes that Sergeant York, which was directed by Howard Hawks, has \"gone down as one of Howard's best pictures, and Gary Cooper had a triumph playing the young mountaineer.\"Huston, John. An Open Book, New York. Alfred A. Knopf (1980).\n\nHuston was becoming a recognized and respected screenwriter. He was able to persuade Warners to give him a chance to direct, under the condition that his next script also became a hit. Huston writes:\n\nThey indulged me rather. They liked my work as a writer and they wanted to keep me on. If I wanted to direct, why, they'd give me a shot at it, and if it didn't come off all that well, they wouldn't be too disappointed as it was to be a very small picture.\n\nThe next script he was given to work on was High Sierra (1941), to be directed by Raoul Walsh. The film became the hit Huston wanted. It also made Humphrey Bogart a star with his first major role, as a gunman on the run. Warners kept their end of the bargain, and gave Huston his choice of subject.\n\nScreenwriter and director\n\nThe Maltese Falcon (1941)\n\nFor his first directing assignment, Huston chose Dashiell Hammett's detective thriller, The Maltese Falcon, a film which had already failed at the box office in two earlier versions by Warners. However, studio head Jack L. Warner approved of Huston's treatment of Hammett's 1930 novel, as he stood by his word to let Huston choose his first subject.\n\nHuston kept the screenplay close to the novel, keeping much of Hammett's dialogue, and directing it in an uncluttered style, much like the book's narrative. He also did the unusual preparation for this, his first directing job, by sketching out each shot beforehand, including camera positions, lighting, and compositional scale, for such things as closeups.\n\nHe especially benefited by selecting a superior cast, giving Humphrey Bogart the lead role. Bogart was happy to take the role, as he liked working with Huston. In addition, the supporting cast included other noted actors: Mary Astor, Peter Lorre, Sydney Greenstreet (his first film role), and his own father, Walter Huston. The film, however, was given only a small B-movie budget, and received minimal publicity by Warners, as they had low expectations. The entire film was made in eight weeks for only $300,000.\n\nUpon receiving immediate enthusiastic response by the public and critics, Warners was surprised. Critics hailed the film as a \"classic\", and up until the present day it is claimed by many to be the \"best detective melodrama ever made.\" Herald Tribune critic Howard Barnes called it a \"triumph.\" Huston again received an Academy Award nomination for the screenplay. After this film, Huston would from then on direct all of his screenplays, except for one, Three Strangers (1946).\nIn 1942, he directed two more hits, In This Our Life (1942), starring Bette Davis, and Across the Pacific, another thriller starring Humphrey Bogart.\n\nArmy years during World War II\n\nIn 1942 he served in the United States Army during World War II to make films for the Army Signal Corps. While in uniform with the rank of captain, he directed and produced three films that some critics rank as \"among the finest made about World War II: Report from the Aleutians (1943), about soldiers preparing for combat; The Battle of San Pietro (1945), the story (censored by the Army) of a failure by America's intelligence agencies which resulted in many deaths, and Let There Be Light (1946), about psychologically damaged veterans, also censored for 35 years, until 1981. He rose to the rank of major and received the Legion of Merit award for \"courageous work under battle conditions.\" Nonetheless, all of his films made for the Army were \"controversial\", and either not released, censored, or banned outright, as they were considered \"demoralizing\" to soldiers and the public. Years later, after moving to Ireland, his daughter, actress Anjelica Huston, recalled that the \"main movies we watched were the war documentaries.\"Tracy, Tony; Flynn, Roddy. John Huston: Essays on a Restless Director, McFarland (2010).\n\nHuston did an uncredited rewrite of Anthony Veiller's screenplay for The Stranger (1946), a film he was to have directed. When Huston became unavailable Orson Welles was offered the opportunity to direct. He had been cast in the role of a high-ranking Nazi fugitive who manages to settle in New England under an assumed name. \n\nThe Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948)\n\nHis next picture, which he wrote, directed, and briefly appeared in as an American, asked to \"help out a fellow American, down on his luck\", was The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948). It would become one of the films which established his reputation as a leading filmmaker. The film, also starring Humphrey Bogart, was the story of three drifters who band together to prospect for gold. Huston also gave a supporting role to his father, Walter Huston.\n\nWarners studio was initially uncertain what to make of the film. They had allowed Huston to film on location in Mexico, which was a \"radical move\" for a studio at the time. They also knew that Huston was gaining a reputation as \"one of the wild men of Hollywood.\" In any case, studio boss Jack L. Warner initially \"detested it.\" But whatever doubts Warners had were soon removed, as the film achieved widespread public and critical acclaim. Hollywood writer James Agee called it \"one of the most beautiful and visually alive movies I have ever seen.\" Time magazine described it as \"one of the best things Hollywood has done since it learned to talk.\" Huston won Oscars for Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay; his father won for Best Supporting Actor. It also won other awards in the U.S. and overseas. Film Comment magazine devoted four pages to the film in its May–June 1980 edition, with author Richard T. Jameson offering his impressions:\n\nThis film has impressed itself on the heart and mind and soul of anyone who has seen it, to the extent that filmmakers of great originality and distinctiveness like Robert Altman and Sam Peckinpah can be said to have remade it again and again ... without compromising its uniqueness.\n\nAlso in 1948 he directed his next film, Key Largo, again with Humphrey Bogart starring. It was the story about a disillusioned returning veteran clashing with gangsters on a remote Florida key. It co-starred Lauren Bacall, Claire Trevor, Edward G. Robinson, and Lionel Barrymore. The film was an adaptation of the stage play by Maxwell Anderson, and the film itself seemed overly stage-bound for many viewers. However, the \"outstanding performances\" by all the actors saved the film, and Claire Trevor won an Oscar for best supporting actress. Huston was annoyed that the studio cut several scenes from the final release without his agreement. That, along with some earlier disputes, angered Huston enough that he left the studio when his contract expired.\n\nThe Asphalt Jungle (1950)\n\nIn 1950 he wrote and directed The Asphalt Jungle, a film which broke new ground by depicting criminals as somewhat sympathetic characters, simply doing their professional work, \"an occupation like any other\", or what Huston calls \"a left-handed form of human endeavor.\" Huston achieved that effect by giving \"deep attention\" to the plot, involving a large jewelry theft, by examining the minute, step by step details and difficulties each of the characters had of carrying it out. In doing so, some critics felt that Huston had achieved an almost \"documentary\" style.\n\nFilm critic Andrew Sarris considered it to be \"Huston's best film\", and the film that made Marilyn Monroe a recognized actress. Sarris also notes the similar themes in many of Huston's films, as exemplified by this one: \"His protagonists almost invariably fail at what they set out to do.\"Sarris, Andrew. The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929–1968 Dutton (1968), pp. 156–158. This theme was also similar to the story in Treasure of the Sierra Madre, where greed became the cause of the group's undoing.\n\nIt starred Sterling Hayden and Huston's personal friend, Sam Jaffe. It also became the first serious role for Marilyn Monroe, according to Huston: \"it was, of course, where Marilyn Monroe got her start.\" The film succeeded at the box office and Huston was again nominated for an Oscar for best screenplay and best director, along with winning the Screen Directors Guild Award. It would subsequently become a model for many similar movies by other filmmakers.\n\nThe Red Badge of Courage (1951)\n\nAfter completing The Asphalt Jungle, Huston's next film, The Red Badge of Courage (1951), was of a completely different subject: war and its effect on soldiers. While in the army during World War II, he became interested in Stephen Crane's classic American Civil War novel of the same title. For the starring role, Huston chose World War II hero Audie Murphy to play the young Union soldier who deserts his company out of fear, but later returns to fight alongside them. MGM, however, saw the message of the movie as too antiwar. Without Huston's input, they cut down the running time of the film from eighty-eight minutes to sixty-nine, added narration, and deleted what Huston felt was a crucial scene.\n\nThe movie did poorly at the box office. Huston suggests that it was possibly because it \"brought war very close to home.\"Stevens, George Jr. Conversations with the Great Moviemakers of Hollywood's Golden Age, New York. Alfred A. Knopf (2006), pp. 335–355. Huston recalls that at the preview showing, before the film was halfway through, \"damn near a third of the audience got up and walked out of the theater.\" Despite the \"butchering\" and weak public response, film historian Michael Barson describes the movie as \"a minor masterpiece.\"Barson, Michael. The Illustrated Who's Who of Hollywood Directors, Vol 1: The Sound Era Noonday Press (1995), pp. 208–215.\n\nThe African Queen (1951)\n\nBefore the Asphalt Jungle opened in theaters, Huston was already in Africa shooting The African Queen (1951), a story based on C. S. Forester's popular novel. It starred Humphrey Bogart and Katharine Hepburn in a combination of romance, comedy and adventure. Barson calls it \"one of the most popular Hollywood movies of all time.\" The film's producer, Sam Spiegel, urged Huston to change the ending to allow the protagonists to survive, instead of dying. Huston agreed, and the ending was rewritten. It became Huston's most successful film financially, and \"it remains one of his finest works.\" Huston was nominated for two Academy Awards—best director and best screenplay. Bogart, however, won an Oscar for best actor, his first time winning.\n\nHUAC period\n\nIn 1952 Huston moved to Ireland as a result of his \"disgust\" at the \"witch-hunt\" and the \"moral rot\" he felt was created by House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), which had affected many of his friends in the movie industry. Huston had, with friends including director William Wyler and screenwriter Philip Dunne, established the \"Committee for the First Amendment\", as a response to the ongoing government investigations into communists within the film industry. The HUAC was calling numerous filmmakers, screenwriters, and actors to testify about any past affiliations. He tries to describe in general the types of people who were alleged communists:\n\nMoby Dick (1956)\n\nHuston took producing, writing, and directing credits for his next two films: Moulin Rouge (1953); and Beat the Devil (1953). Moby Dick (1956), however, was written by Ray Bradbury, although Huston had his name added to the screenplay credit after the completion of the project. Although Huston had personally hired Bradbury to adapt Herman Melville's novel into a screenplay, Bradbury and Huston did not get along during pre-production, and Bradbury later dramatized their relationship in the short story \"Banshee\"; Peter O'Toole would later play the role based on John Huston when \"Banshee\" was adapted into an episode of Ray Bradbury Theater. \n\nHuston had been planning to film Herman Melville's Moby Dick for the previous ten years, and originally saw it as an excellent part for his father, Walter Huston. However, his father died in 1950, and he chose Gregory Peck to play the starring role of Captain Ahab. The movie was filmed over a three-year period on location in Ireland, where Huston was then living. The fishing village of New Bedford, Massachusetts was recreated along the waterfront; the sailing ship in the film was fully constructed to be seaworthy; and three 100-foot whales were built out of steel, wood, and plastic. However, the film failed at the box office, with some critics, like David Robinson, suggesting that the movie lacked the \"mysticism of the book\" and thereby \"loses its significance.\"\n\nThe Misfits (1961)\n\nOf his next five films, only The Misfits (1961), found critical approval.Freer, Ian. Moviemakers Quercus (2009), pp. 70–71. However, critics have noted the \"retrospective atmosphere of doom\" which now hangs over the film. Clark Gable, the star, died of a heart attack a few days after the filming was completed; Marilyn Monroe never did another film and died a year later; and costars Montgomery Clift and Thelma Ritter also died over the next few years. During the filming itself, Monroe was often on drugs of various kinds, which led to her arriving late on the set and often forgetting her lines. Monroe's problems also led to the breakup of her marriage to the film's scriptwriter, Arthur Miller, \"virtually on set.\" Huston later commented about this period in her career: \"Marilyn was on her way out. Not only of the picture, but of life.\"\n\nFreud: the Secret Passion (1962)\n\nHe followed The Misfits with Freud: The Secret Passion, a film quite different from most of his others. Besides directing, he also narrates portions of the story. Film historian Stuart M. Kaminsky notes that Huston presents Sigmund Freud, played by Montgomery Clift, \"as a kind of savior and messiah\", with an \"almost Biblical detachment.\" As the film begins, Huston describes Freud as a \"kind of hero or God on a quest for mankind\":Kaminsky, Stuart M. International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers: Directors 3rd ed., St. James Press (1997), pp. 459–463.\nThis is the story of Freud's descent into a region as black as hell, man's unconscious, and how he let in the light.\n\nHuston explains how he became interested in psychotherapy, the subject of the film:\nI first got into that through an experience in a hospital during the war, where I made a documentary about patients suffering from battle neuroses. I was in the army and made the picture \"Let There Be Light\". That experience started my interest in psychotherapy, and to this day Freud looms as the single huge figure in that field.\n\nThe Night of the Iguana (1964) \n\nFor his next film, Huston once again traveled down to Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, after meeting an architect by the name of Guillermo Wulff who owned property and businesses in the town. The filming would take place in a beach cove called Mismaloya, about thirty minutes south of town. Huston adapted the stage play by Tennessee Williams. The film stars Richard Burton and Ava Gardner, and was nominated for several Academy Awards. Production attracted intense worldwide media attention, due to Burton bringing his celebrity mistress Elizabeth Taylor (who was married to singer Eddie Fisher at the time) to Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. Huston liked the town where filming took place so much that he bought a house near there. As did Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor. Guillermo Wulff and Huston became friends and always spent time together while Huston was in town, more frequently at Wulff's El Dorado Restaurant on Los Muertos Beach. The owners of Taylor's original home have since completely remodeled the property; Casa Kimberly is a luxury boutique hotel with high-end restaurant. \n\nThe Bible: In the Beginning (1966)\n\nProducer Dino De Laurentis traveled to Ireland to ask Huston to direct The Bible: In the Beginning. Although De Laurentis had ambitions for a broader story, he realized that the subject could not be adequately covered and limited the story to the first half of the Book of Genesis. Huston enjoyed directing the film, as it gave him a chance to indulge his love of animals. Besides directing he also played the role of Noah and the voice of God. The film did poorly at the box office, however, and at a cost of 18 million dollars, it was the most expensive movie in his career. Huston likes describing details about the filming:\n\nEvery morning before beginning work, I visited the animals. One of the elephants, Candy, loved to be scratched on the belly behind her foreleg. I'd scratch her and she would lean farther and farther toward me until there was some danger of her toppling over on me. One time I started to walk away from her, and she reached out and took my wrist with her trunk and pulled me back to her side. It was a command: \"Don't stop!\" I used it in the picture. Noah scratches the elephant's belly and walks away, and the elephant pulls him back to her time after time.\n\nFat City (1972)\n\nAfter several films that were not well received, Huston returned to critical acclaim with Fat City. Based on Leonard Gardner's 1969 novel of the same name, it was about an aging, washed-up alcoholic boxer in Stockton, California trying to get his name back on the map, while having a new relationship with a world weary alcoholic, and an amateur boxer trying to find success in boxing. The film was nominated for several awards upon its release. It starred Stacy Keach, a young Jeff Bridges, and Susan Tyrrell, in which she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Roger Ebert stated Fat City as one of Huston's best films, giving it four out of four stars, his highest rating. \n\nThe Man Who Would Be King (1975)\n\nPerhaps Huston's most highly regarded film of the 1970s, The Man Who Would Be King was both a critical and commercial success. Huston had been planning to make this film since the 50's, originally with his friends Humphrey Bogart and Clark Gable. Eventually the lead roles went to Sean Connery and Michael Caine. The movie was filmed on location in North Africa. The film was praised for its use of old fashioned escapism and entertainment. Steven Spielberg has cited the film as one of his inspirations for his film Raiders of the Lost Ark.\n\nWise Blood (1979)\n\nAfter filming The Man Who Would Be King, Huston took his longest break between directing films. He returned with an offbeat and somewhat controversial film based on the novel Wise Blood. Here, Huston showed his skills as a storyteller, and boldness when it came to difficult subjects such as religion.\n\nUnder the Volcano (1984)\n\nHuston's last film set in Mexico stars Albert Finney as an alcoholic ambassador during the beginnings of World War II. The film gained a strong critical reception, most notably for Finney's portrayal of a desperate and depressed alcoholic. The film was also a success on the independent circuit.\n\nThe Dead (1987)\n\nJohn Huston's final film is an adaptation of the classic short story by James Joyce. This may have been one of Huston's most personal films, due to his citizenship in Ireland and his passion for classic literature. Huston directed most of the film from a wheelchair, as he needed an oxygen tank to breathe during the last few months of his life. The film was nominated for two Academy Awards, and was praised by critics. Roger Ebert eventually placed it in his Great Movies list; a section of movies he claims to be some of the best ever made. Huston died nearly four months before the film's release date.\n\nAs an actor\n\nToward the end of his career he also began to act in various films. In 1963, director Otto Preminger asked if he would portray a Boston prelate in The Cardinal, and, writes author Philip Kemp, he \"virtually stole the picture.\" He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role. He had a little participation (as did many others) in 1967's Casino Royale as actor and director. He acted in Roman Polanski's Chinatown (1974) as the film's master villain, and as Teddy Roosevelt's secretary of state John Hay in The Wind and the Lion. Huston enjoyed acting and denied that he took it all that seriously. \"It's a cinch,\" he once said, \"and they pay you damn near as much as you make directing.\"\n\nHuston said he did not regard himself very highly as an actor, saying he was only proud of his performance in Chinatown, although he had also greatly enjoyed acting in Winter Kills. He also played the Lawgiver in Battle for the Planet of the Apes.\n\nHuston is also famous to a generation of fans of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth stories as the voice of the wizard Gandalf in the Rankin/Bass animated adaptations of The Hobbit (1977) and The Return of the King (1980).\n\nMovie themes\n\nHuston's films were insightful about human nature and human predicaments. They also sometimes included scenes or brief dialogue passages that were remarkably prescient concerning environmental issues that came to public awareness in the future, in the period starting about 1970; examples include The Misfits and The Night of the Iguana (1964). Huston spent long evenings carousing in the Nevada casinos after filming, surrounded by reporters and beautiful women, gambling, drinking, and smoking cigars.\n\nAccording to Kaminsky, Huston's stories were often about \"failed quests\" by a group of different people. The group would persist in the face of poor odds, doomed at the outset by the circumstances created by an impossible situation. However, some members of the doomed group usually survive, those who are \"cool\" and \"intelligent\", or someone who \"will sacrifice everything for self-understanding and independence\". Those types of characters are exemplified by Bogart in The Maltese Falcon, and Montgomery Clift in Freud.\n\nAnother type of quest often seen in Huston's films involve a pair of potential lovers trying to face a hostile world. Flint adds, however, that he \"bucked Hollywood's penchant for happy endings\", and many of his stories ended with \"love unsatisfied\".\n\nFilm historian James Goodwin adds that in virtually all of his films, there is some type of \"heroic quest — even if it involves questionable motives or destructive alliances\". In addition, the quest \"is preferable to the spiritless, amoral routines of life\". As a result, his best films, according to Flint, \"have lean, fast-paced scripts and vibrant plots and characterizations, and many of them deal ironically with vanity, avarice and unfulfilled quests\".\n\nHowever, in the opinion of critics Tony Tracy and Roddy Flynn, \"... what fundamentally fascinated Huston was not movies per se — that is, form — but the human condition ... and literature offered a road map for exploring that condition.\" In many of his films, therefore, he tried to express his interest by developing themes involving some of the \"grand narratives\" of the twentieth century, such as \"faith, meaning, truth, freedom, psychology, colonialism, war and capitalism\".\n\nTo Jameson, all of Huston's films are adaptations, and he believes that through his films there was a \"cohesive world-view, not only thematically but also stylistically; there is the Huston look\". The \"Huston look\" was also noted by screenwriter James Agee, who adds that this \"look proceeds from Huston's sense of what is natural to the eye and his delicate, simple feeling for space relationships.\" In any case, notes Flint, Huston took \"uncommon care to preserve the writer's styles and values ... and sought repeatedly to transpose the interior essence of literature to film with dramatic and visual tension\", as he did in Red Badge of Courage, Moby Dick, and Under the Volcano.\n\nReligion is also a theme that runs through many of Huston's films. In The Night of the Iguana, Kaminsky notes how Richard Burton, while preaching a sermon to his congregation, seems \"lost, confused, his speech is gibberish\", and leads his congregation to turn away from him. In other films, adds Kaminsky, religion is seen as \"part of the fantasy world\", that the actors must overcome to survive physically or emotionally. \"These religious zealots counsel a move away from the pleasure of the world and human love, a world that Huston believes in,\" concludes Kaminsky. Such religious themes were also seen in The Bible, and Wise Blood, for example.\n\nTo Barson, however, Huston was among the \"least consistent\" filmmakers, although he concludes that he was one of the \"most interesting directors of the past sixty years\". Throughout his long career, many of his films did poorly and were criticized as a result. To a writer in 1972 he commented, \"Criticism isn't a new experience for me. Pictures that are now thought of as, forgive the term, classics, weren't all that well thought of at the time they came out.\" After an interview a few years before he died, the reporter writes that \"Huston said he missed the major studio era when people savored making movies, not just money.\"\n\nAccording to Roger Ebert, on his review of Fat City, \"His fascination with underdogs and losers. The characters in Huston movies hardly ever set out to achieve what they're aiming for. Sam Spade, in The Maltese Falcon, Huston's first film, ends up minus one partner and one woman he thought he could trust. Everyone is a loser in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, and the gold blows back into the dust and is lost in it. Ahab, in Moby Dick. Marlon Brando's career Army officer in Reflections in a Golden Eye, even Bogart and Hepburn in The African Queen – they all fall short of their plans. The African Queen does have a happy ending, but it feels tacked-on and ridiculous, and the Queen destroys itself in destroying the German steamer. So this [Fat City] is a theme we find in Huston's work, but rarely does he fit it to characters and a time and place so well as in Fat City. Maybe that's because Huston knows the territory: he was a professional boxer himself for a while, and not a very good one.\" \n\nDirecting techniques\n\nGeorge Stevens, Jr. notes that while many directors rely on post-production editing to shape their final work, Huston instead created his films while they were being shot: \"I don't even know the editor of my films most of the time,\" Huston said. Actor Michael Caine also observed the same technique: \"Most directors don't know what they want so they shoot everything they can think of — they use the camera like a machine gun. John uses it like a sniper.\"\n\nFilm writer Peter Flint also agrees and points out other benefits to that style: \"He shot economically, eschewing the many protective shots favored by timid directors, and edited cerebrally so that financial backers would have trouble trying to cut scenes.\" Huston shot most of his films on location, working \"intensely\" six days a week, and \"on Sundays, played equally intense poker with the cast and crew.\"\n\nWhen asked how he envisions his films while directing and what his goals are, Huston replied:\nTo me the ideal film — which I've never succeeded in making — would be as though the reel were behind one's eyes and you were projecting it yourself, seeing what you wish to see. This has a great deal in common with thought processes ... That's why I think the camera is an eye as well as a mind. Everything we do with the camera has physiological and mental significance.\n\nAccording to Kaminsky, much of Huston's vision probably came from his early experience as a painter on the streets of Paris. While there, he studied art and worked at it for a year and a half. Huston continued painting as a hobby for most of his life. Kaminsky also notes that most of Huston's films \"reflected this prime interest in the image, the moving portrait and the use of color.\" Huston explored the use of \"stylistic framing\", especially well-planned close-ups, in much of his directing. In his first film, The Maltese Falcon, for instance, Huston sketched out all of his scenes beforehand, \"like canvases of paintings\". His daughter, Anjelica Huston adds that even for his subsequent films, he sketched storyboards \"constantly\". She agrees that for her father, \"it was a form of study, and my father was a painter, a very good one.\" She also notes that \"there was an extremely developed sensory quality about my father, he didn't miss a trick.\"\n\nAwards and honors\n\nHuston received 15 Oscar nominations in the course of his career, and is the oldest person ever to be nominated for the Best Director Oscar when, at 79 years old, he was nominated for Prizzi's Honor (1985). He won two Oscars, for directing and writing the screenplay for The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. Huston also won a Golden Globe for that film and received multiple lifetime achievement awards (including one from American Film Institute in 1982).\n\nHe also has the unique distinction of directing both his father Walter and his daughter Anjelica in Oscar-winning performances (in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre and Prizzi's Honor, respectively), making the Hustons the first family to have three generations of Academy Award winners.\n\nIn addition, he also directed 13 other actors in Oscar-nominated performances: Sydney Greenstreet, Claire Trevor, Sam Jaffe, Humphrey Bogart, Katharine Hepburn, José Ferrer, Colette Marchand, Deborah Kerr, Grayson Hall, Susan Tyrrell, Albert Finney, Jack Nicholson and William Hickey.\n\nIn 1960, Huston was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contribution to motion pictures.\n\nIn 1965, Huston received the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement from the Writers Guild of America.\n\nIn 1981 his film Escape to Victory was nominated for the Golden Prize at the 12th Moscow International Film Festival. \n\nA statue of Huston, sitting in his director's chair, stands in Plaza John Huston in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico.\n\nPersonal life\n\nTo producer George Stevens, Jr., Huston symbolized \"intellect, charm and physical grace\" within the film industry. He adds, \"He was the most charismatic of the directors I knew, speaking with a soothing, melodic voice that was often mimicked, but was unique to him.\"\n\nHuston loved the outdoors, especially sports such as hunting while living in Ireland. He claimed that he had no orthodox religion. Among his life's adventures before becoming a Hollywood filmmaker, he had been an amateur boxer, reporter, short-story writer, portrait artist in Paris, a cavalry rider in Mexico, and a documentary filmmaker during World War II. Besides sports and adventure, he enjoyed hard liquor and relationships with women of all types — one of the reasons he was married five times. Stevens describes him as someone who \"lived life to its fullest\". Barson even suggests that Huston's \"flamboyant life\" as a rebel would possibly make for \"an even more engaging tale than most of his movies\".\n\nHis daughter, Anjelica Huston notes that he did not like Hollywood, and \"especially despised Beverly Hills ... he thought it was just fake from the ground up. He didn't like any of that; he was not intrigued or attracted by it.\" She notes that in contrast, \"he liked to be in the wild places; he liked animals as much as he liked people.\"\n\nHe was married five times:\n\n#Dorothy Harvey (1906–1982) — This marriage ended after a year in 1926.\n#Lesley Black — It was during his marriage to Black that he embarked on an affair with married New York socialite Marietta FitzGerald. While her lawyer husband was helping the war effort, the pair were once rumoured to have made love so vigorously, they broke a friend's bed. \n#Evelyn Keyes (1916–2008) — The Hustons adopted a son Pablo, from Mexico.\n#Enrica Soma (1929–1969) — They had two children: a daughter, Anjelica Huston, and a son, Walter Antony \"Tony\" Huston, now an attorney and father of actor Jack Huston. Soma also had a daughter, Allegra Huston, as the result of an extramarital affair with John Julius Norwich; Huston treated the girl as one of his own children following Soma's death four years later.\n#Celeste Shane — In his autobiography, An Open Book, Huston refers to her as a \"crocodile\", and states only that if he had his life to do over, he would not marry a fifth time.\n\nFour of his marriages ended in divorce. His fourth wife, Enrica Soma, died in a car accident in 1969, while they were married. In addition to his children with Soma, he fathered a son, actor Danny Huston, with author Zoe Sallis.\n\nAmong his friends were Orson Welles and Ernest Hemingway. Humphrey Bogart was one of his best friends and Huston delivered the eulogy at his funeral.\n\nHuston visited Ireland in 1951 and stayed at Luggala, County Wicklow, the home of Garech Browne, a member of the Guinness family. He visited Ireland several times afterwards and on one of these visits he purchased and restored a Georgian home, St Clerans, of Craughwell, County Galway. Between 1960 and 1971 he served as Master of Fox Hounds (MFH) of the County Galway Hunt – the famous \"Galway Blazers\" – whose kennels are at Craughwell. He renounced his U.S. citizenship and became an Irish citizen in 1964. His daughter Anjelica attended school in Ireland at Kylemore Abbey for a number of years. A film school is now dedicated to him on the NUIG campus.\n\nHuston was an accomplished painter who wrote in his autobiography, \"Nothing has played a more important role in my life\". As a young man he studied at the Smith School of Art in Los Angeles but dropped out within a few months. He later studied at the Art Students League of New York. He painted throughout his life and had studios in each of his homes. He had owned a wide collection of art, including a notable collection of Pre-Columbian art. \n\nA heavy smoker, he was diagnosed with emphysema in 1978. By the last year of his life he could not breathe for more than twenty minutes without needing oxygen. He died on August 28, 1987, in his rented home in Middletown, Rhode Island, from pneumonia as a complication of lung disease. Huston is interred in the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood with his mother.\n\nArchives\n\nThe moving image collection of John Huston is held at the Academy Film Archive. The film material at the Academy Film Archive is complimented by production files, photographs, and personal correspondence found in the John Huston papers, 1932-1981, at the Academy’s Margaret Herrick Library. \n\nFilmography\n\nDirector\n\nScreenwriter\n\nActor" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Dead (1987 movie)", "The dead", "The Dead (film)", "The Dead (disambiguation)", "The Dead" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dead film", "dead", "dead 1987 movie", "dead disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dead", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Dead" }
Who won Super Bowl III?	tc_1052	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl_III.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl III" ], "wiki_context": [ "Super Bowl III was the third AFL–NFL Championship Game in professional American football, and the first to officially bear the name \"Super Bowl\". The game, played on January 12, 1969, at the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida, is regarded as one of the greatest upsets in American sports history. The heavy underdog American Football League (AFL) champion New York Jets defeated the National Football League (NFL) champion Baltimore Colts by a score of 16–7. This was the first Super Bowl victory for the AFL.\n\nBefore the start of Super Bowl III most sports writers and fans believed that AFL teams were less talented than NFL clubs, and expected the Colts to defeat the Jets by a wide margin. Baltimore posted a 13–1 record during the 1968 NFL season before defeating the Cleveland Browns, 34–0, in the 1968 NFL Championship Game. The Jets finished the 1968 AFL season at 11–3, and defeated the Oakland Raiders, 27–23, in the 1968 AFL Championship Game.\n\nUndaunted, Jets quarterback Joe Namath made an appearance three days before the Super Bowl at the Miami Touchdown Club and brashly guaranteed a victory. His team backed up his words by controlling most of the game, and built a 16–0 lead through the fourth quarter off of a touchdown run by Matt Snell and three field goals by Jim Turner. Colts quarterback Earl Morrall threw three interceptions before being replaced by Johnny Unitas, who then led Baltimore to its only touchdown during the last few minutes of the game. Namath, who completed 17 out of 28 passes for 206 yards, was named as the Super Bowl's Most Valuable Player, despite not throwing a touchdown pass in the game or any passes at all in the fourth quarter. Not counting the field goals, the Jets are the only Super Bowl team to score only one touchdown (either offensive, defensive, or special teams) and still win. Since then, the least number of touchdowns a Super Bowl winning team has scored is two.\n\nThis was the first Super Bowl to feature famous celebrities during its ceremonies instead of just college bands; comedian Bob Hope led a pregame ceremony honoring the Apollo astronauts.\n\nCurrently, another Super Bowl matchup between the Colts and the Jets cannot occur again unless one of the teams moves to the National Football Conference (NFC). After the AFL–NFL merger in 1970, the Colts were one of three teams that moved to the newly formed American Football Conference (AFC), the same conference as the Jets. The former Super Bowl combatants became divisional rivals in the AFC East until the 2002 realignment shifted the Colts, who by then had moved to Indianapolis, to the new AFC South.\n\nBackground\n\nThe game was awarded to Miami on May 14, 1968 at the owners meetings held in Atlanta. [http://news.google.com/newspapers?idysZWAAAAIBAJ&sjid\nB0INAAAAIBAJ&pg2875,4137335&dq\nsuper+bowl+site+miami&hl=en]\n\nProfessional football\n\nThe National Football League (NFL) had dominated professional football from its origins after World War I. Rival leagues had crumbled or merged with it, and when the American Football League (AFL) began to play in 1960, it was the fourth to hold that similar name to challenge the older NFL. Unlike its earlier namesakes, however, this AFL was able to command sufficient financial resources to survive; one factor in this was becoming the first league to sign a television contract—previously, individual franchises had signed agreements with networks to televise games. The junior league proved successful enough, in fact, to make attractive offers to players. After the 1964 season, in fact, there had been a well-publicized bidding war which culminated with the signing, by the AFL's New York Jets (formerly New York Titans), of Alabama quarterback Joe Namath for an unprecedented contract. Fearing that bidding wars over players would become the norm, greatly increasing labor costs, NFL owners, ostensibly led by league Commissioner Pete Rozelle, obtained a merger agreement with the AFL, which provided for a single draft, interleague play in the pre-season, a championship game to follow each season, and the integration of the two leagues into one in a way to be agreed at a future date. As the two leagues had an unequal number of teams (under the new merger agreement, the NFL expanded by one team to 16, and the AFL by one to 10), realignment was advocated by some owners, but was opposed. Eventually, three NFL teams (Cleveland Browns, Pittsburgh Steelers, and the Baltimore Colts) agreed to move over to join the original AFL franchises of 1960 in what became the American Football Conference. \n\nDespite the ongoing merger, it was a commonly held view that the NFL was a far superior league. This was seemingly confirmed by the results of the first two interleague championship games, in January 1967 and 1968, in which the NFL champion Green Bay Packers, coached by the legendary Vince Lombardi, easily defeated the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders. Although publicized as the inter-league championship games, it wasn't until later that the moniker for this championship contest between the now two conferences (National and American) began having the nickname of \"Super Bowl\" applied to it by the media and later began being counted by using roman numerals, the creation of the term being credited to the then-owner of the Kansas City Chiefs, Lamar Hunt. \n\nBaltimore Colts\n\nThe Baltimore Colts had won the 1958 and 1959 NFL championships under Coach Weeb Ewbank. In the following years, however, the Colts failed to make the playoffs, and the Colts dismissed Ewbank after a 7–7 record in 1962. He was soon hired by New York's new AFL franchise, which had just changed its name from the Titans to the Jets. In Ewbank's place, Baltimore hired an untested young head coach, Don Shula, who would also go on to become one of the game's greatest coaches. The Colts did well under Shula, despite losing to the Cleveland Browns in the 1964 NFL Championship Game and, in 1965, losing in overtime to the Green Bay Packers in a tie-breaking game to decide the NFL Western Division championship. The Colts finished a distant second in the West to the Packers in 1966, and in 1967, with the NFL divided into four divisions of four teams each, went undefeated with two ties through their first 13 games, but lost the game and the Coastal Division championship to the Los Angeles Rams on the final Sunday of the season—under newly instituted tiebreakers procedures, L. A. won the division championship as it had better net points in the two games the teams played (the Rams win and an earlier tie). The Colts finished 11–1–2, out of the playoffs. In 1968, Shula and the Colts were considered a favorite to win the NFL championship again, which carried with it an automatic berth what was now becoming popularly known as the \"Super Bowl\" against the champion of the younger AFL. The NFL champion, in both cases the Green Bay Packers, had easily won the first two Super Bowls (1967 and 1968) over the AFL winner, establishing for a while then the superiority of the older NFL circuit.\n\nBaltimore's quest for a championship seemed doomed from the start when long-time starting quarterback Johnny Unitas suffered a pre-season injury to his throwing arm and was replaced by Earl Morrall, a veteran who had started inconsistently over the course of his 12 seasons with four different teams. But Morrall would go on to have the best year of his career, leading the league in passer rating (93.2) during the regular season. His performance was so impressive that Colts coach Don Shula decided to keep Morrall in the starting lineup after Unitas was healthy enough to play. The Colts had won ten games in a row, including four shutouts, and finished the season with an NFL-best 13–1 record. In those ten games, they had allowed only seven touchdowns. Then, the Colts avenged their sole regular-season loss against the Cleveland Browns by crushing them, 34–0, in the NFL Championship Game. \n\nThe Colts offense ranked second in the NFL in points scored (402). Wide receivers Jimmy Orr (29 receptions, 743 yards, 6 touchdowns) and Willie Richardson (37 receptions, 698 yards, 8 touchdowns) provided Baltimore with two deep threats, with Orr averaging 25.6 yards per catch, and Richardson averaging 18.9. Tight end John Mackey also recorded 45 receptions for 644 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl running back Tom Matte was the team's top rusher with 662 yards and 9 touchdowns. He also caught 25 passes for 275 yards and another touchdown. Running backs Terry Cole and Jerry Hill combined for 778 rushing yards and 236 receiving yards.\n\nThe Colts defense led the NFL in fewest points allowed (144, tying the then all-time league record), and ranked third in total rushing yards allowed (1,339). Bubba Smith, a 6'7\" 295-pound defensive end considered the NFL's best pass rusher, anchored the line. Linebacker Mike Curtis was considered one of the top linebackers in the NFL. Baltimore's secondary consisted of defensive backs Bobby Boyd (8 interceptions), Rick Volk (6 interceptions), Lenny Lyles (5 interceptions), and Jerry Logan (3 interceptions). The Colts were the only NFL team to routinely play a zone defense. That gave them an advantage in the NFL because the other NFL teams were inexperienced against a zone defense. (This would not give them an advantage over the upstart New York Jets, however, because zone defenses were common in the AFL and the Jets knew how to attack them.)Matt Snell, \"Super Bowl III,\" Super Bowl: The Game of Their Lives, Danny Peary, editor. Macmillan, 1997. ISBN 0-02-860841-0\n\nNew York Jets\n\nThe New York Jets, led by head coach Weeb Ewbank (who was the head coach of the Colts when they won the famous 1958 NFL Championship game and later the '59 title also), finished the season with an 11–3 regular season record (one of the losses was to the Oakland Raiders in the infamous \"Heidi Game\") and had to rally to defeat those same Raiders, 27–23, in a thrilling AFL Championship Game.\n\nJets quarterback Joe Namath threw for 3,147 yards during the regular season, but completed just 49.2 percent of his passes, and threw more interceptions (17) than touchdowns (15). Still, he led the offense effectively enough for them to finish the regular season with more total points scored (419) than Baltimore. More importantly, Namath usually found ways to win. For example, late in the fourth quarter of the AFL championship game, Namath threw an interception that allowed the Raiders to take the lead. But he then made up for his mistake by completing 3 consecutive passes on the ensuing drive, advancing the ball 68 yards in just 55 seconds to score a touchdown to regain the lead for New York. Future Hall of Fame wide receiver Don Maynard caught the game-winning pass in the end zone but strained his hamstring on the play. \n\nThe Jets had a number of offensive weapons that Namath used. Maynard had the best season of his career, catching 57 passes for 1,297 yards (an average of 22.8 yards per catch) and 10 touchdowns. Wide receiver George Sauer, Jr. recorded 66 receptions for 1,141 yards and 3 touchdowns. The Jets rushing attack was also effective. Fullback Matt Snell, a power runner, was the top rusher on the team with 747 yards and 6 touchdowns, while elusive halfback Emerson Boozer contributed 441 yards and 5 touchdowns. Meanwhile, kicker Jim Turner made 34 field goals and 43 extra points for a combined total of 145 points.\n\nThe Jets defense led the AFL in total rushing yards allowed (1,195). Gerry Philbin, Paul Rochester, John Elliott, and Verlon Biggs anchored the defensive line. The Jets linebacking core was led by middle linebacker Al Atkinson. The secondary was led by defensive backs Johnny Sample (a former Colt who played on their 1958 NFL Championship team) who recorded 7 interceptions, and Jim Hudson, who recorded 5.\n\nSeveral of the Jets' players had been cut by NFL teams. Maynard had been cut by the New York Giants after they lost the 1958 NFL Championship to the Colts. \"I kept a little bitterness in me,\" he says.Shelby Strother, \"It came with a Guarantee,\" The Super Bowl: Celebrating a Quarter-Century of America's Greatest Game. Simon and Schuster, 1990 ISBN 0-671-72798-2 Sample had been cut by the Colts. \"I was almost in a frenzy by the time the game arrived,\" he says. \"I held a private grudge against the Colts. I was really ready for that game. All of us were.\" Offensive tackle Winston Hill had been cut five years earlier by the Colts as a rookie in training camp. \"Ordell Braase kept making me look bad in practice,\" he says. Hill would be blocking Braase in Super Bowl III.\n\nAt an all-night party to celebrate the Jets victory over the Raiders at Namath's nightclub, Bachelors III, Namath poured champagne over Johnny Carson as the talk show host commented, \"First time I ever knew you to waste the stuff.\" \n\nPostseason\n\nThe Colts advanced to the Super Bowl with two dominating wins. First, they jumped to a 21-0 fourth quarter lead against the Minnesota Vikings and easily held off their meager comeback attempt in the final period for a 24-14 win.\n\nThen they faced the Cleveland Browns, who had defeated them in week 5 of the regular season. But in this game, they proved to be no challenge as Baltimore held them to just 173 total yards and only allowed them to cross midfield twice in the entire game. Matte scored three of the Colts four rushing touchdowns as the team won easily, 34-0.\n\nMeanwhile, New York in the AFL championship game faced a red hot Oakland Raiders team who had just defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 41-6 one week earlier, with quarterback Daryle Lamonica throwing 5 touchdown passes. The championship game was close and hard fought the whole way through, with both teams trading scores at a relatively even pace. The momentum seemed to swing in the Raiders' favor when George Atkinson picked off a pass from Namath and returned it 32 yards to the Jets 5-yard line, setting up a touchdown that gave Oakland their first lead of the game at 23-20 with 8:18 left in regulation. But Namath quickly led the team back, completing a 10-yard pass to Sauer and a 52-yard pass to Maynard on the Raiders 6-yard line. On the next play, his 6-yard touchdown pass to Maynard gave them a 27-23 lead they would never relinquish. Oakland's final three possessions of the game would result in a turnover on downs, a lost fumble, and time expiring in the game.\n\nSuper Bowl pregame news and notes\n\nAfter winning the AFL championship, Namath was asked by a reporter to state his opinion of Earl Morrall. Namath said that at least four AFL quarterbacks were better than Morrall: Himself, his backup (38-year-old Babe Parilli), John Hadl of the San Diego Chargers, and Bob Griese of the Dolphins. \n\n\"The Guarantee\"\n\nDespite the Jets' accomplishments, AFL teams were generally not regarded as having the same caliber of talent as NFL teams. However, three days before the game, an intoxicated Namath appeared at the Miami Touchdown Club and boldly predicted to the audience, \"We're gonna win the game. I guarantee it.\" Jets' head coach Weeb Ewbank, in an NFL Films segment, once joked that he \"could have shot\" Namath for the statement. Namath made his famous \"guarantee\" in response to a rowdy Colts supporter at the club, who boasted the Colts would easily defeat the Jets. Namath said he never intended to make such a public prediction, and never would have done so if he had not been confronted by the fan.[http://www.profootballhof.com/history/release.jsp?release_id\n822 He guaranteed it – Pro Football Hall of Fame] Nevertheless, his comments and subsequent performance in the game itself are one of the more famous instances in NFL lore.\n \nDespite this, the AFL champions shared the confident feelings of their quarterback. According to Matt Snell, all of the Jets, not just Namath, were insulted and angry that they were 18-point underdogs. Most of the Jets considered the Raiders, whom they barely beat (27–23) in the AFL title game, a better team than the Colts. However, watching films of the Colts and in preparation for the game, Jets coaching staff and offensive players noted that their offense was particularly suited against the Colts defense. The Colts defensive schemes relied on frequent blitzing, which covered up weak points in pass coverage. The Jets had an automatic contingency for such blitzes by short passing to uncovered tight ends or backs. After a film session the Wednesday prior to the game, Jets tight end Pete Lammons, a Crockett, Texas, native, was heard to drawl, \"Damn, y'all, we gotta stop watching these films. We gonna get overconfident.\"\n\nTelevision and entertainment\n\nThe game was broadcast in the United States by NBC Sports – at the time, still a \"Service of NBC News\" – with Curt Gowdy handling the play-by-play duties and joined by color commentators Al DeRogatis and Kyle Rote in the broadcast booth. Also helping with NBC's coverage were Jim Simpson (reporting from the sidelines) and Pat Summerall, on loan from CBS (helping conduct player interviews for the pregame show, along with Rote). In an interview later done with NFL Films, Gowdy called it the most memorable game he ever called because of its historical significance.Richard Sandomir, TV SPORTS; Two Generations of Reminiscences by Gowdys, The New York Times, January 24, 1995, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\n990CE7DD1E3FF937A15752C0A963958260&sec&spon\n&partnerpermalink&exprod\npermalink\n\nWhile the Orange Bowl was sold out for the game, the live telecast was not shown in Miami due to both leagues' unconditional blackout rules at the time.\n\n\"Mr. Football\" was the title of the pregame show, which featured marching bands playing \"Mr. Touchdown U.S.A.\" as people in walking footballs representing all NFL and AFL teams except the Jets and Colts were paraded, after which performers representing a Jets player and a Colts player appeared on top of a large, multi-layered, smoke topped cake. Astronauts of the Apollo 8 mission (Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, and William Anders), the first manned flight around the Moon, which had returned to Earth just 18 days prior to the game, then led the Pledge of Allegiance. Lloyd Geisler, first trumpeter of the Washington National Symphony Orchestra, performed the national anthem. The Florida A&M University band was featured during the \"America Thanks\" halftime show. \n\nThis game is thought to be the earliest surviving Super Bowl game preserved on videotape in its entirety, save for a portion of the Colts' fourth quarter scoring drive. The original NBC broadcast was aired as part of the NFL Network Super Bowl Classics series.\n\nGame summary\n\nNew York entered the game with their primary deep threat, wide receiver Don Maynard, playing with a pulled hamstring. But his 112-yard, two touchdown performance against the Oakland Raiders in the AFL championship game made the Colts defense pay special attention to him, not realizing he was injured. Using Maynard as a decoy—he had no receptions in the game—Joe Namath was able to take advantage of single coverage on wide receiver George Sauer, Jr.. (After studying the Colts' zone defense, Ewbank had told his receivers, \"Find the dead spots in the zone, hook up, and Joe will hit you.\") The Jets had a conservative game plan, emphasizing the run as well as short high-percentage passes to minimize interceptions. Meanwhile, with the help of many fortunate plays, the Jets defense kept the Colts offense from scoring for most of the game. Also, Baltimore had a distinctly older group of players with 10+ years experience (Braase, Shinnick, Lyles, Boyd)on their defense's right side versus New York's younger, bigger left offensive side (Hill, Talamini, Schmitt, Sauer)-and back Snell when running left behind LT Hill, who thoroughly defeated RDE Braase.\n\n1st half\n\nThe Jets, led by captains Namath and Johnny Sample, and Colts, led by captains Preston Pearson, Johnny Unitas and Lenny Lyles, met at midfield where referee Tom Bell announced the Jets had won the coin toss and had elected to receive the football. The coin toss had been conducted an hour prior to kickoff but this was done for the benefit of the spectators. Colts kicker Lou Michaels kicked the ball off to Earl Christy who returned the ball 25 yards to the Jets' 23-yard line. Namath handed the ball off to Snell on first down who carried it 3 yards. On second down, Snell carried the ball for 9 yards, earning the Jets' first first down of the game. Colts free safety Rick Volk sustained a concussion when he tackled Snell and was subsequently lost for the game. On the ensuing play, Emerson Boozer lost four yards when he was tackled behind the line of scrimmage by Don Shinnick. Namath threw his first pass to Snell that gained 9 yards on 2nd and 14, but a 2-yard loss by Snell on the following play forced the Jets to punt the ball. \n\nThe Colts began their first offensive series on their own 27-yard line. Quarterback Earl Morrall completed a 19-yard pass to tight end John Mackey and then running back Tom Matte ran for 10 yards to place the ball on the Jets' 44-yard line. Jerry Hill's runs of 7 and 5 yards picked up another Colts first down, then Morrall's pass to tight end Tom Mitchell gained 15 yards on third and thirteen and saw the ball placed at the Jets' 19-yard line. In scoring position, Morrall attempted to score quickly against a reeling Jets defense. Receiver Willie Richardson dropped Morrall's pass on first down followed by an incompletion on second down after Mitchell was overthrown. On third down, none of his receivers were open and Morrall was tackled at the line of scrimmage by Al Atkinson. Michaels was brought out to attempt a 27-yard field goal, but it was wide left. \"You could almost feel the steam go out of them,\" said Snell.\n\nOn the Jets' second possession, Namath threw deep to Maynard, who, despite his pulled hamstring, was open by a step. The ball was overthrown, but this one play helped change the outcome of the game. Fearing the speedy Maynard, the Colts decided to rotate their zone defense to help cover Maynard, leaving Sauer covered one-on-one by Lenny Lyles, helping Sauer catch 8 passes for 133 yards, including a crucial third quarter 39-yard reception that kept a scoring drive alive. The Jets kept rushing Snell to their strong left, rushing off tackle with Boozer blocking the linebacker, and gained first down after first down as the Colts defense gave ground. The Colts defense was more concerned about Maynard, the passing game, and the deep threat of a Namath to Maynard touchdown. Although the Colts were unaware of Maynard's injury, the Jets were aware that Lyles had been weakened by tonsillitis all week, causing them great glee when they saw the one-on-one matchup with Sauer. \n\nWith less than two minutes left in the period, Colts punter David Lee booted a 51-yard kick that pinned the Jets back at their own 4-yard line. Three plays later, Sauer caught a 3-yard pass from Namath, but fumbled while being tackled by Lyles, and Baltimore linebacker Ron Porter recovered it at New York's 12-yard line. However, on third down (the second play of the second quarter), Morrall's pass was tipped by Jets linebacker Al Atkinson, bounced crazily, high into the air off tight end Tom Mitchell, and was intercepted by Jets cornerback Randy Beverly in the end zone for a touchback. \"That was the game in a nutshell,\" says Matte. Starting from their own 20-yard line, Snell rushed on the next 4 plays, advancing the ball 26 yards. The Jets would have success all day running off left tackle behind the blocking of Winston Hill, who, according to Snell, was overpowering 36-year-old defensive end Ordell Braase, the man who had tormented the rookie Hill in Colts' training camp. Said Snell, \"Braase pretty much faded out.\" Namath later completed 3 consecutive passes, moving the ball to the Colts 23-yard line. Boozer gained just 2 yards on the next play, but Snell followed it up with a 12-yard reception at the 9-yard line and a 5-yard run to the 4-yard line, and capped the drive with a 4-yard touchdown run, once again off left tackle. The score gave the Jets a 7–0 lead, and marked the first time in history that an AFL team led in the Super Bowl.\n\nOn Baltimore's ensuing drive, a 30-yard completion from Morrall to running back Tom Matte helped the Colts advance to the New York 42-yard line, but they once again failed to score as Jets cornerback Johnny Sample broke up Morrall's third down pass and Michaels missed his second field goal attempt, this time from 46 yards. Two plays after the Jets took over following the missed field goal, Namath's 36-yard completion to Sauer enabled New York to eventually reach the Baltimore 32-yard line. But Namath then threw two incompletions, and was sacked on third down by Colts linebacker Dennis Gaubatz for a 2-yard loss. New York kicker Jim Turner tried to salvage the drive with a 41-yard field goal attempt, but he missed.\n\nOn their ensuing possession, Baltimore went from their own 20-yard line to New York's 15-yard line in three plays, aided by Matte's 58-yard run. But with 2 minutes left in the half, Morrall was intercepted again, by Sample at the Jets' 2-yard line, deflating the Colts considerably. The Jets then were forced to punt on their ensuing drive, and the Colts advanced the ball to New York's 41-yard line. What followed is one of the most famous plays in Super Bowl history. Baltimore tried a flea flicker play, which had a huge impact on the momentum of the game. Matte ran off right tackle after taking a handoff, then pitched the ball back to Morrall. The play completely fooled the NBC Camera Crew, and the Jets defense, leaving receiver Jimmy Orr wide open near the end zone. However, Morrall failed to spot him and instead threw a pass intended for running back Jerry Hill that was intercepted by Jets safety Jim Hudson as time expired, maintaining the Jets' 7–0 lead at halftime. Earlier in the season, against the Atlanta Falcons, on the same play, Morrall had completed the same pass for a touchdown to Orr, the play's intended target. \"I was the primary receiver,\" Orr said later. \"Earl said he just didn't see me. I was open from here to Tampa.\" \"I'm just a lineman, but I looked up and saw Jimmy open,\" added center Bill Curry. \"I don't know what happened.\" Some speculated that Morrall couldn't see Orr because the Florida A&M marching band (in blue uniforms similar to the Colts) was gathering behind the end zone for the halftime show. \n\n2nd half\n\nThe third quarter belonged to the Jets, who controlled the ball for all but three minutes of the period. Baltimore ran only seven offensive plays all quarter, gaining only 11 yards. Matte lost a fumble on the first play from scrimmage in the second half, yet another demoralizing event, which led to Turner's 32-yard field goal to increase the Jets' lead, 10–0. Then, after forcing the Colts to punt again, Namath completed 4 passes for 40 yards to set up Turner's 30-yard field goal to increase the lead, 13–0. On that drive, Namath temporarily went out of the game after injuring his right thumb, and was replaced by backup quarterback Babe Parilli for a few plays. Namath returned by the end of the third quarter, but the Jets would not run a pass play for the entire fourth quarter.\n\nMatt Snell said, \"By this time, the Colts were pressing. You saw the frustration and worry on all their faces.\" After Turner's second field goal, with 4 minutes left in the third quarter, Colts head coach Don Shula took Morrall out of the game and put in the sore-armed Johnny Unitas to see if he could provide a spark to Baltimore's offense. Unitas could not get the Colts offense moving on their next drive and they were forced to punt again after 3 plays. Then, aided by a 39-yard pass from Namath to Sauer, the Jets drove all the way to the Colts 2-yard line. Baltimore's defense wouldn't quit, and kept them out of the end zone. Turner kicked his third field goal early in the final period to make the score 16–0.\n\nOn Baltimore's next possession, they managed to drive all the way to the Jets' 25-yard line. However, Beverly ended the drive by intercepting a pass from Unitas in the end zone, the Jets' fourth interception of the game. New York then drove to the Colts 35-yard line with 7 consecutive running plays, but ended up with no points after Turner missed a 42-yard field goal attempt.\n\nUnitas started out the next drive with 3 incomplete passes, but completed a key 17-yard pass to Orr on fourth down. Ten plays later, aided by three Jets penalties, Baltimore finally scored a touchdown on a 1-yard run by Hill to cut their deficit to 16–7, but with only 3:19 left in the game. The Colts then recovered an onside kick and drove to the Jets 19-yard line with 3 consecutive completions by Unitas, but his next 3 passes fell incomplete. Instead of kicking a field goal and attempting another onside kick (which would have been necessary in the end), they opted to throw on 4th down, and the pass fell incomplete, turning the ball over on downs. That ended any chance of a Baltimore comeback, as the Jets ran the ball for 6 plays before being forced to punt.\n\nWhen the Colts got the ball back, only 8 seconds remained in the game. The Colts then attempted two final passes before time ran out, and the game was over. Matt Snell said, \"Leaving the field, I saw the Colts were exhausted and in a state of shock. I don't remember any Colt coming over to congratulate me.\" As he ran off the field, Namath, in a spontaneous show of defiance held up his index finger, signaling \"number one.\"\n\nYears later Morrall said, \"I thought we would win handily. We'd only lost twice in our last 30 games. I'm still not sure what happened that day at the Orange Bowl, however; it's still hard to account for.\" Wrote Matt Snell, \"The most distinct image I have from that whole game is of Ordell Braase and some other guys—not so much Mike Curtis--having a bewildered look.\"\n\nNamath finished the game having completed 17 of his 28 passes. He is the only quarterback to win Super Bowl MVP without throwing a touchdown pass. Snell rushed for 121 yards on 30 carries with a touchdown, and caught 4 passes for 40 yards. Sauer caught eight passes for 133 yards. Beverly became the first player in Super Bowl history to record 2 interceptions. Morrall had a terrible day—just 6 of 17 completions for 71 yards, and was intercepted 3 times. Despite not being put into the game until late in the third quarter, Unitas finished with more pass completions (11) and passing yards (110) than Morrall, but he also threw one interception. Matte was the Colts' top rusher with 116 yards on just 11 carries, an average of 10.5 yards per run, and caught 2 passes for 30 yards. The Colts were minus-4 in turnovers throwing four interceptions, all of which were deep in Jet territory.\n\nBox score\n\nFinal Statistics\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/boxscore/sbiii NFL.com Super Bowl III]\n\nStatistical comparison\n\nIndividual leaders\n\n1Completions/Attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n\nStatistics provided by NFL.com \n\nStarting lineups\n\nStarting lineup provided by NFL.com\n\nOfficials\n\nReferee: Tom Bell (NFL) #7 first Super Bowl\nUmpire: Walt Parker (AFL) #25 first Super Bowl\nHead Linesman: George Murphy (NFL) #30 first Super Bowl \nLine Judge: Cal Lepore (AFL) #72 first Super Bowl\nField Judge: Joe Gonzales (NFL) #54 first Super Bowl\nBack Judge: Jack Reader (AFL) #42 second Super Bowl (I)\n\nNote: A seven-official system was not instituted until 1978.\n\nUnlike the first two Super Bowls, officials wore their standard uniform. The AFL switched to the NFL uniform for 1968 in anticipation of the 1970 merger.\n\nJack Reader became the first official to work two Super Bowls. He was the only official to work two prior to the merger. He was promoted to referee in 1969." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "NYJ", "The NY Jets", "New York Jets", "New Jersey Jets", "Ny jets", "N. Y. Jets", "The N. Y. Jets", "Jets, New York", "New York Titans (football)", "NY Jets", "The New York Jets", "The N Y Jets", "The N.Y. Jets", "N Y Jets", "N.Y. Jets" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ny jets", "jets new york", "nyj", "new york jets", "new york titans football", "new jersey jets", "n y jets" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "new york jets", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "New York Jets" }
What is Marie Osmond's real first name?	tc_1054	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Marie_Osmond.txt" ], "title": [ "Marie Osmond" ], "wiki_context": [ "Marie Osmond (born Olive Marie Osmond; October 13, 1959) is an American singer, film screenwriter, actress, doll designer, and a member of the show business family the Osmonds. Although she was never part of her family's singing group, she gained success as a solo country music artist in the 1970s and 1980s. Her best known song is a cover of the country pop ballad \"Paper Roses\". From 1976 to 1979, she and her singer brother Donny Osmond hosted the television variety show Donny & Marie.\n\nEarly life\n\nOlive Marie Osmond was born in Ogden, Utah, the daughter of Olive May (née Davis; May 4, 1925May 9, 2004) and George Virl Osmond (October 13, 1917November 6, 2007). She was raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. She is the only daughter of nine children; her brothers are Virl, Tom, Alan, Wayne, Merrill, Jay, Donny and Jimmy Osmond. From an early age, her brothers maintained a career in show business, singing and performing on national television. Osmond debuted as part of her brothers' act The Osmond Brothers on The Andy Williams Show when she was four, but generally did not perform with her brothers in the group's television performances through the 1960s.\n\nMusic career\n\n1970s\n\nAside from her two oldest brothers (who are deaf), Marie was the only family member not involved in the music business. After the initial success of The Osmonds in 1970, Marie's brother Donny gained success as a solo artist on the Pop Music charts and became a teen idol. The Osmonds' management convinced Marie to give it a go and she signed with the family's record label, MGM/Kolob Records and began making concert appearances with The Osmonds. Her style was more directed towards country music, in contrast with her brothers' pop music.\n\nIn 1973, Marie released her first single as a solo artist titled \"Paper Roses\". The recording became a No. 1 country hit, reached the Top 5 on the Billboard magazine pop chart, and achieved crossover success. The song earned a gold record as did the album of the same name. She released another single, \"In My Little Corner of the World\", and an album with the same title in 1974, both entering the Billboard Top 40 in 1974. The title song on her next album, \"Who's Sorry Now\", released in 1975, went to No. 40.\n\nIn 1977, Marie released her fourth studio album titled This Is The Way That I Feel and was much different from her earlier country music where she covered several country artist hits. With the departure from the country sound she went more in the direction of the pop style. This album had songs that were written for her as well as songs that were written by the Bee Gees. The album only had two singles and was not a commercial success.\n\nAdditionally in 1974, Marie had two pop music duet hits with brother Donny: \"I'm Leaving It All Up to You\" and \"Morning Side of the Mountain\". The former song was a Top 20 country hit.\n\n1980s\n\nIn the early 1980s, Osmond starred in her own weekly variety show on NBC called Marie. Osmond's music career went into a brief hiatus while she pursued a career in acting. She turned down the lead role as Sandy in Grease because she did not approve of the script's moral content, and the role went to Olivia Newton-John. She appeared in some TV movies and did voice-over work for children's cartoons. Prior to the comeback success of her brother Donny in the late 1980s, and while brother Merrill was having modest success on the country charts.\n\nIn 1984, Marie had a single on RCA Records called \"Who's Counting\" and only went to No. 82 on Billboard's Hot Country Singles. The single did receive a significant amount of airplay for a couple of weeks.\n\nMarie made a comeback in country music as a solo artist by signing a joint deal with Capitol Records and Curb Records in Nashville. In 1985, Marie recorded her first studio album in nearly seven years titled There's No Stopping Your Heart. This album had 4 singles with two reaching the number 1 position on the country charts. The songs mainly focused on the more-popular Countrypolitan style. She and Dan Seals sang a duet called Meet Me in Montana which became a No. 1 country hit that year. The follow-up single was the title track called \"There's No Stopping Your Heart\", which also reached No. 1 in early 1986. The final single \"Read My Lips\" also became a top 10 hit.\n\nThe follow up album in 1986 was titled \"I Only Wanted You\". She hit No. 1 again with a duet with Paul Davis with the song \"You're Still New to Me\". The second single was the title track \"I Only Wanted You\" which landed in the top 10. Two additional singles \"Everybody's Crazy 'Bout My Baby\" and \"Cry Just a Little\" did not have the same success.\n\nIn 1988, she released the album All in Love and Steppin' Stone in 1989. Both albums failed to garner any success in the billboard charts due to the changing styles of country music. Steppin' Stone would be her last country album of the 1980s.\n\n1990s\n\nOsmond took a break from music during the 1990s. She released only one song that charted in 1995 titled \"What Kind of Man (Walks On a Woman)\".\n\n2000s\n\nIn November 2010, she released the album titled I Can Do This that was full of balladry and really highlighted her multi octave voice in the song \"Pie Jesu\". It contained fourteen songs and all of the proceeds were donated to the Children's Miracle Network Hospitals. \n\n2010s\n\nOsmond's latest work Music Is Medicine was announced through a social media campaign in late 2015. The online retailer Amazon.com along with Apple's iTunes and the brick and mortar giant Walmart released this album on April 15, 2016 in both CD and digital format. Amazon has an exclusive pre-release of an autographed vinyl pressing that will be available on August 5, 2016. This is Osmond's first new album in five years and only her second in the last 25 years. The album was produced by Jason Deere, with whom she has worked in the past. Additional guest artists are Marty Roe, Olivia Newton-John, Sisqó, John Rich and Alex Boyé. The album was released through Osmond's own label Oliveme LLC.\n\nBillboard Top Country Albums for the week of May 7, 2016 has Music Is Medicine listed as a new entry in the number 10 position marking the first return to the country charts for Osmond since the mid-1980s. \n\nOn March 27, 2016, a video for the song \"Then There's You\" was released on the internet video site Vevo and it has received almost 200,000 views in less than 48 hours. On April 13, 2016, the video for the title track was also released on Vevo and was filmed with patients from children's Miracle Hospitals.\n\nOne song originally planned featured the country group Diamond Rio and was titled \"More You\". An additional song titled \"Got Me Cuz He Gets Me\" disappeared on the release date making the total song count 10 instead of the 12 originally listed. Amazon posted a Product Alert stating: \"This track list is incorrect. While we work to update it, please refer to the digital track list\" As of the release date is it unclear if these two tracks will become available at a later time.\n\nActing career\n\nTelevision\n\nIn 1975, Osmond and brother Donny hosted a special variety show which was later picked up mid season as a weekly variety show and began airing in 1976 as Donny & Marie, and ran on ABC until 1978 before it was renamed \"The Osmond Family Hour\" in 1979. Osmond's first \"made for TV\" movie was The Gift of Love which originally aired on ABC December 5, 1978. The movie was loosely based on the O. Henry story The Gift of the Magi Her co-star in the movie was Timothy Bottoms and she received her first on-screen kiss in this movie. The following year, Marie starred in a sitcom pilot titled \"Marie.\" which did not make the new season schedule and in 1980 she had her own variety show on NBC, also titled Marie, which only ran for half a season.\n\nOsmond had a recurring role as co-host with Jack Palance on ABC's documentary series Ripley's Believe It or Not! for two seasons (1985–1986), replacing Jack's daughter Holly Palance. She introduced and narrated segments based on the travels and discoveries of oddity-hunter Robert Ripley. Following that, the singer played her mother, Olive, in the television movie Side by Side: The True Story of the Osmond Family. She also starred in the television movie I Married Wyatt Earp.\n\nShe returned to television first in the short-lived 1995 ABC sitcom Maybe This Time and then with brother Donny in 1998 to co-host Donny and Marie, a talk/entertainment show that lasted two seasons. Osmond reappeared as herself in the television movie Inside the Osmonds (2001), which showed how the brothers' egos, their father's fiscal mismanagement, and the family's quest to build a multimedia empire led to their downfall. The film was produced by her younger brother, Jimmy Osmond.\n\nIn 2006, she was a judge on the short-lived Fox celeb reality show competition Celebrity Duets that was produced by Simon Cowell. It was once reported by Entertainment Tonight Magazine that Osmond would join the cast of The Bold and the Beautiful, the long-running CBS daytime soap opera, but she never appeared.\n\nRadio\n\nIn 2004, Osmond had a radio show syndicated to adult contemporary radio stations, Marie and Friends, that was canceled after 10 months. \n\nMovies and Film\n\nIn October 1978, she and Donny released their film Goin' Coconuts (originally titled \"Aloha Donny & Marie\") which was not a financial success.\n\nBroadway\n\nDuring the mid-1990s Osmond had a successful run performing Broadway musicals. She appeared as the lead actress playing Anna Leonowens along with Kevin Gray (as the King of Siam) in the 1994-95 production of The King and I and in 1997, she starred in Rodgers and Hammerstein's The Sound of Music (as Maria). She sold out many major cities with the productions and received glowing reviews from the critics. \n\nMarie and her brother Donny produced a holiday musical called Donny & Marie – A Broadway Christmas, which was originally scheduled to play on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre from December 9– 19, 2010. The show was then extended till December 30, 2010 and again till January 2, 2011. \n\nThe Christmas show was so successful that it was turned into a touring production and is now a yearly event in several cities across the US.\n\nAuthor\n\nMarie has authored three books, all have landed in the New York Times bestsellers list.\n\nBehind the Smile: My Journey Out\n\nThis book was published on May 1, 2001 and discusses her struggles with postpartum depression.\n\nMight as Well Laugh About it Now\n\nOsmond wrote this book to discuss her milestones and missteps in life. It was published on April 1, 2009 and co-authored by Marcia Wilkie.\n\nThe Key Is Love\n\nThe Key Is Love was published on April 2, 2013. The subtitle of My Mother's Wisdom, A Daughter's Gratitude\" talks about the gift that her Mother gave her: trust and follow her heart. With this book she once again turned to co-author Marcia Wilkie.\n\nOther work\n\nCBS daytime \"The Talk\"\n\nIn 2013-14 Marie has become a regular fill-in on the popular CBS daytime show \"The Talk\".\n\nDonny & Marie talk show\n\nMarie and her brother hosted a syndicated 60 minute talk show from September 1998 to May 2000.\n\nLas Vegas Show Donny & Marie at Flamingo Hotel\n\nSince 2008, the 750-seat showroom at the Flamingo Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada has been home to Donny & Marie, a 90-minute variety show. The old style showroom was updated in 2014 and renamed the Donny and Marie Theater. The singing siblings are backed by eight dancers and a nine piece band. Both Donny and Marie sing together at the beginning and end of the show, and have solo segments in between. They recently extended their contract until November 2016. Osmond and the show earned three of the Las Vegas Review-Journal's Best of Las Vegas Awards in 2012 including \"Best Show\", \"Best All-Around Performer\" (Donny & Marie), and \"Best Singer\". \n\nMarie talk show on Hallmark Channel\n\nOn October 1, 2012, she debuted her new variety show Marie to 320,000 viewers on Hallmark Channel. The show went into reruns on the Reelz Channel and was later canceled.\n\nDancing with the Stars\n\nOn August 29, 2007, it was announced that Osmond would appear as a celebrity contestant on the fifth season of the ABC show, paired with Jonathan Roberts, 2004 US Rising Star Latin Champion. On November 27, 2007, Osmond came in third place on the fifth season of Dancing with the Stars. She became famous on the show for fainting after her performance in the fifth week, stating, \"I forgot to breathe.\"\n\nHer brother, Donny, would go on to win the ninth season.\n\nDolls and embroidery\n\nIn 1991, Osmond debuted her doll line on QVC. While QVC continues to be a primary source of distribution for her dolls, Osmond also carries her line in retail stores, through Internet sales in the United States and worldwide, and direct response. Her first sculpture, a toddler doll she created and named after her mother, \"Olive May\". set a collectible record on QVC. Since then, Osmond has sculpted several dolls, including \"Remember Me\", \"Baby Adora Belle\", \"Kissy and Huggs\" and her hallmark doll \"Adora Belle\". In 2009, Osmond debuted her dolls on The Shopping Channel in Canada. In 2009, a 16\" vinyl Fashion Doll of Marie Osmond \"Grand Finale Fashion\" was debuted at Osmond's 50th birthday party in Las Vegas in celebration of her 50th birthday. Osmond's doll collection has garnered numerous award nominations, including \"Trendsetter of the Year\" and Dolls magazine's \"Awards of Excellence.\" \n\nIn 2006, Osmond launched an embroidery machine line, a sewing machine line and embroidery designs through Bernina. She has been featured on the cover of Designs in Machine Embroidery.\n\nCrafting\n\nIn 2010, Osmond published a book of handcrafted project designs, Marie Osmond’s Heartfelt Giving: Sew and Quilt for Family and Friends, (Martingale & Company). The book contained step-by-step instructions for more than 20 projects, all designed by Osmond. Projects include her \"Paper Roses\" quilt, bags, aprons, and gifts for babies, teens, friends and pets. The book also features several childhood photos.\n\nOsmond has a line of sewing machines with Janome and a fabric line with Quilting Treasures.\n\nChristmas on Broadway and touring show\n\nWith the success of the 2010-11 Broadway Christmas show, both Marie and Donny took it on the road in 2012 and 2013. The 2013 show was sold out in most of the cities where it played and consisted of two 75-minute segments with a brief intermission. Many of the dancers from the Las Vegas show were also used during this tour and incorporated many of the Vegas songs and videos, while adding Christmas classics and costumes. With this successful tour, many cities inquired to be included on the 2014 schedule with Washington, D.C., Toronto and Mashantucket selected. One of the dates for the 2015 show was announced on Marie's twitter for December 12, 2015 in Mount Pleasant, Michigan. \n\nCaesars Atlantic City Donny & Marie\n\nThe Vegas show was moved to Caesars Atlantic City for a residency in August 2014. The same backup dancers and band were used along with most of the Vegas wardrobe and set list with some tailoring for the New Jersey audience. The show ran August 8–21, 2014.\n\nChildren's Miracle Network\n\nAlong with actor John Schneider, Osmond co-founded the non-profit organization Children's Miracle Network in 1983. The CMN is dedicated to saving and improving the lives of children by raising funds for children's hospitals around the world.\n\nAdvertising and Sponsorship\n\nHawaiian Punch\n\nFrom 1978-1980, Marie and her brother Donny did several commercial spots for Hawaiian Punch as advertising spokespeople.\n\nNutrisystem\n\n Osmond is promoting the Nutrisystem brand of weight loss meals as part of the Slimsational Stars.\n\nWise Foods\n\nOsmond promoted a line of emergency food storage solutions for Wise Foods. She signed on in September 2013 as the company spokesperson using her likeness on the company website and TV commercials. As of 2016, there is no longer any reference to her on the company's website.\n\nBody Gym\n\nTogether with her husband, Marie is promoting a product for home workout from Body Gym. She has appeared on QVC in several appearances in 2015-16.\n\nPersonal life\n\nOsmond has been married three times, to two different men.\n\nOsmond first married Stephen Lyle Craig, a Brigham Young University basketball player, on June 26, 1982. Their only child, Stephen James Craig, was born on April 20, 1983. The two later divorced in October 1985.\n\nOn October 28, 1986, Osmond married Brian Blosil at the Jordan River Temple in Utah. Osmond and Blosil had two children, Rachael Lauren (b. August 19, 1989) and Matthew Richard (b. July 6, 1999), and also adopted five children:\n* Jessica Marie (b. December 17, 1987)\n* Michael Bryan (May 4, 1991– February 26, 2010)\n* Brandon Warren (b. November 1996)\n* Brianna Patricia (b. November 19, 1997)\n* Abigail Olive May (b. September 5, 2002).\n\nOn March 30, 2007, Osmond and Blosil announced they were divorcing. Both parties released a joint statement stating that neither one assigned fault for the divorce. \n\nOn May 4, 2011, Osmond remarried her first husband, Steven Craig, in a small ceremony in the Las Vegas Nevada Temple wearing her dress from the 1982 wedding. \n\nIn 1999, Osmond revealed that she suffered from severe postpartum depression. She co-authored a book called Behind the Smile with Marcia Wilkie and Dr. Judith Moore which chronicles her experiences with the illness. In August 2006, it was suggested by several U.S. tabloids that she had attempted suicide. These reports were denied by her publicity team, which claimed she had suffered an adverse reaction to a medication she was taking. \n\nOn April 29, 2009, Osmond revealed that her oldest daughter, Jessica, is a lesbian and had been living in Los Angeles with her girlfriend. In interviews Osmond has expressed support for her daughter and for same sex marriage rights, and in 2010 was named Grand Marshal of the Ogden Gay Pride Parade. In 2013 Marie is quoted in the Huffington Post stating that civil rights needs to be for all. \n\nOn January 23, 2010, The Nevada Ballet Theatre honored her as its 2010 Woman of the Year during the theaters annual B&W gala. \n\nOn February 26, 2010, Osmond's son Michael committed suicide by jumping from the eighth floor of his apartment building in Los Angeles. He reportedly battled depression for most of his life and had been in rehabilitation at the age of 12. The autopsy released on April 21, 2010 revealed that no drugs were found in his system. \n\nOn September 24, 2011, Marie's son Stephen James married Claire Olds. Osmond announced on The Talk on June 25, 2013, that Stephen and Claire were expecting their first child together, a son on December 26, 2013. Stephen and Claire's son Stephen James Craig, Jr., arrived one week early on the night of December 18, 2013, officially making Osmond a grandmother. \n\nOn Christmas Day 2012, Rachael Blosil married Gabriel Krueger, a Las Vegas-based fashion designer, in a Park City, Utah cabin. In 2015, Rachel and Gabriel welcomed their first child, a daughter, Rocket Jade.\n\nOsmond is supporter of Kilmarnock Football Club in Ayrshire, Scotland. The club adopted the song \"Paper Roses\" as their club anthem. While on tour, Osmond (who is famous for recording this song), surprised the club players in June 2014 with a meet and greet and also gave an impromptu performance at Rugby Park. In addition she signed autographs for the players and fans. In June 2016 she accepted and became an honorary member of the Kilmamock Rotary Club. \n\nMarie Osmond is a member of the Republican party. However, she has stated that she is not a political person.\n\nIn February 2016, Marie and her brother, Donny were immortalized in wax at the famous Madame Tussauds in Las Vegas located at The Venetian hotel. The figures are dressed in costumes that the siblings donated from their popular Vegas show.\n\nDiscography\n\n1973: Paper Roses\n1974: In My Little Corner of the World\n1975: Who's Sorry Now\n1977: This is the Way That I Feel\n1985: There's No Stopping Your Heart\n1986: I Only Wanted You\n1988: All in Love\n1989: Steppin' Stone\n2010: I Can Do This\n2016: Music Is Medicine\n\nFilmography\n\nPerry Como Sunshine Show (1974) – Guest\nHugo the Hippo (1975) – Vocalist\nDonny and Marie (1976) – Herself\nGoin' Coconuts (1978) – Marie\nThe Gift of Love (1978) – Beth Atherton\nThe Big Show (1980) – Host\nMarie (1980) TV series – Herself\nThe Osmond Family Christmas Special (1980) – Herself\nSide by Side: The True Story of the Osmond Family (1982) – Olive Osmond\nRooster (1982) – Sister Mae Davis\nThe Love Boat (1982) – Maria Rosselli (2 episodes)\nI Married Wyatt Earp (1983) – Josephine 'Josie' Marcus\nRose Petal Place (1984) – Rose Petal\nThe Velveteen Rabbit (1984) – Fairy Princess and Velveteen Rabbit\nRipley's Believe It or Not! (1985–86) – Co-Host\nRose Petal Place: Real Friends (1985) – Rose Petal\nMarie Osmond's Merry Christmas (1986) – Herself\nTelevision's Christmas Classics (1994) – Host\nMaybe This Time (1995–96) – Julia Wallace\nBuster & Chauncey's Silent Night (1998) – Queen (voice)\nO' Christmas Tree (1999) – Star (voice)\nDonny & Marie (1998) – Host\nDancing With The Stars (2007) – Third Place\nDr. Phil (2007) – Guest\nThe Paul O'Grady Show (2009) – Guest\nThe Oprah Winfrey Show (2010) – Guest\nThe Rosie Show (2011) – Guest\nLadies and Gentlemen... Marie Osmond (2012) – Herself\nMarie (2012) – Host\nThe Doctors (10/14/2013) - Guest" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Olives", "Olivey", "Green olives", "European Olive", "Olive trees", "Olive wood", "Olive groves", "Olive (fruit)", "Olive Tree", "Olivetrees", "Black olive", "Olea europea", "Olive-tree", "Olive tree", "Olive (tree)", "Olive grove", "Olive-wood", "Back olive", "Olivetree", "Olive", "Colossal olive", "Black olives", "Olive-trees", "Olive growing", "Olea europaea", "Green olive", "Kalamon (olive)", "The Olive Tree" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "european olive", "olive fruit", "olive tree", "green olive", "back olive", "olive grove", "olivey", "olea europaea", "green olives", "olivetrees", "kalamon olive", "black olive", "olive", "olivetree", "black olives", "olive growing", "olives", "olive wood", "colossal olive", "olive trees", "olea europea", "olive groves" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "olive", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Olive" }
Calabar international airport is in which country?	tc_1058	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Calabar.txt" ], "title": [ "Calabar" ], "wiki_context": [ "Calabar (also referred to as \"Canaan City\") is a city in Cross River State, in south southern Nigeria. The original name for Calabar was Akwa Akpa, from the Efik language. The city is adjacent to the Calabar and Great Kwa rivers and creeks of the Cross River (from its inland delta).\n\nCalabar is the capital of Cross River State. Administratively, the city is divided into Calabar Municipal and Calabar South LGAs. It has an area of 406 km2 and had a population of 371,022 at the 2006 census. \n\nHistory\n\nThe original town was known by the Efik name Akwa Akpa. The spelling Calabar remained till the British came and pronounced Calabar as Calabah. The neighboring town of Ataba took over the name and its Efik/Qua/Efut/Biase/Akampkpa indigenes became known as Calabar (pronounced Calabah). Calabar is a large metropolis today, with several towns like Akim, Ikot Ansa, Ikot Ishie, Kasuk, Duke Town, Henshaw Town, Ikot Omin, Obutong, Bakassi, Biase, and Akamkpa.\n\nSeaport City\n\nSince the 16th century, Calabar had been a recognized international seaport, shipping out goods such as palm oil. During the era of the Atlantic slave trade, it became a major port in the transportation of African slaves and was named Calabar by the Spanish. By the 18th century, most slave ships that transported slaves from Calabar were English, with around 85% of these ships being owned by Bristol and Liverpool merchants. \nOld Calabar (Duke Town) and Creek Town, 10 miles northeast, were crucial towns in the trade of slaves in that era. The first British warship to sail as far as Duke Town, where she captured seven Spanish and Portuguese slavers, may have been in 1815. \n\nThe main ethnic group taken out of Calabar as slaves were the Igbo, from the neighboring Igbo land. African-American writer and slave John Jea was from the area. A small mulatto community of merchants was located there that had links to missionary and other merchant colonies in Igboland and Lagos, and across the Atlantic.\n\nFirst Nigerian capital city\n\nThe city once served as the seat of government of the Niger Coast Protectorate, Southern Protectorate and Oil River Protectorate. It was effectively the first capital city of Nigeria.\n\nLandmarks\n\nThe city was the home the first social club in Nigeria, The Africa Club. It hosted the first competitive football, cricket and field hockey games in Nigeria. Among the city's firsts were the first Roman Catholic Mass (held at 19 Bocco Street, Calabar – 1903) and the oldest secondary school (Hope Waddell Training Institution – 1895) in eastern Nigeria. The school later graduated Nnamdi Azikiwe, who was elected as the first President of Nigeria, .\n\nThe city has an international museum, a botanical garden, a Free Trade Zone/Port, an international airport and seaport, an integrated sports stadium complex, a cultural centre, one of the most prominent universities in the country – the University of Calabar, a slave history park and several historical and cultural landmarks. It also has several standard hotels, resorts and amusement parks. The former Liberian warlord Charles Taylor lived in the old colonial palace in the city, under an agreement that led to the end of his country's civil war, before fleeing extradition to Liberia in March 2006.\n\nThe Tinapa Resort, a development by the Cross River State government, lies to the north of the city beside the Calabar Free Trade Zone.\n\nThe Cross River State Annual Christmas Festival held every year attracts thousands from within and beyond Nigeria. The festival, includes music performance from both local and international artists. Other annual events include the Calabar Carnival, a boat regatta, fashion shows, a Christmas Village, traditional dances and the annual Ekpe Festival.\n\nClimate \n\nUnder Köppen's climate classification, Calabar features a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen: Am) with a lengthy wet season spanning ten months and a short dry season covering the remaining two months. The harmattan, which significantly influences weather in West Africa, is noticeably less pronounced in the city. Temperatures are relatively constant throughout the year, with average high temperatures usually ranging from 25 to 28 degrees Celsius. There is also little variance between daytime and nighttime temperature, as temperatures at night are typically only a few degrees lower than the daytime high temperature. Calabar averages just under 3000 mm of precipitation annually. \n\nPolitical authority\n\nCalabar has three principal landlord kingdoms, namely the Qua Kingdom of Ejagham (Ekoi)/Bantu origin, the Efut and the Efik Kingdoms. The Qua Kingdom has the Ndidem of the Qua nation as the Grand Patriarch, the Efut have the Muri munene as the Grand Patriarch, and the Efik Kingdom patriarch is known as the Obong. The Efik political authority as it concerns the Obong is hinged on a political tripod: Creek Town, made up of Ambo, Cobham and Eyo; Old Town, made up of Obutong; and Duke Town, or Atakpa, made up of Duke/Archibong, Eyamba, Ntiero, Henshaw and Cobham. Each leg of this tripod at one time or the other was ruled by a separate Obong. Within the last 100 years, a gentleman's agreement to merge these three zones into one, with a single titular head as the Obong, and the distribution or opening up of the title to all Efik wards, was reached. Each of the aspirants to the throne is eminently qualified, none no more so than the other. The title of the Obong of Calabar had been held by Nsa Effiom and Ekpo Nsa in the 17th century; these two gentlemen were from the Henshaw ward. Attempts by the Henshaw to have an Obong resulted in a war in 1870. The Henshaws did not attain this title again until within the last 50 years, when David Henshaw became Obong. Cobham Town, from which Bassey Ekpo Bassey hails, had its first and only Obong recently. All this was made possible because of \"the contract\".\n\nCalabar Kingdom\n\nBefore the colonial period, Calabar, originally known as Akwa Akpa, was a kingdom with the City of Calabar as the site of government, the Obong of Calabar as the ruler and the Ekpe secret society as the stool on which the Obong of Calabar sat. \n\nCalabar people\n\nCalabar people are mainly people from the Greater Calabar district – Calabar South, Calabar Municipality, Akpabuyo, Bakassi, Biase, Odukpani and Akamkpa, but as commonly used in Nigeria, the term \"Calabar people\" could also refer to the indigenes of Greater Calabar as well as the people of the original South Eastern State of Nigeria who are at present the people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State.\n\nNigerian Navy\n\nCalabar is the headquarters of the Eastern Naval Command. The city has a new model school, Nigerian Navy Secondary School, situated in Akpabuyo, about 10 minutes' drive from the airport. This new school complements the existing Nigerian Navy Primary School and Naval Officers Wives Association Primary School, both situated at Ikot Ansa Calabar." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nigerian Independence", "Ìjọba-Àpapọ̀ Orílẹ̀-èdè Naìjírìà", "Nigérie", "Nigeeria", "Nigéria", "Nigerias agriculture", "Nigerië", "Chawaka", "Crime in Nigeria", "NGR", "Nigèria", "Nigeria", "Ethnic groups of Nigeria", "Nicheria", "Nigerie", "Nigeriya", "Nigerija", "Naija", "Kufai, Nigeria", "Nigerian sport", "Naìjírìà", "Ijoba-Apapo Orile-ede Naijiria", "Naigeria", "Sport in Nigeria", "Nijeriya", "Negeria", "Republic nde Naigeria", "Western Region, Nigeria", "Niiseriya", "Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira Àpapọ̀ Nàìjíríà", "South-west Nigeria", "Republik Nijeriya", "Population in nigeria 2009", "ISO 3166-1:NG", "Jamhuriyar Taraiyar Nijeriya", "Naíjíríà", "Republik Federaal bu Niiseriya", "Agoi", "Naijiria", "Nixeria", "Conseil de Salut National", "Nàìjíríà", "Federal Republic of Nigeria" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "republik federaal bu niiseriya", "jamhuriyar taraiyar nijeriya", "ngr", "nigérie", "nigeria", "nicheria", "naigeria", "naijiria", "nigéria", "naíjíríà", "negeria", "naìjírìà", "republik nijeriya", "nigerian independence", "naija", "ìjọba àpapọ̀ orílẹ̀ èdè naìjírìà", "kufai nigeria", "nigerië", "nigerie", "nigeriya", "republic nde naigeria", "orílẹ̀ èdè olómìnira àpapọ̀ nàìjíríà", "population in nigeria 2009", "federal republic of nigeria", "iso 3166 1 ng", "nigeeria", "nijeriya", "crime in nigeria", "south west nigeria", "nàìjíríà", "nigerian sport", "nixeria", "sport in nigeria", "agoi", "nigerija", "conseil de salut national", "chawaka", "nigèria", "nigerias agriculture", "ijoba apapo orile ede naijiria", "western region nigeria", "niiseriya", "ethnic groups of nigeria" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nigeria", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nigeria" }
Which country did Thor Heyerdahl's Kon-Tiki set sail from on its journey to Eastern Polynesia?	tc_1060	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Thor_Heyerdahl.txt", "Kon-Tiki_expedition.txt", "Polynesia.txt" ], "title": [ "Thor Heyerdahl", "Kon-Tiki expedition", "Polynesia" ], "wiki_context": [ "Thor Heyerdahl (; October 6, 1914 – April 18, 2002) was a Norwegian adventurer and ethnographer with a background in zoology, botany, and geography. He became notable for his Kon-Tiki expedition in 1947, in which he sailed 8,000 km (5,000 mi) across the Pacific Ocean in a hand-built raft from South America to the Tuamotu Islands. The expedition was designed to demonstrate that ancient people could have made long sea voyages, creating contacts between separate cultures. This was linked to a diffusionist model of cultural development. Heyerdahl subsequently made other voyages designed to demonstrate the possibility of contact between widely separated ancient people. He was appointed a government scholar in 1984.\n\nIn May 2011, the Thor Heyerdahl Archives were added to UNESCO's \"Memory of the World\" Register. At the time, this list included 238 collections from all over the world. The Heyerdahl Archives span the years 1937 to 2002 and include his photographic collection, diaries, private letters, expedition plans, articles, newspaper clippings, original book, and article manuscripts. The Heyerdahl Archives are administered by the Kon-Tiki Museum and the National Library of Norway in Oslo.\n\nYouth and personal life\n\nHeyerdahl was born in Larvik, Norway, the son of master brewer Thor Heyerdahl and his wife, Alison Lyng. As a young child, Heyerdahl showed a strong interest in zoology. He created a small museum in his childhood home, with a common adder (Vipera berus) as the main attraction. He studied zoology and geography at the faculty of biological science at the University of Oslo. At the same time, he privately studied Polynesian culture and history, consulting what was then the world's largest private collection of books and papers on Polynesia, owned by Bjarne Kropelien, a wealthy wine merchant in Oslo. (This collection was later purchased by the University of Oslo Library from Kropelien's heirs and was attached to the Kon-Tiki Museum research department.) After seven terms and consultations with experts in Berlin, a project was developed and sponsored by Heyerdahl's zoology professors, Kristine Bonnevie and Hjalmar Broch. He was to visit some isolated Pacific island groups and study how the local animals had found their way there.\n\nJust before sailing together to the Marquesas Islands in 1936, Heyerdahl married his first wife, Liv Coucheron-Torp (1916–1969), whom he had met shortly before enrolling at the university, and who had studied economics there. The couple had two sons; Thor Jr and Bjørn. The marriage ended in divorce.\n\nAfter the Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, he served with the Free Norwegian Forces from 1944, in the far north province of Finnmark.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2002/apr/19/travelnews.internationaleducationnews.highereducation Obituary], Jo Anne Van Tilburg, 19 April 2002, The Guardian[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1938294.stm \"Explorer Thor Heyerdahl dies\"], 18 April 2002, BBC\n\nIn 1949, Heyerdahl married Yvonne Dedekam-Simonsen (1924–2006). They had three daughters: Annette, Marian and Helene Elisabeth. They were divorced in 1969. Heyerdahl blamed their separation on his being away from home and differences in their ideas for bringing up children. In his autobiography, he concluded that he should take the entire blame for their separation. \n\nIn 1991, Heyerdahl married Jacqueline Beer (born 1932) as his third wife. They lived in Tenerife, Canary Islands and were very actively involved with archaeological projects, especially in Túcume, Peru, and Azov until his death in 2002. He still had been hoping to undertake an archaeological project in Samoa before he died. \n\nHeyerdahl died on April 18, 2002, in Colla Micheri, Liguria, Italy, where he had gone to spend the Easter holidays with some of his closest family members. The Norwegian government gave him a state funeral in Oslo Cathedral on April 26, 2002. He is buried in the garden of the family home in Colla Micheri. \n\nFatu Hiva\n\nThe events surrounding his stay on the Marquesas, most of the time on Fatu Hiva, were told first in his book På Jakt etter Paradiset (Hunt for Paradise) (1938), which was published in Norway but, following the outbreak of World War II, never translated and largely forgotten. Many years later, having achieved notability with other adventures and books on other subjects, Heyerdahl published a new account of this voyage under the title Fatu Hiva (London: Allen & Unwin, 1974). The story of his time on Fatu Hiva and his side trip to Hivaoa and Mohotani is also related in Green Was the Earth on the Seventh Day (Random House, 1996).\n\nKon-Tiki expedition\n\nIn 1947, Heyerdahl and five fellow adventurers sailed from Peru to the Tuamotus, French Polynesia, in a pae-pae raft that they had constructed from balsa wood and other native materials, and christened the Kon-Tiki. The Kon-Tiki expedition was inspired by old reports and drawings made by the Spanish Conquistadors of Inca rafts, and by native legends and archaeological evidence suggesting contact between South America and Polynesia. On August 7, 1947, after a 101-day, 4,300 nautical mile (4,948 miles or 7,964 km) journey across the Pacific Ocean, the Kon-Tiki smashed into the reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands. Heyerdahl, who had nearly drowned at least twice in childhood and did not take easily to water, said later that there were times in each of his raft voyages when he feared for his life. \n\nKon-Tiki demonstrated that it was possible for a primitive raft to sail the Pacific with relative ease and safety, especially to the west (with the trade winds). The raft proved to be highly maneuverable, and fish congregated between the nine balsa logs in such numbers that ancient sailors could have possibly relied on fish for hydration in the absence of other sources of fresh water. Inspired by Kon-Tiki, other rafts have repeated the voyage. Heyerdahl's book about the expedition, The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft Across the South Seas, has been translated into 70 languages. The documentary film of the expedition, itself entitled Kon-Tiki, won an Academy Award in 1951. A dramatised version was released in 2012, also called Kon-Tiki, and was nominated for both the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards and a Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 70th Golden Globe Awards. It is the first time a Norwegian film has been nominated for both an Oscar and a Golden Globe. \n\nAnthropologists continue to believe, based on linguistic, physical, and genetic evidence, that Polynesia was settled from west to east, migration having begun from the Asian mainland. There are controversial indications, though, of some sort of South American/Polynesian contact, most notably in the fact that the South American sweet potato is served as a dietary staple throughout much of Polynesia. Blood samples taken in 1971 and 2008 from Easter Islanders without any European or other external descent were analysed in a 2011 study, which concluded that the evidence supported some aspects of Heyerdahl's hypothesis. This result has been questioned because of the possibility of contamination by South Americans after European contact with the islands. However, more recent DNA work (after Heyerdahl's death) contradicts the post-European-contact contamination hypothesis, finding the South American DNA sequences to be far older than that. Heyerdahl had attempted to counter the linguistic argument with the analogy that, guessing the origin of African-Americans, he would prefer to believe that they came from Africa, judging from their skin colour, and not from England, judging from their speech.\n\nTheory on Polynesian origins\n\nHeyerdahl claimed that in Incan legend there was a sun-god named Con-Tici Viracocha who was the supreme head of the mythical fair-skinned people in Peru. The original name for Viracocha was Kon-Tiki or Illa-Tiki, which means Sun-Tiki or Fire-Tiki. Kon-Tiki was high priest and sun-king of these legendary \"white men\" who left enormous ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca. The legend continues with the mysterious bearded white men being attacked by a chief named Cari, who came from the Coquimbo Valley. They had a battle on an island in Lake Titicaca, and the fair race was massacred. However, Kon-Tiki and his closest companions managed to escape and later arrived on the Pacific coast. The legend ends with Kon-Tiki and his companions disappearing westward out to sea.\n\nWhen the Spaniards came to Peru, Heyerdahl asserted, the Incas told them that the colossal monuments that stood deserted about the landscape were erected by a race of white gods who had lived there before the Incas themselves became rulers. The Incas described these \"white gods\" as wise, peaceful instructors who had originally come from the north in the \"morning of time\" and taught the Incas' primitive forebears architecture as well as manners and customs. They were unlike other Native Americans in that they had \"white skins and long beards\" and were taller than the Incas. The Incas said that the \"white gods\" had then left as suddenly as they had come and fled westward across the Pacific. After they had left, the Incas themselves took over power in the country.\n\nHeyerdahl said that when the Europeans first came to the Pacific islands, they were astonished that they found some of the natives to have relatively light skins and beards. There were whole families that had pale skin, hair varying in color from reddish to blonde. In contrast, most of the Polynesians had golden-brown skin, raven-black hair, and rather flat noses. Heyerdahl claimed that when Jakob Roggeveen first discovered Easter Island in 1722, he supposedly noticed that many of the natives were white-skinned. Heyerdahl claimed that these people could count their ancestors who were \"white-skinned\" right back to the time of Tiki and Hotu Matua, when they first came sailing across the sea \"from a mountainous land in the east which was scorched by the sun\". The ethnographic evidence for these claims is outlined in Heyerdahl's book Aku Aku: The Secret of Easter Island.\n\nHeyerdahl proposed that Tiki's neolithic people colonized the then-uninhabited Polynesian islands as far north as Hawaii, as far south as New Zealand, as far east as Easter Island, and as far west as Samoa and Tonga around 500 AD. They supposedly sailed from Peru to the Polynesian islands on pae-paes—large rafts built from balsa logs, complete with sails and each with a small cottage. They built enormous stone statues carved in the image of human beings on Pitcairn, the Marquesas, and Easter Island that resembled those in Peru. They also built huge pyramids on Tahiti and Samoa with steps like those in Peru. But all over Polynesia, Heyerdahl found indications that Tiki's peaceable race had not been able to hold the islands alone for long. He found evidence that suggested that seagoing war canoes as large as Viking ships and lashed together two and two had brought Stone Age Northwest American Indians to Polynesia around 1100 AD, and they mingled with Tiki's people. The oral history of the people of Easter Island, at least as it was documented by Heyerdahl, is completely consistent with this theory, as is the archaeological record he examined (Heyerdahl 1958). In particular, Heyerdahl obtained a radiocarbon date of 400 AD for a charcoal fire located in the pit that was held by the people of Easter Island to have been used as an \"oven\" by the \"Long Ears\", which Heyerdahl's Rapa Nui sources, reciting oral tradition, identified as a white race that had ruled the island in the past (Heyerdahl 1958).\n\nHeyerdahl further argued in his book American Indians in the Pacific that the current inhabitants of Polynesia migrated from an Asian source, but via an alternate route. He proposes that Polynesians travelled with the wind along the North Pacific current. These migrants then arrived in British Columbia. Heyerdahl called contemporary tribes of British Columbia, such as the Tlingit and Haida, descendants of these migrants. Heyerdahl claimed that cultural and physical similarities existed between these British Columbian tribes, Polynesians, and the Old World source. Heyerdahl's claims aside, however, there is no evidence that the Tlingit, Haida or other British Columbian tribes have an affinity with Polynesians.\n\nHeyerdahl's theory of Polynesian origins has not gained acceptance among anthropologists. Physical and cultural evidence had long suggested that Polynesia was settled from west to east, migration having begun from the Asian mainland, not South America. In the late 1990s, genetic testing found that the mitochondrial DNA of the Polynesians is more similar to people from southeast Asia than to people from South America, showing that their ancestors most likely came from Asia. \n\nAnthropologist Robert Carl Suggs included a chapter titled \"The Kon-Tiki Myth\" in his 1960 book on Polynesia, concluding that \"The Kon-Tiki theory is about as plausible as the tales of Atlantis, Mu, and 'Children of the Sun.' Like most such theories, it makes exciting light reading, but as an example of scientific method it fares quite poorly.\" \n\nAnthropologist and National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Wade Davis also criticised Heyerdahl's theory in his 2009 book The Wayfinders, which explores the history of Polynesia. Davis says that Heyerdahl \"ignored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic, and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently wrong.\" \n\nA 2009 study by Norwegian researcher Erik Thorsby suggested that there was some merit to Heyerdahl's ideas and that, while Polynesia was colonized from Asia, some contact with South America also existed. Some critics suggest, however, that Thorsby's research is inconclusive because his data may have been influenced by recent population contact. \nHowever, more recent work indicates that the South American component of Easter Island people's genomes predates European contact: a team including Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas (from the Natural History Museum of Denmark) analysed the genomes of 27 native Rapanui people and found that their DNA was on average 76 per cent Polynesian, 8 per cent Native American and 16 per cent European. Analysis showed that: \"although the European lineage could be explained by contact with white Europeans after the island was “discovered” in 1722 by Dutch sailors, the South American component was much older, dating to between about 1280 and 1495, soon after the island was first colonised by Polynesians in around 1200.\" Together with ancient skulls found in Brazil - with solely Polynesian DNA - this does suggest some pre-European-contact travel to and from South America from Polynesia.\n\nExpedition to Rapa Nui (Easter Island)\n\nIn 1955–1956, Heyerdahl organized the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Rapa Nui (Easter Island). The expedition's scientific staff included Arne Skjølsvold, Carlyle Smith, Edwin Ferdon, Gonzalo Figueroa and William Mulloy. Heyerdahl and the professional archaeologists who traveled with him spent several months on Rapa Nui investigating several important archaeological sites. Highlights of the project include experiments in the carving, transport and erection of the notable moai, as well as excavations at such prominent sites as Orongo and Poike. The expedition published two large volumes of scientific reports (Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific) and Heyerdahl later added a third (The Art of Easter Island). Heyerdahl's popular book on the subject, Aku-Aku was another international best-seller. \n\nIn Easter Island: The Mystery Solved (Random House, 1989), Heyerdahl offered a more detailed theory of the island's history. Based on native testimony and archaeological research, he claimed the island was originally colonized by Hanau eepe (\"Long Ears\"), from South America, and that Polynesians Hanau momoko (\"Short Ears\") arrived only in the mid-16th century; they may have come independently or perhaps were imported as workers. According to Heyerdahl, something happened between Admiral Roggeveen's discovery of the island in 1722 and James Cook's visit in 1774; while Roggeveen encountered white, Indian, and Polynesian people living in relative harmony and prosperity, Cook encountered a much smaller population consisting mainly of Polynesians and living in privation.\n\nHeyerdahl notes the oral tradition of an uprising of \"Short Ears\" against the ruling \"Long Ears\". The \"Long Ears\" dug a defensive moat on the eastern end of the island and filled it with kindling. During the uprising, Heyerdahl claimed, the \"Long Ears\" ignited their moat and retreated behind it, but the \"Short Ears\" found a way around it, came up from behind, and pushed all but two of the \"Long Ears\" into the fire. This moat was found by the Norwegian expedition and it was partly cut down into the rock. Layers of fire were revealed but no fragments of bodies.\n\nAs for the origin of the people of Easter Island DNA-tests have shown a connection to South America, critics conjecture that this was a result of recent events, but whether this is inherited from a person coming in later times is hard to know. If the story that (almost) all long-ears were killed in a civil war, as the islanders story goes, it would be expected that statue building South American blood-line would be near totally destroyed and only the invading Polynesian line existing today.\n\nBoats Ra and Ra II\n\nIn 1969 and 1970, Heyerdahl built two boats from papyrus and attempted to cross the Atlantic Ocean from Morocco in Africa. Based on drawings and models from ancient Egypt, the first boat, named Ra (after the Egyptian Sun god), was constructed by boat builders from Lake Chad using papyrus reed obtained from Lake Tana in Ethiopia and launched into the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of Morocco. The Ra crew included Thor Heyerdahl (Norway), Norman Baker (USA), Carlo Mauri (Italy), Yuri Senkevich (USSR), Santiago Genoves (Mexico), Georges Sourial (Egypt) and Abdullah Djibrine (Chad). Only Heyerdahl and Baker had sailing and navigation experiences. After a number of weeks, Ra took on water. The crew discovered that a key element of the Egyptian boat building method had been neglected, a tether that acted like a spring to keep the stern high in the water while allowing for flexibility. Water and storms eventually caused it to sag and break apart after sailing more than 6440 km (4000 miles). The crew was forced to abandon Ra, some hundred miles before the Caribbean islands, and was saved by a yacht.\n\nThe following year, 1970, a similar vessel, Ra II, was built of papyrus by Demetrio, Juan and Jose Limachi from Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and likewise set sail across the Atlantic from Morocco, this time with great success. The crew was mostly the same; though Djibrine had been replaced by Kei Ohara from Japan and Madani Ait Ouhanni from Morocco. The boat became lost and was the subject of a UN search and rescue mission. The search included international assistance including people as far afield as Loo-Chi Hu of New Zealand. The boat reached Barbados, thus demonstrating that mariners could have dealt with trans-Atlantic voyages by sailing with the Canary Current. The Ra II is now in the Kon-Tiki Museum in Oslo, Norway.\n\nThe book The Ra Expeditions and the film documentary Ra (1972) were made about the voyages. Apart from the primary aspects of the expedition, Heyerdahl deliberately selected a crew representing a great diversity in race, nationality, religion and political viewpoint in order to demonstrate that at least on their own little floating island, people could cooperate and live peacefully. Additionally, the expedition took samples of marine pollution and presented their report to the United Nations. \n\nTigris\n\nHeyerdahl built yet another reed boat, Tigris, which was intended to demonstrate that trade and migration could have linked Mesopotamia with the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now Pakistan and western India. Tigris was built in Iraq and sailed with its international crew through the Persian Gulf to Pakistan and made its way into the Red Sea. After about five months at sea and still remaining seaworthy, the Tigris was deliberately burnt in Djibouti, on April 3, 1978, as a protest against the wars raging on every side in the Red Sea and Horn of Africa. In his Open Letter to the UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim, Heyerdahl explained his reasons: \n\nToday we burn our proud ship ... to protest against inhuman elements in the world of 1978 ... Now we are forced to stop at the entrance to the Red Sea. Surrounded by military airplanes and warships from the world's most civilized and developed nations, we have been denied permission by friendly governments, for reasons of security, to land anywhere, but in the tiny, and still neutral, Republic of Djibouti. Elsewhere around us, brothers and neighbors are engaged in homicide with means made available to them by those who lead humanity on our joint road into the third millennium.\n\nTo the innocent masses in all industrialized countries, we direct our appeal. We must wake up to the insane reality of our time ... We are all irresponsible, unless we demand from the responsible decision makers that modern armaments must no longer be made available to people whose former battle axes and swords our ancestors condemned.\n\nOur planet is bigger than the reed bundles that have carried us across the seas, and yet small enough to run the same risks unless those of us still alive open our eyes and minds to the desperate need of intelligent collaboration to save ourselves and our common civilization from what we are about to convert into a sinking ship.\n\nIn the years that followed, Heyerdahl was often outspoken on issues of international peace and the environment.\n\nThe Tigris was crewed by eleven men: Thor Heyerdahl (Norway), Norman Baker (USA), Carlo Mauri (Italy), Yuri Senkevich (USSR), Germán Carrasco (Mexico), Hans Petter Bohn (Norway), Rashad Nazar Salim (Iraq), Norris Brock (USA), Toru Suzuki (Japan), Detlef Soitzek (Germany), and Asbjørn Damhus (Denmark).\n\n\"The Search for Odin\" in Azerbaijan and Russia\n\nHeyerdahl made four visits to Azerbaijan in 1981, 1994, 1999 and 2000. Heyerdahl had long been fascinated with the rock carvings that date back to about 8th-7th millennia BCE at Gobustan (about 30 miles west of Baku). He was convinced that their artistic style closely resembles the carvings found in his native Norway. The ship designs, in particular, were regarded by Heyerdahl as similar and drawn with a simple sickle-shaped line, representing the base of the boat, with vertical lines on deck, illustrating crew or, perhaps, raised oars.\n\nBased on this and other published documentation, Heyerdahl proposed that Azerbaijan was the site of an ancient advanced civilization. He believed that natives migrated north through waterways to present-day Scandinavia using ingeniously constructed vessels made of skins that could be folded like cloth. When voyagers traveled upstream, they conveniently folded their skin boats and transported them via pack animals.\n\nOn Heyerdahl's visit to Baku in 1999, he lectured at the Academy of Sciences about the history of ancient Nordic Kings. He spoke of a notation made by Snorri Sturluson, a 13th-century historian-mythographer in Ynglinga Saga, which relates that \"Odin (a Scandinavian god who was one of the kings) came to the North with his people from a country called Aser.\" (see also House of Ynglings and Mythological kings of Sweden). Heyerdahl accepted Snorri's story as literal truth, and believed that a chieftain led his people in a migration from the east, westward and northward through Saxony, to Fyn in Denmark, and eventually settling in Sweden. Heyerdahl claimed that the geographic location of the mythic Aser or Æsir matched the region of contemporary Azerbaijan - \"east of the Caucasus mountains and the Black Sea\". \"We are no longer talking about mythology,\" Heyerdahl said, \"but of the realities of geography and history. Azerbaijanis should be proud of their ancient culture. It is just as rich and ancient as that of China and Mesopotamia.\"\n\nIn September 2000, Heyerdahl returned to Baku for the fourth time and visited the archeological dig in the area of the church of Kish. \n\nOne of the last projects of his life, Jakten på Odin, 'The Search for Odin', was a sudden revision of his Odin hypothesis, in furtherance of which he initiated 2001–2002 excavations in Azov, Russia, near the Sea of Azov at the northeast of the Black Sea. He searched for the remains of a civilization to match the account of Odin in Snorri Sturlusson, quite a bit north of his original target of Azerbaijan on the Caspian Sea only two years earlier. This project generated harsh criticism and accusations of pseudo-science from historians, archaeologists and linguists in Norway, who accused Heyerdahl of selective use of sources, and a basic lack of scientific methodology in his work. \n\nHis central claims were based on similarities of names in Norse mythology and geographic names in the Black Sea region, e.g. Azov and Æsir, Udi and Odin, Tyr and Turkey. Philologists and historians reject these parallels as mere coincidences, and also anachronisms, for instance the city of Azov did not have that name until over 1000 years after Heyerdahl claims the Æsir dwelt there. The controversy surrounding the Search for Odin project was in many ways typical of the relationship between Heyerdahl and the academic community. His theories rarely won any scientific acceptance, whereas Heyerdahl himself rejected all scientific criticism and concentrated on publishing his theories in popular books aimed at the general public.\n\n, Heyerdahl's Odin hypothesis has yet to be validated by any historian, archaeologist or linguist.\n\nOther projects\n\nHeyerdahl also investigated the mounds found on the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean. There, he found sun-oriented foundations and courtyards, as well as statues with elongated earlobes. Heyerdahl believed that these finds fit with his theory of a seafaring civilization which originated in what is now Sri Lanka, colonized the Maldives, and influenced or founded the cultures of ancient South America and Easter Island. His discoveries are detailed in his book The Maldive Mystery.\n\nIn 1991, he studied the Pyramids of Güímar on Tenerife and declared that they were not random stone heaps but pyramids. Based on the discovery made by the astrophysicists Aparicio, Belmonte and Esteban, from the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias that the \"pyramids\" were astronomically oriented and being convinced that they were of ancient origin, he claimed that the ancient people who built them were most likely sun worshipers. Heyerdahl advanced a theory according to which the Canaries had been bases of ancient shipping between America and the Mediterranean.\n\nHeyerdahl was also an active figure in Green politics. He was the recipient of numerous medals and awards. He also received 11 honorary doctorates from universities in the Americas and Europe.\n\nDeath\n\nIn subsequent years, Heyerdahl was involved with many other expeditions and archaeological projects. He remained best known for his boat-building, and for his emphasis on cultural diffusionism. He died, aged 87, from a brain tumor. After receiving the diagnosis he prepared for dying by refusing to eat or take medication. The Norwegian government granted Heyerdahl the honor of a state funeral in the Oslo Cathedral on April 26, 2002. His cremated remains lie in the garden of his family's home in Colla Micheri.\n\nLegacy\n\nAlthough much of his work remains unaccepted within the scientific community, Heyerdahl increased public interest in ancient history and anthropology. He also showed that long-distance ocean voyages were possible with ancient designs. As such, he was a major practitioner of experimental archaeology.\nIn 1954 William Willis sailed alone from Peru to American Samoa on the small raft Seven Little Sisters.\nKantuta Expeditions, repeated expeditions of Kon-Tiki by Eduard Ingris.\nIn 1982, Thor Heyerdahl is mentioned as possibly joining an expedition across an ocean to be conducted by one of the characters in Newhart.\nHeyerdahl's grandson, Olav Heyerdahl, retraced his grandfather's Kon-Tiki voyage in 2006 as part of a six-member crew. The voyage, organized by Torgeir Higraff and called the Tangaroa Expedition, was intended as a tribute to Heyerdahl, an effort to better understand navigation via centerboards (\"guara \") as well as a means to monitor the Pacific Ocean's environment.\nA book about the Tangaroa Expedition by Torgeir Higraff was published in 2007. The book has numerous photos from the Kon-Tiki voyage 60 years earlier and is illustrated with photographs by Tangaroa crew member Anders Berg (Oslo: Bazar Forlag, 2007). [http://videomaker.no \"Tangaroa Expedition\"] has also been produced as a documentary DVD in English, Norwegian, Swedish and Spanish.\nThe Thor Heyerdahl Institute was established in 2000. Heyerdahl himself agreed to the founding of the institute and it aims to promote and continue to develop Heyerdahl's ideas and principles. The institute is located in Heyerdahl's birth town in Larvik, Norway.\nThe Kon-Tiki Museum on the Bygdøy peninsula in Oslo, Norway houses vessels and maps from the Kon-Tiki expedition, as well as a library with about 8000 books.\n* In Larvik, the birthplace of Heyerdahl, the municipality began a project in 2007 to attract more visitors. Since then, they have purchased and renovated Heyerdahl's childhood home, arranged a yearly raft regatta in his honour at the end of summer and begun to develop a Heyerdahl centre. \n* Paul Theroux, in his book The Happy Isles of Oceania, criticizes Heyerdahl for trying to link the culture of Polynesian islands with the Peruvian culture. However, recent scientific investigation that compares the DNA of some of the Polynesian islands with natives from Peru suggests that there is some merit to Heyerdahl's ideas and that while Polynesia was colonized from Asia, some contact with South America also existed. \n* Dubai College, an independent British school in Dubai, named one of the school's houses Heyerdahl. Other school house names for Dubai College include Barbarossa, Chichester and Cousteau, all surnames of famous explorers.\n* Google honored Heyerdahl on his 100th birthday by making a Google Doodle. \n\nDecorations and honorary degrees\n\nAsteroid 2473 Heyerdahl is named after him, as are HNoMS Thor Heyerdahl, a Norwegian Nansen class frigate, along with MS Thor Heyerdahl (now renamed MS Vana Tallinn) and Thor Heyerdahl, a German three-masted sail training vessel originally owned by a participant of the Tigris expedition. Thor Heyerdahl Upper Secondary School in Larvik, the town of his birth, is also named after him.\n\nHeyerdahl's numerous awards and honors include the following:\n\nGovernmental and state honors\n\n* Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St Olav (1987) (Commander with Star: 1970; Commander: 1951) \n* Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Peru (1953)\n* Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (21 June 1965) \n* Knight in the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem \n* Knight of the Order of Merit, Egypt (1971)\n* Grand Officer of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (Morocco; 1971)\n* Officer, Order of the Sun (Peru) (1975) and Knight Grand Cross\n* International Pahlavi Environment Prize, United Nations (1978)\n* Knight of the Order of the Golden Ark, Netherlands (1980)\n* Commander, American Knights of Malta (1970)\n* Civitan International World Citizenship Award \n* Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (2000) \n* St. Hallvard's Medal\n\nAcademic honors\n\n* Retzius Medal, Royal Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography (1950) \n* Mungo Park Medal, Royal Scottish Society for Geography (1951)\n* Bonaparte-Wyse Gold Medal, Société de Géographie de Paris (1951)\n* Elisha Kent Kane Gold Medal, Geographical Society of Philadelphia (1952)\n* Honorary Member, Geographical Societies of Norway (1953), Peru (1953), Brazil (1954)\n* Elected Member Norwegian Academy of Sciences (1958)\n* Fellow, New York Academy of Sciences (1960)\n* Vega Gold Medal, Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography (1962)\n* Lomonosov Medal, Moscow State University (1962)\n* Gold Medal, Royal Geographical Society, London (1964)\n* Distinguished Service Award, Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma, Washington, USA (1966)\n* Member American Anthropological Association (1966)\n* Kiril i Metodi Award, Geographical Society, Bulgaria (1972)\n* Honorary Professor, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico (1972)\n* Bradford Washburn Award, Museum of Science, Boston, USA, (1982)\n* President's Medal, Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma, USA (1996)\n* Honorary Professorship, Western University, Baku, Azerbaijan (1999) \n\nHonorary degrees\n\n* Doctor Honoris Causa, University of Oslo, Norway (1961)\n* Doctor Honoris Causa, USSR Academy of Science (1980)\n* Doctor Honoris Causa, University of San Martin, Lima, Peru, (1991)\n* Doctor Honoris Causa, University of Havana, Cuba (1992)\n* Doctor Honoris Causa, University of Kiev, Ukraine (1993)\n* Doctor Honoris Causa, University of Maine, Orono (1998)\n\nBooks\n\n* På Jakt efter Paradiset (Hunt for Paradise), 1938; Fatu-Hiva: Back to Nature (changed title in English in 1974).\n* The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft Across the South Seas (Kon-Tiki ekspedisjonen, also known as Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific in a Raft), 1948.\n* American Indians in the Pacific: The Theory Behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1952), 821 pages.\n* Aku-Aku: The Secret of Easter Island, 1957.\n* Sea Routes to Polynesia: American Indians and Early Asiatics in the Pacific (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1968), 232 pages.\n* The Ra Expeditions ISBN 0-14-003462-5.\n* Early Man and the Ocean: The Beginning of Navigation and Seaborn Civilizations\n* The Tigris Expedition: In Search of Our Beginnings\n* The Maldive Mystery\n* Green Was the Earth on the Seventh Day: Memories and Journeys of a Lifetime\n* Pyramids of Tucume: The Quest for Peru's Forgotten City\n* Skjebnemote vest for havet [Fate Meets West of the Ocean], 1992 (in Norwegian and German only) the Native Americans tell their story, white and bearded Gods, infrastructure was not built by the Inkas but their more advanced predecessors.\n* In the Footsteps of Adam: A Memoir (the official edition is Abacus, 2001, translated by Ingrid Christophersen) ISBN 0-349-11273-8\n* Ingen Grenser (No Boundaries, Norwegian only), 1999 \n* Jakten på Odin (Theories about Odin, Norwegian only), 2001", "The Kon-Tiki expedition was a 1947 journey by raft across the Pacific Ocean from South America to the Polynesian islands, led by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl. The raft was named Kon-Tiki after the Inca sun god, Viracocha, for whom \"Kon-Tiki\" was said to be an old name. Kon-Tiki is also the name of Heyerdahl's book; the Academy Award-winning documentary film chronicling his adventures; and the 2012 dramatised feature film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.\n\nHeyerdahl believed that people from South America could have settled Polynesia in pre-Columbian times. His aim in mounting the Kon-Tiki expedition was to show, by using only the materials and technologies available to those people at the time, that there were no technical reasons to prevent them from having done so. Although the expedition carried some modern equipment, such as a radio, watches, charts, sextant, and metal knives, Heyerdahl argued they were incidental to the purpose of proving that the raft itself could make the journey.\n\nThe Kon-Tiki expedition was funded by private loans, along with donations of equipment from the United States Army. Heyerdahl and a small team went to Peru, where, with the help of dockyard facilities provided by the Peruvian authorities, they constructed the raft out of balsa logs and other native materials in an indigenous style as recorded in illustrations by Spanish conquistadores. The trip began on April 28, 1947. Heyerdahl and five companions sailed the raft for 101 days over 6900 km (4,300 miles) across the Pacific Ocean before smashing into a reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands on August 7, 1947. The crew made successful landfall and all returned safely.\n\nThor Heyerdahl's book about his experience became a bestseller. It was published in Norwegian in 1948 as The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft Across the South Seas, later reprinted as Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific in a Raft. It appeared with great success in English in 1950, also in many other languages. A documentary motion picture about the expedition, also called Kon-Tiki was produced from a write-up and expansion of the crew's filmstrip notes and won an Academy Award in 1951. It was directed by Thor Heyerdahl and edited by Olle Nordemar. The voyage was also chronicled in the documentary TV-series The Kon-Tiki Man: The Life and Adventures of Thor Heyerdahl, directed by Bengt Jonson. \n\nThe original Kon-Tiki raft is now on display in the Kon-Tiki Museum at Bygdøy in Oslo.\n\nCrew \n\nKon-Tiki had a six-man crew, all of whom were Norwegian except for Bengt Danielsson, a Swede. \n* Thor Heyerdahl (1914–2002) was the expedition leader. He was also the author of the book of the expedition and the narrator of the story. Heyerdahl had studied the ancient people of South America and Polynesia and believed that there was a link between the two.\n* Erik Hesselberg (1914–1972) was the navigator and artist. He painted the large Kon-Tiki figure on the raft's sail. His children's book Kon-Tiki and I appeared in Norwegian in 1949 and has since been published in more than 15 languages.\n* Bengt Danielsson (1921–1997) took on the role of steward, in charge of supplies and daily rations. Danielsson was a Swedish sociologist interested in human migration theory. He also served as translator, as he was the only member of the crew who spoke Spanish. He was also a voracious reader; his box aboard the raft contained many books.\n* Knut Haugland (1917–2009) was a radio expert, decorated by the British in World War II for actions in the Norwegian heavy water sabotage that stalled what were believed to be Germany's plans to develop an atomic bomb. Haugland was the last surviving crew member; he died on Christmas Day, 2009 at the age of 92. \n* Torstein Raaby (1918–1964) was also in charge of radio transmissions. He gained radio experience while hiding behind German lines during WWII, spying on the German battleship Tirpitz. His secret radio transmissions eventually helped guide in Allied bombers to sink the ship.\n* Herman Watzinger (1910–1986) was an engineer whose area of expertise was in technical measurements. He was the first to join Heyerdahl for the trip. He collected and recorded all sorts of data on the voyage. Much of what he recorded, such as weather data, was sent back to various people, since this area of the ocean was largely unstudied.\n\nThe expedition also carried a pet parrot named Lorita.\n\nConstruction\n\nThe main body of the float was composed of nine balsa tree trunks up to 45 ft long, 2 ft in diameter, lashed together with hemp ropes. Cross-pieces of balsa logs 18 ft long and 1 ft in diameter were lashed across the logs at 3 ft intervals to give lateral support. Pine splashboards clad the bow, and lengths of pine 1 in thick and 2 ft wide were wedged between the balsa logs and used as centreboards.\n\nThe main mast was made of lengths of mangrove wood lashed together to form an A-frame 29 ft high. Behind the main-mast was a cabin of plaited bamboo 14 ft long and 8 ft wide was built about 4 - high, and roofed with banana leaf thatch. At the stern was a 19 ft long steering oar of mangrove wood, with a blade of fir. The main sail was 15 by on a yard of bamboo stems lashed together. Photographs also show a top-sail above the main sail, and also a mizzen-sail, mounted at the stern.\n\nThe raft was partially decked in split bamboo. The main spars were a laminate of wood and reeds and Heyerdahl tested more than twenty different composites before settling on one that proved an effective compromise between bulk and torsional rigidity. No metal was used in the construction.\n\nSupplies\n\nKon-Tiki carried 275 USgal of drinking water in 56 water cans, as well as a number of sealed bamboo rods. The purpose stated by Heyerdahl for carrying modern and ancient containers was to test the effectiveness of ancient water storage. For food Kon-Tiki carried 200 coconuts, sweet potatoes, bottle gourds and other assorted fruit and roots. The U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps provided field rations, tinned food and survival equipment. In return, the Kon-Tiki explorers reported on the quality and utility of the provisions. They also caught plentiful numbers of fish, particularly flying fish, \"dolphin fish\", yellowfin tuna, bonito and shark.\n\nCommunications\n\nThe expedition carried an amateur radio station with the call sign of LI2B operated by former World War II Norwegian resistance radio operators Knut Haugland and Torstein Raaby. Haugland and Raaby maintained regular communication with a number of American, Canadian, and South American stations that relayed Kon Tiki's status to the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, D.C. On August 5, Haugland made contact with a station in Oslo, Norway, 10000 mi away. \n\nKon Tiki's transmitters were powered by batteries and a hand-cranked generator and operated on the 40, 20, 10, and 6-meter bands. Each unit was water resistant, used 2E30 vacuum tubes, and provided approximately 6 watts of RF output; the equivalent of a small flashlight. Two British 3-16 MHz Mark II transmitters were also carried on board, as was a VHF transmitter for communicating with aircraft and a hand-cranked Survival radio of the Gibson Girl type for 500 and 8280 kHz.\n\nThe radio receiver used throughout the voyage, a National Radio Company NC-173, once required a thorough drying out after being soaked during a shipwreck. An \"all well, all well\" message was sent via LI2B to notify would-be rescuers of the crew's safety. \n\nThe call sign LI2B was used by Heyerdahl again in 1969–70, when he built a papyrus reed raft and sailed from Morocco to Barbados in an attempt to show a possible link between the civilization of ancient Egypt and the New World. \n\nThe voyage\n\nKon-Tiki left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28, 1947. To avoid coastal traffic it was initially towed 50 mi out by the Fleet Tug Guardian Rios of the Peruvian Navy, then sailed roughly west carried along on the Humboldt Current. \n\nThe crew's first sight of land was the atoll of Puka-Puka on July 30. On August 4, the 97th day after departure, Kon-Tiki reached the Angatau atoll. The crew made brief contact with the inhabitants of Angatau Island, but were unable to land safely. Calculations made by Heyerdahl before the trip had indicated that 97 days was the minimum amount of time required to reach the Tuamotu islands, so the encounter with Angatau showed that they had made good time.\n\nOn August 7, the voyage came to an end when the raft struck a reef and was eventually beached on an uninhabited islet off Raroia atoll in the Tuamotu group. The team had travelled a distance of around 6980 km in 101 days, at an average speed of .\n\nAfter spending a number of days alone on the tiny islet, the crew was greeted by men from a village on a nearby island who arrived in canoes, having seen washed-up flotsam from the raft. The crew were taken back to the native village, where they were feted with traditional dances and other festivities. Finally the crew were taken off Raroia to Tahiti by the French schooner Tamara, with the salvaged Kon-Tiki in tow.\n\nAnthropology \n\nHeyerdahl believed that the original inhabitants of Easter Island were the migrants from Peru. He argued that the monumental statues known as moai resembled sculptures more typical of pre-Columbian Peru than any Polynesian designs. He believed that the Easter Island myth of a power struggle between two peoples called the Hanau epe and Hanau momoko was a memory of conflicts between the original inhabitants of the island and a later wave of Native Americans from the Northwest coast, eventually leading to the annihilation of the Hanau epe and the destruction of the island's culture and once-prosperous economy. Robert C. Suggs, \"Kon-Tiki\", in Rosemary G. Gillespie, D. A. Clague (eds), Encyclopedia of Islands, University of California Press, 2009, pp. 515–16.\n\nMost historians consider that the Polynesians from the west were the original inhabitants and that the story of the Hanau epe is either pure myth, or a memory of internal tribal or class conflicts. In 2011 Professor Erik Thorsby of the University of Oslo presented DNA evidence to the Royal Society which whilst agreeing with the west origin also identified a distinctive but smaller genetic contribution from South America. This result was questioned in 2012 because of the possibility of contamination by South Americans after European contact with the islands. In 2014 further work by a team including Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas (from the Natural History Museum of Denmark) analysed the genomes of 27 native Rapa Nui people and found that their DNA was on average 76 per cent Polynesian, eight per cent Native American and 16 per cent European. Analysis showed that: \"although the European lineage could be explained by contact with white Europeans after the island was “discovered” in 1722 by Dutch sailors, the South American component was much older, dating to between about 1280 and 1495, soon after the island was first colonised by Polynesians in around 1200.\" \n\nLater recreations of Kon-Tiki \n\nSeven Little Sisters\n\nIn 1954 William Willis sailed alone on a raft Seven Little Sisters from Peru to American Samoa, successfully completing the journey. He sailed , which was farther than Kon-Tiki. In a second great voyage ten years later, he rafted 11000 mi from South America to Australia with a metal raft Age Unlimited.\n\nKantuta\n\nIn 1955, the Czech explorer and adventurer Eduard Ingris attempted to recreate the Kon-Tiki expedition on a balsa raft called Kantuta. His first expedition, Kantuta I, took place in 1955–1956 and led to failure. In 1959 Ingris built a new balsa raft, Kantuta II, and tried to repeat the previous expedition. The second expedition was a success. Ingris was able to cross the Pacific Ocean on the balsa raft from Peru to Polynesia.\n\nTahiti-Nui\n\nA French seafarer, Éric de Bisschop, committed himself in a project he had had for some years: he built a Polynesian raft in order to cross the eastern Pacific Ocean from Tahiti to Chile (contrary to Thor Heyerdahl's crossing); the Tahiti-Nui left Papeete with a crew of five on November 8, 1956. When near the Juan Fernández Islands (Chile) in May 1957, the raft was in a very poor state and they asked for a towing, but it was damaged during the operation and had to be abandoned, but they could keep all the equipment aboard.\n\nTahiti-Nui II\n\nA second Tahiti-Nui was built in Constitución, Chile; they left on April 13, 1958, towards Callao, then towards the Marquesas, but they missed their target (after 4 months, it began to sink). His crew built a new smaller raft, the Tahiti Nui III, in the ocean out of the more buoyant parts of the Tahiti Nui II and were swept along towards Cook Islands where on August 30, the raft went aground and was wrecked at Rakahanga atoll. Eric de Bisschop was the only person who died in this accident.\n\nTangaroa\n\nA Peruvian expedition led by Carlos Caravedo crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1965 in 115 days in a raft named Tangaroa, of which 18 days were used by the crew to cross Tuamotus, the Tuamotu Archipielago, making Tangaroa the only raft that has managed to cross that dangerous archipelago of French Polynesia by its own means. On November 18, 1965, the Tangaroa ended its journey on the Fakarava island. Fakarava is where the Tangaroa is currently preserved.\n\nLas Balsas\n\nThe 1973 Las Balsas expedition was the first (and so far only) multiple-raft crossing of the Pacific Ocean in recent history. It is the longest-known raft voyage in history. The expedition was led by Spaniard Vital Alsar, who, in 1970, led the La Balsa expedition, only on that occasion with one raft and three companions. The crossing was successful and, at the time, the longest raft voyage in history, until eclipsed in 1973 by Las Balsas. The purpose of the 1973 expedition was three-fold: (1) to prove that the success of 1970 was no accident, (2) to test different currents in the sea, which Alsar maintained ancient mariners knew as modern humans know road maps, and (3) to show that the original expeditions, directed perhaps toward trade or colonisation, may have consisted of small fleets of balsa rafts.\n\nTangaroa\n\nIn 2006, the Tangaroa Expedition recreated the Kon-Tiki voyage using a newly built raft, the Tangaroa, named after the Māori sea-god Tangaroa. Tangaroa's six-man crew was led by Norwegian Torgeir Higraff and included Olav Heyerdahl, grandson of Thor Heyerdahl, Bjarne Krekvik (captain), Øyvin Lauten (executive officer), Swedish Anders Berg (photographer) and Peruvian Roberto Sala. Tangaroa was launched on the same day that Kon-Tiki had been—April 28—and it reached its destination on July 7, which was 30 days faster than Heyerdahl's Kon-Tiki which had taken 101 days for the voyage. Tangaroa's speed was credited to the proper use of guaras (centerboards).\n\nAn-Tiki\n\nOn January 30, 2011, An-Tiki, a raft modeled after Kon-Tiki, began a 3000 mi, 70-day journey across the Atlantic Ocean from the Canary Islands to the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas. The expedition was piloted by four men, aged from 56 to 84 years, led by Anthony Smith. The trip was designed to commemorate the journey in an open boat of survivors from the British steamship Anglo-Saxon, sunk by the German cruiser Widder in 1940. The raft ended its voyage in the Caribbean island of St Maarten, completing its trip to Eleuthera in the following year with Smith and a new crew. \n\nDocumentation\n\nMemoir book\n\nA book documenting the voyage and raft was released in 1948 by Thor Heyerdahl, called The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft Across the South Seas.\n\nDocumentary film\n\nA film documentary about the voyage and raft was released in 1950, called Kon-Tiki. It won the 1951 Oscar for Best Documentary Feature.\n\nFictionalization\n\nKon-Tiki is a 2012 Norwegian historical dramatized feature film about the 1947 Kon-Tiki expedition. It stars Pål Sverre Valheim Hagen as Thor Heyerdahl and is directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg. It was the highest-grossing film of 2012 in Norway and the country's most expensive production to date.", "Polynesia (UK:; US: , from \"poly\" many + \"nēsos\" island) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language family, culture, and beliefs. Historically, they were experienced sailors and used stars to navigate during the night.\n\nThe term \"Polynesia\" was first used in 1756 by French writer Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific. In 1831, Jules Dumont d'Urville proposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris. Historically, these islands have also been referred to as the South Sea Islands. \n\nGeography\n\nGeology\n\nPolynesia is characterized by a small amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid and southern Pacific Ocean. Most Polynesian islands and archipelagos, including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa, are composed of volcanic islands built by hotspots. New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Ouvéa, the Polynesian outlier near New Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of Zealandia. Zealandia is believed to have mostly sunk by 23 million years ago and resurfaced geologically recently due to a change in the movements of the Pacific Plate in relation to the Indo-Australian plate, which served to uplift the New Zealand portion. At first, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australian plate. The Alpine Fault that traverses the South Island is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate boundary from the North Island northwards is a subduction zone called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. The volcanism associated with this subduction zone is the origin of the Kermadec and Tongan island archipelagos.\n\nOut of about 117000 or of land, over 103000 sqmi are within New Zealand; the Hawaiian archipelago comprises about half the remainder. The Zealandia continent has approximately 1400000 sqmi of continental shelf. The oldest rocks in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old. The oldest Polynesian rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years old.\n\nGeographic area\n\nPolynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle, although there are some islands that are inhabited by Polynesian people situated outside the Polynesian Triangle. Geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Niue, Wallis and Futuna and French Polynesia.\n\nThere are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this great triangle is Rotuma, situated north of Fiji. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian language. Some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga.\n\nHowever, in essence, Polynesia is a cultural term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania (the others being Micronesia and Melanesia).\n\nIsland groups\n\nThe following are the islands and island groups, either nations or overseas territories of former colonial powers, that are of native Polynesian culture or where archaeological evidence indicates Polynesian settlement in the past. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the general triangle that geographically defines the region.\n\nMain Polynesia\n\nThe Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands, but they had no permanent settlements until European colonization.\n\nPolynesian outliers\n\nIn Melanesia\n\n* Anuta (in the Solomon Islands)\n* Bellona Island (in the Solomon Islands)\n* Emae (in Vanuatu)\n* Fiji\n* Mele (in Vanuatu)\n* Nuguria (in Papua New Guinea)\n* Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)\n* Ontong Java (in the Solomon Islands)\n* Pileni (in the Solomon Islands)\n* Rennell (in the Solomon Islands)\n* Sikaiana (in the Solomon Islands)\n* Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)\n* Tikopia (in the Solomon Islands)\n* The United States Minor Outlying Islands\n\nIn Micronesia\n\n* Kapingamarangi (in the Federated States of Micronesia)\n* Nukuoro (in the Federated States of Micronesia)\n\nSubantarctic Islands\n\n* Auckland Islands (the most southerly known evidence of Polynesian settlement) \n\nHistory of the Polynesian people\n\nOrigins and expansion\n\nThe Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan.\n\nBetween about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia. \n\nThere are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia. These are outlined well by Kayser et al. (2000) and are as follows:\n* Express Train model: A recent (c. 3000–1000 BC) expansion out of Taiwan, via the Philippines and eastern Indonesia and from the northwest (\"Bird's Head\") of New Guinea, on to Island Melanesia by roughly 1400 BC, reaching western Polynesian islands right about 900 BC. This theory is supported by the majority of current genetic, linguistic, and archaeological data.\n* Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long history of Austronesian speakers' cultural and genetic interactions with indigenous Island Southeast Asians and Melanesians along the way to becoming the first Polynesians.\n* Slow Boat model: Similar to the express-train model but with a longer hiatus in Melanesia along with admixture, both genetically, culturally and linguistically with the local population. This is supported by the Y-chromosome data of Kayser et al. (2000), which shows that all three haplotypes of Polynesian Y chromosomes can be traced back to Melanesia.\n\nIn the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BC, \"Lapita Peoples\", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of northwest Melanesia. This culture is seen as having adapted and evolved through time and space since its emergence \"Out of Taiwan\". They had given up rice production, for instance, after encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the Bird's Head area of New Guinea. In the end, the most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so far is at Mulifanua on Upolu. The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied, has a \"true\" age of c. 1000 BC based on C14 dating. A 2010 study places the beginning of the human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in Tonga at 900 B.C. \n\nWithin a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita archaeological culture spread 6,000 km further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa which were first populated around 3,000 years ago as mentioned previously. A cultural divide began to develop between Fiji to the west, and the distinctive Polynesian language and culture emerging on Tonga and Samoa to the east. Where there was once faint evidence of uniquely shared developments in Fijian and Polynesian speech, most of this is now called \"borrowing\" and is thought to have occurred in those and later years more than as a result of continuing unity of their earliest dialects on those far-flung lands. Contacts were mediated especially through the eastern Lau Islands of Fiji and this is where most Fijian-Polynesian linguistic interaction occurred.\n\nTiny populations seem to have been involved at first.\n\nCulture\n\nThe Polynesians were matrilineal and matrilocal societies upon arrival to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa, after having been through at least some time in the Bismarck Archipelago. The modern Polynesians still show the human genetic results of a Melanesian culture which allowed indigenous men, but not women, to \"marry in\" – useful evidence for matrilocality. \n\nAlthough matrilocality and matrilineality receded at some early time Polynesians, and most other Austronesian speakers in the Pacific Islands, were/are still highly \"matricentric\" in their traditional jurisprudence. The Lapita pottery for which the general archaeological complex of the earliest \"Oceanic\" Austronesian speakers in the Pacific Islands are named also went away in Western Polynesia and language, social life and material culture were very distinctly \"Polynesian\" by the time Eastern Polynesia began to be settled after a \"pause\" of 1000 years or perhaps well more in Western Polynesia.\n\nThe dating of the settlement of Eastern Polynesia including Hawai'i, Easter Island, and New Zealand is not agreed upon in every instance. Most recently a 2010 study using meta-analysis of the most reliable radiocarbon dates available suggested that the colonization of Eastern Polynesia (including Hawaii and New Zealand) proceeded in two short episodes: in the Society Islands from 1025–1120 AD and further afield from 1190–1290 AD, with Easter Island being settled around 1200. Other archeological models developed in recent decades, which are challenged by that recent set of radiocarbon dating interpretations, have pointed to dates of between 300 and 500 AD, or alternatively 800 AD (as supported by Jared Diamond) for the settlement of Easter Island, and similarly, a date of 500 AD has been suggested for Hawaii. Linguistically, there is a very distinct \"East Polynesian\" subgroup with many shared innovations not seen in other Polynesian languages. The Marquesas dialects are perhaps the source of the oldest Hawaiian speech which is overlaid by Tahitian variety speech, as Hawaiian oral histories would suggest. The earliest varieties of New Zealand Maori speech may have had multiple sources from around central Eastern Polynesia as Maori oral histories would suggest.\n\nPolitical history of Polynesia\n\nTonga 16th century–present\n\nAfter a bloody civil war, political power in Tonga eventually fell under the Tu'i Kanokupolu dynasty in the 16th century.\n\nIn 1845 the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and orator Tāufaʻāhau united Tonga into a more Western-style kingdom. He held the chiefly title of Tuʻi Kanokupolu, but had been baptised with the name Jiaoji (\"George\") in 1831. In 1875, with the help of the missionary Shirley Waldemar Baker, he declared Tonga a constitutional monarchy, formally adopted the western royal style, emancipated the \"serfs\", enshrined a code of law, land tenure, and freedom of the press, and limited the power of the chiefs.\n\nTonga became a British-protected state under a Treaty of Friendship on 18 May 1900, when European settlers and rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. Within the British Empire, which posted no higher permanent representative on Tonga than a British Consul (1901–1970), Tonga formed part of the British Western Pacific Territories (under a colonial High Commissioner, residing on Fiji) from 1901 until 1952. Despite being under the protectorate, Tonga retained its monarchy without interruption.\n\nOn June 4, 1970 the Kingdom of Tonga received independence from the British protectorate.\n\nSamoa Malietoa–present\n\nSamoa remained under Malietoa chieftains until its East-West division by Tripartite Convention (1899) subsequent annexation by the German Empire and the United States. The German-controlled Western portion of Samoa (the consisting of the bulk of Samoan territory) was occupied by New Zealand in WWI, and administered by it under a Class C League of Nations Mandate until receiving independence on January 1, 1962. The new Independent State of Samoa was not a monarchy, though the Malietoa title-holder remained very influential. It officially ended, however with the death of Malietoa Tanumafili II on May 11, 2007.\n\nTahiti\n\nHawaii\n\nNew Zealand Maori\n\nOn October 28, 1835 members of the Ngāpuhi and surrounding iwi issued a \"declaration of independence\", as a \"confederation of tribes\" to resist potential French colonization efforts and to prevent the ships and cargo of Maori merchants from being seized at foreign ports. They received recognition from the British monarch in 1836. (See United Tribes of New Zealand, New Zealand Declaration of Independence, James Busby.)\n\nUsing the Treaty of Waitangi and right of discovery as a basis, the United Kingdom annexed New Zealand as a part of New South Wales in 1840.\n\nIn response to the actions of the colonial government, Maori looked to form monarchy inclusive of all Maori tribes in order to reduce vulnerability to the British divide-and-conquer strategy. Pōtatau Te Wherowhero high priest and chief of the Ngāti Mahuta tribe of the Waikato iwi was crowned as the Maori king in 1858. The king's territory consisted primarily of the lands in the center of the North Island, and the iwi constituted from the most powerful non-signatories of the Treaty of Waitangi, with Te Wherowhero also never having signed it. (See Kingitanga.)\n\nAll tribes were incorporated into rule under the colonial government by the late 19th century. Although Maori were given the privilege of being legally enfranchised subjects of the British Empire under the Treaty, Maori culture and language were actively suppressed by the colonial government and by economic and social pressures from the Pakeha society until efforts were made to preserve indigenous culture starting in the late 1950s and culminating in the Waitangi Tribunal's interpretation of language and culture being included in the treasures set to be preserved under the Treaty of Waitangi. Moving from a low point of 15,000 speakers in the 1970s, there are now over 157,000 people who have some proficiency in the standard Māori language according to the 2006 census in New Zealand, due in large part to government recognition and promotion of the language.\n\nMaori are very much integrated into New Zealand society, and many are of mixed Maori and European, Asian, or Pacific Islander heritage. The New Zealand Defence forces are over half Maori, and the New Zealand Special Forces are ⅔ Maori. Jerry Mateparae, the former chief of the armed forces, now serves as Governor-General of New Zealand. However, despite major achievements towards equality, Maori are still under-represented in many fields.\n\nFiji\n\nThe Lau islands were subject to periods of Tongan rulership and then Fijian control until their eventual conquest by Seru Epenisa Cakobau of the Kingdom of Fiji by 1871. In around 1855 a Tongan prince, Enele Ma'afu, proclaimed the Lau islands as his kingdom, and took the title Tui Lau.\n\nFiji itself had been ruled by numerous divided chieftains until Cakobau unified the landmass. The Lapita culture, the ancestors of the Polynesians, existed in Fiji from 3500 BCE until they were displaced by the Melanesians about a thousand years later. (Interestingly, Samoans and subsequent Polynesian cultures adopted Melanesian face painting methods.)\n\nIn 1873, Cakobau ceded a Fiji heavily indebted to foreign creditors to the United Kingdom. It became independent on 10 October 1970 and a republic on 28 September 1987.\n\nCook Islands\n\nTuvalu\n\nThe reef islands and atolls of Tuvalu are identified as being part of West Polynesia. During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the islands as Polynesian navigation skills are recognised to have allowed deliberate journeys on double-hull sailing canoes or outrigger canoes. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means \"eight standing together\" in Tuvaluan. The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from the Samoa and Tonga into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia. \n\nThe stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. On Niutao, Funafuti and Vaitupu the founding ancestor is described as being from Samoa; whereas on Nanumea the founding ancestor is described as being from Tonga.\n\nThe extent of influence of the Tuʻi Tonga line of Tongan kings, which originated in the 10th century is understood to have extended to some of the islands of Tuvalu in the 11th to mid-13th century. The oral history of Niutao recalls that in the 15th century Tongan warriors were defeated in a battle on the reef of Niutao, Tongan warriors also invaded Niutao later in the 15th century and again were repelled. A third and fourth Tongan invasion of Niutao occurred in the late 16th century, again with the Tongans being defeated.\n\nFishing was the primary source of protein, with the cuisine of Tuvalu reflecting the food that could be grown on low-lying atolls. Navigation between the islands of Tuvalu was carried out using outrigger canoes. The population levels of the low-lying islands of Tuvalu had to be managed because of the effects of periodic droughts and the risk of severe famine if the gardens were poisoned by the salt from the storm-surge of a tropical cyclone.\n\nPolynesian links to the Americas\n\nThe sweet potato, called kūmara in Māori and kumar in Quechua, is native to the Americas and was widespread in Polynesia when Europeans first reached the Pacific. Remains of the plant in the Cook Islands have been radiocarbon-dated to 1000, and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia c. 700 and spread across Polynesia from there, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back. \n\nThor Heyerdahl proposed in the mid-20th century that the Polynesians had migrated from the northwest coast of Canada by large whale-hunting dugouts, and from South America on balsa-log boats. Many anthropologists have criticised Heyerdahl's theory, including Wade Davis in his book The Wayfinders. Davis says that Heyerdahl \"ignored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic, and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently wrong.\" \n\nAnother essential Pacific food plant which gives ethno-botanists something to argue about is the origin of the coconut.\n\nCoconut origins\n\nConfusion about the name given to the coconut in the early days, gave problems in tracing its origins, but it also leads to some conclusions. For instance, the language of the Caribbean tribes has no linguistic recording of an indigenous name: from the time of Columbus the Portuguese name 'coco nut' has been used. The idea that the coconut was bought back to the Mediterranean from India by the troops of Alexander the Great around 300 BC can also now be discounted, although there may have been a description of a very similar palm by Cosmos of Alexandria in 545 AD, which is considerably later. Recent suggestions is that it may have reached the Ecuador coast from the Philippines about 250 BC. \n\nThe earliest date for undisputed European knowledge of the coconut suggests that it arrived from India between 1000 AD (see possible mention in the legend of Sinbad) … or at the absolute latest, 1280 AD (Marco Polo who named it the Pharaoh nut which suggests it came from Egypt). We now know that Vasco de Gama bought them to Europe from India in the mid-1500s, and we also know that he didn't find any growing along the west coast of Africa which suggests a late arrival in the Atlantic ocean (but perhaps earlier in the Indian ocean at Madagasca). They are supposed to have been mentioned in 4th C BC Sanskrit writings and Hindu epics (a fact, not to be trusted because of multiple rewrites), and in later Tamil literature from the 1st to 4th C AD. But, while the palms were known in south India and Ceylon/Sri Lanka, they remained unknown in the north where Alexander the Great made his first recorded contact.\n\nFollowing the mutiny on the Bounty in coconut-laden Tahiti, Captain William Bligh, rowed west and up the east coast of Australia to Indonesia, but didn't find any signs of coconut despite this long coast being downwind and along a warm current from the Melanesian islands where coconut grew profusely\n\nThe late historical arrival of the plant in Europe raises interesting questions: such a why a valuable, easily transportable nut palm would not have found its way via the trade-routes from India and Asia across to Egypt and the Levantine coast at any time from 1000 BC on. In medieval times the nut later proved to be a popular cargo on sailing ships (ship-wrecks probably helped spread them in the Caribbean), and once established, palm cultivation proved successful across the Middle East and coastal Mediterranean as well as in the warmer parts of southern Europe.\n\nThe habitat of the obviously natural-germinated palms, however, appears to be entirely confined to the coastal regions of the global tropical band.\n\nSo coconut's origin is still in dispute despite the botanical weight focussing on India. Famous botanist Orator F Cook Jr. hypothesised that they originated in the Americas (an idea later followed up by Thor Heyerdah), and it is now well established that, pre-dating European contact, the Pacific type of nut was widely distributed on the northwest-coast South America, while not on the eastern Atlantic side (which later had Indian-type palms, carried by the Portuguese). Early fossils of the ancestral coconut are in Australia and India, and closely related forms have been found in Australia, the Americas and New Zealand.\n\nTheories that the nut originated on coral atolls, and that they evolved the thick fibrous husk to help them to survive and disperse by the sea, are only partly accepted. Some experts maintain that the nut could not have been distributed across the Pacific in pre-historic times (or before Polynesian island settlement) without human intervention: the gaps between island groups are too wide (but not between islands in each group). This is still an arguable point, since human selection has probably modified the shape, size and thickness of the shell during domestication. However such domestication must have happened in a restricted region, since essentially the same two palm species (Cocos nucifera palm: divided into Niu kafa and Niu via fruit-types – with Pacific and Atlantic genetic variations) is now distributed around the world with little of the radical change that you'd expect if there were many isolated pockets of development. Islands create evolutionary conditions which actively promote the development of species diversity. \n\nThe idea that the coconut is ideally suited for ocean dispersal is still arguable. Thor Heyerdahl of Kon Tiki fame pointed out that the most vulnerable part of the nut, the soft eye, floats downwards. If floatation was the key achievement of the coconut's evolutionary value, you'd expect the eye to float above the water line. Heyerdahl believes that the fibrous floating coir is an evolutionary adaptation to protect a heavy fluid-filled fragile nut from fragmenting when it drops from height onto stony ground, and points to a possible source in salty desert conditions along the Pacific coast of South America. Their salt resistance and their liking for sandy soil, he believed were also characteristics which provide a matched combination which gave the coconut with an evolutionary advantage for short-distance sea-hopping. They were then able to self-germinate wherever ocean salt spray limits the grown of competitive trees on coastal strips and around the edge of islands.\n\nHe suggested that they evolved in the stony deserts of South America and were then domesticated and cried out into the Pacific by voyagers from the coast of Peru. He pointed out that all the nuts stored below waterline on the Kon Tiki balsa-wood raft were non-germinating by the time the raft reached Polynesia, while those above the line were able to germinate. Others have claimed that the coconut can drift for 110 days over 4,800 km and still germinate, and they point out that the coconut seems to require high humidity. It is actively sun-seeking in the direction the palm grows, and neither of these developments are a desert plant feature. Of course, the ability to store large amounts of water is not something you'd expect of coastal fringe evolution, either.\n\nThere are now two distinct sub-types of the domestic coconut—which, given the flow of ocean currents, manages to support both the India/New Guinea source theory, as well as the northwestern South America region as possible dispersal points. The most popular scientific view is that they were man-carried (probably by Austronesian proto-Polynesian people) into the Pacific islands after domestication in a region near India, Indonesia and the Philippines. DNA analysis suggests two separate locations for first cultivation, in both the Pacific (Philippines) and the Indian Ocean basin (South India) – which seems to indicate scientists not able to make up their mind. \n\nCultures of Polynesia\n\nPolynesia divides into two distinct cultural groups, East Polynesia and West Polynesia. The culture of West Polynesia is conditioned to high populations. It has strong institutions of marriage and well-developed judicial, monetary and trading traditions. It comprises the groups of Tonga, Niue, Samoa and extended to the atolls of Tuvalu to the north. The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia.\n\nEastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller islands and atolls, principally the Cook Islands, Tahiti, the Tuamotus, the Marquesas, Hawaii, Rapa Nui and smaller central-pacific groups. The large islands of New Zealand were first settled by Eastern Polynesians who adapted their culture to a non-tropical environment.\n\nUnlike in Melanesia, leaders were chosen in Polynesia based on their hereditary bloodline. Samoa however, had another system of government that combines elements of heredity and real-world skills to choose leaders. This system is called Fa'amatai. According to Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, \"On Tahiti, for example, the 35,000 Polynesians living there at the time of European discovery were divided between high-status persons with full access to food and other resources, and low-status persons with limited access.\"\n\nReligion, farming, fishing, weather prediction, out-rigger canoe (similar to modern catamarans) construction and navigation were highly developed skills because the population of an entire island depended on them. Trading of both luxuries and mundane items was important to all groups. Periodic droughts and subsequent famines often led to war. Many low-lying islands could suffer severe famine if their gardens were poisoned by the salt from the storm-surge of a tropical cyclone. In these cases fishing, the primary source of protein, would not ease loss of food energy. Navigators, in particular, were highly respected and each island maintained a house of navigation with a canoe-building area.\n\nSettlements by the Polynesians were of two categories: the hamlet and the village. Size of the island inhabited determined whether or a not a hamlet would be built. The larger volcanic islands usually had hamlets because of the many zones that could be divided across the island. Food and resources were more plentiful and so these settlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens) were established so that there would be no overlap between the zones. Villages, on the other hand, were built on the coasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more houses—in the case of atolls, on only one of the group so that food cultivation was on the others. Usually these villages were fortified with walls and palisades made of stone and wood. \n\nHowever, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite: large volcanic islands with fortified villages.\n\nAs well as being great navigators these people were artists and artisans of great skill. Simple objects, such as fish-hooks would be manufactured to exacting standards for different catches and decorated even when the decoration was not part of the function. Stone and wooden weapons were considered to be more powerful the better they were made and decorated. In some island groups weaving was a strong part of the culture and gifting woven articles an ingrained practice. Dwellings were imbued with character by the skill of their building. Body decoration and jewellery is of international standard to this day.\n\nThe religious attributes of Polynesians were common over the whole Pacific region. While there are some differences in their spoken languages they largely have the same explanation for the creation of the earth and sky, for the gods that rule aspects of life and for the religious practices of everyday life. People travelled thousands of miles to celebrations that they all owned communally.\n\nBeginning in the 1820s large numbers of missionaries worked in the islands, converting many groups to Christianity. Polynesia, argues Ian Breward, is now \"one of the most strongly Christian regions in the world....Christianity was rapidly and successfully incorporated into Polynesian culture. War and slavery disappeared.\" \n\nPolynesian languages\n\nPolynesian languages are all members of the family of Oceanic languages, a sub-branch of the Austronesian language family. Polynesian languages show a considerable degree of similarity. The vowels are generally the same—a, e, i, o, and u, pronounced as in Italian, Spanish, and German—and the consonants are always followed by a vowel. The languages of various island groups show changes in consonants. R and v are used in central and eastern Polynesia whereas l and v are used in western Polynesia. The glottal stop is increasingly represented by an inverted comma or ‘okina. In the Society Islands, the original Proto-Polynesian k and ng have merged as glottal stop; so the name for the ancestral homeland, deriving from Proto-Nuclear Polynesian sawaiki, becomes Havai'i. In New Zealand, where the original w is used instead of v, the ancient home is Hawaiki. In the Cook Islands, where the glottal stop replaces the original s (with a likely intermediate stage of h), it is ‘Avaiki. In the Hawaiian islands, where the glottal stop replaces the original k, the largest island of the group is named Hawai‘i. In Samoa, where the original s is used instead of h, v replaces w, and the glottal stop replaces the original k, the largest island is called Savai'i.\n\nEconomy\n\nWith the exception of New Zealand, the majority of independent Polynesian islands derive much of their income from foreign aid and remittances from those who live in other countries. Some encourage their young people to go where they can earn good money to remit to their stay-at-home relatives. Many Polynesian locations, such as Easter Island, supplement this with tourism income. Some have more unusual sources of income, such as Tuvalu which marketed its '.tv' internet top-level domain name or the Cooks that relied on stamp sales.\n\nInter-Polynesian cooperation\n\nAfter several years of discussing a potential regional grouping, three sovereign states (Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu) and five self-governing but non-sovereign territories formally launched, in November 2011, the Polynesian Leaders Group, intended to cooperate on a variety of issues including culture and language, education, responses to climate change, and trade and investment. It does not, however, constitute a political or monetary union. \n\nPolynesian navigation\n\nPolynesia comprised islands diffused throughout a triangular area with sides of four thousand miles. The area from the Hawaiian Islands in the north, to Easter Island in the east and to New Zealand in the south were all settled by Polynesians.\n\nNavigators traveled to small inhabited islands using only their own senses and knowledge passed by oral tradition from navigator to apprentice. In order to locate directions at various times of day and year, navigators in Eastern Polynesia memorized important facts: the motion of specific stars, and where they would rise on the horizon of the ocean; weather; times of travel; wildlife species (which congregate at particular positions); directions of swells on the ocean, and how the crew would feel their motion; colors of the sea and sky, especially how clouds would cluster at the locations of some islands; and angles for approaching harbors.\n\nThese wayfinding techniques, along with outrigger canoe construction methods, were kept as guild secrets. Generally each island maintained a guild of navigators who had very high status; in times of famine or difficulty these navigators could trade for aid or evacuate people to neighboring islands. On his first voyage of Pacific exploration Cook had the services of a Polynesian navigator, Tupaia, who drew a hand-drawn Chart of the islands within 2000 mi radius (to the north and west) of his home island of Ra'iatea. Tupaia had knowledge of 130 islands and named 74 on his Chart. Tupaia had navigated from Ra'iatea in short voyages to 13 islands. He had not visited western Polynesia, as since his grandfather’s time the extent of voyaging by Raiateans has diminished to the islands of eastern Polynesia. His grandfather and father had passed to Tupaia the knowledge as to the location of the major islands of western Polynesia and the navigation information necessary to voyage to Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. As the Admiralty orders directed Cook to search for the “Great Southern Continent”, Cook ignored Tupaia’s Chart and his skills as a navigator. To this day, original traditional methods of Polynesian Navigation are still taught in the Polynesian outlier of Taumako Island in the Solomon Islands.\n\nFrom a single chicken bone recovered from the archaeological site of El Arenal-1, on the Arauco Peninsula, Chile, a 2007 research report looking at radiocarbon dating and an ancient DNA sequence indicate that Polynesian navigators may have reached the Americas at least 100 years before Columbus (who arrived 1492 AD), introducing chickens to South America. A later report looking at the same specimens concluded:\n\nA published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia. \n\nKnowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of navigation were largely lost after contact with and colonization by Europeans. This left the problem of accounting for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated and scattered parts of the Pacific. By the late 19th century to the early 20th century a more generous view of Polynesian navigation had come into favor, perhaps creating a romantic picture of their canoes, seamanship and navigational expertise.\n\nIn the mid to late 1960s, scholars began testing sailing and paddling experiments related to Polynesian navigation: David Lewis sailed his catamaran from Tahiti to New Zealand using stellar navigation without instruments and Ben Finney built a 40-foot replica of a Hawaiian double canoe \"Nalehia\" and tested it in Hawaii. Meanwhile, Micronesian ethnographic research in the Caroline Islands revealed that traditional stellar navigational methods were still in every day use. Recent re-creations of Polynesian voyaging have used methods based largely on Micronesian methods and the teachings of a Micronesian navigator, Mau Piailug.\n\nIt is probable that the Polynesian navigators employed a whole range of techniques including use of the stars, the movement of ocean currents and wave patterns, the air and sea interference patterns caused by islands and atolls, the flight of birds, the winds and the weather. Scientists think that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the seasonal paths of birds. There are some references in their oral traditions to the flight of birds and some say that there were range marks onshore pointing to distant islands in line with these flyways. One theory is that they would have taken a frigatebird with them. These birds refuse to land on the water as their feathers will become waterlogged making it impossible to fly. When the voyagers thought they were close to land they may have released the bird, which would either fly towards land or else return to the canoe. It is likely that the Polynesians also used wave and swell formations to navigate. It is thought that the Polynesian navigators may have measured the time it took to sail between islands in \"canoe-days’’ or a similar type of expression.\n\nAlso, people of the Marshall Islands used special devices called stick charts, showing the places and directions of swells and wave-breaks, with tiny seashells affixed to them to mark the positions of islands along the way. Materials for these maps were readily available on beaches, and their making was simple; however, their effective use needed years and years of study." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Lower Peru", "Name of Peru", "Republic of Peru", "Etymology of Peru", "ISO 3166-1:PE", "Piruw", "Peruano", "República del Perú", "El Perú", "Republic of Perú", "Peruvian Republic", "Peru", "Peruvian", "Péru", "Piruw Ripuwlika", "El Peru", "Perú", "Perù", "Piruw Suyu", "Pérou", "Peruvia" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "republic of perú", "piruw suyu", "iso 3166 1 pe", "peruvian republic", "perú", "piruw ripuwlika", "perù", "lower peru", "republic of peru", "el peru", "el perú", "pérou", "peruano", "name of peru", "peruvia", "piruw", "peru", "república del perú", "peruvian", "etymology of peru", "péru" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "peru", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Peru" }
Donna Gaines is better known by which name?	tc_1061	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Donna_Summer.txt" ], "title": [ "Donna Summer" ], "wiki_context": [ "LaDonna Adrian Gaines (December 31, 1948 - May 17, 2012), known by her stage name Donna Summer, was an American singer, songwriter, and painter. She gained prominence during the disco era of the late-1970s. A five-time Grammy Award winner, she was the first artist to have three consecutive double albums reach No. 1 on the United States Billboard 200 and charted four number-one singles in the U.S. within a 12-month period. Summer has reportedly sold over 140 million records , making her one of the world's best-selling artists of all time. She also charted two number-one singles on the R&B charts in the U.S. and one number-one in the U.K. \n\nSummer earned a total of 32 hit singles on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in her lifetime, with 14 of those reaching the top ten. She claimed a top 40 hit every year between 1975 and 1984, and from her first top ten hit in 1976, to the end of 1982, she had 12 top ten hits;(10 were top five hits) more than any other act. She returned to the Hot 100's top five in 1983, and claimed her final top ten hit in 1989 with \"This Time I Know It's for Real\". Her most recent Hot 100 hit came in 1999 with \"I Will Go With You (Con Te Partiro)\". While her fortunes on the Hot 100 waned through those decades, Summer remained a force on the U.S. Dance/Club Play Songs chart over her entire career.\n\nWhile influenced by the counterculture of the 1960s, she became the front singer of a psychedelic rock band named Crow and moved to New York City. Joining a touring version of the musical Hair, she left New York and spent several years living, acting, and singing in Europe, where she met music producers Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte.\n\nSummer returned to the U.S., in 1975 after the commercial success of the song \"Love to Love You Baby\", which was followed by a string of other hits, such as \"I Feel Love\", \"Last Dance\", \"MacArthur Park\", \"Heaven Knows\", \"Hot Stuff\", \"Bad Girls\", \"Dim All the Lights\", \"No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)\" (duet with Barbra Streisand), and \"On the Radio\". She became known as the \"Queen of Disco\", while her music gained a global following. \n\nSummer died on May 17, 2012, at her home in Naples, Florida. In her obituary in The Times, she was described as the \"undisputed queen of the Seventies disco boom\" who reached the status of \"one of the world's leading female singers.\" Moroder described Summer's work with him on the song \"I Feel Love\" as \"really the start of electronic dance\" music. In 2013, Summer was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. \n\nEarly life\n\nSummer was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Andrew and Mary Gaines, and was one of seven children. She was raised in the Boston neighborhood of Mission Hill. Her father was a butcher and her mother was a schoolteacher. \n\nSummer's performance debut occurred at church when she was eight years old, replacing a vocalist who failed to show up.\n\nShe later attended Boston's Jeremiah E. Burke High School where she performed in school musicals and was considered popular. In 1967, just weeks before graduation, Donna left for New York where she joined the blues rock band Crow. After they were passed on by a record label that was only interested in the band's lead singer, the band agreed to break up. Summer stayed in New York and auditioned for a role in the counterculture musical, Hair. She landed the part of Sheila, and agreed to take the role in the Munich production of the show, moving to Munich, Germany after getting her parents' reluctant approval.\n\nSummer eventually became fluent in German, singing various songs in that language, and participated in the musicals Ich bin ich (the German version of The Me Nobody Knows), Godspell and Show Boat. Within three years, she moved to Vienna, Austria, and joined the Vienna Volksoper. She briefly toured with an ensemble vocal group called FamilyTree, the creation of producer Günter \"Yogi\" Lauke. In 1968, Summer released (as Donna Gaines) on Polydor her first single, a German version of the title \"Aquarius\" from the musical Hair, followed in 1971 by a second single, a cover of the Jaynetts' \"Sally Go 'Round the Roses\", from a one-off European deal with Decca Records. In 1969, she issued the single \"If You Walkin' Alone\" on Philips Records.\n\nDonna married Austrian actor Helmuth Sommer in 1973, and gave birth to their daughter (called Mimi) Natalia Pia Melanie Sommer, the same year. She provided backing vocals for producer-keyboardist Veit Marvos on his Ariola Records release Nice to See You, credited as \"Gayn Pierre\". Several subsequent singles included Donna performing with the group, and the name \"Gayn Pierre\" was used while performing in Godspell with Helmuth Sommer during 1972.\n\nMusic career\n\n1974–1979: Initial success\n\nWhile working as a model part-time and back up singer in Munich, she met German-based producers Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte during a recording session for Three Dog Night at Musicland Studios. The trio forged a working partnership, and Donna was signed to their Oasis label in 1974. A demo tape of Summer's work with Moroder and Bellotte led to a deal with the European-distributed label Groovy Records. Due to an error on the record cover, Donna Sommer became Donna Summer; the name stuck. Summer's first album was Lady of the Night. It became a hit in the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany and Belgium on the strength of two songs, \"The Hostage\" and the title track \"Lady of the Night\". \"The Hostage\" reached the top of the charts in France, but was removed from radio playlists in Germany because of the song's subject matter; a high ranking politician had recently been kidnapped and held for ransom. \n\nIn 1975, Summer passed on an idea for a song to Moroder who was working with another artist; a song that would be called \"Love to Love You\". Summer and Moroder wrote the song together, and together they worked on a demo version with Summer singing the song. Moroder decided that Summer's version should be released. Seeking an American release for the song, it was sent to Casablanca Records president Neil Bogart. Bogart played the song at one of his extravagant industry parties, where it was so popular with the crowd, they insisted that it be played over and over, each time it ended. Bogart requested that Moroder produce a longer version for discothèques. Moroder, Bellotte, and Summer returned with a 17-minute version. Bogart tweaked the title to \"Love to Love You Baby\", and Casablanca signed Summer, releasing the single in November 1975. The shorter 7\" version of the single was promoted by radio stations, while clubs regularly played the 17 minute version (the longer version would also appear on the album).\n\nBy early 1976, \"Love to Love You Baby\" had reached 2 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and had become a gold single, while the album had sold over a million copies. The song generated controversy due to Summer's moans and groans, and some American stations, like those in Europe with the initial release, refused to play it. Despite this, \"Love to Love You Baby\" found chart success in several European countries, and made the Top 5 in the United Kingdom despite the BBC ban. Casablanca wasted no time releasing the album A Love Trilogy, featuring \"Try Me, I Know We Can Make It\" 80 and Summer's remarkable rendition of Barry Manilow's \"Could It Be Magic\" 52, which was followed by Four Seasons of Love, which spawned the singles \"Spring Affair\" 58 and \"Winter Melody\", 43. Both albums went gold.\n\nIn 1977, Summer released the concept album I Remember Yesterday. The song \"I Feel Love\", reached 6 on the Hot 100 chart. and 1 in the UK. She received her first American Music Award nomination for Favorite Soul/R&B Female Artist. The single would attain gold status and the album went platinum in the U.S. Another concept album, also released in 1977, was Once Upon a Time, a double album which told of a modern-day Cinderella \"rags to riches\" story. This album would attain gold status. Summer recorded the song \"Deep Down Inside\" as the theme song for the 1977 film The Deep. In 1978, Summer acted in the film Thank God It's Friday, the film met with modest success; the song \"Last Dance\", reached 3 on the Hot 100. The soundtrack and single both went gold and resulted in Summer winning her first Grammy Award, for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. Its writer, Paul Jabara, won both an Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for the composition. Donna also had With Your Love and \"Je t'aime... moi non plus\", on the soundtrack. Her version of the Jimmy Webb ballad, \"MacArthur Park\", became her first 1 hit on the Hot 100 chart. It was also the only 1 hit for songwriter Jimmy Webb; the single went gold, and topped the charts for three weeks. She received a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. The song was featured on Summer's first live album, Live and More, which also became her first album to hit number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart and went double platinum, selling over two million copies. The week of November 11, 1978, Summer became the first female artist of the modern rock era to have the 1 single on the Hot 100 and album on the Billboard 200 charts, simultaneously. The song \"Heaven Knows\", which featured Brooklyn Dreams singer Joe \"Bean\" Esposito; reached 4 on the Hot 100 and became another gold single.\n\nIn 1979, Summer won three American Music Awards for Single, Album and Female Artist, in the Disco category at the awards held in January. Summer performed at the world-televised Music for UNICEF Concert, joining contemporaries such as ABBA, Olivia Newton-John, the Bee Gees, Andy Gibb, Rod Stewart, John Denver, Earth, Wind & Fire, Rita Coolidge and Kris Kristofferson for a TV special that raised funds and awareness for the world's children. Artists donated royalties of certain songs, some in perpetuity, to benefit the cause. Summer began work on her next project with Moroder and Bellotte, Bad Girls. Mororder brought in Harold Faltermeyer, with whom he had collaborated on the soundtrack of film Midnight Express, to be the album's arranger. Faltermeyer's role would significantly increase from arranger, as he played keyboards and wrote songs with Summer.\n\nThe album went triple platinum, spawning the number-one hits \"Hot Stuff\" and \"Bad Girls\", that went platinum, and the number-two \"Dim All the Lights\" which went gold. The week of June 16, 1979, Summer would again have the number-one single on the Hot 100 chart, and the number-one album on the Billboard 200 chart; when \"Hot Stuff\" regained the top spot on the Hot 100 chart. The following week, \"Bad Girls\" would be on top of the U.S. Top R&B albums chart, \"Hot Stuff\" remained at 1, and \"Bad Girls\", the single, would climb into the top five on the Hot 100. The following week, Summer would be the first solo artist to have two songs in the Hot 100 top three at the same time. In July 1979, Summer topped the Hot 100 singles chart, and the Billboard 200 albums chart, and the Soul singles chart simultaneously. In the week of November 10, 1979, \"Dim All the Lights\" peaked at 2 for two weeks; the following week \"No More Tears (Enough is Enough)\" would get to 3; and once again Summer would have two songs in the top 3, on the Hot 100. One week later, \"No More Tears\" climbed to 1 spot on the Hot 100 chart, and \"Dim All the Lights\" went to 4; she again had two songs in the top 5 of the Hot 100 chart. In the span of eight months, Summer had topped both the singles and albums charts simultaneously, three times. She became the first Female Artist to have three number-one singles in a calendar year. With \"Mac Arthur Park\", \"Hot Stuff\", \"Bad Girls\", and the Barbra Streisand-duet \"No More Tears (Enough is Enough)\", Summer achieved four number-one hits on the Hot 100 chart within a 12-month period. Including \"Heaven Knows\" and \"Dim All the Lights\" she had achieved six top 4 singles on the Hot 100 chart in the same 12-month period. Those songs, along with \"Last Dance\", \"On the Radio\", and \"The Wanderer\", would give her nine Top 5 singles on the Hot 100 chart in just over a two-year period. The single, \"No More Tears (Enough is Enough)\" would sell over two million copies becoming a platinum success. \"Hot Stuff\" won her a Grammy Award in the Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, the first time the category was included. She was nominated for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year and both Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance, as well as Best Disco Recording. That year, Summer played eight sold-out nights at the Universal Amphitheater in Los Angeles.\n\nCasablanca then released On the Radio: Greatest Hits Volumes I & II, her first (international) greatest hits set, in 1979. The album was mixed differently than the original songs issued on it, with each song segueing into the next, and included two new songs \"On the Radio\" and \"No More Tears (Enough is Enough)\". It would be the first time that such an album package would be made. The album went 1, her third consecutive 1 album on the Billboard 200, and gained double-platinum status. \"On the Radio\", reached 5, selling over a million copies in the U.S. alone, making it a gold single. Summer would again receive a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.\n\n1980–1985\n\nSummer received four nominations for 1980 American Music Awards, and took home awards for Female Pop/Rock and Female Soul/R&B Artist; and well as Pop/Rock single for \"Bad Girls\". Just over a week after the awards, Donna had her own nationally televised special, The Donna Summer Special, which aired on ABC network on January 27, 1980. After the release of the On the Radio album, Summer wanted to branch out into other musical styles, which led to tensions between her and Casablanca Records. Casablanca wanted her to continue to record disco only. Summer was upset with President Neil Bogart over the early release of the single \"No More Tears (Enough is Enough)\"; she had penned \"Dim All the Lights\" alone, and was hoping for a number-one hit as a songwriter. Not waiting until \"Dim All the Lights\" had peaked, or at least another month as promised; Summer felt it had detracted from the singles chart momentum. Summer and the label parted ways in 1980, and she signed with Geffen Records, the new label started by David Geffen. Summer had filed a 10-million-dollar suit against Casablanca; the label counter-sued. In the end, she did not receive any money, but won the rights to her own lucrative song publishing. \n\nSummer's first Geffen album, The Wanderer, featured an eclectic mixture of sounds, bringing elements of rock, rockabilly, new wave and gospel music. The Wanderer was rushed to market. The producers of the album wanted more production time. The album continued Summer's streak of gold albums with the title track peaking at 3 on the Hot 100 chart. Its follow-up singles were, \"Cold Love\" 33 and \"Who Do You Think You're Foolin'\", 40. Donna was nominated for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for \"Cold Love\", and Best Inspirational Performance for \"I Believe in Jesus\" at the 1981 Grammy Awards.\n\nShe would soon be working on her next album. It was to be another double album set. When David Geffen stopped by the studio for a preview, he was warned that it was a work in progress, but it was almost done. That was a mistake, because only a few tracks had been finished, and most of them were in demo phase. He heard enough to tell producers that it was not good enough; the project was canceled. It would be released years later in 1996, under the title I'm a Rainbow.\n\nOver the years, a few of the tracks would be released. The song \"Highway Runner\" appears on the soundtrack for the film Fast Times at Ridgemont High. \"Romeo\" appears on the Flashdance soundtrack. Both, \"I'm a Rainbow\" and \"Don't Cry For Me Argentina\" would be on her 1993 Anthology album. David Geffen hired top R&B and pop producer Quincy Jones to produce Summer's next album, the eponymously titled Donna Summer. The album took over six months to record as Summer, who was pregnant at the time, found it hard to sing. During the recording of the project, Neil Bogart died of cancer in May 1982 at age 39. Summer would sing at his funeral. The album included the top ten hit \"Love Is in Control (Finger on the Trigger)\"; for which she received a Grammy nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. Donna was also nominated for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for Protection, penned for her by Bruce Springsteen. Other singles included \"State of Independence\" ( 41 pop) and \"The Woman in Me\" ( 33 pop). Geffen Records were notified by Polygram Records who now owned Casablanca, that Donna still needed to deliver them one more album to fulfill her contract with them.\n\nSummer recorded and delivered the album She Works Hard for the Money and Polygram released it on its Mercury imprint in 1983. The title song became a major hit, reaching 3 on the US Hot 100, as well as 1 on Billboards R&B chart for three weeks. It also garnered Summer another Grammy nomination, for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. \"Unconditional Love\", which featured the British group Musical Youth, and \"Love Has a Mind of Its Own\" did not crack the top 40. The album itself was certified gold, and climbed to 9 on the Billboard 200 chart; the highest chart position of any female artist in male-dominated 1983. The song \"He's a Rebel\" would win Summer her third Grammy Award, this time for Best Inspirational Performance.\n\nBritish director Brian Grant was hired to direct Summer's video for \"She Works Hard for the Money\". The video was a success, being nominated for MTV Music Video Awards for Best Female Video and Best Choreography; Summer became one of the first black artists, and the first Afro American Female Artist to have her video played in heavy rotation on MTV. Grant would also be hired to direct Summer's Costa Mesa HBO concert special, A Hot Summers Night. Grant who was a fan of the song State of Independence had an idea for a grand finale. He wanted a large chorus of children to join Summer on stage at the ending of the song. His team looked for local school children in Orange County, to create a chorus of 500 students. On the final day of rehearsals, the kids turned up and they had a full rehearsal. According to Grant, \"It looked and sounded amazing. It was a very emotional, very tearful experience for everyone who was there.\" He thought if this was that kind of reaction in rehearsal, then what an impact it would have in the concert. After the rehearsal Grant was informed that he could not use the kids because the concert would end after 10 pm; children could not be licensed to be on stage at such a late hour (California had strict child labor laws in 1983). \"It's a moment that I regret immensely: a grand finale concept I came up with that couldn't be filmed in the end\". When the final sequence was filmed, Summer's daughter Mimi and her family members joined her on stage for State of Independence.\n\nIn late 1984, David Geffen enlisted She Works Hard for the Moneys producer Michael Omartian to produce Cats Without Claws. Donna was happy that Geffen and his executives stayed out of the studio during the recording, and thanked him in the album's liner notes, but her request for the lead single would be rejected. The album failed to attain gold status in the U.S., her first album not to do so. It was first album not to yield a top ten hit, since 1977's Once Upon a Time. The Drifters cover \"There Goes My Baby\" reached 21 and \"Supernatural Love\" went to 75. She would win another Grammy for Best Inspirational Performance for the song \"Forgive Me\".\n\nOn January 19, 1985, she sang at the nationally televised 50th Presidential Inaugural Gala the day before the second inauguration of Ronald Reagan. \n\n1986–1989\n\nIn 1986, Harold Faltermeyer wrote the title song for a German ski movie called Fire and Ice, and thought Summer would be ideal to sing the song. He decided to reach out to Summer and, although she was not interested in singing the song, she was very much interested in working with Faltermeyer again. After a meeting with David Geffen he was on board with the project. Summer's main objective for the album was that it have stronger R&B influences; Faltermeyer who had just finished doing the soundtracks to Top Gun and Fletch, was after a tough FM-oriented sound. On completion, Geffen liked what he heard, but his executives did not think there were enough songs that could be deemed singles. They wanted Faltermeyer to produce \"Dinner with Gershwin\", but he was already busy with another project, so another producer was found. They also substituted a previous recording called \"Bad Reputation\", songs like \"Fascination\", fell by the wayside. Geffen had shared the vision of moving Summer into the R&B market as a veteran artist, but these expectations were not met. Faltermeyer, in a 2012 interview with Daeida Magazine, said, \"She was an older artist by then and the label's priority may have been on the youth market. The decision was made afterward by executives who were looking for a radio hit for 1987 and not something the would perhaps last beyond then.\" The label's President Ed Rosenblatt would later admit: \"The company never intended to focus on established superstars\". The album All Systems Go, did not to achieve gold status. The single \"Dinner with Gershwin\", (written by Brenda Russell), stalled at 48 in U.S., though it became a hit in the UK, peaking at 13. The album's title track, \"All Systems Go\", was released only in the UK, where it peaked at 54. \n\nFor Summer's next album, Geffen Records hired the British hit production team of Stock Aitken Waterman (or SAW), who enjoyed incredible success writing and producing for such acts as Kylie Minogue, Bananarama, and Rick Astley, among others. The \"SAW\" team describe the working experience as a labour of love, and said it was their favourite album of all that they had recorded. Geffen decided not to release the album Another Place and Time, and Summer and Geffen Records parted ways in 1988. The album was released in Europe in March 1989 on Warner Bros. Records, which had been Summer's label in Europe since 1982. The single \"This Time I Know It's for Real\" became a top ten hit in several countries in Europe, prompting Warner Bros.' sister company, Atlantic Records, to sign Summer in the U.S. The single peaked at 7 on the US Hot 100 and became her 12th gold single in America. She scored two more UK hits from the album, \"I Don't Wanna Get Hurt\" (UK 7) and \"Love's About to Change My Heart\" (UK 20). \n\nIn 1989, Donna and her husband, Bruce Sudano, had been in talks to do a new kind of reality-based sitcom. It would be based on their own hectic household. At the time, they lived with their children Amanda, Brooklyn and Mimi, two sets of in-laws, and a maid. The television network started changing the premise of the show, making it less funny, says Sudano, \"And because we were an interracial couple, they didn't want us to be married anymore\". In 1989, this was \"an issue. So with that mentality we just backed out of it.\" \n\nIt was also during this period that Summer started to have gallery showings of her paintings. Rick Solomon, chairman of Fine Circle Art, was impressed by the brash colors and images of Summer's work. \"I've been in business for 26 years,\" he said, \"...Donna has her own style... she is no Sunday painter. Oh, some critics have felt it necessary to knock her. It's just that old thing, I suppose – not being able to accept the idea that a singer can also be a painter.\" \n\n1990–1999: Mistaken Identity, acting, and Live & More Encore\n\nIn 1990, a Warner compilation, The Best of Donna Summer, was released. The album went gold in the UK after the song \"State of Independence\" was re-released there to promote the album. The following year, Summer worked with producer Keith Diamond emerged with the album Mistaken Identity, which included elements of R&B as well as new jack swing. \"When Love Cries\" continued her success on the R&B charts, reaching 18. In 1992, Summer embarked on a world tour and later that year received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. She reunited with Giorgio Moroder, for the song \"Carry On\", which was included on the 1993, Polygram issued The Donna Summer Anthology, it contained 34 tracks of Summer's material with Casablanca and Mercury Records, and from her tenures with Atlantic and Geffen. \n\nSummer signed with Mercury/Polygram that same year, and in 1994 she re-teamed with producer Michael Omartian to record a Christmas album, Christmas Spirit, which included classic Christmas songs such as \"O Holy Night\" and \"White Christmas\" and three Summer-penned songs,\"Christmas is Here\", \"Lamb of God\" and the album's title track. Summer was accompanied by the Nashville Symphony Orchestra. Another hits collection, Endless Summer: Greatest Hits, was released featuring eighteen songs. There were two new tracks \"Melody of Love (Wanna Be Loved)\" and \"Any Way at All\". In 1995, \"Melody of Love (Wanna Be Loved)\" went No. 1 on the US dance charts, and No. 21 in the UK.\n\nDuring this time, Summer had role on the sitcom Family Matters as Steve Urkel's (Jaleel White) Aunt Oona. She made a few appearances in 1997. In 1998, Summer received the first Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording, after a remixed version of her 1992 collaboration with Giorgio Moroder, \"Carry On\", was released in 1997. In 1999, Summer was asked to do the Divas 2 concert, but when she went in and met with the producers, it was decided that they would do Donna in concert by herself. Summer taped a live television special for VH1 titled Donna Summer – Live & More Encore, producing the second highest ratings for the network that year, after their annual Divas special. A CD of the event was released by Epic Records and featured two studio recordings, \"I Will Go with You (Con te partirò)\" and \"Love Is the Healer\", both of which reached No. 1 on the U.S. dance charts.\n\n2000–2009: Later recordings and Crayons\n\nIn 2000, Summer participated in VH1's third annual Divas special, dedicated to Diana Ross, she sang the Supreme's hit Reflections, and her own material for the show. \"The Power of One\" is a theme song for the movie Pokémon: The Movie 2000. The dramatic ballad was produced by David Foster and dance remixes were also issued to DJs and became another dance floor success for Summer, peaking at No. 2 on the same chart in 2000. In 2003, Summer issued her autobiography, Ordinary Girl: The Journey, and released a best-of set titled The Journey: The Very Best of Donna Summer. In 2004, Summer was inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame as an artist, alongside the Bee Gees and Barry Gibb. Her classic song, I Feel Love, was inducted that night as well. In 2004 and 2005, Summer's success on the dance charts continued with the songs You're So Beautiful and I Got Your Love.\n\nIn 2008, Summer released her first studio album of fully original material in 17 years, entitled Crayons. Released on the Sony BMG label Burgundy Records, it peaked at 17 on the U.S. Top 200 Album Chart, her highest placing on the chart since 1983. The songs I'm a Fire, Stamp Your Feet and Fame (The Game) all reached No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard Dance Chart. The ballad Sand on My Feet was released to adult contemporary stations and reached No. 30 on that chart. Summer said, \"I wanted this album to have a lot of different directions on it. I did not want it to be any one baby. I just wanted it to be a sampler of flavors and influences from all over the world. There's a touch of this, a little smidgeon of that, a dash of something else, like when you're cooking.\" \n\n2010–2013: Final recordings\n\nOn July 29, 2010, Summer gave an interview with Allvoices.com wherein she was asked if she would consider doing an album of standards. She said, \"I actually am, probably in September. I will begin work on a standards album. I will probably do an all-out dance album and a standards album. I'm going to do both and we will release them however we're going to release them. We are not sure which is going first.\" \n\nIn August 2010, she released the single \"To Paris With Love\", co-written with Bruce Roberts and produced by Peter Stengaard. The single went to 1 on the U.S. Billboard Dance Chart in October 2010. That month, Summer also appeared on the PBS television special Hitman Returns: David Foster and Friends. In it, Summer performed with Seal on a medley of the songs \"Un-Break My Heart / Crazy/On the Radio\" before closing the show with \"Last Dance\". \n\nOn September 15, 2010, Summer appeared as a guest celebrity, singing alongside contestant Prince Poppycock, on the television show America's Got Talent.\n\nOn June 6, 2011, Summer was a guest judge on the show Platinum Hit, in an episode entitled \"Dance Floor Royalty\". In July of that same year, Summer was working at Paramount Recording Studios in Los Angeles with her nephew, the rapper and producer O'Mega Red. Together they worked on a track titled \"Angel\".\n\nOn December 11, 2012, after four prior nominations, Summer was posthumously announced to be one of the 2013 inductees to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame., and was inducted on April 18, 2013, at Los Angeles' Nokia Theater.\n\nA remix album titled Love To Love You Donna, containing new remixes of some of Summer's classics, was released in October 2013. \"MacArthur Park\" was remixed by Laidback Luke for the remix collection; it was also remixed by Ralphi Rosario, which version was released to dance clubs all over America and successfully peaked at No. 1, giving Summer her first posthumous number-one single, and her twentieth number-one on the charts. \n\nControversy\n\nIn the mid-1980s, Summer was embroiled in a controversy. She allegedly had made anti-gay remarks regarding the then-relatively new disease, AIDS. Summer, by this time a born-again Christian, was alleged to have said that AIDS was a punishment from God for the immoral lifestyles of homosexuals. Because of this alleged statement, thousands of her records were returned to her record company and she became the target of a boycott which hurt her career. Some years later, Summer publicly denied that she had ever made any such comment, and in a letter to the AIDS campaign group ACT UP in 1989 said it was \"a terrible misunderstanding.\" In explaining why she did not respond to ACT UP sooner, Summer stated \"I was unknowingly protected by those around me from the bad press and hate letters. If I have caused you pain, forgive me.\" She closed her letter with Bible quotes (from Chapter 13 of 1 Corinthians). \n\nAlso in 1989, Summer told The Advocate magazine that \"a couple of the people I write with are gay, and they have been ever since I met them. What people want to do with their bodies is their personal preference.\" A couple of years later, she filed a lawsuit against New York magazine when it reprinted the rumors as fact just as she was about to release her album Mistaken Identity in 1991. According to a Biography television program dedicated to Summer in which she participated in 1995, the lawsuit was settled out of court, though neither side was able to divulge any details. \n\nPersonal life\n\nDonna married Brooklyn Dreams singer Bruce Sudano on July 16, 1980. On January 5, 1981, she gave birth to their daughter Brooklyn Sudano, and the next year on August 11, 1982 their daughter Amanda Sudano would be born.\nSummer and her family moved from the Sherman Oaks area of Los Angeles to Nashville, Tennessee, in \n1995, where she took time off from show business to focus on painting, a hobby she had begun back in the 1980s. Summer was raised in the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Also in 1995, Summer's mother died of pancreatic cancer; her father died of natural causes in December 2004.\n\nDeath\n\nSummer died on May 17, 2012, at her home in Naples, Florida at the age of 63. She had been diagnosed with lung cancer, which she believed was caused by inhaling toxic fumes and dust after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in New York City. \n\nSummer was survived by her husband, Bruce Sudano; and her daughters Mimi (with ex-husband Helmut Sommer), Brooklyn Sudano and Amanda Sudano.\n\nFuneral\n\nSummer's funeral service was held in Christ Presbyterian Church in Nashville, Tennessee on the afternoon of May 23, 2012. The exact location and time of the service was kept secret. Several hundred of Summer's friends and family appeared at the funeral, according to CNN. The funeral was a private ceremony and cameras were not allowed inside the church. TMZ obtained a copy of Summer's funeral program, which includes a proverb dedicated to Summer about a \"wife of noble character\". According to the program, Pastor Tim Johnson started the service and welcomed the guests. Afterward, Ricky Gaines, her brother, gave a speech. Summer's sisters, Linda Gaines Lotman, Mary Ellen Bernard, Dara Bernard and Jenette Yancey, performed \"We've Come This Far By Faith\". Mary Ellen Bernard performed \"Because of Whose You Are\". Rick Dohler, a son-in-law of Summer, gave a speech and Pastor Johnson spoke again. The service was closed by David Foster and Natalie Grant performing \"The Prayer\". Guests followed the black hearse with Summer's body to the Harpeth Hills Memory Gardens cemetery in Nashville, where her remains were interred. Other guests included Giorgio Moroder and singer Tony Orlando.\n\nReaction\n\nSingers and music industry professionals around the world reacted to Summer's death. Gloria Gaynor said she was \"deeply saddened\" and that Summer was \"a fine lady and human being\". Liza Minnelli said, \"She was a queen, The Queen Of Disco, and we will be dancing to her music forever.\" She said that her \"thoughts and prayers are with her family always.\" Dolly Parton said, \"Donna, like Whitney, was one of the greatest voices ever. I loved her records. She was the disco queen and will remain so. I knew her and found her to be one of the most likable and fun people ever. She will be missed and remembered.\" Janet Jackson wrote that Summer \"changed the world of music with her beautiful voice and incredible talent.\" Barbra Streisand wrote, \"I loved doing the duet with her. She had an amazing voice and was so talented. It's so sad.\" Quincy Jones wrote that Summer's voice was \"the heartbeat and soundtrack of a generation.\" Aretha Franklin said, \"It's so shocking to hear about the passing of Donna Summer. In the 70s, she reigned over the disco era and kept the disco jumping. Who will forget 'Last Dance'? A fine performer and a very nice person.\" Chaka Khan said, \"Donna and I had a friendship for over 30 years. She is one of the few black women I could speak German with and she is one of the few friends I had in this business.\" Gloria Estefan averred that \"It's the end of an era\", and posted a photo of herself with Summer. Mary J. Blige tweeted \"RIP Donna Summer !!!!!!!! You were truly a game changer !!!\" Lenny Kravitz wrote \"Rest in peace Donna, You are a pioneer and you have paved the way for so many of us. You transcended race and genre. Respect.. Lenny\".\n\nBeyonce penned a personal note: \"Donna Summer made music that moved me both emotionally and physically to get up and dance. You could always hear the deep passion in her voice. She was so much more than the queen of disco she became known for, she was an honest and gifted singer with flawless vocal talent. I've always been a huge fan and was honoured to sample one of her songs. She touched many generations and will be sadly missed. My love goes out to her family during this difficult time. Love, B\". \n\nDavid Foster said, \"My wife and I are in shock and truly devastated. Donna changed the face of pop culture forever. There is no doubt that music would sound different today if she had never graced us with her talent. She was a super-diva and a true superstar who never compromised when it came to her career or her family. She always did it with class, dignity, grace and zero attitude. She lived in rare air ... She was the most spectacular, considerate, constant, giving, generous and loving friend of 35 years. I am at a total loss trying to process this tragic news.\" \n\nUnited States President Barack Obama said, \"Michelle and I were saddened to hear about the passing of Donna Summer. A five-time Grammy Award winner, Donna truly was the 'Queen of Disco.' Her voice was unforgettable and the music industry has lost a legend far too soon. Our thoughts and prayers go out to Donna's family and her dedicated fans.\" \n\nSummer was honored at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards ceremony. Singer Natasha Bedingfield honored Summer, calling her \"a remarkable woman who brought so much light and who inspired many women, including myself, through her music. And if we can remember her through her music, this will never really be the last dance.\" After her statement, she began to sing the song \"Last Dance\", Summer's Academy Award-winning song.[http://entertainment.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/05/21/11793386-billboard-awards-cut-off-donna-summer-tribute-to-go-to-commercial?lite MSNBC] As she sang the song, photos of Summer were displayed on a screen overhead.\n\nFans paid tribute to Summer by leaving flowers and memorabilia on her star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. A few days after her death, her album sales increased by 3,277 percent, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Billboard reported that the week before she died, Summer sold about 1,000 albums. After her death that number increased to 26,000. \n\nLegacy\n\nAccording to singer Marc Almond, Summer's collaboration with producer Giorgio Moroder \"changed the face of music\". Summer was the first artist to have three double albums reach 1 on Billboards album chart: Live and More, Bad Girls and On the Radio: Greatest Hits Volumes I & II. She became a cultural icon and her prominence on the dance charts, for which she was referred to as the Queen of Disco, made her not just one of the defining voices of that era, but also an influence on pop artists from Madonna to Beyoncé. Unlike some other stars of disco who faded as the music became less popular in the early 1980s, Summer was able to grow beyond the genre and segued to a pop-rock sound. She had one of her biggest hits in the 1980s with \"She Works Hard For the Money\", which became another anthem, this time for women's rights. Summer was the first black woman to be nominated for an MTV Video Music Award. Summer remained a force on the Billboard Dance/Club Play Songs chart throughout her career and notched 19 number one singles. Her last studio album, 2008's Crayons, spun off three 1 dance/club hits with \"I'm a Fire\", \"Stamp Your Feet\" and \"Fame (The Game)\". In May 2012, it was announced that \"I Feel Love\" was included in the list of preserved recordings at the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry. Her Rock and Roll Hall of Fame page listed Summer as \"the Diva De Tutte Dive, the first true diva of the modern pop era\". \n\nCover versions of her songs\n\n\"I Feel Love\" has been covered and sampled many, many times, by artists such as Blondie, David Guetta, 2 Unlimited, Darren Hayes, Whitney Houston, Madonna, Bette Midler, Kylie Minogue, Moby, Moloko, Mylo, Stuart Price, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Diana Ross, Franz Ferdinand, Britney Spears and Robbie Williams. The Italian company Gucci used a special version of it in the \"Flora\" perfume advertising filmed by Chris Cunningham. Venus Hum with Blue Man Group also recorded the song with the Japanese singer Kumi Koda for their album, The Complex. It was also sung by Gisella Cozzo, an Italo-Australian singer and included in the Italian movie soundtrack, L'ultimo Capodanno\" di Bertolucci.\n\nIn 2006, Tracy Bonham stood in for \"Hum\" in the \"Blue Man Group\" tour and sang the song. Bronski Beat and Marc Almond released the track as a duet with an added bridge section and titled it \"I Feel Love/Johnny Remember Me\", which reached No. 3 on the British charts in April 1985.\n\n\"Love to Love You Baby\" was sampled in Beyoncé Knowles's \"Naughty Girl\" and by TLC in their original version of \"I'm Good at Being Bad\", but was removed by request of Summer on later editions. This song has been covered in portions on stage by Dionne Warwick.\n\n\"Starting Over Again\" was a number-one hit on the Hot Country Songs chart as a single for Dolly Parton in 1980. It also was a Top 40 hit for Parton on the Billboard Hot 100. Reba McEntire named her album of 1995 after this song, and McEntire's version hit 17 on the country singles chart in 1996. McEntire stated in the album's liner notes that her recording of the song was intended as a tribute to Summer and Parton, both artists whom she admired.\n\nBritish singer and actress Martine McCutcheon recorded a version of \"On The Radio\" that reached No. 7 in the British charts in February 2000.\n\nConcert tours\n\nOnce Upon a Time Tour (1977–78)\nBad Girls Tour (1979–80)\nThe Wanderer Tour (1981–82)\nHard for the Money Tour (1983)\nThe Rainbow Tour (1984–85)\nSilver Girl Tour (1986)\nAll Systems Go Tour (1987–88)\nMistaken Identity Tour (1991–92)\n\"Another Place And Time\" (1989–90)\nEndless Summer Tour (1995)\nMid Summer Nights Dream Tour (1996–97)\nLive & More Encore Tour (1999–2000)\n\"The Journey Tour\" (2003–04)\nGreatest Hits Tour (2005–06)\nCrayons Tour (2008–10)\n\nDiscography\n\nLady of the Night (1974)\nLove to Love You Baby (1975)\nA Love Trilogy (1976)\nFour Seasons of Love (1976)\nI Remember Yesterday (1977)\nOnce Upon a Time (1977)\nLive and More (1978)\nBad Girls (1979)\nOn The Radio (1979)\nThe Wanderer (1980)\nI'm a Rainbow (1981; released 1996)\nDonna Summer (1982)\nShe Works Hard for the Money (1983)\nCats Without Claws (1984)\nAll Systems Go (1987)\nAnother Place and Time (1989)\nMistaken Identity (1991) \n*Crayons (2008)\n\nFilmography (incomplete)\n\nAwards and recognition" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Donna Sommer", "Donna summer", "LaDonna A. Gaines", "Dona summer", "LaDonna Adrian Gaines", "Queen of disco", "LaDonna Gaines", "Donna Summers", "Donna Summer" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dona summer", "queen of disco", "donna summers", "donna summer", "ladonna adrian gaines", "ladonna gaines", "donna sommer" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "donna summer", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Donna Summer" }
Which element is named after Pierre and Marie Curie?	tc_1062	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Chemical_element.txt", "Marie_Curie.txt" ], "title": [ "Chemical element", "Marie Curie" ], "wiki_context": [ "A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (i.e. the same atomic number, Z). There are 118 elements that have been identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, which decay over time into other elements. Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the crust of Earth. \n\nChemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe. However astronomical observations suggest that ordinary observable matter is only approximately 15% of the matter in the universe: the remainder is dark matter, the composition of which is unknown, but it is not composed of chemical elements. \nThe two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus more rare than those that follow. Formation of elements with from six to twenty six protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements with greater than twenty-six protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements far into space as supernova remnants, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed. \n\nThe term \"element\" is used for a kind of atoms with a given number of protons (regardless of whether they are or they are not ionized or chemically bonded, e.g. hydrogen in water) as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element (e.g. hydrogen gas). For the second meaning, the terms \"elementary substance\" and \"simple substance\" have been suggested, but they have not gained much acceptance in the English-language chemical literature, whereas in some other languages their equivalent is widely used (e.g. French corps simple, Russian простое вещество). One element can form multiple substances different by their structure; they are called allotropes of the element.\n\nWhen different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such \"native elements\" are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.\n\nThe history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal. Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more, with almost all of the naturally-occurring elements becoming known by 1900.\n\nThe properties of the chemical elements are summarized on the periodic table, which organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (\"periods\") in which the columns (\"groups\") share recurring (\"periodic\") physical and chemical properties. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, most of them in high degrees of purity.\n\nDescription\n\nThe lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.\n\nOf the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium, element 43 and promethium, element 61, which have no stable isotopes). Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected. Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), uranium (atomic number 92) and plutonium (atomic number 94), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.9 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element. The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized.\n\nAs of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, \"known\" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements). Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the solar system, or as naturally-occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium.\n\nThe remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: these are all radioactive, with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely, to the point of certainty, to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally-occurring rare elements. \n\nLists of the elements are available by name, by symbol, by atomic number, by density, by melting point, and by boiling point as well as ionization energies of the elements. The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in the form of the periodic table, which groups together elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures).\n\nAtomic number\n\nThe atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element. \n\nThe number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons. That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.\n\nThe symbol for atomic number is Z.\n\nIsotopes\n\nIsotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C (about 98.9%), 13C (about 1.1%) and about 1 atom per trillion of 14C.\n\nExcept in the case of the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.\n\nAll of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), although not all of these radioisotopes occur naturally. The radioisotopes typically decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. If an element has isotopes that are not radioactive, these are termed \"stable\" isotopes. All of the known stable isotopes occur naturally (see primordial isotope). The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially made. Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed only of radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.\n\nOf the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one single stable isotope. The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 (for tin, element 50).\n\nIsotopic mass and atomic mass\n\nThe mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g., 238U). The mass number is always a simple whole number and has units of \"nucleons.\" An example of a referral to a mass number is \"magnesium-24,\" which is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons).\n\nWhereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single atom is a real number for the mass of a particular isotope of the element, the unit being u. In general, when expressed in u it differs in value slightly from the mass number for a given nuclide (or isotope) since the mass of the protons and neutrons is not exactly 1 u, since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number, and (finally) because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 u. However, the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number (always within 1%). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is 12C, which by definition has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.\n\nThe relative atomic mass (historically and commonly also called \"atomic weight\") of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number, due to the averaging process. For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number due to being made of an average of 76% chlorine-35 and 24% chlorine-37. Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1% from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect resulting from significant amounts of more than one isotope being naturally present in the sample of the element in question.\n\nChemically pure and isotopically pure\n\nChemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of a pure element. In chemistry, a pure element means a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons. Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope. \n\nFor example, a copper wire is 99.99% chemically pure if 99.99% of its atoms are copper, with 29 protons each. However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes, 69% 63Cu and 31% 65Cu, with different numbers of neutrons. However, a pure gold ingot would be both chemically and isotopically pure, since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope, 197Au.\n\nAllotropes\n\nAtoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple structures (spatial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.\n\nThe standard state, also known as reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at 1 bar at a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.\n\nProperties\n\nSeveral kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins.\n\nGeneral properties\n\nSeveral terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between metals, which readily conduct electricity, nonmetals, which do not, and a small group, (the metalloids), having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors.\n\nA more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table. This system restricts the terms \"metal\" and \"nonmetal\" to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, transition metals, post-transition metals, metalloids, polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals, and noble gases. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals.\n\nStates of matter\n\nAnother commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4 °C (83.2 °F) and 29.8 °C (85.6 °F), respectively.\n\nMelting and boiling points\n\nMelting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations.\n\nDensities\n\nThe density at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements.\n\nWhen an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm3, respectively.\n\nCrystal structures\n\nThe elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal. For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures.\n\nOccurrence and origin on Earth\n\nChemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man-made nuclear reactions.\n\nOf the 94 naturally occurring elements, 84 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive. The remaining 10 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements. (Plutonium is sometimes also considered a transient element because primordial plutonium has by now decayed to almost undetectable traces.) Of these 10 transient elements, 5 (polonium, radon, radium, actinium, and protactinium) are relatively common decay products of thorium, uranium, and plutonium. The remaining 5 transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium, and neptunium) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements.\n\nElements with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all stable, while those with atomic numbers 41 through 82 (except technetium and promethium) are metastable. The half-lives of these metastable \"theoretical radionuclides\" are so long (at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe) that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected. Four of these elements, bismuth (element 83), thorium (element 90), uranium (element 92), and plutonium (element 94), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.9 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element. The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with short half-lives and do not occur in nature.\n\nThe periodic table\n\nThe properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (\"periods\") in which the columns (\"groups\") share recurring (\"periodic\") physical and chemical properties. The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 10 April 2010.\n\nAlthough earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.\n\nUse of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering.\n\nNomenclature and symbols\n\nThe various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.\n\nAtomic numbers\n\nThe known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as \"through\", \"beyond\", or \"from ... through\", as in \"through iron\", \"beyond uranium\", or \"from lanthanum through lutetium\". The terms \"light\" and \"heavy\" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in \"lighter than carbon\" or \"heavier than lead\", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.\n\nElement names\n\nThe naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently-known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use \"Wasserstoff\" (water substance) for \"hydrogen\", \"Sauerstoff\" (acid substance) for \"oxygen\" and \"Stickstoff\" (smothering substance) for \"nitrogen\", while English and some romance languages use \"sodium\" for \"natrium\" and \"potassium\" for \"kalium\", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer \"azote/azot/azoto\" (from roots meaning \"no life\") for \"nitrogen\".\n\nFor purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting \"gold\" rather than \"aurum\" as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings \"aluminium\" and \"caesium\" over the U.S. spellings \"aluminum\" and \"cesium\", and the U.S. \"sulfur\" over the British \"sulphur\". However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names.\n\nAccording to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium. Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon-12 or uranium-235. Chemical element symbols (such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium), are always capitalized (see below).\n\nIn the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable amount of time. (See element naming controversy).\n\nPrecursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to the international standardization.\n\nChemical symbols\n\nSpecific chemical elements\n\nBefore chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules.\n\nThe current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system, chemical symbols are not mere abbreviations—though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet. They are intended as universal symbols for people of all languages and alphabets.\n\nThe first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal. Since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals. Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as with abbreviations. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to \"W\" (wolfram) for tungsten, \"Fe\" (ferrum) for iron, \"Hg\" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, \"Sn\" (stannum) for tin, \"K\" (kalium) for potassium, \"Au\" (aurum) for gold, \"Ag\" (argentum) for silver, \"Pb\" (plumbum) for lead, \"Cu\" (cuprum) for copper, and \"Sb\" (stibium) for antimony.\n\nChemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might require translation. There have sometimes been differences in the past. For example, Germans in the past have used \"J\" (for the alternate name Jod) for iodine, but now use \"I\" and \"Iod\".\n\nThe first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). Thus, the symbols for californium or einsteinium are Cf and Es.\n\nGeneral chemical symbols\n\nThere are also symbols in chemical equations for groups of chemical elements, for example in comparative formulas. These are often a single capital letter, and the letters are reserved and not used for names of specific elements. For example, an \"X\" indicates a variable group (usually a halogen) in a class of compounds, while \"R\" is a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter \"Q\" is reserved for \"heat\" in a chemical reaction. \"Y\" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. \"Z\" is also frequently used as a general variable group. \"E\" is used in organic chemistry to denote an electron-withdrawing group. \"L\" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. \"M\" is also often used in place of a general metal.\n\nAt least two additional, two-letter generic chemical symbols are also in informal usage, \"Ln\" for any lanthanide element and \"An\" for any actinide element. \"Rg\" was formerly used for any rare gas element, but the group of rare gases has now been renamed noble gases and the symbol \"Rg\" has now been assigned to the element roentgenium.\n\nIsotope symbols\n\nIsotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element's symbol. IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example 12C and 235U. However, other notations, such as carbon-12 and uranium-235, or C-12 and U-235, are also used.\n\nAs a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as H for 1H (protium), D for 2H (deuterium), and T for 3H (tritium). This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom. For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D2O instead of 2H2O.\n\nOrigin of the elements\n\nOnly about 4% of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements. This fraction is about 15% of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85%) being dark matter. The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons. (The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even more mysterious dark energy).\n\nThe universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.\n\nDuring the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10−10) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not. It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron. Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis. However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means.\n\nOn Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of natural transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides. For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (14C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (40Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (40K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by natural fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.\n\nHuman technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known.\n\nAbundance\n\nThe following graph (note log scale) shows the abundance of elements in our solar system. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, scientist expect that these galaxies evolved elements in similar abundance.\n\nThe abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.\n\nThe abundance of the chemical elements on Earth varies from air to crust to ocean, and in various types of life. The abundance of elements in Earth's crust differs from that in the Solar system (as seen in the Sun and heavy planets like Jupiter) mainly in selective loss of the very lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) and also volatile neon, carbon (as hydrocarbons), nitrogen and sulfur, as a result of solar heating in the early formation of the solar system. Oxygen, the most abundant Earth element by mass, is retained on Earth by combination with silicon. Aluminum at 8% by mass is more common in the Earth's crust than in the universe and solar system, but the composition of the far more bulky mantle, which has magnesium and iron in place of aluminum (which occurs there only at 2% of mass) more closely mirrors the elemental composition of the solar system, save for the noted loss of volatile elements to space, and loss of iron which has migrated to the Earth's core.\n\nThe composition of the human body, by contrast, more closely follows the composition of seawater—save that the human body has additional stores of carbon and nitrogen necessary to form the proteins and nucleic acids, together with phosphorus in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals' red blood cells.\n\nHistory\n\nEvolving definitions\n\nThe concept of an \"element\" as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions.\n\nClassical definitions\n\nAncient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These elements originally referred to earth, water, air and fire rather than the chemical elements of modern science.\n\nThe term 'elements' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth). \n\nAristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term stoicheia and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as:\n\nChemical definitions\n\nIn 1661, Robert Boyle proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle's view of the four elements nor Paracelsus' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements. The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric. By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869.\n\nFrom Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance. Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.\n\nAtomic definitions\n\nThe 1913 discovery by English physicist Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry-based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently, IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 10−14 seconds it takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud. \n\nBy 1914, seventy-two elements were known, all naturally occurring. The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated in subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I. Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010. \n\nDiscovery and recognition of various elements\n\nTen materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD. Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750.\n\nMost of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including:\n* Such now-familiar industrial materials as aluminium, silicon, nickel, chromium, magnesium, and tungsten\n* Reactive metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, and calcium\n* The halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine\n* Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon, and neon\n* Most of the rare-earth elements, including cerium, lanthanum, gadolinium, and neodymium.\n* The more common radioactive elements, including uranium, thorium, radium, and radon\n\nElements isolated or produced since 1900 include:\n* The three remaining undiscovered regularly occurring stable natural elements: hafnium, lutetium, and rhenium\n* Plutonium, which was first produced synthetically in 1940 by Glenn T. Seaborg, but is now also known from a few long-persisting natural occurrences\n* The three incidentally occurring natural elements (neptunium, promethium, and technetium), which were all first produced synthetically but later discovered in trace amounts in certain geological samples\n* Three scarce decay products of uranium or thorium, (astatine, francium, and protactinium), and\n* Various synthetic transuranic elements, beginning with americium and curium\n\nRecently discovered elements\n\nThe first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. Since 1999 claims for the discovery of new elements have been considered by the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party. As of January 2016, all 118 elements have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC. The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name copernicium and the atomic symbol Cn were suggested for it. The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on 19 February 2010. The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, ununoctium, on 9 October 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia. Element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009. IUPAC officially recognized flerovium and livermorium, elements 114 and 116, in June 2011 and approved their names in May 2012. In December 2015, IUPAC recognized elements 113, 115, 117 and 118, and announced the elements' proposed final names on 8 June 2016. The names, nihonium (113, Nh), moscovium (115, Mc), tennessine (117, Ts), and oganesson (118, Og), are expected to be approved by the end of 2016. \n\nList of the 118 known chemical elements\n\nThe following sortable table includes the 118 known chemical elements, with the names linking to the Wikipedia articles on each.\n* Atomic number, name, and symbol all serve independently as unique identifiers.\n* Names are those accepted by IUPAC; provisional names for recently produced elements not yet formally named are in parentheses.\n* Group, period, and block refer to an element's position in the periodic table. Group numbers here show the currently accepted numbering; for older alternate numberings, see Group (periodic table).\n* State of matter (solid, liquid, or gas) applies at standard temperature and pressure conditions (STP).\n* Occurrence distinguishes naturally occurring elements, categorized as either primordial or transient (from decay), and additional synthetic elements that have been produced technologically, but are not known to occur naturally.\n* Description summarizes an element's properties using the broad categories commonly presented in periodic tables: Actinide, alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, lanthanide, post-transition metal, metalloid, noble gas, polyatomic or diatomic nonmetal, and transition metal.", "Marie Skłodowska Curie (; ;; 7 November 18674 July 1934), born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and only woman to win twice, the only person to win twice in multiple sciences, and was part of the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris.\n\nShe was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Floating University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. She shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.\n\nHer achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity (a term that she coined ), techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms, using radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she established the first military field radiological centres.\n\nWhile a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie (she used both surnames) never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland. She named the first chemical element that she discoveredpolonium, which she isolated in 1898after her native country.\n\nCurie died in 1934, aged 66, at a sanatorium in Sancellemoz (Haute-Savoie), France, due to aplastic anemia brought on by exposure to radiation while carrying test tubes of radium in her pockets during research, and in the course of her service in World War I mobile X-ray units that she had set up. \n\nBiography \n\nEarly years \n\nMaria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in the Russian partition of Poland, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski. The elder siblings of Maria (nickname: Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nickname: Zosia), Józef (born 1863, nickname: Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nickname: Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nickname: Hela). \n\nOn both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863–65). This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria, her elder sisters and her brother, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life.\n\nMaria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been a respected teacher in Lublin, where he taught the young Bolesław Prus, who would become a leading figure in Polish literature. Her father, Władysław Skłodowski, taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use.\n\nThe father was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments, and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment, and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house. Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born. She died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder. Maria's father was an atheist; her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic.\n\nWhen she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next she attended a gymnasium for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring. Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University, a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.\n\nMaria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later. In connection with this, Maria took a position as governess: first as a home tutor in Warsaw; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father. While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician. His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them. Maria's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska which had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute that she had founded in 1932.\n\nAt the beginning of 1890, Bronisława — who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist — invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds. She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again. All that time she continued to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself. In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw. She continued working as a governess, and remained there till late 1891. She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890–91) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town. The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev.\n\nNew life in Paris \n\nIn late 1891, she left Poland for France. In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the University of Paris, where she enrolled in late 1891. She subsisted on her meager resources, suffering from cold winters and occasionally fainting from hunger.\n\nSkłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Professor Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris, and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894.\n\nMarie had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry (Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale [http://www.industrienationale.fr/]). That same year Pierre Curie entered her life; it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together. Pierre was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry, the École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris (ESPCI). They were introduced by the Polish physicist, Professor Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that Marie was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre had access to. Though Pierre did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Marie where she was able to begin work.\n\nTheir mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another. Eventually Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Marie did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Pierre, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French. Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Marie returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family. She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because she was a woman. A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph.D. At Marie's insistence, Pierre had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School. A contemporary quip would call Marie, \"Pierre's biggest discovery.\" On 26 July 1895 they were married in Sceaux (Seine); neither wanted a religious service. Marie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit. They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips, and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.\n\nNew elements \n\nIn 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Marie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.\n\nShe used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge. Using Pierre's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the ancient assumption that atoms were indivisible.\n\nIn 1897, her daughter Irène was born. To support her family, Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to the School of Physics and Chemistry. The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. The School did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments.\n\nCurie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite). Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium. She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive.\n\nPierre was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her.\n\nShe was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity, and even a Nobel Prize, would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann. Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin.\n\nAt that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: \"The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium.\" She later would recall how she felt \"a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible.\" On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tons of the ore.\n\nIn July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element which they named \"polonium\", in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires. On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named \"radium\", from the Latin word for \"ray\". In the course of their research, they also coined the word \"radioactivity\".\n\nTo prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form. Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore. Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization. From a ton of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, Marie Curie isolated pure radium metal. She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.\n\nBetween 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumor-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells. \n\nIn 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure, and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris. In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death.\n\nIn June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris. That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre alone was allowed to. Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium. The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.\n\nNobel Prizes \n\nIn December 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, \"in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel.\" At first, the Committee intended to honour only Pierre and Becquerel, but one of the committee members and an advocate of woman scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Goesta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination. Marie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.\n\nCurie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905. The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant. Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre a position, the University of Paris gave Pierre a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory. Upon Pierre's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906.\n\nIn December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève. She later hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.\n\nOn 19 April 1906, Pierre was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, causing his skull to fracture. Curie was devastated by her husband's death. On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for Pierre and to offer it to Marie. She accepted it hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to Pierre. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.\n\nCurie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris. The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute. Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute.\n\nIn 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie. Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences did not elect her to be a member by one or two votes. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph. A doctoral student of Curie, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy – over half a century later, in 1962. Despite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair–which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish. During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right wing press who criticised her for being a foreigner and an atheist. Her daughter later remarked on the public hypocrisy as the French press often portrayed Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but would portray her as a French hero when she received a foreign one such as her Nobel Prizes.\n\nIn 1911 it was revealed that in 1910–11 Curie had conducted an affair of about a year's duration with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre's—a married man who was estranged from his wife. This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker. When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of a friend.\n\nInternational recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honored her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This award was \"in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element.\" She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country. Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government into supporting the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine. A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912 she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months.\n\nIn 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie. She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The Institute's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919.\n\nWorld War I \n\nDuring World War I, Curie saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons. After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, auxiliary generators, and developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as petites Curies (\"Little Curies\"). She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914. Assisted at first by a military doctor and by her 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war. Later, she began training other women as aides.\n\nIn 1915 Curie produced hollow needles containing 'radium emanation', a colorless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon, to be used for sterilizing infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one-gram supply. It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units. Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period. In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government.\n\nAlso, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them. She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money. She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause. After the war, she summarized her war time experiences in a book Radiology in War (1919).\n\nPostwar years \n\nIn 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur (1822–95). In 1921, Marie was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Mrs. William Brown Meloney, after interviewing Marie, created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip. In 1921, US President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States. Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused. In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine. She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia.\n\nLed by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and her son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-Curie. Eventually, it became one of four major radioactivity research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner.\n\nIn August 1922, Marie Curie became a member of the newly created International Commission for Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. In 1923, she wrote a biography of Pierre, entitled Pierre Curie. In 1925, she visited Poland, to participate in the ceremony that laid foundations for the Radium Institute in Warsaw. Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; it was opened in 1932 and her sister Bronisława became its director. These distractions from her scientific labours and the attendant publicity caused her much discomfort but provided resources needed for her work. In 1930, she was elected a member of the International Atomic Weights Committee where she served until her death. \n\nDeath \n\nCurie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934. A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died at the Sancellemoz Sanatorium in Passy, in Haute-Savoie, from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation. The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark. Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war. Although her many decades of exposure to radiation caused chronic illnesses (including near blindness due to cataracts) and ultimately her death, she never really acknowledged the health risks of radiation exposure. \n\nShe was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre. Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Panthéon, Paris. She became the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits. In 2015, two other women were also interred on their own merits. \n\nBecause of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle. Even her cookbook is highly radioactive. Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing.\n\nIn her last year, she worked on a book, Radioactivity, which was published posthumously in 1935.\n\nLegacy \n\nThe physical and societal aspects of the Curies' work contributed substantially to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Cornell University professor Williams observes:\n\nIf Curie's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers that were placed in her way because she was a woman, in both her native and her adoptive country. This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud's Marie Curie: A Life, which emphasizes Marie's role as a feminist precursor.\n\nShe was known for her honesty and moderate life style. Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep. She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates. In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process, so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.\n\nAwards, honours, and tributes \n\nAs one of the most famous women scientists to date, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture. In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist, Marie Curie was voted the \"most inspirational woman in science\". Curie received 25.1 per cent of all votes cast, nearly twice as many as second-place Rosalind Franklin (14.2 per cent).\n\nPoland and France declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie, and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry. An artistic installation celebrating \"Madame Curie\" filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego's Museum of Contemporary Art. On 7 November, Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle. On 10 December, the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of Marie Curie's second Nobel prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden.\n\nMarie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Awards that she received include:\n* Nobel Prize in Physics (1903, with Pierre)\n* Davy Medal (1903, with Pierre)\n* Matteucci Medal (1904, with Pierre)\n* Actonian Prize (1907) \n* Elliott Cresson Medal (1909)\n* Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)\n\n* Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society (1921)\n\nMarie Curie's 1898 publication with her husband M. P. Curie and also with M. G. Bémont for their discovery of radium and polonium was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris (Ecole supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la Ville de Paris) in 2015. \n\nIn 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon, Paris.\nThe curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie or both of them). The element with atomic number 96 was named curium. Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: curite, sklodowskite, and cuprosklodowskite. She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world. The Marie Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her. In Poland, she had received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic (1912), Poznań University (1922), Kraków's Jagiellonian University (1924), and the Warsaw Polytechnic (1926). In 1921, she was awarded the Iota Sigma Pi National Honorary Member for her significant contribution. \n\nNumerous locations around the world are named after her. In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies. Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her. The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her. A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCC) is named in her honour.\n\nSeveral institutions bear her name, starting with the two Curie institutes – the Maria Skłodowska–Curie Institute of Oncology, in Warsaw; and the Institut Curie in Paris. She is the patron of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, in Lublin, founded in 1944; and of Pierre and Marie Curie University (Paris VI), France's pre-eminent science university. In Britain, Marie Curie Cancer Care was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill.\n\nTwo museums are devoted to Marie Curie. In 1967, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum was established in Warsaw's \"New Town\", at her birthplace on ulica Freta (Freta Street). Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie, open since 1992.\n\nSeveral works of art bear her likeness. In 1935, Michalina Mościcka, wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki, unveiled a statue of Marie Curie before Warsaw's Radium Institute. During the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation, the monument was damaged by gunfire; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal. In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Medallion, featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room.\n\nA number of biographies are devoted to her. In 1938 her daughter, Ève Curie, published Madame Curie. In 1987 Françoise Giroud wrote Marie Curie: A Life. In 2005 Barbara Goldsmith wrote Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie. In 2011 Lauren Redniss published Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout .\n\nGreer Garson and Walter Pidgeon starred in the 1943 U.S. Oscar-nominated film, Madame Curie, based on her life. More recently, in 1997, a French film about Pierre and Marie Curie was released, Les Palmes de M. Schutz. It was adapted from a play of the same name. In the film, Marie Curie was played by Isabelle Huppert.\n\nCurie is the subject of the play False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life. Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie, a one-woman show performed in 30 US states and nine countries, by 2014. \n\nCurie's likeness also has appeared on banknotes, stamps and coins around the world. She was featured on the Polish late-1980s 20,000-złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500-franc note, before the franc was replaced by the euro. Marie Curie themed postage stamps from Mali, the Republic of Togo, Zambia, and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of Susan Marie Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder.\n\nOn the 2011 centenary of Marie Curie's second Nobel Prize (1911), an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace. It depicts an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanate the elements that she would discover as an adult: polonium and radium.\n\nAlso in 2011, a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula was named after her." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Curium", "Element 96" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "element 96", "curium" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "curium", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Curium" }
By the end of the 20th century how many times had Meryl Streep been nominated for an Oscar?	tc_1063	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Meryl_Streep.txt" ], "title": [ "Meryl Streep" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mary Louise \"Meryl\" Streep (born June 22, 1949) is an American actress. Cited in the media as the \"best actress of her generation\", Streep is particularly known for her versatility in her roles, transformation into the characters she plays, and her accent adaptation. She made her professional stage debut in The Playboy of Seville in 1971, and went on to receive a 1976 Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Play for A Memory of Two Mondays/27 Wagons Full of Cotton. She made her screen debut in the 1977 television film The Deadliest Season, and made her film debut later that same year in Julia. In 1978, she won an Emmy Award for her role in the miniseries Holocaust, and received her first Academy Award nomination for The Deer Hunter. Nominated for 19 Academy Awards in total, Streep has more nominations than any other actor or actress in history; she won Best Supporting Actress for Kramer vs. Kramer (1979), and Best Actress for Sophie's Choice (1982) and for The Iron Lady (2011).\n\nStreep is one of only six actors to have won three or more competitive Academy Awards for acting. Her other nominated roles are The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981), Silkwood (1983), Out of Africa (1985), Ironweed (1987), Evil Angels (1988), Postcards from the Edge (1990), The Bridges of Madison County (1995), One True Thing (1998), Music of the Heart (1999), Adaptation (2002), The Devil Wears Prada (2006), Doubt (2008), Julie & Julia (2009), August: Osage County (2013), and Into the Woods (2014). She returned to the stage for the first time in over 20 years in The Public Theater's 2001 revival of The Seagull, won a second Emmy Award in 2004 for the HBO miniseries Angels in America (2003), and starred in the Public Theater's 2006 production of Mother Courage and Her Children.\n\nStreep has also received 29 Golden Globe nominations, winning eight—more nominations, and more competitive (non-honorary) wins than any other actor (male or female) in the history of the award. Her work has also earned her two Screen Actors Guild Awards, a Cannes Film Festival award, five New York Film Critics Circle Awards, two BAFTA awards, two Australian Film Institute awards, five Grammy Award nominations, and five Drama Desk Award nominations, among several others. She was awarded the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2004 and the Kennedy Center Honor in 2011 for her contribution to American culture through performing arts. President Barack Obama awarded her the 2010 National Medal of Arts and in 2014 the Presidential Medal of Freedom. \nIn 2003, the government of France made her a Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters. \n\nEarly life\n\nMary Louise Streep was born on June 22, 1949 in Summit, New Jersey, to Mary Wolf Wilkinson (1915–2001), a commercial artist and art editor; and Harry William Streep Jr. (1910–2003), a pharmaceutical executive. The eldest child, she has two younger brothers, Dana David and Harry William III.\n\nStreep's father was of German and Swiss ancestry. Her father's lineage traces back to Loffenau, Germany, from where her second great-grandfather, Gottfried Streeb, emigrated to the United States, and where one of her ancestors served as mayor (the surname was later changed to \"Streep\"). Another line of her father's family was from Giswil, Switzerland. Her mother had English, German, and Irish ancestry. Some of Streep's maternal ancestors lived in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island and were descended from 17th-century immigrants from England. Her eighth great-grandfather, Lawrence Wilkinson, was one of the first Europeans to settle in Rhode Island. Streep is also a distant relative of William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania; records show that her family is among the first purchasers of land in the state. Streep's maternal great-great-grandparents, Manus McFadden and Grace Strain, the namesake of Streep's second daughter, were natives of the Horn Head district of Dunfanaghy, Ireland. \n\nStreep's mother, whom she has compared in both appearance and manner to Dame Judi Dench, strongly encouraged her daughter and instilled confidence in her from a very young age. Streep has said: \"She was a mentor because she said to me, 'Meryl, you're capable. You're so great.' She was saying, 'You can do whatever you put your mind to. If you're lazy, you're not going to get it done. But if you put your mind to it, you can do anything.' And I believed her.\" Although Streep was naturally more introverted than her mother, at times when she later needed an injection of confidence in adulthood she would consult her mother, asking her for advice. Streep was raised as a Presbyterian in Bernardsville, New Jersey, where she attended Bernards High School. Author Karina Longworth described her as a \"gawky kid with glasses and frizzy hair\", yet noted that she liked to show off in front of the camera in family home videos from a young age. At the age of 12, Streep was selected to sing at a school recital, which led to her having opera lessons from Estelle Liebling. However, despite her talent, she remarked that \"I was singing something I didn't feel and understand. That was an important lesson—not to do that. To find the thing that I could feel through\". She quit after four years. Streep had many Catholic school friends, and regularly attended mass. \n\nAlthough in high school Streep appeared in numerous school plays, she was uninterested in serious theatre until acting in the play Miss Julie at Vassar College in 1969, in which she gained attention across the campus. Vassar drama professor Clinton J Atkinson noted, \"I don't think anyone ever taught Meryl acting. She really taught herself\". Streep demonstrated an early ability to mimic accents and to quickly memorize her lines. She received her BA cum laude from the college in 1971, before applying for an MFA from the Yale School of Drama. At Yale she supplemented her course fees by waitressing and typing, and appeared in over a dozen stage productions a year, to the point that she became overworked, developing ulcers. She contemplated quitting acting and switching to study law. Streep played a variety of roles onstage, from Helena in A Midsummer Night's Dream to an 80-year-old woman in a wheelchair in a comedy written by then-unknown playwrights Christopher Durang and Albert Innaurato. One of her teachers was Robert Lewis, one of the co-founders of the Actors Studio. Streep disapproved of some of the acting exercises she was asked to do, remarking that the professors \"delved into personal lives in a way I find obnoxious\". She received her MFA from Yale in 1975. Streep also enrolled as a visiting student at Dartmouth College in the fall of 1970, and received an Honorary Doctor of Arts degree from the college in 1981.\n\nCareer\n\n1970s\n\nTheater and film debut\n\nStreep moved to New York City in 1975, and was cast by Joseph Papp in a production of Trelawny of the Wells at the Public Theater, opposite Mandy Patinkin and John Lithgow. She went on to appear in five more roles in her first year in New York, including in Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival productions of Henry V, The Taming of the Shrew with Raúl Juliá, and Measure for Measure opposite Sam Waterston and John Cazale. She entered into a relationship with Cazale at this time, and resided with him until his death three years later. She starred in the musical Happy End on Broadway, and won an Obie for her performance in the off-Broadway play Alice at the Palace.\n\nAlthough she had not set out for a film career, Robert De Niro's performance in Taxi Driver (1976) had a profound impact on young Streep, who said to herself, \"that's the kind of actor I want to be when I grow up\". Streep began auditioning for film roles, and underwent an unsuccessful audition for the lead role in Dino De Laurentiis's King Kong. Laurentiis stated in Italian to his son: \"This is so ugly. Why did you bring me this\". Unknown to Laurentiis, Streep understood Italian and she remarked, \"I'm very sorry that I'm not as beautiful as I should be but, you know—this is it. This is what you get\". She continued to work on Broadway, appearing in the 1976 double bill of Tennessee Williams' 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Arthur Miller's A Memory of Two Mondays. For the former, she received a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play nomination. Streep's other Broadway credits include Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard and the Bertolt Brecht-Kurt Weill musical Happy End, in which she had originally appeared off-Broadway at the Chelsea Theater Center. She received Drama Desk Award nominations for both productions.\n\nStreep's first feature film role came opposite Jane Fonda in the 1977 film Julia, in which she had a small role during a flashback sequence. Most of her scenes were edited out, but the brief time on screen horrified the actress: \"I had a bad wig and they took the words from the scene I shot with Jane and put them in my mouth in a different scene. I thought, I've made a terrible mistake, no more movies. I hate this business\". However, Streep cites Fonda as having a lasting influence on her as an actress, and has credited her as \"open[ing] probably more doors than I probably even know about\".\n\nBreakthrough\n\nRobert De Niro, who had spotted Streep in her stage production of The Cherry Orchard, suggested that she play the role of his girlfriend in the war film The Deer Hunter (1978). Cazale, who had been diagnosed with lung cancer, was also cast in the film, and Streep took on the role of a \"vague, stock girlfriend\" to remain with Cazale for the duration of filming. Longworth notes that Streep \"made a case for female empowerment by playing a woman to whom empowerment was a foreign concept—a normal lady from an average American small town, for whom subservience was the only thing she knew\". Pauline Kael, who would later become a strong critic of Streep's, remarked that Streep was a \"real beauty\" who brought much freshness to the film with her performance. The film's success exposed Streep to a wider audience and earned her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. \n\nIn the 1978 miniseries Holocaust, Streep played the leading role of a German woman married to a Jewish artist in Nazi era Germany. She found the material to be \"unrelentingly noble\" and professed to have taken on the role for financial gain. Streep travelled to Germany and Austria for filming while Cazale remained in New York. Upon her return, Streep found that Cazale's illness had progressed, and she nursed him until his death on March 12, 1978. With an estimated audience of 109 million, Holocaust brought a wider degree of public recognition to Streep, who found herself \"on the verge of national visibility\". She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for her performance. Despite the awards success, Streep was still not enthusiastic towards her film career and preferred acting on stage.\n\nHoping to divert herself from the grief of Cazale's death, Streep accepted a role in The Seduction of Joe Tynan (1979) as the chirpy love interest of Alan Alda, later commenting that she played it on \"automatic pilot\". She performed the role of Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew for Shakespeare in the Park, and also played a supporting role in Manhattan (1979) for Woody Allen. Streep later said that Allen did not provide her with a complete script, giving her only the six pages of her own scenes, and did not permit her to improvise a word of her dialogue. In the drama Kramer vs. Kramer, Streep was cast opposite Dustin Hoffman as an unhappily married woman who abandons her husband and child. Streep thought that the script portrayed the female character as \"too evil\" and insisted that it was not representative of real women who faced marriage breakdown and child custody battles. The makers agreed with her, and the script was revised. In preparing for the part, Streep spoke to her own mother about her life as a wife with a career, and frequented the Upper East Side neighborhood in which the film was set, watching the interactions between parents and children. The director Robert Benton allowed Streep to write her own dialogue in two key scenes, despite some objection from Hoffman, who \"hated her guts\". Jaffee and Hoffman later spoke of Streep's tirelessness, with Hoffman commenting, \"She's extraordinarily hardworking, to the extent that she's obsessive. I think that she thinks about nothing else but what she's doing.\" The film was controversial among feminists, but it was a role which film critic Stephen Farber believed displayed Streep's \"own emotional intensity\", writing that she was one of the \"rare performers who can imbue the most routine moments with a hint of mystery\".\n\nFor Kramer vs. Kramer, Streep won both the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. She was also awarded the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress, National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress and National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress for her collective work in her three film releases of 1979. Both The Deer Hunter and Kramer vs. Kramer were major commercial successes and were the consecutive winners of the Academy Award for Best Picture. \n\n1980s\n\nRise to stardom\n\nIn 1979, Streep began workshopping Alice in Concert, a musical version of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, with writer and composer Elizabeth Swados and director Joseph Papp; the show was put on at New York's Public Theater from December 1980. Frank Rich of The New York Times referred to Streep as the \"one wonder\" of the production, but questioned why she had devoted so much energy to it. By 1980, Streep had progressed to leading roles in films. She was featured on the cover of Newsweek magazine with the headline \"A Star for the 80s\", with Jack Kroll commenting, \"There's a sense of mystery in her acting; she doesn't simply imitate (although she's a great mimic in private). She transmits a sense of danger, a primal unease lying just below the surface of normal behavior\". Streep denounced the fervent media coverage of her at this time as \"excessive hype\".\n\nThe story within a story drama The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981) was Streep's first leading role. The film paired Streep with Jeremy Irons as contemporary actors, telling their modern story, as well as the Victorian era drama they were performing. Streep perfected an English accent for the part, but considered herself a misfit for the role: \" I couldn't help wishing that I was more beautiful\". A New York Magazine article commented that, while many female stars of the past had cultivated a singular identity in their films, Streep was a \"chameleon\", willing to play any type of role. Streep was awarded a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her work. The following year, she reunited with Robert Benton for the psychological thriller, Still of the Night (1982), co-starring Roy Scheider and Jessica Tandy. Vincent Canby, writing for The New York Times, noted that the film was an homage to the works of Alfred Hitchcock, but that one of its main weaknesses was a lack of chemistry between Streep and Scheider, concluding that Streep \"is stunning, but she's not on screen anywhere near long enough\". \n\nGreater success came later in 1982, when Streep starred in the drama Sophie's Choice (1982), portraying a Polish holocaust survivor caught in a love triangle between a young naive writer (Peter MacNicol) and a Jewish intellectual (Kevin Kline). Streep's emotional dramatic performance and her apparent mastery of a Polish accent drew praise. William Styron wrote the novel with Ursula Andress in mind for the role of Sophie, but Streep was determined to get the role. She obtained a bootlegged copy of the script, and threw herself on the ground begging the director Alan J. Pakula to give her the role. Streep filmed the \"choice\" scene in one take and refused to do it again, finding it extremely painful and emotionally exhausting. Emma Brockes of The Guardian believes the scene in which Streep is ordered by an SS guard at Auschwitz to choose which one of her two children would be gassed and which would proceed to the labor camp, is her most famous scene, remarking: \"It's classic Streep, the kind of scene that makes your scalp tighten, but defter in a way is her handling of smaller, harder-to-grasp emotions\". Among several notable acting awards, Streep won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance, and her characterization was voted the third greatest movie performance of all time by Premiere magazine. Roger Ebert said of her delivery, \"Streep plays the Brooklyn scenes with an enchanting Polish-American accent (she has the first accent I've ever wanted to hug), and she plays the flashbacks in subtitled German and Polish. There is hardly an emotion that Streep doesn't touch in this movie, and yet we're never aware of her straining. This is one of the most astonishing and yet one of the most unaffected and natural performances I can imagine.\" Pauline Kael on the contrary called the film an \"infuriatingly bad movie\" and thought that Streep \"decorporealizes\" herself, which she believed explained why her movie heroines \"don't seem to be full characters, and why there are no incidental joys to be had from watching her\".\n\nThe year 1983 saw Streep play her first non-fictional character, the nuclear whistleblower and labor union activist Karen Silkwood who died in a suspicious car accident while investigating alleged wrongdoing at the Kerr-McGee plutonium plant, in Mike Nichols's biographical film Silkwood. Streep felt a personal connection to Silkwood, and in preparation she met with people close to the woman, and in doing so realized that each person saw a different aspect of her personality. She said, \"I didn't try to turn myself into Karen. I just tried to look at what she did. I put together every piece of information I could find about her... What I finally did was look at the events in her life, and try to understand her from the inside.\" Jack Kroll of Newsweek considered Streep's characterization to have been \"brilliant\", while Silkwood's boyfriend Drew Stephens expressed approval in that Streep had played Karen as a human being rather than a myth, despite Karen's father Bill thinking that Streep and the film had dumbed his daughter down. Pauline Kael believed that Streep had been miscast. Streep next played opposite Robert De Niro in the romance Falling in Love (1984), which was poorly-received, and portrayed a fighter for the French Resistance during World War II in the British drama Plenty (1985). For the latter, Roger Ebert wrote that she conveyed \"great subtlety; it is hard to play an unbalanced, neurotic, self-destructive woman, and do it with such gentleness and charm... Streep creates a whole character around a woman who could have simply been a catalogue of symptoms.\" In 2008, Molly Haskell praised Streep's performance in Plenty, believing it to be \"one of Streep's most difficult and ambiguous\" films and \"most feminist\" role.\n\nOut of Africa and backlash\n\nLongworth considers Streep's next release, Out of Africa (1985), to have established her as a Hollywood superstar. In the film, Streep starred as the Danish writer Karen Blixen opposite Robert Redford's Denys Finch Hatton. Director Sydney Pollack was initially dubious about Streep in the role as he did not think she was sexy enough, and had considered Jane Seymour for the part. Pollack recalls that Streep impressed him in a different way: \"She was so direct, so honest, so without bullshit. There was no shielding between her and me.\" Streep and Pollack often clashed during the 101-day shoot in Kenya, particularly over Blixen's voice. Streep had spent much time listening to tapes of Blixen and began speaking in an old-fashioned and aristocratic fashion, which Pollack thought excessive. A significant commercial and critical success, the film earned Streep another Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, also winning Best Picture. Critic Stanley Kaufmann wrote, \"Meryl Streep is back in top form. This means her performance in Out of Africa is at the highest level of acting in film today\".\n\nLongworth notes that the dramatic success of Out of Africa led to a backlash of critical opinion against Streep in the years that followed, especially as she was now demanding $4 million a picture. Unlike other stars at the time such as Sylvester Stallone and Tom Cruise, Streep \"never seemed to play herself\", and certain critics felt her technical finesse led people to literally see her acting. Her next films did not appeal to a wide audience; she co-starred with Jack Nicholson in the dramas Heartburn (1986) and Ironweed (1987), in which she sang onscreen for the first time since the television movie, Secret Service (1977). In Evil Angels (1988), she played Lindy Chamberlain, an Australian woman who had been convicted of the murder of her infant daughter despite claiming that the baby had been taken by a dingo. Filmed in Australia, Streep won the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, a Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress. Streep has said of perfecting the Australian accent in the film: \"I had to study a little bit for Australian because it's not dissimilar [to American], so it's like coming from Italian to Spanish. You get a little mixed up\". Vincent Canby of The New York Times referred it to her performance as \"another stunning performance\", played with \"the kind of virtuosity that seems to redefine the possibilities of screen acting\". \n\nIn 1989, Streep lobbied to play the lead role in Oliver Stone's adaption of the play Evita, but two months before filming was due to commence she dropped out, citing \"exhaustion\" initially, although it was later revealed that there was a dispute over her salary. By the end of the decade, Streep actively looked to star in a comedy. She found the role in She-Devil (1989), a satire that parodied Hollywood's obsession with beauty and cosmetic surgery, in which she played a glamorous writer. Though not a success, Richard Corliss of Time wrote that Streep was the \"one reason\" to see the film and observed that it marked a departure from the dramatic roles she was known to play. Reacting to her string of poorly received films, Streep said: \"Audiences are shrinking; as the marketing strategy defines more and more narrowly who they want to reach—males from 16 to 25—it's become a chicken-and-egg syndrome. Which came first? First they release all these summer movies, then do a demographic survey of who's going to see them\".\n\n1990s\n\nUnsuccessful comedies and The Bridges of Madison County\n\nBiographer Karen Hollinger described the early 1990s as a downturn in the popularity of Streep's films, attributing this partly to a critical perception that her comedies had been an attempt to convey a lighter image following several serious but commercially unsuccessful dramas, and more significantly to the lack of options available to an actress in her forties. Streep commented that she had limited her options by her preference to work in Los Angeles, close to her family, a situation that she had anticipated in a 1981 interview when she commented, \"By the time an actress hits her mid-forties, no one's interested in her anymore. And if you want to fit a couple of babies into that schedule as well, you've got to pick your parts with great care.\" At the Screen Actor's Guild National Women's Conference in 1990, Streep keynoted the first national event, emphasizing the decline in women's work opportunities, pay parity, and role models within the film industry. She criticized the film industry for downplaying the importance of women both on screen and off.\n\nAfter roles in the comedy-drama Postcards from the Edge (1990) and the comedy-fantasy Defending Your Life (1991), Streep starred with Goldie Hawn in farcical black comedy, Death Becomes Her (1992), with Bruce Willis as their co-star. Streep persuaded writer David Koepp to rewrite several of the scenes, particularly the one in which her character has an affair with a younger man, which she believed was \"unrealistically male\" in its conception. The seven-month shoot was the longest of Streep's career, during which she got into character by \"thinking about being slightly pissed off all of the time\". Due to Streep's allergies to numerous cosmetics, special prosthetics had to be designed to age her by ten years to look 54, although Streep believed that they made her look nearer 70. Longworth considers Death Becomes Her to have been \"the most physical performance Streep had yet committed to screen, all broad weeping, smirking, and eye-rolling\". Although it was a commercial success, earning $15.1 million in just five days, Streep's contribution to comedy was generally not taken well by critics. Times Richard Corliss wrote approvingly of Streep's \"wicked-witch routine\" but dismissed the film as \"She-Devil with a make-over\" and one which \"hates women\". \n\nIn 1993, Streep appeared with Jeremy Irons, Glenn Close and Winona Ryder in The House of the Spirits, set during the military dictatorship of Chile. The film was not well received by critics. Anthony Lane of The New Yorker wrote: \"This is really quite an achievement. It brings together Jeremy Irons, Meryl Streep, Winona Ryder, Antonio Banderas, and Vanessa Redgrave and insures that, without exception, they all give their worst performances ever\". The following year, Streep featured in The River Wild, as the mother of children on a whitewater rafting trip who encounter two violent criminals (Kevin Bacon and John C. Reilly) in the wilderness. Though critical reaction was generally mixed, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone found her to be \"strong, sassy and looser than she has ever been onscreen\". \n\nStreep's most successful film of the decade came in the 1995 romance The Bridges of Madison County from director Clint Eastwood, who adapted the film from Robert James Waller's novel of the same name. It relates the story of Robert Kincaid (Eastwood), a photographer working for National Geographic, who has a love affair with a middle-aged Italian farm wife in Iowa named Francesca (Streep). Though Streep disliked the novel it was based on, she found the script to be a special opportunity for an actress her age. She gained weight for the part, and dressed differently from the character in the book to emulate voluptuous Italian film stars such as Sophia Loren. Both Loren and Anna Magnani were an influence in her portrayal, and Streep viewed Pier Paolo Passolini's Mamma Roma (1962) prior to filming. The film was a box office hit and grossed over $70 million in the United States. The film, unlike the novel, was warmly received by critics. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that Eastwood had managed to create \"a moving, elegiac love story at the heart of Mr. Waller's self-congratulatory overkill\", while Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal described it as \"one of the most pleasurable films in recent memory\". Longworth believes that Streep's performance was \"crucial to transforming what could have been a weak soap opera into a vibrant work of historical fiction implicitly critiquing postwar America's stifling culture of domesticity\". She considers it to have been the role in which Streep became \"arguably the first middle-aged actress to be taken seriously by Hollywood as a romantic heroine\".\n\nLate 1990s\n\nIn 1996, Streep played the estranged sister of Bessie (Diane Keaton), a woman battling leukemia, in Marvin's Room, an adaptation of the play by Scott McPherson. Streep recommended Keaton for the role. The film also starred a young Leonardo DiCaprio as Streep's character's rebellious son. Roger Ebert stated that \"Streep and Keaton, in their different styles, find ways to make Lee and Bessie into much more than the expression of their problems.\" The film was critically acclaimed, and Streep earned another Golden Globe nomination for her performance.\n\nIn 1998, Streep played an Irishwoman opposite Michael Gambon and Catherine McCormack in Pat O'Connor's Dancing at Lughnasa, which was entered into the Venice Film Festival of 1998. Janet Maslin of The New York Times remarked that \"Meryl Streep has made many a grand acting gesture in her career, but the way she simply peers out a window in Dancing at Lughnasa ranks with the best. Everything the viewer need know about Kate Mundy, the woman she plays here, is written on that prim, lonely face and its flabbergasted gaze\". Later that year, Streep played a cancer sufferer caught in a difficult family situation, playing the mother of Renée Zellweger and wife of William Hurt in One True Thing. The film was well received by critics. Mick LaSalle in the San Francisco Chronicle declared, \"After 'One True Thing', critics who persist in the fiction that Streep is a cold and technical actress will need to get their heads examined. She is so instinctive and natural – so thoroughly in the moment and operating on flights of inspiration – that she's able to give us a woman who's at once wildly idiosyncratic and utterly believable.\" Los Angeles Times film critic Kenneth Turan noted that Streep's role \"is one of the least self-consciously dramatic and surface showy of her career, but that she \"adds a level of honesty and reality that makes [her performance] one of her most moving.\" \n\nIn 1999, Streep portrayed Roberta Guaspari, a real-life New Yorker who found passion and enlightenment teaching violin to the inner-city kids of East Harlem, in the music drama Music of the Heart. A departure from director Wes Craven's previous work on films like A Nightmare on Elm Street and the Scream series, Streep replaced singer Madonna who left the project before filming began due to creative differences with Craven. Required to perform on the violin, Streep went through two months of intense training, five to six hours a day. Streep received nominations for an Academy Award, a Golden Globe and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance. Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four and wrote that \"Meryl Streep is known for her mastery of accents; she may be the most versatile speaker in the movies. Here you might think she has no accent, unless you've heard her real speaking voice; then you realize that Guaspari's speaking style is no less a particular achievement than Streep's other accents. This is not Streep's voice, but someone else's – with a certain flat quality, as if later education and refinement came after a somewhat unsophisticated childhood.\" \n\n2000s\n\n2000–05\n\nStreep entered the 2000s with an uncredited voice cameo in Steven Spielberg's A.I. Artificial Intelligence, a science fiction film about a childlike android, played by Haley Joel Osment. The same year, Streep co-hosted the annual Nobel Peace Prize Concert concert with Liam Neeson which was held in Oslo, Norway, on December 11, 2001, in honour of the Nobel Peace Prize laureate, the United Nations and Kofi Annan. \n\nIn 2001, Streep returned to the stage for the first time in more than twenty years, playing Arkadina in The Public Theater's revival of Anton Chekhov's The Seagull, directed by Mike Nichols and co-starring Kevin Kline, Natalie Portman, and Philip Seymour Hoffman. The same year, she began work on Spike Jonze's comedy-drama Adaptation (2002), in which she portrayed real-life journalist Susan Orlean. Lauded by critics and viewers alike, the film won Streep her fourth Golden Globe in the Best Supporting Actress category. A. O. Scott considered Streep's portrayal of Orlean to have been \"played with impish composure\", noting the contrast in her \"wittily realized\" character with love interest Chris Cooper's \"lank-haired, toothless charisma\" as the autodidact arrested for poaching rare orchids. In 2002 Streep appeared alongside Nicole Kidman and Julianne Moore in Stephen Daldry's The Hours, based on the 1999 novel by Michael Cunningham. Focusing on three women of different generations whose lives are interconnected by the novel Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf, the film was generally well received and won all three leading actresses a Silver Bear for Best Actress. \n\nIn 2003, Streep had a cameo as herself in the Farrelly brothers comedy Stuck on You (2003) and reunited with Mike Nichols to star with Al Pacino and Emma Thompson in the HBO adaptation of Tony Kushner's six-hour play Angels in America, the story of two couples whose relationships dissolve amidst the backdrop of Reagan Era politics. Streep, who was cast in four roles in the mini-series, received her second Emmy Award and fifth Golden Globe for her performance. In 2004, Streep was awarded the AFI Life Achievement Award by the board of directors of the American Film Institute. She appeared in Jonathan Demme's moderately successful remake of The Manchurian Candidate, co-starring Denzel Washington, playing the role of a woman who is both a U.S. senator and the manipulative, ruthless mother of a vice-presidential candidate. The same year, she played the supporting role of Aunt Josephine in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events alongside Jim Carrey, based on the first three novels in Snicket's book series. The black comedy received generally favorable reviews from critics, and won the Academy Award for Best Makeup. Inspired by her love of Giverny in France and Claude Monet, Streep did the narration for the film Monet's Palate, with Alice Waters, Steve Wynn, Daniel Boulud and Helen Rappel Bordman. \n\nStreep was next cast in the 2005 comedy film Prime, directed by Ben Younger. In the film, she played Lisa Metzger, the Jewish psychoanalyst of a divorced and lonesome business-woman, played by Uma Thurman, who enters a relationship with Metzger's 23-year-old son (Bryan Greenberg). A modest mainstream success, it eventually grossed US$67.9 million internationally. Roger Ebert noted how Streep had \"that ability to cut through the solemnity of a scene with a zinger that reveals how all human effort is\". \n\n2006–09\n\nIn August and September 2006, Streep starred onstage at The Public Theater's production of Mother Courage and Her Children at the Delacorte Theatre in Central Park. The Public Theater production was a new translation by playwright Tony Kushner (Angels in America), with songs in the Weill/Brecht style written by composer Jeanine Tesori (Caroline, or Change); veteran director George C. Wolfe was at the helm. Streep starred alongside Kevin Kline and Austin Pendleton in this three-and-a-half-hour play. Also in 2006, Streep, along with Lily Tomlin, portrayed the last two members of what was once a popular family country music act in Robert Altman's final film A Prairie Home Companion. A comedic ensemble piece featuring Lindsay Lohan, Tommy Lee Jones, Kevin Kline and Woody Harrelson, the film revolves around the behind-the-scenes activities at the long-running public radio show of the same name. The film grossed more than US$26 million, the majority of which came from domestic markets. \n\nCommercially, Streep fared better with a role in The Devil Wears Prada (2006), a loose screen adaptation of Lauren Weisberger's 2003 novel of the same name. Streep portrayed the powerful and demanding Miranda Priestly, fashion magazine editor (and boss of a recent college graduate played by Anne Hathaway). Though the overall film received mixed reviews, her portrayal, of what Ebert calls the \"poised and imperious Miranda\", drew rave reviews from critics and earned her many award nominations, including her record-setting 14th Oscar bid, as well as another Golden Globe. Upon its commercial release, the film became Streep's biggest commercial success yet, grossing more than US$326.5 million worldwide. \n\nIn 2007, Streep was cast in four films. She portrayed a wealthy university patron in Chen Shi-zheng's much-delayed feature drama Dark Matter, a film about a Chinese science graduate student who becomes violent after dealing with academic politics at a U.S. university. Inspired by the events of the 1991 University of Iowa shooting, and initially scheduled for a 2007 release, producers and investors decided to shelve Dark Matter out of respect for the Virginia Tech massacre in April 2007. The drama received negative to mixed reviews upon its limited 2008 release. Streep played a U.S. government official who investigates an Egyptian foreign national suspected of terrorism in the political thriller Rendition (2007), directed by Gavin Hood. Keen to get involved in a thriller film, Streep welcomed the opportunity to star in a film genre for which she was not usually offered scripts and immediately signed on to the project. Upon its release, Rendition was less commercially successful, and received mixed reviews. \n\nAlso in 2007, Streep had a short role alongside Vanessa Redgrave, Glenn Close and her eldest daughter Mamie Gummer in Lajos Koltai's drama film Evening, based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Susan Minot. Switching between the present and the past, it tells the story of a bedridden woman, who remembers her tumultuous life in the mid-1950s. The film was released to a lukewarm reaction from critics, who called it \"beautifully filmed, but decidedly dull [and] a colossal waste of a talented cast.\" Streep's last film of 2007 was Robert Redford's Lions for Lambs, a film about the connection between a platoon of United States soldiers in Afghanistan, a U.S. senator, a reporter, and a California college professor. Like Evening, critics felt that the talent of the cast was wasted and that it suffered from slow pacing, although one critic announced that Streep positively stood out, being \"natural, unforced, quietly powerful\", in comparison to Redford's forced performance. \n\nIn 2008, Streep found major commercial success when she starred in Phyllida Lloyd's Mamma Mia!, a film adaptation of the musical of the same name, based on the songs of Swedish pop group ABBA. Co-starring Amanda Seyfried, Pierce Brosnan, Stellan Skarsgård and Colin Firth, Streep played a single mother and a former girl-group singer, whose daughter (Seyfried), a bride-to-be who never met her father, invites three likely paternal candidates to her wedding on an idyllic Greek island. An instant box office success, Mamma Mia! became Streep's highest-grossing film to date, with box office receipts of US$602.6 million, also ranking it first among the highest-grossing musical films for now. Nominated for another Golden Globe, Streep's performance was generally well received by critics, with Wesley Morris of the Boston Globe commenting \"the greatest actor in American movies has finally become a movie star.\" \n\nStreep's other film of 2008 was Doubt featuring Philip Seymour Hoffman, Amy Adams, and Viola Davis. A drama revolving around the stern principal nun (Streep) of a Bronx Catholic school in 1964 who brings charges of pedophilia against a popular priest (Hoffman), the film became a moderate box office success, but was hailed by many critics as one of the best of 2008. The film received five Academy Awards nominations, for its four lead actors and for Shanley's script. Ebert, who awarded the film the full four stars, highlighted Streep's caricature of a nun, who \"hates all inroads of the modern world\", while Kelly Vance of The East Bay Express remarked: \"It's thrilling to see a pro like Streep step into an already wildly exaggerated role and then ramp it up a few notches just for the sheer hell of it. Grim, red-eyed, deathly pale Sister Aloysius may be the scariest nun of all time.\" \n\nIn 2009, Streep played chef Julia Child in Nora Ephron's Julie & Julia, co-starring Amy Adams and Stanley Tucci. (Tucci and Streep had worked together earlier in Devil Wears Prada.) The first major motion picture based on a blog, Julie and Julia contrasts the life of Child in the early years of her culinary career with the life of young New Yorker Julie Powell (Adams), who aspires to cook all 524 recipes in Child's cookbook Mastering the Art of French Cooking. Longworth believes her caricature of Julia Child was \"quite possibly the biggest performance of her career while also drawing on her own experience to bring lived-in truth the story of a late bloomer\". The same year, Streep starred in Nancy Meyers' romantic comedy It's Complicated, with Alec Baldwin and Steve Martin. She received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for both Julie & Julia and It's Complicated; she won the award for Julie & Julia and later received her 16th Oscar nomination for it. She also lent her voice to Mrs. Felicity Fox in the stop-motion film Fantastic Mr. Fox.\n\n2010s\n\nStreep's first film of the 2010s was Phyllida Lloyd's The Iron Lady (2011), a British biographical film about Margaret Thatcher, which takes a look at the Prime Minister during the Falklands War and her years in retirement. Streep, who sat through a session at the House of Commons to observe British MPs in action in preparation for her role, called her casting \"a daunting and exciting challenge.\" While the film had a mixed reception, Streep's performance got rave reviews, earning her Best Actress awards at the Golden Globes and the BAFTAs as well as her third win at the 84th Academy Awards. Former advisers, friends and family of Thatcher criticized Streep's portrayal of her as inaccurate and biased. The following year, after Thatcher's death, Streep issued a formal statement describing Thatcher's \"hard-nosed fiscal measures\" and \"hands-off approach to financial regulation,\" while praising her \"personal strength and grit.\" \n\n In 2012, Streep reunited with Prada director David Frankel on the set of the comedy-drama film Hope Springs, co-starring Tommy Lee Jones and Steve Carell. Streep and Jones play a middle-aged couple, who attend a week of intensive marriage counseling to try to bring back the intimacy missing in their relationship. Reviews for the film were mostly positive, with critics praising the \"mesmerizing performances [...] which offer filmgoers some grown-up laughs – and a thoughtful look at mature relationships\". \n\nIn 2013, Streep starred alongside Julia Roberts, Ewan McGregor, Chris Cooper, and others in the black comedy drama August: Osage County about a dysfunctional family that reunites into the familial house when their patriarch suddenly disappears. Based on Tracy Letts's Pulitzer Prize-winning play of the same name, Streep received positive reviews for her portrayal of the family's strong-willed and contentious matriarch, who is suffering from oral cancer and an addiction to narcotics, and was subsequently nominated for another Golden Globe, SAG, and Academy Award. At the National Board of Review Awards in 2013, Streep labeled Walt Disney as \"anti-semitic\" and a \"gender bigot.\" Former actors, employees and animators who knew Disney during his lifetime rebuffed the comments as misinformed and selective. The Walt Disney Family Museum issued a statement rebuking Streep's allegations indirectly, citing, among others, Disney's contributions to Jewish charities and his published letters stating that women \"have the right to expect the same chances for advancement as men.\" However, Disney's grandniece, Abigail Disney, wholeheartedly agreed with Streep's statements, stating that he was an \"anti-Semite,\" and \"racist\" who was also an exemplary filmmaker whose work \"made billions of people happy.\" \n\nStreep's first film of 2014 was the motion picture adaptation of the young adult novel The Giver. Set in 2048, the social science fiction film tells the story of a post-apocalyptic community without war, pain, suffering, differences or choice, where a young boy is chosen to learn the real world. Streep, who plays the community's leader, was aware of the book before being offered the role by co-star and producer Jeff Bridges. Upon its release, The Giver was met with generally mixed to negative reviews from critics. The same year, she also had a small role in the period drama film The Homesman. Set in the 1850s midwest, the film stars Hilary Swank and Tommy Lee Jones as an unusual pair who help three women driven to madness by the frontier to get back East. Streep appears not until the end of the film, playing a preacher's wife, who takes the women into care. The Homesman premiered at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival where it garnered largely positive reviews from critics. \n\nHer final film of 2014 was the Disney film adaptation of the Broadway musical Into the Woods, directed by Rob Marshall. A fantasy genre crossover inspired by the Grimm Brothers' fairy tales, it centers on a childless couple, who sets out to end a curse placed on them by a vengeful witch, played by Streep. Though the film was dismissed by some critics such as Mark Kermode as \"irritating naffness\", Streep's performance earned her Academy Award, Golden Globe, SAG, and Critic's Choice Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress. In July 2014, it was announced that Streep would portray Maria Callas in Master Class, but the project was pulled after director Mike Nichols's death in November of the same year. \n\n In 2015, Streep starred in Jonathan Demme's Ricki and the Flash, playing a grocery store checkout worker by day who is a rock musician at night, and who has one last chance to reconnect with her estranged family. Streep learned to play the guitar for the semi-autobiographical dramedy film, which reunited her with her eldest daughter Mamie Gummer. Reviews of the film were generally mixed. Streep's other film of the year was director Sarah Gavron's period drama Suffragette, co-starring Carey Mulligan and Helena Bonham Carter. In the film, she played the small but pivotal role of Emmeline Pankhurst, a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote. The film received mostly positive reviews, particularly for the performances of the cast, though its distributor earned criticism that Streep's prominent position within the marketing was misleading. \n\nIn February 2016, Streep served in her first appearance as president of the main competition jury at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival. Streep will next be seen in the Stephen Frears-directed comedy Florence Foster Jenkins, a biopic about the eponymous opera singer. Other cast members include Hugh Grant, and Simon Helberg. \n\nActing style and legacy\n\n Such is Streep's contemporary position in world cinema that Vanity Fair has commented that \"it's hard to imagine that there was a time before Meryl Streep was the greatest-living actress\". Emma Brockes of The Guardian notes that despite Streep's being \"one of the most famous actresses in the world\", it is \"strangely hard to pin an image on Streep\", in a career where she has \"laboured to establish herself as an actor whose roots lie in ordinary life\". Despite her success, Streep has always been modest about her own acting and achievements in cinema. She has stated that she has no particular method when it comes to acting, learning from the days of her early studies that she can't be articulate. She said in 1987, \"I have a smattering of things I've learned from different teachers, but nothing I can put into a valise and open it up and say 'Now which one would you like'? Nothing I can count on and that makes it more dangerous. But then the danger makes it more exciting.\" She has stated that her ideal director is one who gives her complete artistic control, and allowing a degree of improvization and her to learn from her own mistakes.\n\nKarina Longworth notes how \"external\" Streep's performances are, \"chameleonic\" in her impersonation of characters, \"subsuming herself into them, rather than personifying them\". In her early roles such as Manhattan and Kramer vs. Kramer, she was compared to both Diane Keaton and Jill Clayburgh, in that her characters were unsympathetic, which Streep has attributed to the tendency to be drawn to playing women who are difficult to like and are devoid of a mutual emotional understanding with others. Streep has stated that many consider her to be a technical actor, but she professed that it comes down to her love of reading the initial script, adding, \"I come ready and I don't want to screw around and waste the first 10 takes on adjusting lighting and everybody else getting comfortable\".\n\nMike Nichols, who directed Streep in Silkwood, Heartburn and Postcards from the Edge, praised Streep's ability to transform herself into her characters, remarking that \"in every role she becomes a totally new human being. As she becomes the person she is portraying, the other performers begin to react to her as if she were that person\". He said that directing her is \"so much like falling in love that it has the characteristics of a time which you remember as magical but which is shrouded in mystery\". He also noted that Streep's acting ability had a profound impact on her co-stars and that \"one could improve by 1000% purely by watching her.\"\nLongworth believes that in nearly every film, Streep has \"sly infused\" a feminist point of view in her portrayals. However, film critic Molly Haskell has stated, \"None of her heroines are feminist, strictly speaking. Yet they uncannily embody various crosscurrents of experience in the last twenty years, as women have redefined themselves against the background of the women's movement\".\n\nStreep is well known for her ability to imitate a wide range of accents, from Danish in Out of Africa (1985) to English received pronunciation in Plenty (1985), The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981), and The Iron Lady (2011); Italian in The Bridges of Madison County (1995); a Minnesota accent in A Prairie Home Companion (2006); Irish-American in Ironweed; and a heavy Bronx accent in Doubt.\nStreep has stated that she grew up listening to artists such as Barbra Streisand, The Beatles and Bob Dylan, and she learned a lot about how to use her voice, her \"instrument,\" by listening to Barbra Streisand's albums. In the 1988 film Evil Angels, in which she portrays a New Zealand transplant to Australia, Streep perfected a hybrid of Australian & New Zealand English. Her performance received the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, as well as Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress.\n\nFor her role in the film Sophie's Choice (1982), Streep spoke both English and German with a Polish accent, as well as Polish itself. In The Iron Lady, she reproduced the vocal style of Margaret Thatcher from the time before Thatcher became Britain's Prime Minister, and after she had taken elocution lessons to change her pitch, pronunciation, and delivery. Streep has commented that using accents as part of her acting is a technique she views as an obvious requirement in her portrayal of a character.\nWhen questioned in Belfast as to how she reproduces different accents, Streep replied in a perfect Belfast accent: \"I listen.\" \n\nOther work\n\nAfter Streep appeared in Mamma Mia!, her rendition of the song \"Mamma Mia\" rose to popularity in the Portuguese music charts, where it peaked at No. 8 in October 2008. At the 35th People's Choice Awards, her version of \"Mamma Mia\" won an award for \"Favorite Song From A Soundtrack\". In 2008, Streep was nominated for a Grammy Award (her fifth nomination) for her work on the Mamma Mia! soundtrack. Throughout her career, Streep has narrated numerous audio books, including three by children's book author William Steig: Brae Irene, Spinky Sulks, and The One and Only Shrek!. \n\nStreep is the spokesperson for the National Women's History Museum, to which she has donated a significant amount of money (including her fee for The Iron Lady, which was $1 million) and hosted numerous events. On October 4, 2012, Streep donated $1 million to The Public Theater in honor of both its late founder, Joseph Papp, and her friend, the author Nora Ephron. She also supports Gucci's \"Chime For Change\" campaign that aims to spread female empowerment. Streep, when asked in a 2015 interview by Time Out magazine if she was a feminist, answered, \"I am a humanist, I am for nice easy balance.\" \n\nIn 2014, Streep established two scholarships for students at the University of Massachusetts Lowell – the Meryl Streep Endowed Scholarship for English majors, and the Joan Hertzberg Endowed Scholarship (named for Streep's former classmate at Vassar College) for math majors. In April 2015, it was announced that Streep had funded a screenwriters lab for female screenwriters over forty years old, called the Writers Lab, to be run by New York Women in Film & Television and the collective IRIS. As of the announcement, the Writers Lab is the only initiative in the world for female screenwriters over forty years old.\n\nIn 2015, Streep signed an open letter for which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they served as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which was set to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 to establish new development goals for the generation. Also in 2015, Streep sent each member of the U.S. Congress a letter supporting the Equal Rights Amendment. Each of her letters was sent with a copy of the book Equal Means Equal: Why the Time for the ERA is Now by Jessica Neuwirth, president of the ERA Coalition. In March 2016 Streep, among others, signed a letter asking for gender equality throughout the world, in observance of International Women's Day; this was also organized by the ONE Campaign. \n\nStreep gave a speech at the 2016 Democratic National Convention. \n\nPersonal life\n\nAuthor Karina Longworth notes that despite her \"high level of stardom\" for decades, Streep has managed to maintain a relatively normal personal life. Streep lived with actor John Cazale for three years until his death from lung cancer in March 1978. Al Pacino remarked that \"I've hardly ever seen a person so devoted to someone who is falling away like John was. To see her in that act of love for this man was overwhelming.\" Streep said of his death, \"I didn't get over it. I don't want to get over it. No matter what you do, the pain is always there in some recess of your mind, and it affects everything that happens afterwards. I think you can assimilate the pain and go on without making an obsession of it\".\n\nStreep married sculptor Don Gummer six months after Cazale's death. They have four children: musician Henry (born 1979), actresses Mamie (born 1983) and Grace (born 1986), and model Louisa (born 1991). In August 1985, the family moved into a $1.8-million private estate in Connecticut, with an extensive art studio to facilitate Streep's husband's work, and lived there until they bought a $3-million mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles, in 1990. They eventually moved back to Connecticut. \n\nWhen asked if religion plays a part in her life in 2009, Streep replied: \"I follow no doctrine. I don't belong to a church or a temple or a synagogue or an ashram.\" In an interview in December 2008, she also alluded to her lack of religious belief when she said: \"So I've always been really, deeply interested, because I think I can understand the solace that's available in the whole construct of religion. But I really don't believe in the power of prayer, or things would have been avoided that have happened, that are awful. So it's a horrible position as an intelligent, emotional, yearning human being to sit outside of the available comfort there. But I just can't go there.\"\n\nWhen asked from where she draws consolation in the face of aging and death, Streep responded: \"Consolation? I'm not sure I have it. I have a belief, I guess, in the power of the aggregate human attempt – the best of ourselves. In love and hope and optimism – you know, the magic things that seem inexplicable. Why we are the way we are. I do have a sense of trying to make things better. Where does that come from?\" \n\nCredits \n\nAwards and nominations" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "9", "nine", "Nine" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "nine", "9" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nine", "type": "Numerical", "value": "Nine" }
Both Richard and Karen Carpenter came fro which state?	tc_1064	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Carpenters.txt", "Karen_Carpenter.txt" ], "title": [ "The Carpenters", "Karen Carpenter" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Carpenters were an American vocal and instrumental duo consisting of siblings Karen and Richard Carpenter. Producing a distinctively soft musical style, they became among the best-selling music artists of all time. During their 14-year career, the Carpenters recorded 11 albums, 31 singles, five television specials, and a short-lived television series. Their career ended in 1983 by Karen's death from heart failure brought on by complications of anorexia. Extensive news coverage surrounding the circumstances of her death increased public awareness of eating disorders.\n\nThe duo's brand of melodic pop produced a record-breaking run of hit recordings on the American Top 40 and Adult Contemporary charts, and they became leading sellers in the soft rock, easy listening and adult contemporary genres. The Carpenters had three No. 1 singles and five No. 2 singles on the Billboard Hot 100 and fifteen No. 1 hits on the Adult Contemporary chart. In addition, they had twelve top 10 singles. To date, the Carpenters' album and single sales total more than 100 million units.\n\nMusical and lyrical style \n\nRichard Carpenter was the creative force behind the Carpenter sound. An accomplished keyboard player, composer and arranger, music critic Daniel Levitin called Richard Carpenter \"one of the most gifted arrangers to emerge in popular music.\" In a period when contemporary music was dominated by heavy rock, their smooth harmonies were not in step with the trends of the day. The sound the Carpenters were going for was rich and melodic, along the same vein as the harmonies found in their contemporaries The Beach Boys and the The Mamas & the Papas, but with greater fullness and orchestration. Most of Richard's arrangements were classical in style, with frequent use of strings and occasional brass and woodwind instruments as well. Richard's work with Karen was heavily influenced by the music of Les Paul, whose overdubbing of the voice of partner Mary Ford allowed her to be used as both the lead and harmonizing vocals. By use of multi-tracked recordings, Richard was able to use Karen and himself for the harmonies to back Karen's lead. The overdubbed background harmonies were distinctive to the Carpenters, but it was the soulful, engaging sound of Karen's lead voice that made them so recognizable.\n\nKaren did not possess a powerful singing voice, but when miked closely she conveyed a great deal of feeling. Tight miking required perfect pitch, which came easily to her. Richard Coles, a musician and broadcaster, commented: \"No singer is so closely miked up so unforgivingly as Karen Carpenter. That is frightening for singers because the closer the microphone the more unforgiving it is in exposing the weaknesses in a singer's voice.\" Karen's contralto voice was warm and distinctive. Though her vocal range spanned three octaves, Richard arranged their music to take advantage of the rich quality of Karen's lower range. Many of the Carpenters' songs are in the keys of D (\"You\", \"There's a Kind of Hush (All Over the World)\"), E flat (\"Only Yesterday\"), E (\"Hurting Each Other\", \"Yesterday Once More\"), F (\"I'll Never Fall in Love Again\"), and G (\"And When He Smiles\", \"Reason to Believe\", \"For All We Know\", \"You'll Love Me\"). \n\nRichard is best known for his use of the Wurlitzer electric piano, whose sound he described as \"warm\" and \"beautiful\". He also played the grand piano, Hammond organ, synthesizer and even the harpsichord with the band. In the recording studio he often would overdub his acoustic piano parts with a Wurlitzer electric piano to thicken the sound. From the mid-1970s Richard also used Fender Rhodes pianos. While touring he often would have a grand piano as well as both a Rhodes and a Wurlitzer electric piano on stage for different songs.\n\nKaren was an accomplished drummer, and initially playing drums was her sole role in her musical performances with her brother. When it became apparent to Richard that she had a beautiful and distinctive singing voice she began to sing for the group in addition to playing the drums. Before 1974 Karen played the drums for all their songs. According to Richard, she considered herself a \"drummer who sang\". However Karen's vocals soon became the centerpiece of the group's performances, and at 5'4\" in stature performing behind her drum kit made it difficult for her to be seen. It was soon apparent to Richard and their manager that the audience wanted to see more of Karen. Although unwilling, she eventually agreed to sing the ballads standing up front, returning back to her drums for the lesser known songs. As the group's popularity increased, demand for Karen's vocals overshadowed her drumming. Gradually she played the drums less. By the time their album A Kind of Hush was released in 1976 she had not played the drums for the studio sessions at all; though she continued to play some during concerts. From spring 1976 onward the tours would include a drum medley for Karen to play, and a piano solo number was included for Richard. Karen made a final return to studio drumming for the track \"When It's Gone (It's Just Gone)\" on the album Made in America, albeit in tandem with Nashville session drummer Larrie Londin. She also provided percussion in tandem with Paulinho da Costa on the song \"Those Good Old Dreams\".\n\nPre-Carpenters \n\n1946–64: Childhood \n\nThe Carpenters were both born at Grace-New Haven Hospital (now called Yale-New Haven Hospital) in New Haven, Connecticut, to parents Harold and Agnes. Richard Lynn was born on October 15, 1946, and Karen Anne followed on March 2, 1950. Richard was a quiet child who spent most of his time in the house listening to records and playing the piano. Karen, on the other hand, was friendly and outgoing; she liked to play sports, including softball with the neighborhood kids, but she also spent a lot of time listening to music.\n\nIn June 1963, the Carpenter family moved to the Los Angeles suburb of Downey, California. In the fall of 1964, Richard enrolled at California State College at Long Beach where he met future songwriting partner John Bettis; Wesley Jacobs, a friend who played the bass and tuba for the Richard Carpenter Trio; and Frank Pooler, with whom Richard would collaborate to create the Christmas standard \"Merry Christmas Darling\" in 1966.\n\nThat same fall, Karen enrolled at Downey High School, where she found she had a knack for playing the drums.\n\nFriend and fellow band member Frankie Chavez inspired Karen to play the drums. She would often borrow Chavez's drum kit when he taught her. \"She and Frankie … must have worked down the rudiments, the cadences, and the press-rolls for hours\", recalls Richard. When Karen finally got a Ludwig drum kit from her parents in late 1964, she was able to play it professionally, in what Richard had described in their documentary, Close to You: Remembering the Carpenters, as \"exotic time signatures\".\n\n1965–68: The Richard Carpenter Trio and Spectrum \n\nBy 1965, Karen had been practicing the drums for a year, and Richard was refining his piano techniques with Pooler as his teacher. In late 1965 Richard teamed up with classmate and friend Wes Jacobs, who played tuba and stand-up bass. With his sister playing drums, the three formed a jazz trio.\n\nIn mid-1966 the Richard Carpenter Trio entered the Hollywood Bowl annual Battle of the Bands. They played an instrumental version of \"The Girl from Ipanema\" and their own piece titled \"Iced Tea\". The trio won the Battle of the Bands on June 24, 1966, and were signed up by RCA Records. They recorded songs such as The Beatles' \"Every Little Thing\" and Frank Sinatra's \"Strangers in the Night\" for RCA. An RCA committee reviewed their recordings and chose not to produce them, and the Richard Carpenter Trio were released from RCA. In 1991, some twenty-five years later, a couple of these recordings were released as part of a \"From The Top\" boxed set of Carpenters material.\n\nLater in 1966, Karen tagged along at a late-night session in the garage studio of Los Angeles bassist Joe Osborn, and joined future Carpenters collaborator and lyricist John Bettis at a demo session where Richard was to accompany an auditioning trumpet player. Asked to sing, Karen performed for Osborn, who said \"Never mind the trumpet player; this chubby little girl can sing.\"\n\nOsborn signed Karen by herself as a singer to his fledgling label, Magic Lamp Records, and the label put out a single featuring two of Richard's compositions, \"Looking for Love\" and \"I'll Be Yours\". The single was not a hit, and the label soon became defunct. However, Osborn let Karen and Richard continue to use his studio to record demo tapes. \n\nIn 1967, Richard and Karen teamed up with four other student musicians from Long Beach State to form a band called \"Spectrum\". The group often performed at the Whisky a Go Go. Spectrum member John Bettis worked with the Carpenters until Karen's death in 1983, composing many songs with Richard.\n\nIn 1968, Spectrum disbanded, and Wes Jacobs of the Richard Carpenter Trio left for the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. Richard and Karen received an offer to be on the television program Your All American College Show in mid-1968. Their performance of June 22, 1968 was Richard's and Karen's first television appearance. During this time Richard and Karen continued to refine their craft and produced demo tapes in Joe Osborn's garage. One of these was heard by A&M Records' Herb Alpert, who was intrigued by Karen's voice. The A&M co-owner signed them to a record contract. Said Richard: \"We signed with A&M. In came Herb and he shook our hands and said in so many words 'It was a pleasure to meet you. Let's hope we have some hits.' \"\n\n1969–83: Carpenters \n\nRichard and Karen Carpenter signed to A&M Records on April 22, 1969, under the name \"Carpenters\". Since Karen was technically underage (she was 19 at the time), her parents had to co-sign for her. Richard and Karen had decided to sign as \"Carpenters\", without the definite article. Karen said they had been influenced in the name by the pop music group Bread. In the album notes for their 2004 release, Carpenters Gold: 35th Anniversary Edition, Richard stated:\n\nOffering (Ticket to Ride) \n\nWhen Richard and Karen Carpenter signed to A&M Records, they were given free rein in the recording studio to create an album in their distinctive style. Their debut album, entitled Offering, was released in October 1969, and featured a number of songs that Richard had written or co-written during their Spectrum period. A ballad rendition of \"Ticket to Ride\" was released as a single and became a minor hit for the Carpenters, peaking at No. 54 on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Top 20 of the Adult Contemporary chart. The album itself sold poorly initially. However, after the Carpenters' subsequent breakthrough the album was repackaged and reissued internationally under the name Ticket to Ride and sold moderately.\n\nClose to You \n\nDespite the poor showing of the Carpenters' initial album, A&M stayed with them and had them develop songs for a second album. Herb Alpert asked Richard to re-work a Burt Bacharach/Hal David song titled \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\". The Carpenters' version was released as a 45 RPM record single. It debuted at No. 56, the highest debut of the week ending June 20, 1970. Over the next five weeks it vaulted to No. 1, reaching that perch on July 25, and staying there for the next four weeks. Burt Bacharach said, \"The arrangement of 'Close to You' that Richard did compared to the arrangement that I did for myself and for Dionne (Warwick) and the original record with Richard Chamberlain I'd say is twenty times better, Richard's arrangement than my arrangement. I really missed and he really nailed it. He just got a great feel, a great loop, the dotted eighth and sixteenth feel. It's great.\"\n\nTheir next hit was with a song Richard had seen in a television commercial for Crocker National Bank, \"We've Only Just Begun\", which was written by Paul Williams and Roger Nichols. Three months after \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" reached No. 1, the Carpenters' version of \"We've Only Just Begun\" reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the first of their eventual five No. 2 hits (it wasn't able to get past \"I'll Be There\" by The Jackson 5 & \"I Think I Love You\" by The Partridge Family during its four-week stay). The song became the first hit single for Williams and Nichols and is considered by Richard Carpenter to be the group's signature tune.\n\n\"Close to You\" and \"We've Only Just Begun\" became RIAA certified Gold singles and were featured on the best-selling album Close to You, which placed No. 175 on Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list in 2003. \n\nThe duo rounded out the year with the holiday release of \"Merry Christmas, Darling\". The single scored high on the holiday charts and would repeatedly return to the holiday charts in subsequent years. In 1978, feeling she could give a more mature treatment to the tune, Karen re-cut the vocal for their Christmas TV special; this remake also became a hit.\n\nCarpenters and A Song for You \n\nA string of hit singles and albums kept the Carpenters on the charts through the early 1970s. Their 1971 hit \"For All We Know\" was originally recorded in 1970, by Larry Meredith, for a wedding scene in the movie Lovers and Other Strangers. Upon hearing it in the movie theater, Richard saw potential in it and subsequently recorded it in the autumn of 1970. The track became the Carpenters' third gold single.\n\nThe duo's fourth gold single \"Rainy Days and Mondays\" became Williams' and Nichols' second major single with the Carpenters, peaking at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, kept from the top slot by Carole King's \"It's Too Late\".\n\n\"Superstar\", written by Bonnie Bramlett and Leon Russell, became the duo's third No. 2 single on the Billboard Hot 100. Their third eponymous album, Carpenters, was released in 1971. It became one of their best sellers, earning RIAA certification for platinum four times, and rising to No. 2 on Billboard's pop album chart for two weeks, staying on the top 40 chart for 39 weeks. It won a Grammy Award for Carpenters, as well as three other nominations.\n\nA Song for You was the fourth album, released on June 13, 1972. The album contained \"Goodbye to Love\", a Carpenter/Bettis original with a gritty guitar solo by Tony Peluso which set it apart from most Carpenters songs, became their third 1972 hit single, peaking at #7. Peluso would continue to work with Carpenters until their end in 1983.\n\nAnother Carpenter/Bettis composition, \"Top of the World\", was originally intended as strictly an album cut, but when Lynn Anderson scored a hit with the song in early 1973, the Carpenters opted to record their own single version. It was released in September 1973 and became the Carpenters' second Billboard No. 1 hit in December 1973.\n\nNow & Then \n\nTheir Now & Then album from 1973 was named by mother Agnes Carpenter. It contained the popular Sesame Street song \"Sing\" and the ambitious \"Yesterday Once More\", a side-long tribute to oldies radio which incorporated renditions of eight hit songs from previous decades into a faux oldies radio program. The single version of the track became their biggest hit in the United Kingdom, holding the number 2 spot for two weeks; it was kept off the top first by Gary Glitter's \"I'm the Leader of the Gang (I Am)\" and then by Donny Osmond's version of \"Young Love\".\n\nIn 1974, the Carpenters achieved a sizable international hit with an up-tempo remake of Hank Williams's \"Jambalaya (On the Bayou)\". While the song was not released as a single in the U.S., it reached the top 30 in Japan, number 12 in the United Kingdom (as part of a double A-side with \"Mr. Guder\"), and number 3 in the Netherlands. In late 1974, a Christmas single followed, a jazz-influenced rendition of \"Santa Claus Is Coming to Town\".\n\nThe Singles: 1969–1973 \n\nThe Carpenters did not record a new album in 1974. The group had been touring extensively and the principals were exhausted. In Richard's words, \"there was simply no time to make one. Nor was I in the mood.\" During this period, the pair released just one Hot 100 single, a Paul Williams/Roger Nichols composition called \"I Won't Last a Day Without You\". Taken from their 1972 LP A Song for You, the Carpenters finally decided to release their original two years after its original LP release and some months after Maureen McGovern's 1973 cover. In March 1974, the single version became the fifth and final selection from that album project to chart in the Top 20, reaching No. 11 on the Hot 100 on May 25, 1974. Since \"Top of the World\" was at No. 11 and falling in 1974's first week and \"Please Mr. Postman\" was at No. 11 and rising in 1974's last week, the Carpenters failed all three times, by one position each time, that year to reach the top 10.\n\nIn place of the new album for 1974, their first greatest hits package was released, featuring new remixes of their prior hit singles, some with a newly recorded lead, and including newly recorded bridges and transition material so that each side of the album would play through with no breaks, something that Richard would come to regret. This compilation was entitled The Singles: 1969–1973, and topped the charts in the U.S. for one week, on January 5, 1974. It also topped the United Kingdom chart for 17 weeks (non-consecutive) and became one of the best-selling albums of the decade, ultimately selling more than 7 million copies in the U.S. alone.\n\nHorizon \n\nIn 1975, the Carpenters gained another hit with a remake of the Marvelettes' chart-topping Motown classic from 1961, \"Please Mr. Postman\". Released in late 1974, the song soared to No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1975, becoming the duo's third and final No. 1 pop single. It also earned Karen and Richard their record-setting twelfth million-selling gold single in America.\n\nThe Carpenter/Bettis composition \"Only Yesterday\" followed \"Please Mr. Postman\" as the duo's last Hot 100 top 10 hit, reaching No. 4. \n\nBoth singles appeared on their 1975 LP Horizon, which also included covers of The Eagles' \"Desperado\" and Neil Sedaka's \"Solitaire\", which became a moderate hit for the duo that year. Horizon was certified platinum, but owing to the disc's late release (after the second single was already dropping off the charts), it was their first album to fall short of multi-platinum status.\n\nThe Carpenters were among the first American recording acts to produce music videos to promote their records. In early 1975, they filmed a performance of \"Please Mr. Postman\" at Disneyland as well as \"Only Yesterday\" at the Huntington Gardens.\n\nA Kind of Hush and Passage \n\nTheir subsequent album A Kind of Hush, released on June 11, 1976, achieved gold status, but again owing to its late release, became the first Carpenters' album not to become a platinum certified record since Ticket to Ride seven years earlier. Their singles releases in 1976 were successful, but at this time, contemporary hit radio was moving forward with changing musical styles, which ultimately caused the careers of most \"soft\" groups like the Carpenters to suffer. The duo's biggest pop single that year was a cover of Herman's Hermits' \"There's a Kind of Hush (All Over the World)\", which peaked at No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100. \"I Need to Be in Love\" (Karen's favorite song by the Carpenters) charted at No. 25 on the Billboard Hot 100. However, it followed \"There's a Kind of Hush\" to the top spot on the Adult Contemporary charts and became the duo's 14th No. 1 Adult Contemporary hit, far and away more than any other act in the history of the chart.\n\nThe Carpenters' Very First Television Special aired on December 8, 1976, and went to No. 6 on the Nielsens. Another television special, The Carpenters at Christmas, aired on December 9, 1977.\n\nThe disco craze was in full swing by 1977, and adult-appeal \"easy listening\" artists like the Carpenters were getting less airplay. Their experimental album, Passage, released in 1977, marked an attempt to broaden their appeal by venturing into other musical genres. The album featured an unlikely mix of jazz fusion (\"B'wana She No Home\"), calypso (\"Man Smart, Woman Smarter\"), and orchestrated balladry (\"I Just Fall in Love Again\", \"Two Sides\"), and included the hits, \"All You Get from Love Is a Love Song\", \"Sweet, Sweet Smile\", and \"Calling Occupants of Interplanetary Craft\". \"Calling Occupants\" was supported with the TV special Space Encounters, which aired May 17, 1978. Although the single release of \"Calling Occupants\" became a significant Top 10 hit in the United Kingdom and reached No. 1 in Ireland, it only peaked at number 32 on the U.S. pop charts, and for the first time a Carpenters album did not reach the gold threshold of 500,000 copies shipped in the United States. In early 1978, they scored a surprise Top 10 country hit with the up-tempo, fiddle-sweetened \"Sweet, Sweet Smile\", written by country-pop singer Juice Newton and her longtime musical partner Otha Young.\n\nThe Singles: 1974–1978 \n\nIn place of a new album for 1978, a second compilation, The Singles: 1974–1978, was released in the UK. In the United States, their first Christmas album, Christmas Portrait, became a seasonal favorite, returning Karen and Richard to platinum status. It was shortly followed by The Carpenters: A Christmas Portrait, a television special which aired December 19, 1978.\n\nDuring the sessions, several non-Christmas songs were also recorded such as \"Where Do I Go from Here\", \"Slow Dance\", and \"Honolulu City Lights\", most of which were not released until after Karen's death.\n\nBrief hiatus \n\nRichard sought treatment for his addiction to Quaaludes at a Topeka, Kansas, facility for six weeks starting in January 1979. He then decided to take the rest of the year off for relaxation and rehabilitation. Karen, at this point neither wanting to take a break from singing nor seek help for her anorexia, decided to pursue a solo album project with renowned producer Phil Ramone in New York. The choice of Ramone and more adult-oriented and disco/dance-tempo material represented an effort to retool her image. The album was finished by Spring 1980, but Richard and A&M executives voted to reject it which reportedly devastated Karen. The album was finally released 13 years after Karen's death, in 1996.\n\nMade in America and Karen's final days \n\nKaren proceeded with plans to record a new album with her brother, who had now recovered from his addiction and was ready to continue their career. The Carpenters produced their final television special in 1980, called Music, Music, Music!, with guest stars Ella Fitzgerald, Suzanne Somers, and John Davidson. However, ABC was not happy with the special as it was music from start to finish, unlike the previous specials which included sketch-based comedy. ABC felt it was too much like a PBS program.\n\nOn June 16, 1981, the Carpenters released what would become their final LP as a duo, Made in America. The album sold around 200,000 copies and spawned a final top 20 pop single, \"Touch Me When We're Dancing\", which reached No. 16 on the Hot 100. It also became their fifteenth and final number one Adult Contemporary hit. The album also produced three other singles, including \"(Want You) Back In My Life Again\", \"Those Good Old Dreams\", and a remake of the Motown hit \"Beechwood 4-5789\". The singles fared well on the adult contemporary charts. \"Beechwood 4-5789\", the last single by the Carpenters to be released in Karen's lifetime, was released on her 32nd birthday.\n\nPromotion for the album included a whistle-stop tour of America, Brazil and Europe, preceded by a disastrous live appearance for a Japanese Telethon event, filmed outdoors on the lot of A&M in August 1981. During their segment (the last of the show), the playback audio cut out midway through their performance of \"Touch Me When We're Dancing\". The ensuing scenes, along with Karen's reaction, left it obvious to viewers that the whole band had been miming. Three further singles from the album failed to ignite the charts.\n\nKaren sought therapy for her eating disorder with noted psychotherapist Steven Levenkron in New York City. In September 1982, she called her therapist to say her heart was beating 'funny' and she felt dizzy and confused. Admitting herself into hospital later that month, Karen was hooked up to an intravenous drip; she ended up gaining 30 lb in eight weeks. In November 1982, Karen left the hospital and despite pleas from family and friends, she announced that she was returning home to California and that she was cured.\n\nKaren's death \n\nOn February 3, 1983, Karen visited her parents. The following morning, February 4, her mother found her lying unresponsive on the floor of a walk-in closet. After they spent 20 minutes in a waiting room, a doctor entered to tell Richard and his parents that Karen was dead. The autopsy stated that Karen's death was caused by emetine cardiotoxicity resulting from anorexia nervosa. Under the anatomical summary, the first item was heart failure, with anorexia as second. The third finding was cachexia, which is extremely low weight and weakness and general body decline associated with chronic disease. Emetine cardiotoxicity implied that Karen abused ipecac syrup, although there was no evidence to suggest that Karen abused it as her brother and family never found ipecac vials in her apartment, even after her death.\n\nAt her funeral, more than a thousand mourners turned up, among them her friends Dorothy Hamill, Olivia Newton-John, Petula Clark, Dionne Warwick and Herb Alpert.\n\nOn October 12, 1983, the Carpenters received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, a few yards from the Dolby Theatre. Richard, Harold and Agnes Carpenter attended the inauguration, as did many fans.\n\nKaren's death brought media attention to anorexia nervosa and also to bulimia.\n\n1983–present: Post-Carpenters \n\nFollowing Karen's death, Richard Carpenter has continued to produce recordings of the duo's music, including several albums of previously unreleased material and numerous compilation albums. Voice of the Heart, an album that included some finished tracks left off of Made in America and earlier LPs, was released in late 1983. It peaked at No. 46 and was certified Gold. Two singles were released. \"Make Believe It's Your First Time\", a second version of a song Karen had recorded for her solo album (and a song which had been a minor hit in 1979 for Bobby Vinton), reached No. 7 Adult Contemporary but only reached No. 101 on the pop side. \"Your Baby Doesn't Love You Anymore\" got to No. 12 Adult Contemporary.\n\nFor the second Christmas season following Karen's death, Richard constructed a \"new\" Carpenters' Christmas album entitled An Old-Fashioned Christmas, using outtake material from the duo's first Christmas album Christmas Portrait and recording new material around it.\n\nRichard Carpenter married his first cousin, Mary Rudolph, on May 19, 1984. Kristi Lynn (which was the name Karen had chosen for a daughter if she ever had one) [Little Girl Blue] was born on August 17, 1987, Traci Tatum on July 25, 1989, Mindi Karen (named after her late aunt) on July 7, 1992, followed by Colin Paul and Taylor Mary. \n\nRichard, Mary, and their four daughters and one son live in Thousand Oaks, California, where the couple are supporters of the arts. In 2004, Carpenter and his wife pledged a $3 million gift to the Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Plaza Foundation in memory of Karen Carpenter. More recently, Richard has actively supported the Carpenter Performing Arts Center at his alma mater, California State University, Long Beach. He continues to make concert appearances, including fund raising efforts for the Carpenter Center.\n\nIn 2007 and 2009, the current owners of the former Carpenter family home on Newville Avenue in Downey, obtained permits from the city to tear down the existing buildings on the site to make room for newer and larger structures, in spite of ongoing protests from fans. In February 2008, a group of fans got their protest campaign covered in the Los Angeles Times. At that time an adjacent house that had once served as the band's headquarters and recording studio had already been demolished and the main house was on the verge of being demolished as well. The original house was immortalized on the Now & Then album cover and was the place where Karen Carpenter died: in the words of Carpenters' fan Jon Konjoyan, \"this was our version of Graceland.\" \n\nLogo \n\nIn 1971, the A&M graphics department hired Craig Braun and Associates to design the album cover for their third album, entitled Carpenters. \"I recognized it to be a great logo as soon as I saw it\", says Richard. In addition, the logo was used on every Carpenters' album since the third one as said by Richard, \"to keep things consistent, though, every Carpenters' album from the logo's inception shows the logo.\" The logo did not appear on the front cover of their album Passage but a small version appeared on the back cover.\n\nPromotion and touring \n\nAlthough the Carpenters had a rough start in 1969 with the lukewarm reviews of their first album, Offering, they tried to promote themselves by being Burt Bacharach's opening performance. In a live concert in 1974 at The Riviera Hotel, Las Vegas, Karen Carpenter explained:\n\nThen, Richard took over, and said:\n\nThe medley eventually was abridged and released on their eponymous album Carpenters in 1971. The song was shortened from almost 13 minutes to only 5 minutes.\n\nThe band maintained a demanding schedule of concert tours and television appearances. Among their numerous television credits were appearances on such popular series as The Ed Sullivan Show, The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, The Carol Burnett Show in 1971 and 1972, The Mike Douglas Show in 1971, and The Johnny Cash Show, also in 1971, where they played their hits \"For All We Know\" and \"Rainy Days and Mondays\". The duo appeared in a television special on the BBC in 1971 where they performed songs \"live\". They were also the featured performers in a summer replacement series, Make Your Own Kind of Music, which aired on NBC every Tuesday at 8:00 p.m. in the United States. Both Karen and Richard would later state in a 1980 radio interview that they were often taken advantage of in their dealings with television during the early seventies and wanted more control in the production of future projects. \n\nIn May 1973, the Carpenters accepted an invitation to perform at the White House for President Richard Nixon and visiting West German chancellor Willy Brandt.\n\nThe Carpenters played numerous concerts from 1971 to 1975:\n\nBy the mid-1970s, extensive touring and lengthy recording sessions had begun to take their toll on the duo and contributed to their professional and personal difficulties during the latter half of the decade. Karen dieted obsessively and developed the disorder anorexia nervosa, which first manifested itself in 1975 when she collapsed during a show in Las Vegas. Exhausted, Karen was forced to cancel concert tours in the Philippines, UK and Japan. Richard has said that he regrets the six- and seven-day work schedules of that period, adding that had he known then what he knows now, he wouldn't have agreed to it. Karen looked noticeably thin—although not sickly—in the music video produced for the \"Only Yesterday\" single. Richard developed an addiction to Quaaludes, which began to affect his performance in the late 1970s and led to the end of the duo's live concert appearances in 1978.\n\nPublic image \n\nThe Carpenters' popularity often confounded critics. With their output focused on ballads and mid-tempo pop, the duo's music was often dismissed by critics as being bland and saccharine. The recording industry, however, bestowed awards on the duo, who won three Grammy Awards during their career (Best New Artist, and Best Pop Performance by a Duo, Group, or Chorus, for \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" in 1970; and Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group for their eponymous LP Carpenters in 1971). In 1974, the Carpenters were voted Favorite Pop/Rock Band, Duo, or Group at the first annual American Music Awards. \n\nRichard would often state in interviews, that many critics usually judged them to \"drink milk, eat apple pie and take showers.\"\n\nIn Coleman's The Carpenters: The Untold Story, Richard stressed repeatedly how much he disliked the A&M executives for making their image \"squeaky-clean\", and the critics for criticizing them for their image rather than their music.\n\nIn a documentary about the Carpenters, musician and songwriter Paul Williams stated the duo was often labeled as being \"too vanilla\". Williams supported them by saying, \"Yes, but what an exquisite flavor vanilla is.\"\n\nLegacy \n\nKaren Carpenter has been called one of the best female vocalists of the 20th Century by a number of influential publications as diverse as Rolling Stone and National Public Radio, and Sir Paul McCartney called her the best female vocalist ever, saying that she was \"the best female voice in the world: melodic, tuneful and distinctive.\" A critical re-evaluation of Carpenters occurred during the 1990s and 2000s with the making of several documentaries produced in the United States, Japan, and Great Britain, like Close to You: Remembering the Carpenters (United States), The Sayonara (Japan), and Only Yesterday: The Carpenters Story (Great Britain). It has been said that Karen's signature vocals helped spur more contralto singers into pop music such as Anne Murray, Rita Coolidge, and Melissa Manchester. Despite contentions that their sound was \"too soft\" to fall under the definition of rock and roll, major campaigns and petitions exist toward inducting Carpenters in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. \n\nIn 1990, the alternative rock band Sonic Youth recorded \"Tunic (Song for Karen)\", which depicted Karen saying goodbye to relatives as she got to play the drums again and meet her new \"friends\", Dennis Wilson, Elvis Presley and Janis Joplin. A tribute album, If I Were a Carpenter, by contemporary artists such as Sonic Youth, Bettie Serveert, Shonen Knife, Grant Lee Buffalo, Matthew Sweet, and The Cranberries, appeared in 1994 and provided an alternative rock interpretation of Carpenters hits. \n\nSeveral of their songs have achieved the status of popular standards. \"Superstar\" has been covered by numerous artists, with popular recordings from Luther Vandross and Ruben Studdard to Bette Midler, Shonen Knife, Sonic Youth and Colleen Hewett.\n\nBoth \"We've Only Just Begun\" and \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" have been honored with Grammy Hall of Fame awards for recordings of lasting quality or historical significance. \n\nModern entertainers such as Christina Aguilera, Gwen Stefani, Shania Twain, Jann Arden, Anastacia, The Corrs, Mary J. Blige, Alicia Keys, Chrissie Hynde, Gloria Estefan, Lorrie Morgan, LeAnn Rimes, Michelle Wright, k.d. lang, Kelly Jones of Stereophonics, Christina Perri, Beyoncé, Johnny Borrell of Razorlight, Jo O'Meara from S Club, Carnie Wilson from Wilson Phillips, Mandy Moore, Michael Jackson, and Madonna have listed Karen Carpenter as a huge influence on their careers. \n\nDiscography \n\nCarpenters released 30 singles during their career. Of the thirty, ten were RIAA certified Gold and twenty-two peaked in the top 10 on the Adult Contemporary chart. In addition, the Carpenters also had ten albums from 1969–1983. Five of the albums contained two or more top 20 hits on the Billboard Hot 100 (Close to You, Carpenters, A Song for You, Now & Then, and Horizon).\n\n* Ticket to Ride (1969)\n* Close to You (1970)\n* Carpenters (1971)\n* A Song for You (1972)\n* Now & Then (1973)\n* Horizon (1975)\n* A Kind of Hush (1976)\n* Passage (1977)\n* Christmas Portrait (1978)\n* Made in America (1981)\n;Posthumous releases\n* Voice of the Heart (1983)\n* An Old-Fashioned Christmas (1984)\n* Lovelines (1989)\n* As Time Goes By (2001)\n\nGrammy Awards and nominations \n\nThroughout the 1970s, Richard and Karen were nominated numerous times for Grammy Awards. Richard Carpenter was also nominated for a Grammy Award for their instrumental song, \"Flat Baroque\". They won three Grammy Awards, and had two songs inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.\n\nNotes and references \n\nBibliography \n\n* Carpenter, Richard (1986). Carpenters: Ticket to Ride (1969) Album Notes. A&M 4205\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Richliano, James (2002). Angels We Have Heard: The Christmas Song Stories. Chatham, New York: Star Of Bethlehem Books. ISBN 0-9718810-0-6\n* \n* Schmidt, Randy (2010). Little Girl Blue: The Life Of Karen Carpenter\n* Stockdale, Tom (2000). Karen Carpenter. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-5225-7\n* Wallace, Evelyn (1973). The Carpenters' Official Fan Club Newsletters, Issue No. 26. June 1973.\n* \n", "Karen Anne Carpenter (March 2, 1950 – February 4, 1983) was an American singer and drummer. She and her brother, Richard Carpenter, formed the 1970s duo Carpenters. Although her skills as a drummer earned admiration from drumming luminaries and peers, she is best known for her vocal performances. She had a contralto vocal range. \n\nCarpenter suffered from anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder that was little known at the time. She died at age 32 from heart failure caused by complications related to her illness.VH1, Behind the Music: Carpenters (1998). Carpenter's death led to increased visibility and awareness of eating disorders. \n\nEarly life\n\nKaren Anne Carpenter was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the daughter of Agnes Reuwer (née Tatum) (March 5, 1915 – November 10, 1996) and Harold Bertram Carpenter (November 8, 1908 – October 15, 1988). When she was young, she enjoyed playing baseball with other children on the street. On the TV program This Is Your Life, she stated that she liked pitching and later, in the early 1970s, she would become the pitcher on the Carpenters' official softball team.E! Channel, \"True Hollywood Story – Karen Carpenter\" Her brother Richard developed an interest in music at an early age, becoming a piano prodigy. Karen enjoyed dancing and by age 4 was enrolled in tap dancing and ballet classes. The family moved in June 1963 to the Los Angeles suburb of Downey.\n\nWhen Carpenter entered Downey High School, she joined the school band. Bruce Gifford, the conductor (who had previously taught her older brother) gave her the glockenspiel, an instrument she disliked and after admiring the performance of her friend, Frankie Chavez (who idolized famous jazz drummer Buddy Rich), she asked if she could play the drums instead. She and her brother made their first recordings in 1965 and 1966. The following year she began dieting. Under a doctor's guidance, she went on the Stillman Diet. She rigorously ate lean foods, drank eight glasses of water a day, and avoided fatty foods. She was 5' 4\" (163 cm) in height and before dieting weighed 145 lb and afterwards weighed 120 lb until 1973, when the Carpenters' career reached its peak. By September 1975, her weight was 91 lb. \n\nMusic career\n\nFrom 1965 to 1968 Karen, her brother Richard, and his college friend Wes Jacobs, a bassist and tuba player, formed The Richard Carpenter Trio. The band played jazz at numerous nightclubs and also appeared on the TV talent show Your All-American College Show. Karen, Richard and other musicians, including Gary Sims and John Bettis, also performed as an ensemble known as Spectrum. Spectrum focused on a harmonious and vocal sound, and recorded many demo tapes in the garage studio of friend and bassist Joe Osborn. Many of those tapes were rejected by record companies. According to former Carpenters member John Bettis, those rejections \"took their toll.\" The tapes of the original sessions were lost in a fire at Joe Osborn's house, and the surviving versions of those early songs exist only as fragile acetate reference discs. Finally A&M Records signed the Carpenters to a recording contract in 1969. Karen sang most of the songs on the band's first album, Offering (later retitled Ticket to Ride), and her brother wrote 10 out of the album's 13 songs. The issued single (later the title track), which was a cover of a Beatles song, became their first single; it reached #54 on the Billboard Hot 100. Their next album, 1970's Close to You, featured two massive hit singles: \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" and \"We've Only Just Begun\". They peaked at #1 and #2, respectively, on the Hot 100.\n\nCarpenter started out as both the group's drummer and lead singer, and she originally sang all her vocals from behind the drum set. Because she was just 5 feet 4 inches tall, it was difficult for people in the audience to see her behind her drum kit, so she was eventually persuaded to stand at the microphone to sing the band's hits while another musician played the drums (former Disney Mouseketeer Cubby O'Brien served as the band's other drummer for many years). After the release of Now & Then in 1973, the albums tended to have Carpenter singing more and drumming less. At this time, her brother developed an addiction to Quaaludes. The Carpenters frequently cancelled tour dates, and they stopped touring altogether after their September 4, 1978, concert at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The Carpenters' Very First TV Special aired December 8, 1976. In 1980, she performed a medley of standards in a duet with Ella Fitzgerald on the Carpenters' television program Music, Music, Music. In 1981, after the release of the Made in America album (which turned out to be their last), the Carpenters returned to the stage and did some tour dates, including their final live performance in Brazil.\n\nIn addition to being a drummer and a singer, Karen Carpenter could also play the electric bass guitar. She played bass guitar on two songs on Offering/Ticket to Ride (the Carpenters first album released by A&M). The two songs were All of My Life and Eve. Although Karen's bass playing is heard on the original album(s), Richard remixed both songs (as he has done with almost every Carpenters song), and Joe Osborn's bass playing was substituted for later \"greatest hits\" releases. \n\nRecognition of drumming skills\n\nCarpenter started playing the drums in 1964. She was always enthusiastic about the drums and taught herself how to play complicated drum lines with \"exotic time signatures,\" according to her brother. Carpenter's drumming was praised by fellow drummers Hal Blaine, Cubby O'Brien, and Buddy Rich and by Modern Drummer magazine. According to her brother, Carpenter always considered herself a \"drummer who sang.\" Despite this, she was not often featured as a drummer on the Carpenters' albums. She was, however, the only drummer on the albums Ticket to Ride and Now & Then (except for one song) and on the songs \"Mr. Guder\", \"I'll Never Fall in Love Again\", \"Love is Surrender\", \"Bacharach/David Medley\", the piano instrumental \"Flat Baroque\" (highlighting her use of brushes), \"Happy\", \"Another Song\" and \"Please Mr. Postman.\" The role of drummer in the Carpenters entourage was mainly taken over by Hal Blaine as she went from behind the drum set to the front of the stage. Karen was known for endorsing Ludwig Drums and she had two setups (20\" bass drum, 14 and 16\" floor toms, 13\" mounted tom, 4, 6, 8 and 10\" concert toms and the Ludwig SuperSensitive snare drum was the one she really liked). She also used a Rogers hi-hat, a Rogers bass drum pedal, Zildjian cymbals, 11A drumsticks (brand unspecified) and Remo drumheads. On Made in America, Karen provided percussion on \"Those Good Old Dreams\" in tandem with Paulinho da Costa and made a final return to playing drums on the song \"When it's Gone (It's Just Gone)\" in unison with Larrie Londin.\n\nSolo album\n\nIn 1979, Richard took a year off to cure his dependency on Quaaludes, and Karen decided to make a solo album with producer Phil Ramone. Her solo work was markedly different from the usual Carpenters fare, consisting of adult-oriented and disco / up-tempo material with more sexual lyrics and the use of Karen's higher vocal register. The project met a tepid response from Richard and A&M executives in early 1980. The album was shelved by A&M Records CEO Herb Alpert, in spite of attempts by producer Quincy Jones to convince Alpert to release the record after a remix. A&M charged the Carpenters $400,000 to cover the cost of recording Karen's solo album, to be paid out of the duo's future royalties. Carpenters fans got a taste of the solo album in 1989 when some of its tracks (as remixed by Richard) were included on the album Lovelines, the final album of Carpenters' unreleased new material. In 1996, the complete album, titled Karen Carpenter, was finally released.\n\nPersonal life\n\nCarpenter lived with her parents until she was 26. In September and October of 1971, two years after the Carpenters' debut album, she and her brother bought two apartment buildings in Downey as a financial investment. Formerly named the \"Geneva\", the two complexes were renamed \"Only Just Begun\" and \"Close to You\" in honor of the duo's first smash hits. The apartment buildings are located at 8353 and 8356 5th Street, Downey, California. In 1976, Carpenter bought two Century City apartments, gutted them, and turned them into one condominium. Located at 2222 Avenue of the Stars, the doorbell chimed the first six notes of \"We've Only Just Begun\". As a housewarming gift, her mother gave her a collection of leather-bound classic works of literature. Carpenter collected Disney memorabilia, loved to play softball and baseball, and counted Petula Clark, Olivia Newton-John, and Dionne Warwick among her closest friends.\n\nCarpenter dated a number of well-known men, including Mike Curb, Tony Danza, Terry Ellis, Mark Harmon, Steve Martin, and Alan Osmond. After a whirlwind romance, she married real-estate developer Thomas James Burris on August 31, 1980, in the Crystal Room of the Beverly Hills Hotel. Burris, divorced with an 18-year-old son, was nine years her senior. A new song performed by Carpenter at the ceremony, \"Because We Are in Love\", was released in 1981. Burris concealed from Carpenter, who desperately wanted children, the fact that he had undergone a vasectomy. Their marriage did not survive the deceit and ended after 14 months. In addition to that, Burris was said to have been broke and living well beyond his means, borrowing up to $35,000 and $50,000 at a time from his wife, to the point that she had only stocks and bonds left. He was also said to have been abusive towards her, often being impatient with Karen, who shared with close friends that she remained fearful when he would occasionally lose his temper with her. Close friend Karen \"Itchie\" Ramone recounted one incident where she and Carpenter went to their normal hangout, Hamburger Hamlet, and Karen appeared to be distant emotionally, sitting not at their regular table but in the dark, and wearing large dark sunglasses, unable to eat and crying. According to Itchie, the marriage was \"the straw that broke the camel's back. It was absolutely the worse thing that could have ever happened to her.\" \n\nIn September 1981, Carpenter revised her will and left everything to her brother and parents. Two months later, following an argument after a family dinner in a restaurant, Carpenter and Burris broke up. Carpenter filed for divorce while staying in Lenox Hill Hospital. \n\nBurris later remarried and now resides in Lincoln, California, with his wife and son. He has not publicly spoken about his marriage to Carpenter due to a confidentiality agreement. \n\nFinal months\n\n\"Now\", recorded in April 1982, was the last song Carpenter recorded. She recorded it after a two-week intermission in her therapy with psychotherapist Steven Levenkron in New York City for her anorexia, during which she had lost a considerable amount of weight. During her illness, in order to lose weight, she had taken thyroid replacement medication (to speed up her metabolism) and laxatives. Despite her participation in therapy, her condition continued to deteriorate and she only lost more weight, leading Carpenter to call her psychotherapist to tell him she felt dizzy and that her heart was beating irregularly. Finally in September 1982, she was admitted to Lenox Hill Hospital in New York and hooked up to an intravenous drip, which caused her to gain a considerable amount of weight (30 pounds) in just eight weeks. The sudden weight gain further strained her heart, which was already weak from years of dietary restriction.\n\nCarpenter returned to California in November 1982, determined to reinvigorate her career, finalize her divorce, and begin a new album with Richard. On December 17, 1982, Karen gave her last singing performance in the multi-purpose room of the Buckley School in Sherman Oaks, California, singing Christmas carols for her godchildren, their classmates who attended the school, and other friends. On January 11, 1983, Karen made her last public appearance at a photocall of past Grammy Award winners to celebrate the award's 25th anniversary. Karen appeared somewhat frail and worn out, but according to Dionne Warwick, she was vibrant and outgoing, exclaiming to everyone, \"Look at me! I've got an ass!\" \n\nDeath\n\nOn February 4, 1983, less than a month before her 33rd birthday, Carpenter intended to sign papers making her divorce from Tom Burris official. Shortly after waking up, Carpenter collapsed in her bedroom at her parents' home in Downey, California. Paramedics called to the scene by Karen's mother found her heart beating once every 10 seconds. She was taken to nearby Downey Community Hospital for treatment, where – by then in full cardiac arrest – she was pronounced dead 20 minutes later at 9:51 a.m.\n\nCause of death \n\nThe acting Los Angeles County coroner Dr. Ronald Kornblum performed the autopsy on Karen Carpenter. The results of the autopsy and cause of death were released to the public on March 11, 1983, by way of a press conference and accompanying press release. A drug or medication overdose was explicitly ruled out. The cause of Karen Carpenter's death was stated as \"emetine cardiotoxicity due to or as a consequence of anorexia nervosa.\" What was not specified in the report was how the emetine got into Carpenter's system. \n\nThe March 11, 1983 press release for the autopsy did not use the word \"Ipecac\", and causation between the use of ipecac syrup and Carpenter's death was not made at that time. Media reports describing the primary cause of Carpenter's death frequently used the phrase \"'heartbeat irregularities brought on by chemical imbalances' associated with anorexia nervosa\", phrasing used by Dr. Ronald Kornblum during the press conference. He explained in a 1985 interview, \"It never occurred to me to mention ipecac. In my mind, emetine and ipecac are the same thing.\" Two years after Carpenter's death, March 21, 1985, Kornblum was a part of a teleconference with other medical doctors. At that time, Kornblum explicitly stated that Carpenter's heart failure was caused by repeated use of ipecac syrup, an over-the-counter emetic often used to induce vomiting in cases of overdosing or poisoning. During the teleconference, the process was explained \"...over time, (emetine) attacks the heart muscle, ultimately causing disorders in the small electric impulses that coordinate the heart's beating. Those disorders lead to heartbeat irregularities, which in turn lead to death.\" Doctors on the 1985 conference call urged making Ipecac syrup available only by prescription, or at the least, the addition of warning labels to the product.\n\nThe conclusion that Carpenter's death was caused by chronic use of ipecac syrup was disputed by her mother and brother, who both stated that they never found empty vials of ipecac in her apartment, and have denied that there was any evidence that she had been vomiting. Richard has also expressed the belief that Karen was not willing to ingest ipecac syrup because of the potential damage that both the syrup and excessive vomiting would do to her vocal cords, and that she relied on laxatives alone to maintain her low body weight.\n\nDr. Richard Shepherd, a forensic pathologist, believed that Karen's abuse of ipecac syrup and synthroid contributed to her death along with the singer's anorexia and shrunken heart. \n\nFuneral and burial \n\nCarpenter's funeral service took place on February 8, 1983, at the Downey United Methodist Church. Dressed in a rose-colored suit, Carpenter lay in an open white casket. Over 1,000 mourners passed through to say goodbye, among them her friends Dorothy Hamill, Olivia Newton-John, Petula Clark, and Dionne Warwick. Carpenter's estranged husband Tom attended her funeral, where he took off his wedding ring and placed it inside the casket. She was entombed at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Cypress, California. In 2003, Richard had Karen re-interred, along with their parents, in a newly constructed outdoor Carpenter family mausoleum at the Pierce Brothers Valley Oaks Memorial Park in Westlake Village, California, which is closer to his Southern California home.\n\nLegacy\n\nCarpenter's death brought media attention to anorexia nervosa and also to bulimia. The general public had little knowledge of anorexia nervosa and bulimia prior to Carpenter's death, making the condition difficult to identify and treat. Her family started the Karen A. Carpenter Memorial Foundation, which raised money for research on anorexia nervosa and eating disorders. Today the name of the organization has been changed to the Carpenter Family Foundation. In addition to eating disorders, the foundation now funds the arts, entertainment and education.\n\nOn October 12, 1983, the Carpenters received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It is located at 6931 Hollywood Blvd., a few yards from the Dolby Theater. Richard, Harold and Agnes Carpenter attended the inauguration, as did many fans.\n\nAccolades\n\n 1975 – In Playboy magazine's annual opinion poll, its readers voted Carpenter the Best Rock Drummer of the year. \n* 1999 – VH1 ranked Carpenter at #29 on its list of the 100 Greatest Women of Rock and Roll. \n* 2008 – Rolling Stone ranked Carpenter number 94 on its list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time. \n\nDiscography\n\nStudio albums\n\n* Offering (later reissued as Ticket to Ride) (1969)\n* Close to You (1970)\n* Carpenters (1971)\n* A Song for You (1972)\n* Now & Then (1973)\n* Horizon (1975)\n* A Kind of Hush (1976)\n* Passage (1977)\n* Christmas Portrait (1978)\n* Made in America (1981)\nPosthumous albums\n\n* Voice of the Heart (1983)\n* An Old-Fashioned Christmas (1984)\n* Lovelines (1989)\n* As Time Goes By (2001/2004)\n\nSolo albums\n\n* Karen Carpenter (1996)\n\nBiographical films\n\nThe 43-minute film Superstar: The Karen Carpenter Story (1987) was directed by Todd Haynes and was withdrawn from circulation in 1990, after Haynes lost a copyright infringement lawsuit filed by Karen's brother and musical collaborator, Richard Carpenter. The film's title is derived from The Carpenters' 1971 hit song, \"Superstar\". Over the years, it has developed into a cult film and is included in Entertainment Weeklys 2003 list of top 50 cult movies. \n\nOn January 1, 1989, the similarly titled made-for-TV movie The Karen Carpenter Story aired on CBS with Cynthia Gibb in the title role. Gibb lip-synced the songs to Carpenter's recorded voice, with the exception of \"The End of the World.\" Both films use the song \"This Masquerade\" in the background while showing Carpenter's marriage to Burris.\n\nRichard Carpenter helped in the productions of the documentaries Close to You: Remembering the Carpenters (1997) and Only Yesterday: The Carpenters Story (2007). PBS aired the 1997 documentary with reruns starting in December 2015." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Economy of Connecticut", "Regions In connecticut", "Connecticut locations by per capita income", "Connecticut, United States", "State of Connecticut", "Climate of Connecticut", "Nutmeg State", "Connecticutt", "Connecticuit", "Government of Connecticut", "Connectecut", "Connecticut", "Conecticut", "Geography of Connecticut", "Shorelands Neighborhood", "Connnecticut", "Connetecuit", "Conn.", "Connecticut (state)", "Fifth State", "Sports in Connecticut", "Demographics of Connecticut", "Connectecuit", "Religion in Connecticut", "Education in Connecticut", "Connecticuter", "Conetticut", "Law of Connecticut", "The Constitution State", "Inland Connecticut", "5th State", "Constitution State", "CT, USA", "Connetecut", "Richest Places in Connecticut", "Politics of Connecticut", "The Nutmeg State", "US-CT", "Conneticut", "Connecticut (U.S. state)", "Conneticuit" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "government of connecticut", "conn", "education in connecticut", "richest places in connecticut", "connectecuit", "connetecuit", "geography of connecticut", "connecticuit", "conneticuit", "conneticut", "regions in connecticut", "religion in connecticut", "climate of connecticut", "politics of connecticut", "us ct", "5th state", "nutmeg state", "state of connecticut", "sports in connecticut", "shorelands neighborhood", "connecticut u s state", "connecticut state", "constitution state", "connecticuter", "economy of connecticut", "conetticut", "connetecut", "connecticut locations by per capita income", "connnecticut", "connecticut", "conecticut", "connecticut united states", "inland connecticut", "law of connecticut", "connectecut", "fifth state", "ct usa", "connecticutt", "demographics of connecticut" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "connecticut", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Connecticut" }
What was Mr. Magoo's first name?	tc_1066	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mr._Magoo.txt" ], "title": [ "Mr. Magoo" ], "wiki_context": [ "Quincy Magoo (or simply Mr. Magoo) is a cartoon character created at the UPA animation studio in 1949. Voiced by Jim Backus, Quincy Magoo is a wealthy, short-statured retiree who gets into a series of comical situations as a result of his nearsightedness, compounded by his stubborn refusal to admit the problem. However, through uncanny streaks of luck, the situation always seems to work itself out for him, leaving him no worse than before.\n\nAffected people (or animals) consequently tend to think that he is a lunatic, rather than just being nearsighted. In later cartoons he is also an actor, and generally a competent one except for his visual impairment.\n\nMagoo has won 2 Oscars for Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons). It, along with Tom and Jerry, The Pink Panther, Silly Symphonies and Looney Tunes, are notable for their Oscar achievements.\n\nIn 2002, TV Guide ranked Mr. Magoo number 29 on its \"50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time\" list. \n\nHistory\n\nMr. Magoo's first appearance was in the theatrical short cartoon The Ragtime Bear (1949), scripted by Millard Kaufman. His creation was a collaborative effort; animation director John Hubley is said to have partly based the character on his uncle Harry Woodruff, and W. C. Fields was another source of inspiration. In a legend circulating among medievalists, Harvard professor Francis P. Magoun is also said to have been the model for the character. However, there is no evidence that artist Hubley knew the scholar. Columbia was reluctant to release the short, but did so, only because it included a bear. However, audiences quickly realized that the real star was Magoo, one of the few \"human\" cartoon characters ever produced in Hollywood at the time. The short became a box-office success.\n\nThe Magoo character was originally conceived as a mean-spirited McCarthy-like reactionary whose mumbling would include as much outrageous misanthropic ranting as the animators could get away with. Kaufman had actually been blacklisted, and Magoo was a form of protest. Hubley was an ex-communist who had participated in the Disney animators' strike in 1941. Both he and Kaufman had participated in the blacklist front and perhaps due to the risk of coming under more scrutiny with a successful character, Hubley, who had created Magoo, handed the series completely over to creative director Pete Burness.\n\nUnder Burness, Magoo would win two Oscars for the studio with When Magoo Flew (1955) and Magoo's Puddle Jumper (1956). Burness scrubbed Magoo of his politicized meanness and left only a few strange unempathic comments that made him appear senile or somewhat mad. Magoo was frequently accompanied in his on-screen escapades with his nephew Waldo, voiced at various times by Jerry Hausner or Daws Butler.\n\nOn talk shows, Backus often told the tale of how he originally discovered Magoo's voice when he put on a fake rubber nose that pinched his nose slightly, giving it the nasal sound. He was only able to perform the voice with the help of the rubber nose for some time, but eventually learned how to re-create it without its assistance. He would usually pull out the nose (or a facsimile, since the original had been lost some years before) and put it on and break into the familiar voice.\n\nIn 1957, the record album Magoo in Hi-Fi was released. Side 1 consisted of a dialog between Magoo and Waldo taking place while Magoo was attempting to set up his new sound system. Music on the album was composed and conducted by Dennis Farnon and his orchestra. Side 2, \"The Mother Magoo Suite\", was a series of musical pieces which included two solos by Marni Nixon.\n\nIn 1959, Mr. Magoo starred in 1001 Arabian Nights, directed by Jack Kinney, UPA's first feature-length production. \n\nIn 1997, a live-action comedy film based on the character with the same name was produced by Walt Disney Pictures on December 25, 1997 and starred Leslie Nielsen as the title character. The film received negative reviews and was a box-office flop. \n\nIn 2010, a direct-to-video action-comedy film based on the character, Kung Fu Magoo, was released on DVD on May 11, 2010. It features the voices of Jim Conroy, Chris Parnell, Dylan and Cole Sprouse, and Alyson Stoner. The film is a Mexican-American co-production, produced by Classic Media, Ánima Estudios, and Santo Domingo Films. The film was directed by Andrés Couturier.\n\nMagoo on television\n\nIn the 1960s, UPA transferred its attention to television, and began producing the series The Mr. Magoo Show for the character. Because UPA shut down its animation studio in 1959, the animation for these cartoons was done by Jack Kinney Productions and Larry Harmon Pictures. Because of this, the cartoons suffered from varying character designs and choppier animation, due to rushed production schedules. Magoo's nephew Waldo (voiced, as in most of the theatrical cartoons, by Jerry Hausner) was seldom seen with his uncle, now appearing in his own episodes, introduced by a brief phone conversation from Magoo's point of view which acted as a teaser. The Waldo episodes also featured a slick-talking con man named Presley, and always ended with a return to Magoo saying, \"Oh, that Waldo and Presley. What'll they be up to next? Hee hee hee!\"\n\nMagoo's houseboy Cholly (i.e. \"Charlie\") took up a lot of Waldo's slack. Cholly was a Chinese stereotype with huge buck teeth and comically fractured English pronunciation. Despite his stereotyped appearance and voice, he nonetheless usually plays straight man to Magoo's shenanigans, rather than being a source of humor himself. He is the 'sane' one of the pair. His resourcefulness often saves Magoo from danger.\n\nStill other cartoons featured Tycoon Magoo, voiced by Mel Blanc, and his bumbling assistant Worcestershire.\n\nDuring the UPA television era came Mr. Magoo's Christmas Carol, an abbreviated but largely faithful retelling of Charles Dickens's tale. It was the first ever animated Christmas special made for television and is considered to be a holiday classic of the 1960s, ranking alongside A Charlie Brown Christmas and How the Grinch Stole Christmas!. The special inspired production of an animated TV series titled The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo, which placed Magoo as an actor in other well-known stories. After an introduction in Magoo's backstage dressing room, Magoo was depicted in such roles as The Count of Monte Cristo, Merlin in an upbeat retelling of the story of King Arthur, Friar Tuck in Robin Hood, and Puck\nin A Midsummer Night's Dream.\n\nIn 1970 Mr. Magoo starred as Uncle Sam in the TV special Uncle Sam Magoo.\n\nIn the late 1970s, Mr. Magoo appeared in a new Saturday morning CBS television series called What's New Mr. Magoo? This series was made under license by the DePatie-Freleng studio, as UPA had by this time ceased in-house cartoon production.\n\nIn 1997, Mr. Magoo was portrayed by Leslie Nielsen in a live-action Mr. Magoo feature film. It failed to find critical or popular success, and some support groups for the disabled, including the National Federation of the Blind, protested it on behalf of the blind and sight impaired. \n\nMr. Magoo helped advertise the General Electric line of products throughout the 1950s and 60s. In 2005, Mr. Magoo became the spokesman of the optical retail store Sterling Optical. Magoo also was featured in a series of commercials for Stag Beer in the 1960s. Also in the 1960s, the Polaner company sold its line of preserves in jars decorated with images of Mr. Magoo, which when empty could then be used as drinking glasses.\n\nASI Entertainment has used Mr. Magoo cartoons to \"warm up\" audiences when testing television comedy pilots. \n\nMr. Magoo's catchphrase was \"Oh Magoo, you've done it again!\"\n\nMr. Magoo is an alumnus of Rutgers University, Class of 1928. The reason behind this is that his creators wanted him to be \"a college alumnus who was still fired up with the old school spirit [and they felt] Rutgers was the embodiment of the 'old school tie' in America.\". He was definitely in a fraternity since he would often shout out, \"Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Rho - Rutgers, Rutgers, Go - Go - Go!\"\n\nCharacters\n\n* Mr. Quincy Magoo (voiced by Jim Backus) — An elderly man whose eyesight is failing, though he either does not know it or is too stubborn to do anything about it.\n* Waldo (voiced by Jerry Hausner from 1949 to 1955 and in the 1960s series, Casey Kasem in the 1970s series, and Daws Butler on the 1957 record and from 1956-1959) — Quincy Magoo's nephew.\n* McBarker (voiced by Frank Welker) — Quincy Magoo's dog, in the 1970s cartoon series, What's New, Mr. Magoo? A talking bulldog, he shares his owner's facial features and poor eyesight.\n* Mother Magoo (voiced first by Henny Backus in \"Meet Mother Magoo\" (1956), then June Foray) — Quincy Magoo's \"Momma\", Linda. \n* Charlie (Voiced By Benny Rubin)— Quincy Magoo's Chinese houseboy. Charlie's depiction as a Chinese stereotype was controversial. The character was prone to unusual misuses of English, such as referring to himself in the third person as \"Cholley\", and calling Mr. Magoo \"Bloss\" instead of \"Boss\". In the late 1960s, episodes featuring Charlie were dropped from the series and his character was never mentioned again. A version of the series that runs on the Christian network KTV retains Charlie, but dubs over his ethnic-sounding voice track.\n* Grandma \"Granny\" Magoo\n* Presley (voiced by Daws Butler) — Waldo's \"partner in crime\" in the 1960 cartoon.\n* Bowzir — Quincy Magoo's dog (really a Siamese cat).\n* Wheeler and Dealer — Two children Quincy Magoo occasionally babysits in The Mr. Magoo Show (1960–1962)\n* Tycoon Magoo (voiced by Mel Blanc) — Quincy Magoo's rich uncle. His catchphrase is \"Worcestershire, get in here!\"\n* Worcestershire (voiced by Mel Blanc) — Tycoon Magoo's butler who is always trying to prevent Quincy Magoo from ruining Tycoon Magoo's property.\n* Additional character voices were provided by Paul Frees\n\nTheatrical cartoon shorts\n\nFor a complete list of theatrical Mr. Magoo cartoons, see List of Mr. Magoo cartoons\nThe following Mr. Magoo cartoons were either nominees for or recipients of the Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons):\n1950: Trouble Indemnity\n1952: Pink and Blue Blues\n1954: When Magoo Flew (winner)\n1956: Magoo's Puddle Jumper (winner)\n\nDVD releases\n\nOn February 8, 2005 Sony Wonder (under license from Classic Media) released The Mr. Magoo Show: The Complete Collection. This 4-disc set featured all 26 episodes of the series as well as bonus features. This release has been discontinued and is now out of print.\n\nOn November 8, 2011, Shout! Factory (under license from Classic Media) released Mr. Magoo: The Television Collection 1960-1977 on DVD in Region 1. This 11-disc collection contains all episodes from all three Mr. Magoo television series including all 26 episodes of The Mister Magoo Show, all 26 episodes of The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo, all 16 episodes of What's New Mister Magoo?, and the prime-time TV special Uncle Sam Magoo as well as several bonus features.\n\nOn December 6, 2011, Sony released the feature 1001 Arabian Nights on DVD through their Screen Classics MOD program, now available through a licensing deal through the Warner Archive.\n\nIn 2011, animation historian Jerry Beck announced the release of a Shout! Factory boxed set of the Mr. Magoo theatrical (UPA) shorts, under license from Sony. Originally scheduled for release in 2012, the set was pushed back for two years as Sony remastered some of the cartoons from higher quality sources, including newly discovered elements. The four-disc Mr. Magoo Theatrical Collection, containing all Mr. Magoo theatrical shorts and 1001 Arabian Nights, was released on April 22, 2014." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Quincy (disambiguation)", "Quincy" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "quincy disambiguation", "quincy" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "quincy", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Quincy" }
Which rock star featured in Marvel's 50th issue of Marvel Premiere in 1979?	tc_1071	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Marvel_Premiere.txt" ], "title": [ "Marvel Premiere" ], "wiki_context": [ "Marvel Premiere is an American comic book anthology series published by American company Marvel Comics. It ran for 61 issues from April 1972 to August 1981. \n\nPublication history \n\nThe series introduced new characters and reintroduced characters who no longer had their own titles. Writer Roy Thomas and penciler Gil Kane revamped Him as the allegorical Messiah Adam Warlock in Marvel Premiere #1 (April 1972). Doctor Strange took over the series with issue #3 and writer Steve Englehart and artist Frank Brunner began a run on the character with issue #9. The two killed Dr. Strange's mentor, the Ancient One, and Strange became the new Sorcerer Supreme. Englehart and Brunner created a multi-issue storyline in which a sorcerer named Sise-Neg (\"Genesis\" spelled backward) goes back through history, collecting all magical energies, until he reaches the beginning of the universe, becomes all-powerful and creates it anew, leaving Strange to wonder whether this was, paradoxically, the original creation. Stan Lee, seeing the issue after publication, ordered Englehart and Brunner to print a retraction saying this was not God but \"a\" god, so as to avoid offending religious readers. The writer and artist concocted a fake letter from a fictitious minister praising the story, and mailed it to Marvel from Texas; Marvel unwittingly printed the letter, and dropped the retraction order. In 2010, Comics Bulletin ranked Englehart and Brunner's run on the \"Doctor Strange\" feature ninth on its list of the \"Top 10 1970s Marvels\". \n\nIron Fist first appeared in issue #15, written by Roy Thomas and drawn by Gil Kane. Other introductions include the Legion of Monsters, the Liberty Legion, Woodgod, the 3-D Man, and the second Ant-Man (Scott Lang). The series also featured the first comic book appearance of rock musician Alice Cooper. Later in the title's run, Marvel Premiere was used to finish stories of characters who had lost their own series including the Man-Wolf in issues #45-46 and the Black Panther in issues #51-53. \n\nIssues \n\n* #1–2 - Adam Warlock (moved to his own series)\n* #3–14 - Doctor Strange (moved to his own (second) series)\n* #15–25 - Iron Fist (moved to his own series)\n* #26 - Hercules\n* #27 - Satana\n* #28 - Legion of Monsters\n* #29–30 - Liberty Legion\n* #31 - Woodgod\n* #32 - Monark Starstalker\n* #33–34 - Solomon Kane\n* #35–37 - 3-D Man\n* #38 - Weirdworld\n* #39–40 - Torpedo\n* #41 - Seeker 3000\n* #42 - Tigra\n* #43 - Paladin\n* #44 - Jack of Hearts\n* #45–46 - Man-Wolf\n* #47–48 - Ant-Man (Scott Lang)\n* #49 - The Falcon\n* #50 - Alice Cooper\n* #51–53 - Black Panther\n* #54 - Caleb Hammer\n* #55 - Wonder Man\n* #56 - Dominic Fortune\n* #57–60 - Doctor Who (reprints from Marvel UK's Doctor Who Weekly)\n* #61 - Star-Lord\n\nCollected Editions\n\n* Marvel Masterworks Warlock Vol. 1 includes Marvel Premiere #1-2, 288 pages, February 2007, ISBN 978-0785124115 \n* Essential Doctor Strange Vol. 2 includes Marvel Premiere #3-14, 608 pages, December 2007, ISBN 978-0785116684 \n* Essential Iron Fist Vol. 1 includes Marvel Premiere #15-25, 584 pages, October 2004, ISBN 978-0785115465 \n* Essential Marvel Horror Vol 1 includes Marvel Premiere #27, 648 pages, October 2006, ISBN 978-0785121961 \n* Essential Werewolf by Night Vol. 2 includes Marvel Premiere #28, 576 pages, November 2007, ISBN 978-0785127253 \n* Invaders Classic Vol. 1 includes Marvel Premiere #29-30, 248 pages, July 2007, ISBN 978-0785127062 \n* The Chronicles Of Solomon Kane includes Marvel Premiere #33-34, 200 pages, December 2009, ISBN 978-1595824103\n* Weirdworld includes Marvel Premiere #38, 312 pages, April 2015, ISBN 978-0785162889\n* Dominic Fortune: It Can Happen Here and Now includes Marvel Premiere #56, 184 pages, February 2010, ISBN 978-0785140429" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Humanary Stew: A tribute to Alice Cooper", "Vince Furnier", "ALICE COOPER", "Vincent D. Furnier", "Humanary Stew: A Tribute to Alice Cooper", "The beast of alice cooper", "Vincent Furnier", "Mascarra & Monsters : The Best Of Alice Cooper", "The Beast of Alice Cooper", "Norma Byrne", "Alice Cooper", "Alice Coper", "Calico Cooper", "Poison (Alice Cooper album)", "Vincent Damon Furnier", "The Beast Of Alice Cooper", "Sheryl Cooper" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "alice coper", "humanary stew tribute to alice cooper", "vincent damon furnier", "alice cooper", "calico cooper", "vincent d furnier", "mascarra monsters best of alice cooper", "norma byrne", "vincent furnier", "beast of alice cooper", "poison alice cooper album", "sheryl cooper", "vince furnier" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "alice cooper", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Alice Cooper" }
Who was runner-up when Jody Scheckter won motor racing's Formula One Championship?	tc_1072	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Jody_Scheckter.txt", "James_Hunt.txt" ], "title": [ "Jody Scheckter", "James Hunt" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jody David Scheckter (born 29 January 1950) is a South African former auto racing driver. He is the Formula One World Drivers' Champion.\n\nCareer\n\nScheckter was born in East London, Eastern Cape, and educated at Selborne College.\n\nFormula One\n\nHe rapidly ascended to the ranks of Formula One after moving to Britain in 1970. His Formula 1 debut occurred at the US Grand Prix at Watkins Glen in 1972 with McLaren, where he ran as high as third place before spinning and finishing ninth. Immediately becoming a name to watch, he continued his development the following year, winning the 1973 SCCA L&M Championship and racing five times in F1. In France, he almost won in only his third start in F1 before crashing into Emerson Fittipaldi, the reigning World Champion, who said after the crash about Scheckter: \"This madman is a menace to himself and everybody else and does not belong in Formula 1.\" In his next start, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, Scheckter was involved in a major accident which took nearly a dozen cars out of the race. The Grand Prix Drivers Association demanded his immediate banishment, which was only put off when McLaren agreed to rest their driver for four races. Scheckter's McLaren M23 bore the number zero during the Canadian and American Grands Prix of 1973. Scheckter is one of only two F1 drivers to compete under this number, the other being Damon Hill. During the practice for the American event at the Watkins Glen circuit, Frenchman François Cevert, who was due to be Scheckter's Tyrrell teammate for 1974, was killed in an appalling accident at the fast uphill Esses corners. Scheckter was behind Cevert when he crashed, and he stopped his McLaren, got out of his car and attempted to help Cevert out of his destroyed Tyrrell, but the 29-year-old Frenchman had been cut in half by the circuit's poorly installed Armco barriers and was already dead. Witnessing Cevert's dreadful accident left an indelible mark on the South African and caused him to abandon his reckless ways, becoming a more mature and calculating driver as a result. \n\nTyrrell in 1974 gave him his first full-time drive in F1. Jody rewarded them with a third-place finish in the drivers' championship and a pair of wins in Sweden and Britain. During the year, he scored points in eight consecutive races, one of the longer scoring streaks of the time. A slight off-year followed, although he did become the only South African to win the South African Grand Prix, but his third year with the team in 1976 gave him another third-place finish in the drivers' championship. In that season, Tyrrell introduced the most radical car in F1 history, the innovative six-wheeled Tyrrell P34. Although he later went on record as saying the car was \"a piece of junk\", Scheckter gave the six-wheeler its only win on Sweden's Anderstorp circuit and in his twelve races with the car, he scored points ten times. This included a thrilling race-long battle for the lead in the American Grand Prix between himself and his great friend James Hunt.\n\nScheckter left for Walter Wolf's new team in 1977 and Scheckter gave the team a win in its maiden race. He won twice more with the team and was often on the podium, but finished second on points behind a more dominant Niki Lauda. A seventh-place finish with the team in 1978 followed and he left the team after the season to join Ferrari to partner Gilles Villeneuve in the team's ground effect 312T4 car.\n\nCritics felt he would not get along well with the domineering management at Ferrari, but he far surpassed expectations and helped give F1's most recognisable team another constructors' championship, while Scheckter's consistent finishes, with three wins among them, gave him the drivers' championship in 1979. However, he struggled badly in his 1980 title defence, even failing to qualify for one race. After managing only two points, Scheckter announced his retirement from the team and the sport. Scheckter was the last driver to win a drivers' championship for Ferrari until Michael Schumacher twenty one years later in .\n\nAfter Formula One\n\nBroadcaster\n\nIn 1981 CBS Sports hired Scheckter as a Pit reporter for its F1 coverage.\n\nScheckter was brought in by ABC's Wide World Of Sports as a Pit reporter for the 1983 Monaco Grand Prix.\n\nScheckter was a guest commentator for ITV during the 1999 San Marino Grand Prix, replacing Martin Brundle.\n\nOther interests\n\nIn 1981, Scheckter won the World Superstars competition in Key Biscayne, Florida. He defeated athletes such as Russ Francis, Renaldo Nehemiah, Peter Mueller, Rick Barry, Gaétan Boucher and Andy Ripley. In 1983 he was inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.\n\nAfter Scheckter's retirement, he founded FATS Inc, a company which built firearms training simulators for military, law enforcement and security organisations. The sale of the company provided funds to allow Scheckter to help the racing careers of his sons Tomas and Toby. Tomas races in the Indy Racing League where he has won two races. Scheckter's brother, Ian, also raced in F1 for a few years.\n\nIn 2004 Scheckter was reunited with his championship-winning Ferrari at the South African two-seater F1x2 Charity Grand Prix at Kyalami in South Africa.\n\nPresent\n\nScheckter now spends his time as an biodynamic farmer, having bought Laverstoke Park Farm, near Overton, Hampshire, 40 mi west of London. As an organic farming expert, Scheckter was featured in 2005 on the Visionhealth DVD and TV documentaries \"Asthma: An Integrated Approach\", \"Arthritis: An Integrated Approach\" and \"Diabetes: An Integrated Approach\". On 20 November 2011, he also appeared on the Countryfile television show to make a case for organic food. Laverstoke Park Farm was also featured on BBC's \"Escape To the Country\" where Jody showed viewers how Buffalo Mozzarella was made. In December 2009, Scheckter announced his intention to produce a biodynamic sparkling wine by 2012. In 2015 the farm was the setting for ITV's Sugar Free Farm where a group of celebrities had to go sugar free for two weeks whilst working on the farm. \nEmbarking on the radical regime were musical theatre star Jane McDonald, comedian Rory McGrath, quiz mastermind and Chaser Mark Labbett, actress Tupele Dorgu, TOWIE’s James ‘Arg’ Argent and actress and singer Jennifer Ellison. He is married and has six children: two, Toby and Tomas, from his previous wife Pamela; and four, Hugo, Freddie, Ila and Poppy, from his current marriage to Clare.\n\nRacing record\n\nComplete Formula One World Championship results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)\n\nFormula One non-championship results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)\n(Races in italics indicate fastest lap)", "James Simon Wallis Hunt (29 August 1947 – 15 June 1993) Autocourse Grand Prix Archive, 14 October 2007. Retrieved: 4 November 2007. was a British racing driver who won the Formula One World Championship in . After retiring from racing in 1979, Hunt became a media commentator and businessman.\n\nBeginning his racing career in touring car racing, Hunt progressed into Formula Three where he attracted the attention of the Hesketh Racing team and was soon taken under their wing. Hunt's often reckless and action-packed exploits on track earned him the nickname \"Hunt the Shunt\", \"shunt\" being a British racing term that means \"crash\". Hunt entered Formula One in , driving a March 731 entered by the Hesketh Racing team. He went on to win for Hesketh, driving their own Hesketh 308 car, in both World Championship and non-Championship races, before joining the McLaren team at the end of . In his first year with McLaren, Hunt won the 1976 World Drivers' Championship, and he remained with the team for a further two years, although with less success, before moving to the Wolf team in early . Following a string of races in which he failed to finish, Hunt retired from driving halfway through the 1979 season.\n\nAfter retiring from motor racing, he established a career commenting on Grands Prix for the BBC. He was known for his tactical knowledge, technical insight, a dry sense of humour and his criticism of drivers who, he believed, were not trying hard enough, which in the process brought him a whole new fanbase.\n\nHunt died from a heart attack aged 45. He was inducted into the Motor Sport Hall of Fame on 29 January 2014. \n\nEarly life\n\nJames Hunt was born in Belmont, Sutton, Surrey, the second child of Wallis (1922–2001), a stockbroker, and Sue Hunt. He had an elder sister, Sally, three younger brothers, Peter, Timothy and David, and one younger sister, Georgina. Hunt's family lived in a flat in Cheam, Surrey, moved to Sutton when he was 11 and then to a larger home in Belmont. Before his 5th birthday, Hunt was enrolled at a nursery class at Ambleside. He was then educated at Westerleigh School in Hastings, Sussex from 1955, and later at Wellington College in Crowthorne, Berkshire.\n\nAs a youngster, Hunt became a proficient sportsman. He played for the Westerleigh School cricket team, and played in goal at football for two years. At the age of 12 he entered an under-17s tennis tournament, and lost to a 16-year-old in the final. Rather than congratulate himself, he instead cried for hours. He later competed at Junior Wimbledon, and also became a keen squash player and golfer.\n\nAs a child, Hunt was fascinated with animals and birds, and professed an intention of becoming a doctor, which his family supported. However, he had a persistently rebellious personality; for example, his parents believed that he had started smoking from the age of 10, a habit he continued into adulthood, despite their attempts to persuade him to stop. He was prone to violent tantrums; as an adult, he acknowledged that he was quick tempered.\n\nHunt first learned to drive on a tractor on a farm in Pembrokeshire, Wales while on a family holiday, with instruction from the farm's owner, but he found changing gears frustrating because he lacked the required strength.Donaldson 1994, pp. 16–19. Hunt passed his driving test one week after his 17th birthday, at which point he said his life \"really began\".Donaldson 1994, pp. 24–30. Hunt also took up skiing in 1965 in Scotland and made plans for further ski trips. Before his 18th birthday, he went to the home of Chris Ridge, his tennis doubles partner. Ridge's brother Simon, who raced Minis, was preparing his car for a race at Silverstone that weekend. The Ridges took Hunt to see the race, which began his obsession with motor racing. \n\nEarly career\n\nMini racing\n\nHunt's own racing career started off in a racing Mini. The first race he entered was at Snetterton but he was prevented from competing by race scrutineers as the Mini was deemed to have many irregularites, which left Hunt and his team mate, Mr. Justin Fry upset. Hunt later brought the necessary funding from working as a trainee manager of a telephone company to enter three events, It was at this point that Mr Fry took the decision to part company with the team due to the irregularities and modifications that were happening to the cars they were using. \n\nFormula Ford\n\nHe graduated to Formula Ford in 1968. He drove a Russell-Alexis Mk 14 car which was bought through a hire purchase scheme. In his first race at Snetterton, Hunt had lost 15 hp from an incorrect engine ignition setting but managed to finish 5th. Hunt took his first win at Lydden Hill and also set the lap record on the Brands Hatch short circuit.Donaldson 1994 pp. 43–45.\n\nFormula Three\n\nHunt later raced in Formula Three in 1969 with a budget provided by Gowrings of Reading which bought a Meryln Mk11A. Gowrings intended to run the car in the final two races of 1968. Hunt won several races and achieved regular high placed finishes which led to the British Guild of Motoring Writers awarding him a Grovewood Award as one of the three drivers to have promising careers. \n\nHunt was involved in a controversial incident with Dave Morgan during a battle for second position in the Formula Three Daily Express Trophy race at Crystal Palace on 3 October 1970. Having banged wheels earlier in a very closely fought race, Morgan attempted to pass Hunt on the outside of South Tower Corner on the final lap, but instead the cars collided and crashed out of the race. Hunt's car came to rest in the middle of the track, minus two wheels. Hunt got out, ran over to Morgan and furiously pushed him to the ground, which earned him severe official disapproval. Both men were summoned by the RAC and after hearing evidence from other drivers, Hunt was cleared by a tribunal and Morgan was given a 12-month suspension of his racing licence, but was subsequently allowed to progress to Formula Atlantic in 1971. Hunt later met with John Hogan and racing driver Gerry Birrell to obtain sponsorship from Coca-Cola. \n\nHunt's career continued in the works March team for 1972. His first race at Mallory Park saw him finish 3rd but was told by race officials he was excluded from the results when it was discovered that his engine was outside the regulations but had passed scrutineering tests at the next two races at Brands Hatch. In these races, Hunt finished 4th and 5th respectively. He collided with two cars at Oulton Park but finished 3rd at Mallory Park after a long duel with Roger Williamson. The cars did not appear at Zandvoort, but Hunt still attended the race as a spectator.Donaldson 1994, pp. 75–76.\n\nIn May 1972 it was announced by the team that he had been dropped from the STP-March Formula 3 team and replaced by Jochen Mass. When Hunt attempted to contact March, he was unable to get any response from his employers. Hunt decided to consult Chris Marshall, his former team manager who explained that a spare car was available. This followed a period characterized by a series of mechanical failures. Hunt decided, against the express instructions of March director Max Mosley, to race at Monaco in a March from a different team. This had been vacated by driver Jean-Claude Alzerat, after Hunt's own March had first broken down and then been hit by another competitor in a practice lap.Skilleter, Paul (Charles Bulmer, ed.). \"Sporting side: Hunt out - Mass in.\" Motor, 3 June 1972, pp. 46–47.\n\nAfter the termination of his racing relationship with STP-March, Hunt joined the Hesketh team, where he was seen as a kindred spirit. The team initially entered Hunt in Formula Two with little success but Lord Hesketh announced that they might as well fail in F1 as in F2, as it wasn't significantly more expensive.\n\nFormula One career\n\n1973–1975: Hesketh\n\n;1973\nHesketh purchased a March 731 chassis, and it was developed by Harvey Postlethwaite. The team was initially not taken seriously by rivals, who saw the Hesketh team as party goers enjoying the glamour of Formula One. However, the Hesketh March proved much more competitive than the works March cars, and their best result was second place at the 1973 United States Grand Prix. Hunt also made a brief venture into sports car racing at the 1973 Kyalami Nine Hours, driving a Mirage M6 along with Derek Bell, finishing second. \n\nAfter the season's end, Hunt was awarded with the Campbell Trophy from the RAC marking his performance in Formula One as the best by a British driver. \n;1974\nFor the season Hesketh Racing built a car, inspired by the March, called the Hesketh 308, but an accompanying V12 engine never materialised. Hunt's first test of the car came at Silverstone and found it more stable than its predecessor, the March 731. Hunt was retained on a £15,000 salary. The Hesketh team captured the public imagination as a car without sponsors' markings, a teddy-bear badge and a devil-may-care team ethos, which belied the fact that their engineers were highly competent professionals. In Argentina, Hunt qualified 5th and led briefly before being overtaken by Ronnie Peterson before Hunt spun off the track and eventually retired due to engine failure. In South Africa, Hunt retired from 5th place with a broken driveshaft. Hunt's season highlight was a victory at the BRDC International Trophy non-Championship race at Silverstone, against the majority of the regular F1 field.\n;1975\n\nHunt scored a 6th in Brazil and retired with an engine failure in South Africa. In Spain, Hunt led the first six laps before colliding with a barrier with the same cause of retirement in Monaco. He had a further two retirements in Belgium and Sweden which were both down to mechanical failures. Hunt's first win came in the 1975 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort. He finished fourth in the Championship that year, but Lord Hesketh had run out of funds and could not find a sponsor for his team. With little time left before the season, Hunt was desperately looking for a drive until Emerson Fittipaldi left McLaren and joined his brother's Copersucar-Fittipaldi outfit. With no other top drivers available, the team management signed Hunt to McLaren - in a deal brokered by Marlboro's John Hogan - for the next season on a $200,000 contract. Hunt immediately caused a stir by refusing to sign a clause in his contract which stipulated he wore suits to sponsor functions. Hunt wore T-shirt and jeans and was often barefoot for sponsor-led functions with world leaders, chairmen of businesses and media moguls.\n\n1976–1978: McLaren\n\n;1976\nThe season proved to be one of the most dramatic and controversial on record. While Hunt's performances in the Hesketh had drawn considerable praise, there was some conjecture as to whether he could really sustain a championship challenge. Now a works McLaren driver, he dispelled many doubters at the first race in Brazil, where, in a hastily rebuilt McLaren M23, he landed pole position in the last minutes of qualifying. Over the course of the year he would drive the McLaren M23 to six Grands Prix wins, but with superior reliability, reigning world champion and main rival Niki Lauda pulled out a substantial points lead in the first few races of the season. Hunt's first race win of 1976, at the fourth race of the season, the Spanish Grand Prix, resulted in disqualification for driving a car adjudged to be 1.8 cm too wide. The win was later reinstated upon appeal, but it set the tone for an extraordinarily volatile season. At the British Grand Prix, Hunt was involved in a first corner incident on the first lap with Lauda which led to the race being stopped and restarted. Hunt initially attempted to take a spare car, however this was disallowed, and during this time the original race car was repaired, eventually winning the restarted race. Hunt's victory was disallowed on 24 September by a ruling from the FIA after Ferrari complained that Hunt was not legally allowed to restart the race. \n\nLauda sustained near-fatal injuries in an accident at the following round, the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring. Hunt dominated the restarted Nürburgring race, building an immediate lead and remaining unchallenged to the chequered flag.\n\nLauda's injuries kept him out of the following two races, allowing Hunt to close the gap in the championship chase. At Zandvoort, Hunt overtook Ronnie Peterson on the 12th lap and resisted pressure from John Watson to win. At the Italian Grand Prix, the big story was Lauda's miraculous return from his Nürburgring accident. At a circuit that should have suited Hunt's car, the Texaco fuel McLaren were using was tested and although apparently legal, their cars and also those of the Penske team, were judged to contain a higher octane level than allowed. Subsequently both teams were forced to start from the rear of the grid. While trying to make his way up the field, Hunt spun off, while a returning Lauda finished fourth. At the next round in Canada, Hunt found out that he had been disqualified from the British Grand Prix and Lauda had been awarded the victory and thus received three additional points. A furious Hunt drove a very hard race at the challenging Mosport Park circuit and won. And at the penultimate round in the United States at the daunting Watkins Glen track, Hunt started from pole and took victory after a close battle with Jody Scheckter. \nThis set the stage for the final round in Japan. Hunt's late season charge pulled him to just three points behind Lauda. The sliding scale of points for the top six finishers meant that Hunt needed to finish third (4-points) or better to overtake Lauda coupled with Lauda earning too few points to stay ahead. McLaren team manager Alastair Caldwell had taken advantage of the gap between the final two races to hire the Fuji circuit - a track hosting its first Grand Prix and therefore unknown to all the teams - for an exclusive McLaren test. After a few laps the gearbox seized, bringing the test to a premature close, but the team had had the advantage of acclimatising themselves to the new circuit. Conditions for the race itself were torrentially wet. Lauda retired early on in the race, unable to blink because of facial burns from his accident in Germany. After leading most of the race Hunt suffered a puncture, then had a delayed pitstop and finally received mixed pit signals from his team. But he managed to finish in third place, scoring four points, enough for him to win the World Championship by one point.[http://news.google.com/newspapers?idyMkyAAAAIBAJ&sjid\nv-0FAAAAIBAJ&pg1289,3794121&dq\njames+hunt&hl=en \"Lauda withdrawal [sic] gives Hunt title.\"] Ottawa Citizen, 26 October 1976, p. 19. Hunt was the last British Formula One champion until Nigel Mansell won the 1992 championship for Williams. He was one of the relatively cheapest F1 World Champions ever, having signed at the last minute for $200,000 – a scenario similar to that of 1982 Champion Keke Rosberg.\n\n;1977\nBefore the start of 1977, Hunt attended a gala function at the Europa Hotel in London where he was awarded the Tarmac Trophy along with a two cheques which were for £2000 and £500 respectively, a magnum of champagne and other awards. The presentation was made by the Duke of Kent. Hunt made an acceptance speech after the event which was considered \"suitably gracious and glamorous\". The media were critical of Hunt as he attended the event dressed in jeans, T-shirt and a decrepit windbreaker. \n\nBefore the South African Grand Prix, Hunt was confronted by customs officials who searched his luggage, finding no illegal substances except a publication that contravened the strict obscenity laws of South Africa. Hunt was later released, and tested at Kyalami where his McLaren M26 suffered a loose brake caliper which cut a hole in one of the tyres. He recovered and put the car on pole position and the race saw Hunt suffer a collision with Jody Schekter's Wolf and another collision with Patrick Depailler's Tyrrell but still managed to finish 4th. \n\nThe season did not start well for Hunt. The McLaren M26 was problematic in the early part of the season, during which Niki Lauda, Mario Andretti and Jody Scheckter took a considerable lead in the Drivers' Championship. Towards the end of the year Hunt and the McLaren M26 were quicker than any rival combination other than Mario Andretti and the Lotus 78. Hunt won in Silverstone after trailing the Brabham of John Watson for 25 laps. He then took a further victory at Watkins Glen. At the Canadian Grand Prix, Hunt retired after a collision with team-mate Jochen Mass and was fined $2000 for assaulting a marshal and $750 for walking back to the pit lane in an \"unsafe manner\". In Fuji, Hunt won the race but did not attend the podium ceremony resulting in a fine of $20,000. He finished fifth in the World Drivers' Championship.\n\n;1978\nBefore the season Hunt had high hopes to win a second world championship; however, in this season he scored only eight world championship points. Lotus had developed effective ground effect aerodynamics with their Lotus 79 car and McLaren were slow to respond. The M26 was revised as a ground effect car midway through the season but it did not work, and without a test driver to solve the car's problems, Hunt's motivation was low. His inexperienced new team-mate Patrick Tambay even outqualified Hunt at one race. In Germany, Hunt was disqualified for taking a shortcut to allow for a tyre change. \n\nHunt was also greatly affected by Ronnie Peterson's fatal crash in the 1978 Italian Grand Prix. At the start of the race there was a huge accident going into the first corner. Peterson's Lotus was pushed into the barriers and burst into flames. Hunt, together with Patrick Depailler and Clay Regazzoni, rescued Peterson from the car, but Peterson died one day later in hospital. Hunt took his friend's death particularly hard and for years afterwards blamed Riccardo Patrese for the accident. Video evidence of the crash has since shown that Patrese did not touch Hunt or Peterson's cars, nor did he cause any other car to do so.Widdows, R. \"Patrese: more sinned against than sinning?\" Motor Sport, 83/11, November 2007, pp. 82–85. Hunt believed that it was Patrese's muscling past that caused the McLaren and Lotus to touch, but Patrese argues that he was already well ahead of the pair before the accident took place.\n\n1979: Wolf\n\nFor Hunt had resolved to leave the McLaren team. Despite his poor season in 1978 he was still very much in demand. He was offered a deal to drive for Ferrari in 1979, but wary of the potentially complicated political environment at the Italian team, he opted to move instead to the initially very successful Walter Wolf Racing team. Again he had high hopes to win races and compete for the world championship in what would be his last, and ultimately brief, Formula One season. The team's ground effect car was uncompetitive and Hunt soon lost any enthusiasm for racing. Hunt could only watch as Jody Scheckter won the World Driver's championship that year driving the Ferrari 312T4.\n\nAt the first race in Argentina, he felt the car was difficult to handle and on a fast lap, the front wing became detached striking his helmet. In the race, Hunt retired due to an electrical fault. In Brazil, he retired on lap 6 due to instability under braking caused by a loose steering rack. During qualifying in South Africa, the brakes on his car failed. He managed not to collide with the wall, but only finished 8th in the race. He retired at the Spanish Grand Prix after 26 laps. At Zolder, a new Wolf WR8 was raced but Hunt crashed into a barrier hard enough to bounce back onto the track. After failing to finish the 1979 Monaco Grand Prix, the race where six years previously he had made his debut, Hunt made a statement on 8 June 1979 to the press announcing his immediate retirement and walked away from F1 competition citing his situation in the championship. Despite going into retirement, he continued to work to promote his personal sponsors Marlboro and Olympus. \n\nLater career (1979–1993)\n\nCommentary career\n\nSoon after retirement, in 1979, Hunt was approached by Jonathan Martin, the head of BBC television sport, to become a television commentator alongside Murray Walker on the BBC 2 Formula One racing programme Grand Prix. After a guest commentary at the 1979 British Grand Prix, Hunt accepted the position and continued for thirteen years until his death. During his first live broadcast at the 1980 Monaco Grand Prix, Hunt placed his plaster-cast leg into Walker's lap and proceeded to drink two bottles of wine during the broadcast. Hunt regularly went into the booth minutes before a race started, which concerned Martin who believed that Hunt was \"a guy that lived on adrenaline\".Donaldson 1994, pp. 312–313.\n\nIn the commentary booth, the producers supplied only one microphone to Walker and Hunt, to avoid them talking over each other. On one occasion, Hunt wanted the microphone and went up to Walker who had continued for longer than expected and Hunt grabbed him at the collar with Walker having his fist near to Hunt. On another occasion, Hunt grabbed the microphone cord and cracked it like a whip, which yanked the microphone out of Walker's hand. Viewers were regularly exposed to his knowledge, insights and dry sense of humour during broadcasts, bringing him a whole new fanbase. He was famous for 'rubbishing' drivers he did not think were trying hard enough – during the BBC's live broadcast of the 1989 Monaco Grand Prix he described René Arnoux's comments that non-turbo cars didn't suit the Frenchman's driving skills as \"bullshit\". He also had a reputation for speaking out against back-markers who held up race leaders and not holding back on any of his commentaries - in sharp contrast to the gentlemanly Walker.\n\nOther than Arnoux, Hunt's other frequent targets included Andrea de Cesaris, Philippe Alliot, Jean-Pierre Jarier and Riccardo Patrese. Hunt criticized Jean-Pierre Jarier for blocking leaders, calling him \"pig ignorant\", a \"French wally\" and having a \"mental age of ten\" during live broadcasts. Hunt further suggested that Jarier should be banned from racing \"for being himself\". \n\nLess well known is the fact that Hunt did not want his commentaries broadcast in South Africa during the apartheid years but when he could not stop this from happening, gave his fees to black-led groups working to overthrow apartheid. \n\nHunt also commented on Grand Prix racing in newspaper columns which were published in The Independent and elsewhere, and in magazines. Hunt criticized 1992 world champion Nigel Mansell for failing to defend his F1 title in 1993, stating that Mansell left to \"avoid racing Alain Prost in the same car\" and gave \"two fingers to the business and the team\". Hunt also described Indycar as \"club racing, the standards are not high there compared to Grand Prix racing\", stating that Mansell could \"win the championship easily and then come back to real racing.\" \n\nAttempted comebacks\n\nIn 1980, Hunt nearly made a comeback with McLaren at the United States Grand Prix West, asking for $1 million for the race. This opportunity came about when regular driver Alain Prost broke his wrist during practice for the previous round in South Africa, and the French rookie was not fully fit to drive at Long Beach. The team's main sponsor, Marlboro, offered half the figure but negotiations ended after Hunt broke his leg while skiing. In 1982 Bernie Ecclestone, owner of the Brabham team, offered Hunt a salary of £2.6 million for the season but was rejected by Hunt. In 1990, Hunt was in financial trouble with the loss of £180,000 investing in Lloyd's of London and considered a comeback with the Williams team. He had tested on the Paul Ricard Circuit a few months prior to test modern cars and was several seconds off the pace and believed he would be physically prepared. Hunt attempted to persuade John Hogan, VP Marketing of Philip Morris Europe, for support for the possible comeback and presented him with bank statement for proof of being indebted. \n\nOther projects\n\nHunt made a brief appearance in the 1979 British silent slapstick comedy The Plank, as well as co-starring with Fred Emney in a Texaco Havoline TV advertisement. He also made a posthumous appearance on ITV's Police Camera Action! special Crash Test Racers in 2000; this was one of many interviews to be aired posthumously. Hunt also competed in an exhibition race to mark the opening of the new Nürburgring in May 1984. Despite having no licence to ride a motorcycle, he accepted, instead of his usual fee, the then-new 1980 electric start Triumph Bonneville he had contracted to advertise on behalf of the struggling Triumph motorcycle workers' co-operative. With journalistic mirth, he turned up at the press launch with his foot in plaster. \n\nHunt was hired by John Hogan as an adviser and tutor to drivers who were sponsored by Marlboro, instructing them in the tactics of driving and the approach to racing. Mika Häkkinen was one of the most successful drivers because Hunt had been involved with Häkkinen's discussions about not only racing but about life in general.\n\nPrivate life\n\nPublic image\n\nHunt was notorious for his unconventional behaviour on and off the track, which earned him a reputation for cavalier indulgence in both alcohol and sex.Rubython, Tom. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1320323/Formula-1-champion-James-Hunt-slept-33-BA-air-stewardesses-race.html \"Formula 1 champion James Hunt slept with 33 BA air stewardesses before race \| Mail Online.\"] Dailymail.co.uk, 14 October 2010. Retrieved: 24 May 2012. Having been part of Formula One when the series was consolidating its global popularity, Hunt's image was the epitome of the unruly, playboy driver, with a touch of English eccentricity (which included dining with his pet German Shepherd, Oscar, at expensive Mayfair restaurants).\n\nEarly in their careers Hunt and Niki Lauda shared a one-bedroom flat in London, and were close friends off the track. Lauda, in his autobiography To Hell and Back, described Hunt as an \"open, honest to God pal\". Lauda admired Hunt's burst of speed while Hunt envied Lauda's capacity for analysis and rigour. In the spring of 1974, Hunt moved to Spain on the advice of the International Management Group. Whilst living there as a tax exile, Hunt was the neighbour of Jody Scheckter, and they also came to be very good friends, with Hunt giving Scheckter the nickname Fletcher after the crash-prone bird in the book Jonathan Livingston Seagull. Another close friend was Ronnie Peterson. Peterson was a quiet and shy man, whilst Hunt was exactly the opposite, but their contrasting personalities made them very close off the track. It was Hunt who discovered Gilles Villeneuve, whom he met after being soundly beaten by him in a Formula Atlantic race in 1976. Hunt then arranged for the young Canadian to make his Grand Prix debut with McLaren in 1977.\n\nHunt's lifestyle was as controversial as some of the events on track: he was associated with a succession of beautiful women; he preferred to turn up to formal functions in bare feet and jeans; he liked to drink, and also used cocaine and marijuana; and he lived an informal life near the beach in Marbella. He was regularly seen attending nightclubs and discos, and was generally the life and soul of the party. Hunt was an expert ball game player, and regularly played squash and tennis. He also played on the Formula One drivers' cricket and football teams and appeared on the BBC's Superstars more than once.\n\nPersonal life and relationships\n\nHunt was involved in a relationship with Taormina Rieck (known as Ping by her friends) from the age of 15. Rieck separated from Hunt in May 1971 which left Hunt not seeing his family or friends for long periods of time. \n\nHunt met his first wife, Suzy Miller, in 1974 in Spain. A few weeks after their initial meeting, he proposed. Hunt held the engagement party at the apartment of his brother Peter, to the guests' surprise. The couple married on 18 October 1974 at the Brompton Oratory in Knightsbridge. By the end of 1975, Suzy had left Hunt for the actor Richard Burton, who paid Hunt's divorce settlement of $1 million, which was finalised in June 1976 in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.\n\nIn 1982, Hunt moved to Wimbledon. In September that year, he met his second wife, Sarah Lomax, while she was on a holiday in Spain with friends. Hunt started dating Lomax when she arrived back in Britain and they dated throughout the winter. Hunt and Lomax were married on 17 December 1983 in Marlborough, Wiltshire. Hunt had arrived late for the service with proceedings delayed further when his brother Peter went to a shop to purchase a tie for Hunt. The marriage resulted in two children, Tom and Freddie who is also a racing driver. \n\nOn a visit to Doncaster, Hunt was arrested for an assault, which was witnessed by two police officers, and was released on bail after two hours with the charges against him later being dropped. Hunt and Lomax separated in October 1988 but continued to live together for the best interests of their children. Lomax and Hunt were divorced in November 1989 on the grounds of adultery committed by Hunt. \n\nHunt met Helen Dyson in the winter of 1989 in a restaurant in Wimbledon, where she worked as a waitress. Dyson was 18 years Hunt's junior and worried about her parents' reactions to him. Hunt kept the relationship secret from friends. The relationship had brought new happiness to Hunt's life, among other factors which included his clean health, his bicycle, his casual approach to dress, his two sons and his Austin A35 van. The day before he died, Hunt proposed to Dyson via telephone. \n\nDeath\n\nHunt died in his sleep on the morning of 15 June 1993 at the age of 45, of a heart attack at his home in Wimbledon. Two days previously, Hunt had cycled from his home to BBC Television Centre to commentate on the 1993 Canadian Grand Prix. \n\nHunt's funeral service included a solo trumpeter playing lively hymns in an attempt to raise the spirits of the mourners. The pallbearers included his father Wallis, his brothers Tim, Peter and David, and his friend Bubbles Horsley. They carried the coffin out of the church and into the cortège which drove two miles to Putney Vale Crematorium, where he was cremated. After the service, most of the mourners went to Peter Hunt's home to open a 1922 claret, the year of Wallis Hunt's birth. The claret was given to him by James in 1982 as a present on Wallis's 60th birthday. \n\nLegacy\n\nHunt was known as a fast driver with an aggressive, tail-happy driving style, but one prone to spectacular accidents, hence his nickname of Hunt the Shunt. In reality, while Hunt was not necessarily any more accident prone than his rivals in the lower formulae, the rhyme stuck and stayed with him. In the book, James Hunt: The Biography, John Hogan said of Hunt: \"James was the only driver I've ever seen who had the vaguest idea about what it actually takes to be a racing driver.\" Niki Lauda stated that \"We were big rivals, especially at the end of the [1976] season, but I respected him because you could drive next to him—2 centimetres, wheel-by-wheel, for 300 kilometres or more—and nothing would happen. He was a real top driver at the time.\" \n\nAfter winning the world championship in 1976, Hunt inspired many teenagers to take up motor racing and was retained by Marlboro to give guidance and support to up and coming drivers in the lower formulae. In early 2007, Formula One driver and 2007 World Champion Kimi Räikkönen entered and won a snowmobile race in his native Finland under the name James Hunt. Räikkönen has openly admired the lifestyles of 1970s race car drivers such as Hunt.Benson, Andrew.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/7055633.stm \"Raikkonen the playboy king\".] BBC Sport, 21 October 2007. Retrieved: 23 October 2007. Hunt's name was lent to the James Hunt Racing Centre in Milton Keynes when it opened in 1990. \n\nA Celebration of the Life of James Hunt was held on 29 September 1993 at St. James's Church, Piccadilly. The service was attended by 600 people and conducted by Reverend Andrew Studdert-Kennedy. The service included readings from Wallis and Sue Hunt from the Book of Ecclesiastes, Chapter III and Hunt's sister Sally Jones read Hilaire Belloc's poem 'Jim'. Innes Ireland read Rudyard Kipling's poem 'If' and Helen Dyson read Psalm LXXXIV. Nigel Davison, Director of Music and Master in charge of running Wellington College prefaced the second reading. On 29 January 2014, James Hunt was inducted into the Motor Sport Hall of Fame.\n\nHelmet\n\nHunt's helmet featured his name in bold letters along with blue, yellow and red stripes on both sides and room for the sponsor Goodyear, all placed onto a black background. Additionally, the blue, yellow and red bands resemble his Wellington College school colours. During his comeback year to Formula One in 2012, 2007 World Champion Kimi Räikkönen sported a James Hunt painted helmet during the Monaco Grand Prix. Räikkönen repeated the tribute at the 2013 Monaco Grand Prix. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nHunt is portrayed by Australian actor Chris Hemsworth in the 2013 Ron Howard film Rush about the 1976 Formula One season.\n\nGallery\n\nFile:Hunt and Lauda at 1975 Dutch Grand Prix.jpg\|Hunt leading Niki Lauda at the 1975 Dutch Grand Prix.\nFile:Penske Hesketh10.jpg\|Mark Donohue leading Hunt at the 1975 British Grand Prix.\nFile:Anefo 928-7512 James Hunt, John Watson Zandvoort 29.08.1976.jpg\|Hunt leading John Watson in the 1976 Dutch Grand Prix.\nFile:James Hunt Silver 003.jpg\|Hunt testing the McLaren M23 at Silverstone.\nFile:James Hunt 1978.jpg\|Hunt at the 1978 British Grand Prix.\nFile:Hunt, Lauda and Pryce at 1975 Dutch Grand Prix.jpg\|Hunt leading Niki Lauda and Tom Pryce at the 1975 Dutch Grand Prix.\nFile:Hunt Wins 09.jpg\|Hunt celebrating after winning the 1976 British Grand Prix before being disqualified.\nFile:Hesketh 308 Freddie Hunt 2007.jpg\|Hunt's Hesketh 308 from being driven by his son, Freddie, in 2007.\nFile:Podium at 1975 Dutch Grand Prix.jpg\|Hunt (middle), Niki Lauda (left) and Clay Regazzoni (right) on the podium at the 1975 Dutch Grand Prix.\n\nRacing record\n\nComplete Formula One World Championship results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)\n\n* Hunt was initially disqualified due to an \"illegal\" car, but later reinstated.\n\nFormula One non-championship results\n\n(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)\n(Races in italics indicate fastest lap)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Gilles Villeneuve" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "gilles villeneuve" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "gilles villeneuve", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Gilles Villeneuve" }
In what year of the 1990s was baseball's World Series canceled?	tc_1075	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Baseball.txt", "World_Series.txt", "1994_World_Series.txt" ], "title": [ "Baseball", "World Series", "1994 World Series" ], "wiki_context": [ "Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each, who take turns batting and fielding.\n\nThe batting team attempts to score runs by hitting a ball that is thrown by the pitcher with a bat swung by the batter, then running counter-clockwise around a series of four bases: first, second, third, and home plate. A run is scored when a player advances around the bases and returns to home plate.\n\nPlayers on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team, which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates' turns batting, such as on a hit or by other means. The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs. One turn batting for both teams, beginning with the visiting team, constitutes an inning. A game is composed of nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. Baseball has no game clock, although almost all games end in the ninth inning.\n\nBaseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States. Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia.\n\nIn the United States and Canada, professional Major League Baseball (MLB) teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League.\n\nHistory \n\nOrigins \n\nThe evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. A French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball. Other old French games such as thèque, la balle au bâton, and la balle empoisonnée also appear to be related. Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (2005), by David Block, suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and \"tut-ball.\" It has long been believed that cricket also descended from such games, though evidence uncovered in early 2009 suggests that cricket may have been imported to England from Flanders.\n\nThe earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of \"base-ball\" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases. David Block discovered that the first recorded game of \"Bass-Ball\" took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player. William Bray, an English lawyer, recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey. This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants. Rounders was also brought to the USA by Canadians of both British and Irish ancestry. The first known American reference to baseball appears in a 1791 Pittsfield, Massachusetts, town bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the town's new meeting house. By 1796, a version of the game was well-known enough to earn a mention in a German scholar's book on popular pastimes. As described by Johann Gutsmuths, \"englische Base-ball\" involved a contest between two teams, in which \"the batter has three attempts to hit the ball while at the home plate.\" Only one out was required to retire a side. \n\nBy the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America. These games were often referred to locally as \"town ball\", though other names such as \"round-ball\" and \"base-ball\" were also used. Among the earliest examples to receive a detailed description—albeit five decades after the fact, in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life magazine—took place in Beachville, Ontario, in 1838. There were many similarities to modern baseball, and some crucial differences: five bases (or byes); first bye just 18 ft from the home bye; batter out if a hit ball was caught after the first bounce. The once widely accepted story that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839 has been conclusively debunked by sports historians. \n\nIn 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbocker Club, led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules. The practice, common to bat-and-ball games of the day, of \"soaking\" or \"plugging\"—effecting a putout by hitting a runner with a thrown ball—was barred. The rules thus facilitated the use of a smaller, harder ball than had been common. Several other rules also brought the Knickerbockers' game close to the modern one, though a ball caught on the first bounce was, again, an out and only underhand pitching was allowed. While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the \"New York Nine\" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings (three earlier games have recently been discovered). With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century. \n\nHistory of baseball in the United States \n\nThe game turns professional \n\nIn the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area. By 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the \"national pastime\" or \"national game.\" A year later, sixteen area clubs formed the sport's first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players. In 1858 in Corona, Queens New York, at the Fashion Race Course, the first games of baseball to charge admission took place. The games, which took place between the all stars of Brooklyn, including players from the Brooklyn Atlantics, Excelsior of Brooklyn, Putnams and Eckford of Brooklyn, and the All Stars of New York (Manhattan), including players from the New York Knickerbockers, Gothams (predecessors of the San Francisco Giants), Eagles and Empire, are commonly believed to be the first all-star baseball games. In 1863, the organization disallowed putouts made by catching a fair ball on the first bounce. Four years later, it barred participation by African Americans. The game's commercial potential was developing: in 1869 the first fully professional baseball club, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and amateur teams. The first professional league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, lasted from 1871 to 1875; scholars dispute its status as a major league. \n\nThe more formally structured National League was founded in 1876. As the oldest surviving major league, the National League is sometimes referred to as the \"senior circuit.\" Several other major leagues formed and failed. In 1884, African American Moses Walker (and, briefly, his brother Welday) played in one of these, the American Association. An injury ended Walker's major league career, and by the early 1890s, a gentlemen's agreement in the form of the baseball color line effectively barred black players from the white-owned professional leagues, major and minor. Professional Negro leagues formed, but quickly folded. Several independent African American teams succeeded as barnstormers. Also in 1884, overhand pitching was legalized.Rader (2008), p. 71. In 1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game. Virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by 1893; the last major change—counting foul balls as strikes—was instituted in 1901. The National League's first successful counterpart, the American League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was established that year. The two leagues, each with eight teams, were rivals that fought for the best players, often disregarding each other's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes. \n\nA modicum of peace was eventually established, leading to the National Agreement of 1903. The pact formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's minor professional leagues. The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall, albeit without express major league sanction: The Boston Americans of the American League defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League. The next year, the series was not held, as the National League champion New York Giants, under manager John McGraw, refused to recognize the major league status of the American League and its champion. In 1905, the Giants were National League champions again and team management relented, leading to the establishment of the World Series as the major leagues' annual championship event. \n\nAs professional baseball became increasingly profitable, players frequently raised grievances against owners over issues of control and equitable income distribution. During the major leagues' early decades, players on various teams occasionally attempted strikes, which routinely failed when their jobs were sufficiently threatened. In general, the strict rules of baseball contracts and the reserve clause, which bound players to their teams even when their contracts had ended, tended to keep the players in check. Motivated by dislike for particularly stingy owner Charles Comiskey and gamblers' payoffs, real and promised, members of the Chicago White Sox conspired to throw the 1919 World Series. The Black Sox Scandal led to the formation of a new National Commission of baseball that drew the two major leagues closer together. The first major league baseball commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the Eastern Colored League. \n\nProfessional baseball was played in northeastern cities with a large immigrant-ethnic population; they gave strong support to the new sport. The Irish Catholics dominated in the late 19th century, comprising a third or more of the players and many of the top stars and managers. Historian Jerrold Casway argues that:\nBaseball for Irish kids was a shortcut to the American dream and to self-indulgent glory and fortune. By the mid-1880s these young Irish men dominated the sport and popularized a style of play that was termed heady, daring, and spontaneous.... Ed Delahanty personified the flamboyant, exciting spectator-favorite, the Casey-at-the-bat, Irish slugger. The handsome masculine athlete who is expected to live as large as he played. \n\nRise of Ruth and racial integration \n\nCompared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring and pitchers, the likes of Walter Johnson and Christy Mathewson, were more dominant. The \"inside game,\" which demanded that players \"scratch for runs\", was played much more aggressively than it is today: the brilliant and often violent Ty Cobb epitomized this style. The so-called dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters. Strict new regulations governing the ball's size, shape and composition along with a new rule officially banning the spitball, along with other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances after the death of Ray Chapman who was hit by a pitch in August 1920, coupled with superior materials available after World War I, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit. The construction of additional seating to accommodate the rising popularity of the game often had the effect of bringing the outfield fences closer in, making home runs more common. The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth, the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game. The club with which Ruth set most of his slugging records, the New York Yankees, built a reputation as the majors' premier team. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern \"farm system\". A new Negro National League was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the Negro American League. The first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936. In 1939 Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania. By the late 1940s, it was the organizing body for children's baseball leagues across the United States.\n\nWith America's entry into World War II, many professional players had left to serve in the armed forces. A large number of minor league teams disbanded as a result and the major league game seemed under threat as well. Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of a new professional league with women players to help keep the game in the public eye – the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League existed from 1943 to 1954. The inaugural College World Series was held in 1947, and the Babe Ruth League youth program was founded. This program soon became another important organizing body for children's baseball. The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred the previous year: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers—where Branch Rickey had become general manager—and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal. In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers. Larry Doby debuted with the American League's Cleveland Indians the same year. Latin American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars. \n\nFacing competition as varied as television and football, baseball attendance at all levels declined. While the majors rebounded by the mid-1950s, the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved. Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster. That year, the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded. It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly, but it remained largely ineffective for years. No major league team had been located west of St. Louis until 1958, when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively. The majors' final all-white bastion, the Boston Red Sox, added a black player in 1959. With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players, the last Negro league folded the following year. In 1961, the American League reached the West Coast with the \|Los Angeles Angels expansion team, and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162. This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth's long-standing single-season home run record, one of the most celebrated marks in baseball. Along with the Angels, three other new franchises were launched during 1961–62. With this, the first major league expansion in 60 years, each league now had ten teams.\n\nAttendance records and the age of steroids \n\nThe players' union became bolder under the leadership of former United Steelworkers chief economist and negotiator Marvin Miller, who was elected executive director in 1966. On the playing field, major league pitchers were becoming increasingly dominant again. After the 1968 season, in an effort to restore balance, the strike zone was reduced and the height of the pitcher's mound was lowered from 15 to 10 inches. In 1969, both the National and American leagues added two more expansion teams, the leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, and a post-season playoff system leading to the World Series was instituted. Also that same year, Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the first serious legal challenge to the reserve clause. The major leagues' first general players' strike took place in 1972. In another effort to add more offense to the game, the American League adopted the designated hitter rule the following year. In 1975, the union's power—and players' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down, leading to the free agency system. In 1977, two more expansion teams joined the American League. Significant work stoppages occurred again in 1981 and 1994, the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years. Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance. \n\nThe addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues, this time into three divisions each. Offensive production—the number of home runs in particular—had surged that year, and again in the abbreviated 1994 season. After play resumed in 1995, this trend continued and non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season. Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set. The next year, Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris's decades-old single season home run record and two more expansion franchises were added. In 2000, the National and American leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball (MLB). \n\nIn 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004. In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs. Even though McGwire, Sosa, and Bonds—as well as many other players, including storied pitcher Roger Clemens—have been implicated in the steroid abuse scandal, their feats and those of other sluggers had become the major leagues' defining attraction. In contrast to the professional game's resurgence in popularity after the 1994 interruption, Little League enrollment was in decline: after peaking in 1996, it dropped 1 percent a year over the following decade. With more rigorous testing and penalties for performance-enhancing drug use a possible factor, the balance between bat and ball swung markedly in 2010, which became known as the \"Year of the Pitcher\". Runs per game fell to their lowest level in 18 years, and the strikeout rate was higher than it had been in half a century.\n\nBefore the start of the 2012 season, MLB altered its rules to double the number of wild card teams admitted into the playoffs to two per league. The playoff expansion resulted in the addition of annual one-game playoffs between the wild card teams in each league. \n\nBaseball around the world \n\nBaseball, widely known as America's pastime, is well established in several other countries as well. The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States. As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both countries. While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country, the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League. The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993, the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so. After the 2004 season, Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington, D.C., where the team is now known as the Nationals.\n\nIn 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa, Veracruz. A few days after the Battle of Cerro Gordo, they used the \"wooden leg captured (by the Fourth Illinois regiment) from General Santa Anna\". The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been one of the world's strongest since international play began in the late 1930s (all organized baseball in the country has officially been amateur since the Cuban Revolution). The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912. Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938). The Japanese major leagues—the Central League and Pacific League—have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States. Japan has a professional minor league system as well, though it is much smaller than the American version—each team has only one farm club in contrast to MLB teams' four or five.\n\nAfter World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American nations, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955). Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Professional Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990), and China (2003) all have professional leagues. \n\nMany European countries have professional leagues as well, the most successful, other than the Dutch league, being the Italian league founded in 1948. Compared to those in Asia and Latin America, the various European leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal. In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games. The Israel Baseball League, launched in 2007, folded after one season. The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries, as well as national squads. Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, were administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC). By 2009, the IBAF had 117 member countries. Women's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries where it is a leading men's sport. Since 2004, the IBAF and now WBSC have sanctioned the Women's Baseball World Cup, featuring national teams.\n\nAfter being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting. It remained part of the 2008 Games. The elimination of baseball, along with softball, from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports, but none received the votes required for inclusion. While the sport's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor, more important was Major League Baseball's reluctance to have a break during the Games to allow its players to participate, as the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic Games. Such a break is more difficult for MLB to accommodate because it would force the playoffs deeper into cold weather. Seeking reinstatement for the 2016 Summer Olympics, the IBAF proposed an abbreviated competition designed to facilitate the participation of top players, but the effort failed. Major League Baseball initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede the major league season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants. The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic. \n\nRules and gameplay \n\nA game is played between two teams, each composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting and baserunning) and defense (pitching and fielding). A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an inning. A game consists of nine innings (seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college and minor leagues). One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning. The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning. The goal of the game is to score more points (runs) than the other team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by circling or completing a tour of the four bases set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond. A player bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to first base, second base, third base, and back home in order to score a run. The team in the field attempts both to prevent runs from scoring and to record outs, which remove opposing players from offensive action until their turn in their team's batting order comes up again. When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest. Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, involve different numbers of players and innings.Thurston (2000), p. 15; \n\nThe game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield. In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height (many amateur games are played on unfenced fields). Fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well. \n\nThere are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt:\n* The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with red stitching.Porterfield (2007), p. 23; \n* The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood. Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 centimeters) long, and not longer than 42 inches (106 centimeters). \n* The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers. As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions.\nProtective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters.Thurston (2000), pp. 21, 30, 31; \n\nAt the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players on the fielding team arrange themselves around the field. One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate. Another player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest of the team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the standard arrangement, there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base. The basic outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher.Porterfield (2007), pp. 16–18, 25, 34, 35; Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well, though the number will vary depending on the level of play, amateur or children's games may only have an umpire behind the plate, while as many as six umpires can be used for important Major League Baseball games.\n\nPlay starts with a batter standing at home plate, holding a bat. The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball with the bat. The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a runner (or, until the play is over, a batter-runner). A batter-runner who reaches first base without being put out (see below) is said to be safe and is now on base. A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely. A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit. A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single. If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple. If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), it is a home run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desirable result for the batter. A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an error.\n\nAny runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they were at when the play began. If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up or touch the base they were at when the play began, as or after the ball is caught. Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate—a successful effort is a stolen base. \n\nA pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.) Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee.\n\nA strike is called when one of the following happens:\n* The batter lets a well-pitched ball (one within the strike zone) go through to the catcher.\n* The batter swings at any ball (even one outside the strike zone) and misses, or foul tips it directly into the catcher's hands.\n* The batter hits a foul ball—one that either initially lands in foul territory or initially lands within the diamond but moves into foul territory before passing first or third base. If there are already two strikes on the batter, a foul ball is not counted as a third strike; thus, a foul ball cannot result in the immediate strikeout of the batter. (There is an exception to this exception: a two-strike foul bunt is recorded as a third strike.)\nA ball is called when the pitcher throws a pitch that is outside the strike zone, provided the batter has not swung at it. \n\nWhile the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs. Among the various ways a member of the batting team may be put out, five are most common:\n* The strikeout: as described above, recorded against a batter who makes three strikes before putting the ball into play or being awarded a free advance to first base (see also uncaught third strike).\n* The flyout: as described above, recorded against a batter who hits a ball in the air that is caught by a fielder, whether in fair territory or foul territory, before it lands, whether or not the batter has run.\n* The ground out: recorded against a batter (in this case, batter-runner) who hits a ball that lands in fair territory which, before the batter-runner can reach first base, is retrieved by a fielder who touches first base while holding the ball or relays it to another fielder who touches first base while holding the ball.\n* The force out: recorded against a runner who is required to attempt to advance—either because the runner is on first base and a batted ball lands in fair territory, or because the runner immediately behind on the basepath is thus required to attempt to advance—but fails to reach the next base before a fielder touches the base while holding the ball. The ground out is technically a special case of the force out.\n* The tag out: recorded against a runner who is touched by a fielder with the ball or a glove holding the ball, while the runner is not touching a base.\nIt is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play—a double play. Even three—a triple play—is possible, though this is very rare. Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team's dugout or bench. A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat—every half-inning begins with the bases empty of runners. \n\nAn individual player's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased. A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player's team have all taken their turn at bat. The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game. Children's games often have more liberal substitution rules.Thurston (2000), p. 100; \n\nIf the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players.Porterfield (2007), p. 19; Thurston (2000), p. 153; \n\nPersonnel \n\nPlayer rosters \n\nRoster, or squad, sizes differ between different leagues and different levels of organized play. Major League Baseball teams maintain 25-player active rosters. A typical 25-man roster in a league without the DH rule, such as MLB's National League, features: \n* eight position players—catcher, four infielders, three outfielders—who play on a regular basis\n* five starting pitchers who constitute the team's pitching rotation or starting rotation\n* six relief pitchers, including one specialist closer, who constitute the team's bullpen (named for the off-field area where pitchers warm up)\n* one backup, or substitute, catcher\n* two backup infielders\n* two backup outfielders\n* one specialist pinch hitter, or a second backup catcher, or a seventh reliever\n\nIn the American League and others with the DH rule, there will usually be nine offensive regulars (including the DH), five starting pitchers, seven or eight relievers, a backup catcher and two or three other reserves; the need for late inning pinch-hitters (usually in the pitcher's spot) is reduced by the DH.\n\nOther personnel \n\nThe manager, or head coach of a team, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, occupying designated coaches' boxes just outside the foul lines, assist in the direction of baserunners when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners during pauses in play. In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform in order to be allowed on the playing field during a game.\"The Fans Speak Out\" [Baseball Digest staff], Baseball Digest, August 1999, pp. 9–10; \n\nAny baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In Major League Baseball, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines.Zoss (2004), p. 293; \n\nStrategy and tactics \n\nMany of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers. A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team's roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions: the manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups, the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder. \n\nPitching and fielding tactics \n\nThe tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection. By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it approaches the batter. Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the fastball, the changeup (or off-speed pitch), and two breaking balls—the curveball and the slider. Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical and/or horizontal location. If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch. With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out. Pickoff attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher's movements before and during the pickoff attempt. Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher, with the result being runners on base, if any, advance one base with impunity. If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base. Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield.Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 45.\n\nBatting and baserunning tactics \n\nSeveral basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base. The hit and run is sometimes employed with a skillful contact hitter: the runner takes off with the pitch drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through. The sacrifice bunt calls for the batter to focus on making contact with the ball so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into scoring position even at the expense of the batter being thrown out at first—a batter who succeeds is credited with a sacrifice. (A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to bunt for a hit.) A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a squeeze play. With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter in this case gets credit for a sacrifice fly. The manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to take, or not swing at, the next pitch. \n\nDistinctive elements \n\nBaseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following, including American and Canadian football, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All of these sports use a clock; in all of them, play is less individual and more collective; and in none of them is the variation between playing fields nearly as substantial or important. The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports.\n\nNo clock to kill \n\nIn clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy. In contrast, again, the clock comes into play even in the case of multi-day Test and first-class cricket: the possibility of a draw often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind to bat defensively, giving up any faint chance at a win to avoid a loss. Baseball offers no such reward for conservative batting.\n\nWhile nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the 20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960. By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters). In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of merely 2:45. By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three hours to complete. The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently. Other leagues have experienced similar issues. In 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade's average of 3:18. \n\nIndividual focus \n\nAlthough baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure. In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: \"the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits\". Contrasting the game with both football and basketball, scholar Michael Mandelbaum argues that \"baseball is the one closest in evolutionary descent to the older individual sports\". Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other. While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing. The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it. As described by Mandelbaum,\n\nIt is impossible to isolate and objectively assess the contribution each [football] team member makes to the outcome of the play ... [E]very basketball player is interacting with all of his teammates all the time. In baseball, by contrast, every player is more or less on his own ... Baseball is therefore a realm of complete transparency and total responsibility. A baseball player lives in a glass house, and in a stark moral universe ... Everything that every player does is accounted for and everything accounted for is either good or bad, right or wrong. \n\nCricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more. There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play. \n\nUniqueness of each baseball park \n\nUnlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams following the rules of Major League and Minor League Baseball is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of 325 ft from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 ft to center. Major league teams often skirt even this rule. For example, at Minute Maid Park, which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford Boxes in left field are only 315 ft from home plate. There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield. The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston's Fenway Park, in use since 1912: the Green Monster is 310 ft from home plate down the line and 37 ft tall. \n\nSimilarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground. A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner. These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park home run. The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the image to the left shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare. Some fields—including several in MLB—use an artificial surface, such as AstroTurf. Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played. While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant. \n\nThese physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect play. A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher's park or a hitter's park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements. The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies. Its high altitude—5282 ft above sea level—is responsible for giving it the strongest hitter's park effect in the major leagues. Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a hitter's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing out, it becomes more of a pitcher's park when they are blowing in. The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players' statistical records. For example, hitting a fly ball 330 ft into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park, and a home run at another. A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its roster with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it. On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park. \n\nStatistics \n\nOrganized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, New York, was responsible for the \"development of the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball.\"Tygiel (2000), p. 16. The statistical record is so central to the game's \"historical essence\" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball. In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a \"tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines.\" \n\nThe Official Baseball Rules administered by Major League Baseball require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records. General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions.\n\nCertain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans. The basic batting statistics include:\n* At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit by pitches—where the batter's ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners\n* Hits: times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without fielding error or fielder's choice\n* Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely\n* Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter's action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error\n* Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error\n* Batting average: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting ability\nThe basic baserunning statistics include:\n* Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball\n* Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base\n\nThe basic pitching statistics include:\n* Wins: credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win)\n* Losses: charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished\n* Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings\n* Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching divided by three (partial innings are conventionally recorded as, e.g., \"5.2\" or \"7.1\", the last digit actually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)\n* Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter\n* Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses)\n* Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitched\nThe basic fielding statistics include:\n* Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out\n* Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball\n* Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result\n* Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors\n* Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances\n\nAmong the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics. For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed. \n\nSabermetrics \n\nSabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR). \n\nThe growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average: \n* On-base percentage measures a batter's ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.\n* Slugging percentage measures a batter's ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the batter's total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats.\n\nSome of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:\n* On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage. \n* Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base. It is calculated exactly as its name suggests. \n\nPopularity and cultural impact \n\nWriting in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as America's national religion. In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been \"a unique paragon of American culture\"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal. Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes \"how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, [and] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan.\" Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís, has been the major leagues' primary source of foreign talent. Hall-of-Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico's history. While baseball has long been the island's primary athletic pastime, its once well-attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues' annual first-year player draft. In the Western Hemisphere, baseball is also one of the leading sports in Canada, Colombia, Mexico, the Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, and Venezuela. In Asia, it is among the most popular sports in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan.\n\nThe major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most blue-collar-oriented of leading American spectator sports. \n\nIn the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, Major League Baseball set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades. A new MLB revenue record of $6.6 billion was set in 2009. On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 16%, compared to pro football at 31%. In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league baseball games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella also set a record in 2007, with 42.8 million; this figure does not include attendance at games of the several independent minor leagues.\n\nIn Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country. In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport, the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues. Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system. Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority \"has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes\". \n\nAs of 2007, Little League Baseball oversees more than 7,000 children's baseball leagues with more than 2.2 million participants–2.1 million in the United States and 123,000 in other countries. Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants. According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball. \n\nA varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2008, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 35,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. The number of Americans participating in baseball has declined since the late 1980s, falling well behind the number of soccer participants. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium where they are played. In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team.\n\nBaseball in popular culture \n\nBaseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms. The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-by-play from New York City's Polo Grounds on WJZ–Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to WGY–Schenectady, New York, and WBZ–Springfield, Massachusetts. The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom. \n\nBaseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, Ernest Thayer's poem \"Casey at the Bat\", appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a \"clutch situation\", the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There have been many baseball movies, including the Academy Award–winning The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and the Oscar nominees The Natural (1984) and Field of Dreams (1989). The American Film Institute's selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham (1988) at number 5. Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the Adler–Ross musical Damn Yankees—and record—George J. Gaskin's \"Slide, Kelly, Slide\", Simon and Garfunkel's \"Mrs. Robinson\", and John Fogerty's \"Centerfield\". The baseball-founded comedic sketch \"Who's on First\", popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous. Six decades later, Time named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century. Baseball is also featured in various video games including MLB: The Show, Wii Sports, Kinect Sports: Season 2 and Mario Baseball.\n\nLiterary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud's The Natural (the source for the movie), Robert Coover's The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., and W. P. Kinsella's Shoeless Joe (the source for Field of Dreams). Baseball's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell. Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter's The Glory of Their Times, Roger Kahn's The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis's Moneyball. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports. \n\nBaseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards. A typical example would feature an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields. \n\nModern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active Major League Baseball players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players' latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports. The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports–related websites. By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby. The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals.", "The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win-loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2015, the World Series has been contested 111 times, with the AL winning 64 and the NL winning 47. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best-of-seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner's Trophy. As the series is played in October (and occasionally November), during the autumn season in North America, it is often referred to as the Fall Classic. \n\nThe 2015 World Series took place between the New York Mets and the victorious Kansas City Royals. Five games were played, with the Royals victorious after game five, played in New York. The final score was 7-2; the game went into extra innings after a tied score of 2-2. This was the second World Series won by the franchise and the first in 30 years.\n\nIn the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia/Kansas City/Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York/San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 18 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.\n\nAs of 2015, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1999 and 2000, the longest such duration in Major League Baseball history.\n\nPrecursors to the modern World Series (1857–1902)\n\nThe original World Series\n\nUntil the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871–1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern Series: games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five), and both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.\n\nThe series was promoted and referred to as \"The Championship of the United States\", \"World's Championship Series\", or \"World's Series\" for short.\nIn his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed. \n\nThe 19th-century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th-century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th-century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th-century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. \n(For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists \"Baseball's World Championships 1884–1928\" in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists \"Baseball World Championships 1903–1942\". )\n\n1892–1900: \"The Monopoly Years\"\n\nFollowing the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half-season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893—and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969—the pennant was awarded to the first-place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894–1897, the league champions played the runners-up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900. \n\nIn 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy.\n\nModern World Series (1903–present)\n\nFirst attempt\n\nAfter two years of bitter competition and player raiding (in 1902, the AL and NL champions even went so far as to challenge each other to a tournament in football after the end of the baseball season), the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.\n\nBoycott of 1904\n\nThe 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the \"inferiority\" of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already \"world champions\" since they were the champions of the \"only real major league\". At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.\n\nDuring the winter of 1904–1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the \"Brush Rules\", under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from \"fixing\" early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now-official and compulsory World's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.\n\nWith the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players' strike.\n\nThe list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2–3–2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2–3–2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3–4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions. (The 2–3–2 pattern was used in 1944 because both teams were based in the same home stadium.)\n\n1919 Black Sox Scandal\n\nGambling and game-fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.\n\nThe Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph \"Sport\" Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting .324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).\n\nDuring the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the \"World's Serious\". The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.\n\nThe \"Black Sox\" were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.\n\nThe events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the \"live ball\" era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs are still waiting for their next trophy, and have not appeared in the Fall Classic since 1945, the longest drought of any MLB club.\n\nNew York Yankees dynasty (1920–1964)\n\nThe New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954–1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936–1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.\n\n1947–1964: New York City teams dominate World Series play\n\nIn an 18-year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.\n\nIn the years 1947, 1949, 1951–1953, and 1955–1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.\n\nThe World Series in California\n\nIn 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long-time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.\n\nThe Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.\n\nIn 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972–1974. In 1974, the A's played the Dodgers in the first all-California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).\n\nThe Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A's again went to three straight world series, from 1988–1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all-California series as the A's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (the most-recent all-California series), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).\n\n1969: League Championship Series\n\nPrior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the \"pennant winner\") based on the best win-loss record at the end of the regular season.\n\nA structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.\n\nThe National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2–3–2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home-field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.\n\n1970s\n\n1971: World Series at night\n\nMLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit's Tiger Stadium.)\n\n1972–1978: Three of a kind and The Greatest Game Ever Played\n\nDuring this seven-year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book-ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.\n\nHowever, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the \"amazing\" eight-year-old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers' back-to-back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.\n\nGame 6 of the 1975 World Series is widely regarded as the greatest World Series game ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail-biting turns of events, and a game-winning walk off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 to 6 Red Sox victory.\n\n1976: The Designated Hitter comes to the World Series\n\nThe National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak-hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular-season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even-numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine-man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion's park but not the NL champion's. Thus, the DH rule's use or non-use can help the team that has home-field advantage.\n\n1980s\n\n1984: Anderson becomes first to win in both leagues\n\nThe 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire-to-wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers' skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.\n\n1989: Earthquake\n\nWhen the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5:04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface-wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say \"I'll tell you what, we're having an earth--\" before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four-game sweep.\n\n1990s\n\n1992–1993: The World Series enters Canada\n\nWorld Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come-from-behind homer, after Joe Carter's three-run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8–6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth-inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.\n\n1994: League Division Series\n\nIn 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best-of-five playoff round (the \"division series\"), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second-best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best-of-seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team cannot get home-field advantage.\n\n1994–1995 strike\n\nAfter the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite World War I, the global influenza pandemic of 1918–1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America's involvement in World War II, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.\n\nAs the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus the commissioner, responsible for ensuring the integrity and protecting the welfare of the game, was an interested party rather than a neutral arbiter, and baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without an independent commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.\n\nThe previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74–40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos have never played in a World Series.)\n\nThe labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.\n\nAll-Star Game and home-field advantage (2003–present)\n\nPrior to 2003, home-field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All-Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home-field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All-Star Game. Originally implemented as a two-year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice has been extended indefinitely.\n\nThe American League won every All-Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home-field advantage from 2002, when it also had home-field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011 and 2014 World Series have gone the full seven games.\n\nThis rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home-field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All-Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees' shortstop's final All-Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season. \n\nAs Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:\n\nWith the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.\n\nHowever, in four of the last six seasons, home-field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Four of the Series (most recently in 2015) have been won on the road.\n\nStarting with the San Francisco Giants 2010 World Series victory, which was followed by the Giants victories in the 2012 World Series and the 2014 World Series, The Giants started what many around the sport of baseball consider to be a modern baseball dynasty, as most consider winning three World Series in a 5-year span in baseball today is incredibly difficult and thusly worthy of the dynasty title.\n\nModern World Series appearances by franchise\n\nWorld Series record by team or franchise, 1903–2015\n\nNotes\n\nAmerican League (AL) teams have won 64 of the 111 World Series played (58%). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 24% of all series played and 42% of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series (10%) and 23% of the 47 National League victories.\nAt least one New York team has been in 54 World Series (49%) of Series played.\nWhen the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.\n\nThe number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen \"expansion teams\" joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos/Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45%) in which they have played, which is 9% of all 111 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.\n\nTeam patterns in the World Series\n\nThis information is up to date through the present time:\n\nStreaks and droughts\n\n#Since their first championship in 1923, the New York Yankees have won two or more World Series titles in every decade except the 1980s, when they won none. Additionally, they have won at least one American League pennant in every decade since the 1920s. (They have yet to win a pennant or Series in the 2010s.) The Yankees are the only team in either League to win more than three series in a row, winning in four consecutive seasons from 1936 to 1939, and a still MLB record five consecutive seasons from 1949 to 1953.\n#The New York Giants' four World Series appearances from 1921 to 1924 are the most consecutive appearances for any National League franchise. The Yankees are the only American League franchise to accomplish this.\n#The 1907–1908 Cubs, 1921–1922 Giants and the 1975–1976 Reds are the only National League teams to win back-to-back World Series.\n#The 1907–1909 Detroit Tigers and the 1911–1913 New York Giants are the only teams to lose three consecutive World Series.\n#The Chicago Cubs hold the record for the longest World Series championship drought (still active through 2015), with their last title coming in 1908 (107 years). In fact, they also hold the longest drought without a World Series appearance, not having won the NL pennant since 1945. Even had the Cubs won the 1945 Series, they would still hold the longest World Series title drought, with the second longest World Series drought belonging to the Cleveland Indians, who have not won a World Series since 1948. The team with the longest active pennant drought among AL teams that have played in a World Series at least once is the Baltimore Orioles, who have not reached a World Series since winning their last title in 1983.\n#Twenty-two of the 28 teams to play in the World Series have won it at least once. The only exceptions are: Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s, enfranchised in 1962), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots, 1969), San Diego Padres (1969), Colorado Rockies (1993), Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays, 1998), and Texas Rangers (formerly Washington Senators, 1961). The Padres and Rangers have both lost two World Series; the remaining teams have all lost their only Series appearance. As of the present, all teams to reach the World Series at least three times have won at least one of their appearances.\n#Two teams have never played in the World Series: the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos, established in 1969), and the American League's Seattle Mariners (established in 1977). Both franchises have participated in post-season play and competed in a League Championship Series, but lost all League Championship Series appearances so far.\n#The Red Sox have the most World Series titles before their first World Series loss, winning the championship in their first five appearances—1903, 1912, 1915, 1916, and 1918—before losing in the next series they played, in 1946. The only other teams who have more than one Series victory before their first Series loss are the Cleveland Indians (in 1920 and 1948), the Toronto Blue Jays (in 1992 and 1993), and the Miami Marlins (in 1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins). The Blue Jays and the Marlins have never lost a World Series.\n#The American League's Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993) and National League's Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins) hold the record for most appearances in a Series without ever losing a Series. Two other franchises have won their lone appearance: the National League's Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and American League's Los Angeles Angels (2002).\n#The Pirates, Reds, Red Sox, and Giants are tied with the longest active streak of World Series victories (three) since the last time they lost a series. After losing the 1927 series to the Yankees, the Pirates have emerged victorious in the next three series in which they played (1960, 1971, and 1979). The Reds last series loss prior to their current active streak of three titles (1975, 1976, and 1990) was in 1972. The Red Sox are the American League leaders in this category with three consecutive titles (2004, 2007, and 2013) since their last series loss (1986). The Giants lost in 2002 before winning the next three they appeared in (2010, 2012, and 2014).\n#The Yankees have the most World Series victories (eight) between World Series losses. After losing the 1926 World Series to the Cardinals, the Yankees won their next eight appearances in the series (1927, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, and 1941) before losing in 1942 to the Cardinals again. After this loss, the Yankees went on to win their next seven Series appearances (1943, 1947, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, and 1953) before their next Series loss in 1955 to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Cardinals are the National League leader in this category, with four titles (1944, 1946, 1964, and 1967) between series losses in 1943 and 1968.\n#The Cubs and Dodgers are tied at seven apiece for most World Series losses between World Series victories. The Dodgers lost their first seven appearances in the Fall Classics (1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, and 1953) before winning their first title in 1955. The Cubs' situation is the opposite, as their losing streak is still ongoing: since winning their last title (in 1908), they lost the World Series in 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945. The Cleveland Indians have three World Series losses (1954, 1995, and 1997) since their last crown in 1948, more than any other team in the American League.\n#The longest duration without repeat World Series champions is fifteen years, dating back to the 2000 New York Yankees. The previous record of fourteen years (in between the 1978 New York Yankees' win and the 1993 Toronto Blue Jays' win) was broken when the San Francisco Giants, who won the 2014 World Series, did not qualify for the postseason in 2015.\n\nGame-by-game\n\n#Game 7 was won by the home team in the 9 World Series between 1980 and 2013 that went to seven games (the 1982 St. Louis Cardinals, 1985 Kansas City Royals, 1986 New York Mets, 1987 and 1991 Minnesota Twins, 1997 Florida Marlins, 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks, 2002 Anaheim Angels, and 2011 St. Louis Cardinals) before the Giants won game 7 on the road in 2014. This trend reverses the previous historical trend in which Game 7 had been most often won by the road team, in 1979, 1975, 1972, 1971, 1968, 1967, 1965, and 1962. During the 1960s and 1970s, the home team had won Game 7 only in 1960, 1964, and 1973. Since 2003, when home field advantage started to be awarded to the team representing the league that won the All-Star game, the first Series that reached Game 7 was in 2011. The greatest comeback in World Series history was in 1968, when the Detroit Tigers came back from a 3–1 game disadvantage to win Game 5 after being behind by 3 runs, before winning games 6 and 7 on the road at St. Louis.\n#The 1981 Los Angeles Dodgers are the last team to win a World Series after losing the first two games on the road (against New York). The recent tendency of a team winning the first two games at home and then winning the Series suggests the theoretical advantage to gaining home-field advantage (and the first two games at home) by winning the All-Star Game.\n#The Pittsburgh Pirates have won all five of their World Series championships in seven games.\n#The Minnesota Twins/Washington Senators have won their three World Series championships in seven games.\n#There have been 19 World Series four-game (4–0) sweeps. Nine different teams have swept a World Series at least once, the Yankees having done so most often (8 times). The Red Sox, Reds, and Giants have all done it twice. The Braves, Orioles, White Sox, Dodgers, and Athletics have each swept one Series. Six of these teams (all but the Orioles, Red Sox and White Sox) have also been swept 0–4 in at least one World Series. The Red Sox' two World Series sweeps are the most of any team that has never been swept in one. The Reds and Yankees are the only teams to have swept each other (The Yankees swept the Reds in 1939, while the Reds swept the Yankees in 1976). The Giants are the only team to record World Series sweeps in two different cities: New York (1954) and San Francisco (2012). The 1999 Yankees are the last team to date, and the only one since 1966, to sweep a World Series it began on the road (as well as the last American League champion to date to win a World Series it began on the road). The 1963 Dodgers are the last National League team to date to sweep a World Series it began on the road.\n#The Athletics, Cardinals, Cubs, and Yankees are the only teams to be swept in two World Series. The Athletics and Yankees are the only two of these with at least one World Series sweep to their credit, the other two being among nine teams overall that have never swept a World Series, but have been swept in one (the Tigers, Astros, Indians, Padres, Phillies, Pirates, and Rockies being the others).\n#The Cubs in 1907 and the Giants in 1922 won 4 games to 0, but each of those Series' included a tied game and are not considered to be true sweeps. In 1907, the first game was the tie and the Cubs won four straight after that. In 1922, Game 2 was the tie.\n#The Cincinnati Reds were the only National League team to sweep any World Series between 1963 and 2012, sweeping their last two series appearances to date in 1976 and 1990. When added to their Game 7 victory in 1975, this means that the Reds have won their last 9 consecutive games, making this the current longest winning streak in terms of consecutive World Series games won.\n#Nine World Series have ended with \"walk-off\" hits, i.e., that game and the Series ended when the home team won with a base hit in the bottom of the ninth or in extra innings: 1924, 1929, 1935, 1953, 1960, 1991, 1993, 1997, and 2001. Five of these (marked with a ) were in a deciding Game 7. In addition, the deciding Game 8 (one game had ended in a tie) of the 1912 World Series ended in a walk-off sacrifice fly. Two men have ended a World Series with a walk-off home run: Bill Mazeroski in 1960 and Joe Carter in 1993. Mazeroski's was a solo shot in the bottom of the ninth of Game 7 to win a championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates, while Carter's was a three-run shot in Game 6 that won a championship for the Toronto Blue Jays.\n#One World Series game has ended with a pick-off of a runner. Kolten Wong of the St. Louis Cardinals was picked off of first base in Game 3 of the 2013 World Series by Boston Red Sox closer Koji Uehara. The score was 4-2 and rookie Wong was a pinch runner.\n#The Philadelphia Phillies and the Tampa Bay Rays are the first teams to have an elimination game (or any game) be suspended because of weather, and not have it cancelled. Game 5 (in Philadelphia) was suspended Monday, October 27, 2008 with a 2–2 score, and resumed in the bottom of the sixth on October 29.\n#Both of the Minnesota Twins' World Series titles since relocating to the Twin Cities from Washington, D.C. (where they were the first Washington Senators) were in 7 game series where all games were won by the home team. The Twins accomplished this in 1987, when the Twins defeated the St. Louis Cardinals, then 4 years later in 1991, when the Twins defeated the Atlanta Braves. The Twins victories in both series were in games 1, 2, 6, and 7, while their National League opponents won games 3, 4, and 5. This same scenario also occurred in 2001, when the Arizona Diamondbacks defeated the New York Yankees.\n#Also of note when it comes to the three series where every game was won by the home team, a pitcher was MVP. In the 1987 World Series, Frank Viola was the MVP having pitched games 1, 4, and 7, and finishing with a 2–1 record. In 1991, Jack Morris achieved the same feat pitching games 1, 4, and 7 with a 2–0 record and a no decision in game 4, and winning MVP honors. However, Morris's MVP came on the heels of pitching 10 shutout innings in game 7. Finally, in 2001, Curt Schilling and Randy Johnson took MVP honors by being the reason the Arizona Diamondbacks were in position to win the series.\n#The Boston Red Sox have lost 4 World Series, all in 7 games. (1946, 1967, 1975, & 1986)\n#Four World Series ended with teams clinching the championship in the final game of the series which was not a Game 7 and went into extra innings. The title was won this way in 1939, 1992, 2012, and 2015.\n#As aforementioned, the home team has not won a deciding game of a World Series since 2013, and has been so in four of the last six seasons.\n\nLocal rivalries\n\nWhen two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already-existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.\n\nCross-town Series\n\nThe first city to host an entire World Series is Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.\n\nFourteen \"Subway Series\" have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically \"subway series\" since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California, and an all-NY Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.\n\nThe last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 \"Streetcar Series\" between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman's Park.\n\nThe 1989 World Series, sometimes called the \"Bay Bridge Series\" or the \"BART Series\" (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A's swept the Giants in four games.\n\nCross-state rivalries\n\nThe historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics-Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants' series against the then-Anaheim Angels in 2002.\n\nOther than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I-70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.\n\nPennants won in different cities\n\n# The Braves are the only team to have both won and lost a World Series in three different home cities (Boston, Milwaukee, and Atlanta).\n# The Athletics have had three different home cities (Philadelphia, Kansas City, and Oakland), but have appeared in the World Series (both winning and losing) while based in only two of them (Philadelphia and Oakland).\n# Three other teams have both won and lost the Fall Classic in two different home cities: The Dodgers (Brooklyn and Los Angeles), the Giants (New York and San Francisco), and the Twins (the Twin Cities and Washington, D.C., as the first Senators).\n# The Orioles are the only other team to have played in the World Series in two different home cities (Baltimore and St. Louis, as the Browns), but all three of their titles (and three of their four losses) have come while based in Baltimore.\n\nThe original sixteen teams\n\nAt the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the \"original sixteen\".\n\n#Every original team has won at least two World Series titles. The Philadelphia Phillies (National League) were the last of the original teams to win their first Series, in . They were also the last to win at least two, with their second Series victory in . The Cubs were the first team to win the series twice, in 1907 and 1908. They have not won another World Series since.\n#The last original American League team to win its first World Series was the Baltimore Orioles (former St. Louis Browns,originally the Milwaukee Brewers), winning in .\n#The Orioles were also the last original team in the majors to make their first World Series appearance, as the St. Louis Browns in . Although they never won another American League pennant while in St. Louis, they have won three World Series in six appearances since moving to Baltimore. The St. Louis Cardinals were the last original National League team to make its modern World Series debut, with its victory in . They have subsequently won more World Series than any other National League club: 11 championships through 2014.\n#The New York Yankees have defeated all eight original NL teams in a World Series. Conversely, they have lost at least one World Series to six of the original NL teams, never losing to the Chicago Cubs or the Philadelphia Phillies. The Boston Red Sox have played at least one Series against every original National League team except the (Boston, Milwaukee and Atlanta) Braves, with whom they shared a home city through 1953.\n#The St. Louis Cardinals are currently the only club of the National League's original eight that holds an overall Series lead over the Yankees, 3 to 2, taking that lead in 1964. The Giants won their first two Series over the Yankees (1921 and 1922), but the Yankees have faced the Giants five times since then and have won all five, taking the overall lead over the Giants in 1937. The Pittsburgh Pirates and Yankees have faced each other twice (1927 and 1960), with the Yankees winning in 1927 and the Pirates winning in 1960, making the two teams .500 against each other.\n#Since the two leagues expanded beyond eight teams apiece in 1961, only two of the original 16 teams have not won a World Series against the larger field of competitors: the American League Cleveland Indians, who have not won a Series since 1948 (defeating the Boston Braves), and the National League Chicago Cubs, who last won a Series in 1908 (defeating the Detroit Tigers).\n#The 2015 World Series was the first ever World Series to not feature any of the original sixteen teams.\n\nExpansion teams (after 1960)\n\n#The 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks won their first pennant and World Series in fewer seasons than any other expansion team (both attained in their 4th season). The 1997 World Series Champion Florida Marlins achieved these milestones in the second-fewest number of seasons (fifth season). The fastest AL expansion franchise to win a pennant was the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008 (11th season) and the fastest AL expansion franchise to win a World Series was the Toronto Blue Jays in 1992 (16th season).\n#While the New York Mets (NL) were the first expansion team to win or appear in the World Series (1969), the American League would have to wait until 1980 for its first expansion-team World Series appearance, and until 1985 for its first expansion-team win. Both were by the Kansas City Royals. The AL also had two expansion teams appear in the World Series (the Milwaukee Brewers being the second, in 1982) before the National League's second expansion team to appear—the San Diego Padres in 1984.\n#12 expansion teams have now contested at least one Series. Until 2015, all World Series matchups featured at least one of the 16 teams established by 1903. As of the end of the 2014 edition, expansion teams were 9–12 in the World Series, with three teams (the New York Mets, Toronto Blue Jays and Miami Marlins) each winning two. The Kansas City Royals, the then-Anaheim Angels and the Arizona Diamondbacks had each won one Series by the end of the 2014 season. With the New York Mets defeating the Chicago Cubs in a four-game sweep in the 2015 National League Championship Series, the 2015 World Series was guaranteed to be the first ever World Series matchup in which both teams were expansion teams, where the Mets (whose first season occurred in 1962) faced off against the Kansas City Royals (whose first season occurred in 1969). \n# Six expansion teams have appeared in the World Series without ever winning a championship: twice for the Texas Rangers (formerly the second Washington Senators) and San Diego Padres, and once each for the Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots), Colorado Rockies, and Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays).\n# Two expansion teams have not yet won a league pennant (and therefore also have not appeared in a World Series): the American League's Seattle Mariners and the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos). Both teams have competed in postseason play and appeared in their respective League Championship Series at least once, but have no League Championship Series victories.\n# The Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993), Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins), Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and Los Angeles Angels (2002) have never lost a World Series appearance.\n# The 2015 World Series—in which the Kansas City Royals (enfranchised by the American League in 1969) defeated the New York Mets (NL, 1962) in five games—was the first between two expansion teams.\n\nOther notes\n\n#The team with the better regular season winning percentage has won the World Series 53 times, or 48.62% (53 of 109) of the time. Three World Series featured teams with identical records (1949, 1958, 2013).\n#The Toronto Blue Jays are the only non-U.S. team ever to win a pennant or a World Series, doing both twice, in 1992 and 1993.\n#The Chicago Cubs are the only team with a World Series title to have never clinched one at home.\n#Three series have matched up the previous two World Champions, with the New York Yankees winning all three. The 1928 World Series was contested by the 1926 champion Cardinals and 1927 champion Yankees; the Yankees won the series 4-0. In 1943, the 1941 champion Yankees met the 1942 champion Cardinals, which the Yankees won 4-1. In the 1958 World Series, the 1956 champion Yankees faced the 1957 champion Milwaukee Braves; the Yankees won this series 4-3. The 2012 National League Championship Series also matched up the previous two World Champions: the 2010 champion Giants and the 2011 champion Cardinals. The Giants won this series 4-3.\n#The 2015 World Series game 1 between the New York Mets and the Kansas City Royals was the longest game 1 in history at 5 hours and 9 minutes.\n\nTelevision coverage and ratings\n\nWhen the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City, New York; Philadelphia; Schenectady, New York; Washington, D.C.; and environs surrounding these cities. In , games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By , World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By , World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color. \n\nInternational participation\n\nDespite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major-league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as \"world champions of baseball\". \n\nThe United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.\n\nBy the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America's high-salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half-century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time \"post\" them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player's request.\n\nSeveral tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball, uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The International Baseball Federation also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. But as these teams do not feature the best talent from each nation, the public generally does not give much weight to the result of these tournaments. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.\n\nImage gallery\n\nImage:WorldSeries1903-640.jpg\|Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston\nImage:West Side Park 1906 World Series.JPG\|Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all-Chicago World Series to date)\nImage:Wamby19201010UATP.JPG\|Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920\nImage:1924worldseries.jpg\|Washington's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)", "The 1994 World Series was canceled on September 14 of that year due to an ongoing strike by the Major League Baseball Players Association, which had begun on August 12. It was only the second time in the event's history (the first was in 1904) that the Fall Classic was not played.\n\nPlayoffs\n\nThis was to have been the first year of a regularly scheduled three-tier playoff system, with the NL and AL divided into three divisions (East, Central, and West) at the start of the 1994 season. (An unscheduled three-tier system was used in 1981 due to the shortening of the season by a mid-season labor dispute.) The new playoff system (involving a wild card team in each league) did not go into effect until the 1995 postseason. Had the postseason taken place based on team records as of August 11, the participants in each division series would have been determined as follows:\n\nAtlanta Braves' run of division titles\n\nBecause division champions from 1994 are unofficial, the Atlanta Braves are officially credited with winning 14 consecutive division titles from 1991 to 2005, winning the NL West in the final three years of the two–division system and then winning 11 consecutive NL East titles from 1995 to 2005. At the time of the season's cancellation, however, the Braves were in second place in the NL East at 68–46, six games behind the Montreal Expos. The 11 titles from 1995 to 2005 are an MLB record nonetheless. The Braves had a 2½ game lead over the Houston Astros for the NL wild card at the time the rest of the season was canceled.\n\n\"Unofficial\" champions\n\nThe Associated Press writers, at the end of the aborted season, chose to name \"unofficial\" champions when naming their Managers of the Year as Felipe Alou of the Expos and Buck Showalter of the Yankees, who were leading when the season abruptly ended. The next season's All-Star Game managers are, by tradition, the managers of the previous year's league champions; and so the leagues chose to name those unofficial league champion managers of 1994 to the traditional honor of managing the 1995 All-Star Game.\n\nTelevision coverage\n\nThe 1994 World Series was scheduled to air on ABC, in the first year of six-year-long joint venture with Major League Baseball, ABC and NBC called \"The Baseball Network.\" Because this Series was cancelled, ABC and NBC shared broadcast rights to the 1995 World Series, after which the joint venture was ended, and Fox started televising MLB games the following season. Fox and NBC would alternate World Series telecasts from up to , after which Fox held exclusive rights to all subsequent editions.\n\nHome field advantage\n\nThe 1994 World Series was supposed to have the AL champion open at home for the second year in a row because the playoffs were expanded to include the new wild-card round. Up to 1994, the NL champion opened the World Series at home in even-numbered years and the AL champion in odd-numbered years, with this then being reversed starting 1995 because of the missed 1994 World Series. From to , the NL champion had home field advantage in odd-numbered years and AL in even-numbered years. Beginning in 2003, the league that won the All-Star Game had its champion open the World Series at home." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "one thousand, nine hundred and ninety-four", "1994" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1994", "one thousand nine hundred and ninety four" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1994", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1994" }
Who first flew in Friendship 7?	tc_1080	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Mercury-Atlas_6.txt", "John_Glenn.txt" ], "title": [ "Mercury-Atlas 6", "John Glenn" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mercury-Atlas 6 (MA-6) was the third human spaceflight for the U.S. and part of Project Mercury. Conducted by NASA on February 20, 1962, the mission was piloted by astronaut John Glenn, who performed three orbits of the Earth, making him the first U.S. astronaut to orbit the Earth.The Soviet Union had already placed two cosmonauts into orbit; Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961 and Gherman Titov on Vostok 2 on August 6, 1961. The two previous U.S. astronauts in space, Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom had flown sub-orbital missions. \n\nThe Mercury spacecraft, named Friendship 7, was carried to orbit by an Atlas LV-3B launch vehicle lifting off from Launch Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral, Florida. After four hours and 56 minutes in flight the spacecraft re-entered the Earth's atmosphere, splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean and was safely taken aboard .\n\nThe event was named an IEEE Milestone in 2011. \n\nCrew\n\nBackup crew\n\nPreparation\n\nAfter the successful completion of the Mercury 5 flight that carried Enos, a chimpanzee, in late November 1961, a press conference was held in early December. Reporters asked NASA's Robert Gilruth who would be the first U.S. astronaut in orbit, piloting Mercury 6. He then announced the team members for the next two Mercury missions. John H. Glenn was selected as prime pilot for the first mission (Mercury 6), with M. Scott Carpenter as his backup. Donald K. Slayton and Walter M. Schirra were pilot and backup, respectively, for the second mission, Mercury 7.\n\nThe Mercury 6 launch vehicle, Atlas #109-D, arrived at Cape Canaveral the evening of November 30, 1961. NASA had wanted to launch Mercury 6 in 1961 (hoping to orbit an astronaut in the same calendar year as the Soviets did), but by early December it was apparent that the mission hardware would not be ready for launch until early 1962.\n\nMercury spacecraft #13 began taking form on McDonnell's St. Louis, Missouri assembly line in May 1960. It was chosen for the MA-6 mission in October, 1960 and delivered to Cape Canaveral on August 27, 1961. Mercury spacecraft #13 and Atlas #109-D were stacked on the pad at Launch Complex 14 on January 2, 1962.\n\nAs the effects of orbital space flight on humans were unknown except to the Soviets, who were keeping whatever knowledge they had a secret, Glenn was prepared with an onboard medical kit consisting of morphine for pain relief, mephentermine sulfate to treat any shock symptoms, benzylamine hydrochloride to counter motion sickness and racemic amphetamine sulfate, a stimulant. A survival kit was also placed on board to assist Glenn while waiting for recovery after splashdown including: desalter kits, dye marker, distress signal, signal mirrors, signal whistle, first aid kits, shark chaser, a PK-2 raft, survival rations, matches, and a radio transceiver.\n\nFlight\n\nDelays\n\nThe launch date was first announced as January 16, 1962, then postponed to January 20 because of problems with the Atlas rocket fuel tanks. The launch then slipped day by day to January 27 due to unfavorable winter weather. On that day, Glenn was on board Mercury 6 and ready to launch, when, at T-29 minutes, the flight director called off the launch because of thick clouds that would have made it impossible to photograph or film the launch vehicle after the first 20 seconds of the mission (the inability of launch crews to film the failed Mercury-Atlas 1 launch 16 months earlier had proven the importance of flying only in clear skies). A large crowd of reporters gathered at Cape Canaveral for the launch went home disappointed. Mission Director Walter Williams felt a sense of relief at the bad weather, as there was still a general sense that the spacecraft and booster were not ready to fly yet. NASA informed the anxious public that the mission would take time to get ready since manned launches required a high degree of preparedness and safety standards. The launch was postponed until February 1, 1962. When technicians began to fuel the Atlas on January 30, they discovered a fuel leak had soaked an internal insulation blanket between the RP-1 and LOX tanks. This caused a two-week delay while necessary repairs were made. On February 14, the launch was again postponed due to weather. Finally on February 18, the weather started to break. It appeared that February 20, 1962 would be a favorable day to attempt a launch.\n\nLaunch\n\nGlenn boarded the Friendship 7 spacecraft at 11:03 UTC on February 20, 1962 following an hour-and-a-half delay to replace a faulty component in the Atlas's guidance system. The hatch was bolted in place at 12:10 UTC. Most of the 70 hatch bolts had been secured, when one was discovered to be broken. This caused a 42-minute delay while all the bolts were removed, the defective bolt was replaced and the hatch was re-bolted in place. The count was resumed at 11:25 UTC. The gantry was rolled back at 13:20 UTC. At 13:58 UTC the count was held for 25 minutes while liquid oxygen propellant valve was repaired. \n\nAt 14:47 UTC, after two hours and 17 minutes of holds and three hours and 44 minutes after Glenn entered Friendship 7, engineer T. J. O'Malley pressed the button in the blockhouse launching the spacecraft. At liftoff Glenn's pulse rate climbed to 110 beats per minute (bpm).\n\n30 seconds after liftoff the General Electric-Burroughs designed guidance system locked onto a radio transponder in the booster to guide the vehicle to orbit. As the Atlas and Friendship 7 passed through Max Q Glenn reported, \"It's a little bumpy about here.\" After Max Q the flight smoothed out. At two minutes and 14 seconds after launch, the booster engines cut off and dropped away. Then at two minutes and twenty-four seconds, the escape tower was jettisoned, right on schedule.\n\nAfter the tower was jettisoned, the Atlas and spacecraft pitched over still further, giving Glenn his first view of the horizon. He described the view as \"a beautiful sight, looking eastward across the Atlantic.\" Vibration increased as the last of the fuel supply was used up. Booster performance had been nearly flawless through the entire powered flight. At sustainer engine cut-off it was found that the Atlas had accelerated the capsule to a speed only 7 ft/s (2 m/s) below nominal. At 14:52 UTC, Friendship 7 was in orbit. Glenn received word that the Atlas had boosted the MA-6 into a trajectory that would stay up for at least seven orbits. Meanwhile, computers at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland indicated that the MA-6 orbital parameters appeared good enough for almost 100 orbits.\n\nFirst orbit\n\nWhen the posigrade rockets fired and separated the capsule from the booster, the five-second rate-damping operation started two and a half seconds late. This caused a substantial roll error as the capsule began its turnaround. The automatic attitude control system took 38 seconds to place Friendship 7 into its proper orbital attitude. The turnaround maneuver used 5.4 pounds (2.4 kg) of fuel from a total supply of 60.4 pounds (27.4 kg)\n* 36 lb (16.3 kg) for automatic and\n* 24.4 lb (11.1 kg) for manual control system\nThe spacecraft then settled into orbital flight with a velocity of 17,544 mph (7,843 m/s).\n\nFriendship 7 began its first orbit with all systems go. It crossed the Atlantic and passed over the Canary Islands. Controllers there reported all capsule systems in perfect working order. Looking at the African coastline, and later the interior over Kano, Nigeria, Glenn told the tracking station team that he could see a dust storm. Kano flight communicators replied that the winds had been quite heavy for the past week.\n\nOver Kano, Glenn took control of the spacecraft and started a major yaw adjustment. He allowed the spacecraft to continue the yaw maneuver until it was facing into its flight path. Glenn noticed that the attitude indicators disagreed with what he observed were the true spacecraft attitudes. Even with the incorrect instrument readouts, he was pleased to be facing forward instead of backward on his orbital path.\n\nOver the Indian Ocean, Glenn observed his first sunset from orbit. He described the moment of twilight as \"beautiful.\" The sky in space was very black, he said, with a thin band of blue along the horizon. He said the sun set fast, but not as quickly as he had expected. For five or six minutes there was a slow reduction in light intensity. Brilliant orange and blue layers spread out 45 to 60 degrees on either side of the sun, tapering gradually toward the horizon. Clouds prevented him from seeing a mortar flare fired by the Indian Ocean tracking ship as part of a pilot observation experiment.\n\nContinuing his journey on the night side of Earth, nearing the Australian coastline, Glenn made star, weather, and landmark observations. He looked for but failed to see the dim light phenomenon known as the zodiacal light; his eyes had insufficient time to adapt to the darkness.\n\nThe spacecraft came into radio range of Muchea, Australia. At the Mercury Tracking Station there, Gordon Cooper was the capsule communicator. Glenn reported that he felt fine and had no problems. He saw a very bright light and what appeared to be the outline of a city. Cooper said that he probably was looking at the lights of Perth and its satellite town of Rockingham. This turned out to be correct; many people in Perth turned on their lights so as to be visible to Glenn as he passed over. \"That sure was a short day,\" he excitedly told Cooper. \"That was about the shortest day I've ever run into.\"\n\nThe spacecraft moved across Australia and across the Pacific to Canton Island. Glenn experienced a short 45 minute night and prepared the periscope for viewing his first sunrise from orbit. As the sun rose over the island, he saw thousands of \"little specks, brilliant specks, floating around outside the capsule\"; he momentarily felt that the spacecraft was tumbling or that he was looking into a star field. A quick hard look out of the spacecraft window corrected the illusion and Glenn was sure that the \"fireflies\", as he called them, were streaming past his spacecraft from ahead. They seemed to flow by slowly but did not seem to be coming from any part of the spacecraft, and they disappeared as Friendship 7 moved into brighter sunlight. It was later determined that they were probably small ice crystals venting from onboard spacecraft systems.\n\nI am in a big mass of some very small particles, they're brilliantly lit up like they're luminescent. I never saw anything like it. They round a little: they're coming by the capsule and they look like little stars. A whole shower of them coming by. They swirl around the capsule and go in front of the window and they're all brilliantly lighted. Glenn started banging the capsule wall and watched the \"fireflies\" come off, just as Alan Shepard did.\n\nAs the spacecraft crossed the Kauai, Hawaii tracking station, Glenn noticed a lot of interference on the HF radio band. As he crossed the Pacific coast of North America, the tracking station at Guaymas, Mexico, informed Mercury Control in Florida that a yaw thruster was causing attitude control problems. Glenn later recalled, this problem \"was to stick with me for the rest of the flight.\"\n\nGlenn noticed the control problem when the automatic stabilization and control system allowed the spacecraft to drift about a degree and a half per second to the right. Glenn switched control to manual-proportional control mode and moved Friendship 7 back to the proper attitude. He tried different control modes to see which used the least fuel to maintain attitude. The manual fly-by-wire combination used the least fuel. After about twenty minutes the yaw thruster began working again and Glenn switched back to the automatic control system. It worked for a short time and then began having problems again, this time with the opposite yaw thruster. He then switched back to the manual fly-by-wire system and flew the spacecraft in that mode for the remainder of the flight.\n\nSecond orbit\n\nAs Friendship 7 crossed Cape Canaveral at the start of its second orbit, flight systems controller Don Arabian noticed that \"Segment 51\", a sensor providing data on the spacecraft landing system, was giving a strange reading. According to the reading, the heat shield and landing bag were no longer locked in position. If this were the case, the heat shield was only being held against the spacecraft by the straps of the retro package. Mercury Control ordered all tracking sites to monitor \"Segment 51\" closely and advise Glenn that the landing-bag deploy switch should be in the \"off\" position.\n\nGlenn was not immediately aware of the problem, but he became suspicious when site after site asked him to make sure that the landing-bag deploy switch was off. Meanwhile, Friendship 7 was crossing the Atlantic for the second time. Glenn was busy manually keeping the spacecraft attitude correct and also trying to accomplish as many of the flight plan tasks as he could.\n\nCrossing over the Canary Islands, Glenn observed that the \"fireflies\" outside the spacecraft had no connection with gas from the reaction control jets. His suit temperature felt too warm, but he didn't take time to adjust it. The Kano, Nigeria and Zanzibar sites suddenly noticed a 12 percent drop in the spacecraft secondary oxygen supply.\n\nDuring his second pass over the Indian Ocean, Glenn found that the Indian Ocean tracking ship was in heavy weather. The tracking station had planned to release balloons for a pilot observation experiment, but instead the ship fired star-shell parachute flares as Friendship 7 passed overhead. Glenn was able to observe the flashes of lightning from storms in the area but was unable to see the flares.\n\nThe temperature in Glenn's spacesuit was too warm. It had been since he passed over the Canary Islands, earlier in the second orbit. As he crossed the Indian Ocean he tried to adjust the suit temperature. As he approached Woomera, Australia, a signal light came on warning him of excess cabin humidity. For the rest of the flight Glenn had to carefully balance suit cooling against the cabin humidity.\n\nWhile he was still over Australia, another warning light came on, indicating that the fuel supply for the automatic control system was down to 62 percent. Mercury Control recommended that Glenn let the spacecraft attitude drift to conserve fuel.\n\nThere were no more problems for Friendship 7 during the remainder of the second orbit. Glenn continued to manually control the spacecraft attitude, not allowing it to drift too far out of alignment. In doing so, he consumed more fuel than a functioning automatic system would have used. Fuel consumption was 6 pounds (2.7 kg) from the automatic tank and 11.8 pounds (5.4 kg) from the manual tank, during the second orbit. This amounted to almost 30 percent of the total fuel supply.\n\nThird orbit\n\nOn the third orbit of Friendship 7, the Indian Ocean tracking ship did not attempt to launch any objects for pilot observation experiments, as the cloud coverage was still too thick. When the spacecraft came across Australia for the third time, Glenn joked with Cooper at the Muchea Tracking Station. Glenn asked Cooper to notify General Shoup, Commandant of the Marine Corps, that three orbits should meet the minimum monthly requirement of four hours' flying time. He also asked to be certified as eligible for his regular flight pay.\n\nReentry\n\nDuring Glenn's orbits, Mercury Control had been monitoring the problem with \"Segment 51\". The Hawaiian tracking station asked Glenn to toggle the landing bag deploy switch into the automatic position. If a light came on, reentry should take place while retaining the retro pack. Given the earlier questions about the landing bag switch, Glenn realized there must be a possible problem with a loose heat shield. The test was run but no light appeared. Glenn also reported there were no bumping noises during spacecraft maneuvers.\n\nMercury Control was still undecided on the course of action to take. Some controllers thought the retrorocket pack should be jettisoned after retrofire, while other controllers thought the retro pack should be retained, as added assurance that the heat shield would stay in place. Flight Director Chris Kraft and Mission Director Walter C. Williams, decided to keep the retro pack in place during reentry. Walter Schirra, the California communicator at Point Arguello, relayed the instructions to Glenn: the retro pack should be retained until the spacecraft was over the Texas tracking station. After the mission was over, the \"Segment 51\" warning light problem was later determined to be a faulty sensor switch, meaning that the heat shield and landing bag were in fact secure during reentry.\n\nGlenn was now preparing for reentry. Retaining the retro package meant he would have to retract the periscope manually. He would also have to activate the 0.05-g sequence by pushing the override switch. Friendship 7 neared the California coast. It had been four hours and 33 minutes since launch. The spacecraft was maneuvered into retrofire attitude and the first retrorocket fired. \"Boy, feels like I'm going halfway back to Hawaii,\" Glenn radioed. The second and then the third retros fired at five second intervals. The spacecraft attitude was steady during retrofire. Six minutes after retrofire; Glenn maneuvered the spacecraft into a 14 degree nose up, pitch attitude for reentry.\n\nFriendship 7 lost altitude in its reentry glide over the continental United States, and headed toward splashdown in the Atlantic. The Texas tracking station told Glenn to retain the retro pack until the accelerometer read 1.5 g (14.7 m/s²). Glenn reported as he crossed Cape Canaveral he had been controlling the spacecraft manually and would use the fly-by–wire mode as a backup. Mercury Control then gave him the 0.05 g (0.49 m/s²) mark, and he pressed the override button. About the same time, Glenn heard noises that sounded like \"small things brushing against the capsule.\" \"That's a real fireball outside,\" he radioed Mercury Control. A strap from the retro package broke partially loose and hung over the spacecraft window as it was consumed in the reentry plasma stream. The spacecraft control system was working well but the manual fuel supply was down to 15 percent. The peak of reentry deceleration was still to come. Glenn switched to fly-by-wire and the automatic tank supply. This combination had more available fuel.\n\nThe spacecraft now experienced peak reentry heating. Glenn later reported, \"I thought the retro pack had jettisoned and saw chunks coming off and flying by the window.\" He feared the chunks were pieces of his heatshield that might be disintegrating. The chunks were pieces of the retro package breaking up in the reentry fireball.\n\nAfter passing the peak g region, the Friendship 7 began oscillating severely. The astronaut could not control the ship manually. The spacecraft was oscillating past 10 degrees on both sides of the vertical zero-degree point. \"I felt like a falling leaf,\" Glenn later said. He activated the auxiliary damping system, this helped stabilize the large yaw and roll rates. Fuel in the automatic tanks was getting low. Glenn wondered if the spacecraft would retain stability until it was low enough to deploy the drogue parachute.\n\nThe automatic fuel supply ran out at 1 minute and 51 seconds, and manual fuel ran out at 51 seconds, before drogue chute deployment. The oscillations resumed, at 35,000 feet (10 km) Glenn decided to deploy the drogue chute manually to regain attitude stability. Just before he reached the switch, the drogue chute opened automatically at 28,000 feet (8.5 km) instead of the programmed 21,000 feet (6.4 km). The spacecraft regained stability and Glenn reported, \"everything was in good shape.\"\n\nAt 17,000 feet (5 km) the periscope opened and was available for the astronaut to use. Glenn tried to look out the overhead window instead, but it was coated with so much smoke and film that he could see very little. The spacecraft continued to descend on the drogue chute. The antenna section jettisoned and the main chute deployed and opened to its full diameter. Mercury Control reminded Glenn to manually deploy the landing bag. He toggled the switch and the green light confirmation came on. A \"clunk\" could be heard as the heat shield and landing bag dropped into place, four feet (1.2 m) below the capsule.\n\nSplashdown\n\nAccording to a chart printed in the NASA publication Results of the First United States Manned Orbital Space Flight, Feb. 20, 1962, the spacecraft splashed down in the Atlantic at coordinates near , 40 mi short of the planned landing zone. Retrofire calculations had not taken into account spacecraft weight loss due to use of onboard consumables. , a destroyer code-named \"Steelhead\", had spotted the spacecraft when it was descending on its parachute. The destroyer was about 6 mi away when it radioed Glenn that it would reach him shortly. Noa came alongside Friendship 7 seventeen minutes later.\n\nOne crewman cleared the spacecraft antenna and another crewman attached a line to hoist Friendship 7 aboard. After being pulled from the water the spacecraft bumped against the side of the destroyer. Once Friendship 7 was on deck, Glenn intended to leave the capsule through the upper hatch, but it was too hot in the spacecraft and Glenn decided to blow the side hatch instead. He told the ship's crew to stand clear and hit the hatch detonator plunger with the back of his hand. The detonator plunger recoiled, and slightly cut the astronaut's knuckles through his glove. With a loud bang, the hatch was off. A smiling Glenn got out of Friendship 7 and stood on the deck of Noa. His first words were, \"It was hot in there.\"\n\nThe astronaut and spacecraft came through the mission in good shape.\n\nSpacecraft location\n\n \nMercury spacecraft # 13 - Friendship 7 - is currently displayed at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington D.C. \nOn February 21, 1962, a metal fragment was recovered on a farm near Aliwal-North, South Africa. It was identified as coming from the MA-6 Atlas launch vehicle by numbers stamped on it. The fragment had landed on the farm after about eight hours in orbit. The fragments were recovered by the police and handed over to NASA, which returned it as a token of goodwill. The fragments are today on display in the Science Museum in Pretoria.\n\nTimeline and parameters\n\nLaunch\n\nFlight\n\nParameters\n\nMass of spacecraft: 1,352 kg\nPerigee of orbit: 159 km\nApogee of orbit: 265 km\nInclination of orbit: 32.5°\nOrbital period: 88.5 min\n\nDramatization in film\n\nPhilip Kaufman's 1983 film The Right Stuff includes a dramatization of the Friendship 7 mission in which Ed Harris plays Glenn. The sequence depicts the spacecraft's three orbits and Glenn's responses to what he saw, sometimes quoted verbatim, as well as the concerns over the heatshield during reentry. The mysterious \"fireflies\" are also shown, but their true explanation is not revealed; instead they are depicted as magical protection summoned by Australian Aborigines at the Muchea Tracking Station.\n\nAnniversary commemoration\n\nOn February 20, 2012, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the flight, Glenn was surprised with the opportunity to speak with the orbiting crew of the International Space Station while Glenn was on-stage with NASA Administrator Charlie Bolden at Ohio State University, where the public affairs school is named in honor of Glenn.", "John Herschel Glenn, Jr. (born July 18, 1921), (Col, USMC, Ret.), is a former aviator, engineer, astronaut, and United States senator. He was selected as one of the \"Mercury Seven\" group of military test pilots selected in 1959 by NASA to become America's first astronauts and fly the Project Mercury spacecraft. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew the Friendship 7 mission and became the first American to orbit the Earth and the fifth person in space, after cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov and the sub-orbital flights of Mercury astronauts Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom. Glenn is the earliest-born American to go to orbit, and the second earliest-born man overall after Soviet cosmonaut Georgy Beregovoy. Glenn received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, and was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990. With the death of Scott Carpenter on October 10, 2013, Glenn became the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven.\n \nGlenn resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and the next day announced plans to run for a U.S. Senate seat from Ohio; however, a bathroom fall which resulted in a concussion caused him to withdraw from the race in March. He retired from the Marine Corps on January 1, 1965. A member of the Democratic Party, he finally won election to the Senate in 1974 and served through January 3, 1999. With the death of Edward Brooke on January 3, 2015, Glenn became the oldest living former United States Senator.\n\nOn October 29, 1998, while still a sitting senator, he became the oldest person to fly in space, and the only one to fly in both the Mercury and Space Shuttle programs, when at age 77, he flew as a Payload Specialist on Discovery mission STS-95. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2012.\n\nEarly life, education and military service\n\nJohn Glenn was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn, Sr. (1895–1966) and Teresa () Glenn (1897–1971). He was raised in New Concord, Ohio. \n\nAfter graduating from New Concord High School in 1939, he studied Engineering at Muskingum College. He earned a private pilot's license for credit in a physics course in 1941. Glenn did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both requirements of the school for the Bachelor of Science degree. However, the school granted Glenn his degree in 1962, after his Mercury space flight. \n\nWorld War II\n\nWhen the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Corps. However, he was never called to duty, and in March 1942 enlisted as a United States Navy aviation cadet. He went to the University of Iowa for preflight training, then continued on to NAS Olathe, Kansas, for primary training. He made his first solo flight in a military aircraft there. During his advanced training at the NAS Corpus Christi, he was offered the chance to transfer to the U.S. Marine Corps and took it. \n\nUpon completing his training in 1943, Glenn was assigned to Marine Squadron VMJ-353, flying R4D transport planes. He transferred to VMF-155 as an F4U Corsair fighter pilot, and flew 59 combat missions in the South Pacific. He saw combat over the Marshall Islands, where he attacked anti-aircraft batteries on Maloelap Atoll. In 1945, he was assigned to NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, and was promoted to captain shortly before the war's end.\n\nGlenn flew patrol missions in North China with the VMF-218 Marine Fighter Squadron, until it was transferred to Guam. In 1948 he became a flight instructor at NAS Corpus Christi, Texas, followed by attending the Amphibious Warfare School.\n\nKorean War\n\nDuring the Korean War, Glenn was assigned to VMF-311, flying the new F9F Panther jet interceptor. He flew his Panther in 63 combat missions, gaining the nickname \"magnet ass\" from his alleged ability to attract enemy flak. On two occasions, he returned to his base with over 250 holes in his aircraft. For a time, he flew with Marine reservist Ted Williams, a future Hall of Fame baseball player for the Boston Red Sox, as his wingman. He also flew with future Major General Ralph H. Spanjer. \n\nGlenn flew a second Korean combat tour in an interservice exchange program with the United States Air Force, 51st Fighter Wing. He logged 27 missions in the faster F-86F Sabre and shot down three MiG-15s near the Yalu River in the final days before the ceasefire.\n\nFor his service in 149 combat missions in two wars, he received numerous honors, including the Distinguished Flying Cross (six occasions) and the Air Medal with eighteen clusters.\n\nTest pilot\n\nGlenn returned to NAS Patuxent River, appointed to the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School (class 12), graduating in 1954. He served as an armament officer, flying planes to high altitude and testing their cannons and machine guns. He was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics (now Bureau of Naval Weapons) as a test pilot on Navy and Marine Corps jet fighters in Washington, D.C., from November 1956 to April 1959, during which time he also attended the University of Maryland.\n\nGlenn has nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, with approximately 3,000 hours in jet aircraft.\n\nOn July 16, 1957, Glenn completed the first supersonic transcontinental flight in a Vought F8U-3P Crusader. The flight from NAS Los Alamitos, California, to Floyd Bennett Field, New York, took 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds. As he passed over his hometown, a child in the neighborhood reportedly ran to the Glenn house shouting \"Johnny dropped a bomb! Johnny dropped a bomb! Johnny dropped a bomb!\" as the sonic boom shook the town. Project Bullet, the name of the mission, included both the first transcontinental flight to average supersonic speed (despite three in-flight refuelings during which speeds dropped below 300 mph), and the first continuous transcontinental panoramic photograph of the United States. For this mission Glenn received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross. \n\nNASA career\n\nIn 1958, the newly formed NASA began a recruiting program for astronauts. Requirements were that each had to be a military test pilot between the ages of 25 and 40 with sufficient flight hours, no more than 5'11\" in height, and possess a degree in a scientific field. 508 pilots were subjected to rigorous mental and physical tests, and finally the selection was narrowed down to seven astronauts (Glenn, Alan Shepard, Gus Grissom, Scott Carpenter, Wally Schirra, Gordon Cooper, and Deke Slayton), who were introduced to the public at a NASA press conference in April 1959. Glenn just barely met the requirements as he was close to the age cutoff of 40 and also lacked the required science-based degree at the time. During this time, he remained an officer in the United States Marine Corps.\n\nGlenn became the first American to orbit the Earth, aboard Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962, on the Mercury-Atlas 6 mission, circling the globe three times during a flight lasting 4 hours, 55 minutes, and 23 seconds. This made Glenn the third American in space and the fifth human being in space.\n\nPerth, Western Australia, became known worldwide as the \"City of Light\" when residents turned on their house, car and streetlights as Glenn passed overhead. (The city repeated the act when Glenn rode the Space Shuttle in 1998). During the first mission there was concern over a ground indication that his heat shield had come loose, which could allow it to fail during re-entry through the atmosphere, causing his capsule to burn up. Flight controllers had Glenn modify his re-entry procedure by keeping his retrorocket pack on over the shield in an attempt to keep it in place. He made his splashdown safely, and afterwards it was determined that the indicator was faulty.\n\nAs the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met President Kennedy, and received a ticker-tape parade in New York City, reminiscent of that given for Charles Lindbergh and other great dignitaries.\n\nGlenn's fame and political attributes were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a personal friend of the Kennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy escorted him in a parade to Hangar S at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, where he awarded Glenn with the NASA Distinguished Service Medal.\n\nIn July 1962 Glenn testified before the House Space Committee in favor of excluding women from the NASA astronaut program. Although NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, in practice the requirement that astronauts had to be military test pilots excluded them entirely. The impact of the testimony of so prestigious a hero is debatable, but no female astronaut flew on a NASA mission until Sally Ride in 1983 (in the meantime, the Soviets had flown two women on space missions), and none piloted a mission until Eileen Collins in 1995, more than 30 years after the hearings. In the late 1970s, Glenn is reported to have supported Shuttle Mission Specialist Astronaut Judith Resnik in her career. \n\nGlenn resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and the next day announced his candidacy as a Democrat for the U.S. Senate from his home state of Ohio. On February 26, 1964, Glenn suffered a concussion from a slip and fall against a bathtub; this led him to withdraw from the race on March 30. Glenn then went on convalescent leave from the Marine Corps until he could make a full recovery, necessary for his retirement from the Marines. He retired on January 1, 1965, as a Colonel and entered the business world as an executive for Royal Crown Cola.\n\nPolitical career\n\nU.S. Senate\n\nNASA psychologists had determined during Glenn's training that he was the astronaut best suited for public life. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy suggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he should run against incumbent United States Senator Stephen M. Young of Ohio in the 1964 Democratic primary election. In 1964 Glenn announced that he was resigning from the space program to run against Young, but withdrew when he hit his head on a bathtub. Glenn sustained a concussion and injured his inner ear, and recovery left him unable to campaign. Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family and was with Robert Kennedy when he was assassinated in 1968.\n\nIn 1970, Glenn was narrowly defeated in the Democratic primary for nomination for the Senate by fellow Democrat Howard Metzenbaum, by a 51% to 49% margin. Metzenbaum lost the general election race to Robert Taft, Jr. In 1974, Glenn rejected Ohio governor John J. Gilligan and the Ohio Democratic party's demand that he run for Lieutenant Governor. Instead, he challenged Metzenbaum again, whom Gilligan had appointed to the Senate to replace William B. Saxbe, who had resigned to become Attorney General of the United States.\n\nIn the primary race, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials, saying his opponent had \"never held a payroll\". Glenn's reply came to be known as the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job.\" Many felt the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech won the primary for Glenn. Glenn won the primary by 54 to 46%. After defeating Metzenbaum, Glenn defeated Ralph Perk, the Republican Mayor of Cleveland, in the general election, beginning a Senate career that would continue until 1999. In 1980, Glenn won re-election to the seat, defeating Republican challenger Jim Betts, by over 40 percentage points.\n\nIn 1986, Glenn defeated challenger U.S. Representative Tom Kindness. Metzenbaum would go on to seek a rematch against Taft in 1976, winning a close race on Jimmy Carter's coattails.\n\nIn the late 1970s and early 1980s, Glenn and Metzenbaum had strained relations. There was a thaw in 1983, when Metzenbaum endorsed Glenn for president, and again in 1988, when Metzenbaum was opposed for re-election by Cleveland mayor George Voinovich. Voinovich accused Metzenbaum of being soft on child pornography. Voinovich's charges were criticized by many, including Glenn, who now came to Metzenbaum's aid, recording a statement for television refuting Voinovich's charges. Metzenbaum won the election by 57% to 41%.\n\nSavings and loan scandal\n\nGlenn was one of the five U.S. senators caught up in the Lincoln Savings and Keating Five Scandal after accepting a $200,000 contribution from Charles Keating. Glenn and Republican senator John McCain were the only senators exonerated. The Senate Commission found that Glenn had exercised \"poor judgment\". The association of his name with the scandal gave Republicans hope that he would be vulnerable in the 1992 campaign. Instead, Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to keep his seat, though his percentage was reduced to a career low of 51%. DeWine used the memorable campaign slogan, \"What on earth has John Glenn done?\" This 1992 re-election victory was the last time a Democrat won a statewide race in Ohio until 2006; DeWine later won Metzenbaum's seat upon his retirement.\n\nPresidential politics\n\nIn 1976, Glenn was a candidate for the Democratic vice presidential nomination. However, Glenn's keynote address at the Democratic National Convention failed to impress the delegates and the nomination went to veteran politician Walter Mondale. Glenn also ran for the 1984 Democratic presidential nomination. A November 1983 New York Times/CBS News poll found him second, supported by 41% of those polled, to Mondale's 49%.\n\nGlenn and his staff worried about the 1983 release of The Right Stuff, a film about the original seven Mercury astronauts based on the best-selling Tom Wolfe book of the same name. The book had depicted Glenn as a \"zealous moralizer\", and he did not attend the film's Washington premiere on October 16, 1983. Reviewers saw Ed Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic, however, and his staff immediately began to emphasize the film to the press. Aide Greg Schneiders suggested an unusual strategy, similar to Glenn's personal campaign and voting style, in which he would avoid appealing to narrow special interest groups and instead seek to win support from ordinary Democratic primary voters, the \"constituency of the whole\". Mondale defeated Glenn for the nomination however, and he was left with $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before he was granted a reprieve by the Federal Election Commission. He was a potential vice presidential running mate in 1984, 1988, and 1992.\n\nIssues\n\nDuring Glenn's time in the Senate, he was chief author of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978, served as chairman of the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 until 1995, sat on the Foreign Relations and Armed Services committees and the Special Committee on Aging. Once Republicans regained control of the Senate, Glenn also served as the ranking minority member on a special Senate investigative committee chaired by Tennessee senator Fred Dalton Thompson that looked into illegal foreign donations by China to U.S. political campaigns for the 1996 election. There was considerable acrimony between the two very high-profile senators during the life of this committee, which reached a level of public disagreement between the five leaders of a congressional committee seldom seen in recent years, amid allegations that Glenn suppressed these issues prior to his subsequent Space Shuttle flight which had to be approved by President Clinton. In 1998, Glenn declined to run for re-election. Mary O. Boyle was the Democratic party nominee. She faced Republican nominee and sitting governor George Voinovich in the general election, which Voinovich won.\n\nReturn to space\n\nGlenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, becoming, at age 77, the oldest person to go into space as a Payload Specialist on Discovery's STS-95 mission. According to The New York Times, Glenn \"won his seat on the Shuttle flight by lobbying NASA for two years to fly as a human guinea pig for geriatric studies\", which were named as the main reasons for his participation in the mission. Glenn states in his memoir that he had no idea NASA was willing to send him back into space when NASA announced the decision. \n\nGlenn's participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some in the space community as a political favor granted to Glenn by President Clinton. It was noted that Glenn's flight offered valuable research on weightlessness and other aspects of space flight on the same person at two points in life 36 years apart—by far the longest interval between space flights by the same person—providing information on the effects of spaceflight and weightlessness on the elderly, with an ideal control subject. Shortly before the flight, researchers learned that Glenn had to be disqualified from one of the flight's two main priority human experiments (about the effects of melatonin) because he did not meet one of study's medical conditions; he still participated in two other experiments about sleep monitoring and protein use. \n\nUpon the safe return of the STS-95 crew, Glenn (and his crewmates) received another ticker-tape parade, making him the tenth, and latest, person to have received multiple ticker-tape parades in a lifetime (as opposed to that of a sports team). Just prior to the flight, on October 15, 1998, and for several months after, the main causeway to the Johnson Space Center, NASA Road 1, was temporarily renamed \"John Glenn Parkway\".\n\nIn 2001, Glenn vehemently opposed the sending of Dennis Tito, the world's first space tourist, to the International Space Station on the grounds that Tito's trip served no scientific purpose. \n\nPublic affairs institute\n\nGlenn helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy at The Ohio State University in 1998 to encourage public service. On July 22, 2006, the institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. Today Glenn holds an adjunct professorship at the Glenn School. In February 2015, it was announced that the School would become the John Glenn College of Public Affairs beginning in April 2015. \n\nPersonal life\n\nOn April 6, 1943, Glenn married his childhood sweetheart, Anna Margaret Castor (b. 1920). Both Glenn and his wife attended Muskingum College in New Concord, Ohio. He also was a member of the Stag Club Fraternity at Muskingum College. \n\nGlenn was also one of the original owners of a Holiday Inn franchise near Orlando, Florida, that is today known as the Seralago Hotel & Suites Main Gate East. \n\nGlenn is an honorary member of the International Academy of Astronautics; a member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association, Order of Daedalians, National Space Club Board of Trustees, National Space Society Board of Governors, International Association of Holiday Inns, Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party, and 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club.\n\nA Freemason, Glenn is a member of Concord Lodge # 688 New Concord, Ohio, and DeMolay International, the Masonic youth organization, and is an ordained elder in the Presbyterian Church. \n\nGlenn's name was used for the character of John Tracy in the 1960s children's TV series Thunderbirds.\n\nGlenn's boyhood home in New Concord has been restored and made into an historic house museum and education center. \n\nIn 2001, Glenn appeared as a guest star on the American television sitcom Frasier. \n\nOn August 4, 2006, Glenn and his wife were injured in an automobile accident on I-270 near Columbus, Ohio, and were hospitalized for two days. Glenn suffered a \"very sore chest\" and a fractured sternum. Annie Glenn was treated for minor injuries. Glenn was cited for failure to yield the right-of-way. \n\nOn September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \"i\" during The Ohio State University's Script Ohio marching band performance, at the Ohio State-Navy football game halftime show. Bob Hope, Woody Hayes, Buster Douglas, E. Gordon Gee, Novice Fawcett, Robert Ries, and Jack Nicklaus are the only other non-band members to have received this honor. \n\nOn February 20, 2012, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Friendship 7 flight, Glenn was surprised with the opportunity to speak with the orbiting crew of the International Space Station while Glenn was on-stage with NASA Administrator Charlie Bolden at Ohio State, where the public affairs school is named for him. \n\nOn April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space Shuttle Discovery from NASA to the Smithsonian Institution for permanent display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Speaking at the event, Glenn criticized the \"unfortunate\" decision to end the Space Shuttle program, expressing his opinion that grounding the shuttles delayed research. \n\nOn June 28, 2016, the Columbus, Ohio airport was officially renamed the John Glenn Columbus International Airport. Just before his 95th birthday, Glenn and his wife Annie attended the ceremony, and he spoke eloquently about how visiting that airport as a child inspired his interest in flying. \n\nGlenn has stated that he sees no contradiction between believing in God and the knowledge that evolution is \"a fact\", and that he believes evolution should be taught in schools. \n\nImage gallery\n\nFile:John Glenn at the Mercury Control Center.jpg\|Glenn at the Mercury Control Center on the Cape Canaveral Air Force Base\nFile:19620220-JohnGlennMedical.jpg\|Medical debriefing of Major John H. Glenn, Jr., USMC after orbital flight of Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962 aboard the aircraft carrier . The debriefing team for Lt. Colonel Glenn (center) was led by Commander Seldon C. \"Smokey\" Dunn, MC, USN (FS) (RAM-qualified) (far right w/EKG in hands).\nFile:19620220-JohnGlennEKG.jpg\|\"Best regards and many thanks for all the help, 'Smokey' John H. Glenn Jr Mercury Astronaut a good date -- 20 February 62\"\nFile:LC-14 Glenn plaque.jpg\|Plaque near Mercury launch pad\n\nAwards and honors\n\nCongressional Gold Medal\nThe Woodrow Wilson Award\nNational Geographic Society's Hubbard Medal, 1962\nJohn J. Montgomery Award, 1963\nGolden Plate Award for Science and Exploration, 1964\nGeneral Thomas D. White National Defense Award. \n\nThe NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field in Cleveland, Ohio, is named after him. Also, Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch of I-480 in Ohio across from the NASA Glenn Research Center. Colonel Glenn Highway, which runs by Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and Wright State University near Dayton, Ohio, John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord, Ohio, and Col. John Glenn Elementary in Seven Hills, Ohio, are named for him as well. High Schools in Westland and Bay City, Michigan; Walkerton, Indiana; San Angelo, Texas; Elwood, Long Island, New York; and Norwalk, California were also named after him.\n\nThe fireboat John H. Glenn Jr. was named for him. This fireboat is operated by the DCFD and protects the sections of the Potomac River and the Anacostia River that run through Washington, D.C.\n\nThe USNS John Glenn (T-MLP-2), a mobile landing platform that is scheduled to be delivered to the U.S. Navy in 2014 is named for him. It was christened February 1, 2014, in San Diego at General Dynamics’ National Steel and Shipbuilding Company. \n\nIn 1961, Glenn received an Honorary LL.D from Muskingum University, the college he had attended before joining the military in World War II.\n\nHe also received Honorary Doctorates from Nihon University in Tokyo, Japan, Wagner College in Staten Island, New York, and New Hampshire College in Manchester, New Hampshire.\n\nGlenn was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1976. \n\nGlenn was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1977.\n\nIn 1990, Glenn was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame. \n\nIn 2000, Glenn received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. \n\nIn 2004, Glenn was awarded the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nIn 2009, Glenn received an Honorary LL.D from Williams College, and in 2010, he received an Honorary Doctorate of Public Service from Ohio Northern University. \n\nIn 2013, Flying magazine ranked Glenn No. 26 on their \"51 Heroes of Aviation\" list. \n\nOn January 3, 2015, with the death of Edward Brooke, Glenn became the oldest former United States senator still living. Glenn is the 60th person to hold this distinction.\n\nPhysical description\n\nWeight: 170 lb (77 kg)\nHeight: 5 ft 10½ in (1.79 m)\nHair: Red\n*Eyes: Green" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "John Herschel Glenn", "John Glenn, Jr.", "John H. Glenn", "John H. Glenn Jr.", "John Glrnn", "John Glenn", "John Glenn Junior", "J H Glenn", "John Herschel Glenn Jr.", "John Herschel Glenn, Jr.", "Glenn, Jr., John Herschell", "John Herschell Glenn, Jr.", "John H. Glenn, Jr." ], "normalized_aliases": [ "john herschell glenn jr", "john h glenn jr", "j h glenn", "john glrnn", "john herschel glenn jr", "john herschel glenn", "john h glenn", "john glenn junior", "john glenn", "john glenn jr", "glenn jr john herschell" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "john glenn", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "John Glenn" }
Who had a 50s No 1 with Stagger Lee?	tc_1081	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Stagger_Lee.txt" ], "title": [ "Stagger Lee" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Stagger Lee\", also known as \"Stagolee\" and other variants, is a popular American folk song about the murder of Billy Lyons by \"Stag\" Lee Shelton in St. Louis, Missouri at Christmas, 1895. The song was first published in 1911, and was first recorded in 1923 by Fred Waring's Pennsylvanians. A version by Lloyd Price reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1959.\n\nBackground\n\nThe historical \"Stagger Lee\" was Lee Shelton, an African-American pimp living in St. Louis, Missouri in the late 19th century. He was nicknamed \"Stag Lee\" or \"Stack Lee\", with a variety of explanations being given for the moniker: he was given the nickname because he 'went \"stag\"', meaning he was without friends; he took the nickname from a well-known riverboat captain called \"Stack Lee\"; or, according to John and Alan Lomax, he took the name from a riverboat owned by the Lee family of Memphis called the Stack Lee, which was known for its on-board prostitution. He was well known locally as one of the \"Macks\", a group of pimps who demanded attention through their flashy clothing and appearance. In addition to these activities, he was the captain of a black \"Four Hundred Club\", a social club with a dubious reputation. \n\nOn Christmas night in 1895, Shelton and his acquaintance William \"Billy\" Lyons were drinking in the Bill Curtis Saloon. Lyons was also a member of St. Louis' underworld, and may have been a political and business rival to Shelton. Eventually, the two men got into a dispute, during which Lyons took Shelton's Stetson hat. Subsequently, Shelton shot Lyons, recovered his hat, and left. Lyons died of his injuries, and Shelton was charged, tried and convicted of the murder in 1897. He was pardoned in 1909, but returned to prison in 1911 for assault and robbery, and died in incarceration in 1912. \n\nThe crime quickly entered into American folklore and became the subject of song as well as folktales and toasts.\nThe song's title comes from Shelton's nickname, \"Stag Lee\" or \"Stack Lee\". The name was quickly corrupted in the folk tradition; early versions were called \"Stack-a-Lee\" and \"Stacker Lee\"; \"Stagolee\" and \"Stagger Lee\" also became common. Other recorded variants include \"Stackerlee\", \"Stack O'Lee\", \"Stackolee\", \"Stackalee\", \"Stagerlee\", and \"Stagalee\". \n\nEarly versions\n\nA song called \"Stack-a-Lee\" was first mentioned in 1897, in the Kansas City Leavenworth Herald, as being performed by \"Prof. Charlie Lee, the piano thumper.\"[http://www.staggerlee.com/pgs/history2.php History of Stagger Lee]. Retrieved 17 February 2013 The earliest versions were likely field hollers and other work songs performed by African-American laborers, and were well known along the lower Mississippi River by 1910. That year, musicologist John Lomax received a partial transcription of the song, and in 1911 two versions were published in the Journal of American Folklore by the sociologist and historian Howard W. Odum. \n\nThe song was first recorded by Waring's Pennsylvanians in 1923, and became a hit. Another version was recorded later that year by Frank Westphal & His Regal Novelty Orchestra, and Herb Wiedoeft and his band recorded the song in 1924. Also in 1924, the first version with lyrics was recorded, as \"Skeeg-a-Lee Blues\", by Lovie Austin. Ma Rainey recorded the song the following year, with Louis Armstrong on cornet, and a notable version was recorded by Frank Hutchison in 1927.\n\nBefore World War II, it was commonly known as \"Stack O'Lee\". W.C. Handy wrote that this probably was a nickname for a tall person, comparing him to the tall smokestack of the large steamboat Robert E. Lee. By the time W.C. Handy wrote that explanation in the 1920s, \"Stack O' Lee\" was already familiar in United States popular culture, with recordings of the song made by such pop singers of the day as Cliff Edwards.\n\nThe version by Mississippi John Hurt, recorded in 1928, is regarded as definitive. In his version, as in all such pieces, there are many (sometimes anachronistic) variants on the lyrics. Several older versions give Billy's last name as \"De Lyons\" or \"Deslile\". Other notable pre-war versions were by Duke Ellington (1927), Cab Calloway (1931), and Woody Guthrie (1941).\n\nPost-war versions\n\nIn 1950, a version by New Orleans pianist Archibald reached #10 on the Billboard R&B chart. Lloyd Price recorded the song in 1958, and it rose to the top of both the R&B and US pop charts in early 1959. His version was ranked #456 on Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list, and also reached #7 on the UK singles chart. Price also recorded a toned-down version of the song that changed the shooting to an argument between two friends for his appearance on Dick Clark's American Bandstand.\n\nThe song was covered by Pat Boone, and other versions were recorded in the 1960s by Ike and Tina Turner, James Brown, and Wilson Pickett (whose version made #22 on the US pop chart). Tommy Roe's 1971 version of the song went to #25 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #17 on the Canadian Singles Chart. The Youngbloods released a version of the song on their 1971 album, Good and Dusty. The Grateful Dead recorded a version of the tale which focuses on the fictionalized hours after the death of \"Billy DeLyon\", when Billy's wife Delia tracks down Stagger Lee in a local saloon and \"she shot him in the balls\" in revenge for Billy's death. The Clash's 1979 album London Calling includes a cover of the song \"Wrong 'Em Boyo\" by the Jamaican rocksteady group The Rulers, in which Stagger Lee is explicitly the hero and Billy the villain. A version by The Fabulous Thunderbirds can be found on the Porky's Revenge soundtrack (1985). Johnny Otis's band Snatch and the Poontangs performed a version in which the violence is matched by the sex.\n\nPrince Buster & The Trojans recorded a ska/reggae version called \"Stack-A-Lee\" in 1990. It can be found on the Trojan boxed set Beginner's Guide To Ska. Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds presented a version of the song on their 1996 album Murder Ballads. This version retakes a street \"toast poem\" on Stagolee. The song contains much swearing and tells the story from a neutral perspective; Stagger Lee refers to himself as \"the Bad Motherfucker\". The song also appears to set the story in the 1930s, evident in the opening line \"It was back in '32 when times were hard\". In 2006 Australian band Magic Dirt also covered the song in the style of the Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds rendition.\n\nThe Black Keys recorded a song entitled \"Stack Shot Billy\" on their 2004 album Rubber Factory. In 2005, Chris Whitley and Jeff Lang recorded their own arrangement of the song, called \"Stagger Lee\", ultimately released on their 2006 CD Dislocation Blues. A version of the song by Pacific Gas & Electric, called \"Staggolee\", was included on the soundtrack for Quentin Tarantino's film Death Proof, the second portion of the 2007 double-feature Grindhouse. PG&E's version had originally been released as the B-side to their hit single \"Are You Ready?\" in 1970. In the 2007 film Black Snake Moan, Samuel L. Jackson's character sings a boastful version of the song from Stagger Lee's perspective, titled \"Stackolee\". This version is based on R. L. Burnside's rendition which can be heard on the album Well, Well, Well. Blues musician Keb' Mo' performs his version in a scene from the 2007 film Honeydripper. Modern Life Is War recorded a hardcore punk version for their 2007 album Midnight In America. Josh Ritter recorded a version of the tale titled \"Folk Bloodbath\" on the album So Runs the World Away but in his version Stagger Lee killed a man named Louis Collins, and 'Hangin' Billy Lyons was the judge who sentenced Stagger to hang." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Lloyd Price" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "lloyd price" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "lloyd price", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Lloyd Price" }
Who wrote the novel Gentlemen Prefer Blondes?	tc_1084	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Gentlemen_Prefer_Blondes_(musical).txt", "Anita_Loos.txt" ], "title": [ "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (musical)", "Anita Loos" ], "wiki_context": [ "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes is a musical with a book by Joseph Fields and Anita Loos, lyrics by Leo Robin, and music by Jule Styne, based on the best-selling novel of the same name by Loos. The story involves an American woman's voyage to Paris to perform in a nightclub.\n\nThe musical opened on Broadway in 1949 (running for 740 performances and introducing Carol Channing), a London production was mounted in 1962, and there was a Broadway revival in 1995. An adaptation called Lorelei (also starring Carol Channing) played on Broadway in 1974. It was made into a film of the same name in 1953, starring Jane Russell and Marilyn Monroe. The popular songs \"Bye Bye Baby\" and \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" were introduced in this musical.\n\nSynopsis\n\n;Act I\nIn the 1920s, Lorelei Lee, a blonde from Little Rock, Arkansas, and her friend Dorothy Shaw board the ocean liner Ile de France, to embark for France (\"It's High Time\"). Lorelei and her boyfriend (who is her \"sugar daddy\"), Gus Esmond, are parting for a while (\"Bye, Bye Baby\"); Gus is going to Little Rock, and Dorothy is Lorelei's chaperone. On the ship, Lorelei has many admirers, including the rich Philadelphian Henry Spofford III, and an Englishman, Sir Francis (Piggy) Beekman. Lorelei is worried that Gus will find out about an old secret of hers and break off their engagement (\"I’m Just A Little Girl From Little Rock\"), and she is afraid to open a wire that she receives from him. Meanwhile, Dorothy flirts with a group of olympic sportsmen (\"I Love What I’m Doing (When I’m Doing It For Love)\"). Lorelei disapproves of this as the olympians are poor; she is sure that Gus has broken up with her and tells Dorothy that they need to find some rich men. Lorelei chooses the zipper king, Josephus Gage. For Dorothy she chooses Henry Spofford. Lady Beekman is trying to sell her tiara to an American. Lorelei wishes to buy it, but does not have the money, so she decides to persuade Sir Francis to lend her the money (\"Its Delightful Down In Chile\").\n\nOn arrival in Paris, Dorothy and Henry are becoming attracted to each other (\"Sunshine\"). Two French detectives, Robert and Louie Lemanteur, are looking for Lorelei, trying to recover Lady Beekman’s tiara. They don't speak much English, but they fall for the charms of the girls and offer to take them out. Josephus Gage arrives with Lorelei, wearing the first French dress to use a zipper. It is suggested that everyone have cocktails, to Mrs Spofford’s delight, but Josephus does not drink, instead eating raw carrots (\"I’m a Tingle I’m Aglow\"). Henry, left alone with Dorothy, proposes marriage (\"You Say You Care\"), but she says that she is not good enough for him.\n\nGus arrives suddenly and discovers that Lorelei is dating Josephus. His father has always disapproved of Lorelei. Gus retaliates by dating Gloria Stark, a dancer, promising to make her a star.\n\n;Act II\nEveryone is at a Paris club. Lady Beekman and the two detectives are still trying to recover her tiara. Sir Francis is there with two ladies. Lorelei and Dorothy are there with Josephus and Henry. Gus arrives and nearly comes to blows with Josephus. The floor show includes performances by Gloria (\"Mamie Is Mimi\") and Coquette. Lorelei sings too (\"Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend\"). Gus tells Lorelei that he loves her so much that he would leave his father's business for her sake. She admits that she shot a man in Little Rock, but it was in self-defense (the man was attempting to rape her), so she was acquitted; they make up.\n\nThe Americans miss the United States (\"Homesick Blues\") and go home. Lorelei delays marrying Gus until his father accepts her. Mrs. Spofford gives Dorothy some advice (\"Keeping Cool with Coolidge\"). Gus's father, Mr. Esmond, arrives and finds that Lorelei is wearing a dress covered in his buttons and that she knows everything about his business (\"Button Up with Esmond\"). He is impressed and approves of the marriage.\n\nSongs\n\n;Act I\n* \"Overture\" - Orchestra\n* \"It's High Time\" - Dorothy Shaw and Ensemble\n* \"Bye, Bye Baby\" - Gus Esmond and Lorelei Lee\n* \"I'm Just A Little Girl From Little Rock\" - Lorelei Lee\n* Encore: \"I'm Just A Little Girl From Little Rock\" - Lorelei Lee\n* Dance Encore: \"I'm Just A Little Girl From Little Rock\" - Orchestra\n* \"I Love What I'm Doing\" - Dorothy Shaw\n* Dance: \"I Love What I'm Doing\" - Orchestra\n* \"Just a Kiss Apart\" - Henry Spofford\n* \"Scherzo\" (Gloria's Dance) - Orchestra\n* \"It's Delightful Down in Chile\" - Sir Francis Beekman, Lorelei Lee, Show Girls and Male Ensemble\n* \"Sunshine\" - Henry Spofford and Dorothy Shaw\n* \"Park Scene\" - Chorus and Dancers\n* \"Pas De Deux\" - Orchestra\n* \"Sunshine (Reprise)\" - Ensemble\n* \"I'm A'Tingle, I'm A'Glow\" - Josephus Gage\n* \"You Say You Care\" - Dorothy Shaw and Henry Spofford\n* \"Finale Act I\" (\"I'm Just A Little Girl From Little Rock\") - Lorelei Lee and Ensemble\n\n;Act II\n* \"Entr'acte\" - Orchestra\n* \"Mamie is Mimi\" - Gloria Stark, Coles and Atkins\n* \"Coquette\" - The Tenor and Show Girls\n* \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" - Lorelei Lee\n* First Encore: \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" - Lorelei Lee\n* Second Encore: \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" - Lorelei Lee\n* \"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes\" - Lorelei Lee and Gus Esmond\n* \"Homesick Blues\" - Lorelei Lee, Dorothy Shaw, Gus Esmond, Henry Spofford, Mrs. Ella Spofford and Josephus Gage\n* \"Keeping Cool with Coolidge\" - Dorothy Shaw, Bill and Ensemble\n* \"Button Up With Esmond\" - Lorelei Lee, Show Girls and Ensemble\n* \"Finale Act II\" (\"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes\" and \"Bye, Bye Baby\") - Lorelei Lee, Gus Esmond and Ensemble\n\nProductions\n\nOriginal Broadway\n\nThe musical opened on Broadway at the Ziegfeld Theatre on December 8, 1949 and closed September 15, 1951, after 740 performances. It was produced by Herman Levin and Oliver Smith, directed by John C. Wilson, and choreographed by Agnes de Mille, with vocal direction by Hugh Martin. Financial backers included Harold M. Esty, Jr. \n\nThe original cast featured:\nCarol Channing as Lorelei Lee\nYvonne Adair as Dorothy Shaw\nRex Evans as Sir Francis Beekman\nAnita Alvarez as Gloria Stark\nEric Brotherson as Henry Spofford\nJack McCauley as Gus Esmond\nGeorge S. Irving as Josephus Gage\nIrving Mitchell as Mr. Esmond, Sr.\nAlice Pearce as Mrs. Ella Spofford\nReta Shaw as Lady Phyllis Beekman\nJune Kirby as Sun Bather\n\nSeveral well-known blonde actresses, including Betty Hutton, Jayne Mansfield (Carousel Theater, 1964), Mamie Van Doren, Barbara Eden (Florida, January 1999) and Morgan Fairchild, have starred in regional and summer stock productions of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes over the years.\n\nWest End\n\nThe musical ran in the West End at the Princes Theatre, opening on August 20, 1962 for 223 performances, and featured Dora Bryan as Lorelei Lee, Anne Hart as Dorothy, and Bessie Love as Mrs. Ella Spofford.[http://www.albemarle-london.com/Archive/ArchiveShow.php?Show_Name\nGentlemen%20Prefer%20Blondes Gentlemen Prefer Blondes]. Albemarle-london.com, accessed September 2, 2009 \n\nBroadway 1974\n\nA revised version entitled Lorelei opened on Broadway at the Palace Theatre on January 27, 1974, and ran for 320 performances. This production also starred Carol Channing, for which she received a Tony Award nomination, Best Actress in a Musical. \n\nBroadway 1995\n\nThe Goodspeed Opera House, East Haddam, Connecticut, revival ran in November 1994, and featured KT Sullivan as Lorelei Lee, Karen Prunzik as Dorothy Shaw, Jamie Ross as Josephus Gage, and Allen Fitzpatrick as Gus Esmond. The production transferred to Broadway at the Lyceum Theatre on April 10, 1995 and closed on April 30, 1995 after 16 previews and 8 performances.\n\nOther\n\nA concert staging of the musical was mounted as part of the \"Discovering Lost Musicals\" series directed and produced by Ian Marshall-Fisher at Barbican Cinema 1 in London in 1997, which featured Louise Gold as Lorelei Lee, Kim Criswell as Dorothy Shaw, and Dilys Laye as Mrs Ella Spofford. \n\nThe Open Air Theatre, Inner Circle, Regent's Park, London, production ran from July 23, 1998 through September 1, 1998, and featured Sara Crowe as Lorelei Lee and Debby Bishop as Dorothy. \n\n42nd Street Moon theatre company, San Francisco, California, presented the musical in April 2004.Connema, Richard.[http://www.talkinbroadway.com/regional/sanfran/s465.html \"'Gentlemen Prefer Blondes' Comes Back to San Francisco\"] talkinbroadway.com, April 14, 2004 \n\nA staged concert production was presented in the Encores! series of Great American Musicals in Concert at the New York City Center May 9–13, 2012 with Megan Hilty as Lorelei Lee and Rachel York as Dorothy, directed by John Rando and choreographed by Randy Skinner. \n\nFilm version\n\nA 1953 film adaptation, released by 20th century Fox, was directed by Howard Hawks and starred Jane Russell and Marilyn Monroe.", "Anita Loos (April 26, 1889[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page\npv&GRid6158473&PIpi\n208672 Photograph of tombstone at Find-a-grave] – August 18, 1981) was an American screenwriter, playwright and author, best known for her blockbuster comic novel, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nAnita Loos was born Corinne Anita Loos in Sisson, California (today Mount Shasta), to Richard Beers Loos and Minnie Ellen Smith. Loos had two siblings: Gladys and Clifford (Harry Clifford), a physician and co-founder of the Ross-Loos Medical Group. On pronouncing her name, Loos is reported to have said, \"The family has always used the correct French pronunciation which is lohse. However, I myself pronounce my name as if it were spelled luce, since most people pronounce it that way and it was too much trouble to correct them.\" \nLoos' father, R. Beers Loos, founded a tabloid for which her mother, Minerva \"Minnie\" Smith did most of the work of a newspaper publisher.Loos. 1966. In 1892, when Loos was four years old, the family moved to San Francisco, where Beers Loos bought the newspaper The Dramatic Event, a veiled version of the UK's Police Gazette, with money Minerva borrowed from her father.\n\nWhile living in San Francisco, Loos followed her dissolute alcoholic father as they explored the city's underbelly. Together they would sit on the pier, fishing and making friends with the locals, feeding into Loos' lifelong fascination with lowlifes and loose women. In 1897, at their father's urging, she and her sister performed in the San Francisco stock company production of Quo Vadis. Gladys died, aged eight, of appendicitis while their father was on one of his drinking and philandering \"fishing trips\". Anita continued appearing on stage, sometimes being the family's sole breadwinner. Eventually Beers Loos' spendthrift ways caught up with them, and in 1903, Beers Loos took an offer to manage a theater company in San Diego. There, Anita performed simultaneously in her father's stock company, and under another name with the more legitimate stock company in town. It was around this time that she started shaving years off her true age.\n\nLoos had known she wanted to be a writer since she was six, and she also wanted to free herself of the shackles of stock performance. After graduating from high school, Loos devised a method of cobbling together published reports of Manhattan social life, mailing them to a friend in New York who would submit them under their own name for publication in San Diego. Her father had turned out some one-act plays for the stock company, and encouraged Anita to work in the field herself. She wrote The Ink Well, a successful piece for which she would receive periodic royalties.\n\nIn 1911, the theater was running one-reel films after each night's performances; Anita would take a perfunctory bow and run to the back of the theater to watch them. She sent her first attempt at a screenplay, He Was A College Boy, to the Biograph Company, for which she received $25. The New York Hat, starring Mary Pickford and Lionel Barrymore and directed by D. W. Griffith, was her third screenplay and the first to be produced. Loos dredged real life and real situations for her scenarios: she dished up her father's cronies, her brother's friends and the rich vacationers from the San Diego resorts; eventually every experience became grist for her script mill.\n\nBy 1912, Loos had sold scripts to both the Biograph and Lubin studios. Between 1912 and 1915, she turned out 105 scripts, only four of which went unproduced, and she would write 200 scenarios before she ever saw the inside of a studio. \n\nHollywood\n\nHer mother had objected to Loos working in Hollywood. In 1915, trying to escape her influence, Loos married her first husband, Frank Pallma, Jr., the son of the band conductor. But Frank proved to be penniless and dull – after six months, Anita sent him out for hair pins, and while he was gone she packed her bags and went home to her mother. After that, Minnie rethought her position on a Hollywood career. Accompanied by her mother, Anita joined the film colony in Hollywood where Griffith put Loos on the payroll for Triangle Film Corporation at $75 a week with a bonus for every produced script, perhaps making her the first \"staff writer\".\n\nMany of the scripts she turned out for Griffith went unproduced. Some he considered unfilmable because the \"laughs were all in the lines, there was no way to get them onto the screen,\" but he encouraged her to continue, because reading them amused him. Her first screen credit was for an adaptation of Macbeth in which her billing came right after Shakespeare's. When Griffith asked her to write the subtitling for his epic Intolerance (1916), she traveled to New York City for the first time to attend its premiere. Instead of returning to Hollywood, Loos spent the fall of 1916 in New York and met with Frank Crowninshield of Vanity Fair. They had an instant rapport, and Loos would remain a Vanity Fair contributor for several decades.\n\nLoos returned to California just as Griffith, who wanted to make longer films, was leaving Triangle, and she joined director and future husband John Emerson for a string of successful Douglas Fairbanks films. Loos and company realized that Douglas Fairbanks' acrobatics were an extension of his effervescent personality and parlayed his natural athletic ability into swashbuckling adventure roles. His Picture in the Papers (1916) was noted for its wry style of discursive and witty subtitles: \"My most popular subtitle introduced the name of a new character. The name was something like this: 'Count Xxerkzsxxv.' Then there was a note, 'To those of you who read titles aloud, you can't pronounce the Count's name. You can only think it.' \"\n\nThe five films Loos wrote for Fairbanks made him a star. When Fairbanks was offered a sweetheart deal with Famous Players-Lasky, he took the team of Emerson-Loos with him at the high income of $500 a week. During this time Loos, Fairbanks and Emerson collaborated well together, and Loos was getting as much publicity as either Lillian Gish or Pickford. Photoplay magazine labeled her \"The Soubrette of Satire\". In 1918, Famous Players-Lasky offered the couple a four-picture deal in New York for more money than they had been making with the Fairbanks unit.\n\nNew York\n\nLoos, Emerson and fellow writer Frances Marion migrated to New York as a group, Loos and Emerson sharing a leased mansion in Great Neck, Long Island. Loos desperately wanted Marion as chaperone, as she found herself attracted to Emerson. He would readily admit that he \"had never been, nor could be, faithful to any one female.\" Loos convinced herself that he would see that she was different from all his other girls, and that behind his outwardly dull exterior was a great mind. She would be wrong on both counts. She would later write: \"I had set my sights on a man of brains, to whom I could look up\", she lamented, \"but what a terrible let down it would be to find out that I was smarter than he was.\" \n\nThe pictures for Famous Players-Lasky were not as successful as their previous films, partly because they starred Broadway headliners not adept at screen acting. In addition to their film \"collaborations\" the couple wrote two books: Breaking Into the Movies, published in 1919, followed by How to Write Photoplays in 1921. Though the scripts carried both names, they were mostly products of Loos alone. Later Loos would claim that Emerson took all the money and most of the credit for projects, even though his contribution usually consisted of observing from bed as Loos worked. Much to the chagrin of her friends, her adoration of Emerson had manifested as subservience. When their contract was not renewed, he blamed her scripts, though he had claimed credit for them. When William Randolph Hearst offered Loos a contract to write a picture for his mistress Marion Davies, Loos included Emerson in the deal, though his presence was unnecessary. Hearst liked the picture and Getting Mary Married (1919) was one of the few Marion Davies pictures that didn't lose money.\n\nLoos and Emerson turned down another picture with Davies, preferring to write for their old friend Constance Talmadge, whose brother-in-law Joseph Schenck (husband of Norma Talmadge) was an independent producer. Both A Temperamental Wife (1919) and A Virtuous Vamp (1919) were great hits for Talmadge. The Schenck studios filmed in a New York warehouse, and Loos and Emerson occupied suites at the Algonquin. Individually Anita liked many members of the Algonquin Round Table, but as a group she found them overwhelming. In the spring of 1919, the couple joined the Talmadges and the Schencks at the Ambassador Hotel on Park Avenue, with Constance, filling the void left by the loss of her sister many years before. When Anita and Constance weren't working, they went shopping. The Talmadge-Schencks convinced Anita to summer with them in Paris without Emerson. Much of this adventure would end up as fodder for Loos's book Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.\n\nWhen they returned, they produced five more films in 16 months. Emerson still received his full salary, though reputedly made few appearances on set and the script credit continued to name both of them. Emerson's assistant, who had taken up the workload on set, objected to the lack of credit and unfair reimbursement and was subsequently replaced. The new assistant director had eyes for Loos, who had filed for divorce from her estranged first husband. Emerson proposed marriage. They were married at the Schenck estate on June 15, 1919. Loos was among the first to join Ruth Hale's Lucy Stone League, an organization that fought for women to preserve their maiden names after marriage. Hale, wife of playwright Heywood Broun had struggled to get a U.S. passport issued in her birth name.\n\nThe couple moved into a modest Murray Hill apartment and cut back to two films a year in order to travel. They spent the summer in Paris. Leaving Loos and her new assistant, John Ashmore Creeland, to visit many of the Paris-based writers Loos had met in America, as well as Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas, and Elisabeth Marbury and Elsie De Wolfe. Loos was soon spending time with Elsa Maxwell and Dorothy Gordon \"Dickie\" Fellows.\n\nAfter one more film for Constance, The Perfect Woman (1920), Emerson refused another contract with Schenck, who had become disenchanted with the film industry. After working with Actors Equity during their 1919 strike, he decided that the Loos-Emerson team should make the move to the theater; Loos took a subordinate position. Their first play, The Whole Town's Talking, which opened at the Bijou Theatre on August 29, 1923, received good reviews and was a moderate box-office success. Soon afterward the couple moved to a small house in Gramercy Park.\n\nEmerson had convinced a devastated Loos that he needed to take a break from his marriage once a week. It was on these days he would date younger women, while Loos consoled herself by entertaining her friends: the Talmadge sisters, Mama Peg Talmadge, Marion Davies, Marilyn Miller, Adele Astaire and an assortment of chorus girls kept by prominent men. These \"Tuesday Widows\" soireés would influence her later writings, and it was with the \"Tuesday Widows\" that she visited one of her favorite hangouts, Harlem, where she developed a deep and lifelong appreciation for African-American culture. \"Sometimes I get enquiries (sic) concerning my marriage to a man who treated me with complete lack of consideration, tried to take credit for my work and appropriated all my earnings\", Loos wrote in Cast of Thousands. \"The main reason is that my husband liberated me; granted me full freedom to choose my own companions.\"\n\nLoos had become a devoted admirer of H. L. Mencken and when he was in New York, she would take a break from her \"Tuesday Widows\" and join his circle, which included Theodore Dreiser, Sherwood Anderson, Sinclair Lewis, Joseph Hergesheimer, essayist Ernest Boyd and theater critic George Jean Nathan. Loos adored Mencken with what may have been love and preferred this group over the Round Table. She gradually realized Emerson paled in comparison to someone like Mencken, and disappointingly, high-IQ gentlemen didn't fall for women with brains, but those with more \"downstairs\". In 1925, on the train to Hollywood for another Talmadge picture, Loos began to write a sketch of Mencken and his vacant lady friends that would later become Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.\n\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes\n\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes began as a series of short sketches published in Harper's Bazaar, Known as the \"Lorelei\" stories, they were satires on the state of sexual relations that only vaguely alluded to sexual intimacy; the magazine's circulation quadrupled overnight. The heroine of the stories, Lorelei Lee, was a bold, ambitious flapper, who was much more concerned with collecting expensive baubles from her conquests than any marriage licenses, in addition to being a shrewd woman of loose morals and high self-esteem. She was a practical young woman who had internalized the materialism of the United States in the 1920s and therefore equated culture with cold cash and tangible assets.\n\nThe success of the short stories had the public clamoring for them in book form. Pushed by Mencken, she signed with Boni & Liveright. Modestly published in November 1925, the first printing sold out overnight. The initial reviews were rather bland and unimpressive, but through word of mouth it became the surprise best-seller of 1925. Loos garnered fan letters from fellow authors William Faulkner, Aldous Huxley and Edith Wharton, among others. \"Blondes\" would see three more printings sell through by year's end, and 20 in its first decade. The little book would see 85 editions in the years to come and eventually be translated into 14 languages, including Chinese. \n\nWhen asked who the models for her characters, Loos would almost always say they were composites of various people, but when pressed, admitted that toothless flirt Sir Francis Beekman was modeled after writer Joseph Hergesheimer and producer Jesse L. Lasky. Dorothy Shaw was modeled after herself and Constance Talmadge, and Lorelei herself most closely resembled acquisitive Ziegfeld showgirl, Lillian Lorraine, who was always looking for new places to display the diamonds bestowed by her suitors.\n\nEmerson, perhaps foreseeing the success of Blondes as a threat to his control over Loos, first attempted to suppress its publication, and then merely settled on a personal dedication. Loos continued to be overworked throughout 1926, sometimes working many projects at once. In the spring of 1926 she completed the stage adaptation, which opened a few weeks later in Chicago, and ran for 201 performances on Broadway. Emerson by this time had developed a serious case of hypochondria, using imaginary laryngitis attacks to garner attention away from her work; he was, in the words of his wife, \"a man who enjoyed ill health.\" It was the opinion of New York's leading psychiatrist, Smith Ely Jelliffe, that she was to blame and that in order for Emerson to \"get better\" she would have to give up her career. She resolved to retire after her next book, But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes, a sequel to Blondes she had promised Harper's Bazaar.\n\nOn the further advice of the psychiatrist, the couple had planned another European vacation. At the last minute, Emerson feigned being unwell and insisted Loos continue alone. Arriving in London, she was promptly taken under the wing of socialite Sibyl Colefax, whose drawing room had become a salon filled with \"the bright young things\" of the day such as John Gielgud, Harold Nicolson, Noël Coward and notables such as Arnold Bennett, Max Beerbohm and Bernard Shaw. Photos of Loos on the social scene in London appeared in the New York papers, and Emerson's subsequent whisper-throated \"death bed\" phone calls managed to inflict guilt on Loos for her absence overseas. Emerson finally joined Loos in London, and to keep his spirits up she took him to the theater every night. It worked: at times he forgot to continue his act and spoke in normal tones. The couple continued on to Paris, where Loos renewed old friendships and made new ones. Emerson's recovery was remarkable. In September, their vacation was cut short; Loos was needed back in New York to do revisions on Blondes for its Broadway debut. Despite them, Blondes closed in April 1927.\n\nLeisure time\n\nWhen But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes was published in 1927, Emerson proposed another European vacation and went ahead of Loos to visit medical specialists. A seriously ill but still devoted Loos followed him, always being left one hotel behind. When Loos came down with a sinus attack in Vienna, she and the ear, nose and throat specialist who was treating her came up with a method of \"fixing\" Emerson's hypochondria. The doctor arranged a bit of sham surgery for him and presented him with the \"polyps\" that had been supposedly removed from his vocal cords. This placebo treatment did the trick and when they returned a cured Emerson took great pleasure in showing off his little sloshy trophy. Not wanting to undo all her efforts, Loos retired to a life of leisure.\n\nThe first film version of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, now lost, was released in 1928, starring Ruth Taylor (as Lorelei Lee), who took her role so seriously that as soon as the film was finished she married a millionaire named Paul Zuckerman and never worked again. From 1927 to 1929, Loos and Emerson traveled extensively, which was hard on Loos' health. All their winters were spent in Palm Beach, where Emerson would indulge in social climbing. There Loos met Wilson Mizner, a witty and charming real estate speculator and in some quarters – confidence man. Though they saw each other every day, the relationship, what there was of one, didn't last beyond Florida. Loos, starved of intellectual male companionship, was rumored to have stopped just short of having a full-blown affair. Emerson also suffered a return of his imaginary throat ailment, though he recovered quickly after his second round of Viennese \"pretend surgery\".\n\nEmerson also threatened to have another relapse after they spent Christmas in Hollywood in 1929. The Emersons had traveled to Hollywood with Loos' new friend, photographer Cecil Beaton. Wilson Mizner had also relocated to Hollywood as a screenwriter. Since Emerson had his own entertainment, Loos was often in the company of Beaton or Mizner. When they returned to New York in the spring of 1930, Emerson expressed his unhappiness at her inattention, and the guilt-ridden Loos would spend much more time alone. Emerson had also unwisely invested \"their\" money, which was lost in the stock market crash, and suggested she return to work. Loos was not unhappy with this, and within a few months had produced a stage adaptation of But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes and a comedy Cherries are Ripe.\n\nWith their income reduced, the couple moved to a residential hotel and did much less traveling in 1931. Not long after, Loos came upon a love letter from one of Emerson's conquests. Apparently Emerson had been describing their marriage as \"unfulfilled\". Devastated, Loos offered him a divorce; Emerson refused and suggested they live apart, with his giving her a suitable \"allowance\". Blaming herself for his unhappiness, she moved to an apartment on East Sixty-Ninth Street. However, her new life allowed her to finally spend her \"allowance\"—that is, her portion of what she earned for the couple—in any way she liked.\n\nWhen the Emerson-Loos team got an offer to write pictures for Irving Thalberg at MGM, Emerson refused to go. Loos took the $1,000-a-week salary alone.\n\nBroadway\n\nThe first project Thalberg handed Loos was Jean Harlow's Red-Headed Woman because F. Scott Fitzgerald was having no luck adapting Katherine Brush's book. The picture, completed in May 1932, was a smash and established Harlow as a star and put Loos once again in the front rank of screenwriters. \n\n\"She was a very valuable asset for MGM, because the studio had so many femmes fatales – Garbo, Crawford, Shearer, and Harlow – that we were always on the lookout for 'shady lady' stories. But they were problematic because of the censorship code. Anita, however, could be counted on to supply the delicate double entendre, the telling innuendo. Whenever we had a Jean Harlow picture on the agenda, we always thought of Anita first.\" – MGM producer Samuel Marx\n\nNow happy and successful, Loos moved to an apartment in Hollywood, where she was unexpectedly and unpleasantly joined by Emerson. Though Emerson expressed contrition about his previous behavior, he did nothing to change it. While Emerson busied himself offering screen tests to young starlets, Loos was now free to see whomever she pleased, including her now quite ill friend Wilson Mizner. Mizner, who had abused his body through drink and drugs, wasted away until dying on April 3, 1932, a date Loos would continue to mark.\n\nAt MGM Loos happily turned out scripts; however, she frequently had to use Emerson as a conduit to communicate with directors and other executives who balked at dealing with a woman on equal footing. This worked well to promote the idea they were a writing \"team\" and a happy couple. She bought a modest house in Beverly Hills in 1934, where she could write in the garden when weather permitted. There seemed to be no world or life outside of Hollywood; during the day it was work, and at night parties given by other MGM folk, like the Thalbergs, the Selznicks and the Goldwyns. Loos was a frequent attendee at George Cukor's Sunday brunches, which was the closest Hollywood had to a literary salon.\n\nIn 1935, about the time of the Writer's Guild formation, she was paired with Robert Hopkins, who would later become a frequent collaborator. Their work on San Francisco got an Academy Award nomination for best original screenplay. Thalberg had taken ill again and gave Emerson a two-year contract as a producer at $1,250 a week. By mid-1937 Loos had decided not to renew her contract with MGM; since Thalberg's death in September 1936, things had not been going well at the studio and every film felt like a struggle. She signed with Samuel Goldwyn at United Artists for $5,000 a week and almost immediately regretted it. Loos soldiered on, working on \"unworkable\" scripts.\n\nLife alone\n\nIn October, Loos and her brother Clifford checked Emerson into a very expensive sanatorium, where he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Loos, who had always left the finances to Emerson, soon discovered that most of her money was no longer in joint accounts but in his own private accounts. Overworked at the studio and under stress from Emerson, she became more and more depressed. After 17 years of his nonsense, she finally asked Emerson for a divorce, and he agreed. Loos promptly bought herself out of her United Artists contract and re-signed with MGM, and bought a beach-front house in Santa Monica. Emerson would continue to find ways to stave off any talk of divorce plans, making finalization impossible. When Emerson was deemed well enough to leave the sanatorium, she paid for a nurse to care for him in an apartment of his own.\n\nMGM had bought the film rights to Clare Boothe Luce's 1936 smash Broadway hit The Women in 1937. Many writers had, unsuccessfully, taken a stab at a screenplay version. The studio handed it to Loos and veteran scriptwriter Jane Murfin, and three weeks later Loos handed Cukor a script that he loved. Unfortunately the censorship board did not. They insisted on changing more than 80 lines, and the film had to go into production. Loos was apprehensive, but Cukor insisted she do the changes on set, among his all-star bevy of leading ladies. Loos made immediate friends with Paulette Goddard, who was surprisingly well-read. She also had Aldous and Maria Huxley as houseguests, and encouraged Huxley to stay in California and continue to write there. When World War II began in September 1939, Loos convinced Huxley that it would be safer for his family if they stayed in the United States rather than returning to England, and she got him a job adapting screenplays at MGM.\n\nWhen Hunt Stromberg, the last producer she respected, left MGM to produce independently, Loos tried to get out of her contract as well, but by then she had grown into too valuable a property to the studio. Throughout the war Loos wrote screenplays, grew vegetables in her Victory garden and knitted socks and sweaters for the boys overseas. MGM let her go before her contract ran out. This time she decided to become a free agent, and even returned to New York to work on a new play. When she returned to California, she had a new partner who had a drinking problem; the relationship would be short-lived.\n\nReturn to New York\n\nIn the fall of 1946, Loos returned to New York to work on Happy Birthday, a Saroyanesque cocktail party comedy written for Helen Hayes. The play had several false starts the previous year, but now proceeded with Joshua Logan as director, and produced by Rodgers and Hammerstein. It opened in Boston, but the audiences hated it at first. Loos kept on improving the script throughout the Boston run; when it opened in New York at the Broadhurst, it was a hit and ran for 600 performances. Katharine Hepburn was eager to play in the screen version, but the Hollywood censors weren't ready for a woman to be \"sloshed\" on screen for two acts and be rewarded with a happy ending. Loos sold her Santa Monica house to her niece, and despite his time-worn histrionics, she made certain Emerson understood he would not be joining her in New York under any circumstances.\n\nOnce again at home in New York, she and her old friend screenwriter Frances Marion, worked on an unproduced play for Zasu Pitts. A few romances came her way, including Maurice Chevalier. Two Broadway producers had their eye on a musical version of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and brought in Joseph Fields as co-author. After initial stops and starts, Loos threatened to quit the production unless they assured her she would never have to speak to Fields again. The show opened in Philadelphia with a then-unknown Carol Channing. By the time it arrived in New York it was another success. Channing soon was elevated to an A-list star, the show played for 90 weeks and went on tour for another year. The producers closed the show when Channing became pregnant. Herman Levin commented: \"I was convinced the show wouldn't work without Carol, and in my opinion it never has.\" A musical film version was produced in 1953, directed by Howard Hawks and adapted by Charles Lederer. It starred Jane Russell and Marilyn Monroe. Loos had nothing to do with the production, but thought Monroe was inspired casting.\n\nThe success of Blondes the second time around meant Loos had a greater profile than ever before. She moved to a more spacious apartment at the Langdon Hotel and bought a car; she and her companion Gladys Tipton would travel to visit friends whenever the mood struck. In 1950, Loos began writing A Mouse is Born, another novel, and when it was safely in the hands of the publisher she left for the continent, her first trip to Europe in 20 years. A Mouse is Born had a lukewarm reception, but by then Loos was already working on a dramatic adaptation of Colette's Gigi. The production was under way before Colette wired that she had found their \"Gigi\"—she had seen Audrey Hepburn in a hotel lobby in Monte Carlo. Gigi opened in the fall of 1951 and would run until the spring of 1952; by then Hepburn had been elevated to an A-list star, contracted to Paramount Pictures.\n\nFor the next few years, Loos worked on more adaptations and traveled to see friends, while she and Gladys moved into a spacious apartment on West Fifty-Seventh Street. Her next musical, The Amazing Adele, starring Tammy Grimes and with music by Albert Selden, never got off the ground when it opened in Boston and swiftly closed. Both Emerson and Helen Hayes' husband Charles MacArthur died within a few weeks of each other, and the women threw themselves into their work together, with Anita working on an adaptation for Hayes filming Anastasia in London. Loos worked and traveled even while being treated for a painful hand ailment that prevented her from writing. In 1959, Loos opened another Colette adaptation, Chéri, with Kim Stanley and Horst Buchholz in the title role, but it ran for only two months.\n\nMemoirist\n\nLoos would continue writing, always a constant magazine contributor and appearing regularly in Harper's Bazaar, Vanity Fair and The New Yorker. Biographer Gary Carey notes: \"She was a born storyteller and was always in peak form when reshaping a real-life encounter to make an amusing anecdote.\" Loos began a volume of memoirs, A Girl Like I, which would be published in September 1966. Her 1972 book, Twice Over Lightly: New York Then and Now, was written in collaboration with friend and actress Helen Hayes. Kiss Hollywood Good-by (1974) was another Hollywood memoir, this time about the MGM years and would be very successful. Her book The Talmadge Girls (1978) is about the actress sisters Constance Talmadge and Norma Talmadge.\n\nLoos would become a virtual New York institution, an assiduous partygoer and diner-out, conspicuous at fashion shows, theatrical and movie events, balls and galas. A celebrity anecdotalist, she was also never one to let facts spoil a good story: With each book came a new spate of interviews and as one of the last survivors of the silent era, Anita's stories became more exaggerated and she was soon reported to have sold her first scenario at the age of 12. She continued to thrive on interesting people and interesting activities – and held an opinion on everything – but worked hard on keeping the vivacious and flippant image and hiding her loneliness. She once commented, \"I've enjoyed my happiest moments when trailing a Mainbocher evening gown across the sawdust-covered floor of a saloon.\" \n\nShe was interviewed in the television documentary series Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film (1980). \n\nAfter spending several weeks with a lung infection, Anita Loos died in New York City at the age of 92 from natural causes. At the memorial service, friends Helen Hayes, Ruth Gordon, and Lillian Gish, regaled the mourners with humorous anecdotes and Jule Styne played songs from Loos' musicals, including \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\".\n\nWorks\n\nFiction\n\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes: The Intimate Diary of a Professional Lady. NY: Boni & Liveright, 1925\nBut Gentlemen Marry Brunettes. NY: Boni & Liveright, 1927\nA Mouse Is Born. NY: Doubleday & Company, 1951\nNo Mother to Guide Her. NY: McGraw Hill, 1961\nFate Keeps On Happening: Adventures Of Lorelei Lee And Other Writings. NY: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1984\n\nNonfiction\n\n* w/John Emerson How to Write Photoplays NY: James A McCann, 1920\n* w/John Emerson. Breaking Into the Movies. NY: James A McCann, 1921\n* \"This Brunette Prefers Work\", Woman's Home Companion, 83 (March 1956)\n* A Girl Like I. NY:Viking Press, 1966\n* w/Helen Hayes. Twice Over Lightly: New York Then and Now. NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972\n* Kiss Hollywood Good-by. NY: Viking Press, 1974\n* Cast of Thousands: a pictorial memoir of the most glittering stars of Hollywood. NY: Grosset and Dunlap, 1977\n* The Talmadge Girls. NY: Viking Press, 1978\n\nBroadway credits\n\nThe Whole Town's Talking (1923)\nThe Fall of Eve (1925)\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes (1926)\nThe Social Register (1931)\nHappy Birthday (1946)\nGentlemen Prefer Blondes (1949)\nGigi (1951)\nChéri (1959)\nThe King's Mare (1967)\nLorelei (1974)\n\nFilm credits\n\n* My Baby (1912; writer)\n* The Musketeers of Pig Alley (1912; writer)\n* The New York Hat (1912; writer)\n* A Narrow Escape (1913; scenario)\n* The Wedding Gown (1913; scenario)\n* His Hoodoo (1913; scenario; story \"The Making of a Masher\")\n* Pa Says (1913; story \"The Queen of the Carnival\")\n* A Cure for Suffragettes (1913; story)\n* A Fallen Hero (1913; story)\n* A Horse on Bill (1913; story)\n* Binks' Vacation (1913; story)\n* Highbrow Love (1913; story)\n* How the Day Was Saved (1913; story)\n* Oh, Sammy! (1913; story)\n* The Hicksville Epicure (1913; story)\n* The Power of the Camera (1913; story)\n* The Suicide Pact (1913; story)\n* His Awful Vengeance (1913; writer)\n* The Lady in Black (1913; writer)\n* The Mistake (1913; writer)\n* The Telephone Girl and the Lady (1913; writer)\n* The Widow's Kids (1913; writer)\n* The Sisters (1914/I; scenario)\n* A Lesson in Mechanics (1914; scenario)\n* Nearly a Burglar's Bride (1914; scenario)\n* Some Bull's Daughter (1914; scenario)\n* The Deceiver (1914; scenario)\n* The Road to Plaindale (1914; scenario)\n* The Saving Grace (1914; scenario)\n* The Saving Presence (1914; scenario)\n* A Corner in Hats (1914; story)\n* A Flurry in Art (1914; story)\n* Gentleman or Thief (1914; story)\n* Nell's Eugenic Wedding (1914; story)\n* The Fatal Dress Suit (1914; story)\n* The Man on the Couch (1914; story)\n* The Million Dollar Bride (1914; story)\n* The Gangsters of New York (1914; uncredited)\n* A Bunch of Flowers (1914; writer)\n* Billy's Rival (1914; writer)\n* For Her Father's Sins (1914; writer)\n* Izzy and His Rival (1914; writer)\n* The Girl in the Shack (1914; writer)\n* The Hunchback (1914; writer)\n* The Last Drink of Whiskey (1914; writer)\n* The White Slave Catchers (1914; writer)\n* When the Road Parts (1914; writer)\n* A Ten-Cent Adventure (1915; scenario)\n* Mixed Values (1915; scenario)\n* The Deacon's Whiskers (1915; scenario)\n* The Lost House (1915; scenario)\n* The Fatal Finger Prints (1915; writer)\n* Stranded (1916/I; writer)\n* Macbeth (1916; intertitles)\n* A Calico Vampire (1916; scenario)\n* Laundry Liz (1916; scenario)\n* The French Milliner (1916; scenario)\n* The Americano (1916; scenario; titles)\n* The Wharf Rat (1916; screenplay; story)\n* A Corner in Cotton (1916; story)\n* American Aristocracy (1916; story)\n* Intolerance: Love's Struggle Throughout the Ages (1916; titles)\n* The Mystery of the Leaping Fish (1916; titles)\n* A Wild Girl of the Sierras (1916; writer)\n* His Picture in the Papers (1916; writer)\n* The Children Pay (1916; writer)\n\n* The Half-Breed (1916; writer)\n* The Little Liar (1916; writer)\n* The Matrimaniac (1916; writer)\n* The Social Secretary (1916; writer)\n* In Again, Out Again (1917/II; writer)\n* A Daughter of the Poor (1917; writer)\n* Down to Earth (1917; writer)\n* Reaching for the Moon (1917; writer)\n* Wild and Woolly (1917; writer)\n* Good-Bye, Bill (1918; screenplay; producer; story Gosh Darn the Kaiser)\n* Hit-the-Trail Holliday (1918; writer)\n* Let's Get a Divorce (1918; writer)\n* Come on In (1918; writer; producer)\n* A Virtuous Vamp (1919; scenario)\n* A Temperamental Wife (1919; scenario; producer)\n* Oh, You Women! (1919; scenario; story)\n* Under the Top (1919; story)\n* Getting Mary Married (1919; writer)\n* The Isle of Conquest (1919; writer)\n* The Branded Woman (1920; adaptation)\n* Dangerous Business (1920; producer; writer)\n* Two Weeks (1920; scenario)\n* The Perfect Woman (1920; screenplay; story)\n* The Love Expert (1920; writer; producer)\n* In Search of a Sinner (1920; writer; producer; uncredited)\n* Woman's Place (1921; story)\n* Mama's Affair (1921; writer)\n* Polly of the Follies (1922; screenplay; story)\n* Red Hot Romance (1922; screenplay; story; executive producer)\n* Dulcy (1923; writer)\n* Three Miles Out (1924; writer)\n* Learning to Love (1925; screenplay; story)\n* The Whole Town's Talking (1926; play)\n* Stranded (1927; story)\n* Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1928; novel; screenplay; titles)\n* The Fall of Eve (1929; story)\n* Ex-Bad Boy (1931; story \"The Whole Town's Talking\")\n* The Struggle (1931; writer)\n* Blondie of the Follies (1932; dialogue)\n* Red-Headed Woman (1932; writer)\n* Hold Your Man (1933; screenplay; story)\n* Midnight Mary (1933; story)\n* The Barbarian (1933; writer)\n* The Girl from Missouri (1934; original screenplay)\n* The Cat and the Fiddle (1934; screenplay contributor; uncredited)\n* Social Register (1934; story)\n* Biography of a Bachelor Girl (1935; writer)\n* Riffraff (1936; screenplay)\n* San Francisco (1936; writer)\n* Saratoga (1937; screenplay; story)\n* Mama Steps Out (1937; writer)\n* The Cowboy and the Lady (1938; contributing writer; uncredited)\n* Another Thin Man (1939; contributing writer; uncredited)\n* The Women (1939; screenplay)\n* Babes in Arms (1939; uncredited)\n* Strange Cargo (1940; adaptation; uncredited)\n* Susan and God (1940; screenplay)\n* Blossoms in the Dust (1941; screenplay)\n* When Ladies Meet (1941; screenplay)\n* They Met in Bombay (1941; writer)\n* I Married an Angel (1942; screenplay)\n* A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1945 uncredited)\n* The Buick Circus Hour (1952; teleplays)\n* Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953; play)\n* Gentlemen Marry Brunettes (1955; novel \"But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes\")\n* Producers' Showcase \"Happy Birthday\" (1956; writer)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Chéri (play)", "Anita Loos", "Cheri (play)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cheri play", "anita loos", "chéri play" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "anita loos", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Anita Loos" }
Which country does the airline Gulf Air come from?	tc_1086	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Gulf_Air.txt" ], "title": [ "Gulf Air" ], "wiki_context": [ "Gulf Air ( Ṭayarān al-Khalīj) is the principal flag carrier of Bahrain. Headquartered in Muharraq, adjacent to Bahrain International Airport, the airline operates scheduled services to 42 destinations in 23 countries across Africa, Asia and Europe. Its main base is Bahrain International Airport. \n\nHistory\n\n1949–1973: Gulf Aviation as operating company\n\nIn the late 1940s Freddie Bosworth, a British pilot and entrepreneur, began an air taxi service to Doha and Dhahran from Bahrain. Bosworth later expanded service and on 24 March 1950 registered Gulf Aviation Company Limited as a private shareholding company. This makes its current operating company, Gulf Air, one of the oldest carriers in the Middle East. The early fleet contained seven Avro Ansons and three de Havilland DH.86B four-engine biplanes.\n\nIn October 1951, British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) became a major shareholder in Gulf Aviation, holding a 22% stake through the BOAC subsidiary company BOAC Associated Companies.\n\n1970s: Full national ownership\n\nIn 1973 the governments of the Emirate (now Kingdom) of Bahrain, the State of Qatar, the Emirate of Abu Dhabi and the Sultanate of Oman agreed to purchase the BOAC Associated Companies holding in Gulf Aviation. The Foundation Treaty was signed on 1 January 1974 and gave each government a 25% shareholding in Gulf Aviation, which became a holding company. The operating company was now branded as Gulf Air and became the flag carrier for the four states.\n\nWith leased Lockheed L-1011 Tristar and Boeing 737 aircraft joining the fleet, by 1976 Gulf Air had expanded its route network to include Amman, Amsterdam, Athens, Baghdad, Bombay, Bangkok, Beirut, Cairo, Colombo, Delhi, Dhaka, Hong Kong, Jeddah, Karachi, Khartoum, Larnaca, Manila, Paris, Ras al-Khaimah and Sana'a. The fleet comprised four Vickers VC10, three BAC One-Elevens, two Lockheed L-1011 Tristar 200s and five Boeing 737–200s. In 1978, the airline doubled the Tristar fleet to replace the VC10s. Meanwhile, the airline increased the Boeing 737 fleet to nine and phased out the One-Elevens.\n\n1980s–1992: Expansion\n\nThe 1980s saw an increase in air travel and growth for Gulf Air. In 1981 Gulf Air became an IATA member and in the following year became the first international airline to land at Riyadh. In 1985, Emirates, the national startup and national carrier of Dubai, United Arab Emirates began operating, which would later become a major rival of Gulf Air. In 1988 the Boeing 767s joined the fleet and the airline launched service to Frankfurt, Istanbul, Damascus, Dar es Salaam, Fujairah and Nairobi, and resumed service to Shiraz and Baghdad.\n\nGulf Air celebrated its 40th anniversary in 1990. The light blue and peach Balenciaga-designed uniform was introduced. Singapore, Sydney and Thiruvananthapuram were launched and Gulf Air became the first Arab airline to fly to Australia. Gulf Air added service to Johannesburg and Melbourne in 1992, becoming the first Arab airline to fly directly to these cities. In 1993, it opened up a flight simulator centre in Qatar, and introduced service to Casablanca, Entebbe, Jakarta, Kilimanjaro, Madras, Rome, San'a', Zanzibar and Zürich.\n\n1993–2005: New livery and destinations\n\nIn May 1994, Gulf Air received its first Airbus A340-300. Gulf Air introduced a no-smoking policy on flights to Singapore and Australia in 1998, which the airline later extended through its whole network. In 1999, Gulf Air launched three new routes in northern Pakistan—Islamabad, Lahore, and Peshawar. It also took delivery of two out of six Airbus A330-200 aircraft, and introduced a new Balmain uniform. The Gulf Air website opened in January 1997. \n\nIn 2000 the airline celebrated its 50th anniversary. It took delivery of the remaining Airbus A330-200 aircraft in June and launched service to Milan. In May 2002, James Hogan became President and CEO of Gulf Air and instigated a three-year restructuring and turnaround programme, which was launched in response to a drastic fall in profits at the company and increasing debt. The Gulf Air board unanimously approved the three-year recovery plan at the extraordinary general meeting held on 18 December. By 1 August 2002 the State of Qatar announced intentions to withdraw from Gulf Air. The state remained a member state for a six-month period after announcing the intention to withdraw. \n\nIn 2003 Gulf Air introduced a new Landor Associates designed livery. On June the establishment of Gulf Traveller, a subsidiary all-economy full-service airline. Gulf Air also announced a sponsorship deal for the Bahrain Grand Prix through 2010, creating the Gulfair Bahrain Grand Prix, of which the first was staged in 2004. Gulf Air also introduced daily flights to Athens and Sydney via Singapore on 23 November 2003.\n\nIn 2004, Gulf Air introduced direct flights between Dubai and London and Muscat and London, and a daily service between Abu Dhabi and Ras Al Khaimah and carried a record 7.5 million passengers during this year. Gulf Air's sponsorship of the Bahrain Formula 1 Grand Prix continued, with a record race crowd and a global TV audience. The airline announced a return to profit, with the best financial performance since 1997. Despite a BD30 million (US$80 million) cost to the business through fuel price rises during the year, Gulf Air recorded a profit of BD1.5 million (US$4.0 million) in the calendar year to December 2004, on revenues up 23.8% to BD476.3 million (US$1.26 billion) (2003: BD 384.6 million / USD1,020.2 million). The results meant the airline out-performed the targets set under Project Falcon, the three-year restructuring plan approved by the Board in December 2002.\n\nThe owner states of Gulf Air at that time—the Kingdom of Bahrain, the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, and the Sultanate of Oman—confirmed their support for further expansion of the airline through a new three-year strategic plan which would include re-equipment of the aircraft fleet and recapitalization of the business through private sector financing. Gulf Air was also placed on the IOSA registry following its successful completion of the IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA).\n\n2006–2008: Bahrain takes over\n\nThe new summer schedule commencing 28 April 2006 saw the complete withdrawal from Abu Dhabi as a hub following the decision on 13 September 2005 by the Emirate of Abu Dhabi to withdraw from Gulf Air and establish its own airline, Etihad Airways. Gulf Air changed its operations to a dual hub basis between Bahrain and Muscat airports. The airline produced a series of adverts in local newspapers thanking Abu Dhabi for its contribution to Gulf Air. Due to the airline being the national carrier for the United Arab Emirates for over 35 years, it has a large customer base located in Abu Dhabi. Gulf Air endeavoured to show the continuing support for flights to Abu Dhabi from Bahrain and Muscat, connecting to the rest of the Gulf Air network, via advertisements placed in local newspapers.\n\nJames Hogan resigned as President and Chief Executive Officer as of 1 October 2006 and has since taken the position of CEO at rival airline Etihad. Ahmed Al Hammadi was named acting chief executive officer until Swiss national André Dosé, the former chief executive officer of Crossair and Swiss International Air Lines, began on 1 April 2007. A few days later, Dosé announced a BD310 million (USD825 million) restructuring plan that included originating or terminating all flights in Bahrain, ceasing routes to Johannesburg, Dublin, Jakarta, Singapore, Hong Kong and Sydney; eliminating all Boeing 767s and Airbus A340-300s from the fleet; introducing the Airbus A321 in July 2007 and the Airbus A330-300 in 2009; and terminating employees based on performance and without regard for nationality. This led to some employees applying for jobs in other airlines and, in less than a month, Gulf Air lost 500 persons from its workforce, prompting the airline to rule out mass layoffs as part of its recovery plan, except for performance reasons.\n\nOn 6 May 2007, the government of Bahrain claimed full ownership of the airline as joint-owner Oman withdrew from the airline. André Dosé resigned on 23 July 2007 and was replaced by Bjorn Naf. On 6 November 2007, Gulf Air started its third daily nonstop flight to London Heathrow Airport from Bahrain. On the same day, Gulf Air became fully owned by Bahrain.\n\nThe airline inaugurated services to Shanghai Pudong International Airport on 16 June 2008(The route was terminated on 25 December 2009). It also placed orders with Boeing (for 24 787s) and Airbus (for 15 A320s and 20 A330s) to upgrade its fleet. The airline's last commercial Boeing 767 flight was on 29 May 2008. On 3 July 2008, Gulf Air was announced as the official sponsor of upcoming English association football club, Queens Park Rangers. The same year Gulf Air signed a lease agreement for five aircraft with International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC) as part of the airline's growth and expansion strategy. The lease was for six years for two Airbus A319s and three Airbus A330-200s, due for delivery in March, April and May 2009.\n\nDevelopments since 2009\n\nIn March 2009, Gulf Air signed a 42-month lease agreement with Jet Airways for four Boeing 777-300ERs, but the aircraft were returned to Jet Airways starting in September 2009. In May, Gulf Air inaugurated summer seasonal flights to Alexandria, Aleppo and Salalah. On 1 September 2009, Gulf Air resumed flights to Baghdad. Services to Najaf and Erbil began shortly afterward.\n\nStarting June 2009, Gulf Air's Golden Falcon logo was to be on the streets of London, emblazoned on the side of the city's taxi cabs, as part a two-year marketing deal. Fifty Hackney Carriages were to be rolled out in full Gulf Air livery to promote the airline's flights from London Heathrow to Bahrain and beyond. Later in June, the carrier announced the departure of CEO Bjorn Naf and the appointment of Samer Majali (who worked previously for Royal Jordanian) as CEO effective 1 August 2009.\n\nOn 1 March 2010, Gulf Air launched its new \"Falcon Gold\" cabin, a single premium cabin that is aimed at offering higher standards of comfort for the standard premium price. As of August 2011, the new Flat Beds were installed on all aircraft except short-haul aircraft.\n\nOn 5 September 2011, Gulf Air has appointed Dr. Jassim Haji as Director of Information Technology, reporting directly to the CEO of the airline.\n\nGulf Air temporarily suspended flights to Iran, Iraq and Lebanon during the height of the Bahraini uprising. The airline originally was to resume service to Iran from November 2012 but cancelled that plan as the airline was unable to receive approval from the Iranian authorities. The airline hoped to resume service in early 2013. \n\nIn November 2012, Gulf Air phased out its last Airbus A340-300 after 18 years of service. At the end of November 2012 it was announced that Gulf Air CEO Samer Majali's resignation had been accepted by the Board of Directors. Majali left by the end of 2012 after serving the company for three years. Maher Salman Al Musallam was the acting CEO of Gulf Air until May 2016 when he was officially appointed to the role.\n\nCorporate affairs\n\nSubsidiaries\n\nGulf Traveller was the all-economy full service subsidiary airline of Gulf Air. Its main base was Abu Dhabi International Airport. It was briefly relocated between Bahrain and Muscat airports after Abu Dhabi pulled out of the Gulf Air consortium in 2005, and in May 2007 Oman also pulled out of the group leaving Bahrain as sole owner of Gulf Air. Gulf Traveller has since been disbanded due to these changes.\n\nSponsorship\n\nGulf Air sponsors events, of which the most prestigious is the Bahrain Grand Prix. This is usually the first or fourth race of the Formula One season and is held in March or April of each year. Gulf Air was also the first ever shirt sponsor of Chelsea F.C. in 1983 and 1984. More recently, it was shirt sponsor of Queens Park Rangers F.C.; this was from 2008 to 2011. It also sponsors the Bahrain International Airshow\n\nDestinations\n\nGulf Air flies to 42 international destinations in 23 countries across Africa, Asia and Europe from its hub at Bahrain International Airport. Gulf Air's own Falcon Gold lounge could be found at the airports of Bahrain, Dubai and London–Heathrow. \n\nCodeshare agreements\n\nGulf Air has codeshare agreements with the following airlines (as of July 2015): \n\n* American Airlines\n* EgyptAir \n* KLM \n* Malaysia Airlines\n* Philippine Airlines\n* Royal Jordanian\n* Saudia\n* Thai Airways\n\nFleet\n\nCurrent fleet\n\nThe Gulf Air fleet consists of the following aircraft as of January 2016: \n\nFormer fleet\n\nOver the years, Gulf Air operated the following aircraft types: Gulf Air has leased Boeing 737-700s, Boeing 737-800s and Boeing 777-300ER\n\nAccidents and Incidents\n\n* 23 September 1983: Gulf Air Flight 771 was a flight from Karachi, Pakistan to Qatar via Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. On 23 September 1983, while the Boeing 737-200 was on approach to Abu Dhabi International Airport, a bomb exploded in the baggage compartment. The aircraft crashed in the desert near Mina Jebel Ali between Abu Dhabi and Dubai in the UAE. All seven crew members and 105 passengers died. Most of the dead passengers were Pakistani nationals, many returning to jobs in the Gulf after spending the Eid ul-Adha holiday with their families in Pakistan. The bomb was apparently planted by the Abu Nidal Organization, to convince the Gulf States to pay protection money to Nidal so as to avoid attacks on their soil. \n23 August 2000: Gulf Air Flight 072 crashed into the Persian Gulf on approach to Bahrain International Airport from Cairo. The Airbus A320 with 143 passengers and crew on board approached the landing at higher speeds than normal and carried out an unusual low altitude orbit in an attempt to correct the approach. The orbit was unsuccessful and a go-around was attempted. While carrying out a turning climb the aircraft entered a descent at 15 degrees nose down. The aircrew did not respond to repeated GPWS warnings and approximately one minute after starting the go-around the aircraft disappeared from radar screens. All 143 passengers and crew, including 36 children, were killed in the accident. The accident investigation concluded that the primary cause of the crash was pilot error (including spatial disorientation), with a secondary factor being systemic organizational and oversight issues. Flight 072 was the highest death toll of any accident involving an Airbus A320 at that time. It was subsequently surpassed by TAM Airlines Flight 3054, which crashed on 17 July 2007 with 199 fatalities.\n\n On 29 August 2011, Gulf Air Flight 270, using an Airbus A320-214, from Bahrain to Cochin carrying 143 people, skidded off the runway on landing due to pilot error of loss of situational awareness during reduced visibility conditions. The weather was poor with heavy rain and strong winds. The aircraft was badly damaged with nose gear collapsed and seven passengers were injured. Some people were reported to have jumped from an emergency exit when the evacuation slide failed to deploy." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Asia/Bahrain", "مملكة البحرين", "Bahrein", "Bahrayn", "Dawlat al-Bahrain", "Bahrein Islands", "Etymology of Bahrain", "Bahrain", "Bahrain islands", "Bahraih", "البحرين", "Languages of Bahrain", "Emirate of Bahrain", "ISO 3166-1:BH", "Bahrain Islands", "Mamlakat al-Baḥrayn", "Bahrain's", "Bahrain/Geography", "Al-Baḥrayn", "Barhain", "Kingdom of Bahrain", "1923 Sitrah Outrage", "Al-Bahrayn" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "iso 3166 1 bh", "bahrain", "barhain", "bahrayn", "languages of bahrain", "al baḥrayn", "emirate of bahrain", "mamlakat al baḥrayn", "bahrain geography", "dawlat al bahrain", "etymology of bahrain", "bahrein islands", "bahrain s", "مملكة البحرين", "1923 sitrah outrage", "bahrain islands", "asia bahrain", "bahrein", "kingdom of bahrain", "al bahrayn", "البحرين", "bahraih" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "bahrain", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Bahrain" }
What is Alistair Cooke's real first name?	tc_1088	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Alistair_Cooke.txt" ], "title": [ "Alistair Cooke" ], "wiki_context": [ "Alistair Cooke, (20 November 1908 – 30 March 2004) was a British journalist, television personality and broadcaster. Outside his journalistic output, which included Letter from America and Alistair Cooke's America, he was well known in the United States as the host of PBS Masterpiece Theatre from 1971 to 1992. After holding the job for 22 years, and having worked in television for Cooke retired in 1992, although he continued to present Letter from America until shortly before his death. He was the father of author and folk singer John Byrne Cooke.\n\nEarly life\n\nCooke was born in Salford, Lancashire, England, the son of Mary Elizabeth (Byrne) and Samuel Cooke. His father was a lay Methodist preacher and metalsmith by trade; his mother's family were of Irish Protestant origin. Originally named Alfred, he changed his name to Alistair when he was 22. He was educated at Blackpool Grammar School, Blackpool and won a scholarship to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he gained an honours degree (2:1) in English. He was heavily involved in the arts, was editor of Granta, and set up the Mummers, Cambridge's first theatre group open to both sexes, from which he notably rejected a young James Mason, telling him to stick to architecture. \n\nCooke became engaged to Henrietta Riddle, the daughter of Henry Ainley. While he was attending Yale University and Harvard University on a Commonwealth fund fellowship, she deserted him. He met Ruth Emerson, a great-grandniece of Ralph Waldo Emerson, in 1933, and they married on 24 August 1934. Their son, John Byrne Cooke, was born 5 October 1940 in New York City, New York.\n\nAlistair Cooke divorced Ruth in 1944, and married Jane White Hawkes, a portrait painter and the widow of neurologist A. Whitfield Hawkes, the son of Albert W. Hawkes, on 30 April 1946. Their daughter, Susan, was born on 22 March 1949. \n\nMedia beginnings\n\nCooke saw a newspaper headline stating that Oliver Baldwin, the Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's son, had been sacked by the BBC as film critic. Cooke sent a telegram to the Director of Talks, asking if he would be considered for the post. He was invited for an interview and took a Cunard liner back to Britain, arriving twenty-four hours late for his interview. He suggested typing out a film review on the spot, and a few minutes later, he was offered the job. He also sat on a BBC committee headed by George Bernard Shaw for correct pronunciation.\n\nCooke was also the London correspondent for NBC. Each week, he recorded a 15-minute radio dialogue for American listeners on life in Britain, under the series title of London Letter. In 1936, he intensively reported on the Edward VIII abdication crisis for NBC. He made several talks on the topic each day to listeners in many parts of the United States. He calculated that in ten days he spoke 400,000 words on the subject. During the crisis, he was aided by a twenty-year-old Rhodes Scholar, Walt Rostow, who would become Lyndon B. Johnson's national security advisor. \n\nMove to the United States\n\nIn 1937, Cooke emigrated to the United States, he became a United States citizen and swore the Oath of Allegiance on 1 December 1941, six days before Pearl Harbor was attacked. Shortly after emigrating, Cooke suggested to the BBC the idea of doing the London Letter in reverse: a 15-minute talk for British listeners on life in America. A prototype, Mainly About Manhattan, was broadcast intermittently from 1938, but the idea was shelved with the outbreak of World War II in 1939.\n\nDuring this time, as well, Cooke undertook a journey through the whole United States, recording the lifestyle of ordinary Americans during the war and their reactions to it. The manuscript was published as The American Home Front: 1941–1942 in the United States (and as Alistair Cooke's American Journey: Life on the Home Front in the Second World War in the UK) in 2006.\n\nThe first American Letter was broadcast on 24 March 1946 (Cooke said this was at the request of Lindsey Wellington, the BBC's New York Controller); the series was initially commissioned for only 13 instalments. The series came to an end 58 years (2,869 instalments) later, in March 2004. Along the way, it picked up a new name (changing from American Letter to Letter from America in 1950) and an enormous audience, being broadcast not only in Britain and in many other Commonwealth countries, but throughout the world by the BBC World Service.\n\nThe staff reporter\n\nIn 1947, Cooke became a foreign correspondent for the Manchester Guardian newspaper (later The Guardian), for which he wrote until 1972. It was the first time he had been employed as a staff reporter; all his previous work had been freelance. In reporting on the Montgomery Bus Boycott, begun by Rosa Parks and led by Martin Luther King, Cooke expressed sympathy for the economic costs imposed on the city bus company and referred to Mrs. Parks as \"the stubborn woman who started it all ... to become the Paul Revere of the boycott.\" \n\nOmnibus\n\nIn 1952, Cooke became the host of CBS's Omnibus, the first commercial network television series devoted to the arts. It featured appearances by such personalities as Hume Cronyn, Jessica Tandy, Gene Kelly and Leonard Bernstein. Jonathan Winters was the first comic to appear on the show. \n\nMid to later years\n\nCooke took up golf in his mid-fifties, developing a fascination with the game, despite never attaining an extraordinary level of skill. He was driven by his love of golf to devote many of his Letter from America to the topic, speaking once of the thrill of learning \"how much more awesome was the world of golf than the world of politics.\" Cooke became close friends with many of the leading golfers of the era: Jack Nicklaus, in the introduction to a compilation of Cooke's writing on golf, recounts his many notable achievements, but describes him as \"most of all ... a friend.\"\n\nIn 1966 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject \"The Jet Age and the Habits of Man\".\n\nIn 1968, he was only yards away from Robert F. Kennedy when he was assassinated, witnessing the events that followed. \n\nIn 1971, he became the host of the new Masterpiece Theatre, PBS's showcase of quality British television. He remained its host for 22 years, before retiring from the role in 1992. He achieved his greatest popularity in the United States in this role, becoming the subject of many parodies, including \"Alistair Cookie\" in Sesame Street & No.39's \"Monsterpiece Theater\" (\"Alistair Cookie\" was also the name of a clay animated cookie-headed spoof character created by Will Vinton as the host of a video trailer for The Little Prince and Friends); Alistair Quince, portrayed by Harvey Korman who introduced many episodes in the early seasons of Mama's Family.\n\nAmerica: A Personal History of the United States (1972), a 13-part television series about the United States and its history, was first broadcast in both the United Kingdom and the United States in 1973, and was followed by a book of the same title. It was a great success in both countries, and resulted in Cooke's being invited to address the joint Houses of the United States Congress as part of Congress's bicentennial celebrations. After the series' broadcast in Ireland, Cooke won a Jacob's Award, one of the few occasions when this award was made to the maker of an imported programme.\n\nLater the same year, Cooke was awarded an honorary knighthood (KBE) for his \"outstanding contribution to Anglo-American mutual understanding.\" Cooke was reportedly happy to accept, because in the words of Thomas Jefferson, it did not involve \"the very great vanity of a title.\" Having relinquished his British citizenship during World War II, he could not be called \"Sir Alistair\".\n\nLater life and death\n\nOn 2 March 2004, at the age of 95, following advice from his doctors, Cooke announced his retirement from Letter from America – after 58 years, the longest-running speech radio show in the world. \n\nCooke died at midnight on 30 March 2004, at his home in New York City. He had been ill with heart disease, but died of lung cancer, which had spread to his bones. He was cremated, and his ashes were clandestinely scattered by his family in Central Park. \n\nOn 22 December 2005, the New York Daily News reported that the bones of Cooke and many other people had been surgically removed before cremation by employees of Biomedical Tissue Services of Fort Lee, New Jersey, a tissue-recovery firm. The thieves sold the bones for use as medical-grade bone grafts. The cancer from which Cooke was suffering had spread to his bones, making them unsuitable for grafts. Reports indicated the people involved in selling the bones altered his death certificate to hide the cause of death and reduce his age from 95 to 85. Michael Mastromarino, a former New Jersey–based oral surgeon, and Lee Cruceta agreed to a deal that resulted in their imprisonment. Mastromarino was sentenced on 27 June 2008, in the New York Supreme Court, to 18 to 54 years' imprisonment. The entire story of the theft featured in a documentary aimed at educating the public about modern day grave robbery. On the morning of 7 July 2013, Michael Mastromarino died at St. Luke's Hospital after suffering from bone cancer. He was 49.\n\nThe Fulbright Alistair Cooke Award in Journalism\n\nAfter Alistair Cooke's death the Fulbright Alistair Cooke Award in Journalism was established as a tribute to the man and his life and career achievements. The award supports students from the United Kingdom to undertake studies in the United States, and for Americans to study in the United Kingdom.\n\nBibliography\n\nDouglas Fairbanks: The Making of a Screen Character (1940)\nA Generation on Trial: The USA v. Alger Hiss (1950) Alfred A. Knopf; (1982) ISBN 0-313-23373-X\nMencken (1955)\nA William March Omnibus: with an introduction by Alistair Cooke (1956)\nAround the World in Fifty Years: A Political Travelogue (1966) Field Enterprises Educational Corporation ASIN B0000CN5PS\nThe Patient Has the Floor (1986) ISBN 1-55504-214-7\nSix Men (1977) The Bodley Head ISBN 0-370-30056-4;(1995) ISBN 1-55970-317-2\nFun & Games with Alistair Cooke: On Sport and Other Amusements (1996) ISBN 1-55970-327-X\nMemories of the Great and the Good (2000) ISBN 1-55970-545-0\nThe American Home Front: 1941–1942 (2006) ISBN 0-87113-939-1\nAlistair Cooke's American Journey: Life on the Home Front in the Second World War (2006) ISBN 0-7139-9879-2\n\n\"America\" books \n\nLetters from America (1951) Rupert Hart-Davis, London - with introduction 'To the British Reader'\nOne Man's America (1952) Alfred A Knopf, New York - same chapters as 'Letters from America' (1951), with introduction 'To the American Reader'\nTalk about America: Letters from America 1951–1968 (1968) The Bodley Head; (1981) Penguin Books ISBN 0-14-005764-1\nLetter from America: The Early Years 1946–1968\nAlistair Cooke's America (22 November 1973) BBC Books, London ISBN 0-563-12182-3; (13 November 2003) Phoenix ISBN 1-84188-229-1 - updated edition with new introduction and final chapter written by Alistair Cooke\nThe Americans: Fifty Talks on our Lives and Times 1969–1979 (Nov 1979) Alfred A Knopf, New York ISBN 0-394-50364-3\nAmerica Observed: The Newspaper Years of Alistair Cooke/selected and edited by Ronald A. Wells (1988) Penguin ISBN 0-14-011509-9\nLetters from America: The Americans, Letters from America and Talk About America\nLetter from America: (1946–2004) (2004) ISBN 1-4000-4402-2\nThe Marvellous Mania: Alistair Cooke on Golf (2007) ISBN 978-0-7139-9996-9\n\n\nCooke also co-authored several \"coffee table\" photo books.\n\nMedia\n\nAmerica: A Personal History of the United States has been released on DVD, with an additional feature where Cooke talks about his life.\nAn Evening With Alistair Cooke at the Piano, an LP record first released in 1955, later re-released in 1973 by Columbia Special Products (catalogue number B00110SXCK).\nThe album features Cooke playing jazz standards on piano with accompanying whistle, and talking about his life in America.\n\n \n \n\nReviews\n\n* Review of Reporting America: The Life of the Nation, 1946–2004." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Alferd", "Alfred (disambiguation)", "Alfred (fictional character)", "Alfred (character)", "Alfred" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "alfred character", "alfred disambiguation", "alfred", "alferd", "alfred fictional character" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "alfred", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Alfred" }
How is seriously rich Percy Miller better known?	tc_1089	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Master_P.txt" ], "title": [ "Master P" ], "wiki_context": [ "Percy Robert Miller, known by his stage name Master P or his business name P. Miller, is an American rapper, actor, entrepreneur, investor, author, filmmaker, record producer, philanthropist, and former basketball player. He is the founder of the record label No Limit Records, which was relaunched as New No Limit Records through Universal Records and Koch Records, then again as Guttar Music Entertainment, and finally, currently, No Limit Forever Records. He is the founder and CEO of P. Miller Enterprises, a conglomerate company, and Better Black Television, a cable television network.\n\nMiller gained fame in the late 1990s with the success of his hip hop music group TRU as well as his fifth solo rap album Ice Cream Man, which contained his first single \"Mr. Ice Cream Man\". In 1997, after the success of one of his biggest singles to date, \"Make 'Em Say Uhh!\", went double platinum, Miller grew further in popularity. Then Miller released his second platinum album Ghetto D. Miller also starred in his own street film, mostly based on his life, I'm Bout It.\n\nIn 1998, P. Miller released his most successful album to date, MP Da Last Don. The album was also based on a film that Miller produced, which came out earlier that year with the same name. The album hit number 1 on the Billboard Top 200 chart, selling over 400,000 copies in a week. The album was certified 4× platinum, with over four million copies sold, making it Miller's highest selling album. In 1999, Miller released his eighth album, Only God Can Judge Me. It was not as successful as his previous album, though it reached a gold certification. Miller also starred in the movie I Got the Hook Up, with A. J. Johnson, and created the soundtrack of the same name. On November 28, 2000, he released his ninth album, Ghetto Postage, which sold 500,000 copies, but it did not compare to his earlier more successful releases.\n\nIn the early 2000s, as No Limit Records popularity was slowly declining, so was Miller's. Miller re-launched No Limit Records as New No Limit Records. In 2001 Miller released his tenth album entitled Game Face. In 2003, Miller starred in the film Lockdown. In 2004, Miller released his eleventh album, Good Side, Bad Side; it charted number 1 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart and sold 300,000 copies. The same year, Miller released his first independent album Living Legend: Certified D-Boy on his new label Guttar Music.\n\nIn 2013 Forbes estimated Miller's net worth at nearly $350 million, which put him as the third-richest figure in hip hop at the time. On December 6, 2013, Miller released his thirteenth studio album The Gift on his newly founded label No Limit Forever Records. On November 27, 2015, Miller released his fourteenth album, entitled Empire, from the Hood to Hollywood.\n\nEarly life\n\nPercy Robert Miller was born and raised in New Orleans in the Calliope Projects. He is the oldest out of five children. He has one sister, Germaine, and three brothers: Kevin, and platinum-selling rap artists Corey \"C-Murder\" & Vyshonne \"Silkk The Shocker\" Miller. He attended Booker T. Washington High School & Warren Easton High School. Having played on the basketball team, Miller then attended the University of Houston on an athletic scholarship, but he dropped out months into his freshman year and transferred to Merritt College in Oakland, California to major in business. After the death of his grandfather, Miller inherited $10,000 as part of a malpractice settlement. Miller opened a record store in Richmond, California called No Limit Records, which later became the foundation for his own record label of the same name. On February 15, 1990, Master P released the cassette tape Mind Of A Psychopath. His brother Kevin Miller was killed that same year in New Orleans. Instead of letting this destroy his dreams, it only increased the motivation of Master P to become a successful entrepreneur to change his life and save his family. \n\nMusic career\n\nEarly works\n\nOn February 12, 1991, Master P released his debut studio album Get Away Clean which was quickly followed by his second album Mama's Bad Boy, in April 1992. Both albums were released through In-A-Minute Records. In 1993, Master P released his first collaboration album with his group TRU entitled Who's da Killer? Master P released his third studio album The Ghettos Tryin to Kill Me! on March 18, 1994; it was later re-released in 1997 as a limited edition under Priority. That same year Master P collaborated on the No Limit compilation albums West Coast Bad Boyz, Vol. 1: Anotha Level of the Game & West Coast Bad Boyz: High fo Xmas. On June 6, 1995, Master P released his fourth studio album 99 Ways to Die. Master P and TRU released their third album True in 1995, which was the group's first major release after two independent albums. The album reached #25 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and #14 on the Top Heatseekers. The album was known for its first single and one of Master P's best known songs \"I'm Bout' It, Bout It\". He also worked on the compilation album, Down South Hustlers: Bouncin' and Swingin' during that year.\n\n1995–2000: Return to New Orleans and mainstream success\n\nIn 1995, Master P moved from Richmond, CA back to New Orleans to relocate No Limit Records with a slew of new artists and in-house producers Beats By the Pound. On April 16, 1996 Master P released his fifth album Ice Cream Man. It contained his hit single from the album Mr. Ice Cream Man, which accelerated Master P's rise to fame. Later in 1996, Master P returned with TRU to work on Tru 2 da Game, which would not be released until February 18, 1997. At that time TRU was reduced to a trio with just Master P alongside his brothers C-Murder and Silkk the Shocker. On September 2, 1997, Master P released his breakthrough album, Ghetto D. The first week sales of the album were the highest of any of Master P's albums, selling over 761,000 copies, and it went on to go certified triple platinum. It contained the hit single \"Make 'Em Say Uhh!\", Master P's highest charting single to date. The song earned him an MTV Video Music Award nomination the following year for \"Best Rap Video\", but lost to Will Smith's \"Gettin' Jiggy Wit It\". On June 2, 1998, P. Miller released his seventh and best-selling album to date MP Da Last Don. Master P released a film of the same name earlier that year. The album debuted at #1 on the Billboard Top 200 charts selling over 400,000 copies in its first week, and went on to sell over four million copies. On October 26, 1999 Master P. Miller released his eighth studio album Only God Can Judge Me, which contained his single \"Step To Dis\". The album went certified gold, selling over 500,000 copies. In 1999, Master P & TRU released their fifth studio album Da Crime Family. On November 28, 2000, he released his ninth studio album Ghetto Postage which contained his hit singles \"Bout Dat\" and \"Souljas\". Also in 2000, Master P and his new group 504 Boyz released their debut album Goodfellas, which peaked at #1 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and contained their hit single, \"Wobble Wobble\".\n\n2001–05: The New No Limit\n\nOn December 18, 2001, Master P released his tenth studio album Game Face, the first Master P album released on The New No Limit, which had a partnership with Universal Records. In 2002, The 504 Boyz released their second album Ballers. Both albums charted it high on the Hip-Hop charts, but shortly after, No Limit began to decline in popularity. Record sales as well as roster changes and lawsuits caused No Limit Records to file for bankruptcy on December 17, 2003. Master P's eleventh album, entitled Good Side, Bad Side, was released on March 23, 2004, debuting at #1 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart. Master P & hip hop group TRU released their last album The Truth in 2005.\n\n2005–07: Guttar Music\n\nIn 2005, Master P and his son Romeo Miller formed the independent label Guttar Music. On April 26, 2006, P. Miller released his twelfth studio album Ghetto Bill. It contained the single \"I Need Dubs,\" which sampled LL Cool J's \"I Need Love\". On November 29, 2005, P. Miller released his first independent album Living Legend: Certified D-Boy on Guttar Music. Master P and 504 Boyz also released their last album entitled Hurricane Katrina: We Gon Bounce Back that year, and it was dedicated to the victims of Hurricane Katrina. In 2007, Master P released a collaboration album with Romeo titled Hip Hop History that sold 32,000 copies worldwide.\n\n2010–present: No Limit Forever & current works\n\nOn December 6, 2010, it was announced that Master P was going on a new tour with his brother Silkk The Shocker and his son Romeo entitled No Limit Forever International. On February 8, 2011, Master P was featured on rapper Gucci Mane's track entitled \"Brinks\". It was his first recorded song in over four years. Early 2012 Master P started to re brand his label with fresh new talent from the streets, including Graphic Designer @Hitmayne4Hire / HITGPX to revision the tanks look and bring back that \"NO LIMIT\" look with modern style to all future projects and promotions. On 10 August 2012, he performed at Detroit, MI rap duo Insane Clown Posse's 12th Annual \"Gathering of the Juggalos\" concert. On November 16, 2011 Master P released his first mixtape and first solo project in over 6 years, entitled TMZ (Too Many Zeros). On August 2, 2012 it was announced that Master P was working on his thirteenth studio album Boss Of All Bosses. On September 17, 2012 Master P released snippet of an upcoming single entitled \"Friends With Benefits\" featuring Houston rapper/singer Kirko Bangz. \n\nOn January 16, 2013, Master P released his second official mixtape entitled Al Capone as promotion for his Boss Of All Bosses album. Then on February 12, 2013 Master P released his first collaboration mixtape entitled New World Order with his new group, Louie V. Mob, which includes himself, Atlanta rapper Alley Boy, and Washington, DC rapper Fat Trel . On August 6, 2013, Master P released his third official mixtape entitled Famous Again as promotion for his Boss Of All Bosses album, it featured appearances from Rome, Silkk The Shocker, Dee-1, Young Louie, Play Beezy, Gangsta, Howie T, Clyde Carson, Game, Chief Keef, Fat Trel, Alley Boy, Problem, Wiz Khalifa, Tyga, and Chris Brown, as well as production from 1500 & Nothin, Young Bugatti, Stiv Schneider, The Composer, and JB. On December 6, 2013, Master P released his thirteenth album entitled The Gift. \n\nOn January 23, 2014, it was announced that The Gift would be re-released on February 21, 2014, as a Video album with a music video for every song, and that it would be entitled The Platinum Gift. On February 6, 2014, it was announced that Master P was working on two new albums, Ice Cream Man 2, which is a sequel to his critically acclaimed debut major label album Ice Cream Man, and Boss Of All Bosses. On February 28, 2014 Miller released his fourth mixtape The Gift Vol. 1: Return of The Ice Cream Man. \n\nOn January 5, 2015 Master P released his second collaboration mixtape entitled We All We Got with his new group Money Mafia, which includes himself, his son Maserati Rome, Ace B, Young Junne, Eastwood, Gangsta, Play Beezy, Calliope Popeye, Flight Boy, and No Limit Forever in-house producer Blaq N Mild. The mixtape would also include a surprise feature from fellow well-known New Orleans rapper Lil Wayne, on the track \"Power\". On February 9, 2015 Master P released his third collaboration mixtape entitled #CP3 with his No Limit Forever artist and fellow New Orleans rapper Ace B. On April 20, 2015 Master P released his fourth collaboration mixtape entitled Hustlin with his group Money Mafia. On June 4, 2015 it was announced that Master P's newest group Money Mafia would be releasing their debut album in 2015 entitled Rarri Boys. On June 8, 2015 Master P along with Money Mafia would release their first single from Rarri Boys entitled \"Bonita\". On July 16, 2015 Master P released his fifth collaboration mixtape entitled The Luciano Family with his group Money Mafia. On October 7, 2015 Master P would reveal the cover art's & announced that there would be three sequel album installments to his critically acclaimed debut major label album Ice Cream Man entitled Ice Cream Man 2: The Streets, Ice Cream Man 3: The Hustle, Ice Cream Man 4: The Lifestyle that will be released all on the same day. On October 13, 2015 Master P would reveal & announced the cover art, release date & tracklist to his upcoming new album entitled Empire that will be released on November 28, 2015. On November 27, 2015 Master P would release his fourteenth album titled Empire, from the Hood to Hollywood it would feature guest appearance's from Krazy, Lil Wayne, Maserati Rome, Money Mafia, Ace B, BlaqNmilD, Fame-O & Luccianos, it would be released via his label No Limit Forever Records & Globy House Records. \n\nOn February 23, 2016 Master P would release a new single entitled \"Funeral\" it would feature his new group No Limit Boys members Ace B & Angelo Nano. On March 2, 2016 Master P would release a new single entitled \"Middle Finga\". On March 16, 2016 Miller released his fifth mixtape entitled Middle Finga. On March 18, 2016 during an interview Master P would announce he was working on a new album entitled The Grind Don't Stop with his new group No Limit Boys & he would also announce his new tour entitled the Pop-Up Tour. On March 28, 2016 it was announced that Master P's newest group No Limit Boys formerly Money Mafia would be releasing their debut album in 2016 titled No Limit Boys. \n\nBusiness career\n\nAside from being a rapper, Master P has also enjoyed a highly successful career as an entrepreneur and investor. After the death of his grandfather, Miller inherited $10,000 as part of a malpractice settlement and opened a record store in Richmond, California called No Limit Records, which later became the foundation for his own record label of the same name. He has since parlayed his $10,000 initial seed capital investment into a $250 million business empire spanning a wide variety of industries. As a businessman, Miller was known for his frugality and keeping business expenses down and profit margins high. His shrewd business acumen allowed Miller to take his profits from one venture to bankroll the next venture. \n\nMiller was one of the first rappers to notice and take advantage of the retail potential of the music industry. As an investor, Master P was one of the first rappers to build a business and financial empire by investing in a wide range of business and investment ventures from a variety of industries. He has since invested the millions of dollars he made from his No Limit record company into a travel agency, a Foot Locker retail outlet, real estate, stocks, film, music, and television production, toy making, a phone sex company, clothing, telecommunications, a jewellery line, auto accessories, book and magazine publishing, car rims, fast food franchises, and gas stations. His sports management agency No Limit Communications, a joint venture with marketing guru Djuan Edgerton, was a surprising success. His conglomerate company, No Limit Enterprises quickly became a financial powerhouse. His real estate investment and property management company, the New Orleans-based PM Properties controls over 100 properties across the United States. According to Black Enterprise magazine, No Limit Enterprises grossed $110 million in revenue in 1998 alone. This level of success inspired other rappers to branch out into other business ventures and investments. Miller also has his own line of beverages, called \"Make ‘Em Say Ughh!\" energy drinks. Miller has also made a foray into mass media, where he founded Better Black Television, a cable television network in November 2010 based in New Orleans, making him the first hip hop entrepreneur to establish a cable television network. \n\nBefore the arrival of Master P, rappers had historically focused more on the artistic and glamorous side of hip hop music while paying very little attention to the business, investment and financial aspects. All that changed in 1996 when Master P signed a groundbreaking music distribution deal with Priority Records, one where No Limit Records would retain 100% ownership of their master recordings and keep 85% of their record's sales while giving Priority 15% in return for pressing and distribution which allows No Limit to profit from future sales such as catalogs and reissues. Master P went on to make hundreds of millions of dollars from this deal. Additionally, Master P invented many innovative marketing techniques. According to Wendy Day, CEO of the Rap Coalition, \"Master P had a whole marketing movement. He was the first person to market the way a corporate entity like IBM would market to their clientele.\" Whereas the traditional model for marketing records was to spend millions of dollars on expensive videos and air play, Miller didn't have such a luxury. As an independent artist, Miller had to find a way to sell, market and build platinum record selling demand on a limited recording budget. He was well known for keeping upfront business expenses down and profit margins high. He began selling tapes out the trunk of his car in every city and town in America where there was potential demand for his music. He gave out free samples to people with expensive cars and had them playing his music all throughout their neighborhoods. This street level guerrilla marketing technique set the early foundation to build a larger fanbase for the future. After signing his historic deal with Priority, Miller began a high volume business model of cranking out as many records as possible, as frequently as possible. He branded all his albums, so that the No Limit brand became more important than the actual artist's name. Miller cross-promoted all his artists and albums inside the album covers. He also used pen and pixel graphics and mafia-inspired themes to make his albums stand out using Photoshop. He offered 20 songs per album when as most albums offered 15 or less as Miller learned that customers wanted more for their money. He turned his artists into Marvel comic book-like characters rather than just rappers. He made sure his artists were number one on SoundScan every time they released an album, to build the perception of popularity. He used inexpensive videos to promote his artists and he cross promoted albums using films and vice versa and tied them altogether as a package. Brand image and identity became more important than just music quality. Miller's record labels have sold 75 million records as a result of his innovative marketing and branding strategies. \n\nAs founder and CEO of No Limit Entertainment, Miller at one time presided over a business empire that included his conglomerate No Limit Enterprises, No Limit Records, Bout It Inc., No Limit Clothing, No Limit Communications, No Limit Films, No Limit Sports Management, P. M. Properties, and Advantage Travel. Miller represented former NFL running back Ricky Williams when he was drafted by the New Orleans Saints, however the deal was rated the worst contract for a player in NFL History by ESPN. Miller also manages the music, film, and television career of his son, rap star Romeo Miller, as well as pop star Forrest Lipton and Atlanta rapper Gucci Mane. Miller was also the executive television producer for his teenage daughter Cymphonique’s Nickelodeon Show, How To Rock, and the co-creator Romeo!, the hit Nickelodeon television show that stars his son. \n\nIncome\n\nIn 1998, Miller ranked 10th on Forbes magazine's list of America's 40 highest paid entertainers, with an estimated income of $56.5 million. In 2009, he earned more than $661 million, making him the highest paid hip hop entertainer in the world at the time. In 2013, Miller's wealth is estimated to be $350 million, making him one of the wealthiest figures in the American hip hop scene. \n\nOther ventures\n\nFilm and television career\n\nSince 1997, Master P has been in numerous feature and straight to DVD films, and in television shows. His filmography includes Uncle P, Uncle Willy's Family, Soccer Mom, Gone in 60 Seconds, Toxic, Foolish, and I Got the Hook Up. In 1999, he had a small run in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), where he led a professional wrestling stable called The No Limit Soldiers in a feud with Curt Hennig's The West Texas Rednecks. Master P also starred in Romeo! alongside his son Romeo Miller on the children's network Nickelodeon from 2003 to 2006. He was also a contestant on Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 2), replacing Romeo who dropped out due to an injury. He partnered with Ashly DelGrosso and received a total score of 8 out of 30 for his pasodoble, the lowest score in the show's history. He was eliminated on Week 4.\n\nIn 2008, Miller has also made history as the first hip-hop entrepreneur to own a cable television network, Better Black Television (or BBTV011, which was meant to promote positive messages and content to the African American culture. The network was launched in 2009. Executives include Denzel Washington, Derek Anderson of the Charlotte Bobcats, DJ Kool Herc, and Bo Derek. As part of the BBTV project, Miller and Romeo teamed up to develop a children's cartoon titled Gee Gee The Giraffe. The show is true to the duo's mission to produce positive, educational, and entertaining content for African-American children. Animation has been employed by the Millers on prior occasions such as their February 2008 cartoon version of their music video for the song \"Black History.\"\n\nAs reported in March 2011, Miller planned to star in a new film with his protégé Gucci Mane, entitled Get Money. The film, set for release through No Limit, would be based on Miller's book of the same name.\n\nOn June 10, 2015, it was announced that Master P and his family, would be starring in their own reality show entitled Master P's Family Empire. It is scheduled to be aired on Reelz sometime in November. \n\nNBA career\n\nMiller had a contract with two different NBA teams: the Charlotte Hornets during the 1998 pre-season, and the Toronto Raptors in 1999 pre-season. He also played in the Continental Basketball Association (CBA) for the Fort Wayne Fury. In 2004, he played for the ABA's Las Vegas Rattlers. He took part in the 2008 McDonald's NBA All-Star Celebrity Game and scored 17 points. \n\nControversy\n\n\"Brick to a Million\"\n\nOn Master P's new track \"Brick to a Million\", with Fat Trel and Alley Boy, Master P rapped lyrics that many interpreted as a diss to Kanye West and Lil Wayne. On the song, he raps, \"New hittas wearing dresses, f it, I ain't scared to address it, Gangstas on skateboards, I'm at the house breaking headboards, Real stand up.\"\n\nDuring an interview with Power 106's Big Boy's Neighborhood, Master P cleared up misconceptions about the lyrics, stating that he was not addressing those rappers in particular but was instead talking about a radio station employee who told him he was finished. \"Even that, that ain't a diss. I never made a diss record. Like I said, a lot of people, if you feel salty behind that, then I could say if the shoe fit well, I'm not afraid to address it,\" he said. \"I just feel like in Hip Hop, we've got to stick to whether we're going to be real or we not. Like I said, I'm just addressing what I see. To be honest with you, that particular song wasn't about nobody in Hip Hop but I think people taking it like that. This was one of these guys that worked at the radio station and didn't believe in me and told me it was over for me. He ridin' up on a skateboard and got a little mini-skirt on. This a new dude into the business, and he telling me it's over for me.\"\n\nMaster P, who was rumored to have issues with Cash Money Records back in the day, said that if the rappers took offense to the song, they might want to rethink their choices. But he insists that he has no beef with either of them. \"If you feel guilty about something, then that's something you need to address about with yourself,\" he said. \"Y'all gotta realize, we really from the streets. If there really was a feud, there would have been a problem. But I got love for Baby and them, Lil Wayne. They come from where I come from. It's always been a competition. Everybody want to be the best.\" \n\nMusical style\n\nRapping technique\n\nMiller has been known for his deep-toned, aggressive enunciation and his story-telling rhymes focusing on poverty, social injustice, drugs and drug dealing, police brutality, and hope. Miller is also known for his catchy melody hooks. Miller is also known for carrying a theme for each of his albums and his unique musical ability to connect with his audience. \n\nLegacy\n\nMiller has been known for not only his music but mostly for his business acumen, due to creating and branding his highly successful independent record label No Limit Records, as well as his other business ventures. \n\nMiller is held in high esteem by other rappers as well. During an interview after meeting Miller, Atlanta rapper 2 Chainz stated, \"This is my first time meeting [him]. I just want to let him know how he influenced the whole South in Hip-Hop.\" 2 Chainz went on, \"We used to argue people like they ain’t understand why we appreciated Master P and his music. It was more than that. I felt like it was his grind, his hustle. He actually put music out like every week. I even heard stories about some of the songs never even being mixed before. It was just about giving the fans what they needed. And he the reason why a lot of us are here, including myself.\" \n\nAccolades and honors\n\nIn 1999, Master P won the award for \"Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist\" at the American Music Awards.\n\nIn 2005 Miller was ranked at #36 by VH1 in their list of 50 Greatest Hip Hop Artists. On September 29, 2008 Miller's single \"Make Em Say Ugh\" would be ranked at #94 by VH1 in their list of 100 Greatest Hip-Hop Songs. \n\nBET named Miller #28 in the 'The Most Influential Rappers of All Time'. BET would also list Miller as one of 'The 25 Influential Black Music Execs'. \n\nIn November, 2011 Miller's son Romeo Miller would perform at the 2010 Hip Hop Honors, along with his brother Valentino Miller, his cousins Lil' D and Black Don, and his uncle Silkk The Shocker, as well as Trina, Gucci Mane, and Mystikal to honor Master P and No Limit Records. \n\nOn December 11, 2012, DJ 5150 and DJ Hektik released a tribute mixtape to Master P entitled Uptown Veteran. \n\nOn July 10, 2013, Miller was inducted into the Louisiana Music Hall of Fame, making him the first hip hop artist to be inducted. \n\nOn January 20, 2015, Montreal R&B/Hip Hop artist Xav released a song with Master P called \"Bout It Bout It\", from his upcoming Zeeky EP, paying homage to Master P's 1995 international hit. The music video, which also features Master P, premiered on Vibe.com the same day. \n\nPersonal life\n\nPhilanthropy\n\nMiller has dedicated his time to communities through P. Miller Youth Centers and his P. Miller Food Foundation for the Homeless. On July 12, 2005, Willie W. Herenton Jr, the mayor of Memphis, Tennessee presented Miller with the key to the city. On April 27, 2010 Miller along with his son Romeo was awarded the Certificate of Special Recognition, from Congress member Maxine Waters. \n\nFamily\n\nHe married his wife Sonya Miller in 1989. He has nine children. Percy Romeo (), Vercy (), Veno (), Tytyana (), Intylyana (), Cymphonique (), Hercy (), Itali (), Mercy (). His daughter is singer and actress Cymphonique Miller, who starred in her own Nickelodeon sitcom How To Rock. His son, rapper Romeo, also appeared on Nickelodeon in his own self-titled sitcom, Romeo! (2003 - 2006). Rappers Silkk the Shocker and C-Murder are his brothers, favored by his cousin Debra Griffith and niece Rachel T. Griffith. He is also the younger cousin of producer and rapper Mo B. Dick.\n\nPolitics\n\nIn late 2007, Miller got actively involved in politics, whereby he supported and encouraged voter participation. Miller was an early supporter for the candidacy of Illinois senator and subsequent U.S. president Barack Obama. On December 30, 2010 it was announced that Miller and his son Romeo would attend and host an event with Michelle Obama for Anti-Obesity. \n\nAuthor\n\nIn 2007, Miller released his book \"Guaranteed Success,\" a business, financial, and self-help book with Urban Books/Kensington Books. Drawn from his involvement in Donald Trump's empowerment seminars, and inspired by the work of Robert T. Kiyosaki, in \"Guaranteed Success\" Miller addresses the importance of having business and entrepreneurial skills as well as financial literacy as the cornerstones to financial success. Miller also addresses the issues of self and self-esteem, offering a method for overcoming fear and other obstacles and that prevent us from taking the right steps toward financial freedom.\n\nDiscography\n\n; Studio albums\n1991: Get Away Clean\n1992: Mama's Bad Boy\n1994: The Ghettos Tryin to Kill Me!\n1995: 99 Ways to Die\n1996: Ice Cream Man\n1997: Ghetto D\n1998: MP da Last Don\n1999: Only God Can Judge Me\n2000: Ghetto Postage\n2001: Game Face\n2004: Good Side, Bad Side\n2005: Ghetto Bill\n2013: The Gift\n2015: Empire, from the Hood to Hollywood\n2016: The Grind Don't Stop\nTBA: Ice Cream Man 2: The Streets\nTBA: Ice Cream Man 3: The Hustle\nTBA: Ice Cream Man 4: The Lifestyle\nTBA: Boss of All Bosses\n\n; Independent albums\n2005: Living Legend: Certified D-Boy\n\nFilmography\n\n;Films\n\n;Television" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Percy Robert Miller", "Percy R. Miller", "Valentino Miller", "P.R. Miller", "P.Miller", "Valentino (rapper)", "P. Miller", "P. Robert Miller", "Young-V", "Al Capone (Master P album)", "Master P.", "Percy Miller", "Al Capone (mixtape)", "P. Miller (formerly Master P)", "Young V", "Master p", "Master P", "The Ghetto Is Trying to Kill Me!" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "p robert miller", "p r miller", "al capone master p album", "percy r miller", "master p", "percy miller", "p miller formerly master p", "al capone mixtape", "ghetto is trying to kill me", "percy robert miller", "valentino miller", "valentino rapper", "p miller", "young v" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "master p", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Master P" }
How old was Laurel and Hardy producer Hal Roach when he died in 1992?	tc_1090	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Laurel_and_Hardy.txt", "Hal_Roach.txt" ], "title": [ "Laurel and Hardy", "Hal Roach" ], "wiki_context": [ "Laurel and Hardy were a comedy double act during the early Classical Hollywood era of American cinema. The team was composed of thin Englishman Stan Laurel (1890–1965) and heavyset American Oliver Hardy (1892–1957). They became well known during the late 1920s through the mid-1940s for their slapstick comedy, with Laurel playing the clumsy and childlike friend of the pompous Hardy. The duo's signature tune is known variously as \"The Cuckoo Song\", \"Ku-Ku\", or \"The Dance of the Cuckoos\". It was played over the opening credits of their films and has become as emblematic of the duo as their bowler hats.\n\nPrior to their being teamed up, both actors had well-established film careers. Laurel had appeared in over 50 films while Hardy had been in more than 250 productions. The two comedians had previously worked together as cast members on the film The Lucky Dog in 1921. However, they were not a comedy team at that time and it was not until 1926 that they appeared in a movie short together, when both separately signed contracts with the Hal Roach film studio. Laurel and Hardy officially became a team in 1927 when they appeared together in the silent short film Putting Pants on Philip. They remained with the Roach studio until 1940 and then appeared in eight \"B\" movie comedies for 20th Century Fox and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer from 1941 to 1945. After finishing their movie commitments at the end of 1944, they concentrated on performing in stage shows and embarked on a music hall tour of England, Ireland, and Scotland. In 1950, before retiring from the screen, they made their last film which was a French/Italian co-production called Atoll K.\n\nThey appeared as a team in 107 films, starring in 32 short silent films, 40 short sound films, and 23 full-length feature films. They also made 12 guest or cameo appearances that included the Galaxy of Stars promotional film of 1936. On December 1, 1954, the pair made one American television appearance when they were surprised and interviewed by Ralph Edwards on his live NBC-TV program This Is Your Life. Since the 1930s, the works of Laurel and Hardy have been released in numerous theatrical reissues, television revivals, 8-mm and 16-mm home movies, feature-film compilations, and home videos. In 2005, they were voted the seventh-greatest comedy act of all time by a UK poll of fellow comedians. The official Laurel and Hardy appreciation society is known as The Sons of the Desert which was named after a fictitious fraternal society featured in the Laurel and Hardy film of the same name.\n\nEarly careers\n\nStan Laurel\n\nStan Laurel (June 16, 1890 – February 23, 1965) was born Arthur Stanley Jefferson in Ulverston, Lancashire (today Cumbria), England into a theatrical family. His father Arthur Joseph Jefferson was a theatrical entrepreneur and theatre owner in northern England and Scotland who, together with his wife, was a major force in the industry. In 1905, the Jefferson family moved to Glasgow to be closer to their business mainstay of the Metropole Theatre, and Laurel made his stage debut in a Glasgow hall called the Britannia Panopticon one month short of his 16th birthday. Arthur Jefferson secured Laurel his first acting job with the juvenile theatrical company of Levy and Cardwell, which specialized in Christmas Pantomimes. In 1909, Laurel was employed by Britain's leading comedy impresario Fred Karno as a supporting actor, and as an understudy for Charlie Chaplin. Laurel said of Karno, \"There was no one like him. He had no equal. His name was box-office.\" \n\nIn 1912, Laurel left England with the Fred Karno Troupe to tour the United States. Laurel had expected the tour to be merely a pleasant interval before returning to London; however, he emigrated to the U.S. during the trip. In 1917, Laurel was teamed with Mae Dahlberg as a double act for stage and film; they were living as common law husband and wife. The same year, Laurel made his film debut with Dahlberg in Nuts in May. While working with Mae, he began using the name \"Stan Laurel\" and changed his name legally in 1931. Dahlberg held Laurel's career back because she demanded roles in his films, and her tempestuous nature made her difficult to work with. Dressing room arguments were common between the two; it was reported that producer Joe Rock paid her to leave Laurel and to return to her native Australia. In 1925, Laurel joined the Hal Roach film studio as a director and writer. From May 1925 until September 1926, he received credit in at least 22 films. Laurel starred in over 50 films for various producers before teaming up with Hardy. Prior to that, he experienced only modest success. It was difficult for producers, writers, and directors to write for his character, with American audiences knowing him either as a \"nutty burglar\" or as a Charlie Chaplin imitator. \n\nOliver Hardy\n\nOliver Hardy (January 18, 1892 – August 7, 1957) was born Norvell Hardy in Harlem, Georgia. By his late teens, Hardy was a popular stage singer and he operated a movie house in Milledgeville, Georgia, the Palace Theater, financed in part by his mother. For his stage name he took his father's first name calling himself \"Oliver Norvell Hardy\" while offscreen his nicknames were \"Ollie\" and \"Babe\". The nickname \"Babe\" originated from an Italian barber near the Lubin Studios in Jacksonville, Florida who would rub Hardy's face with talcum powder and say \"That's nice-a baby!\" Other actors in the Lubin company mimicked this and Hardy was billed as \"Babe Hardy\" in his early films. McCabe 1989, p. 19.\n\nSeeing film comedies inspired an urge to take up comedy himself and, in 1913, he began working with Lubin Motion Pictures in Jacksonville. He started by helping around the studio with lights, props, and other duties, gradually learning the craft as a script-clerk for the company. It was around this time that Hardy married his first wife Madelyn Salosihn.Everson 2000, p. 22. In 1914, Hardy was billed as \"Babe Hardy\" in his first film, Outwitting Dad. Between 1914 and 1916 Hardy made 177 shorts as Babe with the Vim Comedy Company that were released up to the end of 1917. Exhibiting a versatility in playing heroes, villains and even female characters, Hardy was in demand for roles as a supporting actor, comic villain or second banana. For 10 years he memorably assisted star comic and Charlie Chaplin imitator Billy West, Jimmy Aubrey, Larry Semon, and Charley Chase. In total, Hardy starred or co-starred in more than 250 silent shorts of which roughly 150 have been lost. He was rejected for enlistment by the Army during World War I due to his size. In 1917, after the collapse of the Florida film industry, Hardy and his wife Madelyn moved to California to seek new opportunities. Nizer, Alvin. [http://www.libertymagazine.com/comedians_nizer.htm \"The comedian's comedian.\"] Liberty Magazine, Summer 1975. Retrieved: December 3, 2013.\n\nHistory as Laurel and Hardy\n\nStyle of comedy and characterizations\n\nThe humor of Laurel and Hardy was highly visual with slapstick used for emphasis. They often had physical arguments with each other, which were quite complex and involved cartoon violence, and their characters preclude them from making any real progress in the simplest endeavors. Much of their comedy involves milking a joke, where a simple idea provides a basis from which to build multiple gags without following a defined narrative.\n\nStan Laurel was of average height and weight, but appeared small and slight next to Oliver Hardy, who was 6 ft tallMitchell 2010 and weighed about 280 lb in his prime. They used some details to enhance this natural contrast. Laurel kept his hair short on the sides and back, growing it long on top to create a natural \"fright wig\". At times of shock, he would simultaneously cry while pulling up his hair. In contrast, Hardy's thinning hair was pasted on his forehead in spit curls and he sported a toothbrush moustache. To achieve a flat-footed walk, Laurel removed the heels from his shoes. Both wore bowler hats, with Laurel's being narrower than Hardy's, and with a flattened brim. The characters' normal attire called for wing collar shirts, with Hardy wearing a neck tie which he would twiddle and Laurel a bow tie. Hardy's sports jacket was a tad small and done up with one straining button, whereas Laurel's double-breasted jacket was loose fitting.\n\nA popular routine the team performed was a \"tit-for-tat\" fight with an adversary. This could be with their wives—often played by Mae Busch, Anita Garvin or Daphne Pollard—or with a neighbor, often played by Charlie Hall or James Finlayson. Laurel and Hardy would accidentally damage someone's property, with the injured party retaliating by ruining something belonging to Laurel or Hardy. After calmly surveying the damage, they would find something else to vandalize, and conflict would escalate until both sides were simultaneously destroying items in front of each other. An early example of the routine occurs in their classic short, Big Business (1929), which was added to the National Film Registry in 1992. Another short film which revolves around such an altercation was titled Tit for Tat (1935).\n\nOne best-remembered dialogue was the \"Tell me that again\" routine. Laurel would tell Hardy a genuinely smart idea he came up with, and Hardy would reply, \"Tell me that again.\" Laurel would attempt to repeat the idea, but babble utter nonsense. Hardy, who had difficulty understanding Laurel's idea even when expressed clearly, would understand perfectly when hearing the jumbled version. While much of their comedy remained visual, various lines of humorous dialogue appeared in Laurel and Hardy's talking films. Some examples include:\n* \"You can lead a horse to water but a pencil must be led.\" (Laurel, Brats)\n* \"I was dreaming I was awake but I woke up and found meself asleep.\" (Laurel, Oliver the Eighth)\n* \"A lot of weather we've been having lately.\" (Hardy, Way Out West)\n\nIn some cases, their comedy bordered on the surreal, in a style that Stan Laurel called \"white magic\". For example, in the 1937 film Way Out West, Laurel clenches his fist and pours tobacco into it as if it were a pipe. He then flicks his thumb upward as if working a lighter. His thumb ignites and he matter-of-factly lights his \"pipe\". The amazed Hardy, seeing this, would unsuccessfully attempt to duplicate it throughout the film. Much later Hardy finally succeeds, only to be terrified when his thumb catches fire. Laurel repeats the pipe joke in the 1938 film Block-Heads, again to Hardy's bemusement. The joke ends, this time with a match Laurel was using, relighting itself, which Hardy throws into the fireplace, whereupon it explodes with a loud bang.\n\nRather than showing Hardy suffering the pain of misfortunes, such as falling down stairs or being beaten by a thug, banging and crashing sound effects were often used so the audience could visualize the scene for themselves. The 1927 film Sailors Beware was a significant film for Hardy because two of his enduring trademarks were developed. The first was his \"tie-twiddle\" to demonstrate embarrassment. Hardy, while acting, had been met with a pail of water in the face. He said, \"I had been expecting it, but I didn't expect it at that particular moment. It threw me mentally and I couldn't think what to do next, so I waved the tie in a kind of tiddly-widdly fashion to show embarrassment while trying to look friendly.\" His second trademark was the \"camera look\" in which he breaks the fourth wall. Hardy said \"I had to become exasperated so I just stared right into the camera and registered my disgust.\" Offscreen Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy were quite the opposite of their movie characters: Laurel was the industrious \"idea man\" while Hardy was more easygoing. \n\nCatchphrases\n\nThe catchphrase most used by Laurel and Hardy on film is: \"Well, here's another nice mess you've gotten me into!\" The phrase was earlier used by W. S. Gilbert in both The Mikado from 1885 and The Grand Duke from 1896. It was first used by Hardy in The Laurel-Hardy Murder Case in 1930. In popular culture the catchphrase is often misquoted as \"Well, here's another fine mess you've gotten me into.\" The misquoted version of the phrase was never used by Hardy and the misunderstanding stems from the title of their film Another Fine Mess. Numerous variations of the quote appeared on film. For example, in Chickens Come Home Ollie says impatiently to Stan \"Well....\" with Stan replying, \"Here's another nice mess I've gotten you into.\" The films Thicker than Water and The Fixer-Uppers use the phrase \"Well, here's another nice kettle of fish you pickled me in!\" In Saps at Sea the phrase becomes \"Well, here's another nice bucket of suds you've gotten me into!\"\n\nAnother regular catchphrase, cried out by Ollie in moments of distress or frustration, as Stan stands helplessly by, is \"Why don't you do something to help me?\" And another, not-as-often used catchphrase of Ollie, particularly after Stan has accidentally given a verbal idea to an adversary of theirs to torment them even more: \"Why don't you keep your (big) mouth shut?!\"\n\n\"D'oh!\" was a catchphrase used by the mustachioed Scottish actor James Finlayson who appeared in 33 Laurel and Hardy films. The phrase, expressing surprise, impatience, or incredulity, was the inspiration for \"D'oh!\" as spoken by the actor Dan Castelleneta portraying the character Homer Simpson in the long-running animated comedy The Simpsons. Homer's first intentional use of \"d'oh!\" occurred in the Ullman short \"Punching Bag\" (1988). \n\nFilms\n\nThe first film pairing of the two, although as separate performers, took place in the silent film The Lucky Dog in 1921. The exact date the film was produced is not recorded but film historian Bo Bergulund dated it between late 1920 and January 1921. The association was casual, according to interviews given in the 1930s, and both of them had forgotten it entirely. The plot sees Laurel's character befriended by a stray dog which, after some lucky escapes, saves him from being blown up by dynamite. Hardy's character is a mugger attempting to rob Laurel. Several years later both comedians separately signed with the Hal Roach film studio and next appeared in the 1926 film 45 Minutes From Hollywood. \n\nHal Roach was considered to be the most important person in the development of their film careers. He brought the team together and they worked for Hal Roach Studios for over 20 years. Charley Rogers worked closely with the three men for many years and said, \"It could not have happened if Laurel, Hardy and Roach had not met at the right place and the right time.\" Their first \"official\" film together as a team was the 1927 film Putting Pants on Philip. The plot involves Laurel as Philip, a young Scots man newly arrived in the United States, in full kilted splendor, suffering mishaps involving the kilt. His uncle, played by Hardy, is shown trying to put trousers on him. Also, in 1927, the pair starred in The Battle of the Century, a lost but now found classic short, which involved over 3,000 cream pies. \n\nLaurel said to the duo's biographer John McCabe: \"Of all the questions we're asked, the most frequent is how did we come together? I always explain that we came together naturally.\" Laurel and Hardy were joined by accident and grew by indirection. In 1926, both were part of the Roach Comedy All Stars which was a group of actors of similar standing who took part in a series of films. Quite unwittingly Laurel and Hardy's parts grew larger while those of their fellow stars diminished because Laurel and Hardy were considered to be great actors. Their teaming up was suggested by Leo McCarey who was their supervising director from 1927 and 1930. It was during this period that McCarey and Laurel jointly devised the team's format. McCarey also influenced the slowing down of their comedy to a more natural pace. After teaming up they played the same characters for 30 years. \n\nAlthough Hal Roach employed writers and directors such as H. M. Walker, Leo McCarey, James Parrott and James W. Horne on the Laurel and Hardy films, Laurel would rewrite entire sequences or scripts. He would also have the cast and crew improvise on the sound stage; he would then meticulously review the footage during the editing process. By 1929 Laurel was the head writer and it was reported that the writing sessions were gleefully chaotic. Stan had three or four writers who joined in a perpetual game of 'Can You Top This?' As Laurel obviously relished writing gags, Hardy was more than happy to leave the job to his partner and was once quoted as saying \"After all, just doing the gags was hard enough work, especially if you have taken as many falls and been dumped in as many mudholes as I have. I think I earned my money\". From this point, Laurel was an uncredited film director for their films. He ran the Laurel and Hardy set, no matter who was in the director's chair, but never felt compelled to assert his authority. Roach remarked: \"Laurel bossed the production. With any director, if Laurel said 'I don't like this idea,' the director didn't say 'Well, you're going to do it anyway.' That was understood.\" As Laurel made so many suggestions there was not much left for the credited director to do. \n\nIn 1929 the silent era of film was coming to an end, and many actors saw their careers decline with the advent of sound. Many silent film actors failed to make the transition because they decided their prime duty was to tell stories in words or they overemphasized their speech. Laurel and Hardy avoided this pitfall because they continued making primarily visual films. They did not ignore sound but were not ruled by it. As a team they proved skilful in their melding of visual and verbal humor and made a seamless transition to the talking era in their first sound film Unaccustomed As We Are from 1929. The title took its name from the familiar phrase \"Unaccustomed as we are to public speaking\". In the opening dialogue, Laurel and Hardy began by spoofing the slow and self-conscious speech of the early talking actors which became a routine they would use regularly. \n\nThe first feature film starring Laurel and Hardy was Pardon Us from 1931. The following year The Music Box, whose plot revolved around the pair pushing a piano up a long flight of steps, won an Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Subject. While many enthusiasts claim the superiority of The Music Box, their 1929 silent film Big Business is by far the most consistently acclaimed. The plot of this film sees Laurel and Hardy as Christmas tree salesman involved in a classic tit-for-tat battle with a character played by James Finlayson that eventually destroys his house and their car. Big Business was added to the National Film Registry in the United States as a national treasure in 1992. The film Sons of the Desert from 1933 is often claimed to be Laurel and Hardy's best feature-length film. A number of their films were reshot with Laurel and Hardy speaking in Spanish, Italian, French or German. The plots for these films were similar to the English-language version although the supporting cast were often native language speaking actors. While Laurel and Hardy could not speak these foreign languages they received voice coaching for their lines. The film Pardon Us from 1931 was reshot in all four foreign languages while the films Blotto, Hog Wild and Be Big! were made in French and Spanish versions. Night Owls was made in both Spanish and Italian and Below Zero along with Chickens Come Home were only made in Spanish.\n\nThe 1934 film Babes in Toyland remains a perennial on American television during the Christmas season. When interviewed Hal Roach spoke scathingly about the film and Laurel's behavior during the production. Laurel was unhappy with the plot, and after an argument, was allowed to make the film his way. The rift damaged Roach-Laurel relations to the point that Roach said that after Toyland, he no longer wished to produce Laurel and Hardy films. Nevertheless, their association continued for another six years. Hoping for greater artistic freedom, Laurel and Hardy split with Roach and signed with 20th Century-Fox and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. However, the working conditions were now completely different as they were hired simply as actors, relegated to the B-film divisions, and were initially not allowed to improvise or contribute to the scripts. When the films proved popular the studios allowed the team more input and Laurel and Hardy starred in eight features until 1944. These films, while not considered the team's best work, were financially very successful. The films, budgeted between $250,000 and $300,000 each, earned millions at the box office. The Fox films were so profitable that the studio kept making Laurel and Hardy comedies after Fox discontinued its other \"B\" series films. \n\nIn 1951, Laurel and Hardy made their final feature-length film together, Atoll K. This film was a French-Italian co-production directed by Leo Joannon, but was plagued by problems with language barriers, production issues, and the serious health issues of both Laurel and Hardy. During the filming, Hardy began to lose weight precipitously and developed an irregular heartbeat. Laurel was experiencing painful prostate complications as well. Critics were disappointed with the storyline, English dubbing and Laurel's sickly physical appearance in the film. The film was not a success and it brought an end to Laurel and Hardy's film careers. Most Laurel and Hardy films have survived and have not gone out of circulation permanently. Three of their 107 films are considered lost and have not been seen in their complete form since the 1930s. The silent film Hats Off from 1927 has vanished completely. The first half of the 1927 film Now I'll Tell One is lost and the second half has yet to be released on video. In the 1930 operatic Technicolor musical The Rogue Song, Laurel and Hardy appear in 10 sequences and only one of which is known to exist with the complete soundtrack. \n\nFinal years\n\nFollowing the making of Atoll K Laurel and Hardy took some months off, allowing Laurel to recuperate. Upon their return to the European stage in 1952, they undertook a well-received series of public appearances, performing a short sketch Laurel had written called \"A Spot of Trouble\". Hoping to repeat the success the following year Laurel wrote a routine entitled \"Birds of a Feather\". On September 9, 1953 their boat arrived in Cobh in the Republic of Ireland. Laurel recounted their reception:\n\nWhile on tour of the British Isles in 1953, Stan and Babe appeared on radio in Ireland and on a live BBC television broadcast of the popular show Face the Music with host Henry Hall a week later. Unfortunately, these shows do not appear to have been preserved on record, tape or kinescope, but notes from the Face The Music television appearance have been recently discovered. According to the notes, Ollie informs Stan that the television program has an audience of six million and that host Henry Hall is \"going to introduce us to them\". To which Stan replies \"That's going to take a long time, isn't it?\"\n\nOn December 1, 1954, the team made their only American television appearance when they were surprised and interviewed by Ralph Edwards on his live NBC-TV program This Is Your Life. Lured to the Knickerbocker Hotel as a subterfuge for a business meeting with producer Bernard Delfont the doors opened to their suite #205, flooding the room with light and the voice of Edwards. This telecast was preserved on a kinescope and later released on home video. Partly due to the positive response from the television broadcast the pair was renegotiating with Hal Roach, Jr. for a series of color NBC Television specials to be called Laurel and Hardy's Fabulous Fables. However, plans for the specials had to be shelved as the aging comedians continued to suffer from declining health. In 1955, Laurel and Hardy made their final public appearance together while taking part in the program This Is Music Hall. This was a BBC Television program about the Grand Order of Water Rats, a British variety organization. Laurel and Hardy provided a filmed insert in which they reminisce about their friends in British variety. They made their final appearance on camera in 1956 in a private home movie, shot by a family friend at the Reseda, CA home of Stan Laurel‘s daughter, Lois. It contains no audio and is three minutes in length. \n\nIn 1956, while following his doctor's orders to improve his health due to a heart condition, Hardy lost over 100 lb. However, he suffered several strokes that resulted in the loss of mobility and speech. Despite having a long and successful career, it was reported that Hardy's home was sold to help cover the cost of his medical expenses during this time. He died of a stroke on August 7, 1957, and longtime friend Bob Chatterton stated that Hardy weighed just 138 lb at the time of his death. Hardy was laid to rest at Pierce Brothers Valhalla Memorial Park, North Hollywood. Following Hardy's death, Laurel and Hardy's films were returned to movie theaters as clips of their work were featured in Robert Youngson's silent-film compilation The Golden Age of Comedy.\n\nFor the remaining eight years of his life, Stan Laurel refused to perform and even turned down Stanley Kramer's offer of a cameo in his landmark 1963 movie It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. In 1960, Laurel was given a special Academy Award for his contributions to film comedy but was unable to attend the ceremony, due to poor health, and actor Danny Kaye accepted the award for him. Despite not appearing onscreen after Hardy's death, Laurel did contribute gags to several comedy filmmakers. During this period most of his communication was in the form of written correspondence and he insisted on answering every fan letter personally. Late in life, he hosted visitors of the new generation of comedians and celebrities including Dick Cavett, Jerry Lewis, Peter Sellers, Marcel Marceau, and Dick Van Dyke. Laurel lived until 1965 and survived to see the duo's work rediscovered through television and classic film revivals. He died on February 23 in Santa Monica and is buried at Forest Lawn-Hollywood Hills in Los Angeles, California. \n\nSupporting cast members\n\nLaurel and Hardy's films included a supporting cast, some of whom appeared regularly. \nHarry Bernard played bit parts as a waiter, bartender and a cop.\nMae Busch played the formidable Mrs. Hardy, and other characters, particularly sultry female pests.\nCharley Chase, the Hal Roach film star and brother of James Parrott, a writer/director of several Laurel and Hardy films, made four appearances.\nBaldwin Cooke played bit parts as a waiter, bartender and a cop.\nRichard Cramer appeared as a scowling, menacing villain or opponent.\nJames Finlayson, a small, balding, moustachioed Scotsman known for displays of indignation and squinting \"double takes\", made 33 appearances and is perhaps their most celebrated foil.\nAnita Garvin appeared in a number of Laurel and Hardy films, often as Mrs Laurel.\nBilly Gilbert made many appearances, most notably as a bombastic, blustery character, an example of which is in The Music Box (1932).\nCharlie Hall, who usually played angry \"little men\", appeared nearly 50 times.\nJean Harlow had a small role in their short Double Whoopee (1929) and two other films in the early part of her career.\nArthur Housman made appearances as a comic drunk.\nIsabelle Keith was the only actress to appear as wife to both Laurel and Hardy (in Perfect Day and Be Big!, respectively).\nEdgar Kennedy, master of the \"slow burn\", often appeared as a cop, a hostile neighbor, or a relative.\nWalter Long played grizzled, physically threatening villains, similar to Richard Cramer.\nSam Lufkin appeared several times.\nCharles Middleton made a handful of appearances, usually as an adversary.\nDaphne Pollard was featured, mostly as Oliver's shrewish wife.\nViola Richard appeared in several early silent films, most notably as a cave girl in Flying Elephants (1928).\nCharley Rogers, the English actor, appeared several times.\nTiny Sandford was a tall and burly man who played authority figures, notably cops.\nThelma Todd appeared several times.\nBen Turpin, the cross-eyed actor, made two memorable appearances.\nPeter Cushing, well before becoming a star in many Hammer Horror Films, made an appearance in A Chump at Oxford.\n\nMusic\n\nThe duo's famous signature tune, known variously as \"The Cuckoo Song\", \"Ku-Ku\" or \"The Dance of the Cuckoos\", was composed by Roach musical director Marvin Hatley as the on-the-hour chime for the Roach studio radio station. Laurel heard the tune on the station and asked Hatley if they could use it as the Laurel and Hardy theme song. The original theme, recorded by two clarinets in 1930, was recorded again with a full orchestra in 1935. Leroy Shield composed the majority of the music used in the Laurel and Hardy short sound films. A compilation of songs from their films, titled Trail of the Lonesome Pine, was released in 1975. The title track was released as a single in the UK and reached #2 in the charts.\n\nInfluence and legacy\n\nPosthumous revivals and popular culture\n\nSince the 1930s, the works of Laurel and Hardy have been released again in numerous theatrical reissues, television revivals (broadcast, especially public television and cable), 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, feature-film compilations and home video. After Stan Laurel's death in 1965, there were two major motion-picture tributes: Laurel and Hardy's Laughing '20s was Robert Youngson's compilation of the team's silent-film highlights, and The Great Race was a large-scale salute to slapstick that director Blake Edwards dedicated to \"Mr. Laurel and Mr. Hardy\". For many years the duo were impersonated by Jim MacGeorge (as Laurel) and Chuck McCann (as Hardy) in children's TV shows and television commercials for various products. Numerous colorized versions of copyright-free Laurel and Hardy features and shorts have been reproduced by a multitude of production studios. Although the results of adding color were often in dispute, many popular titles are currently only available in the colorized version. The color process often renders the print into an unwatchable state, with some scenes being altered or deleted, depending on the source material used. Their film Helpmates was the first film to undergo the process and was released by Colorization Inc., a subsidiary of Hal Roach Studios, in 1983. Colorization was a success for the studio and Helpmates was released on home video with the colorized version of The Music Box in 1986.\n\nThere are three Laurel and Hardy museums. One is in Laurel's birthplace, Ulverston, United Kingdom and another one is in Hardy's birthplace, Harlem, Georgia, United States. \nThe third one is located in Solingen, Germany. Maurice Sendak showed three identical Oliver Hardy figures as bakers preparing cakes for the morning in his award-winning 1970 children's book In the Night Kitchen. This is treated as a clear example of \"interpretative illustration\" wherein the comedians' inclusion harked back to the author's childhood. The Beatles used cut-outs of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy in the cutout celebrity crowd for the cover of their 1967 album Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. A 2005 poll by fellow comedians and comedy insiders of the top 50 comedians for The Comedian's Comedian, a TV documentary broadcast on UK's Channel 4, voted the duo the seventh-greatest comedy act ever, making them the top double act on the list.\n\nMerchandiser Larry Harmon claimed ownership of Laurel's and Hardy's likenesses and has issued Laurel and Hardy toys and coloring books. He also co-produced a series of Laurel and Hardy cartoons in 1966 with Hanna-Barbera Productions. His animated versions of Laurel and Hardy guest-starred in a 1972 episode of Hanna-Barbera's The New Scooby-Doo Movies. In 1999, Harmon produced a direct-to-video feature live-action comedy entitled The All-New Adventures of Laurel and Hardy: For Love or Mummy. Actors Bronson Pinchot and Gailard Sartain were cast playing the lookalike nephews of Laurel and Hardy named Stanley Thinneus Laurel and Oliver Fatteus Hardy. The Indian comedy duo Ghory and Dixit was known as the Indian Laurel and Hardy. Also Tamil Actors Goundamani and Senthil have been described as \"Tamil cinema's Laurel and Hardy\"\n\nAppreciation society\n\nThe official Laurel and Hardy appreciation society is known as The Sons of the Desert, after a fraternal society in their film of the same name (1933). It was founded in New York City in 1965 by Laurel and Hardy biographers John McCabe, Orson Bean, Al Kilgore, Chuck McCann and John Municino with the sanction of Stan Laurel. Since the group's inception, well over 150 chapters of the organization have formed across North America, Europe and Australia. An Emmy-winning film documentary about the group, Revenge of the Sons of the Desert, has been released on DVD as part of The Laurel and Hardy Collection, Vol. 1.\n\nAround the world\n\nLaurel and Hardy are popular around the world, but are known under different names in various countries and languages.\n\nFilmographies\n\n Laurel and Hardy filmography\n* Oliver Hardy filmography\n* Stan Laurel filmography", "Harold Eugene \"Hal\" Roach, Sr. (January 14, 1892 – November 2, 1992) was an American film and television producer, director, and actor from the 1910s to the 1990s, best known today for producing the Laurel and Hardy and Our Gang (later known as The Little Rascals) film comedy series.\n\nEarly life and career\n\nHal Roach was born in Elmira, New York, the grandson of Irish immigrants. A presentation by the great American humorist Mark Twain impressed Roach as a young grade school student.\n\nAfter an adventurous youth that took him to Alaska, Hal Roach arrived in Hollywood, California in 1912 and began working as an extra in silent films. Upon coming into an inheritance, he began producing short comedies in 1915 with his friend Harold Lloyd, who portrayed a character known as Lonesome Luke.\n\nIn September 1916, Roach married actress Marguerite Nichols. They had two children, Hal Jr. (June 15, 1918 – March 29, 1972) and Margaret M. Roach (March 15, 1921 – November 22, 1964). After 26 years of marriage, Marguerite died in 1940. \n\nRoach married a second time on September 1, 1942, to Lucille Prin (January 20, 1913 – April 4, 1981), a Los Angeles secretary. They were married at the on-base home of Colonel Franklin C. Wolfe and his wife at Wright-Patterson Airfield in Dayton, Ohio where Roach was stationed at the time while serving as a major in the US Army Air Corps. They had four children, Elizabeth Carson Roach (December 26, 1945 – September 5, 1946), Maria May Roach (April 14, 1947), Jeanne Alice Roach (October 7, 1949), and Kathleen Bridget Roach (January 29, 1951).\n\nSuccess as a comedy producer\n\nUnable to expand his studios in downtown Los Angeles because of zoning, Roach purchased what became the Hal Roach Studios from Harry Culver in Culver City, California. During the 1920s and 1930s, he employed Lloyd (his top money-maker until his departure in 1923), Will Rogers, Max Davidson, the Our Gang kids, Charley Chase, Harry Langdon, Thelma Todd, ZaSu Pitts, Lupe Vélez, Patsy Kelly and, most famously, Laurel and Hardy. During the 1920s Roach's biggest rival was producer Mack Sennett. In 1925, Roach hired away Sennett's supervising director, F. Richard Jones.\n\nRoach released his films through Pathé Exchange until 1927, when he went to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He converted his silent movie studio to sound in late 1928 and began releasing talking shorts in early 1929. In the days before dubbing, foreign language versions of the Roach comedies were created by reshooting each film in the Spanish, French, and sometimes Italian and German languages. Laurel & Hardy, Charley Chase, and the Our Gang kids (some of whom had barely begun school) were required to recite the foreign dialogue phonetically, often working from blackboards hidden off camera.\n\nIn 1931, with the release of the Laurel & Hardy film Pardon Us, Roach began producing occasional full-length features alongside the short product. Short subjects became less profitable and were phased out by 1936, save for Our Gang. In 1937, Roach conceived a joint business venture partnering with Vittorio Mussolini, son of fascist Italian dictator Benito Mussolini to form a production company called \"R.A.M\" (Roach and Mussolini). This proposed business alliance with Mussolini caused MGM to intervene and force Roach to pay his way out of the venture. This embarrassment, coupled with the underperformance of much of Roach's new feature product (save for Laurel & Hardy films and the odd non-L&H hit such as 1937's Topper), led to the end of Roach's relationship with MGM. In May 1938, Roach ended his distribution contract with MGM, selling them the production rights to, and actors' contracts for Our Gang in the process, and signed with United Artists.\n\nFrom 1937 to 1940, Roach concentrated on producing glossy features, abandoning low comedy almost completely. Most of his new films were either sophisticated farces (like Topper and The Housekeeper's Daughter) or rugged action fare (like Captain Fury and One Million B.C.). Roach's one venture into heavy drama was the acclaimed Of Mice and Men in which actors Burgess Meredith and Lon Chaney Jr. played the leading roles. The Laurel and Hardy comedies, once the Roach studio's biggest drawing cards, were now the studio's least important product and were phased out altogether in 1940.\n\nIn 1940, Roach experimented with medium-length featurettes, running 40 to 50 minutes each. He contended that these \"streamliners\", as he called them, would be useful in double-feature situations where the main attraction was a longer-length epic. Exhibitors agreed with him, and used Roach's mini-features to balance top-heavy double bills. United Artists continued to release Roach's streamliners through 1943. By this time Roach no longer had a resident company of comedy stars, and cast his films with familiar featured players (William Tracy and Joe Sawyer, Johnny Downs, Jean Porter, Frank Faylen, William Bendix, George E. Stone, etc.).\n\nWorld War II and television\n\nHal Roach, Sr. was called to active military duty in the Signal Corps in June 1942, at age 50, and the studio output he oversaw in uniform was converted from entertainment featurettes to military training films. The studios were leased to the U.S. Army Air Forces, and the First Motion Picture Unit made 400 training, morale and propaganda films at \"Fort Roach\". Members of the unit included Ronald W. Reagan and Alan Ladd. After the war the government returned the studio to Roach, with millions of dollars of improvements. \n\nIn 1946, Hal Roach resumed motion picture production, with former Harold Lloyd co-star Bebe Daniels as an associate producer. Roach was the first Hollywood producer to go to an all-color production schedule, making four streamliners in Cinecolor, although the increased production costs did not result in increased revenue. In 1948, with his studio deeply in debt, Roach re-established his studio for television production, with Hal Roach, Jr., producing shows such as The Stu Erwin Show, Steve Donovan, Western Marshal, Racket Squad, The Public Defender, The Gale Storm Show, and My Little Margie, and independent producers leasing the facilities for such programs as Amos 'n' Andy, The Life of Riley, and The Abbott and Costello Show. By 1951, the studio was producing 1,500 hours of television programs a year, nearly three times Hollywood's annual output of feature movies. \n\nThe visionary Roach also recognized the value of his film library. Beginning in 1943, he licensed revivals of his sound-era productions for theatrical and home-movie distribution. Roach's films were also early arrivals on television. His Laurel and Hardy comedies were a smashing success in television syndication. He became one of the first significant film producers to venture into television.\n\nLater years\n\nIn 1955, Roach sold his interests in the production company to his son, Hal Roach, Jr., and retired from active production. Unfortunately, the younger Roach lacked much of his father's business acumen, and soon lost the studio to creditors. It was finally shut down in 1961.\n\nFor two more decades Roach Sr. occasionally worked as a consultant on projects related to his past work. Extremely vigorous into an advanced age, Roach contemplated a comedy comeback at 96. \n\nIn 1984, 92-year-old Roach was presented with an honorary Academy Award. Former Our Gang members Jackie Cooper and George \"Spanky\" McFarland made the presentation to a flattered Roach, with McFarland thanking the producer for hiring him 53 years prior.\n\nHe was a guest on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\" on 21 January 1992, just days after his 100th birthday, where he recounted experiences with such stars as Stan Laurel and Jean Harlow; he even did a brief, energetic demonstration of a hula dance.\n\nOn March 30, 1992, Roach appeared at the 64th Academy Awards ceremony, hosted by Billy Crystal. When Mr. Roach rose from the audience for a standing ovation, he decided to give a speech without a microphone, causing Crystal to quip \"I think that's appropriate because Mr. Roach started in silent films.\" At the 42nd Berlin International Film Festival, Roach was given the honorary award of the Berlinale Camera. \n\nDeath\n\nHal Roach died in his home in Bel Air, California, from pneumonia on November 2, 1992, two months short of his 101st birthday. He was married twice, and had six children, eight grandchildren and a number of great-grandchildren. Roach outlived three of his children by more than twenty years: Hal Jr. (died in 1972), Margaret (died in 1964) and Elizabeth (died in 1946); and, also outlived many of the children who starred in his films. Roach is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in Elmira, New York, where he grew up. \n\nHal Roach Studios\n\nThe 14.5 acre (58,680 m²) studio once known as \"The Lot of Fun\", containing 55 buildings, was torn down in 1963 (despite tentative plans to reopen the facilities as \"Landmark Studios\"), after one last movie (Dime with a Halo, with Barbara Luna) was made there in 1963 by Boris Sagal (to Sagal, the forlorn facility looked like a run-down Mexican city). \n\nThey were replaced by light industrial buildings, businesses, and an automobile dealership. Today, Culver City's \"Landmark Street\" runs down what was the middle of the old studio lot, with the two original sound stages having been located on the north side of Landmark Street, and the backlot/city street sets had been located at the eastern end of Landmark Street. A plaque sits in a small park across from the studio's location, placed there by The Sons of the Desert. \n\nMost of the film library was bought in 1971 by a Canadian company that adopted the \"Hal Roach Studios\" name. It primarily handled the business of keeping the library in the public eye and licensing products based upon the classic film series.\n\nIn 1983, Hal Roach Studios became one of the first studios to venture into the controversial business of film colorization. Buying a fifty percent interest in Wilson Markle's Colorization Inc, it began creating digitally colored versions of several Laurel and Hardy features, the Frank Capra film It's a Wonderful Life, Night of the Living Dead, and other popular films. In the 1980s, Hal Roach Studios produced Kids Incorporated in association with old business partner MGM. During the 1980s, Hal Roach Studios distributed its classic film library, as well as films in the public domain, on home video. From 1988 to 1990, while producing Kids Incorporated, Hal Roach Studios was known as Qintex.\n\nIn the years that followed, the Roach company changed hands several more times. Independent television producer Robert Halmi bought the company in the early 1990s, and it became RHI Entertainment. A short time later, this successor company was acquired by Hallmark Entertainment in 1994, but Halmi, Robert Halmi Jr. and affiliates of Kelso & Company reacquired the company in 2006. Hallmark Entertainment was absorbed into RHI Entertainment (with Vivendi as the current home video output partner).\n\nIn that same decade, a new incarnation of Hal Roach Studios (operated by the Roach Trust) was established, and today this new version of the company has released classic films on DVD, many of which are from Roach's own archival prints of his films, while others are public domain titles mastered from the best available 35 mm elements." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "100", "one hundred" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "one hundred", "100" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "100", "type": "Numerical", "value": "100" }
Who was West German Chancellor from 1969 to 1974? Willy Brandt.	tc_1091	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "West_Germany.txt", "Willy_Brandt.txt" ], "title": [ "West Germany", "Willy Brandt" ], "wiki_context": [ "West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG () in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border. After 1961, West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states, became known simply as \"Germany\". The FRG during the Cold War is sometimes referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians. \n\nThe Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France (the \"Western Zones\"). Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990. The city of Bonn was its ' capital city (Berlin was symbolically named the ' capital city in the West German Basic Law). The fourth Allied occupation zone (the East Zone, or ') was held by the Soviet Union. The parts of this zone lying east of the Oder-Neisse were in fact annexed by the Soviet Union and communist Poland; the remaining central part around Berlin became the communist German Democratic Republic (abbreviated GDR; in German ' or ') with its ' capital in East Berlin. As a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic.\n\nAt the onset of the Cold War, Germany (and, indeed, Europe) was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs. Germany was ' divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed an exclusive mandate for all of Germany, considering itself to be the democratically reorganised continuation of the 1871–1945 German Reich. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state. Though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state. From the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate.\n\nThree southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, and the Saarland joined the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957. In addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial ' 11th state. While legally not part of the Federal Republic of Germany, as Berlin was under the control of the Allied Control Council, West Berlin aligned itself politically with West Germany and was directly or indirectly represented in its federal institutions.\n\nRelations with the Soviet bloc improved during the era of \"\" around 1970, and West Germany began taking the line of \"two German states within one German nation\", but formally maintained the exclusive mandate. It recognised the GDR as a ' government within a single German nation that in turn was represented ' by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries ', and the West as both ' and ' foreign country. The Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other.\n\nThe foundation for the influential position held by Germany today was laid during the ' (economic miracle) of the 1950s when West Germany rose from the enormous destruction wrought by World War II to become the world's third largest economy. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for a full alignment with the West rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union. When the G6/G8 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well.\n\nWith the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, there was a rapid move towards German reunification. East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states (') were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin, which ended its special status and formed an additional '. They formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany. The expanded Federal Republic retained West Germany's political culture and continued its existing memberships in international organisations, as well as its Western foreign policy alignment and affiliation to Western alliances like NATO and the European Union.\n\nNaming conventions\n\nThe official name of West Germany, adopted in 1949 and unchanged since, is ' (Federal Republic of Germany). Its abbreviation \"\" (German) or \"FRG\" (English) was sometimes also used.\n\nIn East Germany usage, the terms ' (West Germany) or ' (West German Federal Republic) were preferred during the 1950s and 1960s. This changed once East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners foreigners under its 1968 constitution, where the idea of a single German nation was abandoned. In the early 1970s, starting in the East German ', the initialism \"\" (FRG) for the \"Federal Republic of Germany\" began to prevail. In 1973, official East German sources adopted it as a standard expression and other Eastern Bloc nations soon followed suit.\n\nIn reaction to this move, in 1965 the Federal Minister of All-German Affairs Erich Mende issued the Directives for the appellation of Germany recommending avoiding the initialism. On 31 May 1974 the heads of German federal and state governments recommended to always use the full name in official publications. From then on West German sources avoided the abbreviated form, with the exception of left-leaning organizations which embraced it. In November 1979 the federal government informed the that the West German public broadcasters and had agreed to refuse to use the initialism. \n\nThe colloquial term \"West Germany\" or its equivalent was used in many languages. \"\" was also a widespread colloquial form used in German-speaking countries, usually without political overtones.\n\nHistory\n\nOn 4–11 February 1945, leaders from the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union held the Yalta Conference where future arrangements as regards post-war Europe and strategy against Japan in the Pacific were negotiated. The conference agreed to split Germany into four occupation zones: a French Zone in the far west; a British Zone in the northwest; an American Zone in the south; and a Soviet Zone in the east. At the time, the intention was not to split Germany, only to designate zones of administration.\n\nFormer German areas east of the rivers Oder and Neisse were put under Polish administration. Millions of Germans were expelled and replaced by Poles. In similar fashion, the Soviet Union took over areas of eastern Poland and East Prussia. Between 1946 and 1949, three of the occupation zones began to merge. First, the British and American zones were combined into the quasi-state of Bizonia. Soon afterwards, the French zone was included into Trizonia. At the same time, new federal states (') were formed in the Allied zones, replacing the pre-war states.\n\nIn 1949, with the continuation and aggravation of the Cold War (witness the Berlin Airlift of 1948–49), the two German states that were originated in the Western Allied and the Soviet Zones became known internationally as West Germany and East Germany. Commonly known in English as East Germany, the former Soviet Occupation Zone, eventually became the German Democratic Republic or GDR. From 3 October 1990, after the reformation of the GDR's ', the East German states joined the Federal Republic.\n\nNATO membership\n\nWith territories and frontiers that coincided largely with the ones of old Medieval East Francia and the 19th-century Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine, the Federal Republic of Germany, founded on 23 May 1949, under the terms of the Bonn–Paris conventions it obtained \"the full authority of a sovereign state\" on 5 May 1955 (although \"full sovereignty\" was not obtained until the Two Plus Four Agreement in 1990). The former occupying Western troops remained on the ground, now as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which West Germany joined on 9 May 1955, promising to rearm itself soon.\n\nWest Germany became a focus of the Cold War with its juxtaposition to East Germany, a member of the subsequently founded Warsaw Pact. The former capital, Berlin, had been divided into four sectors, with the Western Allies joining their sectors to form West Berlin, while the Soviets held East Berlin. West Berlin was completely surrounded by East German territory and had suffered a Soviet blockade in 1948–49, which was overcome by the Berlin airlift.\n\nThe outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 led to U.S. calls to rearm West Germany to help defend Western Europe from the perceived Soviet threat. Germany's partners in the Coal and Steel Community proposed to establish a European Defence Community (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.\n\nThough the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French Gaullists and communists had killed the French government's proposal. Other means then had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, at the London and Paris Conferences, the Brussels Treaty was modified to include West Germany, and to form the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm (an idea many Germans rejected), and have full sovereign control of its military, called the . The WEU, however, would regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Also, the German constitution prohibited any military action, except in case of an external attack against Germany or its allies ('). Also, Germans could reject military service on grounds of conscience, and serve for civil purposes instead.\n\nThe three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 55,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)\n\nReforms during the 1960s\n\nKonrad Adenauer was 73 years old when he became chancellor, and for this reason he was initially reckoned as a caretaker. However, he stayed in power for 14 years. The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would nominate Erhard, the architect of the economic miracle. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. He apparently believed that this would allow him to dominate the scene for up to ten more years in spite of the growing mood for change. However, when his advisers informed him that the powers of the president were almost entirely ceremonial, he quickly lost interest. An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, Heinrich Lübke took on the task and was duly elected.\n\nIn October 1962, the weekly news magazine ' published an analysis of the West German military defence. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of ' in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine, Rudolf Augstein spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of Franz Josef Strauss, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis. Adenauer was still wounded by his brief run for president, and this episode damaged his reputation even further. He announced that he would step down in the Fall of 1963. His successor was to be Ludwig Erhard. \n\nIn the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate slowed again into a recession, with no growth in 1967.\n\nIn order to deal with this problem, a new coalition was formed. Erhard stepped down in 1966 and was succeeded by Kurt Georg Kiesinger. He led a grand coalition between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts: the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.\n\nDuring the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the Free Democratic Party, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself ' (\"Democracy in Crisis\") and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967, when the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as '), armed with staves and bricks attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the centre was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plain clothed policeman. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German security forces.) Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the tabloid ' newspaper, as a massive disruption to life in Berlin, in a massive campaign against the protesters. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigour with which demonstrations were repressed led to mounting militance among the students at the universities in Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken. \n\nIn the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of the parent-generation in the Nazi era. The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but until a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. One courageous attorney, Fritz Bauer patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the concentration camp and about twenty were put on trial in Frankfurt in 1963. Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term \"Holocaust\" for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1979, when an American mini-series with that name was shown on German television.) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.\n\nThe calling in question of the actions and policies of government led to a new climate of debate. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1977, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Further reforms in 1979 to parental rights law gave equal legal rights to the mother and the father, abolishing the legal authority of the father. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic.\n\nAnger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims led to growing militance among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt, they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the \"struggle against imperialism\". The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalising the industrial workers and taking an example from activities in Italy of the Red Brigades ('), many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the \"\", later known as the Red Army Faction which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name \"RAF\". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback. \n\nPolitical developments 1969–90\n\nIn the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by Willy Brandt—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Willy Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality. Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbours, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries. (Moscow Agreement, August 1970, Warsaw Agreement, December 1970, Four Power Agreement over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an agreement on relations between West and East Germany, signed in December 1972.) These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long-term to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over Eastern Europe. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after Günter Guillaume, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the . Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.\n\nFinance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to \"the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA\". \n\nIn October 1982, the SPD–FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote.\n\nIn January 1987, the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD Chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by Hans-Jochen Vogel. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%.\n\nReunification\n\nThe official German reunification ceremony on 3 October 1990 was held at the building, including Chancellor Helmut Kohl, President Richard von Weizsäcker, former Chancellor Willy Brandt and many others. One day later, the parliament of the united Germany would assemble in an act of symbolism in the Reichstag building. Germany had split into two places in 1945, after the end of World War Two.\n\nHowever, at that time, the role of Berlin had not yet been decided upon. Only after a fierce debate, considered by many as one of the most memorable sessions of parliament, the concluded on 20 June 1991, with quite a slim majority, that both government and parliament should move to Berlin from Bonn.\n\nWest German \"economic miracle\"\n\nThe West German ' (\"economic miracle\", coined by The Times in 1950) was partly due to the economic aid provided by the United States and the Marshall Plan, but mainly due to the currency reform of 1948 which replaced the with the and halted rampant inflation. The Allied dismantling of the West German coal and steel industry finally ended in 1950.\n\nIn addition to the physical obstacles that had to be overcome for the German economic recovery (see the Plan) there were also intellectual challenges. The Allies confiscated intellectual privileges of huge value, such as all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies. Meanwhile, some of the best German researchers were being put to work in the Soviet Union and in the USA.\n\nContrary to popular belief, the Marshall Plan, which was extended to include the newly formed West Germany in 1949, was not the main force behind the '. Had that been the case, other countries such as the United Kingdom and France (which both received higher economic assistance from the plan than Germany) should have experienced the same phenomenon. In fact, the amount of monetary aid (which was in the form of loans) received by Germany through the Marshall Plan was far overshadowed by the amount the Germans had to pay back as war reparations and by the charges the Allies exacted from the Germans for the ongoing cost of occupation (about $2.4 billion per year). In 1953 it was decided that Germany was to repay $1.1 billion of the aid it had received. The last repayment was made in June 1971.\n\nAs demand for consumer goods increased after WWII, the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products. At the time Germany had a large pool of skilled and cheap labour, partly as a result of the flight and expulsion of Germans from Central and Eastern Europe, which affected up to 16.5 million Germans. This helped Germany to more than double the value of its exports during the war. Apart from these factors, hard work and long hours at full capacity among the population and in the late 1950s and 1960s extra labour supplied by thousands of ' (\"guest workers\") provided a vital base for the economic upturn. This would have implications later on for successive German governments as they tried to assimilate this group of workers. \n\nFrom the late 1950s onwards, West Germany had one of the strongest economies in the world, almost as strong as before the Second World War. The East German economy showed a certain growth, but not as much as in West Germany, partly because of continued reparations to the USSR in terms of resources.\n\nIn 1952, West Germany became part of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve into the European Union. On 5 May 1955 West Germany was declared to have the \"authority of a sovereign state\". The British, French and U.S. militaries remained in the country, just as the Soviet Army remained in East Germany. Four days after obtaining the \"authority of a sovereign state\" in 1955, West Germany joined NATO. The UK and the USA retained an especially strong presence in West Germany, acting as a deterrent in case of a Soviet invasion. In 1976 West Germany became one of the founding nations of the Group of Six (G6). In 1973, West Germany—home to roughly 1.26% of the world's population—featured the world's fourth largest GDP of 944 billion (5.9% of the world total). In 1987 the FRG held a 7.4% share of total world production.\n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation\n\nTotal population of West Germany from 1950 to 1990, as collected by the .\n\nReligion\n\nReligious affiliation in West Germany as collected by (). \n\n* Protestantism in Germany ()\n* Roman Catholicism in Germany\n* Islam in Germany\n* Central Council of Jews in Germany\n\nPosition towards East Germany\n\nThe official position of West Germany concerning East Germany was that the West German government was the only democratically elected and therefore the only legitimate representative of the German people. According to the Hallstein Doctrine, any country (with the exception of the USSR) that recognised the authorities of the German Democratic Republic would not have diplomatic relations with West Germany.\n\nIn the early 1970s, Willy Brandt's policy of \"\" led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both German states joining the United Nations. The Hallstein Doctrine was abolished.\n\nThe West German Constitution (', \"Basic Law\") provided two articles for the unification with other parts of Germany:\n\n* Article 23 provided the possibility for other parts of Germany to join the Federal Republic (under the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany).\n* Article 146 provided the possibility for unification of all parts of Germany under a new constitution.\n\nAfter the peaceful revolution of 1989 in East Germany, the first freely elected East German parliament decided in June 1990 that the ' soon to be re-established would join the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the (West) German Basic Law ('). This made a quick unification possible. In July/August 1990 the East German parliament enacted a law for the re-establishment of ' on the territory of the German Democratic Republic.\n\nThe two German states entered into a currency and customs union in July 1990, and on 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic dissolved and the re-established five East German ' (as well as a unified Berlin) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, bringing an end to the East-West divide.\n\nPolitics\n\nPolitical life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under Ludwig Erhard (1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by the united caucus of the Christian-Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian Social Union (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller Free Democratic Party (FDP) or other right-wing parties.\n\nKiesinger's 1966–69 \"Grand Coalition\" was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts—the Grand Coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required to see them in. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.\n\nLeading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the FDP, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself (\"Democracy in a State of Emergency\") and the labour unions. Demonstrations and protests grew in number, and in 1967 the student Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head by a policeman. The press, especially the tabloid ' newspaper, launched a vast campaign against the protesters and in 1968, believed by some as a result, there was an attempted assassination of one of the top members of the German socialist students' union, Rudi Dutschke.\n\nBy 1958, a stronger desire to confront the Nazi past had come into being. In the 1960s environmentalism and anti-nationalism became fundamental values among left-wing Germans. As a result, in 1979 the Greens were able to reach the 5% minimum required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen state election, and with the foundation of the national party in 1980 developed into one of the most politically successful green movements in the world.\n\nAnother result of the unrest in the 1960s was the founding of the Red Army Faction (RAF). The RAF was active from 1968, carrying out a succession of terrorist attacks in West Germany during the 1970s. Even in the 1990s, attacks were still being committed under the name RAF. The last action took place in 1993, and in 1998 the group announced it was ceasing activities.\n\nIn the 1969 election, the SPD gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. SPD leader and Chancellor Willy Brandt remained head of government until May 1974, when he resigned after the Guillaume Affair, in which a senior member of his staff was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the . However the affair is widely considered to have been merely a trigger for Brandt's resignation, not a fundamental cause. Instead, Brandt, dogged by scandal relating to alcohol and depression as well as the economic fallout of the 1973 oil crisis, almost seems simply to have had enough. As Brandt himself later said, \"I was exhausted, for reasons which had nothing to do with the process going on at the time\". \n\nFinance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) then formed a government, continuing the SPD–FDP coalition. He served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, was Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the same years. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to \"the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA\".\n\nThe goals of SPD and FDP however drifted apart in the late 1970s and early 1980s. On 1 October 1982, the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, because of the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote.\n\nIn January 1987, the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. The Social Democrats concluded that not only were the Greens unlikely to form a coalition, but also that such a coalition would be far from a majority. Neither condition changed until 1998.\n\nCulture\n\nIn many aspects, German culture continued in spite of the dictatorship and wartime. Old and new forms coexisted next to each other, and the American influence, already strong in the 1920s, grew.\n\nSport\n\nIn the 20th century, association football became the largest sport in Germany. The Germany national football team, established in 1900, continued its tradition based in the Federal Republic of Germany, winning the 1954 FIFA World Cup in a stunning upset dubbed the miracle of Bern. Earlier, the German team was not considered part of the international top. The 1974 FIFA World Cup was held in West German cities and West Berlin. After having been beaten by their East German counterparts in the first round, the team of the German Football Association won the cup again, defeating the Netherlands 2–1 in the final. With the process of unification in full swing in the summer of 1990, the Germans won a third World Cup, with players that had been capped for East Germany not yet permitted to contribute. European championships have been won too, in 1972, 1980 and 1996.\n\nAfter both Olympic Games of 1936 had been held in Germany, Munich was selected to host the 1972 Summer Olympics. These were also the first summer games in which the East Germans showed up with the separate flag and anthem of the GDR. Since the 1950s, Germany at the Olympics had been represented by a united team led by the pre-war German NOC officials as the IOC had denied East German demands for a separate team.\n\nAs in 1957, when the Saarland acceded, East German sport organisations ceased to exist in late 1990 as their subdivisions and their members joined their Western counterparts. Thus, the present German organisations and teams in football, Olympics and elsewhere are identical to those that had been informally called \"West German\" before 1991. The only differences were a larger membership and a different name used by some foreigners. These organisations and teams in turn mostly continued the traditions of those that represented Germany before the Second World War, and even the First World War, thus providing a century-old continuity despite political changes. On the other hand, the separate East German teams and organisations were founded in the 1950s; they were an episode lasting less than four decades, yet quite successful in that time.\n\nLiterary scene\n\nBesides the interest in the older generation of writers, new authors emerged on the background of the experiences of war and after war period. Wolfgang Borchert, a former soldier who died young in 1947, is one of the best known representatives of the . Heinrich Böll is considered an observer of the young Federal Republic from the 1950s to the 1970s, and caused some political controversies because of his increasingly critical view on society. The Frankfurt Book Fair (and its Peace Prize of the German Book Trade) soon developed into a regarded institution. Exemplary for West Germany's literature are – among others – Siegfried Lenz (with The German Lesson) and Günter Grass (with The Tin Drum and The Flounder).\n\nDaily life\n\nDuring the 40 years of separation some divergence occurred in the cultural life of the two parts of the severed nation. Both West Germany and East Germany followed along traditional paths of the common German culture, but West Germany, being obviously more affected by influences from western Europe and North America, became more cosmopolitan. Conversely, East Germany, while remaining more conservative than West Germany in its adherence to some aspects of the received tradition, was strongly moulded by the dictates of a state socialist ideology of predominantly Soviet inspiration. On the non-political level, East Germany was also influenced by the Eastern Bloc's Slavic cultures that manifested in art, culinary scene, and sports. Nevertheless, young East Germans were also fascinated by Western and particularly American culture, which they had a degree of access to in a variety of ways, not least through West German television and radio, whose broadcasts reached many parts of the country.\n\nFor the majority of Germans in present-day Germany who lived in pre-reunification West Germany, there has been minimal change in daily life stemming from German reunification as the reunified country is essentially West Germany incorporating East Germany on a West German base. In contrast, for East Germans the scale of change has been sweeping in all aspects of life from that before '. Although movements like ' exist attempting to celebrate and preserve parts of the GDR culture, since reunification the former East Germany has been converging towards the western part of the country in most parts of daily life.\n\nGeographical distribution of government\n\nIn West Germany, most of the political agencies and buildings were located in Bonn, while the German Stock Market was located in Frankfurt am Main, which became the economic center. The judicial branch of both the German Federal Constitutional Court (') and the highest Court of Appeals, were located in Karlsruhe.\n\nThe West German government was known to be much more decentralised than its state socialist East German counterpart, the former being a federal state and the latter a unitary one. Whilst East Germany was divided into 15 administrative districts ('), which were merely local branches of the national government, West Germany was divided into states (') with independently elected state parliaments and control of the , the second legislative chamber of the Federal Government.\n\nPresent geographical and political terminology\n\nToday, North Rhine-Westphalia is often considered to be Western Germany in geographical terms. When distinguishing between former West Germany and former East Germany as parts of present-day unified Germany, it has become most common to refer to the ' (old states) and the ' (new states), although ' and ' are still heard as well.", "Willy Brandt (; born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm; 18 December 1913 – 8 October 1992) was a German statesman and politician, who was leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) from 1964 to 1987 and served as Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1969 to 1974. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 for his efforts to strengthen cooperation in western Europe through the EEC and to achieve reconciliation between West Germany and the countries of Eastern Europe. He was the first Social Democrat chancellor since 1930.\n\nFleeing to Norway and then Sweden during the Nazi regime and working as a leftist journalist, he took the name Willy Brandt as a pseudonym to avoid detection by Nazi agents, and then formally adopted the name in 1948. Brandt was originally considered one of the leaders of the right wing of the SPD, and earned initial fame as Governing Mayor of West Berlin. He served as Foreign Minister and as the 5th Vice Chancellor in Kurt Georg Kiesinger's cabinet, and became chancellor in 1969. As chancellor, he maintained West Germany's close alignment with the United States and focused on strengthening European integration in western Europe, while launching the new policy of Ostpolitik aimed at improving relations with Eastern Europe. Brandt was controversial on both the right wing, for his Ostpolitik, and on the left wing, for his support of American policies, including the Vietnam War, and right-wing authoritarian regimes. The Brandt Report became a recognised measure for describing the general North-South divide in world economics and politics between an affluent North and a poor South. Brandt was also known for his fierce anti-communist policies at the domestic level, culminating in the Radikalenerlass (Anti-Radical Decree) in 1972.\n\nBrandt resigned as chancellor in 1974, after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service.\n\nEarly life and the Second World War \n\nWilly Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Carl Frahm in the Free City of Lübeck (German Empire) on 18 December 1913. His mother was Martha Frahm, a single parent, who worked as a cashier for a department store. His father was an accountant from Hamburg named John Möller, whom Brandt never met. As his mother worked six days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mother's stepfather, Ludwig Frahm, and his second wife, Dora.\n\nAfter passing his Abitur in 1932 at Johanneum zu Lübeck, he became an apprentice at the shipbroker and ship's agent F. H. Bertling. He joined the \"Socialist Youth\" in 1929 and the Social Democratic Party (SPD) in 1930. He left the SPD to join the more left wing Socialist Workers Party (SAP), which was allied to the POUM in Spain and the Independent Labour Party in Britain. In 1933, using his connections with the port and its ships, he left Germany for Norway to escape Nazi persecution. It was at this time that he adopted the pseudonym Willy Brandt to avoid detection by Nazi agents. In 1934, he took part in the founding of the International Bureau of Revolutionary Youth Organizations, and was elected to its Secretariat.\n\nBrandt was in Germany from September to December 1936, disguised as a Norwegian student named Gunnar Gaasland. He was married to Gertrud Meyer from Lübeck in a marriage of convenience to protect her from deportation. Meyer had joined Brandt in Norway in July 1933. In 1937, during the Civil War, Brandt worked in Spain as a journalist. In 1938, the German government revoked his citizenship, so he applied for Norwegian citizenship. In 1940, he was arrested in Norway by occupying German forces, but was not identified as he wore a Norwegian uniform. On his release, he escaped to neutral Sweden. In August 1940, he became a Norwegian citizen, receiving his passport from the Norwegian legation in Stockholm, where he lived until the end of the war. Willy Brandt lectured in Sweden on 1 December 1940 at Bommersvik College about problems experienced by the social democrats in Nazi Germany and the occupied countries at the start of the Second World War. In exile in Norway and Sweden Brandt learned Norwegian and Swedish. Brandt spoke Norwegian fluently, and retained a close relationship with Norway.\n\nIn late 1946, Brandt returned to Berlin, working for the Norwegian government. In 1948, he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and became a German citizen again, formally adopting the pseudonym Willy Brandt as his legal name.\n\nPolitician \n\nFrom 3 October 1957 to 1966, Willy Brandt was Governing Mayor of Berlin, during a period of increasing tension in East-West relations that led to the construction of the Berlin Wall. In Brandt's first year as mayor, he also served as the president of the Bundesrat in Bonn. Brandt was outspoken against the Soviet repression of the Hungarian Uprising in 1956 and against Nikita Khrushchev's 1958 proposal that Berlin receive the status of a \"free city\". He was supported by the influential publisher Axel Springer. As mayor of West Berlin, Brandt accomplished much in the way of urban development. New hotels, office-blocks and flats were constructed, while both Schloss Charlottenburg and the Reichstag building were restored. Sections of the \"Stadtring\" Bundesautobahn 100 inner city motorway were opened, while a major housing programme was carried out, with roughly 20,000 new dwellings built each year during his time in office. \n\nAt the start of 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy saw Brandt as the wave of the future in West Germany and was hoping he would replace Konrad Adenauer as chancellor following elections later in the year. Kennedy made this preference clear by inviting Brandt, the West German opposition leader, to an official meeting at the White House a month before meeting with Adenauer, the country's leader. The diplomatic snub strained relations between Kennedy and Adenauer further during an especially tense time for Berlin. However, following the building of the Berlin Wall in August 1961, Brandt was disappointed and angry with Kennedy. Speaking in Berlin three days later, Brandt criticized Kennedy, asserting \"Berlin expects more than words. It expects political action.\" He also wrote Kennedy a highly critical public letter in which he warned that the development was liable \"to arouse doubts about the ability of the three [Allied] Powers to react and their determination\" and he called the situation \"a state of accomplished extortion\". \n\nBrandt became the Chairman of the SPD in 1964, a post that he retained until 1987, longer than any other party Chairman since its foundation by August Bebel. Brandt was the SPD candidate for the chancellorship in 1961, but he lost to Konrad Adenauer's conservative Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU). In 1965, Brandt ran again, but lost to the popular Ludwig Erhard. Erhard's government was short-lived, however, and in 1966 a grand coalition between the SPD and CDU was formed, with Brandt as Foreign Minister and as the 5th Vice-Chancellor of Germany.\n\nChancellor \n\nAt the 1969 elections, again with Brandt as the leading candidate, the SPD became stronger, and after three weeks of negotiations, the SPD formed a coalition government with the smaller Free Democratic Party of Germany (FDP). Brandt was elected Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany.\n\nForeign policy \n\nAs chancellor, Brandt developed his Neue Ostpolitik (New Eastern Policy). Brandt was active in creating a degree of rapprochement with East Germany, and also in improving relations with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and other Eastern Bloc (communist) countries. A seminal moment came in December 1970 with the famous Warschauer Kniefall in which Brandt, apparently spontaneously, knelt down at the monument to victims of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. The uprising occurred during the Nazi German military occupation of Poland, and the monument is to those killed by the German troops who suppressed the uprising and deported remaining ghetto residents to the concentration camps for extermination.\n\nTime magazine in the U.S. named Brandt as its Man of the Year for 1970, stating, \"Willy Brandt is in effect seeking to end World War II by bringing about a fresh relationship between East and West. He is trying to accept the real situation in Europe, which has lasted for 25 years, but he is also trying to bring about a new reality in his bold approach to the Soviet Union and the East Bloc.\" President Richard Nixon also was pushing détente on behalf of the United States. The policies of Nixon and Henry Kissinger, after some initial suspicion, amounted to co-opting Brandt's Ostpolitik. \n\nIn 1971, Brandt received the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in improving relations with East Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union. Brandt negotiated a peace treaty with Poland, and agreements on the boundaries between the two countries, signifying the official and long-delayed end of World War II. Brandt negotiated parallel treaties and agreements with Czechoslovakia.\n\nIn West Germany, Brandt's Neue Ostpolitik was extremely controversial, dividing the populace into two camps. One camp embraced all of the conservative parties, and most notably those West German residents and their families who had been driven west (\"die Heimatvertriebenen\") by Stalinist ethnic cleansing from Historical Eastern Germany, especially the part that was given to Poland as a consequence of the end of the war; western Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland); and the rest of Eastern Europe, such as in Romania. These groups of displaced Germans and their descendants loudly voiced their opposition to Brandt's policy, calling it \"illegal\" and \"high treason\".\n\nA different camp supported and encouraged Brandt's Neue Ostpolitik as aiming at \"Wandel durch Annäherung\" (\"change through rapprochement\"), encouraging change through a policy of engagement with the (communist) Eastern Bloc, rather than trying to isolate those countries diplomatically and commercially. Brandt's supporters claim that the policy did help to break down the Eastern Bloc's \"siege mentality\", and also helped to increase its awareness of the contradictions in its brand of Socialism/Communism, which – together with other events – eventually led to the downfall of Eastern European Communism.\n\nDomestic policies \n\nPolitical and social changes \n\nWest Germany in the late 1960s was shaken by student disturbances and a general \"change of the times\" that not all Germans were willing to accept or approve. What had seemed a stable, peaceful nation, happy with its outcome of the \"Wirtschaftswunder\" (\"economic miracle\") faced economic turbulence. The German baby-boom generation wanted to come to terms with the deeply conservative, bourgeois, and demanding parent generation. The baby-boomer students were the most outspoken, and they accused their \"parental generation\" of being outdated and old-fashioned and even of having a Nazi past. Compared to their forebears, the \"skeptical generation\" was much more capricious, willing to embrace more extreme socialist ideology (such as Maoism), and public heroes (such as Ho Chi Minh, Fidel Castro, and Che Guevara), while living a looser and more promiscuous lifestyle. Students and young apprentices could afford to move out of their parents' homes, and left-wing politics was considered to be chic, as well as taking part in American-style political demonstrations against having American military forces in South Vietnam.\n\nBrandt's popularity \n\nBrandt's predecessor as chancellor, Kurt Georg Kiesinger, had been a member of the Nazi party, and was a more old-fashioned conservative-liberal intellectual. Brandt, having fought the Nazis and having faced down communist Eastern Germany during several crises while he was the mayor of Berlin, became a controversial, but credible, figure in several different factions. As the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Kiesinger's grand coalition cabinet, Brandt helped to gain further international approval for Western Germany, and he laid the foundation stones for his future Neue Ostpolitik. There was a wide public-opinion gap between Kiesinger and Brandt in the West German polls.\n\nBoth men had come to their own terms with the new baby boomer lifestyles. Kiesinger considered them to be \"a shameful crowd of long-haired drop-outs who needed a bath and someone to discipline them\". On the other hand, Brandt needed a while to get into contact with, and to earn credibility among, the \"Ausserparlamentarische Opposition\" (APO) (\"the extra-parliamentary opposition\"). The students questioned West German society in general, seeking social, legal, and political reforms. Also, the unrest led to a renaissance of right-wing parties in some of the Bundeslands' (German states under the Bundesrepublik) Parliaments.\n\nBrandt, however, represented a figure of change, and he followed a course of social, legal, and political reforms. In 1969, Brandt gained a small majority by forming a coalition with the FDP. In his first speech before the Bundestag as the chancellor, Brandt set forth his political course of reforms ending the speech with his famous words, \"Wir wollen mehr Demokratie wagen\" (literally: \"Let's dare more democracy\", or more figuratively, \"We want to take a chance on more Democracy\"). This speech made Brandt, as well as the Social Democratic Party, popular among most of the students and other young West German baby-boomers who dreamed of a country that would be more open and more colorful than the frugal and still somewhat-authoritarian Bundesrepublik that had been built after World War II. However, Brandt's Neue Ostpolitik lost him a large part of the German refugee voters from East Germany, who had been significantly pro-SPD in the postwar years.\n\nChancellor of domestic reform \n\nAlthough Brandt is perhaps best known for his achievements in foreign policy, his government oversaw the implementation of a broad range of social reforms, and was known as a \"Kanzler der inneren Reformen\" ('Chancellor of domestic reform'). According to the historian David Childs, \"Brandt was anxious that his government should be a reforming administration and a number of reforms were embarked upon\". Within a few years, the education budget rose from 16 billion to 50 billion DM, while one out of every three DM spent by the new government was devoted to welfare purposes. As noted by the journalist and historian Marion Dönhoff,\n\n\"People were seized by a completely new feeling about life. A mania for large scale reforms spread like wildfire, affecting schools, universities, the administration, family legislation. In the autumn of 1970 Jürgen Wischnewski of the SPD declared, 'Every week more than three plans for reform come up for decision in cabinet and in the Assembly.'\" \n\nAccording to Helmut Schmidt, Willy Brandt's domestic reform programme had accomplished more than any previous programme for a comparable period. Levels of social expenditure were increased, with more funds allocated towards housing, transportation, schools, and communication, and substantial federal benefits were provided for farmers. Various measures were introduced to extend health care coverage, while federal aid to sports organisations was increased. A number of liberal social reforms were instituted whilst the welfare state was significantly expanded (with total public spending on social programs nearly doubling between 1969 and 1975), with health, housing, and social welfare legislation bringing about welcome improvements, and by the end of the Brandt Chancellorship West Germany had one of the most advanced systems of welfare in the world.\n\nSubstantial increases were made in social security benefits such as injury and sickness benefits, pensions, unemployment benefits, housing allowances, basic subsistence aid allowances, and family allowances and living allowances. In the government's first budget, sickness benefits were increased by 9.3%, pensions for war widows by 25%, pensions for the war wounded by 16%, and retirement pensions by 5%. Numerically, pensions went up by 6.4% (1970), 5.5% (1971), 9.5% (1972), 11.4% (1973), and 11.2% (1974). Adjusted for changes in the annual price index, pensions went up in real terms by 3.1% (1970), 0.3% (1971), 3.9% (1972), 4.4% (1973), and 4.2% (1974). Between 1972 and 1974, the purchasing power of pensioners went up by 19%. In 1970, war pensions were increased by 16%. War victim’s pensions went up by 5.5% in January 1971, and by 6.3% in January 1972. By 1972, war pensions for orphans and parents had gone up by around 40%, and for widows by around 50%. Between 1970 and 1972, the “Landabgaberente” (land transfer pension) went up by 55%. Between 1969 and 1974, the average real standard rate of income support rose (in 1991 prices) from around 300 DM to around 400 DM. \n\nIn 1970, seagoing pilots became retrospectively insurable, and gained full social security as members of the Non-Manual Workers Insurance Institute. That same year, a special regulation came into force for District Master Chimney Sweeps, making them fully insurable under the Craftsman's Insurance Scheme. An increase was made in tax-free allowances for children, which enabled 1,000,000 families to claim an allowance for the second child, compared to 300,000 families previously. The Second Modification and Supplementation Law (1970) increased the allowance for the third child from DM 50 to DM 60, raised the income-limit for the second child allowance from DM 7,800 to DM 13,200; subsequently increased to DM 15,000 by the third modification law (December 1971), DM 16,800 by the fourth modification law (November 1973), and to DM 18,360 by the fifth modification law (December 1973). A flexible retirement age after 62 years was introduced (1972) for invalids and handicapped persons, and social assistance was extended to those who previously had to be helped by their relatives. From 1971, special subventions were provided to enable young farmers to quit farming “and facilitate their entry into the non-agricultural pension system by means of back payments.” \n\nThe Third Modification Law (1974) extended individual entitlements to social assistance by means of higher-income limits compatible with receipt of benefits and lowered age limits for certain special benefits. Rehabilitation measures were also extended, child supplements were expressed as percentages of standard amounts and were thus indexed to their changes, and grandparents of recipients were exempted from potential liability to reimburse expenditure of social assistance carrier. The Third Social Welfare Amendment Act (1974) brought considerable improvements for the handicapped, those in need of care, and older persons, and a new fund of 100 million marks for disabled children was established. Allowances for retraining and advanced training and for refugees from East Germany were also increased, together with federal grants for sport. In addition, increases were made in the pensions of 2.5 million war victims. Following a sudden increase in the price of oil, a law was passed in December 1973 granting recipients of social assistance and housing allowances a single heating-oil allowance (a procedure repeated in the winter of 1979 during the Schmidt Administration). Improvements and automatic adjustments of maintenance allowances for participants in vocational training measures were also carried out.\n\nThere was determined, by statutory regulation issued in February 1970, the category of persons most seriously disabled “to whom, with regard to maintenance aid, an increased demand (50% of the appropriate rate) is being conceded, and, within the scope of relief in special living conditions: a higher rate of nursing aid.” In 1971, the retirement age for miners was lowered to 50. An April 1972 law providing for \"promotion of social aid services\" aimed to remedy, through various beneficial measures (particularly in the field of national insurance and working conditions), the staff-shortage suffered by social establishments in their medico-social, educational and other work. A bill to harmonize re-education benefit and another bill relating to severely handicapped persons became law in May and September 1972 respectively. In 1972, winter payments for construction workers were introduced. For those in the armed forces, the Federal Cost of Moving Act increased the relocation allowance (with effect from the 1st of November 1973), with the basic allowances raised by DM 50 and DM 100 respectively, while extra allowances for families were raised to a uniform amount of 125 DM. \n\nTo assist family planning and marriage and family guidance, the government allocated DM 2 232 000 in 1973 for the payment and for the basic and further training of staff. A special effort was also made in 1973 to organize the recreation of handicapped persons, with a holiday guide for the handicapped issued with the aid of the Federal Ministry of Family and Youth Affairs and Health in order to help them find suitable holiday accommodation for themselves and their families. From 1972 to 1973, the total amount of individual aids granted by Guarantee Fund for the integration of young immigrants increased from 17 million DM to 26 million DM. Under a law passed in April 1974, the protection hitherto granted to the victims of war or industrial accidents for the purpose of their occupational and social reintegration was extended to all handicapped persons, whatever the cause of their handicap, provided that their capacity to work had been reduced by at least 50%. \n\nA law on explosives (Sprengstoffgesetz) was the subject of two application ordinances (on the 17th of November 1970 and the 24th of August 1971) and a general regulatory provision (the 19th of May 1971), which covered respectively the application of the law to nationals of EC Member States, the duty of employers to notify in time the inspection authorities of detonation plans, the interpretation of the purpose and field of application of the law, authorizations for transport of explosives, and control and recognition of training courses on work with explosives. Taking into account the enormous high peaks of air traffic noise and its concentration at a limited number of airports, the Law for Protection against Aircraft Noise of 1971 sought to balance two conflicting demands, the first being the legitimate demand by industry, business and the public for an efficient air-traffic-system, and secondly, the understandable and by no means less legitimate claims of the affected people for protection and compensation. The legislation regulated the establishment of so-called \"Lärmschutzzonen\" (protection areas against aircraft noise) for all 11 international airports and for those 34 military airports used for jet air craft, and the law also authorised the Federal Department of the Interior to decree protection areas for each of those mentioned airports with approval by the \"Bundesrat,\" the representation of the German Federal States. \n\nIn the field of health care, various measures were introduced to improve the quality and availability of health care provision. Free hospital care was introduced for 9 million recipients of social relief, while a contributory medical service for 23 million panel patients was introduced. Pensioners were exempted from paying a 2% health insurance contribution, while improvements in health insurance provision were carried out, as characterised by an expanded sickness insurance scheme, with the inclusion of preventative treatment. The income limit for compulsory sickness insurance was indexed to changes in the wage level (1970) and the right to medical cancer screening for 23.5 million people was introduced. In January 1971, the reduction of sickness allowance in case of hospitalisation was discontinued. That same year, compulsory health insurance was extended to the self-employed. In 1970, the government included nonmedical psychotherapists and psychoanalysts in the national health insurance program. \n\nPupils, students and children in kindergartens were incorporated into the accident insurance scheme, which benefited 11 million children. Free medical checkups were introduced that same year, while the Farmers' Sickness Insurance Law (1972) introduced compulsory sickness insurance for independent farmers, family workers in agriculture, and pensioners under the farmers' pension scheme, medical benefits for all covered groups, and cash benefits for family workers under compulsory coverage for pension insurance. Participation in employer's health insurance was extended to four million employees. A Development Law of December 1970 made it possible for all employees voluntarily to become members of the statutory sickness insurance. The level of income for compulsory sickness insurance was indexed to 75% of the respective assessment level for pension insurance, while voluntarily insured employees were granted a claim to an allowance towards their sickness insurance from their employer. This law also introduced a new type of sickness insurance benefit, namely facilities for the early diagnosis of disease. Apart from the discretionary service of disease prevention which had existed since 1923, insured persons now had a right in certain circumstances to medical examinations aimed at the early diagnosis of disease. According to one study, this marked a change in the concept of sickness insurance: it now aimed at securing good health.\n\nThe Hospital Financing Law (1972) secured the supply of hospitals and reduced the cost of hospital care, \"defined the financing of hospital investment as a public responsibility, single states to issue plans for hospital development, and the federal government to bear the cost of hospital investment covered in the plans, rates for hospital care thus based on running costs alone, hospitals to ensure that public subsidies together with insurance fund payments for patients cover total costs\". The Benefit Improvement Law (1973) made entitlement to hospital care legally binding (entitlements already enjoyed in practice), abolished time limits for hospital care, introduced entitlement to household assistance under specific conditions, and also introduced entitlement to leave of absence from work and cash benefits in the event of a child's illness. In 1971, to encourage the growth of registered family holiday centres, the Federal Government granted subsidies for the building and appointing of 28 of these centres at a total cost of 8 million DM. Free preliminary investigations were introduced for 2.5 million children up until the age of 4 for the early detection and correction of developmental disorders, and health research was expanded. Federal grants were increased, especially for the Cancer Research Centre in Heidelberg, while a Federal Institute for Sport Science was set up, together with the Institute for Social Medicine and Epidemiology in Berlin. In addition, funding for new rehabilitation facilities was increased.\n\nThe Pension Reform Law (1972) guaranteed all retirees a minimum pension regardless of their contributions and institutionalized the norm that the standard pension (of average earners with forty years of contributions) should not fall below 50% of current gross earnings. The 1972 pension reforms improved eligibility conditions and benefits for nearly every subgroup of the West German population. The income replacement rate for employees who made full contributions was raised to 70% of average earnings. The reform also replaced 65 as the mandatory retirement age with a \"retirement window\" ranging between 63 and 65 for employees who had worked for at least thirty-five years. Employees who qualified as disabled and had worked for at least thirty-five years were extended a more generous retirement window, which ranged between the ages of 60 and 62. Women who had worked for at least fifteen years (ten of which had to be after the age of age 40) and the long-term unemployed were also granted the same retirement window as the disabled. In addition, there were no benefit reductions for employees who had decided to retire earlier than the age of 65. The legislation also changed the way in which pensions were calculated for low-income earners who had been covered for twenty-five or more years. If the pension benefit fell below a specified level, then such workers were allowed to substitute a wage figure of 75% of the average wage during this period, thus creating something like a minimum wage benefit. \n\nVoluntary retirement at 63 with no deductions in the level of benefits was introduced, together with the index-linking of war victim's pensions to wage increases. Guaranteed minimum pension benefits for all West Germans were introduced, along with automatic pension increases for war widows (1970). Fixed minimum rates for women in receipt of very low pensions were also introduced, together with equal treatment for war widows. Improvements in pension provision were made for women and the self-employed, a new minimum pension for workers with at least twenty-five years' insurance was introduced, faster pension indexation was implemented, with the annual adjustment of pensions brought forward by six months, and the Seventh Modification Law (1973) linked the indexation of farmers' pensions to the indexation of the general pension insurance scheme.\n\nIn education, the Brandt Administration sought to widen educational opportunities for all West Germans. An addition was made to the Basic Law which gave the Federal Government some responsibility for educational planning. A big increase in spending on education was carried out, with educational expenses per head of the population multiplied by five, while the government presided over an increase in the number of teachers. Generous public stipends were introduced for students to cover their living costs, while West German universities were converted from elite schools into mass institutions. The school leaving age was raised to 16, and spending on research and education was increased by nearly 300% between 1970 and 1974. Working through a planning committee set up for the “joint task” of university development, the Federal Government started to make investment costs in 1971. Fees for higher or further education were abolished, while a considerable increase in the number of higher education institutions took place. A much needed school and college construction program was carried out, together with the introduction of postgraduate support for highly qualified graduates, providing them with the opportunity to earn their doctorates or undertake research studies. \n\nGrants were introduced for pupils from lower income groups to stay on at school, together with grants for those going into any kind of higher or further education. Increases were also made in educational allowances, as well as spending on science. In 1972, the government allocated 2.1 million DM in grants to promote marriage and family education. Under the Approbationsordnung (medical education profession act) of 1970, the subject of psychosomatic medicine and psychotherapy at German universities became a compulsory subject for medical students, and that same year education of clinical and biomedical engineers was introduced. The Brandt Administration also introduced enabling legislation for the introduction of comprehensives, but left it to the Lander \"to introduce them at their discretion.\" While the more left-wing Lander \"rapidly began to do so,\" other Lander found \"all sorts of pretexts for delaying the scheme.\" By the mid-Eighties, Berlin had 25 comprehensives while Bavaria only had 1, and in most Lander comprehensives were still viewed as \"merely experimental.\" \n\nIn the field of housing, various measures were carried out to benefit householders, such as in improving the rights of tenants and increasing rental assistance. According to the Rent Subsidies Act (Wohngeldgestz) of 1970, “low-income tenants and owners of accommodations are supported with rents and burdens subsidies.” The determination of the income of families taken into consideration for housing allowances was simplified, and increased levels of protection and support for low-income tenants and householders were introduced which led to a drop in the number of eviction notices. By 1974, three times as much was paid out in rent subsidies as in 1969, and nearly one and a half million households received rental assistance. Increases were made in public housing subsidies, as characterised by a 36% increase in the social housing budget in 1970 and by the introduction of a programme for the construction of 200,000 public housing units (1971). From 1970 to 1971, an 18.1% increase in building permits for social housing units was made. Other reforms aimed at improving tenants' rights included protection against conversion of rental housing into condominiums, the prohibition of the misappropriation of living space, new regulation of the apartment broker system, and a fee scale for engineers and architects. In addition, the income limits for eligibility for social housing were raised and adapted in order of general income trends.\n\nA loose form of rent regulation was introduced under the name of \"Vergleichmieten\" ('comparable rents'), together with the provision of \"for family-friendly housing\" freight or rent subsidies to owners of apartments or houses whose ceiling had been adapted to increased expenses or incomes (1970). In addition, a law for the creation of property for workers was passed, under which a married worker would normally keep up to 95% of his pay, and graded tax remission for married wage-earners applied up to a wage of 48,000 marks, which indicated the economic prosperity of West Germany at that time. The Town Planning Act (1971) encouraged the preservation of historical heritage and helped open up the way to the future of many German cities, while the Urban Renewal Act (1971) helped the states to restore their inner cities and to develop new neighbourhoods. \n\nThe Second Housing Allowance Law of December 1970 simplified the administration of housing allowances and extended entitlements, increased the income limit to 9,600 DM per year plus 2,400 DM for each family member, raised the general deduction on income to determine reckonable income from 15% to 20%, allowance rates listed in tables replacing complicated calculation procedure based on \"bearable rent burdens.\" The Housing Construction Modification Law (1971) increased the income-limit for access to low rent apartments under the social housing programme from 9,000 DM to 12,000 DM per annum plus 3,000 DM (instead of 2,400) for each family member. The law also introduced special subsidies to reduce the debt burden for builders not surpassing the regular income-limit by more than 40%. Under a 1973 law, the limits were increased to 1,000 DM plus 9,000 DM and 4,200 DM for additional family members. The Rent Improvement Law (1971) strengthened the position of tenants. Under this legislation, notice was to be ruled illegal \"where appropriate substitute accommodation not available; landlords obliged to specify reasons for notice,\" whilst the Eviction Protection Law (1971) established tenant protection against rent rises and notice. The notice was only lawful if in the \"justified interest of the landlord.\" Under this law, higher rents were not recognised as \"justified interest.\" The Second Eviction Protection Law (1972) made the tenant protection introduced under the Eviction Protection Law of 1971 permanent. Under this new law, the notice was only lawful where the landlord proved justified personal interest in the apartment. In addition, rent increases were only lawful if not above normal comparable rents in the same area.\n\nDirectives on the housing of foreign workers came into force in April 1971. These directives imposed certain requirements for space, hygiene, safety, and amenities in the accommodation offered by employers. That same year, the Federal Government granted a sum of 17 million DM to the Länder for the improvement and modernization of housing built before 21 June 1948. In addition, according to a 1971 regulation of the Board of the Federal Labour Office, “construction of workers’ hostels qualified for government financial support under certain conditions.” The \"German Council for town development\", which was set up by virtue of Article 89 of a law to foster urban building, was partly aimed at planning a favourable environment for families (such as the provision of playgrounds). In 1971, the Federal Labour Office made available DM 425 million in the form of loans to provide 157 293 beds in 2 494 hostels. A year later, the Federal Government (Bund), the Lander and the Federal Labour Office promoted the construction of dwellings for migrant workers. They set aside 10 million DM for this purpose, which allowed the financing of 1650 family dwellings that year.\n\nDevelopment measures were begun in 1972 with federal financial aid granted to the Lander for improvement measures relating to towns and villages, and in the 1972 budget, DM 50 million was earmarked, i.e. a third of the total cost of some 300 schemes. A council for urban development was formed in May 1972 with the purpose of promoting future work and measures in the field of urban renovation. In 1973, the government provided assistance of DM 28 million for the modernisation of old dwellings. New rules were introduced regarding improvements in the law relating to rented property, and control of the rise in rents and protection against cancellation of leases also safeguarded the rights of migrant workers in the sphere of housing. A law of July 1973 fixed the fundamental and minimum requirements regarding workers' dwellings, mainly concerning space, ventilation and lighting, protection against damp, heat and noise, power and heating facilities and sanitary installations.\n\nIn regards to civil rights, the Brandt Administration introduced a broad range of socially liberal reforms aimed at making West Germany a more open society. Greater legal rights for women were introduced, as exemplified by the standardisation of pensions, divorce laws, regulations governing use of surnames, and the introduction of measures to bring more women into politics. The voting age was lowered from 21 to 18, the age of eligibility for political office was lowered to 21, and the age of majority was lowered to 18 in March 1974. The Third Law for the Liberalization of the Penal Code (1970) liberalised \"the right to political demonstration\", while equal rights were granted to illegitimate children that same year. A 1971 amendment to a federal civil service reform bill enabled fathers to apply for part-time civil service work. In 1971, corporal punishment was banned in schools, and that same year a new Highway Code was introduced. In 1973, a measure was introduced that facilitated the adoption of young children by reducing the minimum age for adoptive parents from 35 to 25.\n\nA number of reforms were also carried out to the armed forces, as characterised by a reduction in basic military training from 18 to 15 months, a reorganisation of education and training, and personnel and procurement procedures. Education for the troops was improved, a personnel reshuffle of top management in the Bundeswehr was carried out, academic education was mandated for officers beyond their basic military training, and a new recruiting policy for Bundeswehr personnel was introduced with the intention of building an army that reflected West Germany’s pluralistic society. Defense Minister Helmut Schmidt led the development of the first Joint Service Regulation ZDv 10/1 (Assistance for Innere Fuehrung, classified: restricted), which revitalized the concept of Innere Fuehrung while also affirming the value of the “citizen in uniform.” According to one study, as a result of this reform, “a strong civil mindset displaced the formerly dominant military mindset,” and forced the Bundeswehr’s elder generation to accept a new type of soldier envisioned by Schmidt. \n\nIn 1970, the Armed Forces Vocational Schools and the Vocational Advancement Organization extended their services for the first time to conscripts, “so far as military duty permitted.” New enlistment bonuses were authorized and previous bonus schemes were improved, and new pay regulations were introduced that improved the financial situation of military personnel and civil servants. In July 1973, the 3rd Amendment to the Civilian Service Act came into force; “a prerequisite for the creation of additional civilian service places for recognized conscientious objectors.” The amendment provided that men recognized as conscientious objectors while performing military service should immediately be transferred to a civilian service assignment. The maximum amount for servicemen enlisting for at least 12 years was increased from DM 6,000 to DM 9,000, and from October 1971 onwards, long-term personnel were paid grants towards the cost ‘of attending educational institutes of the “second educational route\" or participating in state-recognized general education courses provided by private correspondence schools and the “television college.\"' In 1972, two Bundeswehr universities were established; a reform which, according to one historian, “fought against the closed nature of the military and guaranteed that officers would be better able to successfully interact with the civilian world.” In addition, the position of non-commissioned officers was improved. \n\nA women's policy machinery at the national level was established in 1972 while amnesty was guaranteed in minor offences connected with demonstrations. From 1970 onwards, parents as well as landlords were no longer legally prohibited “to give or rent rooms or flats to unmarried couples or to allow them to stay overnight.” In October 1972, the legal aid system was improved with the compensation paid to private lawyers for legal services to the poor increased. The Bausparkassen Act of 1972 placed all Bausparkassen (from January 1974 onwards) under the supervision of the Federal Banking Supervisory Office, and confined Bausparkassen “to the contract saving business and related activities.” The Animal Protection Act, passed in 1972, introduced various safeguards for animals such as not permitting the causing of pain, injury, or suffering to an animal without justification, and limiting experiments to the minimum number of animals necessary. In 1971, rules were introduced making it possible for former guestworkers “to receive an unlimited residence permit after a five-year stay.” \n\nLegislation aimed at safeguarding consumers was also implemented under the Brandt Administration. The consumer's right of withdrawal in case of hire purchase was strengthened in March 1974, and fixed prices for branded products were abolished by law in January that same year, which meant that manufacturers' recommended prices were not binding for retailers. In addition, a progressive anticartel law was passed. A 1969 law on explosive materials was supplemented by two orders; the first (made in November 1969) establishing a committee of experts for explosive materials, while the second order (made the following month) included details for the implementation of the law on explosive materials. An Act of December 1959 on the peaceful use of nuclear energy and protection against its dangers was amended by an Act of June 1970 that established a tax levied for the costs for permissions and surveillance measures. The Law on Compensation for Measures of Criminal Prosecution and Penalties, passed in March 1971, provided for standardized compensation in certain situations. \n\nIn terms of working conditions, a number of reforms were introduced aimed at strengthening the rights of workers both at home and in the workplace. The Sickness Act of 1970 provided equal treatment of workers and employees in the event of incapacity for work, while maternity leave was increased. Legislation was introduced in 1970 which ensured continued payment of wages for workers disabled by illness. In 1970 all employees unit for work (with the exception of women in receipt of maternity benefits and temporarily and inconsiderably employed persons) were provided with an unconditional legal claim against their employer to continued payment of their gross wage for a period of 6 weeks, as also in the case of spa treatment approved by an Insurance Fund, the Fund bearing the full cost thereof. Previously, payment of employer's supplement and sick pay were only made from the day on which the doctor certified unfitness for work. In 1972, an Act on Agency Work was passed which sought to prevent works agencies from providing job placement services and aimed to provide job minimum protection for employees in agency work. A law on the hiring out of manpower, passed in October 1972, contained provisions to stipulate prior authorization for the hiring out of manpower, to draw a distinction between the system governing workers hired out and the placing of workers, to regulate and improve the rights of hired out workers pertaining to working conditions and social insurance, and provide for more severe penalties and fines to be imposed on offenders.\n\nImprovements were also made in income and work conditions for home workers, accident insurance was extended to non-working adults, and the Border Zone Assistance Act (1971) increased levels of assistance to the declining zonal peripheral area. The Occupational Safety Act (1973) required employers to provide company doctors and safety experts. A directive on protection against noise at the place of work was adopted in November 1970. If measurements showed or there was reason to assume that a noise level guide value of 90 dB( A) may be exceeded at the place of work, then the authority had to instruct the employer to arrange check-ups of the employees concerned and these employees had to use personal noise protection devices. A matching fund program for 15 million employees was also introduced, which stimulated them to accumulate capital.\n\nA ministerial order of January 1970 extended protection in cases of partial unemployment to home workers, while an ordinance of August 1970 fixed the conditions of health necessary for service in the merchant navy. A general provision of October 1970 determined in detail the circumstances in which the competent authority must take action on the basis of the act on the technical means of work. The requirement also stipulated the extent to which the technical standards established by national and international organisations can be regarded as “rules of the art.” In a directive of 10 November 1970, the Minister of Labour and Social Affairs recommended to the higher authorities for work protection of the \"Lander\" to bring in the directive published, in agreement with the Ministry of Labour, by the German Engineers' Association on the evaluation of work station noise in relation to loss of hearing, in order to improve safeguards for workers against the noises in question. In September 1971, an ordinance was published concerning dangerous working materials; safeguarding persons using these materials against the dangers involved. In August 1971, a law came into force directed at reducing atmospheric pollution from lead compounds in four-stroke engine fuels. As a safeguard against radiation, a decree on the system of authorisations for medicaments treated with ionizing radiation or containing radioactive substances, in its version of 8 August 1967, was remodelled by a new Decree of 10 May 1971 which added some radionuclides to the list of medicaments which doctors in private practice were authorized to use. A law on individual promotion of vocational training came into force in October 1971, which provided for financial grants for attendance at further general or technical teaching establishments from the second year of studies at higher technical schools, academies and higher education establishments, training centres of second degree, or certain courses of television teaching. Grants were also made in certain cases for attendance at training centres located outside the Federal Republic.\n\nBy a decree of the Federal Minister for Labour and Social Order, the Federal Institute for Industrial Protection became the Federal Agency for Industrial Protection and Accident Research. Amongst its designated tasks included the promotion of industrial protection, accident prevention on the journey to and from work and accident prevention in the home and leisure activities, the encouragement of training and advanced training in the area of industrial protection, and to promote and coordinate accident research. A regulation was issued in 1972 which permitted for the first time the employment of women as drivers of trams, omnibuses and lorries, while further regulations laid down new provisions for lifts and work with compressed air. The Factory Constitution Law (1971) strengthened the rights of individual employees \"to be informed and to be heard on matters concerning their place of work.\" The Works Council was provided with greater authority while trade unions were given the right of entry into the factory \"provided they informed the employer of their intention to do so,\" while a law was passed to encourage wider share ownership by workers and other rank-and-file employees. The Industrial Relations Law (1972) and the Personnel Representation Act (1974) broadened the rights of employees in matters which immediately affected their places of work, while also improving the possibilities for codetermination on operations committees, together with access of trade unions to companies.\n\nThe Works Constitution Act of 1972 required in cases of collective dismissal at an establishment normally employing more than twenty employees that management and the works council must negotiate a social plan that stipulates compensation for workers who lose their jobs. In cases where the two parties could not agree on a social plan, the law provided for binding arbitration. In 1972, the rights of works councils to information from management were not only strengthened, but works councils were also provided with full codetermination rights on issues such as working time arrangements in the plant, the setting of piece rates, plant wage systems, the establishment of vacation times, work breaks, overtime, and short-time work. Legislation was passed which acknowledged for the first time the presence of trade unions in the workplace, expanded the means of action of the works councils, and improved their work basics as well as those of the youth councils. \n\nA law of January 1972 on the organization of labour in enterprises significantly extended the works council's right of cooperation and co-management in the matter of vocational training. That same year, the Safety Institute of the Federal Republic of Germany was transformed into a public Federal Agency (Bundesanstalt) with significantly enlarged powers, in the context of which special emphasis would be placed on its new task of promoting and coordinating research in the area of accident prevention. New provisions were introduced for the rehabilitation of severely disabled people (\"Schwerbehinderte\") and accident victims. The Severely Disabled Persons Act of April 1974 obliged all employers with more than fifteen employees to ensure that 6% of their workforce consisted of people officially recognised as being severely handicapped. Employers who failed to do so were assessed 100 DM per month for every job falling before the required quota. These compensatory payments were used to \"subsidise the adaptation of workplaces to the requirements of those who were severely handicapped.\"\n\nA law passed in January 1974, designed to protect members of the supervisory boards of companies who are undergoing training, was aimed at ensuring that the representatives of young workers and youthful members of works councils still undergoing training could perform their duties with greater independence and without fear of disadvantageous consequences for their future careers. On request, workers' representatives on completion of their training courses had to have an employment relationship of unlimited duration. In the field of transport, the Municipal Transportation Finance Law of 1971 established federal guidelines for subsidies to municipal governments, while the Federal Transport Plan of 1973 provided a framework for all transport, including public transport. \n\nA federal environmental programme was established in 1971, and in 1972 laws were passed to regulate garbage elimination and air pollution via emission. Matching grants covering 90% of infrastructure development were allocated to local communities, which led to a dramatic increase in the number of public swimming pools and other facilities of consumptive infrastructure throughout West Germany. The federal crime-fighting apparatus was also modernised, while a Foreign Tax Act was passed which limited the possibility of tax evasion. In addition, efforts were made to improve the railways and motorways. In 1971, a law was passed setting the maximum lead content at 0.4 grams per liter of gasoline, and in 1972 DDT was banned. The Federal Immissions Control Law, passed in March 1974, provided protection from noxious gases, noise, and air-borne particulate matter. \n\nUnder the Brandt Administration, West Germany attained a lower rate of inflation than in other industrialised countries at that time, while a rise in the standard of living took place, helped by the floating and revaluation of the mark. This was characterised by the real incomes of employees increasing more sharply than incomes from entrepreneurial work, with the proportion of employees' incomes in the overall national income rising from 65% to 70% between 1969 and 1973, while the proportion of income from entrepreneurial work and property fell over that same period from just under 35% to 30%. In addition, the percentage of West Germans living in poverty (based on various definitions) fell between 1969 and 1973. \n\n1972 crisis \n\nBrandt's Ostpolitik led to a meltdown of the narrow majority Brandt's coalition enjoyed in the Bundestag. In October 1970, FDP deputies Erich Mende, Heinz Starke, and Siegfried Zoglmann crossed the floor to join the CDU. On 23 February 1972, SPD deputy Herbert Hupka, who was also leader of the Bund der Vertriebenen, joined the CDU in disagreement with Brandt's reconciliatory efforts towards the east. On 23 April 1972, Wilhelm Helms (FDP) left the coalition ; the FDP politicians Knud von Kühlmann-Stumm and Gerhard Kienbaum also declared that they would vote against Brandt; thus, Brandt had lost his majority. On 24 April 1972 a vote of no confidence was proposed and it was voted on three days later. Had this motion passed, Rainer Barzel would have replaced Brandt as chancellor. To everyone's surprise, the motion failed: Barzel got only 247 votes out of 260 ballots; for an absolute majority, 249 votes would have been necessary. There were also 10 votes against the motion and three invalid ballots. Most deputies of SPD and FDP did not take part in the voting, as not voting had the same effect as voting for Brandt.\n\nNew elections \n\nThough Brandt remained chancellor, he had lost his majority. Subsequent initiatives in parliament, most notably on the budget, failed. Because of this stalemate, the Bundestag was dissolved and new elections were called. During the 1972 campaign, many popular West German artists, intellectuals, writers, actors and professors supported Brandt and the SPD. Among them were Günter Grass, Walter Jens, and even the soccer player Paul Breitner. Brandt's ' as well as his reformist domestic policies were popular with parts of the young generation and he led the SPD to its best-ever federal election result in late 1972. The ', Brandt's landslide win was the beginning of the end; and Brandt's role in government started to decline.\n\nMany of Brandt's reforms met with resistance from state governments (dominated by CDU/CSU). The spirit of reformist optimism was cut short by the 1973 oil crisis and the major public services strike 1974, which gave Germany's trade unions, led by Heinz Kluncker, a big wage increase but reduced Brandt's financial leeway for further reforms. Brandt was said to be more a dreamer than a manager and was personally haunted by depression. To counter any notions about being sympathetic to Communism or soft on left-wing extremists, Brandt implemented tough legislation that barred \"radicals\" from public service (').\n\nGuillaume affair \n\nAround 1973, West German security organizations [which ones?] received information that one of Brandt's personal assistants, Günter Guillaume, was a spy for the East German intelligence services. Brandt was asked to continue working as usual, and he agreed to do so, even taking a private vacation with Guillaume. Guillaume was arrested on 24 April 1974, and many blamed Brandt for having a communist spy in his inner circle.\n\nBrandt resigned from his position as chancellor on 6 May 1974, but he remained member of the Bundestag and chairman of the Social Democrats through 1987.\nThis espionage affair is widely considered to have been just the trigger for Brandt's resignation, not the fundamental cause. As Brandt himself later said, \"I was exhausted, for reasons which had nothing to do with the affair [the Guillaume espionage scandal] going on at the time.\" \nBrandt was dogged by scandals about serial adultery, and reportedly also struggled with alcohol and depression. There was also the economic fallout on West Germany of the 1973 oil crisis, which may seem to have given enough stress to finish off Brandt as the Chancellor.\n\nGuillaume had been an espionage agent for East Germany, who was supervised by Markus Wolf, the head of the \nMain Directorate for Reconnaissance (Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung or HVA—the foreign intelligence service) of the East German Ministry for State Security. Wolf stated after the reunification that the resignation of Brandt had never been intended, and that the planting and handling of Guillaume had been one of the largest mistakes of the East German secret services.\n\nBrandt was succeeded as the Chancellor of the Bundesrepublik by his fellow Social Democrat, Helmut Schmidt. For the rest of his life, Brandt remained suspicious that his fellow Social Democrat (and longtime rival) Herbert Wehner had been scheming for Brandt's downfall. However, there is scant evidence to corroborate this suspicion.\n\nEx-Chancellor \n\nAfter his term as the Chancellor, Brandt retained his seat in the Bundestag, and he remained the Chairman of the Social Democratic Party through 1987. Beginning in 1987, Brandt stepped down to become the Honorary Chairman of the party. Brandt was also a member of the European Parliament from 1979 to 1983.\n\nSocialist International \n\nFor sixteen years, Brandt was the president of the Socialist International (1976–92), during which period the number of Socialist International's mainly European member parties grew until there were more than a hundred socialist, social democratic, and labour political parties around the world. For the first seven years, this growth in SI membership had been prompted by the efforts of the Socialist International's Secretary-General, the Swede Bernt Carlsson. However, in early 1983, a dispute arose about what Carlsson perceived as the SI president's authoritarian approach. Carlsson then rebuked Brandt saying: \"this is a Socialist International — not a German International\".\n\nNext, against some vocal opposition, Brandt decided to move the next Socialist International Congress from Sydney, Australia to Portugal. Following this SI Congress in April 1983, Brandt retaliated against Carlsson by forcing him to step down from his position. However, the Austrian Prime Minister, Bruno Kreisky, argued on behalf of Brandt: \"It is a question of whether it is better to be pure or to have greater numbers\". \nCarlsson was succeeded by the Finn, Pentti Väänänen as Secretary General of the Socialist International \n\nDuring Willy Brandt's presidency the SI developed activities and dialogue on a number of International issues. This concerned the East-West conflict and arms race where the SI held high level consultations with the leaderships of the United States and the Soviet Union. The SI met with such leaders as President Jimmy Carter and Vice-Presidents Walter Mondale and George Bush. They also met with the Secretaries General Leonid Brezhnev and Michail Gorbachev and with the Soviet President Andrei Gromyko. The SI also developed active contacts to promote dialogue concerning regional conflicts. Those included the Middle East, where they helped to build contacts between Israel and the PLO, and also in Southern Africa and Central America. \n\nBrandt Report \n\nIn 1977, Brandt was appointed as the chairman of the Independent Commission for International Developmental Issues. This produced a report in 1980, which called for drastic changes in the global attitude towards development in the Third World. This became known as the Brandt Report.\n\nReunification \n\nIn October 1979, Brandt met with the East German dissident, Rudolf Bahro, who had written The Alternative. Bahro and his supporters were attacked by the East German state security organization Stasi, headed by Erich Mielke, for his writings, which had laid the theoretical foundation of a leftist opposition to the ruling SED party and its dependent allies, and which promoted new and changed parties. All of this is now described as \"change from within\". Brandt had asked for Bahro's release, and Brandt welcomed Bahro's theories, which advanced the debate within his own Social Democratic Party. In late 1989, Brandt became one of the first leftwing leaders in West Germany to publicly favor a quick reunification of Germany, instead of some sort of two-state federation or other kind of interim arrangement. Brandt's public statement \"Now grows together what belongs together,\" was widely quoted in those days.\n\nHostages in Iraq \n\nOne of Brandt's last public appearances was in flying to Baghdad, Iraq, to free Western hostages held by Saddam Hussein, following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Brandt secured the release of a large number of them, and on 9 November 1990, his airplane landed with 174 freed hostages on board at the Frankfurt Airport. \n\nDeath and memorials \n\nWilly Brandt died of colon cancer at his home in Unkel, a town on the Rhine River, on 8 October 1992, and was given a state funeral. He was buried at the cemetery at Zehlendorf in Berlin.\n\nThe Federal Chancellor Willy Brandt Foundation was erected in 1994. It serves to honor the memory of Brandt's political accomplishents and his commitment to peace, freedom and democracy. The foundation runs two permanent exhibitions – one in Berlin, and the other in Lübeck, where Brandt was born. Other works of the foundation include the edition of Brandt's papers, speeches and letters (the Berlin Edition), historical research as well as organizing lectures and international conferences. \n\nWhen the SPD moved its headquarters from Bonn back to Berlin in the mid-1990s, the new headquarters was named the \"Willy Brandt Haus\". One of the buildings of the European Parliament in Brussels was named after him in 2008.\n\nOn 6 December 2000, a memorial to Willy Brandt and Warschauer Kniefall was unveiled in Warsaw, Poland.\n\nGerman artist Johannes Heisig painted several portraits of Brandt of which one was unveiled as part of an honoring event at German Historical Institute Washington, DC on 18 March 2003. Spokesmen amongst others were former German Federal Minister Egon Bahr and former U.S. Secretary of state Henry Kissinger.\n\nIn 2009, the Willy-Brandt-Memorial was opened up in Nuremberg at the Willy-Brandt Square. It was created by the artist .\n\nIn 2009, the University of Erfurt renamed its graduate school of public administration as the Willy Brandt School of Public Policy. A private German-language secondary school in Warsaw, Poland, is also named after Brandt.\n\nThe main boulevard on the north entrance to Montenegrin capital Podgorica was named Willy Brandt Boulevard in 2011. \n\nWilly Brandt also has an unusual memorial in Hammersmith in London, United Kingdom. In 1963, when he was Mayor of West Berlin, Brandt travelled to Hammersmith with a street lamp from West Berlin, and presented it to the Mayor of Hammersmith to mark its twinning with Neukölln. The lamp now stands on the wall of Westcott Lodge, facing Furnival Gardens, with a commemorative plaque below it. \n\nBrandt's family \n\nFrom 1941 until 1948 Brandt was married to Anna Carlotta Thorkildsen (the daughter of a Norwegian father and a German-American mother). They had a daughter, Ninja Brandt (born in 1940). After Brandt and Thorkildsen were divorced in 1948, Brandt married the Norwegian-born German writer Rut Hansen in the same year. Hansen and Brandt had three sons: (born in 1948), (born in 1951) and (born in 1961). After 32 years of marriage, Willy Brandt and Rut Hansen Brand divorced in 1980, and from the day that they were divorced they never saw each other again. On 9 December 1983, Brandt married (born in 1946).\n\nSelected works \n\n1960 Mein Weg nach Berlin (My Path to Berlin), autobiography\n1966 Draußen. Schriften während der Emigration. (Outside: Writings during the Emigration) ISBN 3-8012-1094-4\n1968 Friedenspolitik in Europa (The Politics of Peace in Europe)\n1976 Begegnungen und Einsichten 1960–1975 (Encounters and Insights 1960–1975) ISBN 3-455-08979-8\n1982 Links und frei. Mein Weg 1930–1950 (Left and Free: My Path 1930–1950)\n1986 Der organisierte Wahnsinn (Organized Lunacy)\n1989 Erinnerungen (Memories) ISBN 3-549-07353-4\n2002 Berliner Ausgabe, Werkauswahl, ed. for Bundeskanzler Willy Brandt Stiftung by Helga Grebing, Gregor Schöllgen and Heinrich August Winkler, 10 volumes, Dietz Verlag, Bonn 2002f, Collected Writings, ISBN 3-8012-0305-0\n\nBiographies \n\nLars Brandt, Andenken (ISBN 3-446-20710-4) \nHelga Grebing, Willy Brandt. Der andere Deutsche. (ISBN 978-3-7705-4710-4) \n\nBarbara Marshall, Willy Brandt, A Political Biography (ISBN 0-312-16438-6)\nPeter Merseburger, Willy Brandt (ISBN 3-421-05328-6) \nNestore di Meola, Willy Brandt raccontato da Klaus Lindenberg (ISBN 88-7284-712-5) \n*Hans-Joachim Noack, Willy Brandt, Ein Leben, Ein Jahrhundert (ISBN 978-3-87134-645-3)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Willy Brandt", "Karl Herbert Frahm", "Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm", "Gunnar Gaasland", "Herbert Ernst Carl Frahm", "Herbert Frahm" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "gunnar gaasland", "herbert ernst carl frahm", "willy brandt", "herbert ernst karl frahm", "karl herbert frahm", "herbert frahm" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "willy brandt", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Willy Brandt" }
What sort of Menace was the 1999 Star Wars movie?	tc_1092	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Star_Wars.txt" ], "title": [ "Star Wars" ], "wiki_context": [ "Star Wars is an American epic space opera media franchise, centered on a film series created by George Lucas. It depicts the adventures of various characters \"a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away\".\n\nThe franchise began in 1977 with the release of the film Star Wars, (subtitled Episode IV: A New Hope in 1981) by 20th Century Fox, which became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon. It was followed by the similarly successful sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983); these three films constitute the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy was later released between 1999 and 2005, which received a more mixed reaction from critics and fans in comparison to the original trilogy. A sequel trilogy is also currently being produced with the first installment as The Force Awakens (2015). All seven films were nominated for or won Academy Awards, as well as being commercial successes, with a combined box office revenue of $6.46 billion, making Star Wars the fourth highest-grossing film series. \n\nThe series has spawned an extensive media franchise—the Star Wars expanded universe, rebranded in April 2014 as Star Wars Legends—including books, television series, computer and video games, and comic books, resulting in significant development of the series's fictional universe. The Clone Wars film, television series of the same name, the Rebels television series, and the anthology films lie outside of the Legends banner and comprise part of the Star Wars official canon alongside the film trilogies. Star Wars holds a Guinness World Records title for the \"Most successful film merchandising franchise.\" In 2012, the total value of the Star Wars franchise was estimated at USD $30.7 billion, including box-office receipts as well as profits from their video games and DVD sales. \n\nIn 2012, The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm for $4.06 billion and announced three new Star Wars films; the first film of that trilogy, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, was released in 2015. 20th Century Fox retains the physical distribution rights to the first two Star Wars trilogies, owning permanent rights for the original 1977 film and holding the rights to Episodes I–III, V and VI until May 2020. Walt Disney Studios owns digital distribution rights to all the Star Wars films, excluding A New Hope. \n\nSetting\n\nThe events depicted in the Star Wars franchise take place in a fictional galaxy. Many species of alien creatures (often humanoid) are depicted. Robotic droids are also commonplace and are generally built to serve their owners. Space travel is common, and many planets in the galaxy are members of a single galactic government. In the prequel trilogy, this is depicted in the form of the Galactic Republic; at the end of the prequel trilogy and throughout the original trilogy, this government is the Galactic Empire. Preceding and during the sequel trilogy, this government is the New Republic.\n\nOne of the prominent elements of Star Wars is \"the Force\", an omnipresent energy that can be harnessed by those with that ability, known as Force-sensitives. It is described in the first produced film as \"an energy field created by all living things [that] surrounds us, penetrates us, [and] binds the galaxy together.\" The Force allows users to perform various supernatural feats (such as telekinesis, clairvoyance, precognition, and mind control) and can amplify certain physical traits, such as speed and reflexes; these abilities vary between characters and can be improved through training. While the Force can be used for good, known as the light side, it also has a dark side that, when pursued, imbues users with hatred, aggression, and malevolence.\n\nThe seven films feature the Jedi, who adhere to the light side of the Force to serve as peacekeepers and guardians, and the Sith, who use the dark side of the Force for evil in an attempt to destroy the Jedi Order and the Republic and rule the galaxy for themselves.\n\nTheatrical films\n\nThe first film in the series, Star Wars, was released on May 25, 1977. This was followed by two sequels: The Empire Strikes Back, released on May 21, 1980, and Return of the Jedi, released on May 25, 1983. The opening crawl of the sequels disclosed that they were numbered as \"Episode V\" and \"Episode VI\" respectively, though the films were generally advertised solely under their subtitles. Though the first film in the series was simply titled Star Wars, with its 1981 re-release it had the subtitle Episode IV: A New Hope added to remain consistent with its sequel, and to establish it as the middle chapter of a continuing saga.\n\nIn 1997, to correspond with the 20th anniversary of the original film, Lucas released a \"Special Edition\" of the Star Wars trilogy to theaters. The re-release featured alterations to the three films, primarily motivated by the improvement of CGI and other special effects technologies, which allowed visuals that were not possible to achieve at the time of the original filmmaking. Lucas continued to make changes to the films for subsequent releases, such as the first ever DVD release of the original trilogy on September 21, 2004, and the first ever Blu-ray release of all six films on September 16, 2011. Reception of the Special Edition was mixed, prompting petitions and fan edits to produce restored copies of the original trilogy. \n\nMore than two decades after the release of the original film, the series continued with a prequel trilogy; consisting of Episode I: The Phantom Menace, released on May 19, 1999; Episode II: Attack of the Clones, released on May 16, 2002; and Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, released on May 19, 2005. On August 15, 2008, Star Wars: The Clone Wars was released theatrically as a lead-in to the animated TV series of the same name. Star Wars: The Force Awakens was released on December 18, 2015.\n\nOn January 26, 2016, Variety reported that Disney executives were meeting with cable outlets Turner, FX Networks, Viacom, NBCUniversal, A&E Networks and AMC Networks to have a discussion on purchasing the free-TV rights to the first six Star Wars movies. \n\nSaga films\n\nAnthology films\n\nAnimated film\n\nPlot overview\n\nOriginal trilogy\n\nThe original trilogy begins with the Galactic Empire nearing completion of the Death Star space station, which will allow the Empire to crush the Rebel Alliance, an organized resistance formed to combat Emperor Palpatine's tyranny. Palpatine's Sith apprentice Darth Vader captures Princess Leia, a member of the rebellion who has stolen the plans to the Death Star and hidden them in the astromech droid R2-D2. R2, along with his protocol droid counterpart C-3PO, escapes to the desert planet Tatooine. There, the droids are purchased by farm boy Luke Skywalker and his step-uncle and aunt. While Luke is cleaning R2, he accidentally triggers a message put into the droid by Leia, who asks for assistance from the legendary Jedi Knight Obi-Wan Kenobi. Luke later assists the droids in finding the exiled Jedi, who is now passing as an old hermit under the alias Ben Kenobi. When Luke asks about his father, whom he has never met, Obi-Wan tells him that Anakin Skywalker was a great Jedi who was betrayed and murdered by Vader. Obi-Wan and Luke hire the smuggler Han Solo and his Wookiee co-pilot Chewbacca to take them to Alderaan, Leia's home world, which they eventually find has been destroyed by the Death Star. Once on board the space station, Luke and Han rescue Leia while Obi-Wan allows himself to be killed during a lightsaber duel with Vader; his sacrifice allows the group to escape with the plans that help the Rebels destroy the Death Star. Luke himself (guided by the power of the Force) fires the shot that destroys the deadly space station during the Battle of Yavin.\n\nThree years later, Luke travels to find the Jedi Master Yoda, now living in exile on the swamp-infested world of Dagobah, to begin his Jedi training. However, Luke's training is interrupted when Vader lures him into a trap by capturing Han and his friends at Cloud City. During a fierce lightsaber duel, Vader reveals that he is Luke's father and attempts to turn him to the dark side of the Force. Luke escapes and, after rescuing Han from the gangster Jabba the Hutt, returns to Yoda to complete his training; only to find the 900-year-old Jedi Master on his deathbed. Before he dies, Yoda confirms that Vader is Luke's father. Moments later, the Force ghost of Obi-Wan tells Luke that he must confront his father once again before he can become a Jedi, and that Leia is his twin sister.\n\nAs the Rebels attack the second Death Star, Luke engages Vader in another lightsaber duel as the Emperor watches; both Sith Lords intend to turn Luke to the dark side and take him as their apprentice. During the duel, Luke succumbs to his anger and brutally overpowers Vader, but controls himself at the last minute; realizing that he is about to suffer his father's fate, he spares Vader's life and proudly declares his allegiance to the Jedi. An enraged Palpatine then attempts to kill Luke with Force lightning, a sight that moves Vader to turn and kill the Emperor, suffering mortal wounds in the process. Redeemed, Anakin Skywalker dies in his son's arms. Luke becomes a full-fledged Jedi, and the Rebels destroy the second Death Star. \n\nPrequel trilogy\n\nThe prequel trilogy begins 32 years before the original film, with the corrupt Trade Federation setting up a blockade of battleships around the planet Naboo. The Sith Lord Darth Sidious had secretly planned the blockade to give his alter ego, Senator Palpatine, a pretense to overthrow and replace the Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic. At the Chancellor's request, the Jedi Knight Qui-Gon Jinn and his apprentice, a younger Obi-Wan Kenobi, are sent to Naboo to negotiate with the Federation. However, the two Jedi are forced to instead help the Queen of Naboo, Padmé Amidala, escape from the blockade and plead her planet's crisis before the Republic Senate on Coruscant. When their starship is damaged during the escape, they land on Tatooine for repairs, where Qui-Gon discovers a nine-year-old Anakin Skywalker. Qui-Gon comes to believe that Anakin is the \"Chosen One\" foretold by Jedi prophecy to bring balance to the Force, and he helps liberate the boy from slavery. The Jedi Council, led by Yoda, reluctantly allows Obi-Wan to train Anakin after Qui-Gon is killed by Palpatine's first apprentice, Darth Maul, during the Battle of Naboo. \n\nThe remainder of the prequel trilogy, set a decade later, chronicles Anakin's gradual descent to the dark side as he fights in the Clone Wars, which Palpatine secretly engineers to destroy the Jedi Order and lure Anakin into his service. Anakin and Padmé fall in love and secretly wed, and eventually Padmé becomes pregnant. Anakin has a prophetic vision of Padmé dying in childbirth, and Palpatine convinces him that the dark side of the Force holds the power to save her life. Desperate, Anakin submits to Palpatine's Sith teachings and is renamed Darth Vader.\n\nWhile Palpatine re-organizes the Republic into the tyrannical Empire, Vader participates in the extermination of the Jedi Order, culminating in a lightsaber duel between himself and Obi-Wan on the volcanic planet Mustafar. Obi-Wan defeats his former apprentice and friend, severing his limbs and leaving him to burn to death on the shores of a lava flow. Palpatine arrives shortly afterward and saves Vader by placing him into a mechanical black mask and suit of armor that serves as a permanent life support system. At the same time, Padmé dies while giving birth to twins Luke and Leia. Obi-Wan and Yoda, now the only remaining Jedi alive, agree to separate the twins and keep them hidden from both Vader and the Emperor; until the time comes when Anakin's children can be used to help overthrow the Empire.\n\nSequel trilogy\n\nApproximately 30 years after the destruction of the second Death Star, Luke Skywalker, the last Jedi, has vanished. The First Order has risen from the fallen Empire and seeks to destroy Luke and the New Republic, while the Resistance, a small force backed by the Republic and led by the former princess of Alderaan, General Leia Organa, opposes them. On the planet Jakku, Resistance pilot Poe Dameron obtains a map that leads to Luke's location. Stormtroopers under the command of Kylo Ren, the son of Han Solo and Leia, capture Poe. His droid BB-8 escapes with the map and encounters a scavenger, Rey. Ren tortures Poe and learns of BB-8. Stormtrooper FN-2187 finds himself unable to kill for the First Order, and he frees Poe. The two escape in a TIE fighter; Poe dubs FN-2187 \"Finn\". They crash on Jakku, and Poe appears to die in the process. Finn encounters Rey and BB-8, but the First Order locates them, so they escape the planet in a stolen ship: the Millennium Falcon. After leaving Jakku, the Falcon is recaptured by Han Solo and Chewbacca, who have stepped away from the Resistance and resumed their lives as smugglers. The five companions travel to Takodana to meet with Maz Kanata. While there, Rey finds the lightsaber that previously belonged Anakin and Luke Skywalker, and upon touching it, brushes with the Force. Maz's castle is attacked by the First Order. Finn, Han, and Chewbacca are saved by a group of Resistance pilots led by Poe, who survived the crash on Jakku, but Rey is captured by Ren and taken to Starkiller Base. After reuniting with Leia and the Resistance on D'Qar, Han, Finn, and Chewbacca travel to Starkiller Base to free Rey and disable the planet's shields, which will allow Resistance pilots to destroy it. Rey is tortured by Ren, but her Force sensitivity allows her to resist him. She escapes by using a Jedi mind trick on her guard and reunites with Han, Finn, and Chewbacca, but the group encounters Ren. Han confronts his son, calling him by his birth name, Ben Solo, and asking him to come home. Ren momentarily appears to be swayed towards the light side, but then ignites his lightsaber and kills Han. Resistance pilots begin to bombard the base. Finn and Rey escape the base and encounter Ren. Finn takes up Anakin's lightsaber, only to be badly wounded by Ren. Rey Force pulls the lightsaber to her, and fights and wounds Ren, but the two are separated by a rift. Rey, Finn, and Chewbacca escape the imploding planet on the Falcon and return to the Resistance. A wounded Finn stays on D'Qar, while Rey, Chewbacca, and R2-D2 use the map to find Luke Skywalker on the planet Ahch-To, where Rey presents a silent Luke with his old lightsaber.\n\nThemes\n\nThe stormtroopers from the movies share a name with the Nazi stormtroopers (see also Sturmabteilung). Imperial officers' uniforms also resemble some historical German Army uniforms (see Wehrmacht) and the political and security officers of the Empire resemble the black clad SS down to the imitation silver death's head insignia on their officer's caps. World War II terms were used for names in Star Wars; examples include the planets Kessel (a term that refers to a group of encircled forces), Hoth (Hermann Hoth was a German general who served on the snow laden Eastern Front), and Tatooine (Tataouine - a province south of Tunis in Tunisia, roughly where Lucas filmed for the planet; Libya was a WWII arena of war). Palpatine being Chancellor before becoming Emperor mirrors Adolf Hitler's role as Chancellor before appointing himself Dictator. The Great Jedi Purge alludes to the events of The Holocaust, the Great Purge, the Cultural Revolution, and the Night of the Long Knives. In addition, Lucas himself has drawn parallels between Palpatine and his rise to power to historical dictators such as Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Adolf Hitler. The final medal awarding scene in A New Hope, however, references Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will. The space battles in A New Hope were based on filmed World War I and World War II dogfights. \n\nContinuing the use of Nazi inspiration for the Empire, J. J. Abrams, the director of Star Wars: The Force Awakens, has said that the First Order, an Imperial offshoot which will possibly serve as the main antagonist of the sequel trilogy, is also inspired by another aspect of the Nazi regime. Abrams spoke of how several Nazis fled to Argentina after the war and he claims that the concept for the First Order came from conversations between the scriptwriters about what would have happened if they had started working together again. \n\nAside from its well known science fictional technology, Star Wars features elements such as knighthood, chivalry, and princesses that are related to archetypes of the fantasy genre. The Star Wars world, unlike fantasy and science-fiction films that featured sleek and futuristic settings, was portrayed as dirty and grimy. Lucas' vision of a \"used future\" was further popularized in the science fiction-horror films Alien, which was set on a dirty space freighter; Mad Max 2, which is set in a post-apocalyptic desert; and Blade Runner, which is set in a crumbling, dirty city of the future. Lucas made a conscious effort to parallel scenes and dialogue between films, and especially to parallel the journeys of Luke Skywalker with that of his father Anakin when making the prequels.\n\nStar Wars contains many themes of political science that mainly favor democracy over dictatorship. Political science has been an important element of Star Wars since the franchise first launched in 1977. The plot climax of Star Wars is modeled after the fall of the democratic Roman Republic and the formation of an empire. \n\nTechnical information\n\nAll seven films of the Star Wars series were shot in an aspect ratio of 2.39:1. The original and sequel trilogies were shot with anamorphic lenses. Episodes IV, V, and VII were shot in Panavision, while Episode VI was shot in Joe Dunton Camera (JDC) scope. Episode I was shot with Hawk anamorphic lenses on Arriflex cameras, and Episodes II and III were shot with Sony's CineAlta high-definition digital cameras. \n\nLucas hired Ben Burtt to oversee the sound effects on the original 1977 film. Burtt's accomplishment was such that the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented him with a Special Achievement Award because it had no award at the time for the work he had done. Lucasfilm developed the THX sound reproduction standard for Return of the Jedi. John Williams composed the scores for all seven films. Lucas' design for Star Wars involved a grand musical sound, with leitmotifs for different characters and important concepts. Williams' Star Wars title theme has become one of the most famous and well-known musical compositions in modern music history. \n\nLucas hired 'the Dean of Special Effects' John Stears, who created R2-D2, Luke Skywalker's Landspeeder, the Jedi Knights' lightsabers, and the Death Star. The technical lightsaber choreography for the original trilogy was developed by leading filmmaking sword-master Bob Anderson. Anderson trained actor Mark Hamill (Luke Skywalker) and performed all the sword stunts as Darth Vader during the lightsaber duels in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, wearing Vader's costume. Anderson's role in the original Star Wars trilogy was highlighted in the film Reclaiming the Blade, where he shares his experiences as the fight choreographer developing the lightsaber techniques for the movies. \n\nProduction history\n\nOriginal trilogy\n\nIn 1971, Universal Studios agreed to make American Graffiti and Star Wars in a two-picture contract, although Star Wars was later rejected in its early concept stages. American Graffiti was completed in 1973 and, a few months later, Lucas wrote a short summary called \"The Journal of the Whills\", which told the tale of the training of apprentice CJ Thorpe as a \"Jedi-Bendu\" space commando by the legendary Mace Windy. Frustrated that his story was too difficult to understand, Lucas then began writing a 13-page treatment called The Star Wars on April 17, 1973, which had thematic parallels with Akira Kurosawa's The Hidden Fortress. By 1974, he had expanded the treatment into a rough draft screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith, the Death Star, and a protagonist named Annikin Starkiller.\n\nFor the second draft, Lucas made heavy simplifications, and introduced the young hero on a farm as Luke Starkiller. Annikin became Luke's father, a wise Jedi knight. \"The Force\" was also introduced as a mystical energy field. The next draft removed the father character and replaced him with a substitute named Ben Kenobi, and in 1976 a fourth draft had been prepared for principal photography. The film was titled Adventures of Luke Starkiller, as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars. During production, Lucas changed Luke's name to Skywalker and altered the title to simply The Star Wars and finally Star Wars. \n\nAt that point, Lucas was not expecting the film to become part of a series. The fourth draft of the script underwent subtle changes that made it more satisfying as a self-contained film, ending with the destruction of the Galactic Empire itself by way of destroying the Death Star. However, Lucas had previously conceived of the film as the first in a series of adventures. Later, he realized the film would not in fact be the first in the sequence, but a film in the second trilogy in the saga. This is stated explicitly in George Lucas' preface to the 1994 reissue of Splinter of the Mind's Eye:\n\nThe second draft contained a teaser for a never-made sequel about \"The Princess of Ondos\", and by the time of the third draft some months later Lucas had negotiated a contract that gave him rights to make two sequels. Not long after, Lucas met with author Alan Dean Foster, and hired him to write these two sequels as novels. The intention was that if Star Wars was successful, Lucas could adapt the novels into screenplays. He had also by that point developed an elaborate backstory to aid his writing process.\n\nWhen Star Wars proved successful, Lucas decided to use the film as the basis for an elaborate serial, although at one point he considered walking away from the series altogether. However, Lucas wanted to create an independent filmmaking center—what would become Skywalker Ranch—and saw an opportunity to use the series as a financing agent. Alan Dean Foster had already begun writing the first sequel novel, but Lucas decided to abandon his plan to adapt Foster's work; the book was released as Splinter of the Mind's Eye the following year. At first, Lucas envisioned a series of films with no set number of entries, like the James Bond series. In an interview with Rolling Stone in August 1977, he said that he wanted his friends to each take a turn at directing the films and giving unique interpretations on the series. He also said that the backstory in which Darth Vader turns to the dark side, kills Luke's father and fights Ben Kenobi on a volcano as the Galactic Republic falls would make an excellent sequel.\n\nLater that year, Lucas hired science fiction author Leigh Brackett to write Star Wars II with him. They held story conferences and, by late November 1977, Lucas had produced a handwritten treatment called The Empire Strikes Back. The treatment is similar to the final film, except that Darth Vader does not reveal he is Luke's father. In the first draft that Brackett would write from this, Luke's father appears as a ghost to instruct Luke. \n\nBrackett finished her first draft in early 1978; Lucas has said he was disappointed with it, but before he could discuss it with her, she died of cancer. With no writer available, Lucas had to write his next draft himself. It was this draft in which Lucas first made use of the \"Episode\" numbering for the films; Empire Strikes Back was listed as Episode II. As Michael Kaminski argues in The Secret History of Star Wars, the disappointment with the first draft probably made Lucas consider different directions in which to take the story. He made use of a new plot twist: Darth Vader claims to be Luke's father. According to Lucas, he found this draft enjoyable to write, as opposed to the yearlong struggles writing the first film, and quickly wrote two more drafts, both in April 1978. He also took the script to a darker extreme by having Han Solo imprisoned in carbonite and left in limbo.\n\nThis new story point of Darth Vader being Luke's father had drastic effects on the series. Michael Kaminski argues in his book that it is unlikely that the plot point had ever seriously been considered or even conceived of before 1978, and that the first film was clearly operating under an alternate storyline where Vader was separate from Luke's father; there is not a single reference to this plot point before 1978. After writing the second and third drafts of Empire Strikes Back in which the point was introduced, Lucas reviewed the new backstory he had created: Anakin Skywalker was Ben Kenobi's brilliant student and had a child named Luke, but was swayed to the dark side by Emperor Palpatine (who became a Sith and not simply a politician). Anakin battled Ben Kenobi on the site of a volcano and was wounded, but then resurrected as Darth Vader. Meanwhile, Kenobi hid Luke on Tatooine while the Republic became the Empire and Vader systematically hunted down and killed the Jedi.\n\nWith this new backstory in place, Lucas decided that the series would be a trilogy, changing Empire Strikes Back from Episode II to Episode V in the next draft. Lawrence Kasdan, who had just completed writing Raiders of the Lost Ark, was then hired to write the next drafts, and was given additional input from director Irvin Kershner. Kasdan, Kershner, and producer Gary Kurtz saw the film as a more serious and adult film, which was helped by the new, darker storyline, and developed the series from the light adventure roots of the first film.\n\nBy the time he began writing Episode VI in 1981 (then titled Revenge of the Jedi), much had changed. Making Empire Strikes Back was stressful and costly, and Lucas' personal life was disintegrating. Burned out and not wanting to make any more Star Wars films, he vowed that he was done with the series in a May 1983 interview with Time magazine. Lucas' 1981 rough drafts had Darth Vader competing with the Emperor for possession of Luke—and in the second script, the \"revised rough draft\", Vader became a sympathetic character. Lawrence Kasdan was hired to take over once again and, in these final drafts, Vader was explicitly redeemed and finally unmasked. This change in character would provide a springboard to the \"Tragedy of Darth Vader\" storyline that underlies the prequels. \n\nPrequel trilogy\n\nAfter losing much of his fortune in a divorce settlement in 1987, Lucas had no desire to return to Star Wars, and had unofficially canceled the sequel trilogy by the time of Return of the Jedi. At that point, the prequels were only still a series of basic ideas partially pulled from his original drafts of \"The Star Wars\". Nevertheless, technical advances in the late 1980s and 1990s continued to fascinate Lucas, and he considered that they might make it possible to revisit his 20-year-old material. After Star Wars became popular once again, in the wake of Dark Horse's comic book line and Timothy Zahn's trilogy of novels, Lucas saw that there was still a large audience. His children were older, and with the explosion of CGI technology he was now considering returning to directing. By 1993, it was announced, in Variety among other sources, that he would be making the prequels. He began penning more to the story, now indicating the series would be a tragic one examining Anakin Skywalker's fall to the dark side. Lucas also began to change how the prequels would exist relative to the originals; at first they were supposed to be a \"filling-in\" of history tangential to the originals, but now he saw that they could form the beginning of one long story that started with Anakin's childhood and ended with his death. This was the final step towards turning the film series into a \"Saga\".\n\nIn 1994, Lucas began writing the screenplay to the first prequel, titled Episode I: The Beginning. Following the release of that film, Lucas announced that he would also be directing the next two, and began work on Episode II, The first draft of Episode II was completed just weeks before principal photography, and Lucas hired Jonathan Hales, a writer from The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, to polish it. Unsure of a title, Lucas had jokingly called the film \"Jar Jar's Great Adventure\". In writing The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas initially decided that Lando Calrissian was a clone and came from a planet of clones which caused the \"Clone Wars\" mentioned by Princess Leia in A New Hope; he later came up with an alternate concept of an army of clone shocktroopers from a remote planet which attacked the Republic and were repelled by the Jedi. The basic elements of that backstory became the plot basis for Episode II, with the new wrinkle added that Palpatine secretly orchestrated the crisis. \n\nLucas began working on Episode III before Attack of the Clones was released, offering concept artists that the film would open with a montage of seven Clone War battles. As he reviewed the storyline that summer, however, he says he radically re-organized the plot. Michael Kaminski, in The Secret History of Star Wars, offers evidence that issues in Anakin's fall to the dark side prompted Lucas to make massive story changes, first revising the opening sequence to have Palpatine kidnapped and his apprentice, Count Dooku, murdered by Anakin as the first act in the latter's turn towards the dark side. After principal photography was complete in 2003, Lucas made even more massive changes in Anakin's character, re-writing his entire turn to the dark side; he would now turn primarily in a quest to save Padmé's life, rather than the previous version in which that reason was one of several, including that he genuinely believed that the Jedi were evil and plotting to take over the Republic. This fundamental re-write was accomplished both through editing the principal footage, and new and revised scenes filmed during pick-ups in 2004. \n\nLucas often exaggerated the amount of material he wrote for the series; much of it stemmed from the post‐1978 period when the series grew into a phenomenon. Michael Kaminski explained that these exaggerations were both a publicity and security measure. Kaminski rationalized that since the series' story radically changed throughout the years, it was always Lucas' intention to change the original story retroactively because audiences would only view the material from his perspective. When congratulating the producers of the TV series Lost in 2010, Lucas himself jokingly admitted, \"when Star Wars first came out, I didn't know where it was going either. The trick is to pretend you've planned the whole thing out in advance. Throw in some father issues and references to other stories – let's call them homages – and you've got a series\". \n\nSequel trilogy\n\nA sequel trilogy was reportedly planned (Episodes VII, VIII and IX) by Lucasfilm as a sequel to the original Star Wars trilogy (Episodes IV, V and VI), released between 1977 and 1983. While the similarly discussed Star Wars prequel trilogy (Episodes I, II and III) was ultimately released between 1999 and 2005, Lucasfilm and George Lucas had for many years denied plans for a sequel trilogy, insisting that Star Wars is meant to be a six-part series. In , speaking about the upcoming Star Wars: The Clone Wars film, Lucas maintained his status on the sequel trilogy: \"I get asked all the time, 'What happens after Return of the Jedi?,' and there really is no answer for that. The movies were the story of Anakin Skywalker and Luke Skywalker, and when Luke saves the galaxy and redeems his father, that's where that story ends.\" \n\nIn January 2012, Lucas announced that he would step away from blockbuster films and instead produce smaller arthouse films. Asked whether the criticism he received following the prequel trilogy and the alterations to the original trilogy had influenced his decision to retire, Lucas said: \"Why would I make any more when everybody yells at you all the time and says what a terrible person you are?\" \n\nDespite insisting that a sequel trilogy would never happen, George Lucas began working on story treatments for three new Star Wars films in 2011. In October 2012, The Walt Disney Company agreed to buy Lucasfilm and announced that Star Wars Episode VII would be released in 2015. Later, it was revealed that the three new upcoming films (Episodes VII-IX) would be based on story treatments that had been written by George Lucas prior to the sale of Lucasfilm. The co-chairman of Lucasfilm, Kathleen Kennedy became president of the company, reporting to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn. In addition, Kennedy will serve as executive producer on new Star Wars feature films, with franchise creator and Lucasfilm founder Lucas serving as creative consultant. The screenplay for Episode VII was originally set to be written by Michael Arndt, but in October 2013 it was announced that writing duties would be taken over by Lawrence Kasdan and J. J. Abrams. On January 25, 2013, The Walt Disney Studios and Lucasfilm officially announced J. J. Abrams as Star Wars Episode VIIs director and producer, along with Bryan Burk and Bad Robot Productions. \n\nOn November 20, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lawrence Kasdan and Simon Kinberg will write and produce Episodes VIII and IX. Kasdan and Kinberg were later confirmed as creative consultants on those films, in addition to writing stand-alone films. In addition, John Williams, who wrote the music for the previous six episodes, has been hired to compose the music for Episodes VII, VIII and IX. \n\nOn March 12, 2015, Lucasfilm announced that Looper director Rian Johnson would direct Episode VIII with Ram Bergman as producer for Ram Bergman Productions. Reports initially claimed Johnson would also direct Episode IX, but it was later confirmed he would write only a story treatment. When asked about Episode VIII in an August 2014 interview, Johnson said \"it's boring to talk about, because the only thing I can really say is, I'm just happy. I don't have the terror I kind of expected I would, at least not yet. I'm sure I will at some point.\" It was originally scheduled to be released on May 26, 2017, but it's delayed for December 15, 2017. J. J. Abrams will serve as executive producer. \n\nAnthology series\n\nOn February 5, 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed the development of two stand-alone films, each individually written by Lawrence Kasdan and Simon Kinberg. On February 6, Entertainment Weekly reported that Disney is working on two films featuring Han Solo and Boba Fett. Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the stand-alone films as origin stories. Kathleen Kennedy explained that the stand-alone films will not crossover with the films of the sequel trilogy, stating, \"George was so clear as to how that works. The canon that he created was the Star Wars saga. Right now, Episode VII falls within that canon. The spin-off movies, or we may come up with some other way to call those films, they exist within that vast universe that he created. There is no attempt being made to carry characters (from the stand-alone films) in and out of the saga episodes. Consequently, from the creative standpoint, it's a roadmap that George made pretty clear.\" In April 2015, Lucasfilm and Kathleen Kennedy announced that the stand-alone films would be referred to as the Star Wars Anthology series. \n\nRogue One\n\nIn May 2014, Lucasfilm announced that Gareth Edwards would direct the first anthology film, to be released on December 16, 2016, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft. On March 12, 2015, the film's title was revealed to be Rogue One with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, with Felicity Jones, Ben Mendelsohn and Diego Luna starring. On April 19, 2015, a teaser trailer was shown exclusively during the closing of the Star Wars Celebration. Lucasfilm also announced that filming would begin in the summer of 2015. The plot will revolve around a group of rebels on a mission to steal the Death Star plans; director Edwards stated, \"It comes down to a group of individuals who don't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy.\" Additionally, Kathleen Kennedy and Kiri Hart confirmed that the stand-alone films will be labeled as \"anthology films\". Edwards stated that the style of the film will be similar to that of a war film, stating, \"It's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie.\" \n\nUntitled Han Solo Anthology film\n\nOn July 7, 2015, Lucasfilm announced, via StarWars.com, that a second Anthology film, which \"focuses on how young Han Solo became the smuggler, thief, and scoundrel whom Luke Skywalker and Obi-Wan Kenobi first encountered in the cantina at Mos Eisley\", would be released on May 25, 2018. The project will be directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller from a script by Lawrence and Jon Kasdan. Kathleen Kennedy will produce the film, Lawrence Kasdan and Jason McGatlin will executive produce, and Will Allegra will co-produce. The Hollywood Reporter stated when reporting the story, that the film is separate to the film that was originally being developed by Josh Trank. That film has now been pushed back to an unconfirmed date. Miles Teller, Ansel Elgort, Dave Franco, Jack Reynor, Scott Eastwood, Logan Lerman, Emory Cohen, Jack O'Connell, Alden Ehrenreich, Taron Egerton and Blake Jenner were among the actors who were in final considerations for the role of Han Solo. The Wrap reported that Chewbacca will appear. On May 5, 2016, Deadline reported that Ehrenreich was cast as Solo in the film, In July 2016, Ehrenreich was confirmed by Kennedy at the Star Wars Celebration. Kasdan has stated that filming will start in January 2017. \n\nUntitled Anthology film\n\nA third Anthology film rumored to focus on Boba Fett will be released in 2020. \n\n3D releases\n\nAt a ShoWest convention in 2005, Lucas demonstrated new technology and stated that he planned to release the six films in a new 3D film format, beginning with A New Hope in 2007. However, by January 2007, Lucasfilm stated on StarWars.com that \"there are no definitive plans or dates for releasing the Star Wars saga in 3-D.\" At Celebration Europe in July 2007, Rick McCallum confirmed that Lucasfilm was \"planning to take all six films and turn them into 3-D\", but they are \"waiting for the companies out there that are developing this technology to bring it down to a cost level that makes it worthwhile for everybody\". In July 2008, Jeffrey Katzenberg, the CEO of DreamWorks Animation, revealed that Lucas planned to redo all six of the movies in 3D. In late September 2010, it was announced that The Phantom Menace would be theatrically re-released in 3-D on February 10, 2012. The plan was to re-release all six films in order, with the 3-D conversion process taking up to a year to complete for each film. However, the 3D re-releases of episodes II and III were postponed to enable Lucasfilm to concentrate on Episode VII. \n\nCast and crew\n\nCast\n\nCrew and other\n\nReception\n\nBox office performance\n\nCritical and public response\n\nAcademy Awards\n\nThe seven films together have been nominated for 27 Academy Awards, of which they won seven. The films were also awarded a total of three Special Achievement Awards.\n\nIn other media\n\nThe term Expanded Universe (EU) is an umbrella term for officially licensed Star Wars material outside of the feature films. The material expands the stories told in the films, taking place anywhere from 25,000 years before The Phantom Menace to 140 years after Return of the Jedi. The first Expanded Universe story appeared in Marvel Comics' Star Wars #7 in January 1978 (the first six issues of the series having been an adaptation of the film), followed quickly by Alan Dean Foster's novel Splinter of the Mind's Eye the following month. \n\nDespite Disney's acquisition of the product, George Lucas retains artistic control over the Star Wars universe. For example, the death of central characters and similar changes in the status quo requires his approval before authors were allowed to proceed. In addition, Lucasfilm Licensing and the new Lucasfilm Story Group devote efforts to ensure continuity between the works of various authors across companies. Elements of the Expanded Universe have been adopted by Lucas for use in the films, such as the name of capital planet Coruscant, which first appeared in Timothy Zahn's novel Heir to the Empire before being used in The Phantom Menace. Additionally, Lucas so liked the character Aayla Secura, who was introduced in Dark Horse Comics' Star Wars series, that he included her as a character in Attack of the Clones. \n\nA radio adaptation of the original 1977 film was first broadcast on National Public Radio in 1981. The adaptation was written by science fiction author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden. It was followed by adaptations of The Empire Strikes Back in 1983 and Return of the Jedi in 1996. The adaptations included background material created by Lucas but not used in the films. Mark Hamill, Anthony Daniels, and Billy Dee Williams reprised their roles as Luke Skywalker, C-3PO, and Lando Calrissian, respectively, except in Return of the Jedi in which Luke was played by Joshua Fardon and Lando by Arye Gross. The series also used John Williams' original score from the films and Ben Burtt's original sound designs. \n\nWhile Lucasfilm strived to maintain internal consistency between the films and television content with the expanded universe, only the films and the second Clone Wars television series are regarded as absolute canon, since Lucas worked on them directly. On April 25, 2014—anticipating future film installments—the company announced that they had devised a \"story group\" to oversee and co-ordinate all creative development. The first new on-screen canon to be produced will be the television series Star Wars Rebels. Previous EU titles will be reprinted under the \"Legends\" banner. \n\nTelevision series\n\nFollowing the success of the Star Wars films and their subsequent merchandising, several animated television series have been created:\n\n* Star Wars: Droids; also known as Droids: The Adventures of R2-D2 and C-3PO, which premiered in September 1985, focused on the travels of R2-D2 and C-3PO as they shift through various owners/masters, and vaguely fills in the gaps between the events of Episode III and Episode IV.\n* Star Wars: Ewoks; also known as Ewoks, was simultaneously released in September 1985 and focused on the adventures of Wicket and various other recognizable Ewok characters from the original trilogy in the years leading up to Episode VI.\n* Star Wars: Clone Wars; an animated micro-series created by Genndy Tartakovsky (Dexter's Laboratory, Samurai Jack, etc.), which aired on Cartoon Network from November 2003 to March 2005.\n* Star Wars: The Clone Wars; a CGI-animated series based on the animated film of the same name, which aired on Cartoon Network from October 2008 to March 2013. The final season of the series aired on Netflix in March 2014.\n* Star Wars Rebels; a CGI-animated series set between Episode III and Episode IV, which premiered as a special on Disney Channel and began airing on Disney XD in October 2014. \n* Lego Star Wars: The Yoda Chronicles, an animated comedy mini-series that aired on Cartoon Network in 2013 and Disney XD in 2014.\n* Lego Star Wars: Droid Tales, another animated comedy mini-series that aired on Disney XD from July to November 2015. \n* Star Wars Detours, an animated comedy series written by Brendan Hay, who is a writer for the comedy news program The Daily Show, and with creative consulting from the co-creators of Robot Chicken: Seth Green and Matthew Senreich. The series will take place during the original trilogy and the setting will be remote from the front line of war. Following the Disney purchase, this series was put on indefinite hold.\n\nA live-action television project has been in varying stages of development at Lucasfilm since 2005, when George Lucas announced plans for a television series set between the prequel and original trilogies. The proposed series explores criminal and political power struggles in the aftermath of the fall of the Republic. Approximately fifty scripts have been written – Ronald D. Moore was one of the project's enlisted writers – and, as of December 2015, are still in possible development at Lucasfilm. \n\nTelevision films\n\nIn addition to the two trilogies and the The Clone Wars film, several other authorized films have been produced:\n* Star Wars Holiday Special, a 1978 two-hour television special, broadcast only once on CBS and never released to home video. Notable for the introduction of Boba Fett.\n* Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure, a 1984 American made-for-TV film—released theatrically overseas.\n* Ewoks: The Battle for Endor, a 1985 American made-for-TV film—released theatrically overseas, sequel to Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure.\n\nLEGO short films\n\n* Lego Star Wars: Revenge of the Brick, a 2005 animated parody short film based on Revenge of the Sith.\n* Lego Star Wars: The Quest for R2-D2, a 2009 official comedy spoof primarily based on The Clone Wars film.\n\nLiterature\n\nNovels\n\nStar Wars-based fiction predates the release of the first film, with the 1976 novelization of Star Wars (ghost-written by Alan Dean Foster and credited to Lucas). Foster's 1978 novel, Splinter of the Mind's Eye, was the first Expanded Universe work to be released. In addition to filling in the time between the original 1977 film and The Empire Strikes Back, this additional content greatly expanded the Star Wars timeline before and after the film series. Star Wars fiction flourished during the time of the original trilogy (1977–83) but slowed to a trickle afterwards. In 1992, however, Timothy Zahn's Thrawn trilogy debuted, sparking a new interest in the Star Wars universe. Since then, several hundred tie-in novels have been published by Bantam and Del Rey. A similar resurgence in the Expanded Universe occurred in 1996 with the Steve Perry novel Shadows of the Empire, set in between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, and accompanying video game and comic book series. \n\nLucasBooks radically changed the face of the Star Wars universe with the introduction of the New Jedi Order series, which takes place some 20 years after Return of the Jedi and stars a host of new characters alongside series originals. For younger audiences, three series have been introduced. The Jedi Apprentice series follows the adventures of Obi-Wan Kenobi and his master Qui-Gon Jinn in the years before The Phantom Menace. The Jedi Quest series follows the adventures of Obi-Wan and his apprentice Anakin Skywalker in between The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. The Last of the Jedi series follows the adventures of Obi-Wan and another surviving Jedi almost immediately, set in between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope.\n\nFollowing Disney's purchase of the franchise, Disney Publishing Worldwide also announced that Del Rey would publish a new line of canon Star Wars books under the Lucasfilm Story Group being released starting in September on a bi-monthly schedule. The Star Wars Legends banner would be used for those Extended Universe materials that are in print. \n\nComics\n\nMarvel Comics published Star Wars comic book series and adaptations from 1977 to 1986. A wide variety of creators worked on this series, including Roy Thomas, Archie Goodwin, Howard Chaykin, Al Williamson, Carmine Infantino, Gene Day, Walt Simonson, Michael Golden, Chris Claremont, Whilce Portacio, Jo Duffy, and Ron Frenz. The Los Angeles Times Syndicate published a Star Wars newspaper strip by Russ Manning, Goodwin and Williamson with Goodwin writing under a pseudonym. In the late 1980s, Marvel announced it would publish a new Star Wars comic by Tom Veitch and Cam Kennedy. However, in December 1991, Dark Horse Comics acquired the Star Wars license and used it to launch a number of ambitious sequels to the original trilogy instead, including the popular Dark Empire stories. They have since gone on to publish a large number of original adventures set in the Star Wars universe. There have also been parody comics, including Tag and Bink. On January 3, 2014, Marvel Comics—itself a Disney subsidiary since 2009—announced that it would once again publish Star Wars comic books and graphic novels, taking over from Dark Horse, with the first release arriving on January 14, 2015. \n\nVideo games\n\nStar Wars videogames commercialization started in 1982 with Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back published for the Atari 2600 by Parker Brothers. Since then, Star Wars has opened the way to a myriad of space-flight simulation games, first-person shooter games, role-playing video games, RTS games, and others.\n\nThe best-selling games so far are the Lego Star Wars and the Battlefront series, with 12 million and 10 million units respectively while the most critically acclaimed is the first Knights of the Old Republic. The most recently released games are Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga, Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars, Star Wars: The Force Unleashed and Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II, for the PS3, PSP, PS2, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS and Wii. While The Complete Saga focuses on all six episodes of the series, The Force Unleashed, of the same name of the multimedia project which it is a part of, takes place in the largely unexplored time period between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope and casts players as Darth Vader's \"secret apprentice\" hunting down the remaining Jedi. The game features a new game engine, and was released on September 16, 2008 in the United States. There are three more titles based on the Clone Wars which were released for the Nintendo DS (Star Wars: The Clone Wars – Jedi Alliance) and Wii (Star Wars: The Clone Wars – Lightsaber Duels and Star Wars: The Clone Wars – Republic Heroes).\n\nOn May 5, 2015, Disney announced a follow-up game through Game Informer; Disney Infinity 3.0, for release on Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U, iOS, PC, Xbox One and PlayStation 4 in 2015, featuring characters from the Star Wars universe. \n\nBoard games, trading cards, and role-playing games\n\nSince 1977, dozens of board, card, miniature, and tabletop role-playing games, among other types, have been published bearing the Star Wars name, beginning in 1977 with the board game Star Wars: Escape from the Death Star (not to be confused with another board game with the same title, published in 1990). \n\nThree different official tabletop role-playing games have been developed for the Star Wars universe: a version by West End Games in the 1980s and 1990s, one by Wizards of the Coast in the 2000s and one by Fantasy Flight Games in the 2010s.\n\nStar Wars trading cards have been published since the first \"blue\" series, by Topps, in 1977. Dozens of series have been produced, with Topps being the licensed creator in the United States. Some of the card series are of film stills, while others are original art. Many of the cards have become highly collectible with some very rare \"promos\", such as the 1993 Galaxy Series II \"floating Yoda\" P3 card often commanding US$ 1 000 or more. While most \"base\" or \"common card\" sets are plentiful, many \"insert\" or \"chase cards\" are very rare. From 1995 until 2001, Decipher, Inc. had the license for, created and produced a collectible card game based on Star Wars; the Star Wars Collectible Card Game (also known as SWCCG).\n\nThe board game Risk has been adapted to the series in two editions by Hasbro: and Star Wars Risk: The Clone Wars Edition (2005) and Risk: Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition (2006). From July 25 to August 15, 2013, Disney's online game Club Penguin hosted a \"Star Wars Takeover\" event based on the films. \n\nTheme park attractions\n\nBefore Disney's acquisition of the franchise, George Lucas had established a partnership in 1986 with the company's Walt Disney Imagineering division to create Star Tours, an attraction that opened at Disneyland in 1987. The attraction also had subsequent incarnations at other Disney theme parks worldwide.\n\nThe attractions at Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios closed in 2010, at Tokyo Disneyland in 2012, and at Disneyland Paris in 2016 to allow the rides to be converted into Star Tours–The Adventures Continue. The successor attraction opened at Disney's Hollywood Studios and Disneyland in 2011, and Tokyo Disneyland in 2013.\n\nJedi Training: Trials of the Temple is a live show where children are selected to learn the teachings of the Jedi Knights and the Force to become Padawan learners. The show is present at Disney's Hollywood Studios and at the Tomorrowland Terrace at Disneyland.\n\nFrom 1997 to 2015, Walt Disney World's Disney's Hollywood Studios park hosted an annual festival, Star Wars Weekends, during specific dates from May to June.\n\nSince August 2014, after Disney bought the Star Wars franchise, the company has expressed plans to expand the franchise's presence in all of their theme parks, which is rumored to include a major Star Wars-themed expansion to Disney's Hollywood Studios. When asked whether or not Disney has an intellectual property franchise that's comparable to Harry Potter at Universal theme parks, Disney chairman and CEO Bob Iger mentioned Cars and the Disney Princesses, and promised that Star Wars, \"is going to be just that.\" Iger formally announced a 14-acre Star Wars-themed land expansion at the D23 Expo in August 2015. The land—which will debut at Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios at an unspecified date—will include two new attractions inspired by the Millennium Falcon and \"a climactic battle between the First Order and the resistance\". The two parks will also host a seasonal Star Wars-themed event entitled Season of the Force, with Disneyland's version beginning in November 16, 2015. Disneyland's version will feature an updated Jedi Training Academy, a seasonal overlay for Space Mountain entitled \"Hyperspace Mountain\", a new scene in Star Tours–The Adventures Continue set on Jakku, and the Star Wars Launch Bay, a new attraction featuring exhibits and meet-and-greets.\n\nCultural impact\n\nIn 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry, as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\" Its sequel, The Empire Strikes Back, was selected in 2010. Despite these callings for archival, it is unclear whether copies of the 1977 and 1980 theatrical sequences of Star Wars and Empire—or copies of the 1997 Special Edition versions—have been archived by the NFR, or indeed if any copy has been provided by Lucasfilm and accepted by the Registry.\n\nBetween 2002 and 2004, museums in Japan, Singapore, Scotland and England showcased the Art of Star Wars, an exhibit describing the process of making the Star Wars trilogy. \n\nIn 2013, Star Wars became the first major motion picture translated into the Navajo language. \n\nFan films\n\nThe Star Wars saga has inspired many fans to create their own non-canon material set in the Star Wars galaxy. In recent years, this has ranged from writing fan-fiction to creating fan films. In 2002, Lucasfilm sponsored the first annual Official Star Wars Fan Film Awards, officially recognizing filmmakers and the genre. Because of concerns over potential copyright and trademark issues, however, the contest was initially open only to parodies, mockumentaries, and documentaries. Fan-fiction films set in the Star Wars universe were originally ineligible, but in 2007 Lucasfilm changed the submission standards to allow in-universe fiction entries. \n\nWhile many fan films have used elements from the licensed Expanded Universe to tell their story, they are not considered an official part of the Star Wars canon. However, the lead character from the Pink Five series was incorporated into Timothy Zahn's 2007 novel Allegiance, marking the first time a fan-created Star Wars character has ever crossed into the official canon. Lucasfilm, for the most part, has allowed but not endorsed the creation of these derivative fan-fiction works, so long as no such work attempts to make a profit from or tarnish the Star Wars franchise in any way. \n\nReligion (Jediism)\n\nThere is a real religion based on Star Wars. Their followers follow a modified version of the Jedi Code, and they believe in the concept of The Force as an energy field of all living things, that penetrates us and bind us together, as is depicted within Star Wars movies, although without the fictional elements such as telekinesis. Many citizens around the world answer list their religion as Jedi during their countries respective Census, among them Australia and New Zealand getting high percentages. A petition in Turkey to build a Jedi Temple within a University, also got international media attention. \n\nOrganisms named after Star Wars characters\n\nCharacters and other fictional elements from Star Wars have inspired several scientific names of organisms. Examples include Midichloria, a genus of bacteria named after the fictional micro-organisms midichlorians associated with the Force, Yoda purpurata, (an acorn worm) and Agathidium vaderi (beetle), and Aptostichus sarlacc, a trapdoor spider named for the sarlacc, the pit-dwelling creature on Tatooine. Other examples include:\n* Han solo Turvey, 2005, a species of trilobite from China. According to the scientific publication, the genus name Han refers to the Han Chinese, and the species name solo to the species being the youngest member of its family found to that date. However, Turvey has stated elsewhere that he named it after Han Solo because some friends dared him to name a species after a Star Wars character. \n* Albunione yoda Markham & Boyko, 2003, an isopod.\n* Darthvaderum, an oribatid mite genus.\n* Polemistus chewbacca and Polemistus vaderi, wasps.\n* Wockia chewbacca Adamski, 2009, a moth\n* Peckoltia greedoi Armbruster, Werneke, & Tan, 2015, a catfish named after Greedo\nParodies of Star Wars\n\nThe Star Wars saga has had a significant impact on modern American pop culture. Both the films and characters have been parodied in numerous films and television.\n* Notable film parodies of Star Wars include Hardware Wars, a 13-minute 1978 spoof which Lucas has called his favorite Star Wars parody, and Spaceballs, a feature film by Mel Brooks which featured effects done by Lucas' Industrial Light & Magic. \n* Lucasfilm itself made two mockumentaries: Return of the Ewok (1982), about Warwick Davis, who portrayed Wicket W. Warrick in Return of the Jedi; and R2-D2: Beneath the Dome (2002), which depicts R2-D2's \"life story\". \n* There have also been many songs based on, and in, the Star Wars universe. \"Weird Al\" Yankovic recorded two parodies: \"Yoda\", a parody of \"Lola\" by The Kinks; and \"The Saga Begins\", a parody of Don McLean's song \"American Pie\" that retells the events of The Phantom Menace from Obi-Wan Kenobi's perspective. \n* In television, the creators of the Robot Chicken series have produced three television specials satirizing the Star Wars films (\"Robot Chicken: Star Wars\", \"Episode II\", and \"III\"), and are developing an animated comedy series based in the Star Wars universe. The creators of the Family Guy series have also produced three Star Wars specials titled \"Blue Harvest\", \"Something, Something, Something, Dark Side\" and \"It's a Trap!\". Following Disney's accquisistion of the franchise, a Phineas and Ferb parody of Star Wars aired in the summer of 2014. \n* During the 2012 Emerald City Comicon in Seattle, Washington, several prominent cartoon voice actors, consisting of Rob Paulsen, Jess Harnell, John DiMaggio, Maurice LaMarche, Tara Strong and Kevin Conroy, performed a parody reading of A New Hope as a radio play in each of their signature voice roles; i.e. Paulsen and Harnell as Yakko and Wakko Warner from Animaniacs, Strong as Bubbles from The Powerpuff Girls and Timmy Turner from The Fairly Oddparents, LaMarche and DiMaggio as Kif Kroker and Bender from Futurama, and Conroy narrating as Batman. \n* When Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a system of lasers and missiles meant to intercept incoming ICBMs, the plan was quickly labeled \"Star Wars\", implying that it was science fiction and linking it to Reagan's acting career. According to Frances FitzGerald, Reagan was annoyed by this, but Assistant Secretary of Defense Richard Perle told colleagues that he \"thought the name was not so bad.\"; \"'Why not?' he said. 'It's a good movie. Besides, the good guys won.'\" This gained further resonance when Reagan described the Soviet Union as an \"evil empire\".\n* During the winter of 2015, Chicago based theater company, Under the Gun Theater developed a parody revue which recapped all six of the Star Wars films as a lead up to the release of Star Wars: The Force Awakens.Hatch, Megan Horst [http://www.axs.com/celebrate-the-release-of-star-wars-the-force-awakens-in-style-in-chica-70793 Celebrate the release of ‘Star Wars: The Force Awakens’ in style in Chicago]. AXS TV. 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What was the name of Drew Barrymore's character in E.T.?	tc_1093	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Drew_Barrymore.txt" ], "title": [ "Drew Barrymore" ], "wiki_context": [ "Drew Blythe Barrymore (born February 22, 1975) is an American actress, author, director, model and producer. She is a descendant of the Barrymore family of well-known American stage and cinema actors, and is a granddaughter of actor John Barrymore. Barrymore first appeared in an advertisement when she was eleven months old. In 1980, she made her film debut in Altered States. In 1982, she starred in her breakout role as Gertie in Steven Spielberg's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and quickly became one of Hollywood's most recognized child actresses, going on to establish herself in mainly comic roles.\n\nFollowing a turbulent childhood that was marked by recurring drug and alcohol abuse, and two stints in rehab, Barrymore wrote the 1990 autobiography, Little Girl Lost. She successfully made the transition from child star to adult actress with a number of films including Poison Ivy, Bad Girls, Boys on the Side, Scream and Everyone Says I Love You. Subsequently, she also starred in romantic comedies, such as The Wedding Singer and 50 First Dates.\n\nIn 1997, she and her business partner Nancy Juvonen formed the production company Flower Films, with its first production the 1999 Barrymore film Never Been Kissed. Flower Films went on to produce the Barrymore vehicle films Charlie's Angels, 50 First Dates and Music and Lyrics, as well as the cult film Donnie Darko. Her more recent projects include He's Just Not That Into You, Beverly Hills Chihuahua, Everybody's Fine and Going the Distance. A recipient of a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Barrymore appeared on the cover of the 2007 People magazine's 100 Most Beautiful people.\n\nBarrymore was named an Ambassador Against Hunger for the UN World Food Programme (WFP). Since then, she has donated over 1 million US dollars to the program. In 2007, she became both CoverGirl's newest model and spokeswoman for the cosmetic and the face for Gucci's newest jewelry line. In 2010, she won the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film for her portrayal of Little Edie in Grey Gardens.\n\nEarly life and family\n\nBarrymore was born in Culver City, California, to American actor John Drew Barrymore (1932-2004) and Jaid Barrymore (born Ildikó Jaid Makó; 1946-), an aspiring actress. Barrymore's mother was born in a displaced persons camp in Brannenburg, West Germany, to Hungarian World War II refugees. Her parents divorced in 1984, when she was nine years old. She is one of four children with a half-brother, John, who is also an actor.\n\nBarrymore was born into acting: all of her paternal great-grandparents – Maurice Barrymore and Georgie Drew Barrymore, and Maurice Costello and Mae Costello ( Altschuk) – as well as her paternal grandparents, John Barrymore and Dolores Costello, were actors; John Barrymore was arguably the most acclaimed actor of his generation. She is the niece of Diana Barrymore and the grandniece of Lionel Barrymore, Ethel Barrymore and Helene Costello, the great-great-granddaughter of Irish-born John Drew and English-born Louisa Lane Drew, all of whom were actors, and the great-grandniece of Broadway idol John Drew, Jr. and silent film actor, writer and director Sidney Drew. She is also the god-daughter of director Steven Spielberg, and actress Sophia Loren. \n\nHer first name, \"Drew\", was the maiden name of her paternal great-grandmother, Georgie Drew Barrymore, and her middle name, \"Blythe,\" was the original surname of the dynasty founded by her great-grandfather, Maurice Barrymore. Barrymore recounted in her 1989 autobiography, Little Girl Lost, early memories of her abusive father, who left the family when Barrymore was six months old. They have never had anything resembling a significant relationship and seldom spoke to one another. \n\nCareer\n\nEarly career\n\nBarrymore's career began when she was auditioned for a dog food commercial when she was 11 months old. When she was bitten by her canine co-star, the producers were afraid she would cry, but she merely laughed, and was hired for the job. She made her feature film debut in Altered States (1980), in which she had a small role. A year later, she played Gertie, the younger sister of Elliott, in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, which made her one of the most famous child stars of the time and earned her the Young Artist Award as Best Young Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture in 1982. She received a Golden Globe nomination as Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture in 1984 for her role in Irreconcilable Differences, in which she starred as a young girl divorcing her parents. In a review in the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert stated: \"Barrymore is the right actress for this role precisely because she approaches it with such grave calm.\" \n\nRebellious era\n\nIn the wake of this sudden stardom, Barrymore endured a notoriously troubled childhood. She was already a regular at the famed Studio 54 when she was a little girl, smoking cigarettes at the age of nine, drinking alcohol by the time she was eleven, smoking marijuana at the age of twelve and snorting cocaine at the age of thirteen. Her nightlife and constant partying became a popular subject with the media. She was in rehab at the age of fourteen, where she spent eighteen months in an institution for the mentally ill. A suicide attempt, also at the age of fourteen, put her back in rehab, followed by a three-month stay with singer David Crosby and his wife. The stay was precipitated, Crosby said, because she \"needed to be around some people that were committed to sobriety.\" Barrymore later described this period of her life in her autobiography, Little Girl Lost. The following year, when she was 15, following a successful juvenile court petition for emancipation, she moved into her own apartment.\n\nIn June 1988 after an evening of heavy drinking, Barrymore angrily confronted her mother. She began breaking dishes and glasses until her mother left. Shortly thereafter, a friend of Barrymore's and the friend's mother entered the house and whisked the actress into a waiting car. They took her to ASAP, a Van Nuys rehabilitation clinic, where she would remain for 12 days.\n\nAfter a break to film Far From Home, Barrymore returned to Los Angeles and continued her therapy. Six days later, she boarded a plane for New York to audition for a play. Her stay in New York proved to be her downfall, as she found herself in a nightclub where cocaine was available. Barrymore wrongly believed that a small amount of cocaine would not jeopardize her steps toward recovery. One day later, she stole her mother's credit card and flew with a friend back to L.A., bought more cocaine, and went on an unauthorized shopping spree. Barrymore was quickly taken back to ASAP by private agents hired by her mother.\n\nBarrymore's second stay at the clinic turned out to be no more effective than the first. In March 1989, she went out to celebrate six months of sobriety. The friend she was with had a small amount of marijuana and Barrymore could not resist. She began feeling guilty over the fact that her mother was unaware of her return to drugs and their relationship deteriorated. In June 1989 Barrymore moved into an apartment with a friend and struggled with her depression, which would trigger a suicide attempt on July 4, 1989. Immediately after Barrymore slashed her wrists with a butcher knife, a friend entered the apartment and rushed her to the hospital. From there, she returned to ASAP for more treatment. At the urging of her counselors, she was released into the custody of David Crosby (of rock group Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young fame) and his wife, Jan Dance, in October 1989, both recovered drug abusers. One of Barrymore's counselors, a friend of Crosby and his wife, made the arrangement with hopes that a more supportive environment would help Drew finally kick her habits. Barrymore's mother also agreed to begin therapy to address her codependency with Drew and begin to foster a more positive and structured relationship with her daughter.\n\nIn her late teens, her rebelliousness played itself out on screen and in print. Barrymore forged an image as a manipulative teenage seductress, beginning with the film Poison Ivy (1992), which was a box office failure, but was popular on video and cable. That same year, at the age of seventeen, she posed nude for the cover of the July issue of Interview magazine with her then-fiancé, actor Jamie Walters, as well as appearing nude in pictures inside the issue. In 1992, she underwent breast reduction surgery and has said on the subject:\n\nIn 1993, Barrymore earned a second Golden Globe nomination, this time for the film Guncrazy. Barrymore posed nude at the age of nineteen for the January 1995 issue of Playboy. Steven Spielberg, who directed her in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial when she was a child and is her godfather, gave her a quilt for her twentieth birthday with a note that read, \"Cover yourself up.\" Enclosed were copies of her Playboy pictures, with the pictures altered by his art department so that she appeared fully clothed. During her appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, Barrymore climbed onto David Letterman's desk and bared her breasts to him, her back to the camera, in celebration of his birthday. She modeled in a series of Guess? jeans ads during this time. \n\nReturn to prominence\n\nIn 1995, Barrymore starred in Boys on the Side with Whoopi Goldberg and Mary-Louise Parker, and in her cameo appearance in Joel Schumacher's film Batman Forever, she played Sugar, a moll to Two-Face (Tommy Lee Jones). The following year, she made a cameo in the successful horror film Scream. Barrymore continued to be highly bankable, and a top box office draw. She also starred in romantic comedies, such as Wishful Thinking (1997) and The Wedding Singer (1998) and Home Fries (1998). Barrymore's role in the costume drama Ever After (1998) offered a modern take on the classic fairy tale of Cinderella and served as a reminder, according to Roger Ebert, of how well Drew Barrymore \"can hold the screen and involve us in her characters.\" In 2000, Barrymore was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance in Olive, the Other Reindeer. Besides a number of appearances in films produced by her company Flower Films, including Charlie's Angels, Barrymore also starred in Riding in Cars with Boys (2001), as a teenage mother in a failed marriage with the drug-addicted father (based on the real-life story of Beverly Donofrio). In 2002, Barrymore starred in Confessions of a Dangerous Mind, with Sam Rockwell and Julia Roberts. \n\nFlower Films and later work\n\nIn 1995, Barrymore formed Flower Films, a production company, with business partner Nancy Juvonen. The first film produced by the company was 1999's Never Been Kissed. The second offering from the company was Charlie's Angels (2000), a major box office success that helped solidify the standing of both Barrymore and the company. When the production of Richard Kelly's debut film, Donnie Darko, was threatened, Barrymore stepped forward with financing from Flower Films and took the small role of Karen Pomeroy, the title character's English teacher. Although the film was less than successful at the box office in the wake of 9/11, it reached cult film status after the DVD release, inspiring numerous websites devoted to unraveling the plot twists and meanings.\n\nIn 2003, she reprised her role as Dylan Sanders in Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, and starred with Ben Stiller in Duplex in 2003. Flower Films produced 50 First Dates with co-star Adam Sandler's Happy Madison company in 2004. Summing up Barrymore's appeal, Roger Ebert, in his review of 50 First Dates, described Barrymore as having a \"smiling, coy sincerity,\" describing the film as \"ingratiating and lovable.\" 50 First Dates was followed by Fever Pitch (2005), and in 2007, Music and Lyrics and Lucky You. She also starred in recent films, such as Beverly Hills Chihuahua, He's Just Not That Into You, Grey Gardens and Everybody's Fine. Barrymore's directorial debut film Whip It, was released in October 2009. It starred Ellen Page and Marcia Gay Harden, and centered on an obsession with beauty pageants and the Austin, Texas, Hurl Scouts roller derby team. Barrymore also co-starred in the film. \n\nIn 2010, Barrymore reunited with former partner Justin Long on the set of Going the Distance, directed by Nanette Burstein. An R-rated romantic comedy about a couple dealing the ups and downs of a long-distance relationship while commuting between New York City and San Francisco, the largely improvised film garnered generally mixed reviews by critics, who summed it as \"timelier and a little more honest than most romantic comedies.\" Budgeted at US$32 million, the film became a moderate financial success at a worldwide box office total of US$40 million. \n\nIn 2012, Barrymore starred with John Krasinski in Ken Kwapis's Big Miracle (2012), which is based on the 1989 book Freeing the Whales, which covers Operation Breakthrough, the 1988 international effort to rescue gray whales from being trapped in ice near Point Barrow, Alaska. On August 2, 2011, Barrymore directed the music video for the song \"Our Deal,\" for the band Best Coast, which features Chloë Grace Moretz, Miranda Cosgrove, Tyler Posey, Donald Glover, Shailene Woodley and Alia Shawkat. In 2016, Barrymore and Timothy Olyphant star in the Netflix sitcom Santa Clarita Diet, as the couple leading vaguely discontented lives, and is scheduled for 2017. \n\nOther career highlights\n\nIn 1999, Barrymore was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star \"Lifetime Achievement\" Award commemorating her outstanding achievements within the film industry as a child actress. In 2005, she began a recurring role in the animated comedy Family Guy as Brian Griffin's simple-minded girlfriend, Jillian Russell. She subsequently appeared in a total of eleven episodes. She was the subject of the 2005 documentary My Date with Drew. In it, an aspiring filmmaker, who was a fan of Barrymore's, used his limited resources in an attempt to gain a date with her. On February 3, 2004, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. \n\nBarrymore's films compiled a worldwide box office gross that stood at over US$2.3 billion. According to The Hollywood Reporter's annual Star Salary Top 10, she was tied for eighth place on the top ten list of actresses' salaries, commanding 10 to 12 million dollars per film for 2006. Barrymore became the youngest person to have hosted Saturday Night Live (SNL) having hosted on November 20, 1982 at 7 years of age, a record that remained unbroken as of 2015. On February 3, 2007, Barrymore hosted SNL for the fifth time, making her the second female host (after Candice Bergen) in the show's history to do so. She hosted again on October 10, 2009, becoming the first female to host six times. In March 2012, Barrymore began co-hosting the twelfth season of The Essentials, a film showcase on Turner Classic Movies which spotlighted significant classic films. She co-hosted alongside TCM regular, Robert Osborne.\n\nBarrymore became a CoverGirl Cosmetics's model and spokeswoman in 2007. In February 2015, she remained one of the faces of CoverGirl, alongside Queen Latifah and Taylor Swift. The company partnered up with her, because \"she emulates the iconic image of CoverGirl with her fresh, natural beauty and energetic yet authentic spirit,\" said Esi Eggleston Bracey, Vice President and General Manager of CoverGirl Cosmetics North America. She brought not only her personality into this endorsement but also her creative side, as she also helped create the ads. She was No. 1 in People's annual 100 Most Beautiful People list in 2007. Later, she was named the new face for the Gucci jewelry line. As a model, Barrymore signed a contract with IMG Models New York City.\n\nIn May 2007, Barrymore was named Ambassador Against Hunger for the United Nations World Food Programme and later donated $1 million to the cause. In September 2010, Barrymore was confirmed to act out the role of Ganga in the Indian Bollywood film The Lifestyle – In Generation Next, to be directed by Santosh Kumar Jain and released in 2012.\n Several articles and interviews reported Barrymore's taste for photography. As a guest photographer for a magazine series called \"They Shoot New York,\" she appeared on the cover holding a Pentax K1000 film camera. She expressed hopes of exposing her work in a gallery one day, as she had documented the most recent decade of her life with a Pentax camera. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 2013, Barrymore stated during an appearance on talk show The View that she enjoys practicing her husband's religion, Judaism, and is thinking of converting. \"It's a beautiful faith and I'm so honored to be around it. It's so family-oriented [and] the stories are so beautiful and it's incredibly enlightening. I'm really happy.\" \n\nConcerning her sexuality, Barrymore said in an interview with Contact Music in 2003, \"Do I like women sexually? Yeah, I do. Totally. I have always considered myself bisexual.\" Barrymore was quoted in 2004 as saying, \"A woman and a woman together are beautiful, just as a man and a woman together are beautiful. Being with a woman is like exploring your own body, but through someone else. When I was younger I used to go with lots of women. Totally. I love it\". In March 2007, former magazine editor Jane Pratt claimed on her Sirius Satellite Radio show that she had a romance with Barrymore in the mid-1990s. \n\nBarrymore is the godmother of Kurt Cobain and Courtney Love's daughter, Frances Bean Cobain. \n\nBarrymore has spoken of how she has grown much more stylistically conservative since the birth of her children. \n\nDrew tattooed the names of her two daughters on the inside of her right wrist. \n\nRelationships, marriages and family life\n\nIn 1991, at the age of 16, Barrymore became engaged to Leland Hayward, grandson of Hollywood producer Leland Hayward who was his namesake. After a few months, this engagement was called off. Barrymore was engaged to and lived with musician and actor Jamie Walters from 1992 to 1993. \n\nBarrymore married her first husband, Welsh bartender turned Los Angeles bar owner Jeremy Thomas, at the age of nineteen on March 20, 1994. She filed for divorce from him less than two months later. By many accounts, the split-up was much less than amicable.\n\nShe dated Eric Erlandson, the guitarist for the alternative rock band Hole.\n\nBarrymore began dating MTV host and comedian Tom Green in 1999. They lived together for a year before getting engaged in July 2000. They wed in July 2001. Green filed for divorce in December 2001. The divorce was finalized on October 15, 2002. Before their divorce, they starred together in Charlie's Angels and Green's first directorial film Freddy Got Fingered. \n\nIn 2002, Barrymore began dating The Strokes' drummer Fabrizio Moretti, soon after they met at a concert. Their five-year relationship ended in January 2007. She then began dating actor Justin Long, but they confirmed they broke up in July 2008. Barrymore and Long reunited in 2009 and co-starred in the 2010 film Going the Distance, but reportedly broke up again in 2010. \n\nIn early 2011, Barrymore began dating art consultant Will Kopelman, the son of former Chanel CEO, Arie Kopelman. The couple announced their engagement in January 2012, and married on June 2, 2012 in Montecito, California. The couple's wedding picture was featured on the cover of People magazine on June 6, 2012. Barrymore and Kopelman have two daughters: Olive Barrymore Kopelman (born September 26, 2012) and Frankie Barrymore Kopelman (born April 22, 2014). On April 2, 2016, Barrymore and Kopelman released a statement confirming they had separated and intended to divorce. On July 15, 2016, Barrymore officially filed for divorce. \n\nFilmography\n\nAwards and nominations" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Gertie (disambiguation)", "Gertie" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "gertie", "gertie disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "gertie", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Gertie" }
Which ER star played opposite Jenny Seagrove in Don' Go Breaking My Heart?	tc_1094	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "ER_(TV_series).txt" ], "title": [ "ER (TV series)" ], "wiki_context": [ "ER is an American medical drama television series created by novelist and medical doctor Michael Crichton that aired on NBC from September 19, 1994, to April 2, 2009. It was produced by Constant c Productions and Amblin Television, in association with Warner Bros. Television. ER follows the inner life of the emergency room (ER) of fictional County General Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, and various critical issues faced by the room's physicians and staff. The show ran for 15 seasons with a total of 331 episodes, becoming the longest-running primetime medical drama in American television history. It won 23 Primetime Emmy Awards, including the 1996 Outstanding Drama Series award, and received 124 Emmy nominations, which makes it the most nominated drama program in history. ER won 116 awards in total, including the Peabody Award, while the cast earned four Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Ensemble Performance in a Drama Series. \n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nIn 1974, author Michael Crichton wrote a screenplay based on his own experiences as a resident physician in a busy hospital emergency room. The screenplay went nowhere and Crichton focused on other topics. In 1990, he published the novel Jurassic Park, and in 1993 began a collaboration with director Steven Spielberg on the film adaptation of the book. Crichton and Spielberg then turned to ER, but decided to film the story as a two-hour pilot for a television series rather than as a feature film. Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment provided John Wells as the show's executive producer. The script used to shoot the pilot was virtually unchanged from what Crichton had written in 1974. The only substantive changes made by the producers in 1994 were that the Susan Lewis character became a woman and the Peter Benton character became an African-American, and the running time was shortened by about 20 minutes in order for the pilot to air in a two-hour block on network TV. Because of a lack of time and money necessary to build a set, the pilot episode of ER was filmed in the former Linda Vista Hospital in Los Angeles, an old facility that had ceased operating in 1990. A set modeled after Los Angeles County General Hospital's emergency room was built soon afterward at the Warner Bros. studios in Burbank, California, although the show makes extensive use of location shoots in Chicago, most notably the city's famous \"L\" train platforms. \n\nWarren Littlefield, running NBC Entertainment at the time, was impressed by the series: \"We were intrigued, but we were admittedly a bit spooked in attempting to go back into that territory a few years after St. Elsewhere.\" After Spielberg had joined as a producer, NBC ordered six episodes. \"ER premiered opposite a Monday Night Football game on ABC and did surprisingly well. Then we moved it to Thursday and it just took off,\" commented Littlefield. ERs success surprised the networks and critics alike, as David E. Kelley's new medical drama Chicago Hope was expected to crush the new series. \n\nSpielberg left the show after one year as a producer, having made one critical decision with lasting effects: the Carol Hathaway character, who died at the end of the original pilot episode script, was retained. Crichton remained executive producer until his death in November 2008, although he was still credited as one throughout that entire final season. Wells, the series' other initial executive producer, served as showrunner for the first three seasons. He was one of the show's most prolific writers and became a regular director in later years. Lydia Woodward was a part of the first season production team and became an executive producer for the third season. She took over as showrunner for the fourth season while Wells focused on the development of other series, including Trinity, Third Watch, and The West Wing. She left her executive producer position at the end of the sixth season but continued to write episodes throughout the series' run.\n\nJoe Sachs, who was a writer and producer of the series, believed keeping a commitment to medical accuracy was extremely important: \"We'd bend the rules but never break them. A medication that would take 10 minutes to work might take 30 seconds instead. We compressed time. A 12- to 24-hour shift gets pushed into 48 minutes. But we learned that being accurate was important for more reasons than just making real and responsible drama.\"\n\nWoodward was replaced as showrunner by Jack Orman. Orman was recruited as a writer-producer for the series in its fourth season after a successful stint working on CBS's JAG. He was quickly promoted and became an executive producer and showrunner for the series' seventh season. He held these roles for three seasons before leaving the series at the end of the ninth season. Orman was also a frequent writer and directed three episodes of the show. David Zabel served as the series' head writer and executive producer in its later seasons. He initially joined the crew for the eighth season and became an executive producer and showrunner for the twelfth season onward. Zabel was the series' most frequent writer, contributing to 41 episodes. He also made his directing debut on the series. Christopher Chulack was the series' most frequent director and worked as a producer on all 15 seasons. He became an executive producer in the fourth season but occasionally scaled back his involvement in later years to focus on other projects. Other executive producers include writers Carol Flint, Neal Baer, R. Scott Gemmill, Dee Johnson, Joe Sachs, Lisa Zwerling, and Janine Sherman Barrois. Several of these writers and producers had extensive background in emergency medicine. Joe Sachs was a regular emergency attending physician, while Lisa Zwerling and Neal Baer had pediatrics backgrounds. The series' crew was recognized with awards for writing, directing, producing, film editing, sound editing, casting, and music.\n\nCast and characters\n\nThe original starring cast consisted of Anthony Edwards as Dr. Mark Greene, George Clooney as Dr. Doug Ross, Sherry Stringfield as Dr. Susan Lewis, Noah Wyle as medical student John Carter, and Eriq La Salle as Dr. Peter Benton. As the series continued, some key changes were made: Nurse Carol Hathaway, played by Julianna Margulies, who attempts suicide in the original pilot script, was made into a regular cast member. Ming Na debuted in the middle of the first season as medical student Jing-Mei \"Deb\" Chen, but did not return for the second season, while Gloria Reuben and Laura Innes would join the series as Physician Assistant Jeanie Boulet and Dr. Kerry Weaver, respectively, by the second season. \n\nIn the third season, a series of cast additions and departures that would see the entire original cast leave over time began. Stringfield was the first to exit the series, reportedly upsetting producers who believed she wanted to negotiate for more money, but the actress did not particularly care for \"fame.\"\n She would return to the series from 2001 until 2005. Clooney departed the series in 1999 to pursue a film career, and Margulies exited the following year. Season eight saw the departure of La Salle and Edwards when Benton left County General and Mark Greene died from a brain tumor. Wyle left the series in order to spend more time with his family, but would return for two multiple-episode appearances in the show's final seasons. Goran Visnjic as Dr. Luka Kovač, Maura Tierney as Dr. Abby Lockhart, Alex Kingston as Dr. Elizabeth Corday, and Paul McCrane as Dr. Robert Romano, all joined the cast as the seasons went on. In the much later seasons, the show would see the additions of Mekhi Phifer as Dr. Greg Pratt, Scott Grimes as Dr. Archie Morris, Parminder Nagra as Dr. Neela Rasgotra, Shane West as Dr. Ray Barnett, Linda Cardellini as nurse Samantha Taggart, John Stamos as intern Tony Gates, and Angela Bassett as Dr. Catherine Banfield.\n\nIn addition to the main cast, ER featured a large number of frequently seen recurring cast members who played key roles such as paramedics, hospital support staff, nurses, and doctors. ER also featured a sizable roster of well-known guest stars, some making rare television appearances, who typically played patients in single episode appearances or multi-episode arcs.\n\nBroadcasting\n\nFollowing the broadcast of its two-hour pilot movie on September 19, 1994, ER premiered Thursday, September 22 at 10:00. It remained in the same Thursday time slot for its entire run. ER is NBC's third longest-running drama, after Law & Order and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, and, the longest-running American primetime medical drama of all time. On April 2, 2008, NBC announced that the series would return for its fifteenth season. The fifteenth season was originally scheduled to run for 19 episodes before retiring with a two-hour series finale to be broadcast on March 12, 2009, but NBC announced in January 2009 that it would extend the show by an additional three episodes to a full 22-episode order as part of a deal to launch a new series by John Wells titled Police, later retitled Southland. ERs final episode aired on April 2, 2009; the two-hour episode was preceded by a one-hour retrospective special. The series finale charged $425,000 per 30-second ad spot, more than three times the season's rate of $135,000. From season 4 to season 6 ER cost a record-breaking 13 million dollars. TNT also paid a record price of $1 million an episode for four years of repeats of the series during that time. The cost of the first three seasons was 2 million per episode and seasons 7 to 9 cost 8 million dollars per episode. \n\nEpisodes\n\nA typical episode centered on the ER, with most scenes set in the hospital or surrounding streets. In addition, most seasons included at least one storyline located completely outside of the ER, often outside of Chicago. Over the span of the series, stories took place in the Democratic Republic of The Congo, France, Iraq and Sudan. One early storyline involved a road trip taken by Dr. Ross and Dr. Greene to California and a season eight episode included a storyline in Hawaii featuring Dr. Greene and Dr. Corday. Beginning in season nine, storylines started to include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, featuring Dr. Kovac, Dr. Carter, and Dr. Pratt. “We turned some attention on the Congo and on Darfur when nobody else was. We had a bigger audience than a nightly newscast will ever see, making 25 to 30 million people aware of what was going on in Africa,” ER producer, John Wells said. “The show is not about telling people to eat their vegetables, but if we can do that in an entertaining context, then there’s nothing better.” The series also focused on sociopolitical issues such as HIV and AIDS, organ transplants, mental illness, racism, human trafficking, euthanasia, poverty and gay rights. The Africa episodes of ER were discussed in a scholarly article by Julie Cupples and Kevin Glynn published in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers in 2013. Other episodes used more creative formats, such as the 1997 live episode, \"Ambush\" performed twice; once for the east coast broadcast and again three hours later for the west coast, and 2002's \"Hindsight\" which ran in reverse time as it followed one character, Dr. Luka Kovac, through the tragic events of one Christmas Eve shift and the Christmas party that preceded it.\n\nCrossover with Third Watch\n\nThe episode \"Brothers and Sisters\" begins a crossover that concludes on the Third Watch episode \"Unleashed\" in which Susan enlists the help of Officers Maurice Boscorelli and Faith Yokas to find her sister and niece.\n\nFormat\n\nER was filmed in 1.78:1 widescreen from the start, even though it was not broadcast in widescreen until the seventh season when it began appearing in the 1080i HD format. Since the sixth episode of season 7, it has appeared in letterbox format when in standard definition. As a result, the U.S. DVD box set features the widescreen versions of the episodes, including those episodes originally broadcast in 1.33:1 (full frame) format. The episodes also appear in 1080i widescreen when rerun on TNT HD, though the first six seasons still run in full frame 1.33:1 on the digital TNT network. Only the live episode \"Ambush\" at the beginning of the fourth season and the title sequence for the first six seasons are in standard 4:3 aspect ratio.\n\nImpact\n\nRatings\n\nUS seasonal rankings based on average total viewers per episode of ER on NBC are tabulated below. Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps. All times mentioned in this section were in the Eastern and Pacific time zones. Ratings for seasons 1-2 are listed in households (the percentage of households watching the program), while ratings for seasons 3-15 are listed in viewers.\n\nIn its first year, ER attracted an average of 19 million viewers per episode, becoming the years second most watched television show, just behind Seinfeld. In the following two seasons (1995-1997), ER was the most watched show in North America. For almost five years, ER battled for the top spot against Seinfeld, but in 1998, Seinfeld ended and then ER became number one again. The series finale attracted 16.4 million viewers. The show's highest rating came during season 2 episode \"Hell and High Water,\" with 48 million viewers and a 45% market share. It was the highest for a regularly scheduled drama since a May 1985 installment of Dallas received a 46. The share represents the percentage of TVs in use tuned in to that show. \n\nCritical reception\n\nThroughout the series ER received positive reviews from critics and fans alike. It scored 80 on Metascore, meaning \"generally favorable reviews\", based on 21 critics. Marvin Kitman from Newsday gave the show a very positive review, saying: \"It's like MASH with just the helicopters showing up and no laughs. E.R. is all trauma; you never get to know enough about the patients or get involved with them. It's just treat, release and move on\". Richard Zoglin from Time stated that it's \"probably the most realistic fictional treatment of the medical profession TV has ever presented\".\n\nCritical reactions for ERs first season were very favorable. Alan Rich, writing for Variety, praised the direction and editing of the pilot while Eric Mink, writing for the New York Daily News, said that the pilot of ER \"was urban, emergency room chaos and young, committed doctors.\" However some reviewers felt the episodes following the pilot did not live up to it with Mink commenting that \"...the great promise of the \"E.R.\" pilot dissolves into the kind of routine, predictable, sloppily detailed medical drama we've seen many times before.\" \n\nDue to the show launching on NBC at the same time that CBS launched its own medical drama Chicago Hope, many critics drew comparisons between the two. Eric Mink concluded that ER may rate more highly in the Nielsens but Chicago Hope told better stories, while Rich felt both shows were \"riveting, superior TV fare.\" The Daily Telegraph wrote in 1996: \"Not being able to follow what on earth is going on remains one of the peculiar charms of the breakneck American hospital drama, ER\". \n\nIn 2002, TV Guide ranked ER No. 22 on their list of \"TV's Top 50 Shows\", making it the second highest ranked medical drama on the list (after St. Elsewhere at #20). Also, the season 1 episode \"Love's Labor Lost\" was ranked No. 6 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time list having earlier been ranked #3. The show also placed No. 19 on Entertainment Weekly \"New TV Classics\" list. British magazine Empire ranked it No. 29 in their list of the \"50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time\" and said the best episode was \"Hell And High Water\" (Season 2, Episode 7) where \"Doug Ross (George Clooney) saves a young boy from drowning during a flood.\" In 2012, ER was voted Best TV Drama on ABC's 20/20 special episode \"Best in TV: The Greatest TV Shows of Our Time\". In 2013, TV Guide ranked it No. 9 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time and No. 29 in its list of the 60 Best Series. In the same year, the Writers Guild of America ranked ER No. 27 in its list of the 101 Best Written TV Series Of All Time. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nThe series \n\nDistribution\n\nHome video\n\nWarner Home Video has released all 15 seasons in R1, R2, and R4.\n\nThe first six DVD box sets of ER are unusual in the fact that they are all in anamorphic widescreen even though the episodes were broadcast in a standard 4:3 format. Only the live episode \"Ambush\" is not in the widescreen format.\n\nSoundtrack\n\nIn 1996, Atlantic Records released an album of music from the first two seasons, featuring James Newton Howard's theme from the series in its on-air and full versions, selections from the weekly scores composed by Martin Davich (Howard scored the two-hour pilot, Davich scored all the subsequent episodes and wrote a new theme used from 2006–2009 until the final episode, when Howard's original theme returned) and songs used on the series. \n\n# Theme From ER – James Newton Howard (3:02)\n# Dr. Lewis And Renee (from \"The Birthday Party\") (1:57)\n# Canine Blues (from \"Make of Two Hearts\") (2:27)\n# Goodbye Baby Susie (from \"Fever of Unknown Origin\") (3:11)\n# Doug & Carol (from \"The Gift\") – composed by James Newton Howard and Martin Davich (1:59)\n# Healing Hands – Marc Cohn (4:25)\n# The Hero (from \"Hell And High Water\") composed by James Newton Howard and Martin Davich (1:55)\n# Carter, See You Next Fall (from \"Everything Old Is New Again\") (1:28)\n# Reasons For Living – Duncan Sheik (4:33)\n# Dr. Green and a Mother's Death (from \"Love's Labor Lost\") (2:48)\n# Raul Dies (from \"The Healers\") (2:20)\n# Hell And High Water (from \"Hell And High Water\") – composed by James Newton Howard and Martin Davich (2:38)\n# Hold On (from \"Hell And High Water\") (2:47)\n# Shep Arrives (from \"The Healers\") (3:37)\n# Shattered Glass (from \"Hell And High Water\") (2:11)\n# Theme From ER – James Newton Howard (1:00)\n# It Came Upon A Midnight Clear – Mike Finnegan (2:30)\n\nOther media\n\n An ER video game for Windows 2000 and XP was released in 2005.\n* In the Mad episode \"Pokémon Park / WWER\", the show was parodied in the style of WWE.\n* A book about emergency medicine based on the TV series, The Medicine of ER: An Insider's Guide to the Medical Science Behind America's #1 TV Drama was published in 1996. Authors Alan Duncan Ross and Harlan Gibbs M.D. have hospital administration and ER experience, respectively, and are called fans of the TV show in the book's credits.\n\nForeign adaptation\n\nIn March 2012, Warner Bros. International Television announced that they would sell the format rights to ER to overseas territories. This allowed foreign countries to produce their own version of the series. \n\nIn June 2013, Warner Bros. International Television and Emotion Production from Belgrade, Serbia, announced a Serbian version of ER. Urgentni Centar premiered on October 6, 2014 on TV Prva. A Colombian version is also in the works." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Anthony Charles Edwards", "Anthony Edwards" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "anthony charles edwards", "anthony edwards" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "anthony edwards", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Anthony Edwards" }
Who played Rick Deckard in Blade Runner?	tc_1097	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Rick_Deckard.txt", "Blade_Runner.txt", "List_of_Blade_Runner_characters.txt" ], "title": [ "Rick Deckard", "Blade Runner", "List of Blade Runner characters" ], "wiki_context": [ "Rick Deckard is a fictional character and the protagonist of Philip K. Dick's 1968 novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?.\n\nHe was portrayed by Harrison Ford in the 1982 film adaptation Blade Runner directed by Ridley Scott and by James Purefoy in the 2014 BBC Radio 4 adaptation directed by Sasha Yevtushenko. \n\nOverview \n\nRick Deckard is a specialist plainclothes police officer with the San Francisco Police Department in the early 21st Century, who goes after \"andys\" as they are called. In the film adaption (see below), he was/is with the Replicant Detection Division (i.e. Blade Runner unit) of the Los Angeles Police Department. In this version the apprehension and termination of such renegade androids (here known as replicants) is euphemistically referred to as 'retirement'. Given the nature of this role he could also be considered an officially sanctioned bounty hunter (In the original novel the bounty hunter nature of the position is made more obvious). In both novel & film versions, he begins the story as a selfish, self-involved cop who seemingly sees no value in android life. His experiences within the novel cause him to develop empathy towards androids and all living things. In the film it is implied that he had already begun to undergo this sea change prior to the start of the film, causing his original resignation some time (around May 2019) before its opening. \n\nDeckard is married to Iran who is one of the more empathetic characters in the novel. She is able to allow herself to go into a depression and sadness with others over the state of humanity, and is able to find the empathy necessary to care for an electric toad at the end of the novel. \n\nAdaptation \n\nIn the film, the bounty hunters are replaced by police \"Blade Runners\", the androids are called \"replicants\", terms not used in the original novel. The novel depicts Deckard as obsequious and officious \"little man\", so much so it is interesting to note that Dustin Hoffman was involved in the film production for a short time. However it is not documented as to how Hoffman was going to play the character. In the novel Deckard is human and has a wife but because of the many versions of the film and because of script and production errors, the back story of the movie version of Rick Deckard becomes unclear. The viewer has to make up their own mind as to whether Deckard is a replicant or not and therefore whether he has a past or not. The voice over in the theatrical release indicates Deckard is divorced, as it mentions an ex-wife. However the voice over has been removed from subsequent versions and so this detail is not mentioned. If the viewer takes the perspective that Deckard is a replicant then the \"ex-wife\" only becomes an implanted memory. Philip K. Dick approved of Harrison Ford's performance, saying that Ford had brought to life \"a genuine, real, authentic Deckard.\" \n\nBefore he resigned from his position just prior to the events of the film, Deckard had amassed such a reputation as a Blade Runner that he had gained the nicknames Mr. Nighttime and the Boogeyman.", "Blade Runner is a 1982 American tech noir science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott, and starring Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, Sean Young, and Edward James Olmos. The screenplay, written by Hampton Fancher and David Peoples, is a modified film adaptation of the 1968 novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick.\n\nThe film depicts a dystopian Los Angeles in which genetically engineered replicants, which are visually indistinguishable from adult humans, are manufactured by the powerful Tyrell Corporation. The use of replicants on Earth is banned and they are exclusively utilized for dangerous or menial work on off-world colonies. Replicants who defy the ban and return to Earth are hunted down and killed (\"retired\") by special police operatives known as \"Blade Runners\". The plot focuses on a group of recently escaped replicants hiding in L.A. and the burnt-out expert Blade Runner, Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford), who reluctantly agrees to take on one more assignment to hunt them down.\n\nBlade Runner initially polarized critics: some were displeased with the pacing, while others enjoyed its thematic complexity. The year following its release, the film won the prestigious Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Blade Runner underperformed in North American theaters, but has since become a cult film. Hailed for its production design, depicting a \"retrofitted\" future, it remains a leading example of the neo-noir genre. It brought the work of Philip K. Dick to the attention of Hollywood and several later films were based on his work. Ridley Scott regards Blade Runner as \"probably\" his most complete and personal film. In 1993, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Blade Runner is now regarded by many critics as one of the best science fiction films ever made.\n\nSeven versions of the film have been shown for various markets as a result of controversial changes made by film executives. A Director's Cut was released in 1992 after a strong response to workprint screenings. This, in conjunction with its popularity as a video rental, made it one of the first films released on DVD, resulting in a basic disc with mediocre video and audio quality. In 2007, Warner Bros. released The Final Cut, a 25th anniversary digitally remastered version, which is the only one on which Scott had complete artistic freedom and was shown in selected theaters and subsequently released on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray. \n\nPlot\n\nIn Los Angeles in November 2019, ex-police officer Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford) is detained by officer Gaff (Edward James Olmos) and brought to his former supervisor, Bryant (M. Emmet Walsh). Deckard, whose job as a \"Blade Runner\" was to track down bioengineered beings known as replicants and \"retire\" (a euphemism for killing) them, is informed that four have come to Earth illegally. As Tyrell Corporation Nexus-6 models, they have only a four-year lifespan and may have come to Earth to try to extend their lives.\n\nDeckard watches a video of a Blade Runner named Holden administering the \"Voight-Kampff\" test designed to distinguish replicants from humans based on their emotional response to questions. The test subject, Leon (Brion James), shoots Holden after Holden asks about Leon's mother. Bryant wants Deckard to retire Leon and the other three replicants: Roy Batty (Rutger Hauer), Zhora (Joanna Cassidy), and Pris (Daryl Hannah). Deckard initially refuses, but after Bryant ambiguously threatens him, he reluctantly agrees.\n\nDeckard begins his investigation at the Tyrell Corporation to ensure that the test works on Nexus-6 models. While there, he discovers that Dr. Eldon Tyrell's (Joe Turkel) assistant Rachael (Sean Young) is an experimental replicant who believes herself to be human. Rachael has been given false memories to provide an \"emotional cushion\". As a result, a more extensive test is required to determine whether she is a replicant.\n\nEvents are then set into motion that pit Deckard's search for the replicants against their search for Tyrell to force him to extend their lives. Roy and Leon investigate a replicant eye-manufacturing laboratory and learn of J.F. Sebastian (William Sanderson), a gifted genetic designer who works closely with Tyrell. Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity by showing him a family photo, but after Deckard reveals that her memories are implants from Tyrell's niece, she leaves his apartment in tears. Meanwhile, Pris locates Sebastian and manipulates him to gain his trust.\n\nWhile searching Leon's hotel room, Deckard finds a photo of Zhora and a synthetic snake scale that leads him to a strip club where Zhora works. Deckard kills Zhora and shortly after is told by Bryant to also retire Rachael, who has disappeared from the Tyrell Corporation. After Deckard spots Rachael in a crowd, he is attacked by Leon, but Rachael kills Leon using Deckard's dropped pistol. The two return to Deckard's apartment, and during an intimate discussion, he promises not to hunt her; as she abruptly tries to leave, Deckard physically restrains her, forcing her to kiss him.\n\nArriving at Sebastian's apartment, Roy tells Pris the others are dead. Sympathetic to their plight, Sebastian reveals that because of \"Methuselah Syndrome\", a genetic premature aging disorder, his life will also be cut short. Sebastian and Roy gain entrance into Tyrell's secure penthouse, where Roy demands more life from his maker. Tyrell tells him that it is impossible. Roy confesses that he has done \"questionable things\" which Tyrell dismisses, praising Roy's advanced design and accomplishments in his short life. Roy kisses Tyrell, then kills him. Sebastian runs for the elevator followed by Roy, who then rides the elevator down alone. Though not shown, it is implied by Bryant via police radio that Roy also kills Sebastian.\n\nUpon entering Sebastian's apartment, Deckard is ambushed by Pris, but he manages to kill her just as Roy returns. As Roy starts to die, he chases Deckard through the building, ending up on the roof. Deckard tries to jump to an adjacent roof, but misses and is left hanging precariously between buildings. Roy makes the jump with ease, and as Deckard's grip loosens, Roy hoists him onto the roof, saving him. As Roy's life runs out, he delivers a monologue about how his memories \"will be lost like tears in rain\"; Roy dies in front of Deckard, who watches silently. Gaff arrives and shouts across to Deckard, \"It's too bad she won't live, but then again, who does?\" Deckard returns to his apartment and finds the door ajar, but Rachael is safe, asleep in his bed. As they leave, Deckard notices a small tin-foil origami unicorn on the floor, a familiar calling card that brings back to him Gaff's final words. Deckard and Rachael quickly leave the apartment block.\n\nThemes\n\nAlthough Blade Runner is ostensibly an action film, it operates on multiple dramatic and narrative levels. It is indebted to film noir conventions: the femme fatale; protagonist-narration (removed in later versions); dark and shadowy cinematography; and the questionable moral outlook of the hero – in this case, extended to include reflections upon the nature of his own humanity. It is a literate science fiction film, thematically enfolding the philosophy of religion and moral implications of human mastery of genetic engineering in the context of classical Greek drama and hubris. It also draws on Biblical images, such as Noah's flood, and literary sources, such as Frankenstein. Linguistically, the theme of mortality is subtly reiterated in the chess game between Roy and Tyrell, based on the famous Immortal Game of 1851, though Scott has said that was coincidental. \n\nBlade Runner delves into the implications of technology on the environment and on society by reaching to the past, using literature, religious symbolism, classical dramatic themes, and film noir. This tension between past, present, and future is mirrored in the retrofitted future of Blade Runner, which is high-tech and gleaming in places but decayed and old elsewhere. Ridley Scott described the film as: \"extremely dark, both literally and metaphorically, with an oddly masochistic feel\", in an interview by Lynn Barber for the British Sunday newspaper The Observer in 2002. Scott \"liked the idea of exploring pain\" in the wake of his brother's skin cancer death: \"When he was ill, I used to go and visit him in London, and that was really traumatic for me.\"\n\nAn aura of paranoia suffuses the film: corporate power looms large; the police seem omnipresent; vehicle and warning lights probe into buildings; and the consequences of huge biomedical power over the individual are explored – especially the consequences for replicants of their implanted memories. Control over the environment is depicted as taking place on a vast scale, hand in hand with the absence of any natural life, with artificial animals substituting for their extinct predecessors. This oppressive backdrop explains the frequently referenced migration of humans to extra-terrestrial (\"off-world\") colonies. \nThe dystopian themes explored in Blade Runner are an early example of cyberpunk concepts expanding into film. Eyes are a recurring motif, as are manipulated images, calling into question reality and our ability to accurately perceive and remember it. \n\nThese thematic elements provide an atmosphere of uncertainty for Blade Runners central theme of examining humanity. In order to discover replicants, an empathy test is used, with a number of its questions focused on the treatment of animals – seemingly an essential indicator of someone's \"humanity\". The replicants appear to show compassion and concern for one another and are juxtaposed against human characters who lack empathy while the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal. The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is human, and forces the audience to re-evaluate what it means to be human. \n\nThe question of whether Deckard is intended to be a human or a replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film's release. Both Michael Deeley and Harrison Ford wanted Deckard to be human while Hampton Fancher preferred ambiguity. Ridley Scott has confirmed that in his vision Deckard is a replicant. \n\nDeckard's unicorn dream sequence, inserted into the Director's Cut, coinciding with Gaff's parting gift of an origami unicorn is seen by many as showing that Deckard is a replicant – as Gaff could have accessed Deckard's implanted memories. The interpretation that Deckard is a replicant is challenged by others who believe the unicorn imagery shows that the characters, whether human or replicant, share the same dreams and recognize their affinity, or that the absence of a decisive answer is crucial to the film's main theme. The inherent ambiguity and uncertainty of the film, as well as its textual richness, have permitted viewers to see it from their own perspectives. \n\nProduction \n\nCasting\n\nCasting the film proved troublesome, particularly for the lead role of Deckard. Screenwriter Hampton Fancher envisioned Robert Mitchum as Deckard and wrote the character's dialogue with Mitchum in mind. Director Ridley Scott and the film's producers spent months meeting and discussing the role with Dustin Hoffman, who eventually departed over differences in vision. Harrison Ford was ultimately chosen for several reasons, including his performance in the Star Wars films, Ford's interest in the Blade Runner story, and discussions with Steven Spielberg who was finishing Raiders of the Lost Ark at the time and strongly praised Ford's work in the film. Following his success in films like Star Wars (1977) and Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth. According to production documents, several actors were considered for the role, including Gene Hackman, Sean Connery, Jack Nicholson, Paul Newman, Clint Eastwood, Tommy Lee Jones, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Al Pacino, and Burt Reynolds.\n\nOne role that was not difficult to cast was Rutger Hauer as Roy Batty, the violent yet thoughtful leader of the replicants. Scott cast Hauer without having met him, based solely on Hauer's performances in Paul Verhoeven's movies Scott had seen (Katie Tippel, Soldier of Orange and Turkish Delight). Hauer's portrayal of Batty was regarded by Philip K. Dick as, \"the perfect Batty—cold, Aryan, flawless\". Of the many films Hauer has done, Blade Runner is his favorite. As he explained in a live chat in 2001, \"Blade Runner needs no explanation. It just [is]. All of the best. There is nothing like it. To be part of a real masterpiece which changed the world's thinking. It's awesome.\" Hauer rewrote his character's \"tears in rain\" speech himself and presented the words to Scott on set prior to filming.\n\nBlade Runner used a number of then-lesser-known actors: Sean Young portrays Rachael, an experimental replicant implanted with the memories of Tyrell's niece, causing her to believe she is human; Nina Axelrod auditioned for the role. Daryl Hannah portrays Pris, a \"basic pleasure model\" replicant; Stacey Nelkin auditioned for the role, but was given another part in the film, which was ultimately cut before filming. Casting Pris and Rachael was challenging, requiring several screen tests, with Morgan Paull playing the role of Deckard. Paull was cast as Deckard's fellow bounty hunter Holden based on his performances in the tests. Brion James portrays Leon Kowalski, a combat replicant, and Joanna Cassidy portrays Zhora, an assassin replicant.\n\nEdward James Olmos portrays Gaff. Olmos used his diverse ethnic background, and personal research, to help create the fictional \"Cityspeak\" language his character uses in the film. His initial address to Deckard at the noodle bar is partly in Hungarian and means, \"Horse dick [bullshit]! No way. You are the Blade ... Blade Runner.\" M. Emmet Walsh plays Captain Bryant, a hard-drinking, sleazy, and underhanded police veteran typical of the film noir genre. Joe Turkel portrays Dr. Eldon Tyrell, a corporate mogul who built an empire on genetically manipulated humanoid slaves. William Sanderson was cast as J. F. Sebastian, a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity. J. F. sympathizes with the replicants, whom he sees as companions, and shares their shorter lifespan due to his rapid aging disease; Joe Pantoliano was considered for the role. James Hong portrays Hannibal Chew, an elderly geneticist specializing in synthetic eyes, and Hy Pyke portrays the sleazy bar owner Taffey Lewis with ease and in a single take, something almost unheard-of with Scott whose drive for perfection resulted at times in double-digit takes. \n\nDevelopment\n\nInterest in adapting Philip K. Dick's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? developed shortly after its 1968 publication. Director Martin Scorsese was interested in filming the novel, but never optioned it. Producer Herb Jaffe optioned it in the early 1970s, but Dick was unimpressed with the screenplay written by Herb's son Robert: \"Jaffe's screenplay was so terribly done ... Robert flew down to Santa Ana to speak with me about the project. And the first thing I said to him when he got off the plane was, 'Shall I beat you up here at the airport, or shall I beat you up back at my apartment? \n\nThe screenplay by Hampton Fancher was optioned in 1977. Producer Michael Deeley became interested in Fancher's draft and convinced director Ridley Scott to film it. Scott had previously declined the project, but after leaving the slow production of Dune, wanted a faster-paced project to take his mind off his older brother's recent death. He joined the project on February 21, 1980, and managed to push up the promised Filmways financing from US$13 million to $15 million. Fancher's script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and religion, which are prominent in the novel and Scott wanted changes. Fancher found a cinema treatment by William S. Burroughs for Alan E. Nourse's novel The Bladerunner (1974), titled Blade Runner (a movie). Scott liked the name, so Deeley obtained the rights to the titles. Eventually he hired David Peoples to rewrite the script and Fancher left the job over the issue on December 21, 1980, although he later returned to contribute additional rewrites. \n\nHaving invested over $2.5 million in pre-production, as the date of commencement of principal photography neared, Filmways withdrew financial backing. In 10 days Deeley had secured $21.5 million in financing through a three-way deal between The Ladd Company (through Warner Bros.), the Hong Kong-based producer Sir Run Run Shaw and Tandem Productions. \n\nPhilip K. Dick became concerned that no one had informed him about the film's production, which added to his distrust of Hollywood. After Dick criticized an early version of Hampton Fancher's script in an article written for the Los Angeles Select TV Guide, the studio sent Dick the David Peoples' rewrite. Although Dick died shortly before the film's release, he was pleased with the rewritten script and with a 20-minute special effects test reel that was screened for him when he was invited to the studio. Despite his well known skepticism of Hollywood in principle, Dick enthused to Ridley Scott that the world created for the film looked exactly as he had imagined it. He said, \"I saw a segment of Douglas Trumbull's special effects for Blade Runner on the KNBC-TV news. I recognized it immediately. It was my own interior world. They caught it perfectly.\" He also approved of the film's script, saying, \"After I finished reading the screenplay, I got the novel out and looked through it. The two reinforce each other, so that someone who started with the novel would enjoy the movie and someone who started with the movie would enjoy the novel.\" The motion picture was dedicated to Dick. Principal photography of Blade Runner began on March 9, 1981 and ended four months later. \n\nIn 1992, Ford revealed, \"Blade Runner is not one of my favorite films. I tangled with Ridley.\" Apart from friction with the director, Ford also disliked the voiceovers: \"When we started shooting it had been tacitly agreed that the version of the film that we had agreed upon was the version without voiceover narration. It was a nightmare. I thought that the film had worked without the narration. But now I was stuck re-creating that narration. And I was obliged to do the voiceovers for people that did not represent the director's interests.\" \"I went kicking and screaming to the studio to record it.\" The narration monologues were written by an uncredited Roland Kibbee. \n\nIn 2006, Scott was asked \"Who's the biggest pain in the arse you've ever worked with?\", he replied: \"It's got to be Harrison ... he'll forgive me because now I get on with him. Now he's become charming. But he knows a lot, that's the problem. When we worked together it was my first film up and I was the new kid on the block. But we made a good movie.\" Ford said of Scott in 2000: \"I admire his work. We had a bad patch there, and I'm over it.\" In 2006 Ford reflected on the production of the film saying: \"What I remember more than anything else when I see Blade Runner is not the 50 nights of shooting in the rain, but the voiceover ... I was still obliged to work for these clowns that came in writing one bad voiceover after another.\" Ridley Scott confirmed in the summer 2007 issue of Total Film that Harrison Ford contributed to the Blade Runner Special Edition DVD, having already done his interviews. \"Harrison's fully on board\", said Scott. \n\nThe Bradbury Building in downtown Los Angeles served as a filming location, and a Warner Bros. backlot housed the LA 2019 streets. Other locations included Ennis-Brown House and the 2nd Street Tunnel. Test screenings resulted in several changes including adding a voice over, a happy ending and the removal of a Holden hospital scene. The relationship between the filmmakers and the investors was difficult, which culminated in Deeley and Scott being fired but still working on the film. Crew members created T-shirts during filming saying, \"Yes Guv'nor, My Ass\" that mocked Scott's unfavorable comparison of U.S. and British crews; Scott responded with a T-shirt of his own, \"Xenophobia Sucks\" making the incident known as the T-shirt war. \n\nDesign\n\nRidley Scott credits Edward Hopper's painting Nighthawks and the French science fiction comic magazine Métal Hurlant (\"Heavy Metal\"), to which the artist Moebius contributed, as stylistic mood sources. He also drew on the landscape of \"Hong Kong on a very bad day\" and the industrial landscape of his one-time home in northeast England. The visual style of the movie is influenced by the work of Futurist Italian architect, Antonio Sant'Elia. Scott hired Syd Mead as his concept artist who, like Scott, was influenced by Métal Hurlant. Moebius was offered the opportunity to assist in the pre-production of Blade Runner, but he declined so that he could work on René Laloux's animated film Les Maîtres du temps – a decision that he later regretted. Production designer Lawrence G. Paull and art director David Snyder realized Scott's and Mead's sketches. Douglas Trumbull and Richard Yuricich supervised the special effects for the film.\n\nBlade Runner has numerous deep similarities to Fritz Lang's Metropolis, including a built-up urban environment, in which the wealthy literally live above the workers, dominated by a huge building – the Stadtkrone Tower in Metropolis and the Tyrell Building in Blade Runner. Special effects supervisor David Dryer used stills from Metropolis when lining up Blade Runners miniature building shots. \n\nThe extended end scene in the original theatrical release shows Rachel and Deckard traveling into daylight with pastoral aerial shots filmed by director Stanley Kubrick. Ridley Scott contacted Kubrick about using some of his surplus helicopter aerial photography from The Shining. \n\n\"Spinner\" is the generic term for the fictional flying cars used in the film. A spinner can be driven as a ground-based vehicle, and take off vertically, hover, and cruise using jet propulsion much like vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft. They are used extensively by the police to patrol and survey the population, and it is clear that despite restrictions wealthy people can acquire spinner licenses. The vehicle was conceived and designed by Syd Mead who described the spinner as an \"aerodyne\"—a vehicle which directs air downward to create lift, though press kits for the film stated that the spinner was propelled by three engines: \"conventional internal combustion, jet, and anti-gravity\" Mead's conceptual drawings were transformed into 25 working vehicles by automobile customizer Gene Winfield. A spinner is on permanent exhibit at the Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame in Seattle, Washington. \n\nVoight-Kampff machine\n\nThe Voight-Kampff machine is a fictional interrogation tool, originating in the novel where it is spelled Voigt-Kampff. The Voight-Kampff is a polygraph-like machine used by Blade Runners to determine whether an individual is a replicant. It measures bodily functions such as respiration, blush response, heart rate and eye movement in response to questions dealing with empathy. In the film two replicants take the test, Leon and Rachael, and Deckard tells Tyrell that it usually takes 20 to 30 cross-referenced questions to distinguish a replicant; in contrast with the book, where it is stated it only takes \"six or seven\" questions to make a determination. In the film it takes more than one hundred questions to determine that Rachael is a replicant.\n\nMusic\n\nThe Blade Runner soundtrack by Vangelis is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film-noir retro-future envisioned by Ridley Scott. Vangelis, fresh from his Academy Award winning score for Chariots of Fire, composed and performed the music on his synthesizers. He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator Demis Roussos. Another memorable sound is the haunting tenor sax solo \"Love Theme\" by British saxophonist Dick Morrissey, who performed on many of Vangelis's albums. Ridley Scott also used \"Memories of Green\" from the Vangelis album See You Later, an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film Someone To Watch Over Me. \n\nAlong with Vangelis' compositions and ambient textures, the film's soundscape also features a track by the Japanese ensemble Nipponia – \"Ogi No Mato\" or \"The Folding Fan as a Target\" from the Nonesuch Records release Traditional Vocal and Instrumental Music – and a track by harpist Gail Laughton from \"Harps of the Ancient Temples\" on Laurel Records. \n\nDespite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed and nominated in 1983 for a BAFTA and Golden Globe as best original score, and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film, the release of the official soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade. There are two official releases of the music from Blade Runner. In light of the lack of a release of an album, the New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original. Some of the film tracks would, in 1989, surface on the compilation Vangelis: Themes, but not until the 1992 release of the Director's Cut version would a substantial amount of the film's score see commercial release.\n\nThese delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many bootleg recordings over the years. A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings, and in 1993 \"Off World Music, Ltd\" created a bootleg CD that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis' official CD in 1994. A set with three CDs of Blade Runner-related Vangelis music was released in 2007. Titled Blade Runner Trilogy, the first disc contains the same tracks as the 1994 official soundtrack release, the second features previously unreleased music from the movie, and the third disc is all newly composed music from Vangelis, inspired by, and in the spirit of the movie. \n\nSpecial effects\n\nThe film's special effects are generally recognized to be among the best of all time, using the available (non-digital) technology to the fullest. In addition to matte paintings and models, the techniques employed included multipass exposures. In some scenes, the set was lit, shot, the film rewound, and then rerecorded over with different lighting. In some cases this was done 16 times in all. The cameras were frequently motion controlled using computers. Many effects utilised techniques which had been developed during the production of Close Encounters of the Third Kind. \n\nRelease\n\nBlade Runner was released in 1,290 theaters on June 25, 1982. That date was chosen by producer Alan Ladd, Jr. because his previous highest-grossing films (Star Wars and Alien) had a similar opening date (May 25) in 1977 and 1979, making the date his \"lucky day\". Blade Runner grossed reasonably good ticket sales according to contemporary reports; earning $6.1 million during its first weekend in theaters. The film was released in proximity to The Thing, Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, Conan the Barbarian and, most significantly, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. These big-budget science fiction/fantasy films all released in 1982 undoubtedly glutted the market. \n\nCritical reception\n\nInitial reactions among film critics were mixed. Some wrote that the plot took a back seat to the film's special effects, and did not fit the studio's marketing as an action/adventure movie. Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time. Negative criticism in the United States cited its slow pace. Sheila Benson from the Los Angeles Times called it \"Blade Crawler,\" and Pat Berman in The State and Columbia Record described it as \"science fiction pornography\". Pauline Kael praised Blade Runner as worthy of a place in film history for its distinctive sci-fi vision, yet criticized the film's lack of development in \"human terms\". \n\nAcademics began writing analyses of the film almost as soon as it was released, in particular its dystopic aspects, its questions regarding \"authentic\" humanity, its ecofeminist aspects, in genre studies and in recent years, popular culture. The film has been the subject of academic interest over decades. \n\nSince its original release, the film has become a science fiction classic. Roger Ebert praised the visuals of both the original and the Director's Cut versions and recommended it for that reason; however, he found the human story clichéd and a little thin. He later added The Final Cut to his \"Great Movies\" list. Critic Chris Rodley and Janet Maslin theorized that Blade Runner changed cinematic and cultural discourse through its image repertoire, and subsequent influence on films. Blade Runner holds an 89% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a website that rates films based on published reviews by critics, averaging a score of 8.5 out of 10 from 104 reviews. The site's main consensus reads \"Misunderstood when it first hit theaters, the influence of Ridley Scott's mysterious, neo-noir Blade Runner has deepened with time. A visually remarkable, achingly human sci-fi masterpiece.\" Denis Villeneuve, who is to direct the Blade Runner sequel, cites the movie as a huge influence for him and many others.\n\nAccolades\n\nBlade Runner has won and been nominated for the following awards: \n\nVersions\n\nSeveral different versions of Blade Runner have been shown. The original workprint version (1982, 113 minutes) was shown for audience test previews in Denver and Dallas in March 1982. Negative responses to the previews led to the modifications resulting in the U.S. theatrical version. The workprint was shown as a director's cut without Scott's approval at the Los Angeles Fairfax Theater in May 1990, at an AMPAS showing in April 1991, and in September and October 1991 at the Los Angeles NuArt Theater and the San Francisco Castro Theatre. Positive responses pushed the studio to approve work on an official director's cut. A San Diego Sneak Preview was shown only once, in May 1982, and was almost identical to the U.S. theatrical version but contained three extra scenes not shown in any other version, including the 2007 Final Cut. \n\nTwo versions were shown in the film's 1982 theatrical release: the U.S. theatrical version (117 minutes), known as the original version or Domestic Cut, released on Betamax, CED Videodisc and VHS in 1983 and Laserdisc in 1987; and the International Cut (117 minutes), also known as the \"Criterion Edition\" or \"uncut version\", which included more violent action scenes than the U.S. version. Although initially unavailable in the U.S., and distributed in Europe and Asia via theatrical and local Warner Home Video Laserdisc releases, it was later released on VHS and Criterion Collection Laserdisc in North America, and re-released in 1992 as a \"10th Anniversary Edition\". \n\nScott's Director's Cut (1991, 116 minutes) was made available on VHS and Laserdisc in 1993, and on DVD in 1997. Significant changes from the theatrical version include: the removal of Deckard's voice-over; re-insertion of the unicorn sequence; and removal of the studio-imposed happy ending. Scott provided extensive notes and consultation to Warner Bros. through film preservationist Michael Arick, who was put in charge of creating the Director's Cut. Scott's The Final Cut (2007, 117 minutes) was released by Warner Bros. theatrically on October 5, 2007, and subsequently released on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray Disc in December 2007. This is the only version over which Scott had complete editorial control.\n\nLegacy\n\nCultural impact\n\nWhile not initially a success with North American audiences, the film was popular internationally and garnered a cult following. The film's dark style and futuristic designs have served as a benchmark and its influence can be seen in many subsequent science fiction films, anime, video games, and television programs. For example, Ronald D. Moore and David Eick, the producers of the re-imagining of Battlestar Galactica, have both cited Blade Runner as one of the major influences for the show. Blade Runner continues to reflect modern trends and concerns, and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time. It was voted the best science fiction film ever made in a poll of 60 eminent world scientists conducted in 2004. Blade Runner is also cited as an important influence to both the style and story of the Ghost in the Shell film series, which itself has been highly influential to the future-noir genre. \n\nThe film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1993 and is frequently used in university courses. In 2007 it was named the second most visually influential film of all time by the Visual Effects Society. \n\nBlade Runner is one of the most musically sampled films of the 20th century. The 2009 album, I, Human, by Singaporean band Deus Ex Machina makes numerous references to the genetic engineering and cloning themes from the film, and even features a track titled \"Replicant\". \n\nBlade Runner has influenced adventure games such as the 2012 graphical text adventure Cypher, Rise of the Dragon, Snatcher, Beneath a Steel Sky, Flashback: The Quest for Identity, Bubblegum Crisis (and its original anime films), the role-playing game Shadowrun, the first-person shooter Perfect Dark, and the Syndicate series of video games. The film is also cited as a major influence on Warren Spector, designer of the computer-game Deus Ex, which displays evidence of the film's influence in both its visual rendering and plot. The look of the film, darkness, neon lights and opacity of vision, is easier to render than complicated backdrops, making it a popular choice for game designers. \n\nBlade Runner has also been the subject of parody, such as the comics Blade Bummer by Crazy comics, Bad Rubber by Steve Gallacci, and the Red Dwarf 2009 three-part miniseries, \"Back to Earth\". \n\nAmong the folklore that has developed around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a curse to the companies whose logos were displayed prominently as product placements in some scenes. While they were market leaders at the time, Atari, Bell, Cuisinart and Pan Am experienced setbacks after the film's release. The Coca-Cola Company suffered losses during its failed introduction of New Coke in 1985, but soon afterwards regained its market share.\n\nMedia recognitions for Blade Runner include:\n\nAmerican Film Institute recognition\n\n* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – Nominated \n* AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – #74\n* AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains: \n Roy Batty (Villain) – Nominated\n Rick Deckard (Hero) – Nominated\n* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes: \n** \"I've seen things you people wouldn't believe. Attack ships on fire off the shoulder of Orion. I watched C-beams glitter in the dark near the Tannhauser gate. All those moments will be lost in time, like tears in rain. Time to die.\" – Nominated\n* AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated \n* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #97\n* AFI's 10 Top 10 – #6 Science Fiction Film\n\nIn other media\n\nBefore filming began, Cinefantastique magazine commissioned Paul M. Sammon to write an article about Blade Runners production which became the book Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner. \nThe book chronicles Blade Runners evolution, focusing on film-set politics, especially the British director's experiences with his first American film crew; of which producer Alan Ladd, Jr. has said, \"Harrison wouldn't speak to Ridley and Ridley wouldn't speak to Harrison. By the end of the shoot Ford was 'ready to kill Ridley', said one colleague. He really would have taken him on if he hadn't been talked out of it.\" \nFuture Noir has short cast biographies and quotations about their experiences, and photographs of the film's production and preliminary sketches. A second edition of Future Noir was published in 2007. \n\nPhilip K. Dick refused a $400,000 offer to write a Blade Runner novelization, saying: \"[I was] told the cheapo novelization would have to appeal to the twelve-year-old audience\" and \"[it] would have probably been disastrous to me artistically.\" He added, \"That insistence on my part of bringing out the original novel and not doing the novelization – they were just furious. They finally recognized that there was a legitimate reason for reissuing the novel, even though it cost them money. It was a victory not just of contractual obligations but of theoretical principles.\" Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? was eventually reprinted as a tie-in, with the film poster as a cover and the original title in parentheses below the Blade Runner title. \nArchie Goodwin scripted the comic book adaptation, A Marvel Super Special: Blade Runner, published in September 1982. \n\nThere are two video games based on the film, one from 1985 for Commodore 64, Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC by CRL Group PLC based on the music by Vangelis (due to licensing issues), and another action adventure PC game from 1997 by Westwood Studios. The 1997 video game featured new characters and branching storylines based on the Blade Runner world. Eldon Tyrell, Gaff, Leon, Rachael, Chew, and J.F. Sebastian appear, and their voice files are recorded by the original actors. The player assumes the role of McCoy, another replicant-hunter working at the same time as Deckard. \n\nThe PC game featured a non-linear plot, non-player characters that each ran in their own independent AI, and an unusual pseudo-3D engine (which eschewed polygonal solids in favor of voxel elements) that did not require the use of a 3D accelerator card to play the game. \n\nThe television film Total Recall 2070 was initially planned as a spin-off of the film Total Recall, and would eventually be transformed into a hybrid of Total Recall and Blade Runner. The Total Recall film was also based on a Philip K. Dick story, \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\"; many similarities between Total Recall 2070 and Blade Runner were noted, as well as apparent inspiration from Isaac Asimov's The Caves of Steel and the TV series Holmes & Yo-Yo. \n\nThe film has been the subject of several documentaries. On the Edge of Blade Runner (2000, 55 minutes) was directed by Andrew Abbott and hosted/written by Mark Kermode. Interviews with production staff, including Scott, give details of the creative process and the turmoil during preproduction. Insights into Philip K. Dick and the origins of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? are provided by Paul M. Sammon and Hampton Fancher. Future Shocks (2003, 27 minutes) is a documentary by TVOntario. It includes interviews with executive producer Bud Yorkin, Syd Mead, and the cast, and commentary by science fiction author Robert J. Sawyer and from film critics. Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner (2007, 213 minutes) is a documentary directed and produced by Charles de Lauzirika for The Final Cut version of the film. It was culled from over 80 interviews, including Ford, Young, and Scott. The documentary consists of eight chapters, each covering a portion of the film-making – or in the case of the final chapter, the film's controversial legacy. All Our Variant Futures: From Workprint to Final Cut (2007, 29 minutes), produced by Paul Prischman, appears on the Blade Runner Ultimate Collector's Edition and provides an overview of the film's multiple versions and their origins, as well as detailing the seven-year-long restoration, enhancement and remastering process behind The Final Cut.\n\nSequels\n\nDick's friend, K. W. Jeter, wrote three authorized Blade Runner novels that continue Deckard's story, attempting to resolve the differences between the film and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?: Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human (1995), Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night (1996), and Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon (2000). By 1999, Stuart Hazeldine had written a sequel to Blade Runner based on The Edge of Human, titled Blade Runner Down; the project was shelved due to rights issues. Blade Runner co-author David Peoples wrote the 1998 action film Soldier, which was referred to by him as a \"sidequel\" or spiritual successor to the original film, set in the same shared universe. \n\nScott considered developing a sequel, tentatively titled Metropolis. At the 2007 Comic-Con, Scott again announced that he was considering a sequel to the film. Eagle Eye co-writer Travis Wright worked with producer Bud Yorkin for several years on the project. His colleague John Glenn, who left the project by 2008, stated the script explores the nature of the off-world colonies as well as what happens to the Tyrell Corporation in the wake of its founder's death. \n\nIn June 2009, The New York Times reported that Scott and his brother Tony Scott were working on a Blade Runner prequel, set in 2019. The prequel, Purefold, was planned as a series of 5–10 minute shorts, aimed first at the web and then perhaps television. Due to rights issues, the proposed series was not to be linked too closely to the characters or events of the 1982 film. On February 7, 2010, it was announced that production on Purefold had ceased, due to funding problems. On March 4, 2011, io9 reported that Yorkin was developing a new Blade Runner film. It was also reported that month that director Christopher Nolan was the desired choice to make the film. \n\nIt was announced on August 18, 2011, that Scott was to direct a new Blade Runner film, with filming to begin no earlier than 2013. Indications from producer Andrew Kosove were that Ford was unlikely to be involved in the project. Scott later said that the film was \"liable to be a sequel\" but without the previous cast, and that he was close to finding a writer that \"might be able to help [him] deliver\". On February 6, 2012, Kosove denied that any casting considerations had been made in response to buzz that Ford might reprise his role, saying, \"It is absolutely, patently false that there has been any discussion about Harrison Ford being in Blade Runner. To be clear, what we are trying to do with Ridley now is go through the painstaking process of trying to break the back of the story ... The casting of the movie could not be further from our minds at this moment.\" When Scott was asked about the possibility of a sequel in October 2012, he said, \"It's not a rumor—it's happening. With Harrison Ford? I don't know yet. Is he too old? Well, he was a Nexus-6 so we don't know how long he can live. And that's all I'm going to say at this stage.\" \n\nIn November 2014, Variety magazine reported that Scott was no longer the director for the film and would only fulfill a producer's role. Scott also revealed that Ford's character will only appear in \"the third act\" of the sequel. In February 2015, Alcon Entertainment confirmed that Scott will not be back to direct, and they were negotiating with Prisoners director Denis Villeneuve. Ford, however, will return, as will original writer Hampton Fancher, and the film is expected to enter production in mid-2016. The sequel is set decades after the first film. Besides Ford, the film will also star Ryan Gosling in a currently undisclosed role. It is to be directed by Villeneuve and executive produced by Scott. Oscar-nominated cinematographer Roger Deakins is also attached. On November 16, 2015, Gosling told Collider.com that he will be starring in the sequel. \n\nPrincipal photography began in July 2016. Warner Bros. will handle its domestic release, while Sony (through Columbia Pictures) will be releasing the film in all overseas territories. On March 31, 2016, Variety reported that Robin Wright was cast in a role, and in April Dave Bautista, Ana de Armas and Sylvia Hoeks joined the cast. In June 2016, Mackenzie Davis and Barkhad Abdi were cast, with David Dastmalchian and Hiam Abbass joining in July. Originally slated for release in North America January 2018, Alcon Entertainment has now set a global release for October 6, 2017.", "Blade Runner is a 1982 American dystopian science fiction noir film directed by Ridley Scott and starring Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, Sean Young and Edward James Olmos. The screenplay, written by Hampton Fancher and David Peoples, is loosely based on the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick.\n\nRick Deckard \n\nRick Deckard is a \"Blade Runner\", a special agent in the Los Angeles police department employed to hunt down and \"retire\" replicants. His ID number is B-263-54, which is stated twice in both the 1992 Director's Cut and the 25th-anniversary Final Cut of the film.\n\nHe is the protagonist of the film and the narrator in the original theatrical release.\n\nAgent Deckard was played by Harrison Ford.\n\nRoy Batty \n\nRoy Batty is the leader of the renegade Nexus-6 replicants and the main antagonist of the film. He was activated on January 8, 2016, which makes him 3 years and 10 months old by the time of the events of the film. He is highly intelligent, fast, and skilled at combat, and yet still learning how to deal with developing emotions. With an A Physical Level (superhuman strength & endurance) and an A Mental Level (genius-level intellect), he is probably the most dangerous of all the fugitive replicants. He is a combat model, used off-world for military service. He and three other replicants come to Earth hoping to find a way to lengthen their lifespan. He is able to use J. F. Sebastian to get a meeting with Tyrell, the head founder of the company and his creator. Tyrell refers to him as his \"prodigal son\", and tells him his life cannot be extended, but that he should revel in the life that he has, as he has done and seen things others could only dream of. Following this, Batty kills Tyrell and likely is the killer of Sebastian.\n\nDeckard retires the remaining replicants and is hunted by a dying Roy. Trying to escape, Deckard ends up dangling from a building and is saved from the fall by Roy. As he dies, Roy tells Deckard about the things he saw in his life and how all those memories would be gone forever. He then smiles, saying, \"Time… to die\", and passes away.\n\nIn the original novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, his name was spelled \"Roy Baty\", and was the leader of the eight androids who killed their human owners so that they could escape their life of slavery on Mars. Roy was married to Irmgard Baty, another android. In the novel, Roy's relationship with Pris (who was his lover in the film) is only one of friendship.\n\nIn the novel Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human, Batty is one of a series of replicants based on a mercenary of the same name. The template for these replicants suffered from \"neural malformation\", which made them unable to experience fear. This, it is suggested, might be one of the reasons replicants of that particular series were so difficult to kill.\n\nRoy Batty was played by Dutch actor Rutger Hauer.\n\nHarry Bryant \n\nHarry Bryant is the captain of the Rep-Detect department of the Los Angeles Police Department. His job in the film is to deal with a group of escaped Nexus-6 replicants (whom he refers to as \"skinjobs\") that have landed on Earth. His top Blade Runner, Holden, was in hospital on a medical ventilator after an encounter with the Leon replicant, earlier in the film. Bryant uses thinly-veiled threats against Rick Deckard — a retired Blade Runner — to enlist his aid.\n\nIn the original theatrical version, Deckard, during his narration, compares Bryant to the racist cops of the past. \"Skinjob, that was Bryant's term for Replicants. In history books, he's the kind of cop that used to call black men niggers.\"\n\nCapt. Bryant was played by Michael Emmet Walsh.\n\nHannibal Chew \n\nHannibal Chew works for the Tyrell Corporation as a genetic engineer. His job is to create the eyes for the replicants, Roy's and Leon's, in this case.\n\nIn the film, the replicants visit him while he is working in a freezer. The replicants pressure him into telling them who can get them into Tyrell's inner sanctum – J. F. Sebastian.\n\nHe was played by Chinese-American actor James Hong.\n\nGaff \n\nGaff, a mysterious character in the film, presents his compulsory invitation to Deckard in a street lingo called Cityspeak, a mixture of Spanish, French, German, Hungarian, Chinese, and Japanese. He was played by Mexican-American actor/director Edward James Olmos.\n\nAs a fellow cop, he is quickly identified as being very different from Deckard through the ways he dresses and behaves. In the commentaries the cast and crew note that he wears fancy clothing and seems to be part of the precinct's vice squad. It has been suggested that Deckard is a replicant, too, and that Gaff is his controller. This would explain Gaff's attitude toward Deckard. He likes to make little Origami-figures. The last words heard in the film are spoken by him: \"It's too bad she won't live. But then again, who does?\"\n\nGaff walks with a cane and a noticeable limp.\n\nThe sequel by K. W. Jeter mentions that Gaff is killed in the line of duty. At the beginning of the novel, Bryant has just returned from the funeral and expresses his distaste for the Cityspeak written on Gaff's headstone.\n\nDave Holden \n\nDave Holden is the Blade Runner testing new employees at the Tyrell Corporation on the premise that the escaped Replicants might try to infiltrate the company.\n\nDuring a Voight-Kampff test, Leon shoots Holden and leaves him for dead. Later, Bryant mentions that Holden is alive, but his breathing is assisted by machines.\n\nThere were two hospital scenes with Holden and Deckard that were filmed, but not used in the movie. One scene is shown in the documentary On the Edge of Blade Runner. Both scenes appear in the deleted scenes section on the Blade Runner Special Edition DVD.\n\nHe was played by Morgan Paull.\n\nLeon Kowalski \n\nLeon Kowalski is a replicant who came to Earth with five others looking to extend their lives. He has an A physical level, which means he has superhuman strength and endurance (according to the Final cut he was used as a 180 kg/400 lb nuclear-head loader in the outer space colonies as well as a front-line soldier). Leon is classified mental level C. He doesn't have the speed of thought that Roy does when it comes to solving problems. He was activated on April 10, 2017, making him 2 years and 7 months old by the time of the film.\n\nLeon shoots Blade Runner Holden as he administers the Voight-Kampff test on him while he works at the Tyrell Corporation, which he has infiltrated. Leon attacks Deckard after he witnesses Deckard kill Zhora, but is himself killed by Rachael who shoots him with Deckard's gun, which Leon had knocked out of Deckard's hand as he drew it.\n\nLeon cherishes photographs of his friends. Unlike Rachael's false photos of her childhood, these include current photos of people who mean something to him.\n\nLeon Kowalski was played by Brion James.\n\nTaffey Lewis \n\nTaffey Lewis is the owner of Taffey's Snake Pit Bar. The bar features music, exotic dancing, and something being smoked in pipes. He dismisses Deckard's threats with a free drink.\n\nHe was played by Hy Pyke.\n\nPris Stratton \n\nPris Stratton is a \"basic pleasure model\" (incepted on St. Valentine's Day). She was created on February 14th, 2016, making her 3 years and 9 months old by the time of the film. She is the second oldest replicant after Roy. She meets and becomes friends with J. F. Sebastian. Pris is also the girlfriend of fellow replicant Roy Batty. At an A Physical Level, she is shown to have superhuman endurance (as in the scene where she grabs a boiling egg with her bare hand without harm). Her B Mental Level puts her at a lower intellectual level than Roy. She sets a trap for Deckard in the Bradbury Building, where she disguises herself as a mannequin and uses her gymnastic skills to ambush Deckard; however, she is retired by Deckard.\n\nHer surname Stratton appears in the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, but is never explicitly used in the movie.\n\nHer punk outfits were inspired by a new wave calendar.[http://scribble.com/uwi/br/fn/fn-ch8.html Future Noir: Chapter VIII - The Crew]\n\nIt is suggested in Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human that Pris, actually, was an insane human woman who believed that she was a female replicant. \n\nShe was played by Daryl Hannah.\n\nRachael \n\nRachael is the latest experiment of Eldon Tyrell. He believes that since the replicants have such a limited lifespan, they have little time to develop control of their emotions, causing difficulty in managing these emotions. He believes implanting the replicants with memories would create a cushion that would allow for emotional development, and make them more controllable.\n\nRachael has the implanted memories of Tyrell's niece, and Rachael is then led to believe that she is human. It is not revealed in the film how long she has been living, but Tyrell admits that he thinks she is beginning to suspect the truth of her nature.\n\nWhen Rachael learns the truth, she is ignored by Tyrell. In desperation, she turns to Deckard, who has been told by Captain Bryant to retire her. He eventually falls in love with her.\n\nBoth of them are allowed to live: Roy saves Deckard from falling off a building, and Gaff does not kill Rachael. Gaff leaves his calling card, an origami model (this time, foil shaped like a unicorn) at Deckard's apartment to show he's been there. At the end of the film, Rachael and Deckard flee from his apartment to presumably go into hiding, or at least leave the conditions of their former lives.\n\nIn Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human, she is kept within a Tyrell transport that slows down her aging process located in an isolated shack outside of Los Angeles. Near the end of the novel, Sarah Tyrell, who is Eldon's niece and Rachael's template, brings her to Tyrell headquarters in order to meet with Deckard and allowed to flee. However, it is ultimately learned that Rachael is killed by Tyrell agents while Sarah and Deckard escape, allowing Sarah to reclaim her place as Tyrell's niece. \n\nIn a deleted scene, Deckard states \"[Rachael] was a Nexus-6 with a phony snapshot and phony memories which made her think she was one of us.\"\n\nShe was played by Sean Young.\n\nJ. F. Sebastian \n\nJ. F. Sebastian is a genetic designer working for Tyrell. He is not allowed to emigrate off-world because he has Methuselah Syndrome. Because of this, he ages faster and has a shorter lifespan, something he has in common with the replicants. He is only 25 years old, but his physical appearance is of a middle-aged man. With the Bradbury Building all to himself, he makes the most of his considerable talents creating automata companions. He is loosely based on the character J. R. Isidore from the novel.\n\nHe is approached by Pris, whom Sebastian takes in because he thinks she is homeless, and Roy comes to stay with him soon after. Roy and Pris point out that because of his condition, Sebastian has much in common with them, and argue that if they don't get Tyrell's help to extend their lives, Pris shall die soon. \nSebastian is playing correspondence chess with Tyrell, and Roy suggests a bold move which gives rise to an opportunity to visit Tyrell and smuggle Roy in.\nWhen Tyrell claims that he cannot extend Roy's life, Roy kills him.\n\nSebastian is seen running away from Roy, who later descends the elevator alone. A police radio message heard by Deckard after Tyrell is killed states that Sebastian's body was also discovered by the police with Tyrell's at the Tyrell Corporation.\n\nThe makeup for Sebastian was a \"stretch and stipple\" technique with no prosthetics.\n\nHe was played by William Sanderson.\n\nDr. Eldon Tyrell \n\nDr. Eldon Tyrell is the genius who has built up the large Tyrell Corporation. His creations are Replicants, some of whom have been given away as an incentive for people to emigrate to the Off-World colonies. Others are used in combat to protect those settlers. Roy Batty, along with J. F. Sebastian, finds Tyrell, and asks him to extend his life beyond the four-year limit built into Nexus Six replicants. However, Tyrell claims this request is impossible to satisfy due to the inherent instabilities of replicant genetics. Upon hearing this, Batty kisses Tyrell before gouging out his eyes and dislocating his skull with his bare hands.\n\nHe was played by Joe Turkel.\n\nZhora Salome \n\nZhora Salome is a replicant with an A Physical Level (super-human endurance) and a B Mental Level (intelligence equal to that of Pris), and has been used in murder squads. She was activated on June 12, 2016, making her 3 years and 5 months old. She gets a job as an exotic dancer at Taffey's Bar, creating an act using her own pet snake. Deckard tracks her down at Taffey's after finding her snake's scale, and she soon realizes that he is dangerous. She attacks him, but Deckard narrowly escapes death when people walk in just before she delivers a killing blow. Zhora tries to escape by running into a busy street, but Deckard chases her and finally shoots her in the back, \"retiring\" her.\n\nShe was played by Joanna Cassidy.\n\nUnnamed replicant(s) \n\nAccording to dialogue spoken by Bryant in the final cut of the film, two other unnamed replicants (only one in earlier versions) were killed while attempting to enter the Tyrell Corporation. The term used by him when describing their deaths (\"Two of them got fried running through an electrical field\") suggests they were stopped by an electrical barrier or security device of some sort. (In the theatrical cut of the film, the spoken line is \"One of them got fried running through an electrical field\" leaving one replicant unaccounted for.)\n\nEarlier drafts of the script name these replicants as Hodge and Mary. In Hampton Fancher's early drafts of the script, Mary lives and Hodge is the only replicant fried in the electrical field. Mary was intended to reflect the novel's character of Irmgard Baty, and was meant to be a \"mother figure\" model of replicant, performing housework and childcare duties, and she was supposed to be reminiscent of the stereotypical housewife of the 1950s. Her incept date is given as November 1, 2017. Mary was to be played by Stacey Nelkin, who had originally tried out for the role of Pris, but Mary's scenes were cut before filming." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Harrison Ford (actor)", "Harrison ford", "Harrison Ford", "Harison Ford", "Ford, Harrison" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "harrison ford", "ford harrison", "harison ford", "harrison ford actor" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "harrison ford", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Harrison Ford" }
What was the fourth Alien film called?	tc_1100	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Alien_(film).txt" ], "title": [ "Alien (film)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Alien is a 1979 British-American science-fiction horror film directed by Ridley Scott, and starring Tom Skerritt, Sigourney Weaver, Veronica Cartwright, Harry Dean Stanton, John Hurt, Ian Holm and Yaphet Kotto. The film's title refers to a highly aggressive extraterrestrial creature that stalks and kills the crew of a spaceship. Dan O'Bannon wrote the screenplay from a story he wrote with Ronald Shusett, drawing influence from previous works of science fiction and horror. The film was produced by Gordon Carroll, David Giler and Walter Hill through their Brandywine Productions and distributed by 20th Century Fox. Giler and Hill made revisions and additions to the script. Shusett was executive producer. The eponymous Alien and its accompanying elements were designed by Swiss surrealist artist H. R. Giger, while concept artists Ron Cobb and Chris Foss designed the human aspects of the film. Alien launched the Alien franchise and is chronologically the first of the main series, with the prequel series set in an earlier timeframe.\n\nAlien received both critical acclaim and box office success, receiving an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film, Best Direction for Scott, and Best Supporting Actress for Cartwright, and a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, along with numerous other award nominations. It has remained highly praised in subsequent decades, being considered one of the greatest films of all time. In 2002 the film was deemed \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. In 2008, it was ranked as the seventh-best film in the science fiction genre by the American Film Institute, and as the 33rd greatest film of all time by Empire magazine. \n\nThe success of Alien spawned a media franchise of novels, comic books, video games, and toys. It also launched Weaver's acting career by providing her with her first lead role, and the story of her character Ripley's encounters with the Alien creatures became the thematic thread that ran through the sequels Aliens (1986), Alien 3 (1992) and Alien: Resurrection (1997). A prequel series, which includes Prometheus (2012) and Alien: Covenant (2017), continues in development. \n\nPlot\n\nThe commercial spacecraft Nostromo is on a return trip to Earth with a seven-member crew in stasis: Captain Dallas, Executive Officer Kane, Navigator Lambert, Science Officer Ash, Warrant Officer Ripley, and Engineers Parker and Brett. Detecting a mysterious transmission, possibly a distress signal, from a nearby planetoid, the ship's computer, MOTHER, awakens the crew. Following standard company policy for such situations, the Nostromo lands on the planetoid and Dallas, Kane, and Lambert head out to investigate, damaging their ship upon landing in dust. They discover the signal is coming from a derelict alien spacecraft. Inside, they find the remains of a large alien creature whose ribcage appears to have exploded from the inside.\n\nOn the Nostromo, Ripley determines that the transmission is not a distress signal but a warning. In the alien ship, Kane discovers a chamber containing hundreds of eggs. As he inspects one, a creature springs out, spits acid through his space helmet and attaches itself to his face. Dallas and Lambert carry the unconscious Kane back to the Nostromo. As acting senior officer, Ripley refuses to let them aboard, citing quarantine regulations, but Ash violates protocol by overriding Ripley's lock and letting them in. The crew are unable to remove the creature from Kane's face, as its grip is strong and its blood is an extremely corrosive acid. It eventually lets go, crawls away, and dies.\n\nThe crew repair the ship and lift off. Kane awakens and seems healthy, but during the crew's final meal before re-entering stasis, he chokes and convulses in pain before a small alien creature bursts from his chest, killing him, and escapes into the depths of the ship. Since attacking the creature with conventional weapons could result in its corrosive blood breaching the ship's hull, the crew attempts to locate and capture it with motion trackers, nets, electric prods, and flamethrowers.\n\nBrett is sent to look for the crew's cat, Jones, and the now fully grown alien attacks him and disappears with his body into the air shafts. After a heated discussion, the group devises a plan to jettison the creature out of the ship. Dallas enters the Nostromo labyrinthine ventilation shafts, intending to force the alien into an airlock, but it ambushes him. Lambert, realizing the alien is killing the crew one by one, implores the others to escape in the ship's shuttle. Now in command, Ripley explains that the shuttle will not support four people, and recommends that they continue with Dallas' plan of flushing the alien out.\n\nAccessing MOTHER, Ripley discovers that Ash has secretly been ordered to return the alien to the crew's employers, who consider the crew expendable. When Ripley confronts Ash, he tries to choke her to death. Parker intervenes and knocks off Ash's head, revealing him to be an android. Parker reanimates Ash's head, and Ripley interrogates him. They learn he was assigned to the Nostromo to convince the crew to capture the creature and return it for analysis, even at the expense of the human personnel. Ash taunts them about their chances of survival against the \"perfect organism.\" Parker turns a flamethrower on Ash.\n\nRipley, Lambert and Parker agree to set the Nostromo to self-destruct and escape in the shuttle. However, Parker and Lambert are ambushed and killed by the alien while gathering life-support supplies. Ripley initiates the self-destruct sequence and heads for the shuttle with Jones, but the alien blocks her path. She retreats and unsuccessfully attempts to abort the self-destruct sequence, then returns to retrieve Jones, finding the alien gone. She narrowly escapes in the shuttle as the Nostromo explodes.\n\nAs she prepares to enter stasis, Ripley discovers the Alien is aboard the shuttle. She dons a spacesuit and opens the shuttle's airlock, causing explosive decompression which forces the Alien into the shuttle's open doorway. She propels it into space by shooting it with a grappling hook, but the gun catches in the closing door, tethering the alien to the shuttle. Ripley activates the engines, blasting the alien into space. After recording the ship's final log entry, she places herself and Jones into stasis for the voyage home.\n\nCast\n\n* Tom Skerritt as Dallas, the captain of the Nostromo\nSkerritt had been approached early in the film's development but declined as it did not yet have a director and had a very low budget. Later, when Scott was attached as director and the budget had been doubled, Skerritt accepted the role of Dallas.\n* Sigourney Weaver as Ripley, the warrant officer aboard the Nostromo\nWeaver, who had Broadway experience but was relatively unknown in film, impressed Scott, Giler, and Hill with her audition. She was the last actor to be cast for the film, and performed most of her screen tests in-studio as the sets were being built. The role of Ripley was Weaver's first leading role in a motion picture, and earned her nominations for a Saturn Award for Best Actress and a BAFTA award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Role.\n* Veronica Cartwright as Lambert, the Nostromos navigator\nCartwright had previous experience in horror and science fiction films, having acted as a child in The Birds (1963) and Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1978). She originally read for the role of Ripley, and was not informed that she had instead been cast as Lambert until she arrived in London for wardrobe. She disliked the character's emotional weakness, but nevertheless accepted the role: \"They convinced me that I was the audience's fears; I was a reflection of what the audience is feeling.\" Cartwright won a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance.\n* Harry Dean Stanton as Brett, the engineering technician\nStanton's first words to Scott during his audition were \"I don't like sci fi or monster movies.\" Scott was amused and convinced Stanton to take the role after reassuring him that Alien would actually be a thriller more akin to Ten Little Indians.\n* John Hurt as Kane, the executive officer who becomes the host for the Alien\nHurt was Scott's first choice for the role but was contracted on a film in South Africa during Aliens filming dates, so Jon Finch was cast as Kane instead. However, Finch became ill during the first day of shooting and was diagnosed with severe diabetes, which had also exacerbated a case of bronchitis. Hurt was in London by this time, his South African project having fallen through, and he quickly replaced Finch. His performance earned him a nomination for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He was the only actor aware of the extremely bloody scene of Alien's \"birth\" in advance.\n* Ian Holm as Ash, the ship's science officer who is revealed to be an android\nHolm, a character actor who by 1979 had already been in twenty films, was the most experienced actor cast for Alien (he was 46 at the time of filming).\n* Yaphet Kotto as Parker, the chief engineer\nKotto, an African American, was chosen partly to add diversity to the cast and give the Nostromo crew an international flavor. Kotto was sent a script off the back of his recent success with Live and Let Die, although it took some time and deliberation between Kotto and his agent before he was offered the part. \n* Bolaji Badejo as The Alien\nNigerian Badejo, while a 26-year-old design student, was discovered in a bar by a member of the casting team, who put him in touch with Ridley Scott. Scott believed that Badejo, at 6 ft (7ft. inside the costume) and with a slender frame, could portray the Alien and look as if his arms and legs were too long to be real, creating the illusion that there could not possibly be a human being inside the costume. Stuntmen Eddie Powell and Roy Scammell also portrayed the Alien in some scenes. \n* Helen Horton as the voice of Mother, the Nostromo's computer. Mother gives the countdown to the destruction of the ship.\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nWhile studying cinema at the University of Southern California, Dan O'Bannon had made a science fiction comedy film with director John Carpenter and concept artist Ron Cobb entitled Dark Star. The film included an alien which had been created using a spray-painted beach ball, and the experience left O'Bannon \"really wanting to do an alien that looked real.\" A \"couple of years\" later he began working on a similar story that would focus more on horror: \"I knew I wanted to do a scary movie on a spaceship with a small number of astronauts\", he later recalled, \"Dark Star as a horror movie instead of a comedy.\" Ronald Shusett, meanwhile, was working on an early version of what would eventually become Total Recall. Impressed by Dark Star, he contacted O'Bannon and the two agreed to collaborate on their projects, choosing to work on O'Bannon's film first as they believed it would be less costly to produce. O'Bannon had written twenty-nine pages of a script titled Memory comprising what would become the film's opening scenes: a crew of astronauts awaken to find that their voyage has been interrupted because they are receiving a signal from a mysterious planetoid. They investigate and their ship breaks down on the surface. He did not yet, however, have a clear idea as to what the alien antagonist of the story would be.\n\nO'Bannon soon accepted an offer to work on Alejandro Jodorowsky's film adaptation of Dune, a project which took him to Paris for six months. Though the project ultimately fell through, it introduced him to several artists whose works gave him ideas for his science-fiction story including Chris Foss, H. R. Giger, and Jean \"Moebius\" Giraud. O'Bannon was impressed by Foss's covers for science fiction books, while he found Giger's work \"disturbing\": \"His paintings had a profound effect on me. I had never seen anything that was quite as horrible and at the same time as beautiful as his work. And so I ended up writing a script about a Giger monster.\" After the Dune project collapsed O'Bannon returned to Los Angeles to live with Shusett and the two revived his Memory script. Shusett suggested that O'Bannon use one of his other film ideas, about gremlins infiltrating a B-17 bomber during World War II, and set it on the spaceship as the second half of the story. The working title of the project was now Star Beast, but O'Bannon disliked this and changed it to Alien after noting the number of times that the word appeared in the script. He and Shusett liked the new title's simplicity and its double meaning as both a noun and adjective. Shusett came up with the idea that one of the crew members could be implanted with an alien embryo that would later burst out of him, feeling that this was an interesting plot device by which the alien creature could get aboard the ship.\n\nIn writing the script, O'Bannon drew inspiration from many previous works of science fiction and horror. He later stated that \"I didn't steal Alien from anybody. I stole it from everybody!\" The Thing from Another World (1951) inspired the idea of professional men being pursued by a deadly alien creature through a claustrophobic environment. Forbidden Planet (1956) gave O'Bannon the idea of a ship being warned not to land, and then the crew being killed one by one by a mysterious creature when they defy the warning. Planet of the Vampires (1965) contains a scene in which the heroes discover a giant alien skeleton; this influenced the Nostromo crew's discovery of the alien creature in the derelict spacecraft. O'Bannon has also noted the influence of \"Junkyard\" (1953), a short story by Clifford D. Simak in which a crew lands on an asteroid and discovers a chamber full of eggs. He has also cited as influences Strange Relations by Philip José Farmer (1960), which covers alien reproduction, and various EC Comics horror titles carrying stories in which monsters eat their way out of people.\n\nWith roughly eighty-five percent of the plot completed, Shusett and O'Bannon presented their initial script to several studios, pitching it as \"Jaws in space.\" They were on the verge of signing a deal with Roger Corman's studio when a friend offered to find them a better deal and passed the script on to Gordon Carroll, David Giler, and Walter Hill, who had formed a production company called Brandywine with ties to 20th Century Fox. O'Bannon and Shusett signed a deal with Brandywine, but Hill and Giler were not satisfied with the script and made numerous rewrites and revisions to it. This caused tension with O'Bannon and Shusett, since Hill and Giler had very little experience with science fiction and according to Shusett: \"They weren't good at making it better, or in fact at not making it even worse.\" O'Bannon believed that they were attempting to justify taking his name off of the script and claiming it as their own. Hill and Giler did add some substantial elements to the story, however, including the android character Ash which O'Bannon felt was an unnecessary subplot, but which Shusett later described as \"one of the best things in the movie...That whole idea and scenario was theirs.\" In total Hill and Giler went through eight different drafts of the script, mostly concentrating on the Ash subplot but also making the dialogue more natural and trimming some sequences set on the alien planetoid.\n\nDespite the multiple rewrites, 20th Century Fox did not express confidence in financing a science-fiction film. However, after the success of Star Wars in 1977 the studio's interest in the genre rose substantially. According to Carroll: \"When Star Wars came out and was the extraordinary hit that it was, suddenly science fiction became the hot genre.\" O'Bannon recalled that \"They wanted to follow through on Star Wars, and they wanted to follow through fast, and the only spaceship script they had sitting on their desk was Alien\". Alien was greenlit by 20th Century Fox at an initial budget of $4.2 million. Alien was funded by American dollars, but made by Twentieth Century-Fox's British production subsidiary. \n\nDirection\n\nO'Bannon had originally assumed that he would direct Alien, but 20th Century Fox instead asked Hill to direct. Hill declined due to other film commitments as well as not being comfortable with the level of visual effects that would be required. Peter Yates, Jack Clayton, and Robert Aldrich were considered for the task, but O'Bannon, Shusett, and the Brandywine team felt that these directors would not take the film seriously and would instead treat it as a B monster movie. Giler, Hill, and Carroll had been impressed by Ridley Scott's debut feature film The Duellists (1977) and made an offer to him to direct Alien, which Scott quickly accepted. Scott created detailed storyboards for the film in London, which impressed 20th Century Fox enough to double the film's budget from $4.2 million to $8.4 million. His storyboards included designs for the spaceship and space suits, drawing influences from films such as 2001: A Space Odyssey and Star Wars. However, he was keen on emphasizing horror in Alien rather than fantasy, describing the film as \"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre of science fiction\".\n\nO'Bannon introduced Scott to the artwork of H. R. Giger; both of them felt that his painting Necronom IV was the type of representation they wanted for the film's antagonist and began asking the studio to hire him as a designer. 20th Century Fox initially believed Giger's work was too ghastly for audiences, but the Brandywine team were persistent and eventually won out. According to Gordon Carroll: \"The first second that Ridley saw Giger's work, he knew that the biggest single design problem, maybe the biggest problem in the film, had been solved.\" Scott flew to Zürich to meet Giger and recruited him to work on all aspects of the Alien and its environment including the surface of the planetoid, the derelict spacecraft, and all four forms of the Alien from the egg to the adult.\n\nCasting\n\nCasting calls and auditions for Alien were held in both New York and London. With only seven human characters in the story, Scott sought to hire strong actors so he could focus most of his energy on the film's visual style. He employed casting director Mary Selway, who had worked with him on The Duellists, to head the casting in the United Kingdom, while Mary Goldberg handled casting in the United States. In developing the story O'Bannon had focused on writing the Alien first, putting off developing the characters for a later draft. He and Shusett had therefore written all of the roles as generic male ones with a note in the script explicitly stating \"The crew is unisex and all parts are interchangeable for men or women.\" This left Scott, Selway, and Goldberg free to interpret the characters as they liked and to cast accordingly. They wanted the Nostromos crew to resemble working astronauts in a realistic environment, a concept summed up as \"truckers in space\". According to Scott, this concept was inspired partly by Star Wars, which deviated from the pristine future often depicted in science fiction films of the time.\n\nTo assist the actors in preparing for their roles, Ridley Scott wrote several pages of backstory for each character explaining their histories. He filmed many of their rehearsals in order to capture spontaneity and improvisation, and tensions between some of the cast members, particularly towards the less-experienced Weaver, translated convincingly on film as tension between their respective characters.\n\nFilm critic Roger Ebert notes that the actors in Alien were older than was typical in thriller films at the time, which helped make the characters more convincing:\n\nNone of them were particularly young. Tom Skerritt, the captain, was 46, Hurt was 39 but looked older, Holm was 48, Harry Dean Stanton was 53, Yaphet Kotto was 42, and only Veronica Cartwright at 30 and Weaver at 29 were in the age range of the usual thriller cast. Many recent action pictures have improbably young actors cast as key roles or sidekicks, but by skewing older, Alien achieves a certain texture without even making a point of it: These are not adventurers but workers, hired by a company to return 20 million tons of ore to Earth.\n\nDavid McIntee, author of Beautiful Monsters: The Unofficial and Unauthorised Guide to the Alien and Predator Films, asserts that part of the film's effectiveness in frightening viewers \"comes from the fact that the audience can all identify with the characters...Everyone aboard the Nostromo is a normal, everyday, working Joe just like the rest of us. They just happen to live and work in the future.\" \n\nFilming\n\nAlien was filmed over fourteen weeks from July 5 to October 21, 1978. Principal photography took place at Shepperton Studios near London, while model and miniature filming was done at Bray Studios in Water Oakley, Berkshire. Production time was short due to the film's low budget and pressure from 20th Century Fox to finish on schedule. A crew of over 200 workmen and technicians constructed the three principal sets: The surface of the alien planetoid and the interiors of the Nostromo and derelict spacecraft. Art Director Les Dilley created 1/24th scale miniatures of the planetoid's surface and derelict spacecraft based on Giger's designs, then made moulds and casts and scaled them up as diagrams for the wood and fiberglass forms of the sets. Tons of sand, plaster, fiberglass, rock, and gravel were shipped into the studio to sculpt a desert landscape for the planetoid's surface, which the actors would walk across wearing space suit costumes. The suits themselves were thick, bulky, and lined with nylon, had no cooling systems and, initially, no venting for their exhaled carbon dioxide to escape. Combined with a heat wave, these conditions nearly caused the actors to pass out and nurses had to be kept on-hand with oxygen tanks. For scenes showing the exterior of the Nostromo, a 58 ft landing leg was constructed to give a sense of the ship's size. Ridley Scott still did not think that it looked large enough, so he had his two sons and the son of one of the cameramen stand in for the regular actors, wearing smaller space suits to make the set pieces seem larger. The same technique was used for the scene in which the crew members encounter the dead alien creature in the derelict spacecraft. The children nearly collapsed due to the heat of the suits, and eventually oxygen systems were added to assist the actors in breathing. Four identical cats were used to portray Jones, the Nostromo crew's pet. During filming Sigourney Weaver discovered that she was allergic to the combination of cat hair and the glycerin placed on the actors' skin to make them appear sweaty. By removing the glycerin she was able to continue working with the cats.\n\nAlien originally was to conclude with the destruction of the Nostromo while Ripley escapes in the shuttle Narcissus. However, Ridley Scott conceived of a \"fourth act\" to the film in which the Alien appears on the shuttle and Ripley is forced to confront it. He pitched the idea to 20th Century Fox and negotiated an increase in the budget to film the scene over several extra days. Scott had wanted the Alien to bite off Ripley's head and then make the final log entry in her voice, but the producers vetoed this idea as they believed that the Alien had to die at the end of the film.\n\nPost-production\n\nEditing and post-production work on Alien took roughly twenty weeks to complete. Terry Rawlings served as Editor, having previously worked with Scott on editing sound for The Duellists. Scott and Rawlings edited much of the film to have a slow pace to build suspense for the more tense and frightening moments. According to Rawlings: \"I think the way we did get it right was by keeping it slow, funny enough, which is completely different from what they do today. And I think the slowness of it made the moments that you wanted people to be sort of scared...then we could go as fast as we liked because you've sucked people into a corner and then attacked them, so to speak. And I think that's how it worked.\" The first cut of the film was over three hours long; further editing trimmed the final version to just under two hours.\n\nOne scene that was cut from the film occurred during Ripley's final escape from the Nostromo: she encounters Dallas and Brett who have been partially cocooned by the Alien. O'Bannon had intended the scene to indicate that Brett was becoming an Alien egg while Dallas was held nearby to be implanted by the resulting facehugger. Production Designer Michael Seymour later suggested that Dallas had \"become sort of food for the alien creature\", while Ivor Powell suggested that \"Dallas is found in the ship as an egg, still alive.\" Scott remarked that \"they're morphing, metamorphosing, they are changing into...being consumed, I guess, by whatever the Alien's organism is...into an egg.\" The scene was cut partly because it did not look realistic enough and partly because it slowed the pace of the escape sequence. Tom Skerritt remarked that \"The picture had to have that pace. Her trying to get the hell out of there, we're all rooting for her to get out of there, and for her to slow up and have a conversation with Dallas was not appropriate.\" The footage was included amongst other deleted scenes as a special feature on the Laserdisc release of Alien, and a shortened version of it was re-inserted into the 2003 \"Director's Cut\" which was re-released in theaters and on DVD. \n\nMusic\n\nThe musical score for Alien was composed by Jerry Goldsmith, conducted by Lionel Newman, and performed by the National Philharmonic Orchestra. Ridley Scott had originally wanted the film to be scored by Isao Tomita, but 20th Century Fox wanted a more familiar composer and Goldsmith was recommended by then-President of Fox Alan Ladd, Jr. Goldsmith wanted to create a sense of romanticism and lyrical mystery in the film's opening scenes, which would build throughout the film to suspense and fear. Scott did not like Goldsmith's original main title piece, however, so Goldsmith rewrote it as \"the obvious thing: weird and strange, and which everybody loved.\" Another source of tension was editor Terry Rawlings' choice to use pieces of Goldsmith's music from previous films, including a piece from Freud: The Secret Passion, and to use an excerpt from Howard Hanson's Symphony No. 2 (\"Romantic\") for the end credits. \n\nScott and Rawlings had also become attached to several of the musical cues they had used for the temporary score while editing the film, and re-edited some of Goldsmith's cues and re-scored several sequences to match these cues and even left the temporary score in place in some parts of the finished film. Goldsmith later remarked that \"you can see that I was sort of like going at opposite ends of the pole with the filmmakers of the picture.\" Nevertheless, Scott praised Goldsmith's score as \"full of dark beauty\" and \"seriously threatening, but beautiful.\" It was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, a Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album, and a BAFTA Award for Best Film Music. The score has been released as a soundtrack album in several versions with different tracks and sequences.\n\nDesign\n\nO'Bannon brought in artists Ron Cobb and Chris Foss (with whom he had worked on Dark Star and Dune, respectively) to work on designs for the human aspects of the film such as the spaceship and space suits. Cobb created hundreds of preliminary sketches of the interiors and exteriors of the ship, which went through many design concepts and possible names such as Leviathan and Snark as the script continued to develop. The final name of the ship was derived from the title of Joseph Conrad's 1904 novel Nostromo, while the escape shuttle, called Narcissus in the script, was named after Conrad's 1897 novella The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'. The production team particularly praised Cobb's ability to depict the interior settings of the ship in a realistic and believable manner. Under Ridley Scott's direction the design of the Nostromo shifted towards an 800 ft tug towing a refining platform 2 mi long and wide. Cobb also created some conceptual drawings of the Alien, but these were not used. Moebius was attached to the project for a few days as well, and his costume renderings served as the basis for the final space suits created by costume designer John Mollo.\n\nSets\n\nThe sets of the Nostromos three decks were each created almost entirely in one piece, with each deck occupying a separate stage and the various rooms connected via corridors. To move around the sets the actors had to navigate through the hallways of the ship, adding to the film's sense of claustrophobia and realism. The sets used large transistors and low-resolution computer screens to give the ship a \"used\", industrial look and make it appear as though it was constructed of \"retrofitted old technology\". Ron Cobb created industrial-style symbols and color-coded signs for various areas and aspects of the ship. The company that owns the Nostromo is not named in the film, and is referred to by the characters as \"the company\". However, the name and logo of \"Weylan-Yutani\" appears on several set pieces and props such as computer monitors and beer cans. Cobb created the name to imply a business alliance between Britain and Japan, deriving \"Weylan\" from the British Leyland Motor Corporation and \"Yutani\" from the name of his Japanese neighbor. The 1986 sequel Aliens named the company as \"Weyland-Yutani\", and it has remained a central aspect of the film franchise.\n\nArt Director Roger Christian used scrap metal and parts to create set pieces and props to save money, a technique he employed while working on Star Wars. Some of the Nostromo corridors were created from portions of scrapped bomber aircraft, and a mirror was used to create the illusion of longer corridors in the below-deck area. Special effects supervisors Brian Johnson and Nick Allder made many of the set pieces and props function, including moving chairs, computer monitors, motion trackers, and flamethrowers. \n\nH. R. Giger designed and worked on all of the alien aspects of the film, which he designed to appear organic and biomechanical in contrast to the industrial look of the Nostromo and its human elements. For the interior of the derelict spacecraft and egg chamber he used dried bones together with plaster to sculpt much of the scenery and elements. Veronica Cartwright described Giger's sets as \"so erotic...it's big vaginas and penises...the whole thing is like you're going inside of some sort of womb or whatever...it's sort of visceral\". The set with the deceased alien creature, which the production team nicknamed the \"space jockey\", proved problematic as 20th Century Fox did not want to spend the money for such an expensive set that would only be used for one scene. Ridley Scott described the set as the cockpit or driving deck of the mysterious ship, and the production team was able to convince the studio that the scene was important to impress the audience and make them aware that this was not a B movie. To save money only one wall of the set was created, and the \"space jockey\" sat atop a disc that could be rotated to facilitate shots from different angles in relation to the actors. Giger airbrushed the entire set and the \"space jockey\" by hand.\n\nThe origin of the jockey creature was not explored in the film, but Scott later theorized that it might have been the ship's pilot, and that the ship might have been a weapons carrier capable of dropping Alien eggs onto a planet so that the Aliens could use the local lifeforms as hosts. In early versions of the script the eggs were to be located in a separate pyramid structure which would be found later by the Nostromo crew and would contain statues and hieroglyphs depicting the Alien reproductive cycle, offering a contrast of the human, Alien, and space jockey cultures. Cobb, Foss, and Giger each created concept artwork for these sequences, but they were eventually discarded due to budgetary concerns and the need to trim the length of the film. Instead the egg chamber was set inside the derelict ship and was filmed on the same set as the space jockey scene; the entire disc piece supporting the jockey and its chair were removed and the set was redressed to create the egg chamber. Light effects in the egg chamber were created by lasers borrowed from English rock band The Who. The band was testing the lasers for use in their stage show in the sound stage next door. \n\nSpaceships and planets\n\nThe spaceships and planets for the film were shot using models and miniatures. These included models of the Nostromo, its attached mineral refinery, the escape shuttle Narcissus, the alien planetoid, and the exterior and interior of the derelict spacecraft. Visual Effects Supervisor Brian Johnson, supervising modelmaker Martin Bower, and their team worked at Bray Studios, roughly 25 mi from Shepperton Studios where principal filming was taking place. The designs of the Nostromo and its attachments were based on combinations of Ridley Scott's storyboards and Ron Cobb's conceptual drawings. The basic outlines of the models were made of wood and plastic, and most of the fine details were added from model kits of warships, tanks, and World War II bombers. Three models of the Nostromo were made: a 12 in version for medium and long shots, a 4 ft version for rear shots, and a 12 ft, 7 ST rig for the undocking and planetoid surface sequences. Scott insisted on numerous changes to the models even as filming was taking place, leading to conflicts with the modeling and filming teams. The Nostromo was originally yellow, and the team filmed shots of the models for six weeks before Johnson left to work on The Empire Strikes Back. Scott then ordered it changed to gray, and the team had to begin shooting again from scratch. He ordered more and more pieces added to the model until the final large version with the refinery required a metal framework so that it could be lifted by a forklift. He also used a hammer and chisel on sections of the refinery, knocking off many of its spires which Bower had spent weeks creating. Scott also had disagreements with miniature effects cinematographer Dennis Ayling over how to light the models.\n\nA separate model, approximately 40 ft long, was created for the Nostromo underside from which the Narcissus would detach and from which Kane's body would be launched during the funeral scene. Bower carved Kane's burial shroud out of wood and it was launched through the hatch using a small catapult and filmed at high speed, then slowed down in editing. Only one shot was filmed using blue screen compositing: that of the shuttle racing past the Nostromo. The other shots were simply filmed against black backdrops, with stars added via double exposure. Though motion control photography technology was available at the time, the film's budget would not allow for it. The team therefore used a camera with wide-angle lenses mounted on a drive mechanism to make slow passes over and around the models filming at 2½ frames per second, giving them the appearance of motion. Scott added smoke and wind effects to enhance the illusion. For the scene in which the Nostromo detaches from the refinery, a 30 ft docking arm was created using pieces from model railway kits. The Nostromo was pushed away from the refinery by the forklift, which was covered in black velvet, causing the arm to extend out from the refinery. This created the illusion that the arm was pushing the ship forward. Shots from outside the ship in which the characters are seen through windows moving around inside were filmed using larger models which contained projection screens showing pre-recorded footage.\n\nA separate model was created for the exterior of the derelict alien spacecraft. Matte paintings were used to fill in areas of the ship's interior as well as exterior shots of the planetoid's surface. The surface as seen from space during the landing sequence was created by painting a globe white, then mixing chemicals and dyes onto transparencies and projecting them onto it. The planetoid was not named in the film, but some drafts of the script gave it the name Acheron after the river which in Greek mythology is described as the \"stream of woe\", a branch of the river Styx, and which forms the border of Hell in Dante's Inferno. The 1986 sequel Aliens named the planetoid as \"LV-426\", and both names have been used for it in subsequent expanded universe media such as comic books and video games.\n\nCreature effects\n\nThe scene of Kane inspecting the egg was shot during post-production. A fiberglass egg was used so that actor John Hurt could shine his light on it and see movement inside, which was provided by Ridley Scott fluttering his hands inside the egg while wearing rubber gloves. The top of the egg opened via hydraulics, and the innards were made of a cow's stomach and tripe. Initial test shots of the eggs were filmed using hen's eggs, and this footage was used in early teaser trailers. For this reason a hen's egg was used as the primary image for the film's advertising poster, and became a lasting image for the series as a whole rather than the Alien egg that actually appears in the film. \n\nThe \"facehugger\" and its proboscis, which was made of a sheep's intestine, were shot out of the egg using high-pressure air hoses. The shot was acted out and filmed in reverse, then reversed and slowed down in editing to prolong the effect and show more detail. The facehugger itself was the first creature that Giger designed for the film, going through several versions in different sizes before deciding on a small creature with humanlike fingers and a long tail. Dan O'Bannon drew his own version based on Giger's design, with help from Ron Cobb, which became the final version. Cobb came up with the idea that the creature could have a powerful acid for blood, a characteristic that would carry over to the adult Alien and would make it impossible for the crew to kill it by conventional means such as guns or explosives, since the acid would burn through the ship's hull. For the scene in which the dead facehugger is examined, Scott used pieces of fish and shellfish to create its viscera.\n\nThe design of the \"chestburster\" was inspired by Francis Bacon's 1944 painting Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion. Giger's original design resembled a plucked chicken, which was redesigned and refined into the final version seen onscreen. Screenwriter Dan O'Bannon credits his experiences with Crohn's disease for inspiring the chest-busting scene. \n\nFor the filming of the chestburster scene the cast members knew that the creature would be bursting out of Hurt, and had seen the chestburster puppet, but they had not been told that fake blood would also be bursting out in every direction from high-pressure pumps and squibs. The scene was shot in one take using an artificial torso filled with blood and viscera, with Hurt's head and arms coming up from underneath the table. The chestburster was shoved up through the torso by a puppeteer who held it on a stick. When the creature burst through the chest a stream of blood shot directly at Veronica Cartwright, shocking her enough that she fell over and went into hysterics. According to Tom Skerritt: \"What you saw on camera was the real response. She had no idea what the hell happened. All of a sudden this thing just came up.\" The creature then runs off-camera, an effect accomplished by cutting a slit in the table for the puppeteer's stick to go through and passing an air hose through the puppet's tail to make it whip about.\n\nThe real-life surprise of the actors gave the scene an intense sense of realism and made it one of the film's most memorable moments. During preview screenings the crew noticed that some viewers would move towards the back of the theater so as not to be too close to the screen during the sequence. In subsequent years the chestburster scene has often been voted as one of the most memorable moments in film. In 2007, the British film magazine Empire named it as the greatest 18-rated moment in film as part of its \"18th birthday\" issue, ranking it above the decapitation scene in The Omen (1976) and the transformation sequence in An American Werewolf in London (1981). \n\nFor the scene in which Ash is revealed to be an android and has his head knocked off, a puppet was created of the character's torso and upper body which was operated from underneath by a small puppeteer. During a preview screening of the film this scene caused an usher to faint. In the following scene Ash's head is placed on a table and re-activated; for portions of this scene an animatronic head was made using a face cast of actor Ian Holm. However, the latex of the head shrank while curing and the result was not entirely convincing. For the bulk of the scene Holm knelt under the table with his head coming up through a hole and milk, caviar, pasta, fiber optics, and glass marbles were used to show the android's inner workings and fluids.\n\nThe Alien\n\nGiger made several conceptual paintings of the adult Alien before crafting the final version. He sculpted the creature's body using plasticine, incorporating pieces such as vertebrae from snakes and cooling tubes from a Rolls-Royce. The creature's head was manufactured separately by Carlo Rambaldi, who had worked on the aliens in Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Rambaldi followed Giger's designs closely, making some modifications in order to incorporate the moving parts which would animate the jaw and inner mouth. A system of hinges and cables was used to operate the creature's rigid tongue, which protruded from the main mouth and had a second mouth at the tip of it with its own set of movable teeth. The final head had about nine hundred moving parts and points of articulation. Part of a human skull was used as the \"face\", and was hidden under the smooth, translucent cover of the head. Rambaldi's original Alien jaw is now on display in the Smithsonian Institution, while in April 2007 the original Alien suit was sold at auction. Copious amounts of K-Y Jelly were used to simulate saliva and to give the Alien an overall slimy appearance. The creature's vocalizations were provided by Percy Edwards, a voice artist famous for providing bird sounds for British television throughout the 1960s and 1970s as well as the whale sounds for Orca: Killer Whale (1977). \n\nFor most of the film's scenes the Alien was portrayed by Bolaji Badejo. A latex costume was specifically made to fit Badejo's 6 ft slender frame, made by taking a full-body plaster cast of him. Scott later commented that \"It's a man in a suit, but then it would be, wouldn't it? It takes on elements of the host – in this case, a man.\" Badejo attended t'ai chi and mime classes in order to create convincing movements for the Alien. For some scenes, such as when the Alien lowers itself from the ceiling to kill Brett, the creature was portrayed by stuntmen Eddie Powell and Roy Scammell; in that scene a costumed Powell was suspended on wires and then lowered in an unfurling motion.\n\nScott chose not to show the Alien in full through most of the film, showing only pieces of it while keeping most of its body in shadow in order to heighten the sense of terror and suspense. The audience could thus project their own fears into imagining what the rest of the creature might look like: \"Every movement is going to be very slow, very graceful, and the Alien will alter shape so you never really know exactly what he looks like.\" The Alien has been referred to as \"one of the most iconic movie monsters in film history\" in the decades since the film's release, being noted for its biomechanical appearance and sexual overtones. Roger Ebert has remarked that \"Alien uses a tricky device to keep the alien fresh throughout the movie: It evolves the nature and appearance of the creature, so we never know quite what it looks like or what it can do...The first time we get a good look at the alien, as it bursts from the chest of poor Kane (John Hurt). It is unmistakably phallic in shape, and the critic Tim Dirks mentions its 'open, dripping vaginal mouth.\n\nMarketing\n\nAround and shortly after Alien release in theaters, a number of merchandise items and media were released and sold to coincide with the film. These included a novelization by Alan Dean Foster, in both adult and \"junior\" versions, which was adapted from the film's shooting script. Heavy Metal magazine published a comic strip adaptation of the film entitled Alien: The Illustrated Story, as well as a 1980 Alien calendar. Two behind-the-scenes books were released in 1979 to accompany the film: The Book of Alien contained many production photographs and details on the making of the film, while Giger's Alien contained much of H. R. Giger's concept artwork for the movie. A soundtrack album was released as an LP featuring selections of Goldsmith's score, and a single of the main theme was released in 1980. A twelve-inch tall model kit of the Alien was released by the Model Products Corporation in the United States and by Airfix in the United Kingdom. Kenner also produced a larger-scale Alien action figure, as well as a board game in which players raced to be first to reach the shuttle pod while Aliens roamed the Nostromo corridors and air shafts. Official Halloween costumes of the Alien were released for October 1979. Several computer games based on the film were released, but not until several years after its theatrical run.\n\nRelease\n\nAn initial screening of Alien for 20th Century Fox representatives in St. Louis suffered from poor sound in the theater. A subsequent screening in a newer theater in Dallas went significantly better, eliciting genuine fright from the audience. Two theatrical trailers were shown to the public. The first consisted of rapidly changing still images set to some of Jerry Goldsmith's electronic music from Logan's Run. The second used test footage of a hen's egg set to part of Goldsmith's Alien score. The film was previewed in various American cities in the spring of 1979 and was promoted by the tagline \"In space no one can hear you scream.\" \n\nAlien was rated \"R\" in the United States, \"X\" in the United Kingdom, and \"M\" in Australia. In the UK, the British Board of Film Classification almost passed the film as an \"AA\" (for ages 14 and over), although there were concerns over the prevalent sexual imagery. 20th Century Fox eventually relented in pushing for an AA certificate after deciding that an X rating would be a better choice commercially for selling a horror film. \n\nAlien opened in American theaters on May 25, 1979. The film had no formal premiere, yet moviegoers lined up for blocks to see it at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood where a number of models, sets, and props were displayed outside to promote it during its first run. Religious zealots set fire to the model of the space jockey, believing it to be the work of the devil. In the United Kingdom, Alien premiered at a gala performance at the Edinburgh Film Festival on September 1, 1979, before starting an exclusive run at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on September 6, 1979, but it did not open widely in Britain until January 13, 1980.\n\nCritical reception\n\nCritical reaction to the film was initially mixed. Some critics who were not usually favorable towards science fiction, such as Barry Norman of the BBC's Film series, were positive about the film's merits. Others, however, were not: Reviews by Variety, Sight and Sound, Vincent Canby and Leonard Maltin were mixed or negative. (Maltin, however, reassessed the film upon the release of the Director's Cut and gave Alien a positive review. ) A review by Time Out said the film was an \"empty bag of tricks whose production values and expensive trickery cannot disguise imaginative poverty\". In a 1980 episode of Sneak Previews discussing science fiction films of the 1950s and 1970s, critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert were critical of Alien. Ebert called it \"basically just an intergalactic haunted house thriller set inside a spaceship\" and one of several science fiction pictures that were \"real disappointments\" compared to Star Wars, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, and 2001: A Space Odyssey, though he did compliment the early scene of the Nostromo crew exploring the alien planet as showing \"real imagination\". However, the film later made it onto Ebert's Great Movies list, giving it four stars and stating, \"Ridley Scott's 1979 movie is a great original.\" \n\nBox office\n\nThe film was a commercial success, making $78,900,000 in the United States and £7,886,000 in the United Kingdom during its first run. It ultimately grossed $80,931,801 in the United States, though international box office figures have varied from $24,000,000 to $122,700,000. Its total worldwide gross has been listed within the range of $104,931,801 to $203,630,630.\n\nAccording to 20th Century Fox accounts, however, by April 1980 when the film had earned a reported $100 million at the box office, after advertising, distribution fees, penalties and other costs were deducted, it was still recorded as having made a loss to the studio of $2.4 million. This was seen as an example of Hollywood creative accounting and was much criticised. By August 1980 Fox was saying the film was $4 million in profit. \n\nAccolades\n\nAlien won the 1979 Academy Award for Visual Effects and was also nominated for Best Art Direction (for Michael Seymour, Leslie Dilley, Roger Christian, and Ian Whittaker). It won Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film, Best Direction for Ridley Scott, and Best Supporting Actress for Veronica Cartwright, and was also nominated in the categories of Best Actress for Sigourney Weaver, Best Make-up for Pat Hay, Best Special Effects for Brian Johnson and Nick Allder, and Best Writing for Dan O'Bannon. It was also nominated for British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) awards for Best Costume Design for John Mollo, Best Editing for Terry Rawlings, Best Supporting Actor for John Hurt, and Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Role for Sigourney Weaver. It also won a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and was nominated for a British Society of Cinematographers award for Best Cinematography for Derek Vanlint, as well as a Silver Seashell award for Best Cinematography and Special Effects at the San Sebastián International Film Festival. Jerry Goldsmith's score received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, the Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album, and a BAFTA Award for Best Film Music.\n\nHome video\n\nAlien has been released in many home video formats and packages over the years. The first of these was a seventeen-minute Super-8 version for home projectionists. It was also released on both VHS and Betamax for rental, which grossed it an additional $40,300,000 in the United States alone. Several VHS releases were subsequently sold both singly and as boxed sets. LaserDisc and Videodisc versions followed, including deleted scenes and director commentary as bonus features. A VHS box set containing Alien and its sequels Aliens and Alien 3 was released in facehugger-shaped boxes, and included some of the deleted scenes from the Laserdisc editions. When Alien: Resurrection premiered in theaters, another set of the first three films was released including a Making of Alien: Resurrection tape. A few months later the set was re-released with the full version of Alien: Resurrection taking the place of the making-of video. Alien was released on DVD in 1999, both singly and, as The Alien Legacy, packaged with Aliens, Alien 3 and Alien: Resurrection. This set, which was also released in a VHS version, included a commentary track by Ridley Scott. The first three films of the series have also been packaged as the Alien Triple Pack.\n\nIn 2003 20th Century Fox was preparing the Alien Quadrilogy DVD box set, which would include Alien and its three sequels. In addition, the set would also include alternate versions of all four films in the form of \"special editions\" and \"director's cuts\". Fox approached Ridley Scott to digitally restore and remaster Alien, and to restore several scenes which had been cut during the editing process for inclusion in an expanded version of the film. Upon viewing the expanded version, Scott felt that it was too long and chose to recut it into a more streamlined alternate version:\n\nUpon viewing the proposed expanded version of the film, I felt that the cut was simply too long and the pacing completely thrown off. After all, I cut those scenes out for a reason back in 1979. However, in the interest of giving the fans a new experience with Alien, I figured there had to be an appropriate middle ground. I chose to go in and recut that proposed long version into a more streamlined and polished alternate version of the film. For marketing purposes, this version is being called \"The Director's Cut.\"\n\nThe \"Director's Cut\" restored roughly four minutes of deleted footage while cutting about five minutes of other material, leaving it about a minute shorter than the theatrical cut. Many of the changes were minor, such as altered sound effects, while the restored footage included the scene in which Ripley discovers the cocooned Dallas and Brett during her escape of the Nostromo. Fox decided to release the Director's Cut in theaters, and it premiered on October 31, 2003. The Alien Quadrilogy box set was released December 2, 2003, with both versions of the film included along with a new commentary track featuring many of the film's actors, writers, and production staff, as well as other special features and a documentary entitled The Beast Within: The Making of Alien. Each film was also released separately as a DVD with both versions of the film included. Scott noted that he was very pleased with the original theatrical cut of Alien, saying that \"For all intents and purposes, I felt that the original cut of Alien was perfect. I still feel that way\", and that the original 1979 theatrical version \"remains my version of choice\". He has since stated that he considers both versions \"director's cuts\", as he feels that the 1979 version was the best he could possibly have made it at the time.\n\nThe Alien Quadrilogy set earned Alien a number of new awards and nominations. It won DVDX Exclusive Awards for Best Audio Commentary and Best Overall DVD, Classic Movie, and was also nominated for Best Behind-the-Scenes Program and Best Menu Design. It also won a Sierra Award for Best DVD, and was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best DVD Collection and Golden Satellite Awards for Best DVD Extras and Best Overall DVD. In 2010 both the theatrical version and Director's Cut of Alien were released on Blu-ray Disc, as a stand-alone release and as part of the Alien Anthology set. \n\nIn 2014, to mark the film's 35th anniversary, a special re-release box set named Alien: 35th Anniversary Edition, containing the film on Blu-ray, a digital copy, a reprint of Alien: The Illustrated Story, and a series of collectible art cards containing artwork by H.R. Giger related to the film, was released. The disk itself is the same as the respective disk on the 2010 Anthology Blu-ray release, and contains MU-TH-UR mode, despite the lack of the required bonus disk. A reprint of the novel by Alan Dean Foster was also released.\n\nLegacy\n\nSequels\n\nThe success of Alien led 20th Century Fox to finance three direct sequels over the next eighteen years, each by different writers and directors. Sigourney Weaver remained the only recurring actor through all four films, and the story of her character Ripley's encounters with the Aliens became the thematic thread running through the series. James Cameron's Aliens (1986) focused more on action and involved Ripley returning to the planetoid accompanied by marines to confront hordes of Aliens. David Fincher's Alien 3 (1992) had nihilistic tones and found her on a prison planet battling another Alien, ultimately sacrificing herself to prevent her employers from acquiring the creatures. Jean-Pierre Jeunet's Alien: Resurrection (1997) saw Ripley resurrected through cloning to battle more Aliens even further in the future. \n\nThe success of the film series resulted in the creation of a media franchise with numerous novels, comic books, video games, toys, and other media and merchandise appearing over the years. A number of these began appearing under the Alien vs. Predator crossover imprint, which brought the Alien creatures together with the titular Predators of the Predator franchise. The film series eventually followed suit, with Paul W. S. Anderson's Alien vs. Predator (2004) and Colin and Greg Strause's Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem (2007). These stories are set in the 2000s. \n\nSigourney Weaver has expressed interest in reuniting with Ridley Scott to revive her character for another Alien film. In the 2003 commentary track for the Alien DVD included in the Alien Quadrilogy set, she and Scott both speculated on the possibility, with Weaver stating: \"There is an appetite for a fifth one, which is something I never expected...it's really hard to come up with a fifth story that's new and fresh...but I have wanted to go back into space...I think outer space adventure is a good thing for us right now, 'cause Earth is so grim...so we've been talking about it, but very generally.\" Scott remarked that, if the series were to continue, the most logical course would be to explore the origins of the space jockey and the Aliens. Weaver supported this idea, stating that \"I think it would be great to go back, because I'm asked that question so many times: 'Where did the Alien come from?' People really want to know in a very visceral way.\" David Giler stated that he, Walter Hill, and Gordon Carroll, the producers of the first four films in the series, would not be willing to produce another unless it was about the Aliens' homeworld and Weaver was on board (although they were among the producers of Aliens vs. Predator and its sequel). Weaver, in turn, indicated that she would only return to the franchise if either Scott or James Cameron were directing. Cameron had been working on a story for a fifth Alien film which would explore the origins of the creatures, but ceased work on it when he learned that Fox was pursuing Alien vs. Predator, which he felt would \"kill the validity of the franchise\". Weaver has continued to express interest in another installment, stating in 2008 that \"I would definitely do another if I had a director like Ridley Scott and we had a good idea. Ridley is enthusiastic about it.\" \n\nIn July 2009, 20th Century Fox announced that Jon Spaihts had been hired to write a prequel to Alien, with Scott attached to direct. The script was subsequently re-worked by Scott and Damon Lindelof. Titled Prometheus, it went into production in May 2011, and was subsequently released in 2012. Scott released a statement: \"While Alien was indeed the jumping-off point for this project, out of the creative process evolved a new, grand mythology and universe in which this original story takes place. The keen fan will recognize strands of Alien DNA, so to speak, but the ideas tackled in this film are unique, large and provocative.\" \n\nVariety reported on February 18, 2015 that a new Alien film will be directed by Neill Blomkamp. On February 25, it was confirmed that Sigourney Weaver would have a role in the film. \n\nImitations\n\nAlien had both an immediate and long-term impact on the science fiction and horror genres. Shortly after its debut, Dan O'Bannon was sued by another writer named Jack Hammer for allegedly plagiarising a script entitled Black Space. However, O'Bannon was able to prove that he had written his Alien script first. In the wake of Alien success a number of other filmmakers imitated or adapted some of its elements, sometimes by copying its title. One of the first was The Alien Dead (1979), which was titled at the last minute to cash in on Alien popularity. Contamination (1980) was initially going to be titled Alien 2 until 20th Century Fox's lawyers contacted writer/director Luigi Cozzi and made him change it, and it built on press coverage of Alien chestburster scene by having many similar creatures, which originated from large, slimy eggs, bursting from characters' chests. An unauthorized sequel to Alien, titled Alien Terror (later Alien 2: On Earth), was released in 1980 and included alien creatures which incubate inside human hosts. Other science fiction films of the time that borrowed elements from Alien include Galaxy of Terror (1981), Inseminoid (1981), Forbidden World (1982), Xtro (1982), and Dead Space (1991).\n\nThe film studio The Asylum has produced two mockbuster based on the Alien franchise: AVH: Alien vs. Hunter (based on the crossover Alien vs. Predator: Requiem) and Alien Origin (based on Prometheus).\n\nAnalysis\n\nCritics have analyzed Alien sexual overtones. Following Barbara Creed's analysis of the Alien creature as a representation of the \"monstrous-feminine as archaic mother,\" Ximena Gallardo C. and C. Jason Smith compared the facehugger's attack on Kane to a male rape and the chestburster scene to a form of violent birth, noting that the Alien's phallic head and method of killing the crew members add to the sexual imagery. Dan O'Bannon has argued that the scene is a metaphor for the male fear of penetration, and that the \"oral invasion\" of Kane by the facehugger functions as \"payback\" for the many horror films in which sexually vulnerable women are attacked by male monsters. McIntee claims that \"Alien is a rape movie as much as Straw Dogs (1971) or I Spit on Your Grave (1978), or The Accused (1988). On one level it's about an intriguing alien threat. On one level it's about parasitism and disease. And on the level that was most important to the writers and director, it's about sex, and reproduction by non-consensual means. And it's about this happening to a man.\" He notes how the film plays on men's fear and misunderstanding of pregnancy and childbirth, while also giving women a glimpse into these fears. Film analyst Lina Badley has written that the Alien's design, with strong Freudian sexual undertones, multiple phallic symbols, and overall feminine figure, provides an androgynous image conforming to archetypal mappings and imageries in horror films that often redraw gender lines. O'Bannon himself later described the sexual imagery in Alien as overt and intentional: \"One thing that people are all disturbed about is sex... I said 'That's how I'm going to attack the audience; I'm going to attack them sexually. And I'm not going to go after the women in the audience, I'm going to attack the men. I am going to put in every image I can think of to make the men in the audience cross their legs. Homosexual oral rape, birth. The thing lays its eggs down your throat, the whole number. \n\nIn the decades since its original release critics have analyzed and acknowledged Alien roots in earlier works of fiction. It has been noted as sharing thematic similarities with earlier science fiction films such as The Thing from Another World (1951) and It! The Terror from Beyond Space (1958) as well as a kinship with other 1970s horror films such as Jaws (1975) and Halloween (1978). Literary connections have also been suggested, including thematic comparisons to And Then There Were None (1939). Many critics have also suggested that the film derives in part from A. E. van Vogt's The Voyage of the Space Beagle (1950), particularly the stories \"The Black Destroyer\", in which a cat-like alien infiltrates the ship and hunts the crew, and \"Discord in Scarlet\", in which an alien implants parasitic eggs inside crew members which then hatch and eat their way out. O'Bannon, however, denies that this was a source of his inspiration for Alien story. Van Vogt initiated a lawsuit against 20th Century Fox over the similarities, but Fox settled out of court. Rick Sanchez of IGN noted the \"striking resemblance\" to Mario Bava's cult classic Planet of the Vampires (1965), especially in a celebrated sequence in which the crew discovers a ruin containing the skeletal remains of long dead giant beings, and in the design and shots of the ship itself, similar to the derelict spacecraft in Alien. Despite the visual similarities, both O'Bannon and director Ridley Scott claimed in a 1979 interview that they had not seen Planet of the Vampires. \n\nWriter David McIntee has also noted similarities to the Doctor Who episode \"The Ark in Space\" (1975), in which an insectoid queen alien lays larvae inside humans which later eat their way out, a life cycle inspired by that of the ichneumon wasp. He has also noted similarities between the first half of the film, particularly in early versions of the script, to H.P. Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness, \"not in storyline, but in dread-building mystery\", and calls the finished film \"the best Lovecraftian movie ever made, without being a Lovecraft adaptation\", due to its similarities in tone and atmosphere to Lovecraft's works. In 2009, Dan O'Bannon said the film was \"strongly influenced, tone-wise, by Lovecraft, and one of the things it proved is that you can't adapt Lovecraft effectively without an extremely strong visual style ... What you need is a cinematic equivalent of Lovecraft's prose.\" Regarding O'Bannon's initial Alien storyline, H. R. Giger stated, \"I liked it particularly because I found it was in the vein of Lovecraft, one of my greatest sources of inspiration.\" \n\nLasting critical praise\n\nAlien has continued to receive critical acclaim over the years, particularly for its realism and unique environment. It has a 97% approval rating at the online review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on 89 reviews, while Metacritic gives an 83% approval rating based on 22 reviews. Critical interest in the film was re-ignited in part by the theatrical release of the \"Director's Cut\" in 2003. Despite having criticized Alien in 1980, Roger Ebert included it in his \"Great Movies\" column in 2003, ranking it among \"the most influential of modern action pictures\" and praising its pacing, atmosphere, and settings:\n\nOne of the great strengths of Alien is its pacing. It takes its time. It waits. It allows silences (the majestic opening shots are underscored by Jerry Goldsmith with scarcely audible, far-off metallic chatterings). It suggests the enormity of the crew's discovery by building up to it with small steps: The interception of a signal (is it a warning or an SOS?). The descent to the extraterrestrial surface. The bitching by Brett and Parker, who are concerned only about collecting their shares. The masterstroke of the surface murk through which the crew members move, their helmet lights hardly penetrating the soup. The shadowy outline of the alien ship. The sight of the alien pilot, frozen in his command chair. The enormity of the discovery inside the ship (\"It's full of ... leathery eggs ...\").\n\nMcIntee praises Alien as \"possibly the definitive combination of horror thriller with science fiction trappings.\" He notes, however, that it is a horror film first and a science fiction film second, since science fiction normally explores issues of how humanity will develop under other circumstances. Alien, on the other hand, focuses on the plight of people being attacked by a monster: \"It's set on a spaceship in the future, but it's about people trying not to get eaten by a drooling monstrous animal. Worse, it's about them trying not to get raped by said drooling monstrous animal.\" Along with Halloween and Friday the 13th (1980), he describes it as a prototype for the slasher film genre: \"The reason it's such a good movie, and wowed both the critics, who normally frown on the genre, and the casual cinema-goer, is that it is a distillation of everything that scares us in the movies.\" He also describes how the film appeals to a variety of audiences: \"Fans of Hitchcockian thrillers like it because it's moody and dark. Gorehounds like it for the chest-burster. Science fiction fans love the hard science fiction trappings and hardware. Men love the battle-for-survival element, and women love not being cast as the helpless victim.\" \n\nDavid Edelstein wrote, \"Alien remains the key text in the 'body horror' subgenre that flowered (or, depending on your viewpoint, festered) in the seventies, and Giger’s designs covered all possible avenues of anxiety. Men traveled through vulva-like openings, got forcibly impregnated, and died giving birth to rampaging gooey vaginas dentate — how’s that for future shock? This was truly what David Cronenberg would call 'the new flesh,' a dissolution of the boundaries between man and machine, machine and alien, and man and alien, with a psychosexual invasiveness that has never, thank God, been equaled.\" \n\nIn 2002, Alien was deemed \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\" by the National Film Preservation Board of the United States, and was inducted into the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress for historical preservation alongside other films of 1979 including All That Jazz, Apocalypse Now, The Black Stallion, and Manhattan. In 2008 the American Film Institute ranked Alien as the seventh-best film in the science fiction genre as part of AFI's 10 Top 10, a CBS television special ranking the ten greatest movies in ten classic American film genres. The ranks were based on a poll of over 1,500 film artists, critics, and historians, with Alien ranking just above Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) and just below Ridley Scott's other science fiction film Blade Runner (1982). The same year, Empire magazine ranked it thirty-third on its list of the five hundred greatest movies of all time, based on a poll of 10,200 readers, critics, and members of the film industry." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Alien iv", "Alien - Resurrection", "USM Auriga", "Alien 4", "Alien Resurrection", "Alien: Resurrection", "Alien Ressurrection", "Alien Ressurection", "Annalee Call", "Ellen Ripley Clone", "Alien:Resurection" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "alien ressurrection", "alien resurection", "alien ressurection", "annalee call", "alien iv", "ellen ripley clone", "usm auriga", "alien 4", "alien resurrection" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "alien resurrection", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Alien Resurrection" }
What number Star Trek movie was called The Wrath of Khan?	tc_1101	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Star_Trek.txt", "Star_Trek_II:_The_Wrath_of_Khan.txt" ], "title": [ "Star Trek", "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan" ], "wiki_context": [ "Star Trek is an American science fiction entertainment franchise created by Gene Roddenberry and owned by CBS and Paramount Pictures.For a more detailed history of the ownership of the franchise, see the corporate ownership section. The television series Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek: The Animated Series,See the Canon issues section of the The Animated Series page for more details. Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, Star Trek: Enterprise, Star Trek: Discovery as well as the Star Trek film franchise make up the franchise's canon.\n\nThe first series, now referred to as The Original Series, debuted in 1966 and ran for three seasons on NBC. It followed the galactic adventures of James T. Kirk and the crew of the starship Enterprise, an exploration vessel of a 23rd-century interstellar \"United Federation of Planets\". In creating the first Star Trek, Roddenberry was inspired by Westerns such as Wagon Train, the Horatio Hornblower novels and Gulliver's Travels. In fact, the original series was originally described as Wagon Train to the Stars. These adventures continued in the short-lived Star Trek: The Animated Series and six feature films. Four spin-off television series were eventually produced: Star Trek: The Next Generation followed the crew of a new starship Enterprise set a century after the original series; Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager, set contemporaneously with The Next Generation; and Star Trek: Enterprise, set before the original series, in the early days of human interstellar travel. Four additional The Next Generation feature films were produced. In 2009, the film franchise underwent a \"reboot\" set in an alternate timeline, the \"Kelvin Timeline\", titled simply Star Trek. This film featured a new cast portraying younger versions of the crew from the original show. A sequel to that film, Star Trek Into Darkness, premiered on May 16, 2013. A thirteenth film feature and sequel, Star Trek Beyond, was released in July 2016, to coincide with the franchise's 50th anniversary. A new Star Trek TV series, titled Star Trek: Discovery, will premiere in January 2017 on the digital platform CBS All Access.\n\nStar Trek has been a cult phenomenon for decades. Fans of the franchise are called Trekkies or Trekkers. The franchise spans a wide range of spin-offs including games, figurines, novels, toys, and comics. Star Trek had a themed attraction in Las Vegas that opened in 1998 and closed in September 2008. At least two museum exhibits of props travel the world. The series has its own full-fledged constructed language, Klingon. Several parodies have been made of Star Trek. In addition, viewers have produced several fan productions.\n\nStar Trek is noted for its influence on the world outside of science fiction. It has been cited as an inspiration for several technological inventions, including the cell phone and tablet computers. The franchise is also noted for its progressive civil rights stances. The Original Series included one of television's first multiracial casts. Star Trek references can be found throughout popular culture from movies such as the submarine thriller Crimson Tide to the animated series South Park.\n\nConception and setting\n\nAs early as 1964, Gene Roddenberry drafted a proposal for the science-fiction series that would become Star Trek. Although he publicly marketed it as a Western in outer space—a so-called \"Wagon Train to the Stars\" (like the popular Western TV series) —he privately told friends that he was modeling it on Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, intending each episode to act on two levels: as a suspenseful adventure story and as a morality tale. \n\nMost Star Trek stories depict the adventures of humansMembers of the human species are occasionally called \"Terrans\" in Star Trek, although usage has been inconsistent. and aliens who serve in Starfleet, the space-borne humanitarian and peacekeeping armada of the United Federation of Planets. The protagonists have altruistic values, and must apply these ideals to difficult dilemmas.\n\nMany of the conflicts and political dimensions of Star Trek represent allegories of contemporary cultural realities. Star Trek: The Original Series addressed issues of the 1960s, just as later spin-offs have reflected issues of their respective decades. Issues depicted in the various series include war and peace, the value of personal loyalty, authoritarianism, imperialism, class warfare, economics, racism, religion, human rights, sexism, feminism, and the role of technology. Roddenberry stated: \"[By creating] a new world with new rules, I could make statements about sex, religion, Vietnam, politics, and intercontinental missiles. Indeed, we did make them on Star Trek: we were sending messages and fortunately they all got by the network.\"\n\nRoddenberry intended the show to have a progressive political agenda reflective of the emerging counter-culture of the youth movement, though he was not fully forthcoming to the networks about this. He wanted Star Trek to show humanity what it might develop into, if it would learn from the lessons of the past, most specifically by ending violence. An extreme example is the alien species, the Vulcans, who had a violent past but learned to control their emotions. Roddenberry also gave Star Trek an anti-war message and depicted the United Federation of Planets as an ideal, optimistic version of the United Nations. His efforts were opposed by the network because of concerns over marketability, e.g., they opposed Roddenberry's insistence that the Enterprise have a racially diverse crew.\n\nStar Trek has also been accused of evincing racism and imperialism, however, by frequently depicting Starfleet and the Federation trying to impose their values and customs on other planets. \n\nMythology\n\nThe central trio of Kirk, Spock and McCoy from Star Trek: The Original Series was modeled on classical mythological storytelling.\n\nWilliam Shatner said: “There is a mythological component [to pop culture], especially with science fiction. It’s people looking for answers – and science fiction offers to explain the inexplicable, the same as religion tends to do… If we accept the premise that it has a mythological element, then all the stuff about going out into space and meeting new life – trying to explain it and put a human element to it – it’s a hopeful vision. All these things offer hope and imaginative solutions for the future.” \n\nRichard Lutz wrote: “The enduring popularity of Star Trek is due to the underlying mythology which binds fans together by virtue of their shared love of stories involving exploration, discovery, adventure and friendship that promote an egalitarian and peace loving society where technology and diversity are valued rather than feared and citizens work together for the greater good. Thus Star Trek offers a hopeful vision of the future and a template for our lives and our society that we can aspire to.” \n\nHistory and production\n\nBeginnings\n\nIn early 1964, Roddenberry presented a brief treatment for a proposed Star Trek TV series to Desilu Productions comparing it to Wagon Train, \"a Wagon Train to the stars.\" Desilu worked with Roddenberry to develop the treatment into a script, which was then pitched to NBC.\n\nNBC paid to make a pilot, \"The Cage\", starring Jeffrey Hunter as Enterprise Captain Christopher Pike. NBC rejected The Cage, but the executives were still impressed with the concept, and made the unusual decision to commission a second pilot: \"Where No Man Has Gone Before\".\n\nThe first regular episode (\"The Man Trap\") of Star Trek: The Original Series aired on Thursday, September 8, 1966. While the show initially enjoyed high ratings, the average rating of the show at the end of its first season dropped to 52nd (out of 94 programs).\n\nUnhappy with the show's ratings, NBC threatened to cancel the show during its second season. The show's fan base, led by Bjo Trimble, conducted an unprecedented letter-writing campaign, petitioning the network to keep the show on the air. NBC renewed the show, but moved it from primetime to the \"Friday night death slot\", and substantially reduced its budget. In protest Roddenberry resigned as producer and reduced his direct involvement in Star Trek, which led to Fred Freiberger becoming producer for the show's third and final season.Roddenberry did, however, co-author two scripts for the third season. Despite another letter-writing campaign, NBC cancelled the series after three seasons and 79 episodes.\n\nRebirth\n\nAfter the original series was cancelled, Paramount Studios, which had bought the series from Desilu, licensed the broadcast syndication rights to help recoup the production losses. Reruns began in the fall of 1969 and by the late 1970s the series aired in over 150 domestic and 60 international markets. This helped Star Trek develop a cult following greater than its popularity during its original run.\n\nOne sign of the series' growing popularity was the first Star Trek convention which occurred on January 21–23, 1972 in New York City. Although the original estimate of attendees was only a few hundred, several thousand fans turned up. Star Trek fans continue to attend similar conventions worldwide.\n\nThe series' newfound success led to the idea of reviving the franchise. Filmation with Paramount Television produced the first post original series show, Star Trek: The Animated Series. It ran on NBC for 22 half-hour episodes over two seasons on Saturday mornings from 1973 to 1974. Although short-lived, typical for animated productions in that time slot during that period, the series garnered the franchise's only \"Best Series\" Emmy Award as opposed to the franchise's later technical ones. Paramount Pictures and Roddenberry began developing a new series, Star Trek: Phase II, in May 1975 in response to the franchise's newfound popularity. Work on the series ended, however, when the proposed Paramount Television Service folded.\n\nFollowing the success of the science fiction movies Star Wars and Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Paramount adapted the planned pilot episode of Phase II into the feature film, Star Trek: The Motion Picture. The film opened in North America on December 7, 1979, with mixed reviews from critics. The film earned $139 million worldwide, below expectations but enough for Paramount to create a sequel. The studio forced Roddenberry to relinquish creative control of future sequels.\n\nThe success of the critically acclaimed sequel, Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, reversed the fortunes of the franchise. While the sequel grossed less than the first movie, The Wrath of Khans lower production costs made it net more profit. Paramount produced six Star Trek feature films between 1979 and 1991. In response to the popularity of Star Trek feature films, the franchise returned to television with Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG) in 1987. Paramount chose to distribute it as a first-run syndication show rather than a network show.\n\nAfter Roddenberry\n\nFollowing Star Trek: The Motion Picture, Roddenberry's role was changed from producer to creative consultant with minimal input to the films while being heavily involved with the creation of Star Trek: The Next Generation. Roddenberry died on October 24, 1991, giving executive producer Rick Berman control of the franchise. Star Trek had become known to those within Paramount as \"the franchise\", because of its great success and recurring role as a tent pole for the studio when other projects failed. TNG had the highest ratings of any Star Trek series and became the #1 syndicated show during the last years of its original seven-season run. In response to TNG's success, Paramount released a spin-off series Deep Space Nine in 1993. While never as popular as TNG, the series had sufficient ratings for it to last seven seasons.\n\nIn January 1995, a few months after TNG ended, Paramount released a fourth TV series, Voyager. Star Trek saturation reached a peak in the mid-1990s with DS9 and Voyager airing concurrently and three of the four TNG-based feature films released in 1994, 1996, and 1998. By 1998, Star Trek was Paramount's most important property; the enormous profits of \"the franchise\" funded much of the rest of the studio's operations. Voyager became the flagship show of the new United Paramount Network (UPN) and thus the first major network Star Trek series since the original. \n\nAfter Voyager ended, UPN produced Enterprise, a prequel TV series to the original show. Enterprise did not enjoy the high ratings of its predecessors and UPN threatened to cancel it after the series' third season. Fans launched a campaign reminiscent of the one that saved the third season of the Original Series. Paramount renewed Enterprise for a fourth season, but moved it to the Friday night death slot. Like the Original Series, Enterprise ratings dropped during this time slot, and UPN cancelled Enterprise at the end of its fourth season. Enterprise aired its final episode on May 13, 2005. Fan groups, \"Save Enterprise\", attempted to save the series and tried to raise $30 million to privately finance a fifth season of Enterprise. Though the effort garnered considerable press, the fan drive failed to save the series. The cancellation of Enterprise ended an eighteen-year continuous production run of Star Trek programming on television. The poor box office performance in 2002 of the film Nemesis, cast an uncertain light upon the future of the franchise. Paramount relieved Berman, the franchise producer, of control of Star Trek.\n\n2009 \"reboot\"\n\nParamount turned down several proposals in the mid-2000s to restart the franchise. These included pitches from film director Bryan Singer, Babylon 5 creator J. Michael Straczynski, and Trek actors Jonathan Frakes and William Shatner. The studio also turned down an animated web series. Instead, Paramount hired a new creative team to reinvigorate the franchise in 2007. Writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman and Lost producer, J. J. Abrams, had the freedom to reinvent the feel of Trek.\n\nThe team created the franchise's eleventh film, titled simply Star Trek, releasing it in May 2009. The film featured a new cast portraying the crew of the original show. Star Trek was a prequel of the original series set in an alternate timeline, known as the \"Kelvin Timeline\". This gave the film and future sequels to it freedom from the need to conform to the franchise's canonical timeline. The eleventh Star Trek film's marketing campaign targeted non-fans, even stating in the film's advertisements that \"this is not your father's Star Trek\". \n\nThe film earned considerable critical and financial success, grossing in inflation-adjusted dollars more box office sales than any previous Star Trek film. The plaudits include the franchise's first Academy Award (for makeup). The film's major cast members are contracted for two sequels. Paramount's sequel to the 2009 film, Star Trek Into Darkness, premiered in Sydney, Australia on April 23, 2013, but the film did not release in the United States until May 17, 2013. While the film was not as successful in the North American box office as its predecessor, internationally, in terms of box office receipts, Into Darkness was the most successful of the franchise. A thirteenth film entitled Star Trek Beyond was released on July 22, 2016. \n\nStar Trek will return to subscription-television in January 2017. The new series, titled Star Trek: Discovery, will be the first series produced specifically for CBS All Access. Episodes will also be available on Netflix within 24 hours of their U.S. premieres. \n\nTelevision series\n\nSix television series make up the bulk of the Star Trek mythos: The Original Series, The Animated Series, The Next Generation, Deep Space Nine, Voyager, and Enterprise. All the different versions in total amount to 726 Star Trek episodes across the 30 seasons of the TV series.This episode count includes the animated series, and the original pilot, \"The Cage\". Two part episodes that were not originally aired at the same time are considered two separate episodes. Ten feature-length episodes were originally aired as two-hour presentations and are sometimes considered single episodes, however in this count they too are seen as two individual episodes.\n\nThe Star Trek wiki Memory Alpha differs from the count listed because it includes the feature films in its total and it uses the method that counts feature-length episodes as single episodes. This makes that wiki's total release count 728.\n\nThe Original Series (1966–69)\n\nStar Trek: The Original Series or \"TOS\"Originally titled Star Trek, it has in recent years become known as Star Trek: The Original Series or as \"Classic Star Trek\"—retronyms that distinguish it from its sequels and the franchise as a whole. debuted in the United States on NBC on September 8, 1966. The show tells the tale of the crew of the starship Enterprise and its five-year mission \"to boldly go where no man has gone before.\" The original 1966–1969 television series featured William Shatner as Captain James T. Kirk, Leonard Nimoy as Spock, DeForest Kelley as Dr. Leonard \"Bones\" McCoy, James Doohan as Montgomery \"Scotty\" Scott, Nichelle Nichols as Uhura, George Takei as Hikaru Sulu, and Walter Koenig as Pavel Chekov. During the series' original run, it earned several nominations for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and won twice: for the two-parter \"The Menagerie\" and the Harlan Ellison-written episode \"The City on the Edge of Forever\".\n\nNBC canceled the show after three seasons; the last original episode aired on June 3, 1969. The petition near the end of the second season to save the show signed by many Caltech students and its multiple Hugo nominations would, however, indicate that despite low Nielsen ratings, it was highly popular with science fiction fans and engineering students. The series later became popular in reruns and found a cult following.\n\nThe Animated Series (1973–74)\n\nStar Trek: The Animated Series, produced by Filmation, ran for two seasons from 1973 to 1974. Most of the original cast performed the voices of their characters from The Original Series, and many of the writers who worked on The Original Series, D. C. Fontana, David Gerrold, and Paul Schneider, wrote for the series. While the animated format allowed the producers to create more exotic alien landscapes and life forms, animation errors and liberal reuse of shots and musical cues have tarnished the series' reputation. Although it was originally sanctioned by Paramount, which owned the Star Trek franchise following its acquisition of Desilu in 1967, Gene Roddenberry often spoke of TAS as non-canon. Star Trek writers have used elements of the animated series in later live-action series and movies, and , the Animated Series has references in the library section of the official Startrek.com web site officially bringing the series into the franchise's main canon.\n\nThe Animated Series won Star Treks first Emmy Award on May 15, 1975. Star Trek TAS briefly returned to television in the mid-1980s on the children's cable network Nickelodeon. Nickelodeon's Evan McGuire greatly admired the show and used its various creative components as inspiration for his short series called Piggly Wiggly Hears A Sound which never aired. Nickelodeon parent Viacom would purchase Paramount in 1994. In the early 1990s, the Sci-Fi Channel also began rerunning TAS. The complete TAS was also released on Laserdisc format during the 1980s. The complete series was first released in the USA on eleven volumes of VHS tapes in 1989. All 22 episodes were released on DVD in 2006.\n\nThe Next Generation (1987–1994)\n\nStar Trek: The Next Generation, also known as \"TNG\", takes place about a century after The Original Series (2364–2370). It features a new starship, the Enterprise-D, and a new crew led by Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) and Commander William Riker (Jonathan Frakes). Some crewmembers represent new alien races, including Deanna Troi, a half-Betazoid counselor played by Marina Sirtis. Michael Dorn plays Worf, the first Klingon officer in Starfleet, alongside Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher, LeVar Burton as chief engineer Geordi La Forge, the android Data portrayed by Brent Spiner, and Dr. Crusher's son Wesley Crusher played by Wil Wheaton. The show premiered on September 28, 1987, and ran for seven seasons, ending on May 23, 1994. It had the highest ratings of any of the Star Trek series and became the #1 syndicated show during the last few years of its original run, allowing it to act as a springboard for ideas in other series. Many relationships and races introduced in TNG became the basis of episodes in Deep Space 9 and Voyager. During its run it earned several Emmy awards and nominations – including a nomination for Best Dramatic Series during its final season – two Hugo Awards and a Peabody Award for Outstanding Television Programming for the episode \"The Big Goodbye\". \n\nDeep Space Nine (1993–99)\n\nStar Trek: Deep Space Nine, also known as \"DS9\", takes place during the last years and the immediate post-years of The Next Generation (2369–2375) and aired for seven seasons, debuting the week of January 3, 1993. Like Star Trek: The Next Generation, it aired in syndication in the United States and Canada. Unlike the other Star Trek series, DS9 takes place primarily on a space station rather than aboard a starship.\n\nThe show begins after the brutal Cardassian occupation of the planet Bajor. The liberated Bajoran people ask the United Federation of Planets to help run a Cardassian built space station, Deep Space Nine, near Bajor. After the Federation takes control of the station, the protagonists of the show discover a uniquely stable wormhole that provides immediate access to the distant Gamma Quadrant making Bajor and the station one of the most strategically important locations in the galaxy. The show chronicles the events of the station's crew, led by Commander (later Captain) Benjamin Sisko, played by Avery Brooks, and Major (later Colonel) Kira Nerys, played by Nana Visitor. Recurring plot elements include the repercussions of the Cardassian occupation of Bajor, Sisko's spiritual role for the Bajorans as the Emissary of the Prophets, and in later seasons a war with the Dominion.\n\nDeep Space Nine stands apart from earlier Trek series for its lengthy serialized storytelling, conflict within the crew, and religious themes—all elements that critics and audiences praised but Roddenberry forbade in the original series and The Next Generation. Nevertheless, he was informed before his death of DS9, making this the last Star Trek series connected to Gene Roddenberry. \n\nVoyager (1995–2001)\n\nStar Trek: Voyager ran for seven seasons, airing from January 16, 1995, to May 23, 2001, launching a new Paramount-owned television network UPN. It features Kate Mulgrew as Captain Kathryn Janeway, the first female commanding officer in a leading role of a Star Trek series, and Commander Chakotay, played by Robert Beltran.\n\nVoyager takes place at about the same time period as Deep Space Nine and the years following that show's end (2371–2378). The premiere episode has the USS Voyager and its crew pursue a Maquis (Federation rebels) ship. Both ships become stranded in the Delta Quadrant about 70,000 light-years from Earth. Faced with a 75-year voyage to Earth, the crew must learn to work together to overcome challenges on their long and perilous journey home while also seeking ways to shorten the voyage. Like Deep Space Nine, early seasons of Voyager feature more conflict between its crewmembers than seen in later episodes. Such conflict often arises from friction between \"by-the-book\" Starfleet crew and rebellious Maquis fugitives forced by circumstance to work together on Voyager. Eventually, though, they settle their differences, after which the overall tone becomes more reminiscent of The Original Series. The starship Voyager, isolated from its home, faces new cultures and dilemmas not possible in shows based in the Alpha Quadrant. Later seasons, however, brought an influx of characters and cultures from prior shows, the Borg, Q, the Ferengi, Romulans, Klingons, Cardassians and cast members of The Next Generation.\n\nEnterprise (2001–05)\n\nStar Trek: Enterprise, originally titled Enterprise, is a prequel to the original Star Trek series. It aired from September 26, 2001 to May 13, 2005. Enterprise takes place in the 2150s, some 90 years after the events of Zefram Cochrane's first warp flight and about a decade before the founding of the Federation. The show centers on the voyages of Earth's first warp-five capable starship, the Enterprise, commanded by Captain Jonathan Archer (played by Scott Bakula), and the Vulcan Sub-Commander T'Pol (played by Jolene Blalock).\n\nDuring the show's first two seasons, Enterprise featured self-contained episodes, like The Original Series, The Next Generation and Voyager. The third season consisted of one arc, \"Xindi mission\", which had a darker tone and serialized nature similar to that of Deep Space 9. Season 4 consisted of several two to three episode mini-arcs. The final season showed the origins of elements seen in earlier series, and it rectified and resolved some core continuity problems between the various Star Trek series. Ratings for Enterprise started strong but declined rapidly. Although critics received the fourth season well, both fans and the cast reviled the series finale, partly because of the episode's focus on the guest appearance of members of The Next Generation cast. The cancellation of Enterprise ended an 18-year run of back-to-back new Star Trek shows beginning with The Next Generation in 1987.\n\nDiscovery (2017–)\n\nOn November 2, 2015, it was announced that a new Star Trek TV series is in development by Bryan Fuller and Alex Kurtzman. The new series will premiere on CBS All Access in January 2017. \n\nFeature films\n\nParamount Pictures has produced thirteen Star Trek feature films, the most recent being released in July 2016.[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2660888/] The first six films continue the adventures of the cast of The Original Series; the seventh film, Generations was designed as a transition from that cast to The Next Generation television series; the next three films, 8–10, focused completely on the Next Generation cast.Film titles of the North American and UK releases of the films no longer contained the number of the film following the sixth film (the sixth was Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country but the seventh was Star Trek Generations). However, European releases continued using numbers in the film titles until Nemesis. The eleventh and twelfth films take place in an alternate timeline from the rest of the franchise set with a new cast playing the original series characters, and with Leonard Nimoy as an elderly Spock providing a physical link to the original timeline. This alternate timeline has been named by CBS, for the computer came Star Trek Online , the Kelvin Timeline. Star Trek, Into Darkness, and Beyond occur in a separate timeline from the rest of the series. \n\nMerchandise\n\nMany licensed products are based on the Star Trek franchise. Merchandising is very lucrative for both studio and actors; by 1986 Nimoy had earned more than $500,000 from royalties. Products include novels, comic books, video games, and other materials, which are generally considered non-canon.\n\nBooks\n\nSince 1967, hundreds of original novels, short stories, and television and movie adaptations have been published. The first original Star Trek novel was Mission to Horatius by Mack Reynolds, which was published in hardcover by Whitman Books in 1968.\n\nThe first publisher of Star Trek fiction aimed at adult readers was Bantam Books. In 1970, James Blish wrote the first original Star Trek novel published by Bantam, Spock Must Die!. Pocket Books is the publisher of Star Trek novels.\n\nProlific Star Trek novelists include Peter David, Diane Carey, Keith R. A. DeCandido, J. M. Dillard, Diane Duane, Michael Jan Friedman, and Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens. Several actors from the television series have also written or co-written books featuring their respective characters: William Shatner, John de Lancie, Andrew J. Robinson, J. G. Hertzler and Armin Shimerman. Voyager producer Jeri Taylor wrote two novels featuring back story for Voyager characters, and screen authors David Gerrold, D. C. Fontana, and Melinda Snodgrass have penned books, as well.\n\nA scholarly book published by Springer Science+Business Media in 2014 discusses the actualization of Star Treks holodeck in the future by making extensive use of artificial intelligence and cyborgs. \n\nComics\n\nStar Trek-based comics have been almost continuously published since 1967. They have been offered by several companies, including Marvel, DC, Malibu, Wildstorm, and Gold Key. Tokyopop is publishing an anthology of Next Generation-based stories presented in the style of Japanese manga. , IDW Publishing secured publishing rights to Star Trek comics and published a prequel to the 2009 film, Star Trek: Countdown. In 2012, they published Volume I of Star Trek – The Newspaper Strip featuring the work of Thomas Warkentin. \n\nGames\n\nThe Star Trek franchise has numerous games in many formats. Beginning in 1967 with a board game based on the original series and continuing through today with online and DVD games, Star Trek games continue to be popular among fans.\n\nVideo games of the series include Star Trek: Legacy and Star Trek: Conquest. An MMORPG based on Star Trek called Star Trek Online was developed by Cryptic Studios and published by Perfect World. It is set in the TNG universe about 30 years after the events of Star Trek: Nemesis. The most recent video game, set in the new timeline debuted in J. J. Abrams's film, was titled Star Trek.\n\nOn June 8, 2010, Wiz Kids Games, which is owned by NECA, announced that they are developing a Star Trek collectible miniatures game using the HeroClix game system. \n\nMagazines\n\nStar Trek has led directly or indirectly to the creation of a number of magazines which focus either on science fiction or specifically on Star Trek. Starlog was a magazine which was founded in the 1970s. Initially, its focus was on Star Trek actors, but then it began to expand its scope.\n\nIn 2013, Star Trek Magazine was a significant publication from the U.K. which was sold at newsstands and also via subscription. Other magazines through the years included professional magazines as well as magazines produced by fans, referred to as \"fanzines\". Star Trek: The Magazine was a magazine published in the U.S. which ceased publication in 2003.\n\nCultural impact\n\nThe Star Trek media franchise is a multibillion-dollar industry, owned by CBS. Gene Roddenberry sold Star Trek to NBC as a classic adventure drama; he pitched the show as \"Wagon Train to the Stars\" and as Horatio Hornblower in Space. The opening line, \"to boldly go where no man has gone before,\" was taken almost verbatim from a U.S. White House booklet on space produced after the Sputnik flight in 1957. The central trio of Kirk, Spock, and McCoy was modeled on classical mythological storytelling.\n\nStar Trek and its spin-offs have proven highly popular in syndication and are shown on TV stations worldwide. The show's cultural impact goes far beyond its longevity and profitability. Star Trek conventions have become popular among its fans, who call themselves \"trekkies\" or \"trekkers\". An entire subculture has grown up around the show which was documented in the film Trekkies. Star Trek was the highest-ranked cult show by TV Guide. The franchise has also garnered many comparisons of the Star Wars franchise being rivals in the science fiction genre with many fans and scholars. \n\nThe Star Trek franchise inspired some designers of technologies, the Palm PDA and the handheld mobile phone. Michael Jones, Chief technologist of Google Earth, has cited the tricorder's mapping capability as one inspiration in the development of Keyhole/Google Earth. The Tricorder X Prize, a contest to build a medical tricorder device was announced in 2012. Ten finalists have been selected in 2014, and the winner will be selected in January 2016. Star Trek also brought teleportation to popular attention with its depiction of \"matter-energy transport\", with the famously misquoted phrase \"Beam me up, Scotty\" entering the vernacular. The Star Trek replicator is credited in the scientific literature with inspiring the field of diatom nanotechnology. In 1976, following a letter-writing campaign, NASA named its prototype space shuttle Enterprise, after the fictional starship. Later, the introductory sequence to Star Trek: Enterprise included footage of this shuttle which, along with images of a naval sailing vessel called the Enterprise, depicted the advancement of human transportation technology.\n\nBeyond Star Treks fictional innovations, its contributions to TV history included a multicultural and multiracial cast. While more common in subsequent years, in the 1960s it was controversial to feature an Enterprise crew that included a Japanese helmsman, a Russian navigator, a black female communications officer, and a Vulcan-Human first officer. Captain Kirk's and Lt. Uhura's kiss, in the episode \"Plato's Stepchildren\", was also daring, and is often mis-cited as being American television's first scripted, interracial kiss, even though several other interracial kisses predated this one. \n\nParodies\n\nEarly TV comedy sketch parodies of Star Trek included a famous sketch on Saturday Night Live titled \"The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise\", with John Belushi as Kirk, Chevy Chase as Spock and Dan Aykroyd as McCoy. In the 1980s, Saturday Night Live did a sketch with William Shatner reprising his Captain Kirk role in The Restaurant Enterprise, preceded by a sketch in which he played himself at a Trek convention angrily telling fans to \"Get a Life\", a phrase that has become part of Trek folklore. In Living Color continued the tradition in a sketch where Captain Kirk is played by a fellow Canadian Jim Carrey. \n\nA feature-length film that indirectly parodies Star Trek is Galaxy Quest. This film is based on the premise that aliens monitoring the broadcast of an Earth-based TV series called Galaxy Quest, modeled heavily on Star Trek, believe that what they are seeing is real. Many Star Trek actors have been quoted saying that Galaxy Quest was a brilliant parody. \n\nStar Trek has been blended with Gilbert and Sullivan at least twice. The North Toronto Players presented a Star Trek adaptation of Gilbert & Sullivan titled H.M.S. Starship Pinafore: The Next Generation in 1991 and an adaptation by Jon Mullich of Gilbert & Sullivan's H.M.S. Pinafore that sets the operetta in the world of Star Trek has played in Los Angeles and was attended by series luminaries Nichelle Nichols, D.C. Fontana and David Gerrold. A similar blend of Gilbert and Sullivan and Star Trek was presented as a benefit concert in San Francisco by the Lamplighters in 2009. The show was titled Star Drek: The Generation After That. It presented an original story with Gilbert and Sullivan melodies. \n\nBoth The Simpsons and Futurama television series and others have had many individual episodes parodying Star Trek or with Trek allusions. An entire series of films and novels from Finland titled Star Wreck also parodies Star Trek.\n\nIn August 2010, the members of the Internal Revenue Service created a Star Trek themed training video for a conference. Revealed to the public in 2013, the spoof along with parodies of other media franchises was cited as an example of the misuse of taxpayer funds in a congressional investigation. \n\nStar Trek has been parodied in several non-English movies, including the German Traumschiff Surprise - Periode 1 which features a gay version of The Original Series bridge crew and a Turkish film that spoofs that same series' episode \"The Man Trap\" in one of the series of films based on the character Turist Ömer.\n\nNotable fan fiction\n\nAlthough Star Trek has been off the air since 2005, CBS and Paramount pictures have allowed fan-produced shows to be created. While not officially part of the Star Trek universe, several veteran Star Trek actors, actresses, and writers have contributed their talents to many of these productions. While none of these films have been created for profit, several fan productions have turned to crowdfunding from sites, such as Kickstarter to help with production costs. \n\nTwo series set during the TOS time period are Star Trek Continues and the Hugo award nominated Star Trek: Phase II. Another series, Star Trek: Hidden Frontier, takes place on the Briar Patch, a region of space introduced in Star Trek Insurrection. It has had over 50 episodes produced, and has two spin-off series, Star Trek: Odyssey and Star Trek: The Helena Chronicles. Several standalone fan films have been created including Star Trek: Of Gods and Men. Future fan films include Star Trek: Axanar.Kickstarter[https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/194429923/star-trek-prelude-to-axanar Star Trek: Prelude to Axanar]Prelude to Axanar features some well known actors portraying both new and familiar characters in the Star Trek universe. Audio only fan productions includes Star Trek: The Continuing Mission. Several fan film parodies have also been created.\n\nAwards and honors\n\nOf the various science fiction awards for drama, only the Hugo Award dates back as far as the original series.Although the Hugo Award is mainly given for print-media science fiction, its \"best drama\" award is usually given to film or television presentations. The Hugo does not give out awards for best actor, director, or other aspects of film production. Before 2002, films and television series competed for the same Hugo, before the split of the drama award into short drama and long drama. In 1968, all five nominees for a Hugo Award were individual episodes of Star Trek, as were three of the five nominees in 1967.The other two films nominated for the Hugo in 1967 were the films Fahrenheit 451 and Fantastic Voyage. The only Star Trek series not even to get a Hugo nomination are the animated series and Voyager, though only the original series and Next Generation ever won the award. No Star Trek feature film has ever won a Hugo, though a few were nominated. In 2008, the fan-made episode of Star Trek: New Voyages entitled \"World Enough and Time\" was nominated for the Hugo for Best Short Drama. \n\nThe two Star Trek series to win multiple Saturn awards during their run were The Next Generation (twice winning for best television series) and Voyager (twice winning for best actress – Kate Mulgrew and Jeri Ryan).The science fiction Saturn Awards did not exist during broadcasting of the original series. Unlike the Hugo, the Saturn Award gives out prizes for best actor, special effects and music, and also unlike the Hugo (until 2002) movies and television shows have never competed against each other for Saturns. The original series retroactively won a Saturn Award for best DVD release. Several Star Trek films have won Saturns including categories best actor, actress, director, costume design, and special effects. However, Star Trek has never won a Saturn for best make-up. \n\nAs for non science fiction specific awards, the Star Trek series has won 31 Emmy Awards. The eleventh Star Trek film won the 2009 Academy Award for Best Makeup, the franchise's first Academy Award. \n\nCorporate ownership\n\nAt Star Treks creation, Norway Productions, Roddenberry's production company, shared ownership with Desilu Productions and, after Gulf+Western acquired Desilu in 1967, with Paramount Pictures, the conglomerate's film studio. Paramount did not want to own the unsuccessful show; net profit was to be shared between Norway, Desilu/Paramount, Shatner, and NBC but Star Trek lost money, and the studio did not expect to syndicate it. In 1970 Paramount offered to sell all rights to Star Trek to Roddenberry, but he could not afford the $150,000 ($ in 2007) price.\n\nIn 1989, Gulf+Western renamed itself as Paramount Communications, and in 1994 merged with Viacom. In 2005, Viacom divided into CBS Corporation, whose CBS Television Studios subsidiary retained the Star Trek brand, and Viacom, whose Paramount Pictures subsidiary retained the Star Trek film library and rights to make additional films, along with video distribution rights to the TV series on behalf of CBS.", "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan is a 1982 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures. It is the second film based on Star Trek, and is a sequel to Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979). The plot features Admiral James T. Kirk (William Shatner) and the crew of the starship USS Enterprise facing off against the genetically engineered tyrant Khan Noonien Singh (Ricardo Montalbán), a character who first appeared in the 1967 Star Trek television series episode \"Space Seed\". When Khan escapes from a 15-year exile to exact revenge on Kirk, the crew of the Enterprise must stop him from acquiring a powerful terraforming device named Genesis. The film concludes with the death of Spock (Leonard Nimoy), beginning a story arc that continues with the 1984 film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock and concludes with 1986's Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home.\n\nAfter the lackluster critical and commercial response to The Motion Picture, series creator Gene Roddenberry was forced out of the sequel's production. Executive producer Harve Bennett wrote the film's original outline, which Jack B. Sowards developed into a full script. Director Nicholas Meyer completed the final script in 12 days, without accepting a writing credit. Meyer's approach evoked the swashbuckling atmosphere of the original series, and the theme was reinforced by James Horner's musical score. Nimoy had not intended to have a role in The Motion Pictures sequel, but was enticed back on the promise that his character would be given a dramatic death scene. Negative test audience reaction to Spock's death led to significant revisions of the ending over Meyer's objections. The production used various cost-cutting techniques to keep within budget, including utilizing miniatures from past projects and re-using sets, effects footage and costumes from the previous movie. Among the film's technical achievements is it being the first feature film to contain a complete sequence created entirely with computer-generated graphics.\n\nThe Wrath of Khan was released in North America on June 4, 1982. It was a box office success, earning US$97 million worldwide and setting a world record for first-day box office gross. Critical reaction to the film was positive; reviewers highlighted Khan, the film's pacing, and the character interactions as strong elements. Negative reaction focused on weak special effects and some of the acting. The Wrath of Khan is considered by some to be the best film of the Star Trek series, and is credited with renewing substantial interest in the franchise.\n\nPlot\n\nIn the year 2285, Admiral James T. Kirk oversees a simulator session of Captain Spock's trainees. In the simulation, Lieutenant Saavik commands the starship USS Enterprise on a rescue mission to save the crew of the damaged ship Kobayashi Maru. When the Enterprise enters the Klingon Neutral Zone to reach the ship it is attacked by Klingon cruisers and critically damaged. The simulation is a no-win scenario designed to test the character of Starfleet officers. Later, Dr. McCoy joins Kirk on his birthday; seeing Kirk in low spirits, the doctor advises Kirk to get a new command and not grow old behind a desk.\n\nMeanwhile, the USS Reliant is on a mission to search for a lifeless planet for testing of the Genesis Device, a technology designed to reorganize matter to create habitable worlds for colonization. Reliant officers Commander Pavel Chekov and Captain Clark Terrell beam down to the surface of a possible candidate planet, which they believe to be Ceti Alpha VI; once there, they are captured by genetically engineered tyrant Khan Noonien Singh. The Enterprise discovered Khan's ship adrift in space 15 years previously; Kirk exiled Khan and his fellow supermen from 20th-century Earth to Ceti Alpha V after they attempted to take over the Enterprise. After they were marooned, Ceti Alpha VI exploded, shifting the orbit of Ceti Alpha V and destroying its ecosystem. Khan blames Kirk for the death of his wife and plans revenge. He implants Chekov and Terrell with indigenous creatures that enter the ears of their victims and render them susceptible to mind control, and uses the officers to capture the Reliant. Learning of Genesis, Khan attacks space station Regula I where the device is being developed by Kirk's former lover, Dr. Carol Marcus, and their son, David. \n\nThe Enterprise embarks on a three-week training voyage. Kirk assumes command after the ship receives a distress call from Regula I. En route, the Enterprise is ambushed and crippled by the Reliant, leading to the deaths and injuries of many trainees. Khan hails the Enterprise and offers to spare Kirk's crew if they relinquish all material related to Genesis. Kirk stalls for time and uses the Reliants prefix code to remotely lower its shields, allowing the Enterprise to counter-attack. Khan is forced to retreat and effect repairs, while the Enterprise limps to Regula I. Kirk, McCoy, and Saavik beam to the station and find Terrell and Chekov alive, along with slaughtered members of Marcus's team. They soon find Carol and David hiding deep inside the planetoid of Regula. Khan, having used Terrell and Chekov as spies, orders them to kill Kirk; Terrell resists the eel's influence and kills himself while Chekov collapses as the eel leaves his body. Khan then transports Genesis aboard the Reliant. Though Khan believes his foe stranded on Regula I, Kirk and Spock use a coded message to arrange a rendezvous. Kirk directs the Enterprise into the nearby Mutara Nebula; static discharges inside the nebula render shields useless and compromise targeting systems, making the Enterprise and the Reliant evenly matched. Spock notes however that Khan's tactics are two-dimensional, indicating inexperience in space combat, which Kirk then exploits to critically disable the Reliant.\n\nMortally wounded, Khan activates Genesis, which will reorganize all matter in the nebula including the Enterprise. Though Kirk's crew detects the activation of Genesis and attempts to move out of range, they will not be able to escape the nebula in time due to the ship's damaged warp drive. Spock goes to the engine room to restore the warp drive. When McCoy tries to prevent Spock's entry, as exposure to the high levels of radiation would be fatal, Spock incapacitates the doctor with a Vulcan nerve pinch and performs a mind meld, telling him to \"remember\". Spock successfully restores power to the warp drive and the Enterprise escapes the explosion, though at the cost of his life. The explosion of Genesis causes the gas in the nebula to reform into a new planet, capable of sustaining life.\n\nAfter being alerted by McCoy, Kirk arrives in the engine room and discovers Spock dying of radiation poisoning. The two share a meaningful exchange in which Spock urges Kirk not to grieve, as his decision to sacrifice his own life to save those of the ship's crew is a logical one, before succumbing to his injuries. A space burial is held in the Enterprise's torpedo room and Spock's coffin is shot into orbit around the new planet. The crew leaves to pick up the Reliants marooned crew from Ceti Alpha V. Spock's coffin, having soft-landed, rests on the Genesis planet's surface. \n\nCast\n\nWilliam Shatner as James T. Kirk\nA Starfleet Admiral and former commanding officer of the Enterprise. Kirk and Khan never confront each other face-to-face during the film. All of their interactions are over a viewscreen or through communicators and their scenes were filmed four months apart, although a draft script had Khan defeating Kirk in a swordfight. Meyer described Shatner as an actor who was naturally protective of his character and himself, and who performed better over multiple takes.\n\nRicardo Montalbán as Khan Noonien Singh\nA genetically enhanced superhuman who used his strength and intellect to briefly rule much of Earth in the 1990s. Montalbán said that he believed all good villains do villainous things, but think that they are acting for the \"right\" reasons; in this way, Khan uses his anger at the death of his wife to justify his pursuit of Kirk. The film was close to production approval when it occurred to the producers that no one had asked Montalbán whether he was interested in appearing in the film despite his character having been in the scripts for more than a year. Montalbán was unsure whether he could plausibly play Khan again after many years, especially given his current role of Mr. Roarke on Fantasy Island. Contrary to speculation that Montalbán used a prosthetic chest, no artificial devices were added to emphasize Montalbán's muscular physique, since even in his 60s and despite an increasingly painful back injury, stemming from being thrown off a horse in the 1950s, Montalbán had a vigorous workout routine. Montalbán enjoyed making the film, and counted the role as a career highlight. His major complaint was that he was never face-to-face with Shatner for a scene. \"I had to do my lines with the script girl, who, as you might imagine, sounded nothing like Bill [Shatner],\" he explained. \n\nLeonard Nimoy as Captain Spock\nNimoy had not intended to have a role in The Motion Pictures sequel, but was enticed back on the promise that his character would be given a dramatic death scene. Nimoy felt it was logical that as Wrath of Khan would be the final Star Trek film, having Spock \"go out in a blaze of glory\" would be an appropriate way to end the character.\n\nDeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy\nThe Enterprises chief medical officer and a close friend of Kirk and Spock. Kelley was dissatisfied with an earlier version of the script to the point that he considered not taking part. Kelley noted his character spoke many of the film's lighter lines, and felt that this role was essential in bringing a lighter side to the onscreen drama.\n\nWalter Koenig as Pavel Chekov\nThe Reliants first officer and a former Enterprise crewmember. During filming, Kelley noted that Chekov never met Khan in \"Space Seed\" (Koenig had not yet joined the cast), and thus Khan recognizing Chekov on Ceti Alpha did not make sense. Star Trek books have tried to rationalize this discrepancy; in the film's novelization by Vonda N. McIntyre, Chekov is \"an ensign assigned to the night watch\" during \"Space Seed\" and met Khan in an off-screen scene. The non-canonical novel To Reign in Hell: The Exile of Khan Noonien Singh explains the error by having Chekov escort Khan to the surface of Ceti Alpha after the events of the television episode. The real cause of the error was a simple oversight by the filmmakers. Meyer defended the mistake by noting that Arthur Conan Doyle made similar oversights in his Sherlock Holmes stories. Chekov's screaming while being infested by the Ceti eel led Koenig to jokingly dub the film Star Trek II: Chekov Screams Again, in reference to a similar screaming scene in The Motion Picture. Paul Winfield plays Reliant captain Clark Terrell; Meyer had seen Winfield's work in films such as Sounder and wanted to direct him. Meyer thought in retrospect that the Ceti eel scenes might have been corny, but felt that Winfield's performance helped add gravity.\n\nOther members of the Enterprise crew include chief engineer Montgomery Scott (James Doohan), helmsman Hikaru Sulu (George Takei), and communications officer Uhura (Nichelle Nichols). Nichols and Gene Roddenberry took issue with elements of the film, including the naval references and militaristic uniforms. Nichols also defended Roddenberry when the producers believed he was the source of script leaks. Takei had simply not wanted to reprise his role until Shatner persuaded him to return. Kelley felt that McCoy speaking his catchphrase \"he's dead, Jim\" during Spock's death scene would ruin the moment's seriousness, so Doohan delivers the line \"he's dead already\" to Kirk. Scott loses his young nephew following Khan's attacks on the Enterprise. The cadet, played by Ike Eisenmann, had many of his lines cut from the original theatrical release, including a scene where it is explained he is Scott's relative. These scenes were reintroduced when ABC aired The Wrath of Khan on television in 1985, and in the director's edition, making Scott's grief at the crewman's death more understandable. \n\nOther characters include Kirstie Alley as Saavik, Spock's protege and a Starfleet commander-in-training aboard the Enterprise. The movie was Alley's first feature film role. Saavik cries during Spock's funeral. Meyer said that during filming someone asked him, \"'Are you going to let her do that?' And I said, 'Yeah,' and they said, 'But Vulcans don't cry,' and I said, 'Well, that's what makes this such an interesting Vulcan.'\" The character's emotional outbursts can be partly explained by the fact that Saavik was described as of mixed Vulcan-Romulan heritage in the script, though no indication is given on film. Alley was so fond of her Vulcan ears that she would take them home with her at the end of each day. Bibi Besch plays Carol Marcus, the lead scientist working on Project Genesis, and the mother of Kirk's son, David (played by Merritt Butrick). Meyer was looking for an actress who looked beautiful enough that it was plausible a womanizer such as Kirk would fall for her, yet who could also project a sense of intelligence. Meyer liked that Butrick's hair was blond like Besch's and curly like Shatner's, making him a plausible son of the two. John Winston reprises his series role as Kyle, the Enterprise transporter chief.\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nAfter the release of The Motion Picture, executive producer Gene Roddenberry wrote his own sequel. In his plot, the crew of the Enterprise travel back in time to set right a corrupted time line after Klingons use the Guardian of Forever to prevent the assassination of John F. Kennedy. This was rejected by Paramount executives, who blamed the poor performance and large budget ($46 million) of the first movie on its plodding pace and the constant rewrites Roddenberry demanded. As a consequence, Roddenberry was removed from the production and, according to Shatner, \"kicked upstairs\" to the ceremonial position of executive consultant. Harve Bennett, a new Paramount television producer, was made producer for the next Star Trek film. According to Bennett, he was called in front of a group including Jeffrey Katzenberg and Michael Eisner and asked if he thought he could make a better film than The Motion Picture, which Bennett confessed he found \"really boring\". When Bennett replied in the affirmative, Charles Bluhdorn asked, \"Can you make it for less than forty-five-fucking-million-dollars?\" Bennett replied that \"Where I come from, I can make five movies for that.\" \n\nBennett realized he faced a serious challenge in developing the new Star Trek movie, partly due to his never having seen the television show. To compensate, Bennett watched all the original episodes. This immersion convinced Bennett that what the first movie lacked was a real villain; after seeing the episode \"Space Seed\", he decided that the character of Khan Noonien Singh was the perfect enemy for the new film. Before the script was settled upon, Bennett gathered his production staff. He selected Robert Sallin, a director of television commercials and a college friend, to produce the film. Sallin's job would be to produce Star Trek II quickly and cheaply. Bennett also hired Michael Minor as art director to shape the direction of the film.\n\nBennett wrote his first film treatment in November 1980. In his version, entitled The War of the Generations, Kirk investigates a rebellion on a distant world and discovers that his son is the leader of the rebels. Khan is the mastermind behind the plot, and Kirk and son join forces to defeat the tyrant. Bennett then hired Jack B. Sowards, an avid Star Trek fan, to turn his outline into a film-able script. Sowards wrote an initial script before a writer's strike in 1981. Sowards' draft, The Omega Syndrome, involved the theft of the Federation's ultimate weapon, the \"Omega system\". Sowards was concerned that his weapon was too negative, and Bennett wanted something more uplifting \"and as fundamental in the 23rd century as recombinant DNA is in our time\", Minor recalled. Minor suggested to Bennett that the device be turned into a terraforming tool instead. At the story conference the next day, Bennett hugged Minor and declared that he had saved Star Trek. In recognition of the Biblical power of the weapon, Sowards renamed the \"Omega system\" to the \"Genesis Device\".\n\nBy April 1981, Sowards had produced a draft that moved Spock's death to later in the story, because of fan dissatisfaction to the event after the script was leaked. Spock had originally died in the first act, in a shocking demise that Bennett compared to Janet Leigh's early death in Psycho. This draft had a twelve-page face-to-face confrontation between Kirk and Khan. Sowards' draft also introduced a male character named Saavik. As pre-production began, Samuel A. Peeples, writer of the Star Trek episode \"Where No Man Has Gone Before\", was invited to offer his own script. Peeples' draft replaced Khan with two new villains named Sojin and Moray; the alien beings are so powerful they almost destroy Earth by mistake. This script was considered inadequate; the aliens resembled too closely the villains on a typical TOS episode. Deadlines loomed for special effects production to begin (which required detailed storyboards based on a completed script), and by this point there was no finished script to use.\n\nKaren Moore, a Paramount executive, suggested to Bennett that Nicholas Meyer, writer of The Seven-Per-Cent Solution and director of Time After Time, could help resolve the screenplay issues. Meyer had also never seen an episode of Star Trek. He had the idea of making a list consisting of everything that the creative team had liked from the preceding drafts—\"it could be a character, it could be a scene, it could be a plot, it could be a subplot, [...] it could be a line of dialogue\"—so that he could use that list as the basis of a new screenplay made from all the best aspects of the previous ones. To offset fan expectation that Spock would die, Meyer had the character \"killed\" in the Kobayashi Maru simulator in the opening scene. The effects company required a completed script in just 12 days. Meyer wrote the screenplay uncredited and for no pay before the deadline, surprising the actors and producers, and rapidly produced subsequent rewrites as necessary. One draft, for example, had a baby in Khan's group, who is killed with the others in the Genesis detonation. Meyer later said:\n\nMeyer described his script as \"'Hornblower' in outer space\", utilizing nautical references and a swashbuckling atmosphere. (Hornblower was an inspiration to Roddenberry and Shatner when making the show, although Meyer was unaware of this.) Sallin was impressed with Meyer's vision for the film: \"His ideas brought dimension that broadened the scope of the material as we were working on it.\" Gene Roddenberry disagreed with the script's naval texture and Khan's Captain Ahab undertones, but was mostly ignored by the creative team. \n\nDesign\n\nMeyer attempted to change the look of Star Trek to match the nautical atmosphere he envisioned and stay within budget. The Enterprise, for example, was given a ship's bell, boatswain's call, and more blinking lights and signage. To save money on set design, production designer Joseph Jennings used existing elements from The Motion Picture that had been left standing after filming was completed. Sixty-five percent of the film was shot on the same set; the bridge of the Reliant and the \"bridge simulator\" from the opening scene were redresses of the Enterprises bridge. The Klingon bridge from The Motion Picture was redressed as the transporter and torpedo rooms. The filmmakers stretched The Wrath of Khans budget by reusing models and footage from the first Star Trek film, including footage of the Enterprise in spacedock. The original ship miniatures were used where possible, or modified to stand in as new constructions. The orbital office complex from The Motion Picture was inverted and retouched to become the Regula I space station. Elements of the cancelled Star Trek: Phase II television show, such as bulkheads, railings, and sets, were cannibalized and reused. A major concern for the designers was that the Reliant should be easily distinguishable from the Enterprise. The ship's design was flipped after Bennett accidentally opened and approved the preliminary Reliant designs upside-down.\n\nDesigner Robert Fletcher was brought in to redesign existing costumes and create new ones. Fletcher decided on a scheme of \"corrupt colors\", using materials with colors slightly off from the pure color. \"They're not colors you see today, so in a subtle way their indicate another time.\" Meyer did not like the Starfleet uniforms from either the television series or The Motion Picture and wanted them changed, but for budgetary reasons they could not be discarded entirely. Dye tests of the fabric showed that the old uniforms took three colors well: blue-gray, gold, and dark red. Fletcher decided to use the dark red due to the strong contrast it provided with the background. The resulting naval-inspired designs would be used in Star Trek films until 1996's First Contact. The first versions of the uniforms had stiff black collars, but Sallin suggested changing it to a turtleneck, using a form of vertical quilting called trapunto. The method creates a bas-relief effect to the material by stuffing the outlined areas with soft thread shot via air pressure through a hollow needle. By the time of The Wrath of Khans production, the machines and needles needed to produce trapunto were rare, and Fletcher was only able to find one needle for the wardrobe department. The crew was so worried about losing or breaking the needle that one of the department's workers took it home with him as a security measure, leading Fletcher to think it had been stolen.\n\nFor Khan and his followers, Fletcher created a strong contrast with the highly organized Starfleet uniforms; his idea was that the exiles' costumes were made out of whatever they could find. Fletcher said, \"My intention with Khan was to express the fact that they had been marooned on that planet with no technical infrastructure, so they had to cannibalize from the spaceship whatever they used or wore. Therefore, I tried to make it look as if they had dressed themselves out of pieces of upholstery and electrical equipment that composed the ship.\" Khan's costume was designed with an open chest to show Ricardo Montalbán's physique. Fletcher also designed smocks for the Regula I scientists, and civilian clothes for Kirk and McCoy that were designed to look practical and comfortable.\n\nMeyer had a \"No Smoking\" sign added to the Enterprises bridge, which he recalled \"Everyone had a fit over [...] I said 'Why have they stopped smoking in the future? They've been smoking for four hundred years, you think it's going to stop in the next two?\" The sign appeared in the first shot of the film, but was removed for all others appearing in the final cut of the film.\n\nFilming\n\nPrincipal photography began on November 9, 1981, and ended on January 29, 1982. The Wrath of Khan was more action-oriented than its predecessor, but less costly to make. The project was supervised by Paramount's television unit rather than its theatrical division. Bennett, a respected television veteran, made The Wrath of Khan on a budget of $11 million—far less than The Motion Pictures $46 million. The budget was initially lower at $8.5 million, but it rose when the producers were impressed by the first two weeks of footage. Meyer used camera and set tricks to spare the construction of large and expensive sets. For a scene taking place at Starfleet Academy, a forced perspective was created by placing scenery close to the camera to give the sense the set was larger than it really was. To present the illusion that the Enterprises elevators moved between decks, corridor pieces were wheeled out of sight to change the hall configuration while the lift doors were closed. Background equipment such as computer terminals were rented when possible instead of purchased outright. Some designed props, such as a redesigned phaser and communicator, were vetoed by Paramount executives in favor of existing materials from The Motion Picture.\n\nThe Enterprise was refurbished for its space shots, with its shiny exterior dulled down and extra detail added to the frame. Compared to the newly built Reliant, the Enterprise was hated by the effects artists and cameramen; it took eight people to mount the model, and a forklift truck to move it. The Reliant, meanwhile, was lighter and had less complex internal wiring. The ships were filmed on a blue screen with special film that does not register the color; the resulting shots could be added to effects shots or other footage. Any reflection of blue on the ship's hull would appear as a hole on the film; the gaps had to be patched frame by frame for the final film. The same camera used to film Star Wars, the Dykstraflex, was used for shots of the Enterprise and other ships.\n\nThe barren desert surface of Ceti Alpha V was simulated on stage 8, the largest sound stage at Paramount's studio. The set was elevated 25 feet off the ground and covered in wooden mats, over which tons of colored sand and powder were dumped. A cyclorama was painted and wrapped around the set, while massive industrial fans created a sandstorm. The filming was uncomfortable for actors and crew alike. The spandex environmental suits Koenig and Winfield wore were unventilated, and the actors had to signal by microphone when they needed air. Filming equipment was wrapped in plastic to prevent mechanical troubles and everyone on set wore boots, masks, and coveralls as protection from flying sand.\n\nSpock's death was shot over three days, during which no visitors were allowed on set. Spock's death was to be irrevocable, but Nimoy had such a positive experience during filming that he asked if he could add a way for Spock to return in a later film. The mind meld sequence was initially filmed without Kelley's prior knowledge of what was going on. Shatner disagreed with having a clear glass separation between Spock and Kirk during the death scene; he instead wanted a translucent divider allowing viewers to see only Spock's silhouette, but his objection was overruled. During Spock's funeral sequence Meyer wanted the camera to track the torpedo that served as Spock's coffin as it was placed in a long trough and slid into the launcher. The camera crew thought the entire set would have to be rebuilt to accommodate the shot, but Sallin suggested putting a dolly into the trough and controlling it from above with an offset arm. Scott's rendition of \"Amazing Grace\" on the bagpipes was James Doohan's idea. Kathleen Nicholson Graham recorded the bagpipes music at Paramount Studio with the orchestra. \n\nSpock's death in the film was widely reported during production. \"Trekkies\" wrote letters to protest, one paid for trade press advertisements urging Paramount to change the plot, and Nimoy even received death threats. Test audiences reacted badly to Spock's death and the film's ending's dark tone, so it was made more uplifting by Bennett. The scene of Spock's casket on the planet and Nimoy's closing monologue were added; Meyer objected, but did not stand in the way of the modifications. Nimoy did not know about the scene until he saw the film, but before it opened, the media reassured fans that \"Spock will live\" again. Due to time constraints, the casket scene was filmed in an overgrown corner of San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, using smoke machines to add a primal atmosphere. The shoot lasted from midday to evening, as the team was well aware there would be no time for reshoots. \n\nSpecial consideration was given during filming to allow for integration of the planned special effects. Television monitors standing in for computer displays were specially calibrated so that their refresh rate did not result in banding on film. Due to a loss of resolution and quality resulting from rephotographing an element in an optical printer, live action sequences for effects were shot in 65mm or VistaVision formats to compensate. When the larger prints were reduced through an anamorphic lens on the printer, the result was a Panavision composite. \n\nEffects\n\nWith a short timeframe to complete The Wrath of Khans special effects sequences, effects supervisor Jim Veilleux, Meyer, Jennings, Sallin, and Minor worked to transform the written ideas for the script into concrete storyboards and visuals. The detailed sequences were essential to keep the film's effects from spiraling out of control and driving up costs, as had occurred with The Motion Picture. Each special and optical effect, and the duration of the sequences, was listed. By the end of six weeks, the producers determined the basic look and construction of nearly all the effects; the resulting shots were combined with film footage five months later. Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) produced many of the effects, and created the new models; the Reliant was the first non-Constitution-class Federation starship seen in the series. Originally, the Reliant was supposed to be a Constitution-class starship identical to the Enterprise, but it was felt audiences would have difficulty distinguishing between the two ships. As the script called for the Reliant and Enterprise to inflict significant damage on each other, ILM developed techniques to illustrate the damage without physically harming the models. Rather than move the models on a bluescreen during shooting, the VistaVision camera was panned and tracked to give the illusion of movement. Damage to the Enterprise was cosmetic, and simulated with pieces of aluminum that were colored or peeled off. Phaser damage was created using stop motion. The script called for large-scale damage to the Reliant, so larger versions of the ship's model were created to be blown up.\n\nThe battle in the nebula was a difficult sequence to accomplish without the aid of computer-generated models. The swirling nebula was created by injecting a latex rubber and ammonia mixture into a cloud tank filled with fresh and salt water. All the footage was shot at two frames per second to give the illusion of faster movement. The vibrant abstract colors of the nebula were simulated by lighting the tank using colored gels. Additional light effects such as auroras were created by the ILM animation department. Using matte work, the ships were physically stuck on a background plate to complete the shot. The destruction of the Reliants engine nacelle was created by superimposing shots of the engine blowing apart and explosions over the model.\n\nThe scene in which Terrell kills Jedda, a Regula scientist, by vaporizing him with a phaser was filmed in two takes. Winfield and the related actors first played out the scene; this footage became the background plate. A blue screen was wheeled onto the set and actor John Vargas, the recipient of the phaser blast, acted out his response to being hit with the energy weapon. A phaser beam element was placed on top of the background plate, and Vargas' shots were optically dissolved into an airbrushed disintegration effect which matched Vargas' position in every frame.\n\nThe Ceti eel shots used several models, overseen by visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston, who had just finished creature design for Return of the Jedi. He tied a string to the eels to inch the models across the actors' faces before they entered the ear canal. The scene of a more mature eel's leaving Chekov's ear was simulated by threading a microfilament through the floor of the set up to Koenig's ear. The scene was filmed with three variations, which Ralston described as \"a dry shot, one with some blood, and the Fangoria shot, with a lot of gore.\" Footage of a giant model of Koenig's ear was discarded from the theatrical release due to the visceral reaction it elicited in test audiences.\n\nAdditional optical effects were provided by Visual Concept Engineering (VCE), a small effects company headed by Peter Kuran; Kuran had previously worked at ILM and left after finishing The Empire Strikes Back. VCE provided effects including phaser beams, the Enterprise reactor, additional sand on Ceti Alpha V, and an updated transporter effect. Meyer and the production staff were adamant about not using freeze frames for the transporter, as had been done in the original television series. Scenes were shot so that conversations would continue while characters were in mid-transport, although much of the matte work VCE created was discarded when the production decided not to have as much action during transports.\n\nThe Wrath of Khan was one of the first films to extensively use electronic images and computer graphics to speed production of shots. Computer graphics company Evans & Sutherland produced the vector graphics displays aboard the Enterprise and the fields of stars used in the opening credits. Among ILM's technical achievements was cinema's first entirely computer-generated sequence: the demonstration of the effects of the Genesis Device on a barren planet. The first concept for the shot took the form of a laboratory demonstration, where a rock would be placed in a chamber and turned into a flower. Veilleux suggested the sequence's scope be expanded to show the Genesis effect taking over a planet. While Paramount appreciated the more dramatic presentation, they also wanted the simulation to be more impressive than traditional animation. Having seen research done by Lucasfilm's Computer Graphics group, Veilleux offered them the task. The graphics team paid attention to detail for the sixty-second sequence; one artist ensured that the stars visible in the background matched those visible from a real star light-years from Earth. The animators hoped it would serve as a \"commercial\" for the studio's talents. The studio would later branch off from Lucasfilm to form Pixar.\n\nMusic\n\nJerry Goldsmith had composed the music for The Motion Picture, but was not an option for The Wrath of Khan given the reduced budget; Meyer's composer for Time After Time, Miklós Rózsa, was likewise prohibitively expensive. Bennett and Meyer wanted the music for the film to go in a different direction, but had not decided on a composer by the time filming began. Meyer initially hoped to hire an associate named John Morgan, but Morgan lacked film experience, which would have troubled the studio. \n\nParamount's vice-president of music Joel Sill took a liking to a 28-year-old composer named James Horner, feeling that his demo tapes stood out from generic film music. Horner was introduced to Bennett, Meyer and Salin. Horner said that \"[The producers] did not want the kind of score they had gotten before. They did not want a John Williams score, per se. They wanted something different, more modern.\" When asked about how he landed the assignment, the composer replied that \"the producers loved my work for Wolfen, and had heard my music for several other projects, and I think, so far as I've been told, they liked my versatility very much. I wanted the assignment, and I met with them, we all got along well, they were impressed with my music, and that's how it happened.\" Horner agreed with the producers' expectations and agreed to begin work in mid-January 1982.\n\nIn keeping with the nautical tone, Meyer wanted music evocative of seafaring and swashbuckling, and the director and composer worked together closely, becoming friends in the process. As a classical music fan, Meyer was able to describe the effects and sounds he wanted in the music. While Horner's style was described as \"echoing both the bombastic and elegiac elements of John Williams' Star Wars and Goldsmith's original Star Trek (The Motion Picture) scores,\" Horner was expressly told to not use any of Goldsmith's score. Instead Horner adapted the opening fanfare of Alexander Courage's Star Trek television theme. \"The fanfare draws you in immediately — you know you're going to get a good movie,\" Horner said. \n\nIn comparison to the flowing main theme, Khan's leitmotif was designed as a percussive texture that could be overlaid with other music and emphasized the character's insanity. The seven-note brass theme was echoplexed to emphasize the character's ruminations about the past while on Ceti Alpha V, but does not play fully until Reliants attack on the Enterprise. Many elements drew from Horner's previous work (a rhythm that accompanies Khan's theme during the surprise attack borrows from an attack theme from Wolfen, in turn influenced by Goldsmith's score for Alien). Musical moments from the original television series are also heard during investigation of the Regula space station and elsewhere. \n\nTo Horner, the \"stuff underneath\" the main story was what needed to be addressed by the score; in The Wrath of Khan, this was the relationship between Kirk and Spock. The main theme serves as Kirk's theme, with a mellower section following that is the theme for the Starship Enterprise. Horner also wrote a motif for Spock, to emphasize the character's depth: \"By putting a theme over Spock, it warms him and he becomes three-dimensional rather than a collection of schticks.\" The difference in the short, French horn-based cues for the villain and longer melodies for the heroes helped to differentiate characters and ships during the battle sequences.\n\nThe soundtrack was Horner's first major film score, and was written in four and a half weeks. The resulting 72 minutes of music was then performed by a 91-piece orchestra. Recording sessions for the score began on April 12, 1982 at the Warner Bros. lot, The Burbank Studios and continued until April 15. A pickup session was held on April 30 to record music for the Mutara nebula battle, while another session held on May 3 was used to cover the recently changed epilogue. Horner used synthesizers for ancillary effects; at the time, science fiction films such as E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and The Thing were eschewing the synthesizer in favor of more traditional orchestras. Craig Huxley performed his invented instrument—the Blaster Beam—during recording, as well as composing and performing electronic music for the Genesis Project video. While most of the film was \"locked in\" by the time Horner had begun composing music, he had to change musical cue orchestration after the integration of special effects caused changes in scene durations.\n\nThemes\n\nThe Wrath of Khan features several recurring themes, including death, resurrection, and growing old. Upon writing his script, Meyer hit upon a link between Spock's death and the age of the characters. \"This was going to be a story in which Spock died, so it was going to be a story about death, and it was only a short hop, skip, and a jump to realize that it was going to be about old age and friendship,\" Meyer said. \"I don't think that any of [the other preliminary] scripts were about old age, friendship, and death.\" In keeping with the theme of death and rebirth symbolized by Spock's sacrifice and the Genesis Device, Meyer wanted to call the film The Undiscovered Country, in reference to Prince Hamlet's description of death in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, but the title was changed during editing without his knowledge. Meyer disliked Wrath of Khan, but it was chosen because the preferred Vengeance of Khan conflicted with Lucasfilm's forthcoming Revenge of the Jedi (renamed Return of the Jedi late in production). \n\nThe Wrath of Khan follows in a long tradition of films in which the adventurer or explorer must undergo a figurative or literal death to start anew. Spock is Kirk's doppelgänger and together they represent a bifurcated hero, with the two characters representing dueling halves of the human condition. Spock represents the supernatural ideal of a completely logical and infallible person, while Kirk represents the impassioned and human reality, prone to error and at odds with himself. Spock's sacrifice at the end of the film allows for Kirk's spiritual rebirth in the tradition of the death-rebirth cycle. After commenting earlier that he feels old and worn out, Kirk states in the final scene that \"I feel young.\" The Kobayashi Maru test forces its participants to confront an unwinnable situation which serves as a test of character, but Kirk reveals that he won the test by cheating; Saavik responds that Kirk has never faced death. Spock's own solution to the no-win scenario, that of self-sacrifice, forces Kirk to confront death after continually cheating it, and to grow as a character. Sight and sound reinforce the themes of death and aging, as well as the promise of rebirth; Spock is the first character seen and his voice is the last heard, and his coffin follows the same trajectory towards the new planet as the Genesis Device does in a video lecture earlier in the film. The principle of sacrificing the needs of the one for those of the many was translated to modern triage via the 'Spock principle'. \n\nMeyer added elements to reinforce the aging of the characters. Kirk's unhappiness about his birthday is compounded by McCoy's gift of reading glasses. The script stated that Kirk was 49, but Shatner was unsure about being specific about Kirk's age. Bennett remembers that Shatner was hesitant about portraying a middle-aged version of himself, and believed that with proper makeup he could continue playing a younger Kirk. Bennett convinced Shatner that he could age gracefully like Spencer Tracy; the producer did not know that Shatner had worked with Tracy on Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), and was fond of the actor. Meyer made sure to emphasize Kirk's parallel to Sherlock Holmes in that both characters waste away in the absence of their stimuli; new cases, in Holmes' case, and starship adventures in Kirk's.\n\nKhan's pursuit of Kirk is central to the film's theme of vengeance, and The Wrath of Khan deliberately borrows heavily from Herman Melville's Moby-Dick. To make the parallels clear to viewers, Meyer added a visible copy of Moby-Dick to Khan's dwelling. Khan liberally paraphrases Ahab, with \"I'll chase him round the moons of Nibia and round the Antares maelstrom and round perdition's flames before I give him up!\". Khan also quotes Ahab's tirade at the end of the novel verbatim with his final lines: \"to the last I grapple with thee; from Hell's heart I stab at thee; for hate's sake, I spit my last breath at thee.\" Kirk represents both the restless elements of Ishmael as well as the titular white whale of Melville's novel; Khan's blind pursuit of Kirk mirrors Captain Ahab's obsession with Moby-Dick. Both Khan and Ahab pursue their quarry against the better judgment of their crew, and end up killing themselves in an effort to take their foe with them. University of Northern Colorado professor Jane Wall Hinds argues that the themes of The Wrath of Khan clash with the optimistic and transcendentalist perspectives of the original series and The Next Generation. Moby Dicks themes of vengeance would later heavily influence Star Trek: First Contact. \n\nReception\n\nRelease\n\nThe Wrath of Khan opened on June 4, 1982 in 1,621 theaters in the United States. It made $14,347,221 in its opening weekend, at the time the largest opening weekend gross in history. It went on to earn $78,912,963 in the US, becoming the sixth highest-grossing film of 1982. It made $97,000,000 worldwide. Although the total gross of The Wrath of Khan was less than that of The Motion Picture, it was more profitable due to its lower production cost. The film's novelization, written by Vonda N. McIntyre, stayed on the New York Times paperback bestsellers list for more than three weeks. Unlike the previous film, Wrath of Khan was not promoted with a toy line, although Playmates Toys created Khan and Saavik figures in the 1990s, and in 2007 Art Asylum crafted a full series of action figures to mark the film's 25th anniversary. In 2009 IDW Publishing released a comic adaptation of the film, and Film Score Monthly released an expanded score. \n\nCritical response\n\nCritical response was positive. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 88% of selected critics have given the film a positive review based on a sample of 49. After the lukewarm reaction to the first film, fan response to The Wrath of Khan was highly positive. The film's success was credited with renewing interest in the franchise. Mark Bernardin of Entertainment Weekly went further, calling The Wrath of Khan \"the film that, by most accounts, saved Star Trek as we know it\"; it is now considered one of the best films in the series. \n\nThe film's pacing was praised by reviewers in The New York Times and The Washington Post as being much swifter than its predecessor and closer to that of the television series. Janet Maslin of The New York Times credited the film with a stronger story than The Motion Picture and stated the sequel was everything the first film should have been. Variety agreed that The Wrath of Khan was closer to the original spirit of Star Trek than its predecessor. Strong character interaction was cited as a strong feature of the film, as was Montalbán's portrayal of Khan. In 2016, Playboy ranked the film number four on its list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals. \n\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times and Derek Adams of Time Out complained about what were seen as tepid battle sequences, and perceived melodrama. While Ebert and TV Guide felt that Spock's death was dramatic and well-handled, The Washington Posts Gary Arnold stated Spock's death \"feels like an unnecessary twist, and the filmmakers are obviously well-prepared to fudge in case the public demands another sequel.\" Negative reviews of the film also focused on the acting, and Empire singled out the \"dodgy coiffures\" and \"Santa Claus tunics\" as elements of the film that had not aged well. \n\nThe Wrath of Khan won two Saturn Awards in 1982, for best actor (Shatner) and best direction (Meyer). The film was also nominated in the \"best dramatic presentation\" category for the 1983 Hugo Awards, but lost to Blade Runner. The Wrath of Khan has influenced later movies: Meyer's rejected title for the film, The Undiscovered Country, was finally put to use when Meyer directed the sixth film, which retained the nautical influences. Director Bryan Singer cited the film as an influence on X2 and his abandoned sequel to Superman Returns. The film is also a favorite of director J. J. Abrams, producer Damon Lindelof and writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman, the creative team behind the franchise relaunch film Star Trek. \n\nAmerican Film Institute recognition:\n AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills - Nominated \n* AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains:\n** Khan Noonien Singh - Nominated Villain \n* AFI's 10 Top 10 - Nominated Science Fiction Film \n\nHome media\n\nParamount released The Wrath of Khan on VHS and Beta in 1983. The studio sold the VHS for $39.95, $40 below contemporary movie cassette prices. It needed to sell 60,000 tapes to make the film as profitable as other tapes, but sold 120,000. The successful experiment was credited with instigating more competitive VHS pricing, an increase in the adoption of increasingly cheaper VHS players, and an industry-wide move away from rentals to sales as the bulk of videotape revenue. \n\nParamount released The Wrath of Khan on DVD in 2000; no special features were included on the disc. Montalbán drew hundreds of fans of the film to Universal City, California where he signed copies of the DVD to commemorate its release. In August 2002, the film was re-released in a highly anticipated two-disc \"Director's Edition\" format. In addition to remastered picture quality and 5.1 Dolby surround sound, the DVD set included director commentary, cast interviews, storyboards and the theatrical trailer. The expanded cut of the film was given a Hollywood premiere before the release of the DVD. Meyer stated that he didn't believe directors' cuts of films were necessarily better than the original but that the re-release gave him a chance to add elements that had been removed from the theatrical release by Paramount. The four hours of bonus content and expanded director's cut were favorably received. \n\nThe film's original theatrical cut was released on Blu-ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the new Star Trek feature, along with the other five films featuring the original crew in Star Trek: Original Motion Picture Collection. Of all six original films, Wrath of Khan was the only one to be remastered in 1080p high-definition from the original negative. Nicholas Meyer stated that the Wrath of Khan negative \"was in terrible shape,\" which is why it needed extensive restoration. All six films in the set have new 7.1 Dolby TrueHD audio. The disc also features a new commentary track by director Nicholas Meyer and Star Trek: Enterprise showrunner Manny Coto. On April 24, 2016, Paramount Pictures announced the Director's Edition of the film would be released for Blu-ray Disc on June 7, 2016." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "II", "2", "two" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "2", "ii", "two" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "ii", "type": "Numerical", "value": "II" }
Which King did Leonardo Di Caprio play in The Man in the Iron Mask?	tc_1103	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Leonardo_DiCaprio.txt", "The_Man_in_the_Iron_Mask_(1998_film).txt" ], "title": [ "Leonardo DiCaprio", "The Man in the Iron Mask (1998 film)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio (; born November 11, 1974) is an American actor and a film producer.\n\nIn the early 1990s, DiCaprio began his career by appearing in television commercials, after which he had recurring roles in various television series such as the soap opera, Santa Barbara, and the sitcom, Growing Pains. In 1993, he began his film career by starring as Josh in Critters 3 (1991). He starred in the film adaptation of the memoir, This Boy's Life (1993), and was praised for his supporting role in What's Eating Gilbert Grape (1993). He gained public recognition with leading roles in The Basketball Diaries (1995), and the romantic drama Romeo + Juliet (1996), before achieving international fame with James Cameron's epic romance, Titanic (1997), which became the highest-grossing film to that point.\n\nSince 2000, DiCaprio has received critical acclaim for his work in a wide range of film genres. DiCaprio's subsequent films include, The Man in the Iron Mask (1998), the biographical crime drama Catch Me If You Can (2002), and the epic historical drama Gangs of New York (2002), which marked his first of many collaborations with director, Martin Scorsese. He was acclaimed for his performances in the political war thriller Blood Diamond (2006), the neo-noir crime drama The Departed (2006), the espionage thriller Body of Lies (2008), the drama Revolutionary Road (2008), the psychological thriller Shutter Island (2010), the science fiction thriller Inception (2010), the biographical film J. Edgar (2011), the western Django Unchained (2012), and the period drama The Great Gatsby (2013).\n\nDiCaprio's portrayals of Howard Hughes in The Aviator (2004) and Hugh Glass in The Revenant (2015) won him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama, and his role as Jordan Belfort in The Wolf of Wall Street (2013) won him the award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. He won his first BAFTA award for Best Actor for The Revenant. He has been nominated for six Academy Awards—five for acting and one for producing—and in 2016, he won the Academy Award for Best Actor for The Revenant.\n\nDiCaprio is the founder of his own production company, Appian Way Productions.\n\nEarly life \n\nDiCaprio was born in Hollywood, California, the\nonly child of Irmelin (née Indenbirken), a German-born legal secretary, and George DiCaprio, an underground comics artist and producer and distributor of comic books. DiCaprio's father is of half Italian (from the Naples area) and half German (from Bavaria) descent. DiCaprio's maternal grandfather, Wilhelm Indenbirken, was German. His maternal grandmother, Helene Indenbirken (1915–2008), a German citizen, was born as Yelena Smirnova in Russia. In an interview in Russia, DiCaprio referred to himself as \"half Russian\" and said that two of his late grandparents were Russians. \n\nDiCaprio's parents met while attending college and subsequently moved to Los Angeles. He was named Leonardo because his pregnant mother was looking at a Leonardo da Vinci painting in a museum in Italy when DiCaprio first kicked. His parents separated when he was a year old, and he lived mostly with his mother. The two lived in several Los Angeles neighborhoods, such as Echo Park, and at 1874 Hillhurst Avenue in the Los Feliz district (which was later converted into a local public library), while his mother worked several jobs to support them. He attended Seeds Elementary School (now UCLA Lab School) and John Marshall High School a few blocks away, after attending the Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies for four years. However, he dropped out of high school following his third year, eventually earning his general equivalency diploma (GED). DiCaprio spent part of his childhood in Germany with his maternal grandparents, Wilhelm and Helene. He speaks a little German and Italian. \n\nCareer \n\nEarly career \n\nDiCaprio's career began with his appearance in several commercials and educational films. After being removed from the set of children's television series Romper Room for being disruptive at the age of five, he followed his older stepbrother Adam Farrar into television commercials, landing an ad for Matchbox cars at 14. In 1990, he got his break on television when he was cast in the short-lived series based on the movie Parenthood. After Parenthood, DiCaprio had bit parts on several shows, including The New Lassie and Roseanne, as well as a brief stint on the soap opera Santa Barbara, playing the young Mason Capwell. His involvement in Parenthood and the daily soap earned him a nomination for the Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor each. \n\n1991–95: Breaking into film \n\nDiCaprio's debut film role was in the comedic sci-fi horror film Critters 3, in which he played the stepson of an evil landlord, a role that DiCaprio described as \"your average, no-depth, standard kid with blond hair.\" Released in 1991, the movie went direct-to-video. Soon after, he became a recurring cast member on the ABC sitcom Growing Pains, playing Luke Brower, a homeless boy who is taken in by the Seaver family. DiCaprio made his big screen breakthrough in 1992, when he was handpicked by Robert De Niro out of 400 young actors to play the lead role in This Boy's Life.\n\nLater in 1993, DiCaprio co-starred as the mentally handicapped brother of Johnny Depp's character in What's Eating Gilbert Grape, a comic-tragic odyssey of a dysfunctional Iowa family. Director Lasse Hallström admitted he was initially looking for a less good-looking actor but finally settled on DiCaprio as he had emerged as \"the most observant actor\" among all auditionees. Budgeted at US$11 million, the film became a critical success, resulting in various accolades for DiCaprio, who was awarded the National Board of Review Award and nominated for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe for his portrayal. New York Times critic Janet Maslin praised DiCaprio's performance, writing \"the film's real show-stopping turn comes from Mr. DiCaprio, who makes Arnie's many tics so startling and vivid that at first he is difficult to watch. The performance has a sharp, desperate intensity from beginning to end.\" \n\nDiCaprio's first effort of 1995 was Sam Raimi's The Quick and the Dead, a western film. Sony Pictures was dubious over DiCaprio's casting, and as a result, co-star Sharon Stone decided to pay the actor's salary herself.Muir, pp. 171–179 The film was released to a dismal box office performance, barely grossing US$18.5 million in the US, and received mixed reviews from critics. DiCaprio next starred in Total Eclipse, a fictionalized account of the homosexual relationship between Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine. He replaced River Phoenix, who died during pre-production on the project. A minor art-house success, the film grossed US$0.34 million throughout its domestic theatrical run. \n\nDiCaprio appeared in the mostly improvised short film called Don's Plum, as a favor to aspiring director R. D. Robb. When Robb decided to expand the black-and-white film to feature length, however, DiCaprio and costar Tobey Maguire had its release blocked by court order, arguing that they never intended to make it a theatrical release, as it would have commercial value thanks to their stardom. The film eventually premiered at the 2001 Berlin International Film Festival, where it was well received by critics. DiCaprio's last film of the year 1995 was The Basketball Diaries, a biopic about Jim Carroll. \n\n1996–2001: Mainstream success \n\nIn 1996, DiCaprio appeared opposite Claire Danes in Baz Luhrmann's film Romeo + Juliet, an abridged modernization of William Shakespeare's romantic tragedy of the same name, which retained the original Shakespearean dialogue. The project achieved a worldwide box office take of $147 million. \n\nLater that year, he starred in Jerry Zaks' family drama Marvin's Room, reuniting with Robert De Niro. Based on Scott McPherson's screenplay adaptation of his own 1991 stage play of the same name, the film revolves around two sisters, played by Meryl Streep and Diane Keaton, who are reunited through tragedy after 17 years of estrangement. DiCaprio portrayed Hank, Streep's character's troubled son, who has been committed to a mental asylum for setting fire to his mother's house. \n\nIn 1997, DiCaprio starred in James Cameron's Titanic (1997) as twenty-year-old Jack Dawson, a penniless Wisconsin man who wins two tickets for the third-class on the ill-fated RMS Titanic. DiCaprio initially refused to portray the character but was eventually encouraged to pursue the role by Cameron, who strongly believed in his acting ability. Against expectations, the film went on to become the highest-grossing film to date (it was surpassed in 2010 by Cameron's film Avatar), grossing more than $1.843 billion in box-office receipts worldwide, and transformed DiCaprio into a commercial movie superstar, resulting in fan worship among teenage girls and young women in general that became known as \"Leo-Mania\". In May 1998, for example, his face appeared on the covers of at least four teen magazines, and three books about DiCaprio were among the top six paperbacks on The New York Times Best Seller List. More than 200 fans contacted the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to protest his not being nominated for the 70th Academy Awards. He was nominated for other high-profile awards, including a second Golden Globe nomination. Upon the success of Titanic, DiCaprio stated in 2000: \"I have no connection with me during that whole Titanic phenomenon and what my face became around the world [...] I'll never reach that state of popularity again, and I don't expect to. It's not something I'm going to try to achieve either.\" \n\nThe following year, DiCaprio made a self-mocking cameo appearance in Woody Allen's caustic satire of the fame industry, Celebrity (1998). That year, he also starred in the dual roles of the villainous King Louis XIV and his secret, sympathetic twin brother Philippe in Randall Wallace's The Man in the Iron Mask, based on the same-titled 1939 film. Despite receiving a rather mixed to negative response, the film became a box office success, grossing US$180 million internationally. Though DiCaprio's performance was generally well-received, with Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman writing that \"the shockingly androgynous DiCaprio looks barely old enough to be playing anyone with hormones, but he's a fluid and instinctive actor, with the face of a mischievous angel,\" he was awarded a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Couple for both incarnations the following year. \n\nDiCaprio's next project was the drama film The Beach (2000), an adaption of Alex Garland's 1996 novel of the same name. He played an American backpacking tourist looking for the perfect way of life in a secret island commune in the Gulf of Thailand. Budgeted at $US50 million, the film became a financial success, grossing $US144 million worldwide, but as with DiCaprio's previous project, the film was largely panned by critics. Todd McCarthy of Variety noted that \"Richard [DiCaprio's role] is too much the American Everyman and not enough of a well-defined individual to entirely capture one's interest and imagination, and DiCaprio, while perfectly watchable, does not endow him with the quirks or distinguishing marks to make this man from nowhere a dimensional character.\" The next year, he was nominated for another Razzie Award for his work on the film.\n\n2002–07\n\nDiCaprio's first film of 2002 was the biographical crime drama film Catch Me If You Can, based on the life of Frank Abagnale Jr., who, before his 19th birthday, used his charm, confidence, and several different personas, to make millions in the 1960s writing bad checks. Directed by Steven Spielberg, the film was shot in 147 different locations in only 52 days, making it \"the most adventurous, super-charged movie-making\" DiCaprio had experienced yet. Catch Me If You Can received favorable reviews and proved to be an international success, becoming DiCaprio's highest-grossing film since Titanic with a total of US$351.1 million worldwide. Roger Ebert praised his performance, and noted that while \"DiCaprio, who in recent films [...] has played dark and troubled characters, is breezy and charming here, playing a boy who discovers what he is good at, and does it.\" The following year, DiCaprio received his third Golden Globe nomination for his work in the film. \n\nAlso in 2002, DiCaprio appeared in Martin Scorsese's Gangs of New York, a historical film set in the mid-19th century in the Five Points district of New York City. Director Scorsese initially struggled selling his idea of realizing the film until DiCaprio became interested in playing protagonist Amsterdam Vallon, a young leader of the Irish faction, and thus, Miramax Films got involved with financing the project. Nonetheless production on the film was plagued by blown-out budgets and producer-director squabbles, resulting in a marathon eight-month shoot and, at US$103 million, the most expensive film Scorsese had ever made. Upon its release, Gangs of New York became a financial and critical success. DiCaprio's acting was well-received but was overshadowed by Daniel Day-Lewis' performance among most critics. \n\nForging a collaboration with Scorsese, the two paired again for a biopic of the eccentric and obsessive American film director and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes in The Aviator (2004). Centering on Hughes' life from the late 1920s to 1947, DiCaprio initially developed the project with Michael Mann, who decided against directing it after back-to-back film biographies in Ali and The Insider. The actor eventually pitched John Logan's script to Scorsese, who quickly signed on to direct. The Aviator became a critical and financial success. DiCaprio received rave reviews for his performance and won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor, also receiving another Academy Award nomination. \n\nIn 2005, DiCaprio was made a commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Minister of Culture for his contributions to the arts. The following year, the actor starred in both Blood Diamond and The Departed. In Edward Zwick's war film Blood Diamond, he starred as a diamond smuggler from Rhodesia who is involved in the Sierra Leone Civil War. The film itself received generally favorable reviews, and DiCaprio was praised for the authenticity of his South African Afrikaner accent, known as a difficult accent to imitate. In Scorsese's The Departed he played the role of Billy Costigan, a state trooper working undercover in an Irish Mob in Boston. Highly anticipated, the film was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews and became one of the highest-rated wide release films of 2006. Budgeted at US$90 million, it also emerged as DiCaprio and Scorsese's highest-grossing collaboration to date, easily beating The Aviator´s previous record of US$213.7 million. DiCaprio's performance in The Departed was applauded by critics and earned him a Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor. The same year, both the Golden Globes and the Screen Actors Guild nominated DiCaprio twice in the Best Actor category for both of his 2006 features, and in addition, DiCaprio earned his third Academy Award nomination for Blood Diamond. \n\n2008–12 \n\nIn 2008, DiCaprio starred in Body of Lies, a spy film based on the novel of the same name by David Ignatius, set in context of the Middle East and the War on Terror, telling the story of three men battling a terrorist organization, and each other. Directed by Ridley Scott, DiCaprio dyed his hair brown and wore brown contacts for the role, which he chose to pursue because he considered it a throwback to political films of the 1970s such as The Parallax View (1974) and Three Days of the Condor (1975). The film received mixed reviews from critics, and at a budget of US$67.5 million, became a moderate box office success, grossing US$115 million worldwide. \n\nThe same year, DiCaprio reunited with Kate Winslet to film the drama Revolutionary Road (2008), directed by Winslet's then-husband Sam Mendes. As both actors had been reluctant to make romantic films similar to Titanic, it was Winslet who suggested that both should work with her on a film adaptation of the 1961 novel of the same name by Richard Yates after reading the script by Justin Haythe, knowing that plot had little in common with the 1997 blockbuster. Once DiCaprio agreed to do the film, it went almost immediately into production. He noted that he saw his character as \"unheroic\" and \"slightly cowardly\" and that he was \"willing to be just a product of his environment.\" Portraying a couple in a failing marriage in the 1950s, DiCaprio and Winslet watched period videos promoting life in the suburbs to prepare themselves for Revolutionary Road, which eventually earned them favorable reviews. For his portrayal DiCaprio garnered his seventh Golden Globes nomination. \n\nDiCaprio continued his collaborative streak with Scorsese in the 2010 psychological thriller film Shutter Island (2010), based on the 2003 novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane. He played U.S. Marshal Edward \"Teddy\" Daniels, who is investigating a psychiatric facility located on an island and comes to question his own sanity. The film grossed $294 million. \n\nAlso in 2010, DiCaprio starred in director Christopher Nolan's science-fiction film Inception. Inspired by the experience of lucid dreaming and dream incubation, DiCaprio portrays the character of Dom Cobb, an \"extractor\" who enters the dreams of others to obtain information that is otherwise inaccessible. Cobb is promised a chance to regain his old life in exchange for planting an idea in a corporate target's mind. DiCaprio was \"intrigued by this concept — this dream-heist notion and how this character's gonna unlock his dreamworld and ultimately affect his real life.\" Released to critical acclaim, the film grossed over $825 million worldwide. To star in this film, DiCaprio agreed to a pay cut from his $20 million fee, in favor of splitting first-dollar gross points, which means he receives money coming directly off the top of ticket sales. This risk paid off, with DiCaprio earning $50 million from the film to become his highest payday yet. In July 2010, it was announced that DiCaprio had pulled out of a Viking movie to be directed by Mel Gibson amid controversy over Gibson's rage-fueled rant tapes and domestic violence probe. \n\nIn 2011, DiCaprio starred alongside Armie Hammer and Naomi Watts in Clint Eastwood's J. Edgar, a biopic about J. Edgar Hoover. Written by Dustin Lance Black, the film focuses on the career of the FBI director from the Palmer Raids onwards, including an examination of his private life as an alleged closeted homosexual. Reviews towards the film were mostly mixed, with many critics commending DiCaprio's performance but feeling that, overall, the film lacked coherence. Roger Ebert praised DiCaprio's performance as a \"fully-realized, subtle and persuasive performance, hinting at more than Hoover ever revealed, perhaps even to himself.\" \n\nIn 2012, DiCaprio starred as villainous Calvin Candie in Quentin Tarantino's spaghetti western, Django Unchained. While filming Django Unchained, DiCaprio accidentally cut his hand on glass, but continued filming despite the injury, and Tarantino elected to use the take in the final movie. The film received positive reviews from critics and earned DiCaprio his ninth nomination from the Golden Globes. Django Unchained grossed $424 million worldwide. \n\n2013–present \n\nDiCaprio's next film was The Great Gatsby, again with Baz Luhrmann (who directed him in Romeo + Juliet in 1996), an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel, also starring Carey Mulligan and Tobey Maguire; the film was released on May 10, 2013. It received mixed reviews from critics, however DiCaprio's portrayal as Jay Gatsby was praised. Critic Rafer Guzman of Newsday praised DiCaprio by stating, \"As for Leonardo DiCaprio, he is now the Gatsby to beat. Despite a borderline comedic entrance -- haloed by fireworks and accompanied by Gershwin's \"Rhapsody in Blue\"—DiCaprio nails this maddeningly enigmatic character. He's as tough as Alan Ladd in '49, as suave as Redford in '74, but also vulnerable, touching, funny, a faker, a human. You hear it all in Gatsby's favorite phrase, \"old sport,\" a verbal tic that stumped other actors. It's a tremendous, hard-won performance.\" Matt Zoller Seitz of Roger Ebert.com described his performance as Gatsby as \"The movie's greatest and simplest special effect,\" and states \"This is an iconic performance — maybe his career best.\" The film grossed $348 million worldwide and became Luhrmann's highest-grossing film. \n\nDiCaprio reunited with Scorsese for the fifth time in The Wolf of Wall Street, a film based on the life of stockbroker Jordan Belfort, who was arrested in the late 1990s for securities fraud and money laundering. Filming began on August 8, 2012, in New York, and the film was released on December 25, 2013. The role earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy and his fourth Academy Award nomination for acting. In January 2013, DiCaprio said he was going to take a long break from acting and would \"fly around the world doing good for the environment.\" \n\nIn 2015, DiCaprio played fur trapper Hugh Glass in the survival drama The Revenant, directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu. The film was well received by critics and DiCaprio's performance garnered universal acclaim that earned him numerous awards, including his first win at the Academy Awards in the Best Actor category, his eleventh nomination and third win at Golden Globes in the Best Actor Drama category, and his first BAFTA award for Best Actor. On August 10, 2015, it was announced that Martin Scorsese will direct an adaptation of Erik Larson's The Devil in the White City, which will star DiCaprio with a screenplay to be written by Billy Ray. \n\nIn October 2015, Appian Way acquired the movie rights for a book about the Volkswagen emissions scandal. \n\nPersonal life \n\nDiCaprio's romantic relationships have been widely covered in the media. Among those he has dated were actress Bijou Phillips in the late 90s,[http://www.people.com/people/mobile/article/0,,20768373_20775379,00.html \"Tina Fey Was Right: Leonardo DiCaprio's Lengthy List of Model-y Love Affairs\"], People magazine, January 14, 2014 model Kristen Zang, and British model and socialite Emma Miller. In 2000, he met Brazilian model Gisele Bündchen who he dated until 2005. He was romantically involved with Israeli model Bar Refaeli from 2005 through 2011, during which time he met with Israeli president Shimon Peres and visited Refaeli's hometown of Hod HaSharon. \n\nDiCaprio dated actress Blake Lively in 2011, then model Erin Heatherton for most of 2012. In 2013 he dated German model Toni Garrn until late 2014. He dated model Kelly Rohrbach in 2015. \n\nDiCaprio owns a home in Los Angeles, California and an apartment in Battery Park City, New York. In 2009, he bought an island off mainland Belize, on which he is planning to create an eco-friendly resort. In 2014, he purchased the original Dinah Shore residence designed by mid-century modern architect Donald Wexler in Palm Springs, California. \n\nIn 2005, DiCaprio's face was severely injured when model Aretha Wilson hit him over the head with a broken bottle at a Hollywood party. After pleading guilty in 2010, Wilson was sentenced to prison for two years.\n\nDuring the 2004 presidential election, DiCaprio campaigned and donated to John Kerry's presidential bid. The FEC showed that DiCaprio gave $2,300 to Barack Obama's presidential campaign in the 2008 election, the maximum contribution an individual could give in that election cycle, and $5,000 to Obama's 2012 campaign. \n\nEnvironmental activism \n\nFollowing the success of Titanic in 1997 along with earlier films, 24-year-old DiCaprio established the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation in 1998, a non-profit organization devoted to promoting environmental awareness.[http://leonardodicaprio.org/ Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation] Although concerned with all areas of the environment, it focuses on global warming, preserving Earth's biodiversity and supporting renewable energy. It has worked on projects in over 40 countries and has produced two short web documentaries, Water Planet and Global Warning.\n\nBecause of his active involvement in those causes, he has received praise from environmental groups. Among the accolades received were the Martin Litton Environment Award, in 2001, from Environment Now, and the Environmental Leadership Award in 2003 from Global Green USA. \n\nDiCaprio chaired the national Earth Day celebration in 2000, where he interviewed President Bill Clinton and they discussed plans to deal with global warming and the environment.[http://www.anlimara.com/articles/moviesonlineeleventhhour.html \"Leonardo DiCaprio Interview about '11th Hour'\"], Anlimara.com In 2007 he had a major role in The 11th Hour, a documentary about people's relationship to nature and global warming. He co-produced, co-wrote and narrated the film. From a benefit \"11th Hour\" fine art auction he organized in 2013, he raised nearly $40 million to toward his foundation. He told attendees, \"Bid as if the fate of the planet depended on us.\" It became the world's highest-grossing environmental charity event ever held. DiCaprio states that global warming is the world's \"number-one environmental challenge\". In July 2016 his foundation awarded $15.6 million to help protect wildlife and the rights of Native Americans, along with combating climate change. \n\nHe has been an active supporter of numerous environmental organizations and has sat on the board of the World Wildlife Fund, Global Green USA, International Fund for Animal Welfare and the Natural Resources Defense Council.[http://www.worldwildlife.org/leaders/leonardo-dicaprio \"Leonardo DiCaprio, Founder, Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation\"], World Wildlife Fund[http://www.skymetweather.com/content/climate-change/10-reasons-why-leonardo-dicaprio-deserves-an-environmental-oscar/ \"DiCaprio deserves an environmental Oscar for these 10 reasons\"], Skymet, February 21, 2016 He traveled to Indonesia in early 2016 where he criticized the government's palm oil industry's slash-and-burn forest clearing methods. \n\nHe drives environment-friendly vehicles, including an electric Tesla Roadster, a Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid, and a Toyota Prius. His home is powered by solar panels. \nAt the 2007 Oscar ceremony, DiCaprio and former Vice President Al Gore appeared to announce that the Academy Awards had incorporated environmentally intelligent practices in its production. He presented at the 2007 American leg of Live Earth, and in 2010 his environmental work earned DiCaprio a nomination for the VH1 Do Something Award, honoring people who do good. In 2014 he was appointed as a United Nations representative on climate change, and later that year he made an opening statement to members of the UN Climate Summit. He again spoke at the UN in April 2016 prior to the signing of Paris Climate Change Agreement. \n\nIn 2015, DiCaprio executive produced a new Netflix-exclusive cut of Cowspiracy. The film explored the impact of animal agriculture on the environment and the positions of several environmental organizations on the issue. \n\nAt the 2016 Oscar ceremony, DiCaprio won the award for Best Actor. He used his acceptance speech to express his appreciation and worry for the environment when he said: \n\nDiCaprio's use of private jets and superyachts has attracted criticism by some sections of the media. In 2016, during a vacation in Cannes, France, he made a one-day visit to New York City by private jet to collect an environmental award. Robert Rapier, an environmental analyst, said DiCaprio's lifestyle “diminishes his moral authority to lecture others on reducing their own carbon emissions. He demonstrates exactly why our consumption of fossil fuels continues to grow. “It’s because everyone loves the combination of cost and convenience they offer. Alternatives usually require sacrifice of one form or another.” \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nIn 1998, DiCaprio and his mother donated $35,000 for a \"Leonardo DiCaprio Computer Center\" at the Los Feliz branch of the Los Angeles Public Library, the site of his childhood home. It was rebuilt after the 1994 Northridge earthquake and opened in early 1999. During the filming of Blood Diamond, DiCaprio worked with 24 orphaned children from the SOS Children's Village in Maputo, Mozambique, and was said to be extremely touched by his interactions with the children. In 2010, he donated $1 million to relief efforts in Haiti after the earthquake. \n\nIn November 2010, DiCaprio donated $1 million to the Wildlife Conservation Society at Russia's tiger summit. DiCaprio's persistence in reaching the event after encountering two plane delays caused then Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to describe him as a \"muzhik\" or \"real man\". In 2011, DiCaprio joined the Animal Legal Defense Fund's campaign to free Tony, a tiger who has spent the last decade at the Tiger Truck Stop in Grosse Tete, Louisiana. In April 2013, DiCaprio donated $61,000 to GLAAD, an organization which promotes the image of LGBT people in the media. \n\nIn early 2016, at a meeting with Pope Francis, he gave a charity donation and spoke about environmental issues. A few days later, possibly influenced by his meeting with DiCaprio, the Pope said he would act in a planned faith-based charity film, Beyond the Sun. It would be his first acting experience, and would also be the first time in history that a Pope appeared in a feature film. Profits from the film would be given to charities in Argentina. \n\nFilmography and awards \n\nLeonardo DiCaprio filmography\nList of awards and nominations received by Leonardo DiCaprio", "The Man in the Iron Mask is a 1998 American action drama film directed, produced, and written by Randall Wallace, and starring Leonardo DiCaprio in a dual role as the title character and villain, Jeremy Irons as Aramis, John Malkovich as Athos, Gerard Depardieu as Porthos, and Gabriel Byrne as D'Artagnan. The picture uses characters from Alexandre Dumas' D'Artagnan Romances and is very loosely adapted from some plot elements of The Vicomte de Bragelonne.\n\nThe film centers on the aging four Musketeers; Athos, Porthos, Aramis, and D'Artagnan during the reign of King Louis XIV and attempts to explain the mystery of the Man in the Iron Mask, using a plot more closely related to the flamboyant 1929 version starring Douglas Fairbanks, The Iron Mask, and the 1939 version directed by James Whale, than the original Dumas book. Like the 1998 version, the two aforementioned adaptations were also released through United Artists.\n\nPlot\n\nFrance is under the reign of a cruel and self-centered version of King Louis XIV (DiCaprio), who spends his time declaring a war against the Dutch, distributing rotten food to the rioting citizens of Paris, and with women attempting to seduce him so that they would become queen of France.\n\nThe Three Musketeers have gone their own way at this point: Aramis (Jeremy Irons) is now an aging priest, Porthos (Depardieu) likes to spend his time drinking and hanging around with adoring women half his age and Athos (Malkovich) is retired and lives with his only son, Raoul (Sarsgaard), who is preparing to join the Musketeers. D'Artagnan (Byrne) is the only one who has remained in the Musketeers and is now the highly respected Captain.\n\nD'Artagnan comes by and informs Aramis that the King requests a meeting with him. The King's chief advisor informs Aramis that Louis is having problems with the Jesuits, who have declared Louis' wars are unjust and the source of the public's hunger (due to the agricultural sector being impeded by the heavy tax burden as a result of these wars). Aramis suggests the King speak to the Jesuits' leader but the chief advisor says the identity of the Jesuits' leader is kept secret. Louis privately orders Aramis to kill the secret leader of the Jesuits. Aramis accepts the mission saying, \"When I discover the identity of this Jesuit rebel I will kill both him and the man who told me\".\n\nIt is the day of a huge festival at the palace, to which Raoul is escorting the woman he loves, Christine Bellefort (Judith Godrèche). He has just built up enough courage to propose to Christine with his late mother's ring. At the festival, the two lovers are greeted by D'Artagnan, who congratulates Raoul on being accepted into the Musketeers and wishes him luck. Soon after, King Louis sees Christine and becomes instantly attracted to her and obtains their names from his council of advisors. D'Artagnan tells Louis of his concerns for the King's safety due to the threats from the Jesuits.\n\nBefore Raoul can profess his love and propose to her, Louis announces a contest in which all are to participate. He places a diamond necklace on a piglet (which has a horn strapped to its head, resembling a unicorn) and announces that the first one to catch the pig will get the prize. Raoul goes to win the necklace for Christine, but as she goes to watch Louis uses water fountains to lead her towards a secluded area. Louis tries to woo Christine, however, just as he is about to kiss her, a Jesuit assassin tries to kill the King. D'Artagnan, who has been silently keeping watch, sees this and saves Louis and Christine. Raoul then comes up and takes Christine away. Louis then arranges to have Raoul recalled up to serve in the army.\n\nD'Artagnan goes to see Athos to try and warn him of the King's eye on Christine, but before he can, Raoul comes home and gives his father back the engagement ring, stating that \"he cannot marry her and make her a widow at the same time.\" Athos realizes the King's eye has fallen on Christine and angrily tells D'Artagnan that if Raoul is harmed in any way, Louis and any on his side will become his enemy.\n\nUnfortunately, Athos' friendship with D'Artagnan is shattered when Raoul is killed by the cannons on the battlefront. Driven by revenge and anger, Athos attempts to assassinate Louis, but is stopped at the gate by the guards. He manages to wound a few before D'Artagnan and the other Musketeers are able to stop him. D'Artagnan orders them to let Athos go home, but Athos still refers to D'Artagnan as a traitor.\n\nAfter hearing what happened, Aramis calls a secret meeting with Athos, Porthos, and D'Artagnan in an underground tomb. Aramis reveals Louis' order to kill the Jesuit leader, who is revealed to be Aramis himself. Aramis proposes a plot to overthrow Louis and asks his friends for their help. Athos and Porthos agree to help but D'Artagnan refuses saying he cannot violate his oath and betray the King he has sworn to protect and defend with his life. Aramis privately tells D'Artagnan he knows he carries a secret that is hurting him deeply. Aramis, Athos, and Porthos successfully free a mysterious young man in an iron mask from the Bastille.\n\nThey take the man, Philippe, to a country house, where he recalls that he grew up in the country until one day a man in black imprisoned him in the Bastille and placed in the mask. Aramis reveals Philippe is the identical twin of Louis; on the night the twins were born, their father had Aramis take the younger baby away, because the king had known too much bloodshed among feuding royal heirs. Their mother, Queen Anne (Anne Parillaud), was told the younger son had died at birth. Later, when the King was on his death bed, he told Queen Anne and Louis of Philippe's existence. Louis, fearing that Philippe would try to take the throne, had Aramis lock Philippe in the iron mask. Although he looks the same as his cold-hearted brother, Philippe is kind, and he accepts the truth behind his past in addition to forgiving Aramis for locking him in the mask that imprisoned him for six years.\n\nMeanwhile, Louis succeeds in seducing Christine (Louis tells her that he ordered Raoul to a place far away from the battlefront, but that his orders were disobeyed by the general), and they eventually make love, but Christine later reveals that she was pretending to love him in order to get Louis' help for her mother and sister, who have pneumonia.\n\nAthos, Porthos and Aramis teach Philippe how to act like Louis so as to replace Louis with Philippe, and they attempt to abduct Louis and take him to the Bastille during a masked ball, replacing him with Philippe and putting him in Philippe's cell in the Bastille. They succeed at first, but Philippe's good manners give it away a bit, especially after he helps a fallen woman to her feet and spares Christine's life after she publicly calls him a lying murderer after having found out the truth about Raoul's death. D'Artagnan asks Philippe to escort him to the dungeons, and Philippe can't refuse. They arrive at the dungeons just as Athos, Porthos and Aramis are about to sail to the Bastille. They make a trade for the brothers' lives, but during their escape, Philippe is recaptured.\n\nD'Artagnan brings Philippe to Louis, who reveals he had known of his brother's existence and believed he had died in the Bastille. Their mother and D'Artagnan beg for Philippe's life to be spared. However, Philippe begs to be killed instead of being sent back to prison. Louis orders D'Artagnan to hunt down Aramis, Athos, and Porthos, and bring him their heads or Louis would have D'Artagnan's head for \"taking the side of traitors,\". D'Artagnan chastises Louis for his actions against his brother Philippe and expresses his disappoint in the kind of king Louis has become. Louis orders Philippe to return to prison, where he will wear the mask \"until he loves it and dies in it.\" That night, Christine hangs herself outside Louis' bedroom and leaves a note for her family.\n\nD'Artagnan sends a message to Athos, Porthos, and Aramis that he will provide them with a 10-minute window to save Philippe. Thinking that it is a trap, they wear their old Musketeer uniforms to enter the prison. Louis has D'Artagnan watched and knows that they are trying to rescue Philippe. He arrives with Lt Andre (Edward Atterton) and the elite guard unit to trap Athos, Porthos, Aramis, D'Artagnan, and Philippe in the prison. Louis offers to let D'Artagnan retire in peace if he lays down his sword and gives up the rest of the group. D'Artagnan refuses to give up Philippe and reveals that he is the real father of Philippe and Louis and his love affair with Queen Anne. The five then charge the other guard musketeers, who are ordered by Louis to shoot but they all deliberately miss and lay down their swords.\n\nAs Lt Andre and the other musketeers show their respects, Louis becomes angry, grabs a dagger, and attempts to stab Philippe but D'Artagnan jumps in the way and is fatally stabbed instead. Athos begs D'Artagnan to forgive him, realizing that D'Artagnan's loyalty to Louis was out of fatherly devotion to his son. Before dying, D'Artagnan reveals to the musketeers that the two are brothers. Lt Andre swears his men to silence and orders them out of the room and collaborates with the group to switch kings. After the switch, the remaining guards enter the room and Louis, now in prisoner clothes, is ordered by Philippe, now dressed as the king, to be put \"where no one can hear his insanity\" but is to be fed well by a deaf mute until \"he finds redemption in wearing the pains he has placed on others\". Athos, Porthos, and Aramis are named the Royal Council.\n\nAt D'Artagnan's grave Philippe asks Athos to be his father-figure. It is later revealed that Philippe becomes a good king known as Louis XIV and later pardons his brother Louis to live quietly in the country and is visited often by the queen.\n\nCast\n\n* Leonardo DiCaprio as King Louis XIV/Philippe\n* Gabriel Byrne as D'Artagnan\n* Jeremy Irons as Aramis\n* John Malkovich as Athos\n* Gérard Depardieu as Porthos\n* Anne Parillaud as Queen Mother Anne\n* Judith Godrèche as Christine \n* Peter Sarsgaard as Raoul\n* Edward Atterton as Lieutenant Andre\n* Hugh Laurie as Pierre, Advisor to King Louis XIV\n* David Lowe as Advisor to King Louis XIV\n\nProduction\n\nIn this version, the \"man in the iron mask\" is introduced as prisoner number 64389000 based on the number related to his namesake found at the Bastille. Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte is the stand in for all the scenes that are supposed to be Versailles, although in the book, the switch between Louis and Philippe happens at Vaux-le-Vicomte. Vaux-le-Vicomte, the prototype for Versailles, was built for the real finance minister of Louis XlV, Nicolas Fouquet.\n\nIn some versions, the switch takes place at a real and actual event the \"fête de Vaux\" (17 August 1661), a famous party for the unveiling of the new château. Attended by Louis XlV, at which the king's own palace was seen to be inferior to the new château of his non-royal finance minister. The famous fête led to the downfall of Fouquet and the building of Versailles.\n\nDifferences between versions\n\nThe novel and the filmed versions of the tale have some differences in how they portray the royal twins and the plot to switch them.\n\nIn Dumas's The Vicomte de Bragelonne, although the plot to replace King Louis XIV with his twin brother is foiled, the twin is initially depicted as a much more sympathetic character than the King. However, in the last part of the novel, the King is portrayed as an intelligent, more mature and slightly misunderstood man who in fact deserves the throne - and the Musketeers themselves are split, Aramis (with assistance from Porthos) siding with the prisoner, D'Artagnan with King Louis, and Athos retired from politics entirely. In the 1929 silent version, The Iron Mask starring Douglas Fairbanks as D'Artagnan, the King is depicted favorably and the twin brother as a pawn in an evil plot whose thwarting by D'Artagnan and his companions seems more appropriate.\n\nIn the 1998 film, the King is depicted negatively while his twin brother is sympathetically portrayed. D'Artagnan's loyalties are torn between his King and his three Musketeer friends. He is also revealed as the father of the twins, as well as being dedicated to the interests of France.\n\nHistorical inaccuracies\n\nHistorical persons and events depicted in the film are heavily fictionalized, as declared in an opening narration.\n* A portrait of Louis XV can be seen in Louis XIV's apartments: the film takes place about half a century before the birth of Louis XIV's great-grandson and successor.\n* D'Artagnan's death is inconsistent with biographic fact: the real d'Artagnan died in battle at the siege of Maastricht, more than ten years later.\n* Louis XIV had a real-life brother, Philippe d'Orléans, who is not depicted in the film and was not the King's twin.\n* Set in 1662, the film portrays the king as unmarried; by then he had been married for some two years to Infanta María Teresa of Spain\n* Notwithstanding the peace and prosperity alluded to at the film's conclusion, Louis XIV spent most of the remainder of his reign at war.\n\nCritical reception \n\nDespite receiving a rather mixed to negative critical response, it was successful financially, benefiting greatly from Leonardo DiCaprio's post-Titanic boost in popularity. The film currently holds a 33% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 36 reviews. It holds a 48% rating on Metacritic, based on 18 reviews.\n\nDiCaprio won a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Couple for his interactions as twins in the film.\n\nSoundtrack\n\nMusic for this film was written by English composer Nick Glennie-Smith. Figure skater Alexei Yagudin became a gold medalist skating to this music in the 2002 Winter Olympics. He won with the program The Man in the Iron Mask, based on the movie soundtrack. \n\n# \"Surrounded\"\n# \"Heart of a King\"\n# \"The Pig Chase\"\n# \"The Ascension\"\n# \"King for a King\"\n# \"The Moon Beckons\"\n# \"The Masked Ball\"\n# \"A Taste of Something\"\n# \"Kissy Kissie\"\n# \"Training to Be King\"\n# \"The Rose\"\n# \"All Will Be Well\"\n# \"All for One\"\n# \"Greatest Mystery of Life\"\n# \"Raoul and Christine\"\n# \"It is a Trap\"\n# \"Angry Athos\"\n# \"Raoul's Letter\"\n# \"The Palace\"\n# \"Raoul's Death\"\n# \"Queen Approaches\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Louis Xiv", "Louis Quatorze", "Louix XIV", "The King Sun", "Lewis Baboon", "Grand Monarque", "King Louis XIV of France", "L'etat c'est moi.", "King louis xiv", "Roi Soleil", "Mansour Al Cognosji XVI", "L'État, c'est moi", "Grand Roi", "Louis XIV", "L'Etat, c'est moi", "King Louis 14", "Louis Xiv Of France", "L'Etat c'est moi", "The Sun King", "L’état, c’est moi", "L'état, c'est moi", "King of France Louis XIV", "The Grand Monarque", "Louis the 14th", "I am the State", "Louis xiv", "King Louis XIV", "L'etat, c'est moi", "Louis 14", "Louis XIV, King of France", "Louis XIV of France", "Le Roi Soleil", "Sun King", "L'etat c'est moi", "Louis-Dieudonné", "Grand Siècle", "Ludvig XIV", "I am the state", "Louis-Dieudonne", "L'Etat c'est moi." ], "normalized_aliases": [ "roi soleil", "grand roi", "grand siècle", "lewis baboon", "grand monarque", "sun king", "mansour al cognosji xvi", "louis dieudonné", "ludvig xiv", "louis xiv", "louis quatorze", "king louis xiv", "king sun", "louis 14", "louis xiv of france", "louix xiv", "king louis xiv of france", "louis dieudonne", "louis xiv king of france", "king of france louis xiv", "le roi soleil", "i am state", "l etat c est moi", "king louis 14", "louis 14th", "l état c est moi" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "louis xiv", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Louis XIV" }
Which role did Rupert Everett play in The Madness of King George?	tc_1104	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Madness_of_King_George.txt" ], "title": [ "The Madness of King George" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Madness of King George is a 1994 British biographical historical comedy-drama film directed by Nicholas Hytner and adapted by Alan Bennett from his own play, The Madness of George III. It tells the true story of George III of Great Britain's deteriorating mental health, and his equally declining relationship with his eldest son, the Prince of Wales, particularly focusing on the period around the Regency Crisis of 1788–89. Modern medicine has suggested that the King's symptoms were the result of acute intermittent porphyria, although this theory has more recently been vigorously challenged, most notably by a research project based at St George's, University of London, which concluded that George III did actually suffer from mental illness after all. \n\nPlot\n\nThe film depicts the ordeal of King George III whose bout of madness in 1788 touched off the Regency Crisis, triggering a power struggle between factions of parliament under the conservative William Pitt the Younger and the reform-minded Charles James Fox.\n\nAt first, the King's habits appear mildly eccentric, and are purposely ignored for reasons of state. The King is seen as being highly concerned with the wellbeing and productivity of England, and continually exhibits an encyclopedic knowledge of the families of even the most obscure royal appointments. In fact, the King is growing more unsettled, largely over the loss of America. George, his oldest son, aggravates the situation, knowing that he would be named regent in the event the King was found incapacitated. George chafes under his father's repeated criticism, but also hopes for regency to allow him greater freedom to marry his Catholic mistress. George also knows that he has the moral support of Charles Fox, who is eager to put across an agenda unlikely to pass under the current administration, including abolition of the slave trade and friendlier relations with America. Knowing that the King’s behavior is exacerbated in public, the Prince arranges for a concert playing the music of Handel. The King reacts as expected, interrupting the musicians, acting inappropriately towards Lady Pembroke, attendant to the Queen, and finally assaulting his son.\n\nThe King's madness is treated using the relatively primitive medical practices of the time, which include blistering and purges, led on particularly by the Prince of Wales' personal physician, Dr. Warren. Eventually, Lady Pembroke recommends Dr. Willis, an ex-minister who attempts to cure the insane through new procedures, and who begins his restoration of the King's mental state by enforcing a strict regime of strapping the King into a waistcoat and restraining him whenever he shows signs of his insanity or otherwise resists recovery.\n\nMeanwhile, the opposition led by Charles James Fox, confronts Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger's increasingly unpopular government with a bill that would give the Prince powers of regency. Meanwhile, Baron Thurlow, the Chancellor, discovers that the Prince was secretly and illegally married to his Catholic mistress. Thurlow pays the minister to keep his mouth shut, and himself tears out a record of the marriage from church rolls.\n\nThe King soon shows signs of recovery, becoming less eccentric and arrives in Parliament in time to thwart passage of the Regency bill. Restored, the King asserts control over his family, forces the Prince to “put away” his mistress. With the crisis averted, those who had been closest to the king are summarily dismissed from service, including Dr. Willis. During conversations with Pitt, the King appears more at ease and in control of himself. He is less antagonized by America, but also shows signs that his insanity remains.\n\nCast\n\n* Nigel Hawthorne as King George III\n* Helen Mirren as Queen Charlotte\n* Ian Holm as Willis\n* Amanda Donohoe as Lady Pembroke\n* Rupert Graves as Greville\n* Geoffrey Palmer as Warren\n* Rupert Everett as George, the Prince of Wales\n* Jim Carter as Whig MP and leader of the opposition Charles James Fox\n* Julian Rhind-Tutt as Frederick, the Duke of York\n* Julian Wadham as an MP and George III's Prime Minister Pitt\n* Anthony Calf as Fitzroy\n* Adrian Scarborough as Fortnum\n* John Wood as Thurlow\n* Jeremy Child as Black Rod\n* Struan Rodger as Dundas\n* Janine Duvitski as Margaret Nicholson\n* Caroline Harker as Mrs. Fitzherbert\n* Roger Hammond as Baker\n* Cyril Shaps as Pepys\n* Selina Cadell as Mrs. Cordwell\n* Alan Bennett as a backbench MP whose speech is interrupted by everyone running out to see the King\n* Nicholas Selby as Speaker\n\nProduction\n\nTitle change\n\nIn adapting the play to film, the title was changed from The Madness of George III to The Madness of King George. The title change derives from the fear that American audiences would think the film was a sequel, because of the use of Roman numerals in its title. Another reason was to clarify that this was a film about a king, particularly in America as it is a country that has always been without royalty, since it separated from Great Britain.\n\nFilming locations\n\nPrincipal photography took place from 11 July to 9 September 1994. The film was shot at Shepperton Studios and on location at:\n* Arundel Castle, Arundel, West Sussex\n* Divinity School, Oxford\n* Broughton Castle, Banbury, Oxfordshire\n* Eton College, Eton, Berkshire\n* Royal Naval College, Greenwich\n* St. Paul's Cathedral, London\n* Syon House, Brentford, Middlesex\n* Thame Park, Oxfordshire\n* Wilton House, Wilton, Wiltshire\n\nReception\n\nBox office\n\nThe Madness of King George debuted strongly at the box office. The film grossed $15,238,689 from 464 North American venues.\n\nCritical response\n\nThe film received largely positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 93% \"Certified Fresh\" score based on 43 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The site's consensus states: \"Thanks largely to stellar all-around performances from a talented cast, The Madness of King George is a funny, entertaining, and immensely likable adaptation of the eponymous stage production.\" \n\nAwards and honours\n\n;Academy Awards\nThe film won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction (Ken Adam, Carolyn Scott), and was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Nigel Hawthorne), Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Helen Mirren) and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium. \n;BAFTA Awards\nThe film was nominated for a total of 14 BAFTA Awards and won three: the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film, the Best Actor (Nigel Hawthorne) and the Award for Best Make Up/Hair (Lisa Westcott).\n;Cannes Film Festival\nMirren won the Best Actress Award and Nicholas Hytner was nominated for the Golden Palm at the 1995 festival. \n;Empire Awards\nHawthorne won the Best Actor Award at the 1st Empire Awards." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "HRH The Prince Charles, Duke of Rothesay", "HRH The Prince of Wales", "Charles, prince of wales", "Charles, Duke of Cornwall", "Charles Windsor", "Prince Charles of Edinburgh", "Prince Charles of the United Kingdom", "War of the Waleses", "Princes Charles", "The Prince Charles", "HRH Prince Charles", "The Prince Of Wales", "Charles of the United Kingdom", "Charles Philip Arthur Windsor", "Prince Charles", "His Highness Prince Charles", "Charles Windsor, Prince of Wales", "HM The Duke of Cornwall", "Prince Charles, Wales", "Charles, Price of Wales", "Charles Philip Arthur George", "Next king of the United Kingdom", "The Duke of Cornwall", "Charles Philip Arthur George Windsor-Mountbatten", "Prince of Wales Charles", "HRH Prince Charles, Prince of Wales", "The Prince Charles, Duke of Rothesay", "Charles, prince of Wales", "The Duke of Rothesay", "Charles, Duke of Rothesay", "Next king of the UK", "Charles, Crown Prince of Britain", "Prince Charles, Duke of Cornwal", "Prince Charles, Duke of Rothesay", "Next king of Australia", "Charles of Wales", "Monstrous carbuncle", "The Prince Charles, Prince of Wales", "HRH The Prince Charles", "Charles, Prince of Wales", "Prince Charles of Wales", "HRH The Duke of Cornwall", "HRH The Duke of Rothesay", "Prince Charles, Prince of Wales", "Next king of Canada", "Charles of Edinburgh", "Charles III of the United Kingdom", "Prince Charles, the Duke of Rothesay", "HRH The Prince of Wales (Prince Charles)", "Charles prince of wales", "Prince Charles, Duke of Cornwall", "Charles Philip Arthur George Mountbatten-Windsor", "Charles, Duke of Cornwal", "The Prince of Wales", "Charles Mountbatten-Windsor", "Prince charles", "Charles V of England", "Charles, the Prince of Wales" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "prince of wales charles", "next king of australia", "charles iii of united kingdom", "charles philip arthur george mountbatten windsor", "prince charles of united kingdom", "next king of uk", "prince charles prince of wales", "charles duke of cornwal", "charles of united kingdom", "his highness prince charles", "hrh prince of wales prince charles", "charles windsor", "monstrous carbuncle", "charles philip arthur george", "charles mountbatten windsor", "next king of canada", "hrh prince charles", "hrh duke of rothesay", "charles price of wales", "princes charles", "charles duke of rothesay", "charles of edinburgh", "hrh prince of wales", "prince charles of wales", "prince charles duke of cornwal", "prince of wales", "duke of cornwall", "next king of united kingdom", "prince charles of edinburgh", "charles v of england", "prince charles", "prince charles wales", "hrh duke of cornwall", "charles duke of cornwall", "charles philip arthur windsor", "charles windsor prince of wales", "hrh prince charles prince of wales", "war of waleses", "charles crown prince of britain", "charles of wales", "prince charles duke of rothesay", "duke of rothesay", "charles philip arthur george windsor mountbatten", "hm duke of cornwall", "prince charles duke of cornwall", "hrh prince charles duke of rothesay", "charles prince of wales" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "prince of wales", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Prince of Wales" }
What was Stanley Kubrick's final movie?	tc_1107	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Stanley_Kubrick.txt" ], "title": [ "Stanley Kubrick" ], "wiki_context": [ "Stanley Kubrick (; July 26, 1928 – March 7, 1999) was an American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer, editor, and photographer. Part of the New Hollywood film-making wave, Kubrick's films are considered by film historian Michel Ciment to be \"among the most important contributions to world cinema in the twentieth century\", and he is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in cinematic history. His films, which are typically adaptations of novels or short stories, cover a wide range of genres, and are noted for their realism, dark humor, unique cinematography, extensive set designs, and evocative use of music.\n\nKubrick grew up in the Bronx in New York City, and attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945. Although he only received average grades, Kubrick displayed a keen interest in literature, photography, and film from a young age, and taught himself all aspects of film production and directing after graduating from high school. After working as a photographer for Look magazine in the late 1940s and early 1950s, he began making short films on a shoestring budget, and made his first major Hollywood film, The Killing, for United Artists in 1956. This was followed by two collaborations with Kirk Douglas, the war picture Paths of Glory (1957) and the historical epic Spartacus (1960). His reputation as a filmmaker in Hollywood grew, and he was approached by Marlon Brando to film what would become One-Eyed Jacks (1961), though Brando eventually decided to direct it himself. Creative differences arising from his work with Douglas and the film studios, a dislike of Hollywood, and a growing concern about crime in America prompted Kubrick to move to the United Kingdom in 1961, where he spent most of the remainder of his life and career. His home at Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire, which he shared with his wife Christiane, became his workplace, where he did his writing, research, editing, and management of production details. This allowed him to have almost complete artistic control over his films, but with the rare advantage of having financial support from major Hollywood studios. His first British productions were two films with Peter Sellers, Lolita (1962) and Dr. Strangelove (1964).\n\nKubrick is noted for his attention to detail and skillful use of music. A demanding perfectionist, he assumed control over most aspects of the filmmaking process, from direction and writing to editing, and took painstaking care with researching his films and staging scenes, working in close coordination with his actors and other collaborators. He often asked for several dozen retakes of the same scene in a movie, which resulted in many conflicts with his casts. Despite the resulting notoriety among actors, many of Kubrick's films broke new ground in cinematography. The scientific realism and innovative special effects of 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) were without precedent in the history of cinema, and the film earned him his only personal Oscar, for Best Visual Effects. Steven Spielberg has referred to the film as his generation's \"big bang\", and it is often included in polls of the greatest films ever made. For the 18th-century period film Barry Lyndon (1975), Kubrick obtained lenses developed by Zeiss for NASA, to film scenes under natural candlelight. With The Shining (1980), he became one of the first directors to make use of a Steadicam for stabilized and fluid tracking shots. While many of Kubrick's films were controversial and initially received mixed reviews upon release—particularly A Clockwork Orange (1971), which Kubrick pulled from circulation in the UK following a mass media frenzy—most of his films were nominated for Oscars, Golden Globes, or BAFTA Awards. His last film, Eyes Wide Shut, was completed shortly before his death in 1999.\n\nEarly life\n\nStanley Kubrick was born on July 26, 1928, in the Lying-In Hospital at 307 Second Avenue in Manhattan, New York City. He was the first of two children of Jacob Leonard Kubrick (May 21, 1902 – October 19, 1985), known as Jack or Jacques, and his wife Sadie Gertrude Kubrick (née Perveler; October 28, 1903 – April 23, 1985), known as Gert, both of whom were Jewish. His sister, Barbara Mary Kubrick, was born in May 1934. Jack Kubrick, whose parents and paternal grandparents were of Polish, Austrian, and Romanian origin, was a doctor, graduating from the New York Homeopathic Medical College in 1927, the same year he married Kubrick's mother, the child of Austrian immigrants. Kubrick's great-grandfather, Hersh Kubrick (also spelled Kubrik or Kubrike), arrived at Ellis Island via Liverpool by ship on December 27, 1899, at the age of 47, leaving behind his wife and two grown children, one of whom was Stanley's grandfather Elias, to start a new life with a younger woman. Elias Kubrick followed in 1902. At Stanley's birth, the Kubricks lived in an apartment at 2160 Clinton Avenue in the Bronx. Although his parents had been married in a Jewish ceremony, Kubrick did not have a religious upbringing, and would later profess an atheistic view of the universe. By the district standards of the West Bronx, the family was fairly wealthy, his father earning a good income as a physician.\n\nSoon after his sister's birth, Kubrick began schooling in Public School 3 in the Bronx, and moved to Public School 90 in June 1938. Although his IQ was discovered to be above average, his attendance was poor, and he missed 56 days in his first term alone, as many as he attended. He displayed an interest in literature from a young age, and began reading Greek and Roman myths and the fables of the Grimm brothers which \"instilled in him a lifelong affinity with Europe\". He spent most Saturdays during the summer watching the New York Yankees, and would later photograph two boys watching the game in an assignment for Look magazine to emulate his own childhood excitement with baseball. When Kubrick was 12, his father Jack taught him chess. The game remained a lifelong interest of Kubrick's, appearing in many scenes of his films. Kubrick himself, who later became a member of the United States Chess Federation, explained that chess helped him develop \"patience and discipline\" in making decisions. At the age of 13, Kubrick's father bought him a Graflex camera, triggering a fascination with still photography. He became friends with a neighbor, Marvin Taub, who shared his passion for photography. Taub had his own darkroom, where the young Kubrick and he would spend many hours perusing photographs and watching the chemicals \"magically make images on photographic paper\". The two indulged in numerous photographic projects for which they roamed the streets for interesting subjects to capture, and spent time in local cinemas studying films. Freelance photographer Weegee (Arthur Fellig) had a considerable influence on Kubrick's development as a photographer; Kubrick would later hire Fellig as the special stills photographer for Dr. Strangelove (1964). As a teenager, Kubrick was also interested in jazz, and briefly attempted a career as a drummer.\n\nKubrick attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945. One of his classmates was Edith Gormezano, later known as the singer Eydie Gorme. Though he joined the school's photographic club, which permitted him to photograph the school's events in their magazine, he was a mediocre student, with a meager 67 grade average. Introverted and shy, Kubrick had a low attendance record, and often skipped school to watch double-feature films. He graduated in 1945, but his poor grades, combined with the demand for college admissions from soldiers returning from the Second World War, eliminated hope of higher education. Later in life, Kubrick spoke disdainfully of his education and of contemporary American schooling as a whole, maintaining that schools were ineffective in stimulating critical thinking and student interest. His father was disappointed in his son's failure to achieve excellence in school, of which he felt Stanley was fully capable. Jack also encouraged Stanley to read from the former's library at home, while at the same time permitting Stanley to take up photography as a serious hobby.\n\nPhotographic career\n\nWhile still in high school, Kubrick was chosen as an official school photographer for a year. In the mid-1940s, since he was not able to gain admission to day session classes at colleges, he briefly attended evening classes at the City College of New York. Eventually, he sold a photographic series to Look magazine, having taken a photo to Helen O'Brian, head of the photographic department, who purchased it without hesitation for £25 on the spot. It was printed on June 26, 1945. Kubrick supplemented his income by playing chess \"for quarters\" in Washington Square Park and various Manhattan chess clubs.\n\nIn 1946, he became an apprentice photographer for Look and later a full-time staff photographer. G. Warren Schloat, Jr., another new photographer for the magazine at the time, recalled that he thought Kubrick lacked the personality to make it as a director in Hollywood, remarking, \"Stanley was a quiet fellow. He didn't say much. He was thin, skinny, and kind of poor—like we all were\". Kubrick quickly became known, however, for his story-telling in photographs. His first, published on April 16, 1946, was entitled \"A Short Story from a Movie Balcony\" and staged a fracas between a man and a woman, during which the man is slapped in the face, caught genuinely by surprise. In another assignment, 18 pictures were taken of various people waiting in a dental office. It has been said retrospectively that this project demonstrated an early interest of Kubrick in capturing individuals and their feelings in mundane environments. In 1948, he was sent to Portugal to document a travel piece, and covered the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus in Sarasota, Florida. Kubrick, a boxing enthusiast, eventually began photographing boxing matches for the magazine. His earliest, \"Prizefighter\", was published on January 18, 1949, and captured a boxing match and the events leading up to it, featuring Walter Cartier. On April 2, 1949, he published a photo essay, named \"Chicago-City of Extremes\" in Look, which displayed his talent early on for creating atmosphere with imagery, including a photograph taken above a congested Chicago street at night. The following year, on July 18, 1950, the magazine published his photo essay, \"Working Debutante - Betsy von Furstenberg\", which featured a Pablo Picasso portrait of Angel F. de Soto in the background. Kubrick was also assigned to photograph numerous jazz musicians, from Frank Sinatra and Errol Garner to George Lewis, Eddie Condon, Phil Napoleon, Oscar Celestin, Alphonse Picou, Muggsy Spanier, Sharkey Bonano, and others.\n\nKubrick married his high-school sweetheart Toba Metz on May 28, 1948. They lived together in a small apartment at 36 West 16th Street, off 6th Avenue just north of Greenwich Village. During this time, Kubrick began frequenting film screenings at the Museum of Modern Art and the cinemas of New York City. He was inspired by the complex, fluid camerawork of the director Max Ophüls, whose films influenced Kubrick's later visual style, and by the director Elia Kazan, whom he described as America's \"best director\" at that time, with his ability of \"performing miracles\" with his actors. Friends began to notice that Kubrick had become obsessed with the art of filmmaking—one friend, David Vaughn, observed that Kubrick would scrutinize the film at the cinema when it went silent, and would go back to reading his paper when people started talking. He also spent many hours reading books on film theory and writing down notes. Sergei Eisenstein's theoretical writings had a profound impact on Kubrick, and he took a great number of notes from books in the library of Arthur Rothstein, the photographic technical director of Look magazine.\n\nFilm career\n\nShort films (1951–53)\n\nKubrick shared a love of film with his school friend Alexander Singer, who after graduating from high school had the intention of directing a film version of Homer's The Iliad. Through Singer, who worked in the offices of the newsreel production company, The March of Time, Kubrick learned that it could cost $40,000 to make a proper short film, money he could not afford. However, he had $1500 in savings and managed to produce a few short documentaries fueled by encouragement from Singer. He began learning all he could about filmmaking on his own, calling film suppliers, laboratories, and equipment rental houses.\n\nKubrick decided to make a short film documentary about boxer Walter Cartier, whom he had photographed and written about for Look magazine a year earlier. He rented a camera and produced a 16-minute black-and-white documentary, Day of the Fight. Kubrick found the money independently to finance it. He had considered asking Montgomery Clift to narrate it, whom he had met during a photographic session for Look, but settled on CBS news veteran Douglas Edwards. According to Paul Duncan the film was \"remarkably accomplished for a first film\", and was notable for using the reverse tracking shot to film a scene in which the brothers walk towards the camera, a device later to become one of Kubrick's characteristic camera movements. Vincent Cartier, Walter's brother and manager, later reflected on his observations of Kubrick during the filming. He said, \"Stanley was very stoic, impassive but imaginative type person with strong, imaginative thoughts. He commanded respect in a quiet, shy way. Whatever he wanted, you complied, he just captivated you. Anybody who worked with Stanley did just what Stanley wanted\". After a score was added by Singer's friend Gerald Fried, Kubrick had spent $3900 in making it, and sold it to RKO-Pathé for $4000, which was the most the company had ever paid for a short film at the time. Kubrick described his first effort at filmmaking as having been valuable since he believed himself to have been forced to do most of the work, and he later declared that the \"best education in film is to make one\".\n\nInspired by this early success, Kubrick quit his job at Look and visited professional filmmakers in New York City, asking many detailed questions about the technical aspects of film-making. He stated that he was given the confidence during this period to become a filmmaker because of the number of bad films he had seen, remarking, \"I don't know a goddamn thing about movies, but I know I can make a better film than that\". He began making Flying Padre (1951), a film which documents Reverend Fred Stadtmueller, who travels some 4,000 miles to visit his 11 churches. The film was originally going to be called \"Sky Pilot\", a pun on the slang term for a priest. During the course of the film, the priest performs a burial service, confronts a boy bullying a girl, and makes an emergency flight to aid a sick mother and baby into an ambulance. Several of the views from and of the plane in Flying Padre are later echoed in 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) with the footage of the spacecraft, and a series of close-ups on the faces of people attending the funeral were most likely inspired by Sergei Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin (1925) and Ivan the Terrible (1944/1958).\n\nFlying Padre was followed by The Seafarers (1953), Kubrick's first color film, which was shot for the Seafarers International Union in June 1953. It has shots of ships, machinery, a canteen, and a union meeting. For the cafeteria scene in the film, Kubrick chose a long, sideways-shooting dolly shot to establish the life of the seafarer's community; this shot is an early demonstration of a technique which would become a signature of his. The montage of speaker and audience echoes scenes from Eisenstein's Strike (1925) and October (1928). Day of the Fight, Flying Padre and The Seafarers constitute Kubrick's only surviving documentary works, although some historians believe he made others.\n\nEarly feature work (1953–55)\n\nAfter raising $1000 showing his short films to friends and family, Kubrick found the finances to begin making his first feature film, Fear and Desire (1953), originally running with the title The Trap, written by his friend Howard Sackler. Kubrick's uncle, Martin Perveler, a Los Angeles businessman, invested a further $9000 on condition that he be credited as executive producer of the film. Kubrick assembled several actors and a small crew totaling 14 people (five actors, five crewmen, and four Mexicans to help transport the equipment) and flew to the San Gabriel Mountains in California for a five-week, low-budget shoot. Later renamed The Shape of Fear before finally being named Fear and Desire, it is a fictional allegory about a team of soldiers who survive a plane crash and are caught behind enemy lines in a war. During the course of the film, one of the soldiers becomes infatuated with an attractive girl in the woods and binds her to a tree. This scene is noted for its close-ups on the face of the actress. Kubrick had intended for Fear and Desire to be a silent picture in order to ensure low production costs; the added sounds, effects, and music ultimately brought production costs to around $53,000, exceeding the budget. He was bailed out by producer Richard de Rochemont on the condition that he help in de Rochemont's production of a five-part television series about Abraham Lincoln on location in Hodgenville, Kentucky.\n\nFear and Desire garnered several positive reviews upon release, but was nonetheless a commercial failure. Critics such as the reviewer from The New York Times believed that Kubrick's professionalism as a photographer shone through in the picture, and that he \"artistically caught glimpses of the grotesque attitudes of death, the wolfishness of hungry men, as well as their bestiality, and in one scene, the wracking effect of lust on a pitifully juvenile soldier and the pinioned girl he is guarding\". Columbia University scholar Mark Van Doren was highly impressed by the scenes with the girl bound to the tree, remarking that it would live on as a \"beautiful, terrifying and weird\" sequence which illustrated Kubrick's immense talent and guaranteed his future success. Kubrick himself later expressed embarrassment with Fear and Desire, however, and attempted over the years to keep prints of the film out of circulation.\n\nFollowing Fear and Desire, Kubrick began working on ideas for a new boxing film. Due to the commercial failure of his first feature, Kubrick avoided asking for further investments, but commenced a film noir script with Howard O. Sackler. Originally under the title Kiss Me, Kill Me, and then The Nymph and the Maniac, Killer's Kiss (1955) is a 67-minute film noir about a young heavyweight boxer's involvement with a woman being abused by her criminal boss. Like Fear and Desire, it was privately funded by Kubrick's family and friends, with some $40,000 put forward from Bronx pharmacist Morris Bousse. Kubrick began shooting footage in Times Square, and frequently explored during the filming process, experimenting with cinematography and considering the use of unconventional angles and imagery. He initially chose to record the sound on location, but encountered difficulties with shadows from the microphone booms, restricting camera movement. His decision to drop the sound in favor of imagery was a costly one; after 12–14 weeks shooting the picture, he spent some seven months and $35,000 working on the sound.\nAlfred Hitchcock's Blackmail (1929) directly influenced the film with the painting laughing at a character, and Martin Scorsese has, in turn, cited Kubrick's innovative shooting angles and atmospheric shots in Killer's Kiss as an influence on Raging Bull (1980). Actress Irene Kane, the star of the film, observed: \"Stanley's a fascinating character. He thinks movies should move, with a minimum of dialogue, and he's all for sex and sadism\". Killer's Kiss met with limited commercial success and made very little money in comparison with its production budget of $75,000. Although critics have praised the film's camerawork, its acting and story are generally considered mediocre.\n\nHollywood success (1956–61)\n\nWhile playing chess in Washington Square, Kubrick met producer James B. Harris, who considered Kubrick to be \"the most intelligent, most creative person I have ever come in contact with\", and the two formed the Harris-Kubrick Pictures Corporation in 1955. Harris purchased the rights to Lionel White's novel Clean Break for $10,000 and Kubrick wrote the script, but upon Kubrick's suggestion, they hired film noir novelist Jim Thompson to write the dialog for the film—which later became The Killing (1956)—about a meticulously planned racetrack robbery gone wrong. The film starred Sterling Hayden, with whom Kubrick had been impressed in The Asphalt Jungle (1950). Kubrick and Harris moved to Los Angeles from New York and signed with the Jaffe Agency to shoot the picture, which became Kubrick's first full-length feature film shot with a professional cast and crew. The Union in Hollywood stated that Kubrick would not be permitted to be both the director and the cinematographer of the movie, so veteran cinematographer Lucien Ballard was hired for the shooting. Kubrick agreed to waive his fee for the production, which was shot in just 24 days on a budget of $330,000. He clashed with Ballard during the shooting, and on one occasion Kubrick threatened to fire Ballard following a camera dispute, despite being only 27 years old at the time and 20 years Ballard's junior. Hayden recalled that Kubrick was \"cold and detached. Very mechanical, always confident. I've worked with few directors who are that good\". The Killing failed to secure a proper release across the United States; the film made little money, and was promoted only at the last minute, as a second feature to the Western movie Bandido! (1956). Several contemporary critics lauded the film, however, with a reviewer for TIME comparing its camerawork to that of Orson Welles. Today, critics generally consider The Killing to be among the best films of Kubrick's early career; its nonlinear narrative and clinical execution also had a major influence on later directors of crime films, including Quentin Tarantino. Dore Schary of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was highly impressed as well, and offered Kubrick and Harris $75,000 to write, direct, and produce a film, which ultimately became Paths of Glory (1957).\n\nPaths of Glory, set during World War I, is based on Humphrey Cobb's 1935 antiwar novel, which Kubrick had read while waiting in his father's office. Schary of MGM was familiar with the novel, but stated that the company would not finance another war picture, given their backing of the anti-war film The Red Badge of Courage (1951). After Schary was fired by MGM in a major shake-up, Kubrick and Harris managed to interest Kirk Douglas in playing Colonel Dax. The film, shot in Munich, from January 1957, follows a French army unit ordered on an impossible mission, and follows with a war trial of Colonel Dax and his men for misconduct. For the battle scene, Kubrick meticulously lined up six cameras one after the other along the boundary of no-man's land, with each camera capturing a specific field and numbered, and gave each of the hundreds of extras a number for the zone in which they would die. Kubrick himself operated an Arriflex camera for the battle, zooming in on Douglas. Paths of Glory became Kubrick's first significant commercial success, and established him as an up-and-coming young filmmaker. Critics praised the film's unsentimental, spare, and unvarnished combat scenes and its raw, black-and-white cinematography. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote: \"The close, hard eye of Mr Kubrick's sullen camera bores directly into the minds of scheming men and into the hearts of patient, frightened soldiers who have to accept orders to die\". Despite the praise, the Christmas release date was criticized, and the subject was a controversial one in Europe. The film was banned in France until 1974 for its \"unflattering\" depiction of the French military, and was censored by the Swiss Army until 1970.\n\nMarlon Brando contacted Kubrick, asking him to direct a film adaption of the Charles Neider western novel, The Authentic Death of Hendry Jones, featuring Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid. Brando was highly impressed with the director, remarking that \"Stanley is unusually perceptive, and delicately attuned to people. He has an adroit intellect, and is a creative thinker—not a repeater, not a fact-gatherer. He digests what he learns and brings to a new project an original point of view and a reserved passion\". The two worked on a script for six months, begun by a then unknown Sam Peckinpah. Many disputes broke out over the project, and in the end, Kubrick distanced himself from what would become One-Eyed Jacks (1961).\n\nIn February 1959, Kubrick received a phone call from Kirk Douglas asking him to direct Spartacus (1960), based on the true life story of the historical figure Spartacus and the events of the Third Servile War. Douglas had acquired the rights to the novel by Howard Fast and blacklisted screenwriter Dalton Trumbo began penning the script. It was produced by Douglas, who also starred as rebellious slave Spartacus, and cast Laurence Olivier as his foe, the Roman general and politician Marcus Licinius Crassus. Douglas hired Kubrick for a reported fee of $150,000 to take over direction soon after he fired director Anthony Mann. Kubrick had, at 31, already directed four feature films, and this became his largest by far, with a cast of over 10,000 and a large budget of $6 million. At the time, this was the most expensive film ever made in America, and Kubrick became the youngest director in Hollywood history to helm an epic. It was the first time that Kubrick filmed using the anamorphic 35mm horizontal Super Technirama process to achieve ultra-high definition, which allowed him to capture large panoramic scenes, including one with 8,000 trained soldiers from Spain representing the Roman army. Disputes broke out during the filming. Kubrick complained about not having full creative control over the artistic aspects, insisting on improvizing extensively during the production. Kubrick and Douglas were also at odds over the script, with Kubrick angering Douglas when he cut all but two of his lines from the opening 30 minutes. Despite the on-set troubles, Spartacus was a critical and commercial success, earning $14.6 million at the box office in its first run. The film established Kubrick as a major director, receiving six Academy Award nominations and winning four; it ultimately convinced him that if so much could be made of such a problematic production, he could achieve anything. Spartacus also marked, however, the end of the working relationship between Kubrick and Douglas.\n\nCollaboration with Peter Sellers (1962–64)\n\nKubrick and Harris made a decision to film Kubrick's next movie Lolita (1962) in England, due to clauses placed on the contract by producers Warner Bros. that gave them complete control over every aspect of the film, and the fact that the Eady plan permitted producers to write off the costs if 80% of the crew were English. Instead, they signed a $1 million deal with Eliot Hyman's Associated Artists Productions, and a clause which gave them the artistic freedom that they desired. Lolita, Kubrick's first attempt at black comedy, was an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Vladimir Nabokov, the story of a middle-aged college professor becoming infatuated with a 12-year-old girl. Stylistically, Lolita, starring Peter Sellers, James Mason, Shelley Winters, and Sue Lyon, was a transitional film for Kubrick, \"marking the turning point from a naturalistic cinema ... to the surrealism of the later films\", according to film critic Gene Youngblood. Kubrick was deeply impressed by the chameleon-like range of actor Peter Sellers and gave him one of his first opportunities to improvize wildly during shooting, while filming him with three cameras.\n\nLolita was shot over 88 days on a budget of $2 million at Elstree Studios, between October 1960 and March 1961. Kubrick often clashed with Shelley Winters, whom he found \"very difficult\" and demanding, and nearly fired at one point. Because of its provocative story, Lolita was Kubrick's first film to generate controversy; he was ultimately forced to comply with censors and remove much of the erotic element of the relationship between Mason's Humbert and Lyon's Lolita which had been evident in Nabokov's novel. The film was not a major critical or commercial success upon release, earning $3.7 million at the box office on its opening run. Lolita has since become acclaimed by film critics. Social historian Stephen E. Kercher documented that the film \"demonstrated that its director possessed a keen, satiric insight into the social landscape and sexual hang-ups of cold war America\", while Jon Fortgang of Film4 wrote: \"Lolita, with its acute mix of pathos and comedy, and Mason's mellifluous delivery of Nabokov's sparkling lines, remains the definitive depiction of tragic transgression\".\n\nKubrick's next project was Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964), another satirical black comedy. Kubrick became preoccupied with the issue of nuclear war as the Cold War unfolded in the 1950s, and even considered moving to Australia because he feared that New York City might be a likely target for the Russians. He studied over 40 military and political research books on the subject and eventually reached the conclusion that \"nobody really knew anything and the whole situation was absurd\". After buying the rights to the novel Red Alert, Kubrick collaborated with its author, Peter George, on the script. It was originally written as a serious political thriller, but Kubrick decided that a \"serious treatment\" of the subject would not be believable, and thought that some of its most salient points would be fodder for comedy. Kubrick and George then reworked the script as a satire (provisionally titled \"The Delicate Balance of Terror\") in which the plot of Red Alert was situated as a film-within-a-film made by an alien intelligence, but this idea was also abandoned, and Kubrick decided to make the film as \"an outrageous black comedy\". Just before filming began, Kubrick hired noted journalist and satirical author Terry Southern to transform the script into its final form, a black-comedy, loaded with sexual innuendo, becoming a film which showed Kubrick's talents as \"unique kind of absurdist\" according to the film scholar Abrams. Although Southern certainly made major contributions to final script, and was co-credited (above Peter George) in the film's opening titles, his perceived role in the writing later led to a public rift between Kubrick and Peter George, who subsequently complained in a letter to Life magazine that Southern's intense but relatively brief (November 16 to December 28, 1962) involvement with the project was being given undue prominence in the media, while his own role as the author of the film's source novel, and his ten-month stint as the script's co-writer, were being downplayed - a perception Kubrick evidently did little to address. \n\nKubrick found that Dr. Strangelove, a $2 million production which employed what became the \"first important visual effects crew in the world\", would be impossible to make in the U.S. for various technical and political reasons, forcing him to move production to England. It was shot in 15 weeks, ending in April 1963, after which Kubrick spent eight months editing it. Peter Sellers again agreed to work with Kubrick, and ended up playing three different roles in the film. Upon release, the film stirred up much controversy and mixed opinions. The New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther worried that it was a \"discredit and even contempt for our whole defense establishment ... the most shattering sick joke I've ever come across\", while Robert Brustein of Out of This World in a February 1970 article called it a \"juvenalian satire\". Kubrick responded to the criticism, stating: \"A satirist is someone who has a very skeptical view of human nature, but who still has the optimism to make some sort of a joke out of it. However brutal that joke might be\". Today, the film is considered to be one of the sharpest comedy films ever made, and holds a near perfect 99% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 68 reviews as of August 2015. It was voted the 39th-greatest American film and third-greatest comedy film of all time by the American Film Institute, and in 2010, it was voted the sixth-best comedy film of all time by The Guardian. \n\nGround-breaking cinema (1965–71)\n\nKubrick spent five years developing his next film, 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), having been highly impressed with science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke's novel Childhood's End, about a superior race of alien beings who assist mankind in eliminating their old selves. After meeting Clarke in New York City in April 1964, Kubrick made the suggestion to work on his 1948 short story The Sentinel, about a tetrahedron which is found on the Moon which alerts aliens of mankind. That year, Clarke began writing the novel 2001: A Space Odyssey, and the screenplay was written by Kubrick and Clarke in collaboration. The film's theme, the birthing of one intelligence by another, is developed in two parallel intersecting stories on two very different times scales. One depicts transitions between various stages of man, from ape to \"star child\", as man is reborn into a new existence, each step shepherded by an enigmatic alien intelligence seen only in its artifacts: a series of seemingly indestructible eons-old black monoliths. In space, the enemy is a supercomputer known as HAL who runs the spaceship, a character which novelist Clancy Sigal described as being \"far, far more human, more humorous and conceivably decent than anything else that may emerge from this far-seeing enterprise\".\n\nKubrick spent a great deal of time researching the film, paying particular attention to accuracy and detail in what the future may look like. He was granted permission by NASA to observe the spacecraft being used in the Ranger 9 mission for accuracy. Filming commenced on December 29, 1965, with the excavation of the monolith on the moon, and footage was shot in Namib Desert in early 1967, with the ape scenes completed in the summer of that year. The special effects team continued working diligently until the end of the year to complete the film, taking the cost to $10.5 million. 2001: A Space Odyssey was conceived as a Cinerama spectacle and was photographed in Super Panavision 70, giving the viewer a \"dazzling mix of imagination and science\" through ground-breaking effects, which earned Kubrick his only personal Oscar, an Academy Award for Visual Effects. Louise Sweeney of the Christian Science Monitor called the film the \"ultimate trip\" while praising one of the scenes where the viewer moves through space while witnessing a vibrant mix of lighting, color, and patterns. Kubrick said of the concept of the film in an interview with Rolling Stone: \"On the deepest psychological level, the film's plot symbolized the search for God, and finally postulates what is little less than a scientific definition of God. The film revolves around this metaphysical conception, and the realistic hardware and the documentary feelings about everything were necessary in order to undermine your built-in resistance to the poetical concept\".\n\nUpon release in 1968, 2001: A Space Odyssey was not an immediate hit among many critics, who faulted its lack of dialogue, slow pacing, and seemingly impenetrable storyline. The film appeared to defy genre convention, much unlike any science-fiction movie before it, and clearly different from any of Kubrick's earlier films or stories. Kubrick was particularly outraged by a scathing review from Pauline Kael, who called it \"the biggest amateur movie of them all\", with Kubrick doing \"really every dumb thing he ever wanted to do\". Despite the initial poor critical response, 2001: A Space Odyssey gradually gained popularity and earned $31 million worldwide by the end of 1972. Today, it is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential films ever made, and is a staple on All Time Top 10 lists. Baxter describes the film as \"one of the most admired and discussed creations in the history of cinema\", and Steven Spielberg has referred to it as \"the big bang of his film making generation\". For LoBrutto it \"positioned Stanley Kubrick as a pure artist ranked among the masters of cinema\".\n\nAfter completing 2001: A Space Odyssey, Kubrick searched for a project that he could film quickly on a small budget. He settled on A Clockwork Orange (1971) at the end of 1969, an exploration of violence and experimental rehabilitation by law enforcement authorities, based around the character of Alex (portrayed by Malcolm McDowell). Kubrick had originally received a copy of Anthony Burgess's novel of the same name from Terry Southern while they were working on Dr. Strangelove, but had rejected it on the grounds that Nadsat, a street language for young teenagers, was too difficult to comprehend. In 1969, the decision to make a film about the degeneration of youth was a more timely one; the New Hollywood movement was witnessing a great number of films that were centered around the sexuality and rebelliousness of young people, which no doubt influenced Kubrick in Baxter's opinion. A Clockwork Orange was shot over the winter of 1970-1 on a budget of £2 million. Kubrick abandoned his use of CinemaScope in the filming, deciding that the 1.66:1 widescreen format was, in the words of Baxter, an \"acceptable compromise between spectacle and intimacy\", and favored his \"rigorously symmetrical framing\", which \"increased the beauty of his compositions\". The film heavily features \"pop erotica\" of the period, including a giant white plastic set of male genitals, decor which Kubrick had intended to give it a \"slightly futuristic\" look. McDowell's role in Lindsay Anderson's if.... (1968) was crucial to his casting as Alex, and Kubrick professed that he probably would not have made the film if McDowell had been unavailable.\n\nBecause of its depiction of teenage violence, A Clockwork Orange became one of the most controversial films of the decade, and part of an ongoing debate about violence and its glorification in cinema. It received an X-rated certificate upon release, just before Christmas in 1971, though many critics saw much of the violence depicted in the film as satirical, and less violent than Straw Dogs, which had been released a month earlier. Kubrick personally pulled the film from release in the United Kingdom after receiving death threats following a series of copycat crimes based on the film; it was thus completely unavailable legally in the UK until after Kubrick's death, and not re-released until 2000. John Trevelyan, the censor of the film, personally considered A Clockwork Orange to be \"perhaps the most brilliant piece of cinematic art I've ever seen, and believed it to present an \"intellectual argument rather than a sadistic spectacle\" in its depiction of violence, but acknowledged that many would not agree. Ignoring the negative media hype over the film, A Clockwork Orange received four Academy Award nominations, for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay and Best Editing, and was named by the New York Film Critics Circle as the Best Film of 1971. After William Friedkin won Best Director for The French Connection that year, he told the press: \"Speaking personally, I think Stanley Kubrick is the best American film-maker of the year. In fact, not just this year, but the best, period\".\n\nPeriod and horror filming (1972–80)\n\nBarry Lyndon (1975) is an adaptation of William Makepeace Thackeray's The Luck of Barry Lyndon (also known as Barry Lyndon), a picaresque novel about the adventures of an 18th-century Irish rogue and social climber. John Calley of Warner Bros. agreed in 1972 to invest $2.5 million into the film, on condition that Kubrick approach major Hollywood stars, to ensure it of success. Like previous films, Kubrick and his art department conducted an enormous amount of research, and he went from knowing very little about the 18th century at the start of the production to becoming an expert on it. Extensive photographs were taken of locations and artwork in particular, and paintings were meticulously replicated from works of the great masters of the period in the film. The film was shot on location in Ardmore, County Waterford, Ireland, beginning in the autumn of 1973, at a cost of $11 million with a cast and crew of 170. The decision to shoot in Ireland stemmed from the fact that it still retained many buildings from the 18th century period which England lacked. The production was problematic from the start, plagued with heavy rain and political strife involving Northern Ireland at the time. After Kubrick received death threats from the IRA in the New Year of 1974 due to the shooting scenes with English soldiers, he fled Ireland with his family on a ferry from Dún Laoghaire under an assumed identity, and filming resumed in England.\n\nBaxter notes that Barry Lyndon was the film which made Kubrick notorious for paying scrupulous attention to detail, often demanding twenty or thirty retakes of the same scene to perfect his art. Often considered to be his most authentic-looking picture, the cinematography and lighting techniques that Kubrick and cinematographer John Alcott used in Barry Lyndon were highly innovative. Most notably, interior scenes were shot with a specially adapted high-speed f/0.7 Zeiss camera lens originally developed for NASA to be used in satellite photography. The lenses allowed many scenes to be lit only with candlelight, creating two-dimensional, diffused-light images reminiscent of 18th-century paintings. Cinematographer Allen Daviau states that the method gives the audience a way of seeing the characters and scenes as they would have been seen by people at the time. Many of the fight scenes were shot with a hand-held camera to produce a \"sense of documentary realism and immediacy\".\n\nAlthough Barry Lyndon found a great audience in France, it was a box office failure, grossing just $9.5 million in the American market, not even close to the $30 million Warner Bros. needed to generate a profit. The pace and length of Barry Lyndon at three hours put off many American critics and audiences, but the film was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four, including Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design, and Best Musical Score, more than any other Kubrick film. As with most of Kubrick's films, Barry Lyndons reputation has grown through the years and it is now considered to be one of his best, particularly among filmmakers and critics. Numerous polls, such as Village Voice (1999), Sight & Sound (2002), and Time (2005), have rated it as one of the greatest films ever made. As of August 2015, it has as 96% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 52 reviews. Roger Ebert referred to it as \"one of the most beautiful films ever made\", \"certainly in every frame a Kubrick film: technically awesome, emotionally distant, remorseless in its doubt of human goodness.\" \n\nThe Shining, released in 1980, was adapted from the novel of the same name by bestselling horror writer Stephen King. The Shining was not the only horror film to which Kubrick had been linked; he had turned down the directing of both The Exorcist (1973) and Exorcist II: The Heretic (1977), despite once claiming in 1966 to a friend that he had long desired to \"make the world's scariest movie, involving a series of episodes that would play upon the nightmare fears of the audience\". The film stars Jack Nicholson as a writer who takes a job as a winter caretaker of a large and isolated hotel in the Rocky Mountains. He spends the winter there with his wife, played by Shelley Duvall, and their young son, who displays paranormal abilities. During their stay, they confront both Jack's descent into madness and apparent supernatural horrors lurking in the hotel. Kubrick gave his actors freedom to extend the script, and even improvise on occasion, and as a result, Nicholson was responsible for the 'Here's Johnny!' line and scene in which he's sitting at the typewriter and unleashes his anger upon his wife. So determined to produce perfection was Kubrick, he often demanded up to 70 or 80 retakes of the same scene. The bar scene with the ghostly bartender was shot 36 times, while the kitchen scene between the characters of Danny (Danny Lloyd) and Halloran (Scatman Crothers) ran to 148 takes. The aerial shots of the Overlook Hotel were shot at Timberline Lodge on Mount Hood in Oregon, while the interiors of the hotel were shot at Elstree Studios in England between May 1978 and April 1979. Cardboard models were made of all of the sets of the film, and the lighting of them was a massive undertaking, which took four months of electrical wiring. Kubrick made extensive use of the newly invented Steadicam, a weight-balanced camera support, which allowed for smooth hand-held camera movement in scenes where a conventional camera track was impractical. According to Garrett Brown, Steadicam's inventor, it was the first picture to use its full potential.\n\nFive days after release on May 23, 1980, Kubrick ordered the deletion of a final scene, in which the hotel manager Ullman (Barry Nelson) visits Wendy (Shelley Duvall) in hospital, believing it to have been unnecessary after witnessing the audience excitement in cinemas at the climax of the film. The Shining opened to strong box office takings, earning $1 million on the first weekend and earning $30.9 million in America alone by the end of the year. The original critical response was mixed, and King himself detested the film and disliked Kubrick. Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the \"eerie way\" in which Kubrick turned an \"enormous building into something cramped and claustrophobic\", which would \"undoubtedly amount to one of the screen's scarier haunted houses\". The Shining is now considered to be a horror cult classic, and the American Film Institute has ranked it as the 27th greatest thriller film of all time. \n\nLater work and final years (1981–99)\n\nKubrick met author Michael Herr through mutual friend David Cornwell (novelist John le Carré) in 1980, and became interested in his book Dispatches, about the Vietnam War. Herr had recently written Martin Sheen's narration for Apocalypse Now (1979). Kubrick was also intrigued by Gustav Hasford's Vietnam War novel The Short-Timers. With the vision in mind to shoot what would become Full Metal Jacket (1987), Kubrick began working with both Herr and Hasford separately on a script. He eventually found Hasford's novel to be \"brutally honest\" and decided to shoot a film which closely follows the novel. All of the film was shot at a cost of $17 million within a 30-mile radius of his house between August 1985 and September 1986, later than scheduled as Kubrick shut down production for five months following a near-fatal accident with a jeep involving Lee Ermey. A derelict gasworks in Beckton in the London Docklands area posed as the ruined city of Huế, which makes the film visually very different from other Vietnam War films. Around 200 palm trees were imported via 40-foot trailers by road from North Africa, at a cost of £1000 a tree, and thousands of plastic plants were ordered from Hong Kong to provide foliage for the film. Kubrick explained he made the film look realistic by using natural light, and achieved a \"newsreel effect\" by making the Steadicam shots less steady, which reviewers and commentators thought contributed to the bleakness and seriousness of the film. According to critic Michel Ciment, the film contained some of Kubrick's trademark characteristics, such as his selection of ironic music, portrayals of men being dehumanized, and attention to extreme detail to achieve realism. In a later scene where United States Marines patrol the ruins of an abandoned and totally destroyed city, the theme song to the Mickey Mouse Club is heard as a sardonic counterpoint. The film opened strongly in June 1987, taking over $30 million in the first 50 days alone, but critically it was overshadowed by the success of Oliver Stone's Platoon, released a year earlier. According to one review, notes co-star Matthew Modine, \"The first half of FMJ is brilliant. Then the film degenerates into a masterpiece.\" Roger Ebert was not particularly impressed with it, awarding it a mediocre 2.5 out of 4. He concluded: \"Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket is more like a book of short stories than a novel\", a \"strangely shapeless film from the man whose work usually imposes a ferociously consistent vision on his material\". \nKubrick's final film was Eyes Wide Shut (1999), starring Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman as a Manhattan couple on a sexual odyssey. Tom Cruise portrays a doctor who witnesses a bizarre masked quasireligious orgiastic ritual at a country mansion, a discovery which later threatens his life. The story is based on Arthur Schnitzler's 1926 Freudian novella Traumnovelle (Dream Story in English), which Kubrick relocated from turn-of-the-century Vienna to New York City in the 1990s. Kubrick said of the novel: \"A difficult book to describe—what good book isn't. It explores the sexual ambivalence of a happy marriage and tries to equate the importance of sexual dreams and might-have-beens with reality. All of Schnitzler's work is psychologically brilliant\". Although Kubrick was almost 70, he worked relentlessly for 15 months to get the film out by its planned release date of July 16, 1999. He commenced a script with Frederic Raphael, and worked 18 hours a day, all the while maintaining complete confidentiality about the film. Principal photography began on November 7, 1996, and ended in February 1998. Eyes Wide Shut, like Lolita and A Clockwork Orange before it, faced censorship before release. Kubrick sent an unfinished preview copy to the stars and producers a few months before release, but his sudden death on March 7, 1999, came a few days after he finished editing. He never saw the final version released to the public, but he did see the preview of the film with Warner Bros., Cruise, and Kidman, and had reportedly told Warner executive Julian Senior that it was \"my best film ever\". Today, critical opinion of the film is mixed, and it is viewed less favorably than most of Kubrick's films. Roger Ebert awarded it 3.5 out 4 stars, comparing the structure to a thriller and writing that it is \"like an erotic daydream about chances missed and opportunities avoided\", and thought that Kubrick's use of lighting at Christmas made the film \"all a little garish, like an urban sideshow.\" Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post disliked the film, writing: \"Its actually sad, rather than bad. It feels creaky, ancient, hopelessly out of touch, infatuated with the hot taboos of his youth and unable to connect with that twisty thing contemporary sexuality has become.\" \n\nA.I. Artificial Intelligence and unrealized projects\n\nA.I. Artificial Intelligence\n\nThroughout the 1980s and early 1990s, Kubrick collaborated with Brian Aldiss on an expansion of his short story \"Super-Toys Last All Summer Long\" into a three-act film. It was a futuristic fairy tale about a robot that resembles and behaves as a child, and his efforts to become a 'real boy' in a manner similar to Pinocchio. Kubrick approached Spielberg in 1995 with the AI script with the possibility of Steven Spielberg directing it and Kubrick producing it. Kubrick reportedly held long telephone discussions with Spielberg regarding the film, and, according to Spielberg, at one point stated that the subject matter was closer to Spielberg's sensibilities than his. \n\nFollowing Kubrick's death in 1999, Spielberg took the various drafts and notes left by Kubrick and his writers and composed a new screenplay based on an earlier 90-page story treatment by Ian Watson written under Kubrick's supervision and according to Kubrick's specifications. In association with what remained of Kubrick's production unit, he directed the movie A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001). which was produced by Kubrick's longtime producer (and brother-in-law) Jan Harlan. Sets, costumes, and art direction were based on the works of conceptual artist Chris Baker, who had also done much of his work under Kubrick's supervision.\n\nAlthough Spielberg was able to function autonomously in Kubrick's absence, he said he felt \"inhibited to honor him,\" and followed Kubrick's visual schema with as much fidelity as he could, according to author Joseph McBride. Spielberg, who once referred to Kubrick as \"the greatest master I ever served,\" now with production underway, admitted, \"I felt like I was being coached by a ghost.\" The film was released in June 2001. It contains a posthumous production credit for Stanley Kubrick at the beginning and the brief dedication \"For Stanley Kubrick\" at the end. John Williams's score contains many allusions to pieces heard in other Kubrick films. \n\nNapoleon\n\nFollowing 2001: A Space Odyssey, Kubrick originally planned to make a film about the life of the French emperor Napoleon. Fascinated by his life and own \"self-destruction\", Kubrick spent a great deal of time planning the film's development, and had conducted about two years of extensive research into Napoleon's life, reading several hundred books and gaining access to Napoleon's personal memoirs and commentaries. He also tried to see every film ever made about Napoleon and found none of them appealing, including Abel Gance's 1927 film which is generally considered to be a masterpiece, but for Kubrick, a \"really terrible\" movie. Lo Brutto states that Napoleon was an ideal subject for Kubrick, embracing the director's \"passion for control, power, obsession, strategy, and the military\", while Napoleon's psychological intensity and depth, logistical genius and war, sex, and the evil nature of man were all ingredients which deeply appealed to Kubrick.\n\nKubrick drafted a screenplay in 1961, and envisaged making a \"grandiose\" epic, with up to 40,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. He had intended hiring the armed forces of an entire country to make the film, as he considered Napoleonic battles to be \"so beautiful, like vast lethal ballets\", with an \"aesthetic brilliance that doesn't require a military mind to appreciate\". He wanted them to be replicated as authentically as possible on screen. Kubrick had sent research teams to scout for locations across Europe, and commissioned screenwriter and director Andrew Birkin, one of his young assistants on 2001, to the Isle of Elba, Austerlitz, and Waterloo, taking thousands of pictures for his later perusal. Kubrick approached numerous stars to play leading roles, including Audrey Hepburn for Empress Josephine, a part which she could not accept due to semiretirement. \nBritish actors David Hemmings and Ian Holm were considered for the lead role of Napoleon, before Jack Nicholson was cast. The film was well into preproduction and ready to begin filming in 1969 when MGM cancelled the project. Numerous reasons have been cited for the abandonment of the project, including its projected cost, a change of ownership at MGM, and the poor reception the 1970 Soviet film about Napoleon, Waterloo, received. In 2011, Taschen published the book, Stanley Kubrick's Napoleon: The Greatest Movie Never Made, a large volume compilation of literature and source documents from Kubrick, such as scene photo ideas and copies of letters Kubrick wrote and received. In March 2013, Steven Spielberg, who previously collaborated with Kubrick on A.I. Artificial Intelligence and is a passionate admirer of his work, announced that he would be developing Napoleon as a TV miniseries based on Kubrick's original screenplay. \n\nOther projects\n\nIn the 1950s, Kubrick and Harris developed a sitcom starring Ernie Kovacs and a film adaption of the book I Stole $16,000,000, but nothing came of them. Tony Frewin, an assistant who worked with the director for a long period of time, revealed in a March 2013 Atlantic article: \"He [Kubrick] was limitlessly interested in anything to do with Nazis and desperately wanted to make a film on the subject.\" Kubrick had intended making a film about the life story of Dietrich Schulz-Koehn, a Nazi officer who used the pen name \"Dr. Jazz\" to write reviews of German music scenes during the Nazi era. Kubrick had been given a copy of the Mike Zwerin book Swing Under the Nazis after he had finished production on Full Metal Jacket, the front cover of which featured a photograph of Schulz-Koehn. A screenplay was never completed and Kubrick's film adaptation plan was never initiated. The unfinished Aryan Papers, based on Louis Begley's debut novel Wartimes Lies, was a factor in the abandonment of the project. Work on Aryan Papers depressed Kubrick enormously, and he eventually decided that Steven Spielberg's Schindler's List (1993) covered much of the same material.\n\nAccording to biographer John Baxter, Kubrick had shown an interest in directing a pornographic film based on a satirical novel written by Terry Southern, entitled Blue Movie, about a director who makes Hollywood's first big-budget porn film. However, Baxter claims that Kubrick concluded that he did not have the patience or temperament to become involved in the porn industry, and Southern stated that Kubrick was \"too ultra conservative\" towards sexuality to have seriously gone ahead with it, but liked the idea. Kubrick was unable to direct a film of Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum as Eco had given his publisher instructions to never sell the film rights to any of his books after his dissatisfaction with the film version of The Name of the Rose. Also, when the film rights to Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings were sold to United Artists, the Beatles approached Kubrick to direct them in a film based on the books, but Kubrick was unwilling to produce a film based on a very popular book. Director Peter Jackson has reported that Tolkien was against the involvement of the Beatles.\n\nCareer influences\n\nAs a young man, Kubrick was fascinated by the films of Soviet filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Vsevolod Pudovkin. Kubrick read Pudovkin's seminal theoretical work, Film Technique, which argues that editing makes film a unique art form, and it needs to be employed to manipulate the medium to its fullest. Kubrick recommended this work to others for many years. Thomas Nelson describes this book as \"the greatest influence of any single written work on the evolution of [Kubrick's] private aesthetics\". Kubrick also found the ideas of Constantin Stanislavski to be essential to his understanding the basics of directing, and gave himself a crash course to learn his methods.\n\nKubrick's family and many critics felt that his Jewish ancestry may have contributed to his worldview and aspects of his films. After his death, both his daughter and wife stated that although he was not religious, \"he did not deny his Jewishness, not at all\". His daughter noted that he wanted to make a film about the Holocaust, the Aryan Papers, having spent years researching the subject. Most of Kubrick's friends and early photography and film collaborators were Jewish, and his first two marriages were to daughters of recent Jewish immigrants from Europe. British screenwriter Frederic Raphael, who worked closely with Kubrick in his final years, believes that the originality of Kubrick's films was partly because he \"had a (Jewish?) respect for scholars\". He declared that it was \"absurd to try to understand Stanley Kubrick without reckoning on Jewishness as a fundamental aspect of his mentality\".\n\nWalker notes that Kubrick was influenced by the tracking and \"fluid camera\" styles of director Max Ophüls, and used them in many of his films, including Paths of Glory and 2001: A Space Odyssey. Kubrick noted how in Ophuls' films \"the camera went through every wall and every floor\". He once named Ophüls' Le Plaisir (1952) as his favorite film. According to film historian John Wakeman, Ophüls himself learned the technique from director Anatole Litvak in the 1930s, when he was his assistant, and whose work was \"replete with the camera trackings, pans and swoops which later became the trademark of Max Ophüls\". Geoffrey Cocks believes that Kubrick was also influenced by Ophüls' stories of thwarted love and a preoccupation with predatory men, while Herr notes that Kubrick was deeply inspired by G. W. Pabst, who earlier tried, but was unable to adapt Schnitzler's Traumnovelle, the basis of Eyes Wide Shut. Film critic Robert Kolker sees the influence of Welles' moving camera shots on Kubrick's style. LoBrutto notes that Kubrick identified with Welles and influenced the making of The Killing, with its \"multiple points of view, extreme angles, and deep focus\". Kubrick also cited David Lynch's Eraserhead (1977) as one of his favorite films and used it as a creative reference during the directing of The Shining. \n\nDirecting techniques\n\nPhilosophy\n\nKubrick's films typically involve expressions of an inner struggle, examined from different perspectives.\nHe was very careful not to present his own views of the meaning of his films and leave them open to interpretation. He explained in a 1960 interview with Robert Emmett Ginna: \"One of the things I always find extremely difficult, when a picture's finished, is when a writer or a film reviewer asks, 'Now, what is it that you were trying to say in that picture?' And without being thought too presumptuous for using this analogy, I like to remember what T. S. Eliot said to someone who had asked him—I believe it was The Waste Land—what he meant by the poem. He replied, 'I meant what I said'. If I could have said it any differently, I would have\". Kubrick likened the understanding of his films to popular music, in that whatever the background or intellect of the individual, a Beatles record, for instance, can both be appreciated by the Alabama truck driver and the young Cambridge intellectual in the way that his films can because their \"emotions and subconscious are far more similar than their intellects\". He believed that the subconscious emotional reaction evoked by audiences was far more powerful in the film medium than in any other traditional verbal form, and was one of the reasons why he often relied on long periods in his films without dialogue, placing emphasis on images and sound. In a Time magazine interview in 1975, Kubrick further stated: \"The essence of a dramatic form is to let an idea come over people without it being plainly stated. When you say something directly, it is simply not as potent as it is when you allow people to discover it for themselves.\" He also said \"Realism is probably the best way to dramatize argument and ideas. Fantasy may deal best with themes which lie primarily in the unconscious\".\n\nDiane Johnson, who co-wrote the screenplay for The Shining with Kubrick, notes that he \"always said that it was better to adapt a book rather than write an original screenplay, and that you should choose a work that isn't a masterpiece so you can improve on it. Which is what he's always done, except with Lolita\". When deciding on a subject for a film, there were a number of aspects that he looked for, and he always made films which would \"appeal to every sort of viewer, whatever their expectation of film\". According to his co-producer Jan Harlan, Kubrick mostly \"wanted to make films about things that mattered, that not only had form, but substance\". Kubrick himself believed that audiences quite often were attracted to \"enigmas and allegories\" and did not like films in which everything was spelled out clearly.\n\nAlthough none of his features display graphic sex scenes, sexuality in Kubrick's films is usually depicted outside matrimonial relationships in hostile situations. Baxter states that Kubrick explores the \"furtive and violent side alleys of the sexual experience: voyeurism, domination, bondage and rape\" in his films. He further points out that films like A Clockwork Orange are \"powerfully homoerotic\", from Alex walking about his parents' flat in his Y-fronts, one eye being \"made up with doll-like false eyelashes\", to his innocent acceptance of the sexual advances of his post-corrective adviser Deltroid (Aubrey Morris). British critic Adrian Turner notes that Kubrick's films appear to be \"preoccupied with questions of universal and inherited evil\", and Malcolm McDowell referred to his humor as \"black as coal\", questioning his outlook on humanity. Although a few of his pictures were obvious satires and black comedies, such as Lolita and Dr. Strangelove, many of his other films also contained less visible elements of satire or irony. His films are unpredictable, examining \"the duality and contradictions that exist in all of us\". Ciment notes how Kubrick often tried to confound audience expectations by establishing radically different moods from one film to the next, remarking that he was almost \"obsessed with contradicting himself, with making each work a critique of the previous one\".\nKubrick stated himself that \"there is no deliberate pattern to the stories that I have chosen to make into films. About the only factor at work each time is that I try not to repeat myself\". As a result, Kubrick was often misunderstood by critics, and only once did he have unanimously positive reviews upon the release of a film—for Paths of Glory.\n\nWriting and staging scenes\n\nFilm author Patrick Webster considers Kubrick's methods of writing and developing scenes to fit with the classical auteur theory of directing, allowing collaboration and improvization with the actors during filming. Malcolm McDowell recalled Kubrick's collaborative emphasis during their discussions and his willingness to allow him to improvize a scene, stating that \"there was a script and we followed it, but when it didn't work he knew it, and we had to keep rehearsing endlessly until we were bored with it.\"\nOnce Kubrick was confident in the overall staging of a scene, and felt the actors were prepared, he would then develop the visual aspects, including camera and lighting placement. Walker believes that Kubrick was one of \"very few film directors competent to instruct their lighting photographers in the precise effect they want.\" Baxter believes that although American, Kubrick was heavily influenced by his ancestry and always possessed a European perspective to filmmaking, particularly the Austro-Hungarian empire and his admiration for Johann Ophuls and Richard Strauss.\n\nGilbert Adair, writing in a review for Full Metal Jacket, commented that \"Kubrick's approach to language has always been of a reductive and uncompromisingly deterministic nature. He appears to view it as the exclusive product of environmental conditioning, only very marginally influenced by concepts of subjectivity and interiority, by all whims, shades and modulations of personal expression\". Johnson notes that although Kubrick was a \"visual filmmaker,\" he also loved words and was like a writer in his approach, very sensitive to the story itself, which he found unique. Before shooting began, Kubrick tried to have the script as complete as possible, but still allowed himself enough space to make changes during the actual filming, finding it \"more profitable to avoid locking up any ideas about staging or camera or even dialogue prior to rehearsals\" as he put it. Kubrick told Robert Emmett Ginna: \"I think you have to view the entire problem of putting the story you want to tell up there on that light square. It begins with the selection of the property; it continues through the creation of the story, the sets, the costumes, the photography and the acting. And when the picture is shot, it's only partially finished. I think the cutting is just a continuation of directing a movie. I think the use of music effects, opticals and finally main titles are all part of telling the story. And I think the fragmentation of these jobs, by different people, is a very bad thing\". Kubrick also said: \"I think that the best plot is no apparent plot. I like a slow start, the start that gets under the audience's skin and involves them so that they can appreciate grace notes and soft tones and don't have to be pounded over the head with plot points and suspense tools.\"\n\nDirecting\n\nKubrick was notorious for demanding multiple takes during filming to perfect his art, and his relentless approach was often extremely demanding for his actors. Jack Nicholson remarked that Kubrick would often demand up to 50 takes of a scene. Nicole Kidman explains that the large number of takes he often required stopped actors from consciously thinking about technique, thereby helping them enter a \"deeper place.\" Kubrick's high take ratio was considered by some critics as \"irrational,\" although he firmly believed that actors were at their best during the actual filming, as opposed to rehearsals, due to the sense of intense excitement that it generates. Kubrick explained: \"Actors are essentially emotion-producing instruments, and some are always tuned and ready while others will reach a fantastic pitch on one take and never equal it again, no matter how hard they try\" ... \"When you make a movie, it takes a few days just to get used to the crew, because it is like getting undressed in front of fifty people. Once you're accustomed to them, the presence of even one other person on set is discordant and tends to produce self-consciousness in the actors, and certainly in itself\". He also told biographer Michel Clement: \"It's invariably because the actors don't know their lines, or don't know them well enough. An actor can only do one thing at a time, and when he learned his lines only well enough to say them while he's thinking about them, he will always have trouble as soon as he has to work on the emotions of the scene or find camera marks. In a strong emotional scene, it is always best to be able to shoot in complete takes to allow the actor a continuity of emotion, and it is rare for most actors to reach their peak more than once or twice. There are, occasionally, scenes which benefit from extra takes, but even then, I'm not sure that the early takes aren't just glorified rehearsals with the adding adrenaline of film running through the camera.\"\n\nKubrick would devote his personal breaks to having lengthy discussions with actors. Among those who valued his attention was Tony Curtis, star of Spartacus, who said Kubrick was his favorite director, adding, \"his greatest effectiveness was his one-on-one relationship with actors.\" He further added, \"Kubrick had his own approach to film-making. He wanted to see the actor's faces. He didn't want cameras always in a wide shot twenty-five feet away, he wanted close-ups, he wanted to keep the camera moving. That was his style.\" Similarly, Malcolm McDowell recalls the long discussions he had with Kubrick to help him develop his character in A Clockwork Orange, noting that on set he felt entirely uninhibited and free, which is what made Kubrick \"such a great director.\" Kubrick also allowed actors at times to improvize and to \"break the rules\", particularly with Peter Sellers in Lolita, which became a turning point in his career as it allowed him to work creatively during the actual shooting, as opposed to the preproduction stage.\nDuring an interview, Ryan O'Neal recalled Kubrick's directing style: \"God, he works you hard. He moves you, pushes you, helps you, gets cross with you, but above all he teaches you the value of a good director. Stanley brought out aspects of my personality and acting instincts that had been dormant ... My strong suspicion [was] that I was involved in something great\". He further added that working with Kubrick was \"a stunning experience\" and that he never recovered from working with somebody of such magnificence.\n\nCinematography\n\nKubrick credited the ease with which he photographed scenes to his early years as a photographer. He rarely added camera instructions in the script, preferring to handle that after a scene is created, as the visual part of film-making came easiest to him. Even in deciding which props and settings would be used, Kubrick paid meticulous attention to detail and tried to collect as much background material as possible, functioning rather like what he described as \"a detective\". Cinematographer John Alcott, who worked closely with Kubrick on four of his films, and won an Oscar for Best Cinematography on Barry Lyndon, remarked that Kubrick \"questions everything\", and was involved in the technical aspects of film-making including camera placement, scene composition, choice of lens, and even operating the camera which would usually be left to the cinematographer. Alcott considered Kubrick to be the \"nearest thing to genius I've ever worked with, with all the problems of a genius\".\n\nAmong Kubrick's notable innovations in cinematography are his use of special effects, as in 2001, where he used both slit-scan photography and front-screen projection, which won Kubrick his only Oscar for special effects. Some reviewers have described and illustrated with video clips, Kubrick's use of \"one-point perspective\", which leads the viewer's eye towards a central vanishing point. The technique relies on creating a complex visual symmetry using parallel lines in a scene which all converge on that single point, leading away from the viewer. Combined with camera motion it could produce an effect that one writer describes as \"hypnotic and thrilling.\" The Shining was among the first half-dozen features to use the then-revolutionary Steadicam (after the 1976 films Bound for Glory, Marathon Man and Rocky). Kubrick used it to its fullest potential, which gave the audience smooth, stabilized, motion-tracking by the camera. Kubrick described Steadicam as being like a \"magic carpet\", allowing \"fast, flowing, camera movements\" in the maze in The Shining which would otherwise would have been impossible to accomplish.\n\nKubrick was among the first directors to use video assist during filming. At the time he began using it in 1966, it was considered cutting-edge technology, requiring him to build his own system. Having it in place during the filming of 2001, he was able to view a video of a take immediately after it was filmed. On some films, such as Barry Lyndon, he used custom made zoom lenses, which allowed him to start a scene with a close-up and slowly zoom out to capture the full panorama of scenery and to film long takes under changing outdoor lighting conditions by making aperture adjustments while the cameras rolled. LoBrutto notes that Kubrick's technical knowledge about lenses \"dazzled the manufacturer's engineers, who found him to be unprecedented among contemporary filmmakers.\" For Barry Lyndon he also used a specially adapted high-speed (f/0.7) Zeiss camera lens, originally developed for NASA, to shoot numerous scenes lit only with candlelight. Actor Steven Berkoff recalls that Kubrick wanted scenes to be shot using \"pure candlelight,\" and in doing so Kubrick \"made a unique contribution to the art of filmmaking going back to painting ... You almost posed like for portraits.\" LoBrutto notes that cinematographers all over the world wanted to know about Kubrick's \"magic lens\" and that he became a \"legend\" among cameramen around the world.\n\nEditing and music\n\nKubrick spent extensive hours editing, often working seven days a week, and more hours a day as he got closer to deadlines. For Kubrick, written dialogue was one element to be put in balance with mise en scène (set arrangements), music, and especially, editing. Inspired by Pudovkin's treatise on film editing, Kubrick realized that one could create a performance in the editing room and often \"re-direct\" a film, and he remarked: \"I love editing. I think I like it more than any other phase of filmmaking ... Editing is the only unique aspect of filmmaking which does not resemble any other art form—a point so important it cannot be overstressed ... It can make or break a film\". Biographer John Baxter stated that \"Instead of finding the intellectual spine of a film in the script before starting work, Kubrick felt his way towards the final version of a film by shooting each scene from many angles and demanding scores of takes on each line. Then over months ... he arranged and rearranged the tens of thousands of scraps of film to fit a vision that really only began to emerge during editing\".\n\nKubrick's attention to music was an aspect of what many referred to as his \"perfectionism\" and extreme attention to minute details, which his wife Christine attributed to an addiction to music. In his last six films, Kubrick usually chose music from existing sources, especially classical compositions. He preferred selecting recorded music over having it composed for a film, believing that no hired composer could do as well as the public domain classical composers. He also felt that building scenes from great music often created the \"most memorable scenes\" in the best films. In one instance, for a scene in Barry Lyndon which was written into the screenplay as merely, \"Barry duels with Lord Bullingdon,\" he spent forty-two working days in the editing phase. During that period, he listened to what LoBrutto describes as \"every available recording of seventeenth-and eighteenth- century music, acquiring thousands of records to find Handel's sarabande used to score the scene.\" Jack Nicholson likewise observed his attention to music for his films, stating that Kubrick \"listened constantly to music until he discovered something he felt was right or that excited him.\"\n\nKubrick is credited with introducing Hungarian composer György Ligeti to a broad Western audience by including his music in 2001, The Shining and Eyes Wide Shut. According to Baxter, the music in 2001 was \"at the forefront of Kubrick's mind\" when he conceived the film. During earlier screening he played music by Mendelssohn and Vaughan Williams, and Kubrick and writer Clarke had listened to Carl Orff's transcription of Carmina Burana, consisting of 13th century sacred and secular songs. Ligeti's music employed the new style of micropolyphony, which used sustained dissonant chords that shift slowly over time, a style he originated. Its inclusion in the film became a \"boon for the relatively unknown composer\" partly because it was introduced alongside background by notable composers, Johann Strauss and Richard Strauss.\n\nIn addition to Ligeti, Kubrick also enjoyed a collaboration with composer Wendy Carlos, whose 1968 album Switched-On—which re-interpreted classical music through the use of a Moog synthesizer—caught the filmmaker's attention. In 1971, Carlos composed and recorded music for the soundtrack of A Clockwork Orange. Additional music not used in the film was released in 1972 as Wendy Carlos's Clockwork Orange. Kubrick later collaborated with Carlos on The Shining (1980). The opening of the film—in which the camera follows Jack Torrance's yellow VW beetle through the mountains to the Overlook Hotel—employs Carlos' eerie rendering of \"Dies Irae\" (Day of Wrath) from Hector Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique. \n\nPersonal life\n\nKubrick married his high-school sweetheart Toba Metz, a keen caricaturist, on May 29, 1948, when he was nineteen years of age. They had attended Taft High School together and had lived in the same apartment block on Shakespeare Avenue. The couple lived together in Greenwich Village and divorced three years later in 1951. He met his second wife, the Austrian-born dancer and theatrical designer Ruth Sobotka, in 1952. They lived together in New York's East Village beginning in 1952, got married in January 1955 and moved to Hollywood in July 1955, where she played a brief part as a ballet dancer in Kubrick's film, Killer's Kiss (1955). The following year she was art director for his film, The Killing (1956). They divorced in 1957. Kubrick lived with dancer and actress Valda Setterfield after the marriage broke down.\n\nDuring the production of Paths of Glory in Munich in early 1957, Kubrick met and romanced the German actress Christiane Harlan, who played a small though memorable role in the film. Kubrick married Harlan in 1958, and the couple remained together 40 years, until his death in 1999. Besides his stepdaughter, they had two daughters together: Anya Renata (April 6, 1959 – July 7, 2009) and Vivian Vanessa (born August 5, 1960). In 1959 they settled into a home at 316 South Camden Drive in Beverly Hills with Harlan's daughter, Katherina, aged six. They also lived in New York, during which time Christiane studied art at the Art Students League of New York, later becoming an independent artist. The couple moved to the United Kingdom in 1961 to make Lolita, and Kubrick hired Peter Sellers to star in his next film, Dr. Strangelove, Sellers was unable to leave the UK, so Kubrick made Britain his permanent home thereafter. The move was quite convenient to Kubrick, since he shunned the Hollywood system and its publicity machine, and he and Christiane had become alarmed with the increase in violence in New York.\n\nIn 1965 the Kubricks bought Abbots Mead on Barnet Lane, just south of the Elstree/Borehamwood studio complex in England. Kubrick worked almost exclusively from this home for 14 years where, with some exceptions, he researched, invented special effects techniques, designed ultra-low light lenses for specially modified cameras, pre-produced, edited, post-produced, advertised, distributed and carefully managed all aspects of four of his films. In 1978, Kubrick moved into Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire, a mainly 18th century stately home, which was once owned by a wealthy racehorse owner, about 30 mi north of London and a 10-minute drive from his previous home at Abbotts Mead. His new home became a workplace for Kubrick and his wife, \"a perfect family factory\" as Christiane called it, and Kubrick converted the stables into extra production rooms besides ones within the home that he used for editing and storage.\n\nA workaholic, Kubrick rarely took a vacation or left England during the forty years before he died. Biographer Vincent LoBrutto notes that Kubrick's confined way of living and desire for privacy has led to spurious stories about his reclusiveness, similar to those of Greta Garbo, Howard Hughes, and J. D. Salinger. Michael Herr, Kubrick's co-screenwriter on Full Metal Jacket, who knew him well, considers his \"reclusiveness\" to be myth: \"[H]e was in fact a complete failure as a recluse, unless you believe that a recluse is simply someone who seldom leaves his house. Stanley saw a lot of people ... he was one of the most gregarious men I ever knew, and it didn't change anything that most of this conviviality went on over the phone.\" Lo Brutto states that one of the reasons he acquired a reputation as a recluse was because he insisted in remaining near his home, but the reason for this was because for Kubrick there were only three places on the planet he could make high quality films with the necessary technical expertise and equipment: Los Angeles, New York or around London. He disliked living in Los Angeles, and had thought London a superior film production center to New York.\n\nAs a person, Kubrick was described by Norman Lloyd as \"a very dark, sort of a glowering type who was very serious\". Marisa Berenson, who starred in Barry Lyndon fondly recalled: \"There was great tenderness in him and he was passionate about his work. What was striking was his enormous intelligence, but he also had a great sense of humor. He was a very shy person and self-protective, but he was filled with the thing that drove him twenty-four hours of the day.\" Kubrick was particularly fond of machines and technical equipment, to the point that his wife Christiane once stated that \"Stanley would be happy with eight tape recorders and one pair of pants\". Although Kubrick had obtained a pilot's license in August 1947, some have claimed that he later developed a fear of flying, stemming from an incident in the early 1950s when a colleague had been killed in a plane crash. Kubrick had been sent the charred remains of his camera and notebooks which, according to Duncan, traumatized him for life. Kubrick also had a strong mistrust of doctors and medicine, especially those he did not know, and on one occasion he had a dentist from the Bronx flown to London to treat him.\n\nDeath\n\nOn March 7, 1999, four days after screening a final cut of Eyes Wide Shut for his family and the stars, Kubrick died in his sleep at the age of 70, after suffering a massive heart attack. His funeral was held five days later at his home estate at Childwickbury Manor, with only close friends and family in attendance, totaling approximately 100 people. The media were kept a mile away outside the entrance gate. Alexander Walker, who attended the funeral, describes it as a \"family farewell, ... almost like an English picnic,\" with cellists, clarinetists and singers providing song and music from many of his favorite classical compositions. Kaddish, the Jewish prayer of mourning, was recited. A few of his obituaries mentioned his Jewish background. Among those who gave eulogies were Terry Semel, Jan Harlan, Steven Spielberg, Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise. He was buried next to his favorite tree on the estate. In her book dedicated to Kubrick, his wife Christiane included one of his favorite quotations of Oscar Wilde: \"The tragedy of old age is not that one is old, but that one is young.\"\n\nLegacy\n\nPart of the New Hollywood film-making wave, Kubrick's films are considered by film historian Michel Ciment to be \"among the most important contributions to world cinema in the twentieth century\", and he is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in the history of cinema. Leading directors, including Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, James Cameron, Woody Allen, Terry Gilliam, the Coen brothers, Ridley Scott, and George A. Romero, have cited Kubrick as a source of inspiration, and in the case of Spielberg, collaboration. On the DVD of Eyes Wide Shut, Steven Spielberg comments that the way Kubrick \"tells a story is antithetical to the way we are accustomed to receiving stories\" and that \"nobody could shoot a picture better in history\". Writing in the introduction to a recent edition of Michel Ciment's Kubrick, film director Martin Scorsese notes that most of Kubrick's films were misunderstood and under-appreciated when first released. Then came a dawning recognition that they were masterful works unlike any other films. Perhaps most notably, Orson Welles, one of Kubrick's greatest personal influences and all-time favorite directors, famously said that: \"Among those whom I would call 'younger generation', Kubrick appears to me to be a giant.\"\n\nKubrick continues to be cited as a major influence by many directors, including Christopher Nolan, Jack Thomas Smith,Wien, Gary (October 19, 2014). [http://www.newjerseystage.com/articles/getarticle.php?ID\n4077 \"Infliction: An Interview With Jack Thomas Smith\"]. New Jersey Stage. Todd Field, David Fincher, Guillermo del Toro, David Lynch, Lars von Trier, Tim Burton, Michael Mann, and Gaspar Noé. Many filmmakers imitate Kubrick's inventive and unique use of camera movement and framing, as well as his use of music, notably Frank Darabont. Paul Thomas Anderson, in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, stated, \"it's so hard to do anything that doesn't owe some kind of debt to what Stanley Kubrick did with music in movies. Inevitably, you're going to end up doing something that he's probably already done before. It can all seem like we're falling behind whatever he came up with.\" \n\nIn 2000, BAFTA renamed their Britannia lifetime achievement award the \"Stanley Kubrick Britannia Award\", joining the likes of D. W. Griffith, Laurence Olivier, Cecil B. DeMille, and Irving Thalberg, all of whom have annual awards named after them. Kubrick won this award in 1999, and subsequent recipients have included George Lucas, Warren Beatty, Tom Cruise, Robert De Niro, Clint Eastwood, and Daniel Day-Lewis. A number of people who worked with Kubrick on his films created the 2001 documentary Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures, produced and directed by Kubrick's brother-in-law, Jan Harlan, who had executive produced Kubrick's last four films. The film's chapters each cover one of Kubrick's films and Kubrick's childhood is explored in the introductory section.\n\nIn 2009, an exhibition of paintings and photos inspired by Kubrick's films was held in Dublin, Ireland, entitled \"Stanley Kubrick: Taming Light\". On October 30, 2012, an exhibition devoted to Kubrick opened at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) and concluded in June 2013. Exhibits include a wide collection of documents, photographs and on-set material assembled from 800 boxes of personal archives that were stored in Kubrick's home-workplace in the UK. A number of celebrities attended and spoke at the museum's pre-opening gala, including Steven Spielberg, Tom Hanks and Jack Nicholson, while Kubrick's widow, Christiane, appeared at the pre-gala press review. In October 2013, the Brazil São Paulo International Film Festival paid tribute to Kubrick, staging an exhibit of his work and a retrospective of his films. The exhibit is also scheduled to open at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) in late 2014. \n\nKubrick is widely referenced in popular culture, and the TV series The Simpsons is said to contain more references to Kubrick films than any other pop culture phenomenon. When the Director's Guild of Great Britain gave Kubrick a lifetime achievement award, they included a cut-together sequence of all the homages from the show. Pop singer Lady Gaga's concert shows have included the use of dialogue, costumes, and music from A Clockwork Orange. Several films have been made related to Kubrick's life, including the mockumentary film Dark Side of the Moon (2002), which is a parody of the pervasive conspiracy theory that Kubrick had been involved with the faked footage of the NASA moon landings during the filming of 2001: A Space Odyssey, and Colour Me Kubrick (2005), starring John Malkovich as Alan Conway, a con artist who had assumed Kubrick's identity in the 1990s. Both films were authorized by Kubrick's family. In the 2004 film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, Kubrick was portrayed by Stanley Tucci, and documents their filming of Dr. Strangelove, rather than Lolita. \n\nFilmography and awards" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Eyes wide shut", "Eyes Wide Shut" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "eyes wide shut" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "eyes wide shut", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Eyes Wide Shut" }
Who tries to save the world from virtual reality in The Matrix?	tc_1109	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Virtual_reality.txt" ], "title": [ "Virtual reality" ], "wiki_context": [ "Virtual reality or virtual realities (VR), also known as immersive multimedia or computer-simulated reality, is a computer technology that replicates an environment, real or imagined, and simulates a user's physical presence and environment to allow for user interaction. Virtual realities artificially create sensory experience, which can include sight, touch, hearing, and smell. \n\nMost up-to-date virtual realities are displayed either on a computer monitor or with a virtual reality headset (also called head-mounted display), and some simulations include additional sensory information and focus on real sound through speakers or headphones targeted towards VR users. Some advanced haptic systems now include tactile information, generally known as force feedback in medical, gaming and military applications. Furthermore, virtual reality covers remote communication environments which provide virtual presence of users with the concepts of telepresence and telexistence or a virtual artifact (VA) either through the use of standard input devices such as a keyboard and mouse, or through multimodal devices such as a wired glove or omnidirectional treadmills. The immersive environment can be similar to the real world in order to create a lifelike experience—for example, in simulations for pilot or combat training—or it can differ significantly from reality, such as in VR games.\n\nConcept origins \n\nIn 1938, Antonin Artaud described the illusory nature of characters and objects in the theatre as \"la réalité virtuelle\" in a collection of essays, Le Théâtre et son double. The English translation of this book, published in 1958 as The Theater and its Double, is the earliest published use of the term \"virtual reality\".\n\nThe term \"artificial reality\", coined by Myron Krueger, has been in use since the 1970s.\nThe term \"Virtual Reality\" was used in The Judas Mandala, a 1982 science-fiction novel by Damien Broderick.\nThe Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1987 article titled \"Virtual reality\", but the article is not about VR technology. Virtual Reality in its modern usage was popularized by Jaron Lanier through his company VPL Research. VPL Research held many of the mid eighties VR patents, and they developed the first widely used HMD: EyePhone and Haptic Input DataGlove The concept of virtual reality was popularized in mass media by movies such as Brainstorm and The Lawnmower Man. The VR research boom of the 1990s was accompanied by the non-fiction book Virtual Reality (1991) by Howard Rheingold. The book served to demystify the subject, making it more accessible to less technical researchers and enthusiasts.\n\nHistory \n\nBefore the 1950s \n\nThe first traces of virtual reality came from the world of science fiction. Stanley G. Weinbaum's 1935 short story \"Pygmalion's Spectacles\" is recognized as one of the first works of science fiction that explores virtual reality. It describes a goggle-based virtual reality system with holographic recording of fictional experiences including smell and touch.\n\n1950–1970 \n\nMorton Heilig wrote in the 1950s of an \"Experience Theatre\" that could encompass all the senses in an effective manner, thus drawing the viewer into the onscreen activity. He built a prototype of his vision dubbed the Sensorama in 1962, along with five short films to be displayed in it while engaging multiple senses (sight, sound, smell, and touch). Predating digital computing, the Sensorama was a mechanical device, which reportedly still functions today. Around the same time, Douglas Engelbart used computer screens as both input and output devices.\n\nIn 1968, Ivan Sutherland, with the help of his student Bob Sproull, created what is widely considered to be the first virtual reality and augmented reality (AR) head-mounted display (HMD) system. It was primitive both in terms of user interface and realism, and the HMD to be worn by the user was so heavy that it had to be suspended from the ceiling. The graphics comprising the virtual environment were simple wire-frame model rooms. The formidable appearance of the device inspired its name, The Sword of Damocles.\n\n1970–1990 \n\nAlso notable among the earlier hypermedia and virtual reality systems was the Aspen Movie Map, which was created at MIT in 1978. The program was a crude virtual simulation of Aspen, Colorado in which users could wander the streets in one of three modes: summer, winter, and polygons. The first two were based on photographs—the researchers actually photographed every possible movement through the city's street grid in both seasons—and the third was a basic 3-D model of the city.\n\nAtari founded a research lab for virtual reality in 1982, but the lab was closed after two years due to Atari Shock (North American video game crash of 1983). However, its hired employees, such as Tom Zimmerman, Scott Fisher, Jaron Lanier and Brenda Laurel, kept their research and development on VR-related technologies.\n\nBy the 1980s the term \"virtual reality\" was popularized by Jaron Lanier, one of the modern pioneers of the field. Lanier had founded the company VPL Research in 1985. VPL Research has developed several VR devices like the Data Glove, the Eye Phone, and the Audio Sphere.VPL Research authorized the warrant of the Data Glove to New York video game company Mattel. Mattel used this technology and made an accessory known as the Power Glove. It was hard to use and not popular at all. However, the price for this accessory was $75. It might be the earliest affordable VR device.\n\nDuring this time, virtual reality was not well known, though it did receive media coverage in the late 80s. Most of its popularity came from marginal cultures, like cyberpunks, who viewed the technology as a potential means for social change, and drug culture, who praised virtual reality not only as a new art form, but as an entirely new frontier. Once the industry began to attract media coverage, people started realizing that potential. Some even compared the innovations in virtual reality to the Wright Brothers' pioneering invention of the airplane.\n\nIn 1990, Jonathan Waldern, a VR Ph.D, demonstrates \"Virtuality\" at the Computer Graphics 90 exhibition staged at London's Alexandra Palace. This new system was an arcade machine that would use a virtual reality headset to immerse players.\n\nCyberEdge and PCVR, VR industry focused magazines, started to publish in the early 90s. However, most ideas about VR remained theoretical due to the limited computing power available at the time. The extremely high cost of the technology made it impossible for most consumers to adopt. The public turned their focus to the Internet after it came out. The VR industry went silent in the U.S. and only provided VR devices for medical, flight simulation, automobile industry design, and military training purposes.\n\n1990–2000 \n\nIn 1991, Sega announced the Sega VR headset for arcade games and the Mega Drive console. It used LCD screens in the visor, stereo headphones, and inertial sensors that allowed the system to track and react to the movements of the user's head. \n\nIn the same year, Virtuality launched and went on to become the first mass-produced, networked, multiplayer VR entertainment system. It was released in many countries, including a dedicated VR arcade at Embarcadero Center in San Francisco. Costing up to $73,000 per multi-pod Virtuality system, they featured headsets and exoskeleton gloves that gave one of the first \"immersive\" VR experiences. \n\nAntonio Medina, a MIT graduate and NASA scientist, designed a virtual reality system to \"drive\" Mars rovers from Earth in apparent real time despite the substantial delay of Mars-Earth-Mars signals. The system, termed \"Computer-Simulated Teleoperation\" as published by Rand, is an extension of virtual reality. \n\nIn 1991, Carolina Cruz-Neira, Daniel J. Sandin and Thomas A. DeFanti from the Electronic Visualization Laboratory created the first cubic immersive room, replacing goggles by a multi-projected environment where people can see their body and other people around.\n\nIn 1991, Computer Gaming World predicts \"Affordable VR by 1994\". \n\nBy 1994, Sega released the Sega VR-1 motion simulator arcade attraction, in SegaWorld amusement arcades. It was able to track head movement and featured 3D polygon graphics in stereoscopic 3D, powered by the Sega Model 1 arcade system board. \n\nAlso in 1994 Apple released QuickTime VR. A widely available product for interacting with VR models.\n\nA year later, the artist Maurice Benayoun created the first VR artwork connecting in real time 2 continents: the \"Tunnel under the Atlantic\" between the Pompidou Centre in Paris and the Museum of Contemporary Art in Montreal. The installation included dynamic real time 3d modeling, video chat, spatialized sound and AI content management.\n\nThe Virtual Boy was created by Nintendo and was released in Japan on July 21, 1995 and in North America on August 15, 1995. \n\nAlso in 1995, a group in Seattle created public demonstrations of a \"CAVE-like\" 270 degree immersive projection room called the Virtual Environment Theater, produced by entrepreneurs Chet Dagit and Bob Jacobson. Then in 1996 the same system was shown in tradeshow exhibits sponsored by Netscape Communications, and championed by Jim Barksdale, for the first time showing VR connected to the Internet with World Wide Web content feeds embedded in VRML 3D virtual world models.\n\nForte released the VFX1, a PC-powered virtual reality headset in 1995, which was supported by games including Descent, Star Wars: Dark Forces, System Shock and Quake.\n\nIn 1999, entrepreneur Philip Rosedale formed Linden Lab with an initial focus on the development of hardware that would enable computer users to be fully immersed in a 360 degree virtual reality experience. In its earliest form, the company struggled to produce a commercial version of \"The Rig,\" which was realized in prototype form as a clunky steel contraption with several computer monitors that users could wear on their shoulders. That vision soon morphed into the software-based, 3D virtual world Second Life.\n\n2000–present \n\nIn 2001, SAS3 or SAS Cube became the first PC based cubic room, developed by Z-A Production (Maurice Benayoun, David Nahon), Barco, Clarté, installed in Laval France in April 2001. The SAS library gave birth to Virtools VRPack.\n\nBy 2007, Google introduced Street View, a service that shows panoramic views of an increasing number of worldwide positions such as roads, indoor buildings and rural areas. It also features a stereoscopic 3D mode, introduced in 2010. \n\nIn 2010, Palmer Luckey, who later went on to found Oculus VR, designed the first prototype of the Oculus Rift. This prototype, built on a shell of another virtual reality headset, displayed only 2-D images and was noticeably cumbersome to wear. However, it boasted a 90-degree field of vision that was previously unseen anywhere in the market at the time. This initial design would later serve as a basis from which the later designs came. \n\nIn 2013, Nintendo filed a patent for the concept of using VR technology to produce a more realistic 3D effect on a 2D television. A camera on the TV tracks the viewer's location relative to the TV, and if the viewer moves, everything on the screen reorients itself appropriately. \"For example, if you were looking at a forest, you could shift your head to the right to discover someone standing behind a tree.\" \n\nIn July 2013, Guild Software's Vendetta Online was widely reported as the first MMORPG to support the Oculus Rift, making it potentially the first persistent online world with native support for a consumer virtual reality headset.\n\nOn March 25, 2014, Facebook purchased a company that makes virtual reality headsets, Oculus VR, for $2 billion. Sony announces Project Morpheus (its code name for PlayStation VR), a virtual reality headset for the PlayStation 4. Google announces Cardboard, a do-it-yourself stereoscopic viewer for smartphones.\n\nSince 2013, there have been several virtual reality devices that seek to enter the market to complement Oculus Rift to enhance the game experience. One, Virtuix Omni, is based on the ability to move in a three dimensional environment through an omnidirectional treadmill.\n\nIn 2015, the Kickstarter campaign for Gloveone, a pair of gloves providing motion tracking and haptic feedback, was successfully funded, with over $150,000 in contributions. \n\nIn February–March 2015, HTC partnered with Valve Corporation announced their virtual reality headset HTC Vive and controllers, along with their tracking technology called Lighthouse, which utilizes \"base stations\" mounted to the wall above the user's head in the corners of a room for positional tracking of the Vive headset and its motion controllers using infrared light. The company announced its plans to release the Vive to the public in April 2016 on December 8, 2015. Units began shipping on April 5, 2016. \n\nIn July 2015, OnePlus became the first company to launch a product using virtual reality. They used VR as the platform to launch their second flagship device the OnePlus 2, first viewable using an app on the Google Play Store, then on YouTube. The launch was viewable using OnePlus Cardboard, based on the Google's own Cardboard platform. The whole VR launch had a runtime of 33 minutes, and was viewable in all countries.\n\nAlso in 2015, Jaunt, a startup company developing cameras and a cloud distribution platform, whose content will be accessible using an app, reached $100 million in funding from such sources as Disney and Madison Square Garden. \n\nOn April 27, 2016, Mojang announced that Minecraft is now playable on the Gear VR. Minecraft is still being developed for the Oculus Rift headset but a separate version was released to the Oculus Store for use with the Gear VR. This version has everything that's in the Pocket Edition of Minecraft.\n\nUse \n\nEducation and training \n\nFew are creating content that may be used for educational purposes, with most advances being made in the entertainment industry, yet research is being done on learning in virtual reality as many believe its immersive qualities have the potential to enhance learning.\n\nTraining \n\nThe usage of VR in a training perspective is to allow professionals to conduct training in a virtual environment where they can improve upon their skills without the consequence of failing the operation. Thomas A. Furness III was one of the first to develop the use of VR for military training when, in 1982, he presented the Air Force with his first working model of a virtual flight simulator he called the Visually Coupled Airborne Systems Simulator (VCASS). By the time he started his work on VCASS, aircraft were becoming increasingly complicated to handle and virtual reality provided a better solution to previous training methods. Furness attempted to incorporate his knowledge of human visual and auditory processing to create a virtual interface that was more intuitive to use. The second phase of his project, which he called the \"Super Cockpit,\" was even more advanced, with high resolution graphics (for the time) and a responsive display. Furness is often credited as a pioneer in virtual reality for this research. \n\nVR plays an important role in combat training for the military. It allows the recruits to train under a controlled environment where they are to respond to different types of combat situations. A fully immersive virtual reality that uses head-mounted display (HMD), data suits, data glove, and VR weapon are used to train for combat. This setup allows the training's reset time to be cut down, and allows more repetition in a shorter amount of time. The fully immersive training environment allows the soldiers to train through a wide variety of terrains, situations and scenarios. \n\nVR is also used in flight simulation for the Air Force where people are trained to be pilots. The simulator would sit on top of a hydraulic lift system that reacts to the user inputs and events. When the pilot steer the aircraft, the module would turn and tilt accordingly to provide haptic feedback. The flight simulator can range from a fully enclosed module to a series of computer monitors providing the pilot's point of view. The most important reasons on using simulators over learning with a real aircraft are the reduction of transference time between land training and real flight, the safety, economy and absence of pollution. By the same token, virtual driving simulations are used to train tank drivers on the basics before allowing them to operate the real vehicle. Finally, the same goes for truck driving simulators, in which Belgian firemen are for example trained to drive in a way that prevents as much damage as possible. As these drivers often have less experience than other truck drivers, virtual reality training allows them to compensate this. In the near future, similar projects are expected for all drivers of priority vehicles, including the police. \n\nMedical personnel are able to train through VR to deal with a wider variety of injuries. An experiment was performed by sixteen surgical residents where eight of them went through laparoscopic cholecystectomy through VR training. They then came out 29% faster at gallbladder dissection than the controlled group. With the increased commercial availability of certified training programs for basic skills training in VR environments, students have the ability to familiarize themselves with necessary skills in a corrective and repetitive environment; VR is also proven to help students familiarize themselves with skills not specific to any particular procedure. \n\nVR application was used to train road crossing skills in children. It proved to be rather successful. However some students with autistic spectrum disorders after such training might be unable to distinguish virtual from real. As a result, they may attempt quite dangerous road crossings. \n\nVideo games \n\nThe use of graphics, sound and input technology in video games can be incorporated into VR. Several Virtual Reality head mounted displays (HMD) were released for gaming during the early-mid 1990s. These included the Virtual Boy developed by Nintendo, the iGlasses developed by Virtual I-O, the Cybermaxx developed by Victormaxx and the VFX1 Headgear developed by Forte Technologies. Other modern examples of narrow VR for gaming include the Wii Remote, the Kinect, and the PlayStation Move/PlayStation Eye, all of which track and send motion input of the players to the game console somewhat accurately.\n\nSeveral companies are working on a new generation of VR headsets: Oculus Rift is a head-mounted display for gaming purposes developed by Oculus VR, an American technology company that was acquired for US$2 billion by Facebook in 2014. One of its rivals was named by Sony as PlayStation VR (codenamed Morpheus), which requires a PS4 instead of a PC to run. In 2015, Valve Corporation announced their partnership with HTC to make a VR headset capable of tracking the exact position of its user in a 4.5 by 4.5 meters area, the HTC Vive. All these virtual reality headsets are tethered headsets that use special curved lenses to magnify and stretch a 5.7-inch screen (in the case of Morpheus) across your field of vision. There are many more gaming VR headsets in development, each with its own special abilities. StarVR, for instance, offers a 210° field of view, whereas FOVE tracks the position of your eyes as an input method. \n\nFine arts \n\nDavid Em was the first fine artist to create navigable virtual worlds in the 1970s. His early work was done on mainframes at Information International, Inc., Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and California Institute of Technology. Jeffrey Shaw explored the potential of VR in fine arts with early works like Legible City (1989), Virtual Museum (1991), and Golden Calf (1994). Canadian artist Char Davies created immersive VR art pieces Osmose (1995) and Ephémère (1998). Maurice Benayoun's work introduced metaphorical, philosophical or political content, combining VR, network, generation and intelligent agents, in works like Is God Flat? (1994), \"Is the Devil Curved?\" (1995), The Tunnel under the Atlantic (1995), and World Skin, a Photo Safari in the Land of War (1997). Other pioneering artists working in VR have include Luc Courchesne, Rnmnmita Addison, Knowbotic Research, Rebecca Allen, Perry Hoberman, Jacki Morie, Margaret Dolinsky and Brenda Laurel. All mentioned artists are documented in the Database of Virtual Art. \n\nHeritage and archaeology \n\nThe first use of a VR presentation in a heritage application was in 1994, when a museum visitor interpretation provided an interactive \"walk-through\" of a 3D reconstruction of Dudley Castle in England as it was in 1550. This consisted of a computer controlled laserdisc-based system designed by British-based engineer Colin Johnson. The system was featured in a conference held by the British Museum in November 1994, and in the subsequent technical paper, Imaging the Past – Electronic Imaging and Computer Graphics in Museums and Archaeology. \n\nVirtual reality enables heritage sites to be recreated extremely accurately, so that the recreations can be published in various media. The original sites are often inaccessible to the public or, due to the poor state of their preservation, hard to picture. This technology can be used to develop virtual replicas of caves, natural environment, old towns, monuments, sculptures and archaeological elements. \n\nArchitectural design \n\nOne of the first recorded uses of virtual reality in architecture was in the late 80s when the University of North Carolina modeled its Sitterman Hall, home of its computer science department, in a virtual environment. \n\nSeveral companies, including IrisVR and Floored, Inc., provide software or services that allow architectural design firms and various clients in the real estate industry to tour virtual models of proposed building designs. IrisVR currently provides software that allows users to convert design files created in CAD programs like SketchUp and Revit into files viewable with an Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, or a smartphone \"in one click,\" without the need for complex tiered workflows or knowledge of game engines such as Unity3D. Floored, meanwhile, manually constructs and refines Rift-viewable 3D models in-house from either CAD files for un-built designs or physical scans of already built, brick-and-mortar buildings, and provides clients with access to its own viewing software, which can be used with either an Oculus Rift or a standard 2D web browser, afterward. \n\nVR software products like these can provide a number of benefits to architects and their clients. During the design process, architects themselves can use VR in order to actually experience the designs they are working on before they are built. In particular, seeing a design in VR can help impress upon the architect a correct sense of scale and proportion. Having an interactive VR model on hand also eliminates the need to waste time and resources constructing physical miniatures in order to demonstrate or examine a design concept to clients or the public. Later on, after a building is constructed, developers and owners can create a VR model of a space that allows potential buyers or tenants to tour a space in VR, even if real-life circumstances make a physical tour unfeasible. For instance, if the owner of an apartment building in Manhattan has a VR model of a space while the building is under construction, they can begin showing and renting the units before they are even ready to be occupied. Furthermore, this sort of showing can be conducted over any distance, as long as the potential customer has access to a VR setup (or, even, with the help of Google Cardboard or a similar phone-based VR headset, nothing but an ordinary smartphone.)\n\nUrban design \n\nIn 2010, 3D virtual reality was beginning to be used for urban regeneration and planning and transport projects. \n\nIn 2007 development began on a virtual reality software which took design coordinate geometry used by land surveyors and civil engineers and incorporated precision spatial information created automatically by the lines and curves typically shown on subdivision plats and land surveying plans. These precise spatial areas cross referenced color and texture to an item list. The item list contained a set of controls for 3D rendering such as water reflective surface or building height. The land surface in software to create a contour map uses a digital terrain model (DTM). By 2010, prototype software was developed for the core technology to automate the process leading from design to virtualization. The first beta users in 2011 were able to press a single function and automatically drape the design or survey data over the digital terrain to create data structures that are passed into a video gaming engine to create a virtual interactive world showing massing of buildings in relation to man made improvements.\n\nIt was the first application where virtual reality was made effortless for Urban Planning principals using technology. The software was improved to implement massing or 3D models from other free or commercially sold software to create more realistic virtual reality with very little time and effort (see the below image). The software is marketed as LandMentor and is the first precision design technology to make Urban Planning widely available with a short learning curve.\n\nTherapy \n\nThe primary use of VR in a therapeutic role is its application to various forms of exposure therapy, including phobia treatments.\n\nTheme parks\n\nSince 2015, virtual reality has been installed onto a number of roller coasters, including Galactica at Alton Towers, The New Revolution at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Alpenexpress at Europapark, amongst others.\n\nConcerts\n\nIn Oslo Spektrum on May the 3rd 2016, Norwegian band a-ha cleared away their normal stage-production to give room for a very different concert performance in collaboration with Void, a Norwegian computational design studio working in the intersection between design, architecture, art and technology. The collaboration resulted in a unique one-of-a-kind concert with advanced scenography using 360 virtual reality technology.\n\nThe concept involved several movement sensors that reacted to the bands movements, voices and instruments. 3D cameras, 20000 lines of codes, 1000 square meters of projection film and massive projectors was set up into a visual show that made the Oslo Spektrum arena in Oslo, Norway into a light installation and visual experience that unfolded live for the audience instead of a pre programmed sequence. The stereoscopic VR-experience was made available for Android users directly through a YouTube app and also made available for iPhone users and other platforms. \n\nRetail\n\nLowe's, IKEA, and Wayfair have developed systems that allow these company's products to be seen in virtual reality, to give consumers a better idea of how the product will fit into their home, or to allow the consumer to get a better look at the product from home. \n\nCharity\n\nNon-profit organisations such as Amnesty International, UNICEF, and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) have started using virtual reality to bring potential supporters closer to their work, effectively bringing distant social, political and environmental issues and projects to members of the public in immersive ways not possible with traditional media. Panoramic 360 views of conflict in Syria and face to face encounters with CGI tigers in Nepal have been used in experiential activations and shared online to both educate and gain financial support for such charitable work.\n\nFilm\n\nMany companies, including GoPro, Nokia, Samsung, and Nikon, develop omnidirectional cameras, also known as 360-degree cameras or VR cameras, that have the ability to record in all directions. These cameras are used to create images and videos that can be viewed in VR. (See VR photography.) Films produced for VR permit the audience to view the entire environment in every scene, creating an interactive viewing experience.\n\nProduction companies, such as Fox Searchlight Pictures and Skybound, utilize VR cameras to produce films that are interactive in VR. \nFox Searchlight, Oculus and Samsung Gear VR collaborated on a project titled \"Wild – The Experience\", starring Reese Witherspoon. The VR film was presented at the Consumer Electronics Show as well as the Sundance Film Festival in January 2015. \n\nOn December 8, 2015, the production company Skybound announced their VR thriller titled \"Gone\". In collaboration with the VR production company WEVR, and Samsung Gear VR, the 360-degree video series was released on January 20, 2016. \n\nMedia\n\nCompanies such as Paramount Pictures, and Disney have applied VR into marketing campaigns creating interactive forms of media.\n\nIn October 2014 Paramount Pictures, in collaboration with the media production company Framestore, created a VR experience utilizing the Oculus DK2. The experience was dubbed a \"time sensitive adventure in space\" that took place in a portion of the Endurance space ship from the film \"Interstellar.\" The experience was available to the public at limited AMC theater locations. \n\nIn May 2016, Disney released a VR experience titled Disney Movies VR on Valve Corporation's Steam software, free for download. The experience allows users to interact with the characters and worlds from the Disney, Marvel, and Lucasfilm universes. \n\nPornography\n\nPornographic studios such as Naughty America and Kink have applied VR into their products since late 2015 or early 2016. The clips and videos are shot from an angle that resembles a POV-style porn. \n\nIn fiction \n\nMany science fiction books and films have imagined characters being \"trapped in virtual reality\".\n\nA comprehensive and specific fictional model for virtual reality was published in 1935 in the short story \"Pygmalion's Spectacles\" by Stanley G. Weinbaum. A more modern work to use this idea was Daniel F. Galouye's novel Simulacron-3, which was made into a German teleplay titled Welt am Draht (\"World on a Wire\") in 1973. Other science fiction books have promoted the idea of virtual reality as a partial, but not total, substitution for the misery of reality, or have touted it as a method for creating virtual worlds in which one may escape from Earth.\n\nStanisław Lem's 1961 story \"I ( Corcoran)\", translated in English as \"Further Reminiscences of Ijon Tichy I\", dealt with a scientist who created a number of computer-simulated people living in a virtual world. Lem further explored the implications of what he termed \"phantomatics\" in his nonfictional 1964 treatise Summa Technologiae. The Piers Anthony novel Killobyte follows the story of a paralyzed cop trapped in a virtual reality game by a hacker, whom he must stop to save a fellow trapped player slowly succumbing to insulin shock.\n\nA number of other popular fictional works use the concept of virtual reality. These include William Gibson's 1984 Neuromancer, which defined the concept of cyberspace, and his 1994 Virtual Light, where a presentation viewable in VR-like goggles was the MacGuffin. Other examples are Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash, in which he made extensive reference to the term avatar to describe one's representation in a virtual world, and Rudy Rucker's The Hacker and the Ants, in which programmer Jerzy Rugby uses VR for robot design and testing. The Otherland series of 4 novels by Tad Williams, published from 1996 to 2001 and set in the 2070s, shows a world where the Internet has become accessible via virtual reality.\n\nThe Doctor Who serial \"The Deadly Assassin\", first broadcast in 1976, introduced a dream-like computer-generated reality, known as the Matrix. British BBC2 sci-fi series Red Dwarf featured a virtual reality game titled \"Better Than Life\", in which the main characters had spent many years connected. Saban's syndicated superhero television series VR Troopers also made use of the concept.\n\nThe holodeck featured in Star Trek: The Next Generation is one of the best known examples of virtual reality in popular culture, including the ability for users to interactively modify scenarios in real time with a natural language interface. The depiction differs from others in the use of a physical room rather than a neural interface or headset.\n\nThe popular .hack multimedia franchise is based on a virtual reality MMORPG dubbed \"The World\". The French animated series Code Lyoko is based on the virtual world of Lyoko and the Internet.\n\nIn 2009, British digital radio station BBC Radio 7 broadcast Planet B, a science-fiction drama set in a virtual world. Planet B was the largest ever commission for an original drama programme. \n\nThe 2012 series Sword Art Online involves the concept of a virtual reality MMORPG of the same name, with the possibility of dying in real life when a player dies in the game. Also, in its 2014 sequel, Sword Art Online II, the idea of bringing a virtual character into the real world via mobile cameras is posed; this concept is used to allow a bedridden individual to attend public school for the first time.\n\nFeatured in 2012, Accel World expands the concept of virtual reality using the game Brain Burst, a game which allows players to gain and receive points to keep accelerating; accelerating is when an individual's brain perceives the images around them 1000 times faster, heightening their sense of awareness.\n\nMotion pictures \n\n* Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 1973 film Welt am Draht, based on Daniel F. Galouye's novel Simulacron-3, shows a virtual reality simulation inside a virtual reality simulation\n* In 1983, the Natalie Wood / Christopher Walken film Brainstorm revolved around the production, use, and misuse of a VR device.\n* Total Recall, directed by Paul Verhoeven and based on the Philip K. Dick story \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\"\n* A VR-like system, used to record and play back dreams, figures centrally in Wim Wenders' 1991 film Until the End of the World.\n* The 1992 film The Lawnmower Man tells the tale of a research scientist who uses a VR system to jumpstart the mental and physical development of his mentally handicapped gardener.\n* The 1993 film Arcade is centered around a new virtual reality game (from which the film gets its name) that actively traps those who play it inside its world.\n* The 1995 film Johnny Mnemonic has the main character Johnny (played by Keanu Reeves) use virtual reality goggles and brain–computer interfaces to access the Internet and extract encrypted information in his own brain.\n* The 1995 film Virtuosity has Russell Crowe as a virtual reality serial killer name SID 6.7 (Sadistic, Intelligent and Dangerous) who is used in a simulation to train real-world police officer, but manages to escape into the real world.\n* The 1999 film The Thirteenth Floor is an adaptation of Daniel F. Galouye's novel Simulacron-3, and tells about two virtual reality simulations, one in another.\n* In 1999, The Matrix and later sequels explored the possibility that our world is actually a vast virtual reality (or more precisely, simulated reality) created by artificially intelligent machines.\n* eXistenZ (1999), by David Cronenberg, in which level switches occur so seamlessly and numerously that at the end of the movie it is difficult to tell whether the main characters are back in \"reality\".\n* In the film Avatar, the humans are hooked up to experience what their avatars perform remotely.\n* Surrogates (2009) is based on a brain–computer interface that allows people to control realistic humanoid robots, giving them full sensory feedback.\n\nConcerns and challenges \n\nThere are certain health and safety considerations of virtual reality. For example, a number of unwanted symptoms have been caused by prolonged use of virtual reality, and these may have slowed proliferation of the technology. Most virtual reality systems come with consumer warnings.\n\nIn addition, there are social, conceptual, and philosophical considerations with virtual reality. What the phrase \"virtual reality\" means or refers to, is not always unambiguous. In the book The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality by Michael R. Heim, seven different concepts of virtual reality are identified: simulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion, telepresence, full-body immersion, and network communication.\n\nThere has been an increase in interest in the potential social impact of new technologies, such as virtual reality. In the book Infinite Reality: Avatars, Eternal Life, New Worlds, and the Dawn of the Virtual Revolution, Blascovich and Bailenson review the literature on the psychology and sociology behind life in virtual reality.\n\nIn addition, Mychilo S. Cline, in his book Power, Madness, and Immortality: The Future of Virtual Reality, argues that virtual reality will lead to a number of important changes in human life and activity. He argues that virtual reality will be integrated into daily life and activity, and will be used in various human ways. Another such speculation has been written up on how to reach ultimate happiness via virtual reality. He also argues that techniques will be developed to influence human behavior, interpersonal communication, and cognition. As we spend more and more time in virtual space, there would be a gradual \"migration to virtual space\", resulting in important changes in economics, worldview, and culture. \n\nPhilosophical implications of the concept of VR are discussed in books including Philip Zhai's Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality (1998) and Digital Sensations: Space, Identity and Embodiment in Virtual Reality (1999), written by Ken Hillis.\n\nVirtual reality technology faces a number of challenges, most of which involve motion sickness and technical matters. Users might become disoriented in a purely virtual environment, causing balance issues; computer latency might affect the simulation, providing a less-than-satisfactory end-user experience; the complicated nature of head-mounted displays and input systems such as specialized gloves and boots may require specialized training to operate, and navigating the non-virtual environment (if the user is not confined to a limited area) might prove dangerous without external sensory information.\n\nIn January 2014, Michael Abrash gave a talk on VR at Steam Dev Days. He listed all the requirements necessary to establish presence and concluded that a great VR system will be available in 2015 or soon after. While the visual aspect of VR is close to being solved, he stated that there are other areas of VR that need solutions, such as 3D audio, haptics, body tracking, and input. However, 3D audio effects exist in games and simulate the head-related transfer function of the listener (especially using headphones). Examples include Environmental Audio Extensions (EAX), DirectSound and OpenAL.\n\nVR audio developer Varun Nair points out that from a design perspective, sound for VR is still very much an open book. Many of the game audio design principles, especially those related to FPS games, crumble in virtual reality. He encourages more sound designers to get involved in virtual reality audio to experiment and push VR audio forward. \n\nThere have been rising concerns that with the advent of virtual reality, some users may experience virtual reality addiction. \n\nPioneers and notables \n\n* Thomas A. Furness III\n* Maurice Benayoun\n* Mark Bolas\n* Fred Brooks\n* Anshe Chung\n* Edmond Couchot\n* James H. Clark\n* Doug Church\n* Char Davies\n* Tom DeFanti\n* David Em\n* Scott Fisher\n* William Gibson\n* Morton Heilig\n* Eric Howlett\n* Myron Krueger\n* Knowbotic Research\n* Jaron Lanier\n* Brenda Laurel\n* Palmer Luckey\n* Michael Naimark\n* Randy Pausch\n* Mark Pesce\n* Warren Robinett\n* Philip Rosedale\n* Louis Rosenberg \n* Dan Sandin\n* Susumu Tachi\n* Ivan Sutherland\n\nCommercial industries \n\nThe companies working in the virtual reality sector fall broadly into three categories of involvement: hardware (making headsets and input devices specific to VR), software (producing software for interfacing with the hardware or for delivering content to users) and content creation (producing content, whether interactive or passive, for consumption with VR hardware).\n\n;HMD devices\n* Altergaze\n* Carl Zeiss (Carl Zeiss Cinemizer)\n* Durovis Dive\n* Facebook (Oculus Rift)\n* Gameface\n* Google (Google Cardboard)\n* HTC (HTC Vive)\n* Microsoft (Microsoft HoloLens)\n* Razer (OSVR Hacker Dev Kit)\n* Samsung (Samsung Gear VR)\n* Sony Computer Entertainment (PS VR)\n* Starbreeze Studios (StarVR)\n* VRVana (Totem)\nSee Comparison of retail head-mounted displays\n;Input devices\n* Cyberith Virtualizer\n* Intugine \n* Leap Motion\n* Nokia (Nokia OZO camera)\n* Sixense\n* Virtuix Omni\n* ZSpace (company)\n* VicoVR\n\n;Software\n* VREAM\n\n;Content\n* Clone Mediaworks\n* Framestore\n* iClone\n* Innervision\n* Moving Picture Company\n* Reel FX\n* xRes\n\n; Emerging technologies\n* 360 degree video\n* Augmented reality\n* HoloLens\n* Intel RealSense\n* Magic Leap\n* Mixed reality\n* Ultrahaptics\n* VRVana\n\n; Companies\n* Google\n* Facebook\n* Apple\n* HTC\n* Valve\n* Samsung\n* Microsoft\n* Intel\n* Campustours\n* Sketchfab\n\n;Artists\n* Rebecca Allen\n* Maurice Benayoun\n* Sheldon Brown\n* Char Davies\n* David Em\n* Myron Krueger\n* Jaron Lanier\n* Brenda Laurel\n* Michael Naimark\n* Jeffrey Shaw\n* Nicole Stenger\n* Tamiko Thiel" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Keanu Reaves", "Ava Archer Syme-Reeves", "Keanu", "Keanu reeves", "Filmography of Keanu Reeves", "Keanu Reeves", "Keanau Reeves", "Sad Keanu", "Sad keanu", "Keanu Reeves/Filmography", "Keanu Reevs", "Kenau Reeves", "Keanu Reeves filmography", "Kenu reeves", "Cool breeze over the mountains" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "keanu reeves filmography", "ava archer syme reeves", "keanu reaves", "kenau reeves", "kenu reeves", "keanu reeves", "sad keanu", "filmography of keanu reeves", "cool breeze over mountains", "keanu", "keanau reeves", "keanu reevs" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "keanu reeves", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Keanu Reeves" }
Which decade does Michael J Fox go back to in Back to the Future?	tc_1110	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Back_to_the_Future.txt" ], "title": [ "Back to the Future" ], "wiki_context": [ "Back to the Future is a 1985 American science fiction adventure comedy film directed by Robert Zemeckis and written by Zemeckis and Bob Gale. It stars Michael J. Fox as teenager Marty McFly, who is sent back in time to 1955, where he meets his future parents in high school and accidentally becomes his mother's romantic interest. Christopher Lloyd portrays the eccentric scientist Dr. Emmett \"Doc\" Brown, Marty's friend who helps him repair the damage to history by advising Marty how to cause his parents to fall in love. Marty and Doc must also find a way to return Marty to 1985.\n\nZemeckis and Gale wrote the script after Gale mused upon whether he would have befriended his father if they had attended school together. Various film studios rejected the script until the financial success of Zemeckis' Romancing the Stone. Zemeckis approached Steven Spielberg, who agreed to produce the project at Amblin Entertainment, with Universal Pictures as distributor. The first choice for the role of Marty McFly was Michael J. Fox. However, he was busy filming his television series Family Ties and the show's producers would not allow him to star in the film. Consequently, Eric Stoltz was cast in the role. During filming, Stoltz and the filmmakers decided that the role was miscast, and Fox was again approached for the part. Now with more flexibility in his schedule and the blessing of his show's producers, Fox managed to work out a timetable in which he could give enough time and commitment to both.\n\nBack to the Future was released on July 3, 1985, grossing over $389 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 1985. It won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film, and the Academy Award for Best Sound Effects Editing, as well as receiving three additional Academy Award nominations, five BAFTA nominations, and four Golden Globe nominations, including Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy). Ronald Reagan even quoted the film in his 1986 State of the Union Address. In 2007, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry, and in June 2008 the American Film Institute's special AFI's 10 Top 10 designated the film as the 10th-best film in the science fiction genre. The film marked the beginning of a franchise, with two sequels, Back to the Future Part II (1989) and Back to the Future Part III (1990), as well as an animated series, theme park ride, several video games and a forthcoming musical.\n\nPlot\n\nTeenager Marty McFly is an aspiring musician dating girlfriend Jennifer Parker in Hill Valley, California. His father George is bullied by his supervisor, Biff Tannen, while his mother Lorraine is an overweight, depressed alcoholic. While dissatisfied with Marty's relationship with Jennifer, Lorraine recalls how she met George when her father hit him with a car.\n\nOn October 26, 1985, Marty meets his scientist friend, Dr. Emmett Brown, at a shopping mall parking lot. Doc unveils a time machine built from a modified DeLorean and powered by plutonium stolen from Libyan terrorists. Doc demonstrates the navigation system with the example date of November 5, 1955: the day he conceived the machine. A moment later, the Libyans arrive and kill him. Marty escapes in the DeLorean, but inadvertently activates the time machine, and arrives in 1955 without the required plutonium needed to return.\n\nThere, Marty encounters the teenage George, who is bullied by classmate Biff. After Marty saves George from an oncoming car and is knocked unconscious, he awakens to find himself tended by an infatuated Lorraine. Marty leaves and tracks down Doc's younger self to help him return to 1985. With no plutonium, Doc explains that the only power source capable of generating the necessary 1.21 gigawatts of electricity to power the time machine is a bolt of lightning. Marty shows Doc a flyer from the future that recounts a lightning strike at the town's courthouse the coming Saturday night. Doc instructs Marty to not leave his house or interact with anyone, as he could inadvertently change the course of history and alter the future; because of this, Doc refuses to heed warnings from Marty about his death in 1985. Marty realizes that he has prevented his parents from meeting and Doc warns Marty that he will be erased from existence if he doesn't find a way to introduce George to Lorraine. Doc formulates a plan to harness the power of the lightning while Marty sets about introducing his parents, but he antagonizes Biff and his gang in the process.\n\nWhen Lorraine asks Marty to the upcoming school dance, Marty plans to have George \"rescue\" Lorraine from Marty's inappropriate advances. The plan goes awry when a drunken Biff attempts to force himself on Lorraine. George arrives to rescue her from Marty, but finds Biff instead. George knocks out Biff and Lorraine follows George to the dance floor, where they kiss and fall in love while Marty plays music with the band. Satisfied that he has secured his future existence, Marty leaves to meet Doc.\n\nAs the storm arrives, Marty returns to the clock tower and the lightning strikes on cue, sending Marty back to October 1985. He finds that Doc is not dead, as he had listened to Marty's warnings and worn a bullet-proof vest. Doc takes Marty home and departs to 2015.\n\nMarty awakens the next morning to find his family changed: George is a self-confident, successful author, Lorraine is physically fit and happy, David is a successful businessman, Linda works in a boutique and has many \"boyfriends\" and Biff is now an obsequious auto valet. As Marty reunites with Jennifer, the DeLorean appears with Doc, dressed in a futuristic outfit, insisting they accompany him to 2015 to fix a problem with their future children. The trio get inside the DeLorean and disappear into the future.\n\nCast\n\nMichael J. Fox as Marty McFly\nChristopher Lloyd as Dr. Emmett \"Doc\" Brown\nLea Thompson as Lorraine Baines-McFly\nCrispin Glover as George McFly\nThomas F. Wilson as Biff Tannen\nClaudia Wells as Jennifer Parker\nJames Tolkan as Mr. Strickland\nMarc McClure as Dave McFly\nWendie Jo Sperber as Linda McFly\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nWriter and producer Bob Gale conceived the idea after he visited his parents in St. Louis, Missouri after the release of Used Cars. Searching their basement, Gale found his father's high school yearbook and discovered he was president of his graduating class. Gale thought about the president of his own graduating class, who was someone he had nothing to do with. Gale wondered whether he would have been friends with his father if they went to high school together. When he returned to California, he told Robert Zemeckis his new concept.Klastornin, Hibbin (1990), pp. 1–10 Zemeckis subsequently thought of a mother claiming she never kissed a boy at school when, in fact, she was highly promiscuous. The two took the project to Columbia Pictures, and made a development deal for a script in September 1980.\n\nZemeckis and Gale said that they had set the story in 1955 because a 17-year-old traveling to meet his parents at the same age arithmetically required the script to travel to that decade. The era also marked the rise of teenagers as an important cultural element, the birth of rock n' roll, and suburb expansion, which would flavor the story. In an early script, the time machine was designed as a refrigerator, and its user needed to use the power of an atomic explosion at the Nevada Test Site to return home. Zemeckis was \"concerned that kids would accidentally lock themselves in refrigerators\", and found that it would be more convenient if the time machine were mobile. The DeLorean DMC-12 was chosen because its design made the gag about the family of farmers mistaking it for a flying saucer believable. Zemeckis and Gale found it difficult to create a believable friendship between Marty and Brown before they created the giant guitar amplifier, and only resolved his Oedipal relationship with his mother when they wrote the line \"It's like I'm kissing my brother.\" Biff Tannen was named after studio executive Ned Tanen, who behaved aggressively toward Zemeckis and Gale during a script meeting for I Wanna Hold Your Hand.\n\nThe first draft of Back to the Future was finished in February 1981 and presented to Columbia, who put the film in turnaround. \"They thought it was a really nice, cute, warm film, but not sexual enough,\" Gale said. \"They suggested that we take it to Disney, but we decided to see if any other of the major studios wanted a piece of us.\" Every major film studio rejected the script for the next four years, while Back to the Future went through two more drafts. During the early 1980s, popular teen comedies (such as Fast Times at Ridgemont High and Porky's) were risqué and adult-aimed, so the script was commonly rejected for being too light. Gale and Zemeckis finally decided to pitch Back to the Future to Disney. \"They told us that a mother falling in love with her son was not appropriate for a family film under the Disney banner,\" Gale said.\n\nThe two were tempted to ally themselves with Steven Spielberg, who produced Used Cars and I Wanna Hold Your Hand, which were both box office bombs. Zemeckis and Gale initially had shown the screenplay to Spielberg, who had \"loved\" it. Spielberg, however, was absent from the project during development because Zemeckis felt if he produced another flop under him, he would never be able to make another film. Gale said \"we were afraid that we would get the reputation that we were two guys who could only get a job because we were pals with Steven Spielberg.\" Zemeckis chose to direct Romancing the Stone instead, which was a box office success. Now a high-profile director, Zemeckis reapproached Spielberg with the concept. Agreeing to produce Back to the Future, Spielberg set the project up at his production company, Amblin Entertainment, with Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall joining Spielberg as executive producers on the film. \n\nThe script remained under Columbia's shelf until legal issues forced them to withdraw. The studio was set to begin shooting a comedic send-up of Double Indemnity entitled Big Trouble. Columbia's legal department determined that the film's plot was too similar to Double Indemnity and they needed the permission of Universal Pictures, owners of the earlier film, if the film was ever to begin shooting. With Big Trouble already set to go, desperate Columbia executives phoned Universal's Frank Price to get the necessary paperwork. Price was a former Columbia executive who had been quite fond of the script for Back to the Future during his tenure there. As a result, Universal agreed to trade the Double Indemnity license in exchange for the rights to Back to the Future. Thus, the film finally had a home at Universal. \n\nExecutive Sidney Sheinberg made some suggestions to the script, changing Marty's mother's name from Meg to Lorraine (the name of his wife, actress Lorraine Gary), to change Brown's name from Professor Brown to Doc Brown and replace his pet chimpanzee with a dog. Sheinberg also wanted the title changed to Spaceman from Pluto, convinced no successful film ever had \"future\" in the title. He suggested Marty introduce himself as \"Darth Vader from the planet Pluto\" while dressed as an alien forcing his dad to ask out his mom (rather than \"the planet Vulcan\"), and that the farmer's son's comic book be titled Spaceman from Pluto rather than Space Zombies from Pluto. Appalled by the new title that Sheinberg wanted to impose, Zemeckis asked Spielberg for help. Spielberg subsequently dictated a memo back to Sheinberg, wherein Spielberg convinced him they thought his title was just a joke, thus embarrassing him into dropping the idea.McBride (1997), pp. 384–385 In addition, the original climax was deemed too expensive by Universal executives and was simplified by keeping the plot within Hill Valley and incorporating the clocktower sequence. Spielberg later used the omitted refrigerator and Nevada nuclear site elements in his film, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. \n\nCasting\n\nMichael J. Fox was the first choice to play Marty McFly, but he was committed to the show Family Ties.Klastornin, Hibbin (1990), pp. 11–20 Family Ties producer Gary David Goldberg felt that Fox was essential to the show's success. With co-star Meredith Baxter on maternity leave, he refused to allow Fox time off to work on a film. Back to the Future was originally scheduled for a May 1985 release and it was late 1984 when it was learned that Fox would be unable to star in the film. Zemeckis' next two choices were C. Thomas Howell and Eric Stoltz. Stoltz impressed the producers enough with his earlier portrayal of Roy L. Dennis in Mask (which had yet to be released) that they selected him to play Marty McFly. Because of the difficult casting process, the start date was pushed back twice.Kagan (2003), pp. 63–92\n\nFour weeks into filming, Zemeckis determined Stoltz had been miscast. Although he and Spielberg realized re-shooting the film would add $3 million to the $14 million budget, they decided to recast. Spielberg explained Zemeckis felt Stoltz was not comedic enough and gave a \"terrifically dramatic performance\". Gale further explained they felt Stoltz was simply acting out the role, whereas Fox himself had a personality like Marty McFly. He felt Stoltz was uncomfortable riding a skateboard, whereas Fox was not. Stoltz confessed to director Peter Bogdanovich during a phone call, two weeks into the shoot, that he was unsure of Zemeckis and Gale's direction, and concurred that he was wrong for the role.\n\nFox's schedule was opened up in January 1985 when Baxter returned to Family Ties following her pregnancy. The Back to the Future crew met with Goldberg again, who made a deal that Fox's main priority would be Family Ties, and if a scheduling conflict arose, \"we win\". Fox loved the script and was impressed by Zemeckis and Gale's sensitivity in releasing Stoltz, because they nevertheless \"spoke very highly of him\". Per Welinder and Bob Schmelzer assisted on the skateboarding scenes.Robert Zemeckis, Bob Gale. (2005). Back to the Future: The Complete Trilogy DVD commentary for part 1 [DVD]. Universal Pictures. Fox found his portrayal of Marty McFly to be very personal. \"All I did in high school was skateboard, chase girls and play in bands. I even dreamed of becoming a rock star.\"\n\nChristopher Lloyd was cast as Doc Brown after the first choice, John Lithgow, became unavailable. Having worked with Lloyd on The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai (1984), producer Neil Canton suggested him for the part. Lloyd originally turned down the role, but changed his mind after reading the script and at the persistence of his wife. He improvised some of his scenes, taking inspiration from Albert Einstein and conductor Leopold Stokowski. Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale Q&A, Back to the Future [2002 DVD], recorded at the University of Southern California Brown pronounces gigawatts as \"jigawatts\", which was the way a physicist said the word when he met with Zemeckis and Gale as they researched the script, rather than with an initial hard \"g\", although both pronunciations are acceptable. Doc Brown's notable hunch came about because at 6'1\" Lloyd was considerably taller than Fox at 5'5\", and they needed to look closer in height. \n\nCrispin Glover played George McFly. Zemeckis said Glover improvised much of George's nerdy mannerisms, such as his shaky hands. The director joked he was \"endlessly throwing a net over Crispin because he was completely off about fifty percent of the time in his interpretation of the character\". Due to a contract disagreement, Glover was replaced by Jeffrey Weissman in Part II and Part III. \n\nLea Thompson was cast as Lorraine McFly because she had acted opposite Stoltz in The Wild Life; the producers noticed her as they had watched the film while casting Stoltz. Her prosthetic makeup for scenes at the beginning of the film, set in 1985, took three and a half hours to apply. \n\nThomas F. Wilson was cast as Biff Tannen because the producers felt that the original choice, J. J. Cohen, wasn't physically imposing enough to bully Stoltz. Cohen was recast as Skinhead, one of Biff's cohorts. Had Fox been cast from the beginning, Cohen probably would have won the part because he was sufficiently taller than Fox.\n\nMelora Hardin was originally cast in the role of Marty's girlfriend Jennifer, but was let go after Stoltz was dismissed, with the explanation that the actress was now too tall to be playing against Fox. Hardin was dismissed before she had a chance to shoot a single scene and was replaced with Claudia Wells. Actress Jill Schoelen had also been considered to play Marty's girlfriend. \n\nFilming\n\nFollowing Stoltz's departure, Fox's schedule during weekdays consisted of filming Family Ties during the day, and Back to the Future from 6:30 pm to 2:30 am. He averaged five hours of sleep each night. During Fridays, he shot from 10 pm to 6 or 7 am, and then moved on to film exterior scenes throughout the weekend, as only then was he available during daytime hours. Fox found it exhausting, but \"it was my dream to be in the film and television business, although I didn't know I'd be in them simultaneously. It was just this weird ride and I got on.\"Michael J. Fox, Robert Zemeckis, Bob Gale, Steven Spielberg, Alan Silvestri, The Making of Back to the Future (television special), 1985, NBC Zemeckis concurred, dubbing Back to the Future \"the film that would not wrap\". He recalled that because they shot night after night, he was always \"half asleep\" and the \"fattest, most out-of-shape and sick I ever was\".\n\nThe Hill Valley town square scenes were shot at Courthouse Square, located in the Universal Studios backlot (). Gale explained it would have been impossible to shoot on location \"because no city is going to let a film crew remodel their town to look like it's in the 1950s.\" The filmmakers \"decided to shoot all the 50s stuff first, and make the town look real beautiful and wonderful. Then we would just totally trash it down and make it all bleak and ugly for the 1980s scenes.\" The interiors for Doc Brown's house were shot at the Robert R. Blacker House, while exteriors took place at Gamble House. The exterior shots of the Twin Pines Mall, and later the Lone Pine Mall (from 1985) were shot at the Puente Hills Mall in City of Industry, California. The exterior shots and some interior scenes at Hill Valley High School were filmed at Whittier High School in Whittier, California. The Battle of the Bands tryout scene was filmed at the McCambridge Park Recreation Center in Burbank, and the \"Enchantment Under the Sea\" dance was filmed in the gymnasium at Hollywood United Methodist Church. The scenes outside of the Baines' house in 1955 were shot at Bushnell Avenue, South Pasadena, California. \n\nFilming wrapped after 100 days on April 20, 1985, and the film was delayed from May to August. But after a highly positive test screening (\"I'd never seen a preview like that,\" said Frank Marshall, \"the audience went up to the ceiling\"), Sheinberg chose to move the release date to July 3. To make sure the film met this new date, two editors, Arthur Schmidt and Harry Keramidas, were assigned to the picture, while many sound editors worked 24-hour shifts on the film. Eight minutes were cut, including Marty watching his mom cheat during an exam, George getting stuck in a telephone booth before rescuing Lorraine, as well as much of Marty pretending to be Darth Vader. Zemeckis almost cut out the \"Johnny B. Goode\" sequence as he felt it did not advance the story, but the preview audience loved it, so it was kept. Industrial Light & Magic created the film's 32 effects shots, which did not satisfy Zemeckis and Gale until a week before the film's completion date. The compositing involved for the film's time travel sequences, as well as for the lightning effects in the climactic clock tower scene, was handled by animation supervisor Wes Takahashi, who would also work on the subsequent two Back to the Future films with the rest of the ILM crew. \n\nMusic\n\nAlan Silvestri collaborated with Zemeckis on Romancing the Stone, but Spielberg disliked that film's score. Zemeckis advised Silvestri to make his compositions grand and epic, despite the film's small scale, to impress Spielberg. Silvestri began recording the score two weeks before the first preview. He also suggested Huey Lewis and the News create the theme song. Their first attempt was rejected by Universal, before they recorded \"The Power of Love\". The studio loved the final song, but were disappointed it did not feature the film's title, so they had to send memos to radio stations to always mention its association with Back to the Future. In the end, the track \"Back in Time\" was featured in the film, playing during the scene when Marty wakes up after his return to 1985 and also during the end credits.\n\nAlthough it appears that Fox is actually playing a guitar, music supervisor Bones Howe hired Hollywood guitar coach and musician Paul Hanson to teach Fox to simulate playing all the parts so it would look realistic, including playing behind his head. Fox lip-synched \"Johnny B. Goode\" to vocals by Mark Campbell (of Jack Mack and the Heart Attack fame), with the guitar solo played by Tim May. \n\nThe original 1985 soundtrack album only included two tracks culled from Silvestri's compositions for the film, both Huey Lewis tracks, the songs played in the film by the fictional band Marvin Berry and The Starlighters (and Marty McFly), one of the vintage 1950s songs in the movie, and two pop songs that are only very briefly heard in the background of the film . On November 24, 2009, an authorized, limited-edition two-CD set of the entire score was released by Intrada Records. \n\nRelease\n\nBack to the Future opened on July 3, 1985, on 1,200 screens in North America. Zemeckis was concerned the film would flop because Fox had to film a Family Ties special in London and was unable to promote the film. Gale was also dissatisfied with Universal Pictures' tagline \"Are you telling me my mother's got the hots for me?\".\n\nWhen the film was released on VHS in 1986, Universal added a \"To be continued...\" graphic at the end to increase awareness of production on Part II. This caption is omitted on the film's DVD release in 2002 and on subsequent Blu-ray and DVD releases.\n\nIn October 2010, in commemoration for the film's 25th anniversary, Back to the Future was digitally restored and remastered for a theatrical re-release in the US, the UK and Italy. The release also coincided with Universal Pictures Home Entertainment's Blu-ray Disc releases of the trilogy. \n\nOn October 21, 2015, the futuristic date depicted in Part II, the entire trilogy was re-released theatrically for one day in celebration of the film's 30th anniversary. \n\nReception\n\nBox office\n\nBack to the Future spent 11 weeks at number one. Gale recalled \"Our second weekend was higher than our first weekend, which is indicative of great word of mouth. National Lampoon's European Vacation came out in August and it kicked us out of number one for one week and then we were back to number one.\" The film went on to gross $210.61 million in North America and $173.2 million in foreign countries, accumulating a worldwide total of $383.87 million. Back to the Future had the fourth-highest opening weekend of 1985 and was the top grossing film of the year. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 59 million tickets in the US. \n\nCritical response\n\nOn review aggregator Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100, the film received an average score of 86/100, which indicates \"universal acclaim\", based on 12 reviews. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 96% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 77 reviews, certifying it \"Fresh\", with an average rating of 8.7 out of 10 and the consensus: \"Inventive, funny, and breathlessly constructed, Back to the Future is a rousing time-travel adventure with an unforgettable spirit.\" \n\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times felt Back to the Future had similar themes to the films of Frank Capra, especially It's a Wonderful Life. Ebert commented \"[Producer] Steven Spielberg is emulating the great authentic past of Classical Hollywood cinema, who specialized in matching the right director (Robert Zemeckis) with the right project.\" He gave the film 3 1/2 out of 4 stars. Janet Maslin of The New York Times believed the film had a balanced storyline: \"It's a cinematic inventing of humor and whimsical tall tales for a long time to come.\" Christopher Null, who first saw the film as a teenager, called it \"a quintessential 1980s flick that combines science fiction, action, comedy, and romance all into a perfect little package that kids and adults will both devour.\" Dave Kehr of Chicago Reader felt Gale and Zemeckis wrote a script that perfectly balanced science fiction, seriousness and humor. Variety praised the performances, arguing Fox and Lloyd imbued Marty and Doc Brown's friendship with a quality reminiscent of King Arthur and Merlin. BBC News lauded the intricacies of the \"outstandingly executed\" script, remarking that \"nobody says anything that doesn't become important to the plot later.\" Back to the Future appeared on Gene Siskel's top ten film list of 1985. \n\nAccolades\n\nAt the 58th Academy Awards, Back to the Future won for Best Sound Effects Editing, while Zemeckis and Gale were nominated for Best Original Screenplay, \"The Power of Love\" was nominated for Best Original Song, and Bill Varney, B. Tennyson Sebastian II, Robert Thirlwell and William B. Kaplan were nominated for Best Sound Mixing. The film won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film. Michael J. Fox and the visual effects designers won categories at the Saturn Awards. Zemeckis, composer Alan Silvestri, the costume design and supporting actors Christopher Lloyd, Lea Thompson, Crispin Glover and Thomas F. Wilson were also nominated. The film was nominated for numerous BAFTAs at the 39th British Academy Film Awards, including Best Film, original screenplay, visual effects, production design and editing. At the 43rd Golden Globe Awards, Back to the Future was nominated for Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy), original song (for \"The Power of Love\"), Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Fox) and Best Screenplay for Zemeckis and Gale. \n\nLegacy\n\nPresident Ronald Reagan, a fan of the film, referred to the film in his 1986 State of the Union Address when he said, \"Never has there been a more exciting time to be alive, a time of rousing wonder and heroic achievement. As they said in the film Back to the Future, 'Where we're going, we don't need roads'.\" When he first saw the joke about him being president, he ordered the projectionist of the theater to stop the reel, roll it back, and run it again.\n\nThe film ranked number 28 on Entertainment Weeklys list of the 50 Best High School Movies. In 2008, Back to the Future was voted the 23rd greatest film ever made by readers of Empire. It was also placed on a similar list by The New York Times, a list of 1000 movies. In January 2010, Total Film included the film on its list of The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time. On December 27, 2007, Back to the Future was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". In 2006, the original screenplay for Back to the Future was selected by the Writers Guild of America as the 56th best screenplay of all time.\n\nIn June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed the AFI's 10 Top 10 – the best ten films in ten classic American film genres – after polling more than 1,500 people from the creative community. Back to the Future was acknowledged as the 10th best film in the science fiction genre. \n\nA musical theater production, also called Back to the Future, is in development for a debut in London's West End theatre during the film's 30th anniversary in 2015. Zemeckis and Gale reunited to write the play, while Silvestri and Glen Ballard provide music. \n\nThe scenes of Marty McFly skateboarding in the film occurred during the infancy of the skateboarding sub-culture and numerous skateboarders, as well as companies in the industry, pay tribute to the film for its influence in this regard. Examples can be seen in promotional material, in interviews in which professional skateboarders cite the film as an initiation into the action sport, and in the public's recognition of the film's influence. \n\nAmerican Film Institute lists\n\nAFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (1998) – Nominated \nAFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs (2000) – Nominated \nAFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills (2001) – Nominated \nAFI's 100 Years...100 Songs (2004):\n\"The Power of Love\" – Nominated\n\"Johnny B. Goode\" – Nominated \nAFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes (2005):\n*\"Roads? Where we're going we don't need roads.\" – Nominated \nAFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) (2007) – Nominated \n*AFI's 10 Top 10 (2008) – #10 Science Fiction Film \n\nBack to the Future is also among Film4's 50 Films to See Before You Die, being ranked 10th. \n\nSequels\n\nBack to the Futures success led to two film sequels: Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III. Part II was released on November 22, 1989, to similar financial and critical success as the original, finishing as the third highest-grossing film of the year worldwide. The film continues directly from the ending of Back to the Future and follows Marty and Doc as they travel into the future of 2015, an alternative 1985, and 1955 where Marty must repair the future while avoiding his past self from the original film. Part II became notable for its 2015 setting and predictions of technology such as hoverboards. Part III, released on May 25, 1990, continued the story, following Marty as he travels back to 1885 to rescue a time-stranded Doc. Part III was less financially successful than its predecessors despite being better received by critics." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Fifties", "1950s", "1950-1959", "50's", "1950’s", "50s", "1950–1959", "Nineteen-fifties", "1950s (decade)", "1950ies", "1950's", "'50s", "195%3F", "Fifties" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "50s", "1950s", "1950–1959", "1950s decade", "nineteen fifties", "1950ies", "fifties", "195 3f", "1950 1959", "50 s", "1950 s" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "50s", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "50s" }
In which 90s movie did Al Pacino play retired Colonel Frank Slade?	tc_1111	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Al_Pacino.txt" ], "title": [ "Al Pacino" ], "wiki_context": [ "Alfredo James \"Al\" Pacino (; born April 25, 1940) is an American actor of stage and screen, filmmaker, and screenwriter. Pacino has had a career spanning fifty years, during which time he has received numerous accolades and honors both competitive and honorary, among them an Academy Award, two Tony Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards, a British Academy Film Award, four Golden Globe Awards, the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute, the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award, and the National Medal of Arts. He is also one of few performers to have won a competitive Oscar, an Emmy and a Tony Award for acting, dubbed the \"Triple Crown of Acting\".\n\nA method actor and former student of the Herbert Berghof Studio and the Actors Studio in New York City, where he was taught by Charlie Laughton and Lee Strasberg, Pacino made his feature film debut with a minor role in Me, Natalie (1969) and gained favourable notices for his lead role as a heroin addict in The Panic in Needle Park (1971). He achieved international acclaim and recognition for his breakthrough role as Michael Corleone in Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather (1972). He received his first Oscar nomination and would reprise the role in sequels Part II (1974) and Part III (1990). Pacino's performance as Corleone is now regarded as one of the greatest screen performances in film history.\n\nPacino received his first Best Actor Oscar nomination for Serpico (1973); he was also nominated for The Godfather Part II, Dog Day Afternoon (1975) and ...And Justice for All (1979) and won the award in 1993 for his performance as a blind Lieutenant Colonel in Scent of a Woman (1992). For his performances in The Godfather, Dick Tracy (1990) and Glengarry Glen Ross (1992), Pacino was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Other notable roles include Tony Montana in Scarface (1983), Carlito Brigante in Carlito's Way (1993), Lieutenant Vincent Hanna in Heat (1995), Benjamin Ruggiero in Donnie Brasco (1997), Lowell Bergman in The Insider (1999) and Detective Will Dormer in Insomnia (2002). In television, Pacino has acted in several productions for HBO including the miniseries Angels in America (2003) and the Jack Kevorkian biopic You Don't Know Jack (2010), both of which won him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie.\n\nIn addition to his work in film, Pacino has had an extensive career on stage and is a two-time Tony Award winner, in 1969 and 1977, for his performances in Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie? and The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel respectively. A lifelong fan of Shakespeare, Pacino directed and starred in Looking for Richard (1996), a documentary film about the play Richard III, a role which Pacino had earlier portrayed on-stage in 1977. He has also acted as Shylock in a 2004 feature film adaptation and a 2010 production of The Merchant of Venice. Having made his filmmaking debut with Looking for Richard, Pacino has also directed and starred in the independent film Chinese Coffee (2000) and the films Wilde Salomé (2011) and Salomé (2013), about the play Salomé by Oscar Wilde. Since 1994, Pacino has been the joint president of the Actors Studio with Ellen Burstyn and Harvey Keitel.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nPacino was born in New York City (East Harlem), to Sicilian-American parents Salvatore Pacino and Rose, who divorced when he was two years old. His mother moved near the Bronx Zoo to live with her parents, Kate and James Gerardi, who, coincidentally, had come from a town in Sicily named Corleone. His father, who was from San Fratello in the Province of Messina, moved to Covina, California, and worked as an insurance salesman and restaurateur.\n\nIn his teen years \"Sonny\", as he was known to his friends, aimed to become a baseball player, and was also nicknamed \"The Actor\". Pacino dropped out of many classes, but not English. He dropped out of school at age 17. His mother disagreed with his decision; they argued and he left home. He worked at low-paying jobs, messenger, busboy, janitor, and postal clerk, to finance his acting studies. He once worked in the mail room for Commentary magazine. \n\nHe began smoking and drinking at age nine, and took up casual cannabis use at age 13, but never used hard drugs. His two closest friends died from drug abuse at the ages of 19 and 30. Growing up in The Bronx, he got into occasional fights and was considered something of a troublemaker at school. \n\nHe acted in basement plays in New York's theatrical underground but was rejected for the Actors Studio while a teenager. Pacino then joined the Herbert Berghof Studio (HB Studio), where he met acting teacher Charlie Laughton (not to be confused with the British actor Charles Laughton), who became his mentor and best friend. In this period, he was often unemployed and homeless, and sometimes slept on the street, in theaters, or at friends' houses. \n\nIn 1962, his mother died at the age of 43. The following year, Pacino's grandfather James Gerardi, one of the most influential people in his life, also died.\n\nActors Studio training\n\nAfter four years at HB Studio, Pacino successfully auditioned for the Actors Studio.Grobel; p. xix The Actors Studio is a membership organization of professional actors, theatre directors and playwrights in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. Pacino studied \"method acting\" under acting coach Lee Strasberg, who later appeared with Pacino in the films The Godfather Part II and in ...And Justice for All.\n\nDuring later interviews he spoke about Strasberg and the Studio's effect on his career. \"The Actors Studio meant so much to me in my life. Lee Strasberg hasn't been given the credit he deserves ... Next to Charlie, it sort of launched me. It really did. That was a remarkable turning point in my life. It was directly responsible for getting me to quit all those jobs and just stay acting.\" \n\nIn another interview he added, \"It was exciting to work for him [Lee Strasberg] because he was so interesting when he talked about a scene or talked about people. One would just want to hear him talk, because things he would say, you'd never heard before ... He had such a great understanding ... he loved actors so much.\" \n\nPacino is currently co-president, along with Ellen Burstyn and Harvey Keitel, of the Actors Studio.\n\nStage career\n\nIn 1967, Pacino spent a season at the Charles Playhouse in Boston, performing in Clifford Odets' Awake and Sing! (his first major paycheck: $125 a week); and in Jean-Claude Van Itallie's America, Hurrah, where he met actress Jill Clayburgh on this play. They had a five-year romance and moved back together to New York City. \n\nIn 1968, Pacino starred in Israel Horovitz's The Indian Wants the Bronx at the Astor Place Theater, playing Murph, a street punk. The play opened January 17, 1968, and ran for 177 performances; it was staged in a double bill with Horovitz's It's Called the Sugar Plum, starring Clayburgh. Pacino won an Obie Award for Best Actor for his role, with John Cazale winning for Best Supporting actor and Horowitz for Best New Play. Martin Bregman saw the play and became Pacino's manager, a partnership that became fruitful in the years to come, as Bregman encouraged Pacino to do The Godfather, Serpico and Dog Day Afternoon. \"Martin Bregman discovered me off Broadway. I was 26, 25. And he discovered me and became my manager. And that's why I'm here. I owe it to Marty, I really do,\" Pacino himself has stated about his own career. \n\nPacino and this production of The Indian Wants the Bronx traveled to Italy for a performance at the Festival dei Due Mondi in Spoleto. It was Pacino's first journey to Italy; he later recalled that \"performing for an Italian audience was a marvelous experience\". Pacino and Clayburgh were cast in \"Deadly Circle of Violence\", an episode of the ABC television series NYPD, premiering November 12, 1968. Clayburgh at the time was also appearing on the soap opera Search for Tomorrow, playing the role of Grace Bolton. Her father would send the couple money each month to help. \n\nOn February 25, 1969, Pacino made his Broadway debut in Don Petersen's Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie? at the Belasco Theater produced by A&P Heir Huntington Hartford. It closed after 39 performances on March 29, 1969, but Pacino received rave reviews and won the Tony Award on April 20, 1969. Pacino continued performing onstage in the 1970s, winning a second Tony Award for The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel and performing the title role in Richard III. In the 1980s, Pacino again achieved critical success on stage while appearing in David Mamet's American Buffalo, for which Pacino was nominated for a Drama Desk Award. Since 1990, Pacino's stage work has included revivals of Eugene O'Neill's Hughie, Oscar Wilde's Salome and in 2005 Lyle Kessler's Orphans. \n\nPacino made his return to the stage in summer 2010, as Shylock in a Shakespeare in the Park production of The Merchant of Venice. The acclaimed production moved to Broadway at the Broadhurst Theatre in October, earning US$1 million at the box office in its first week. The performance also garnered him a Tony Award nomination for Best Leading Actor in a Play. In October 2012 Pacino starred in the 30th anniversary Broadway revival of David Mamet's classic play, Glengarry Glen Ross, which ran through January 20, 2013. \n\nFrom the end of 2015 through January 2016 he starred on Broadway in \"China Doll\", a play written for him by David Mamet. It is a limited run of 87 performances, after acclaimed reviews of 4 performances in October 2015.\n\nFilm career\n\nEarly film career\n\nPacino found acting enjoyable and realized he had a gift for it while studying at The Actors Studio. However, his early work was not financially rewarding. After his success on stage, Pacino made his movie debut in 1969 with a brief appearance in Me, Natalie, an independent film starring Patty Duke. In 1970, Pacino signed with the talent agency Creative Management Associates (CMA).\n\n1970s\n\nIt was the 1971 film The Panic in Needle Park, in which he played a heroin addict, that brought Pacino to the attention of director Francis Ford Coppola, who cast him as Michael Corleone in the blockbuster Mafia film The Godfather (1972). Although several established actorsincluding Jack Nicholson, Robert Redford, Warren Beatty, and little-known Robert De Niroalso tried out for the part, Coppola selected the relatively unknown Pacino, to the dismay of studio executives. \n\nPacino's performance earned him an Academy Award nomination, and offered a prime example of his early acting style, described by Halliwell's Film Guide as \"intense\" and \"tightly clenched\". Pacino boycotted the Academy Award ceremony, insulted at being nominated for the Supporting Acting award, noting that he had more screen time than co-star and Best Actor winner Marlon Brandowho also boycotted the awards, but for unrelated reasons. \n\nIn 1973, he co-starred in Scarecrow, with Gene Hackman, and won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. That same year, Pacino was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor after starring in Serpico, based on the true story of New York City policeman Frank Serpico, who went undercover to expose the corruption of fellow officers. In 1974, Pacino reprised his role as Michael Corleone in the sequel The Godfather Part II, which was the first sequel to win the Best Picture Oscar; Pacino, meanwhile, was nominated for his third Oscar.\n\nNewsweek has described his performance in The Godfather Part II as \"arguably cinema's greatest portrayal of the hardening of a heart\". In 1975, he enjoyed further success with the release of Dog Day Afternoon, based on the true story of bank robber John Wojtowicz. It was directed by Sidney Lumet, who had directed him in Serpico a few years earlier, and Pacino was again nominated for Best Actor. \n\nIn 1977, Pacino starred as a race-car driver in Bobby Deerfield, directed by Sydney Pollack, and received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama for his portrayal of the title role. His next film was the courtroom drama ...And Justice for All, which again saw Pacino lauded by critics for his wide range of acting abilities, and nominated for the Best Actor Oscar for a fourth time. However he lost out that year to Dustin Hoffman in Kramer vs. Kramer—a role that Pacino had declined.\n\nDuring the 1970s, Pacino had four Oscar nominations for Best Actor, for his performances in Serpico, The Godfather Part II, Dog Day Afternoon, and ...And Justice for All.\n\n1980s\n\nPacino's career slumped in the early 1980s; his appearances in the controversial Cruising, a film that provoked protests from New York's gay community, and the comedy-drama Author! Author!, were critically panned. However, 1983's Scarface, directed by Brian De Palma, proved to be a career highlight and a defining role. Upon its initial release, the film was critically panned due to violent content, but later received critical acclaim. The film did well at the box office, grossing over US$45 million domestically. Pacino earned a Golden Globe nomination for his role as Cuban drug lord Tony Montana. \n\nIn 1985, Pacino worked on his personal project, The Local Stigmatic, a 1969 Off Broadway play by the English writer Heathcote Williams. He starred in the play, remounting it with director David Wheeler and the Theater Company of Boston in a 50-minute film version. The film was not released theatrically, but was later released as part of the Pacino: An Actor's Vision box set in 2007.\n\nHis 1985 film Revolution about a fur trapper during the American Revolutionary War, was a commercial and critical failure, which Pacino blamed on a rushed production, resulting in a four-year hiatus from films. At this time Pacino returned to the stage. He mounted workshop productions of Crystal Clear, National Anthems and other plays; he appeared in Julius Caesar in 1988 in producer Joseph Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival. Pacino remarked on his hiatus from film: \"I remember back when everything was happening, '74, '75, doing The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui on stage and reading that the reason I'd gone back to the stage was that my movie career was waning! That's been the kind of ethos, the way in which theater's perceived, unfortunately.\" Pacino returned to film in 1989's Sea of Love, when he portrayed a detective hunting a serial killer who finds victims through the singles column in a newspaper. The film earned solid reviews. \n\n1990s\n\nPacino received an Academy Award nomination for playing Big Boy Caprice in the box office hit Dick Tracy in 1990, of which critic Roger Ebert described Pacino as \"the scene-stealer\". Later in the year he followed this up in a return to one of his most famous characters, Michael Corleone, in The Godfather Part III (1990). The film received mixed reviews, and had problems in pre-production due to script rewrites and the withdrawal of actors shortly before production.\n\nIn 1991, Pacino starred in Frankie and Johnny with Michelle Pfeiffer, who co-starred with Pacino in Scarface. Pacino portrays a recently paroled cook who begins a relationship with a waitress (Pfeiffer) in the diner where they work. It was adapted by Terrence McNally from his own Off-Broadway play Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune (1987), that featured Kenneth Welsh and Kathy Bates. The film received mixed reviews, although Pacino later said he enjoyed playing the part. Janet Maslin in The New York Times wrote, \"Mr. Pacino has not been this uncomplicatedly appealing since his \"Dog Day Afternoon\" days, and he makes Johnny's endless enterprise in wooing Frankie a delight. His scenes alone with Ms. Pfeiffer have a precision and honesty that keep the film's maudlin aspects at bay.\" \n\nIn 1992, Pacino won the Academy Award for Best Actor, for his portrayal of the blind U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Frank Slade in Martin Brest's Scent of a Woman. That year, he was also nominated for Best Supporting Actor for Glengarry Glen Ross, making Pacino the first male actor ever to receive two acting nominations for two movies in the same year, and to win for the lead role.\n\nPacino starred alongside Sean Penn in the crime drama Carlito's Way in 1993, in which he portrayed a gangster released from prison with the help of his lawyer (Penn) and vows to go straight. Pacino starred in Michael Mann's Heat (1995), in which he and Robert De Niro appeared on-screen together for the first time (though both Pacino and De Niro starred in The Godfather Part II, they did not share any scenes).\n\nIn 1996, Pacino starred in his theatrical docudrama Looking for Richard, a performance of selected scenes of Shakespeare's Richard III and a broader examination of Shakespeare's continuing role and relevance in popular culture. The cast brought together for the performance included Alec Baldwin, Kevin Spacey, and Winona Ryder. Pacino played Satan in the supernatural thriller The Devil's Advocate (1997) which co-starred Keanu Reeves. The film was a success at the box office, taking US$150 million worldwide. Roger Ebert wrote in the Chicago Sun-Times, \"The satanic character is played by Pacino with relish bordering on glee.\" \n\nIn 1997's Donnie Brasco, Pacino played gangster \"Lefty\" in the true story of undercover FBI agent Donnie Brasco (Johnny Depp) and his work in bringing down the mafia from the inside. In 1999, Pacino starred as 60 Minutes producer Lowell Bergman in the multi-Oscar nominated The Insider opposite Russell Crowe, and in Oliver Stone's Any Given Sunday.\n\n2000s\n\nPacino has not received another Academy Award nomination since winning for Scent of a Woman, but has won three Golden Globes since the year 2000, the first being the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2001 for lifetime achievement in motion pictures. \n\nIn 2000, Pacino released a low-budget film adaptation of Ira Lewis' play Chinese Coffee to film festivals. Shot almost exclusively as a one-on-one conversation between two main characters, the project took nearly three years to complete and was funded entirely by Pacino. Chinese Coffee was included with Pacino's two other rare films he was involved in producing, The Local Stigmatic and Looking for Richard, on a special DVD box set titled Pacino: An Actor's Vision, which was released in 2007. Pacino produced prologues and epilogues for the discs containing the films. \n\nPacino turned down an offer to reprise his role as Michael Corleone in the computer game version of The Godfather. As a result, Electronic Arts was not permitted to use Pacino's likeness or voice in the game, although his character does appear in it. He did allow his likeness to appear in the video game adaptation of 1983's Scarface, quasi-sequel titled Scarface: The World is Yours. \n\nDirector Christopher Nolan worked with Pacino on Insomnia, a remake of the Norwegian film of the same name, co-starring Robin Williams. Newsweek stated that \"he [Pacino] can play small as rivetingly as he can play big, that he can implode as well as explode\". The film and Pacino's performance were well received, gaining a favorable rating of 93 percent on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes. The film did moderately well at the box office, taking in $113 million worldwide. His next film, S1m0ne, did not gain much critical praise or box office success. \n\nHe played a publicist in People I Know, a small film that received little attention despite Pacino's well-received performance. Rarely taking a supporting role since his commercial breakthrough, he accepted a small part in the box office flop Gigli, in 2003, as a favor to director Martin Brest. The Recruit, released in 2003, featured Pacino as a CIA recruiter and co-stars Colin Farrell. The film received mixed reviews, and has been described by Pacino as something he \"personally couldn't follow\". Pacino next starred as lawyer Roy Cohn in the 2003 HBO miniseries Angels in America, an adaptation of Tony Kushner's Pulitzer Prize winning play of the same name. For this performance, Pacino won his third Golden Globe, for Best Performance by an Actor, in 2004. \n\nPacino starred as Shylock in Michael Radford's 2004 film adaptation of The Merchant of Venice, choosing to bring compassion and depth to a character traditionally played as a villainous caricature. In Two for the Money, Pacino portrays a sports gambling agent and mentor for Matthew McConaughey, alongside Rene Russo. The film was released on October 8, 2005, to mixed reviews. Desson Thomson wrote in The Washington Post, \"Al Pacino has played the mentor so many times, he ought to get a kingmaker's award ... the fight between good and evil feels fixed in favor of Hollywood redemption.\" \n\nOn October 20, 2006, the American Film Institute named Pacino the recipient of the 35th AFI Life Achievement Award. On November 22, 2006, the University Philosophical Society of Trinity College, Dublin awarded Pacino the Honorary Patronage of the Society. \n\nPacino played a spoof role in Steven Soderbergh's Ocean's Thirteen, alongside George Clooney, Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, Elliott Gould and Andy García, as the villain Willy Bank, a casino tycoon targeted by Danny Ocean and his crew. The film received generally favorable reviews. \n\n88 Minutes was released on April 18, 2008, in the United States, after having been released in various other countries in 2007. The film co-starred Alicia Witt and was critically panned, although critics found fault with the plot, and not Pacino's acting. In Righteous Kill, Pacino and Robert De Niro co-star as New York detectives searching for a serial killer. The film was released to theaters on September 12, 2008. While it was an anticipated return for the two stars, it was not well received by critics. Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave Righteous Kill one star out of four, saying: \"Al Pacino and Robert De Niro collect bloated paychecks with intent to bore in Righteous Kill, a slow-moving, ridiculous police thriller that would have been shipped straight to the remainder bin at Blockbuster if it starred anyone else.\" \n\n2010s\n\nPacino played Dr. Jack Kevorkian in an HBO Films biopic entitled You Don't Know Jack, which premiered April 2010. The film is about the life and work of the physician-assisted suicide advocate. The performance earned Pacino his second Emmy Award for lead actor and his fourth Golden Globe award.\n\nIt was announced in May 2011 that Pacino was to be honored with the \"Glory to the Film-maker\" award at the 68th Venice International Film Festival. The award was presented ahead of the premiere of his film Wilde Salome, the third film Pacino has directed. Pacino, who plays the role of Herod in the film, describes it as his \"most personal project ever\".\n\nThe United States premiere of Wilde Salomé took place on the evening of March 21, 2012, before a full house at the 1,400-seat Castro Theatre in San Francisco's Castro District. Marking the 130th anniversary of Oscar Wilde's visit to San Francisco, the event was a benefit for the GLBT Historical Society. \n\nPacino most recently starred in a 2013 HBO biographical picture about record producer Phil Spector's murder trial, titled Phil Spector. \n\nPacino and Robert De Niro were reportedly set to star in the upcoming project The Irishman, to be directed by Martin Scorsese and co-star Joe Pesci. It was announced in January 2013 that Pacino would play the late former Penn State University football coach Joe Paterno in the movie tentatively titled Happy Valley and based on a 2012 biography of Paterno by sportswriter Joe Posnanski. \n\nPersonal life\n\nAlthough he has never married, Pacino has three children. The eldest, Julie Marie (born 1989), is his daughter with acting coach Jan Tarrant. He also has twins, son Anton James and daughter Olivia Rose (born January 25, 2001), with actress Beverly D'Angelo, with whom he had a relationship from 1996 until 2003. Pacino had a relationship with Diane Keaton, his co-star in the Godfather trilogy. The on-again, off-again relationship ended following the filming of The Godfather Part II. He has had relationships with Tuesday Weld, Jill Clayburgh, Marthe Keller, Kathleen Quinlan and Lyndall Hobbs.\n\nThe Internal Revenue Service filed a tax lien against Pacino, claiming he owes the government a total of $188,000 for 2008 and 2009. A representative for Pacino blamed his former business manager Kenneth Starr for the discrepancy. \n\nFilmography\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nPacino has been nominated and has won many awards during his acting career, including eight Oscar nominations (winning one), 15 Golden Globe nominations (winning four), five BAFTA nominations (winning two), two Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on television, and two Tony Awards for his stage work. In 2007, the American Film Institute awarded Pacino with a lifetime achievement award and, in 2003, British television viewers voted Pacino as the greatest film star of all time in a poll for Channel 4." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Scent of a Woman", "Scent of a Woman (film)", "Scent Of A Woman", "The Scent of a Woman", "Scent of a Woman (disambiguation)", "Scent of a woman" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "scent of woman disambiguation", "scent of woman film", "scent of woman" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "scent of woman", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Scent of a Woman" }
What is the name of Kate Winslet's character in Titanic?	tc_1112	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Kate_Winslet.txt", "Titanic_(1997_film).txt" ], "title": [ "Kate Winslet", "Titanic (1997 film)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Kate Elizabeth Winslet, CBE (born 5 October 1975), is an English actress and singer. She is the recipient of an Academy Award, an Emmy Award, four Golden Globe Awards, a Grammy Award, an AACTA Award, and three BAFTA Awards. She is the youngest person to receive six Academy Award nominations with seven nominations in total, and is one of the few actresses to win three of the four major American entertainment awards (EGOT). In addition, she has won awards from the Screen Actors Guild, British Academy of Film and Television Arts, and the Hollywood Foreign Press Association among others, and an Honorary César Award in 2012.\n\nBrought up in Berkshire, Winslet studied drama from childhood, and began her career in British television in 1991. She made her film debut in Heavenly Creatures (1994), for which she received praise. She garnered recognition for her supporting role in Sense and Sensibility (1995) before achieving global stardom with the epic romance Titanic (1997), which was the highest-grossing film of all time at that point. Winslet's performances in Iris (2001), Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), Finding Neverland (2004), Little Children (2006), Revolutionary Road (2008), The Dressmaker (2015), and Steve Jobs (2015) continued to draw praise from film critics. In 2008, the critic David Edelstein described her as \"the best English-speaking film actress of her generation\". \n\nWinslet won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in The Reader (2008) and the Emmy Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries for playing the title role in Mildred Pierce (2011). Winslet's greatest commercial successes since Titanic include the romantic comedy The Holiday (2006), the animated film Flushed Away (2006), and the first two films of the Divergent series.\n\nIn addition to acting, Winslet has narrated documentaries and children's books. She was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children in 2000 for narrating Listen To the Storyteller. She has also provided her vocals to soundtracks of her films, including the single \"What If\" from Christmas Carol: The Movie (2001). Divorced from film directors Jim Threapleton and Sam Mendes, Winslet is married to businessman Ned Rocknroll.\n\nEarly life \n\nKate Elizabeth Winslet was born in Reading, Berkshire, England, to Sally Anne (née Bridges), a barmaid, and Roger John Winslet, a swimming pool contractor. She has two sisters, Beth and Anna, and one brother, Joss Winslet. \n\nWinslet began studying drama at the age of 11 at the Redroofs Theatre School, a co-educational independent school in Maidenhead, Berkshire, where she was head girl. At the age of 12, Winslet appeared in a television advertisement directed by filmmaker Tim Pope for Sugar Puffs cereal. Pope said her naturalism was \"there from the start\". During her teenage years, Winslet appeared in more than 20 stage productions of Reading-based Starmaker Theatre Company including lead parts such as Miss Hannigan in Annie, Mother Wolf in The Jungle Book and Lena Marelli in Bugsy Malone. \n\nCareer \n\n1991–1997 \n\nWinslet made her television debut, with a co-starring role in the BBC children's science fiction serial Dark Season. This role was followed by appearances in the made-for-TV film Anglo-Saxon Attitudes in 1992, the sitcom Get Back, and an episode of the medical drama Casualty in 1993.\n\nIn 1992, Winslet attended a casting call for Peter Jackson's Heavenly Creatures in London. Winslet auditioned for the role of Juliet Hulme, a teenager who assists in the murder of the mother of her best friend, Pauline Parker (played by Melanie Lynskey). The film included Winslet's singing debut, and her a cappella version of \"Sono Andati\", an aria from La Bohème, was featured on the film's soundtrack. The film was released to favourable reviews in 1994 and won Jackson and partner Fran Walsh a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. Winslet was awarded an Empire Award and a London Film Critics' Circle Award for British Actress of the Year for her performance. The Washington Post writer Desson Thomson commented: \"As Juliet, Winslet is a bright-eyed ball of fire, lighting up every scene she’s in. She's offset perfectly by Lynskey, whose quietly smoldering Pauline completes the delicate, dangerous partnership.\" The same year, from 7 April to 7 May, she appeared as Geraldine Barclay in What the Butler Saw for The Royal Exchange Theatre. For her performance in the play, she was nominated for Best Supporting Actress by Manchester Evening News Theatre Awards. \n\nThe following year, Winslet auditioned for the role of Lucy Steele in the adaptation of Jane Austen's Sense and Sensibility, featuring Emma Thompson, Hugh Grant and Alan Rickman. She was instead cast in the second leading role of Marianne Dashwood. Director Ang Lee admitted he was initially worried about the way Winslet had attacked her role in Heavenly Creatures and thus required her to exercise t'ai chi, read Austen-era Gothic novels and poetry, and work with a piano teacher to fit the grace of the role. Budgeted at US$16.5 million ($ million in current year dollars) the film became a financial and critical success, resulting in a worldwide box office total of $135 million ($ million) and various awards for Winslet, winning her both a BAFTA and a Screen Actors' Guild Award, and nominations for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe. \n\nIn 1996, Winslet starred in both Jude and Hamlet. In Michael Winterbottom's Jude, based on the Victorian novel Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy, she played Sue Bridehead, a young woman with suffragette leanings who falls in love with her cousin, played by Christopher Eccleston. Acclaimed among critics, it grossed $2.3 million ($ million) worldwide. Richard Corliss of Time magazine said \"Winslet is worthy of [...] the camera's scrupulous adoration. She's perfect, a modernist ahead of her time [...] and Jude is a handsome showcase for her gifts.\" Winslet played Ophelia, Hamlet's drowned lover, in Kenneth Branagh's all star-cast film version of William Shakespeare's Hamlet. The film garnered largely positive reviews and earned Winslet her second Empire Award. \n\nTitanic \n\nIn September 1996, Winslet began filming James Cameron's Titanic (1997), alongside Leonardo DiCaprio. Gwyneth Paltrow, Claire Danes, and Gabrielle Anwar had been considered for the role; when they turned it down, Winslet campaigned heavily for it. She sent Cameron daily notes from England, and thanks to assistance from her agent Hylda Queally, Cameron eventually invited her to Hollywood for auditions. Cameron described the character as \"an Audrey Hepburn type\" and was initially uncertain about casting Winslet even after her screen test impressed him. After she screen tested with DiCaprio, Winslet was so thoroughly impressed with him, that she whispered to Cameron, \"He's great. Even if you don't pick me, pick him.\" Winslet sent Cameron a single rose with a card signed \"From Your Rose\" and lobbied him by phone. \"You don't understand!\" she pleaded one day when she reached him by mobile phone in his Humvee. \"I am Rose! I don't know why you're even seeing anyone else!\" Her persistence, as well as her talent, eventually convinced him to cast her in the role.\n\nCast as the sensitive seventeen-year-old Rose DeWitt Bukater, a fictional first-class socialite who survives the 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic, Winslet's experience was emotionally demanding. \"Titanic was totally different and nothing could have prepared me for it. ... We were really scared about the whole adventure. ... Jim [Cameron] is a perfectionist, a real genius at making movies. But there was all this bad press before it came out, and that was really upsetting.\" Against expectations, the film went on to become the highest-grossing film of all time, grossing more than $2,186,800,000 in box-office receipts worldwide, and transformed Winslet into a commercial movie star. Subsequently, she was nominated for most of the high-profile awards, winning a European Film Award. \n\n1998–2003 \n\nHideous Kinky, a low-budget romance film shot before the release of Titanic, was Winslet's only film of 1998. Winslet had rejected offers to play the leading roles in Shakespeare in Love (1998) and Anna and the King (1999) in favour of the role of a young English mother named Julia who moves with her daughters from London to Morocco hoping to start a new life. The film garnered generally mixed reviews and received only limited distribution, resulting in a worldwide gross of $5 million ($ million). The next film Winslet starred in was Holy Smoke! (1999), featuring Harvey Keitel. Feeling pressured, Winslet has said she \"never saw Titanic as a springboard for bigger films or bigger pay cheques\", knowing that \"it could have been that, but would have destroyed [her].\" That same year she voiced Brigid in the computer animated film Faeries. \n\nWinslet appeared in the period piece Quills with Geoffrey Rush and Joaquin Phoenix, released in 2000 and inspired by the life and work of the Marquis de Sade. The actress served as somewhat of a \"patron saint\" of the film for being the first big name to back it, accepting the role of a chambermaid in the asylum and the courier of the Marquis' manuscripts to the underground publishers. Well received by critics, the film garnered numerous accolades for Winslet, including nominations for SAG and Satellite Awards. The film was a modest arthouse success, averaging $27,709 ($) per screen its debut weekend, and eventually grossing $18 million ($ million) internationally. \n\nIn 2001's Enigma, Winslet played a young woman who finds herself falling for a brilliant young World War II code breaker, played by Dougray Scott. It was her first war film, and Winslet regarded \"making Enigma a brilliant experience\" as she was five months pregnant at the time of the shoot, forcing some tricky camera work from the director Michael Apted. Generally well-received, Winslet was awarded a British Independent Film Award for her performance, and A. O. Scott of The New York Times described Winslet as \"more crush-worthy than ever.\" In the same year she appeared in Richard Eyre's critically acclaimed film Iris, portraying novelist Iris Murdoch. Winslet shared her role with Judi Dench, with both actresses portraying Murdoch at different phases of her life. Subsequently, each of them was nominated for an Academy Award the following year, earning Winslet her third nomination. Also in 2001, she voiced the character Belle in the animated motion picture Christmas Carol: The Movie, based on the Charles Dickens classic novel. For the film, Winslet recorded the song \"What If\", which was released in November 2001 as a single with proceeds donated to two of Winslet's favourite charities, the N.S.P.C.C. and the Sargeant Cancer Foundation for Children. A Europe-wide top ten hit, it reached number one in Austria, Belgium and Ireland, number six on the UK Singles Chart, and won the 2002 OGAE Song Contest. \n\nHer next film role was in the 2003 drama The Life of David Gale, in which she played an ambitious journalist who interviews a death-sentenced professor, played by Kevin Spacey, in his final weeks before execution. The film underperformed at international box offices, garnering only half of its $50,000,000 budget, and generating mostly critical reviews, with Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times calling it a \"silly movie.\" \n\n2004–2006 \n\nFollowing The Life of David Gale, Winslet appeared with Jim Carrey in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), a neosurrealistic indie-drama by French director Michel Gondry. In the film, she played the role of Clementine Kruczynski, a chatty, spontaneous and somewhat neurotic woman, who decides to have all memories of her ex-boyfriend erased from her mind. The role was a departure from her previous roles, with Winslet revealing in an interview with Variety that she was initially upended about her casting in the film: \"This was not the type of thing I was being offered [...] I was just thrilled that there was something he had seen in me, in spite of the corsets, that he thought was going to work for Clementine.\" The film was a critical and financial success. Winslet received rave reviews for her Academy Award-nominated performance, which Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described as \"electrifying and bruisingly vulnerable.\" \n\nHer final film in 2004 was Finding Neverland. The story of the production focused on Scottish writer J.M. Barrie (Johnny Depp) and his platonic relationship with Sylvia Llewelyn Davies (Winslet), whose sons inspired him to pen the classic play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up. During promotion of the film, Winslet noted of her portrayal \"It was very important for me in playing Sylvia that I was already a mother myself, because I don’t think I could have played that part if I didn’t know what it felt like to be a parent and have those responsibilities and that amount of love that you give to a child [...] and I've always got a baby somewhere, or both of them, all over my face.\" The film received favourable reviews and proved to be an international success, becoming Winslet's highest-grossing film since Titanic with a total of $118 million worldwide. \n\nIn 2005, Winslet appeared in an episode of the BBC/HBO comedy series Extras by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant as a satirical version of herself. While dressed as a nun, she was portrayed giving phone sex tips to the romantically challenged character of Maggie. Her performance in the episode led to her first nomination for an Emmy Award. In Romance & Cigarettes (2005), a musical romantic comedy written and directed by John Turturro, she played the character Tula, described by Winslet as \"a slut, someone who’s essentially foulmouthed and has bad manners and really doesn’t know how to dress.\" Hand-picked by Turturro, who was impressed with her display of dancing ability in Holy Smoke!, Winslet was praised for her performance, which included her interpretation of Connie Francis's \"Scapricciatiello (Do You Love Me Like You Kiss Me)\". Derek Elley of Variety wrote: \"Onscreen less, but blessed with the showiest role, filthiest one-liners, [and] a perfect Lancashire accent that's comical enough in the Gotham setting Winslet throws herself into the role with an infectious gusto.\" \n\nAfter declining an invitation to appear in Woody Allen's film Match Point (2005), Winslet stated that she wanted to be able to spend more time with her children. She began 2006 with All the King's Men, featuring Sean Penn and Jude Law. Winslet played the role of Anne Stanton, the childhood sweetheart of Jack Burden (Law). The film was critically and financially unsuccessful. Todd McCarthy of Variety summed it up as \"overstuffed and fatally miscast [...] Absent any point of engagement to become involved in the characters, the film feels stillborn and is unlikely to stir public excitement, even in an election year.\" \n\nWinslet fared far better when she co-starred in Todd Field's Little Children, playing Sarah Pierce, a bored housewife who has a torrid affair with a married neighbour, played by Patrick Wilson. Both her performance and the film received rave reviews; A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote: \"In too many recent movies intelligence is woefully undervalued, and it is this quality—even more than its considerable beauty—that distinguishes Little Children from its peers. The result is a film that is challenging, accessible and hard to stop thinking about. Ms. Winslet, as fine an actress as any working in movies today, registers every flicker of Sarah’s pride, self-doubt and desire, inspiring a mixture of recognition, pity and concern that amounts, by the end of the movie, to something like love. That Ms. Winslet is so lovable makes the deficit of love in Sarah’s life all the more painful.\" For her work in the film, she was honoured with a Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year from BAFTA/LA, a Los Angeles-based offshoot of the BAFTA Awards, was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress, and at 31, became the youngest actress to ever garner five Oscar nominations. \n\nShe followed Little Children with a role in Nancy Meyers' romantic comedy The Holiday, also starring Cameron Diaz, Jude Law and Jack Black. In it she played Iris, a British woman who temporarily exchanges homes with an American woman (Diaz). Released to a mixed reception by critics, the film became Winslet's biggest commercial success in nine years, grossing more than $205 million worldwide. Also in 2006, Winslet provided her voice for several smaller projects. In the CG-animated Flushed Away, she voiced Rita, a scavenging sewer rat who helps Roddy (Hugh Jackman) escape from the city of Ratropolis and return to his luxurious Kensington origins. A critical and commercial success, the film collected $177,665,672 at international box offices. \n\n2007–2011 \n\nIn 2007, Winslet reunited with Leonardo DiCaprio to film Revolutionary Road (2008), directed by her husband at the time, Sam Mendes. Winslet had suggested that both should work with her on a film adaptation of the 1961 novel of the same name by Richard Yates after reading the script by Justin Haythe. Resulting in both \"a blessing and an added pressure\" on-set, the reunion was her first experience working with Mendes. Portraying a couple in a failing marriage in the 1950s, DiCaprio and Winslet watched period videos promoting life in the suburbs to prepare themselves for the film, which earned them favourable reviews. In his review of the film, David Edelstein of New York magazine stated that \"[t]here isn’t a banal moment in Winslet’s performance—not a gesture, not a word. Is Winslet now the best English-speaking film actress of her generation? I think so.\" Winslet was awarded a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for her performance, her seventh nomination from the Golden Globes.\n\nAlso released in late 2008, the film competed against Winslet's other project, a film adaptation of Bernhard Schlink's 1995 novel The Reader, directed by Stephen Daldry and featuring Ralph Fiennes and David Kross in supporting roles. Originally the first choice for her role, she was initially not able to take on the role due to a scheduling conflict with Revolutionary Road, and Nicole Kidman replaced her. A month after filming began, Kidman left the film due to her pregnancy enabling Winslet to rejoin the film. Employing a German accent, Winslet portrayed a former Nazi concentration camp guard who has an affair with a teenager (Kross) who, as an adult, witnesses her war crimes trial. She later said the role was difficult for her, as she was naturally unable \"to sympathise with an SS guard.\" Because the film required full frontal nudity, a merkin was made for her. In an interview for Allure she related how she refused to use it: \"Guys, I am going to have to draw the line at a pubic wig,...\"Hannah Morrill. [http://www.allure.com/beauty-trends/blogs/daily-beauty-reporter/2009/06/kate-winslet-unscripted.html Kate Winslet, Unscripted], Allure, 3 June 2009.NOTE: Many sources claim that she wore a merkin by only quoting part of this interview. This is the full quote from the printed issue:\"Let me tell you, The Reader was not glamorous for me in terms of body-hair maintenance. I had to grow it in, because you can't have a landing strip in 1950, you know? And then because of years of waxing, as all of us girls know, it doesn't come back quite the way it used to. They even made me a merkin because they were so concerned that I might not be able to grow enough. I said, 'Guys, I am going to have to draw the line at a pubic wig, but you can shoot my own snatch up close and personal.'\"Lindsy Van Gelder. [http://www.allure.com/beauty-trends/blogs/daily-beauty-reporter/2009/08/your-bikini-line-your-business.html Your Bikini Line, Your Business?], Allure, 26 August 2009: \"Kate Winslet joked with Allure about having one made for her (that she didn't wear) in The Reader,...\" While the film garnered mixed reviews in general, Winslet received favourable reviews for her performance. The following year, she earned her sixth Academy Award nomination and went on to win the Best Actress award, the BAFTA Award for Best Actress, a Screen Actors' Guild Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress, and a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress.\n\nIn 2011, Winslet headlined in the HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce, a small screen adaptation of James M. Cain's 1941 novel of the same name, directed by Todd Haynes. Co-starring Guy Pearce and Evan Rachel Wood, she portrayed a self-sacrificing mother during the Great Depression who finds herself separated from her husband and falling in love with a new man, all the while trying to earn her narcissistic daughter's love and respect. Broadcast to moderate ratings, the five-part series earned generally favourable reviews, with Salon.com calling it a \"quiet, heartbreaking masterpiece\". Winslet won an Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film, and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie for her performance. \n\nAlso in 2011, Winslet appeared in Steven Soderbergh's film Contagion, featuring an ensemble cast consisting of Marion Cotillard, Matt Damon, Gwyneth Paltrow and Jude Law. The thriller follows the rapid progress of a lethal indirect contact transmission virus that kills within days. Winslet portrayed an Epidemic Intelligence Service officer who becomes infected with the disease over the course of her investigation. Winslet's other 2011 film project, Roman Polanski's Carnage, premiered at the 68th Venice Film Festival. An adaptation of the play God of Carnage by French playwright Yasmina Reza, the black comedy follows two sets of parents who meet up to talk after their children have been in a fight. Jodie Foster, John C. Reilly and Christoph Waltz co-starred in the film, which critics felt was not as \"compelling on the screen as it was on the stage\", but made \"up for its flaws with Polanski's smooth direction and assured performances from Winslet and Foster.\" For her performance Winslet received a second nomination by the Hollywood Foreign Press that year. \n\n2012–present \n\nIn 2012, Winslet's audiobook performance of Émile Zola's Thérèse Raquin was released at Audible.com. AudioFiles review said, \"Kate Winslet reads as though she is relishing every morsel of the drama [...] She clearly loves the book, and her pleasure in the text is infectious. She grabs listeners and doesn’t let go.\" Her first 2013 release was Movie 43, an independent anthology black comedy film that featured 14 different storylines, with each segment having a different director. Winslet's segment, titled The Catch, was directed by Peter Farrelly and revolves around a single businesswoman who goes on a blind date with the city's most eligible bachelor, played by Hugh Jackman, only to be shocked when he removes his scarf, revealing a pair of testicles dangling from his neck. This marked Winslet's second collaboration with Jackman, following the 2006 animated film Flushed Away. The compilation film was universally panned by critics, with the Chicago Sun-Times calling it \"the Citizen Kane of awful\". \n\nIn 2013, Winslet appeared in Jason Reitman's big screen adaptation of Joyce Maynard's 2009 novel Labor Day, also starring Josh Brolin, which she declared as \"a very romantic movie, though a bizarre one.\" While the film was met with a generally mixed reception from critics, Winslet received favorable reviews for her portrayal of Adele, a mentally fragile, repressed single mom of a 13-year-old son who gives shelter to an escaped prisoner during a long summer week-end. For her performance, Winslet earned her tenth Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama. Winslet then appeared in Divergent (2014), Neil Burger's film adaptation of the 2011 young adult novel by Veronica Roth. She appeared as erudite leader Jeanine Matthews, whom she compared to \"Hitler\" and on playing the antagonist first time, Winslet said, \"The idea went through my head that I have never played a baddie before, I was almost kind of surprised.\" Her performance met with positive response from critics; Screendaily thought that her performance was \"understated\", and Indiewire noted that she was \"pure poison as Jeanine Matthews.\" The film grossed US$288.7 million worldwide. \n\nIn late 2014, Winslet appeared alongside Matthias Schoenaerts in Alan Rickman's period drama A Little Chaos about rival landscape gardeners commissioned by Louis XIV to create a fountain at Versailles. Despite receiving little praise from critics, Winslet's performance of assistant designer Sabine de Barra earned positive reviews. The Guardian noted that \"Winslet manages emotional honesty within anachronistic confines,\" and Vanity Fair said, \"She glows with ambition and ache, playing a woman with a tragic past seeking refuge in the meticulousness and inventiveness of her work.\" The same year, she also narrated Roald Dahl's children's novel Matilda, for which AudioFile in its review said, \"She (Winslet) saves her panache for her characterizations. While Winslet’s Matilda is modestly soft-spoken, she scales her vocal register as the ranting Wormwood parents, booms as Miss Trunchbull, and breathily voices the adored Miss Honey.\" She won the Odyssey Award for her performance. \n\nWinslet started 2015 by reprising her role of Jeanine Matthews in the second installment of the Divergent trilogy, entitled The Divergent Series: Insurgent, making it the first sequel she has ever appeared in. Forbes described her performance as a \"murderous tyrant\" while TheWrap said the film \"Perks up\" during her scenes. The film grossed US$297 million worldwide. \n\nShe next appeared in Danny Boyle's Steve Jobs (2015), alongside Michael Fassbender, about backstage events before three different computer product launches. Winslet received critical acclaim for her portrayal of Joanna Hoffman, Macintosh marketing chief, Jobs' right-hand woman and work wife. Indiewire noted, \"buried under makeup and a distinctive Polish accent, Winslet's chameleonesque transformation\", Time Out called it \"steady and brilliant\", and HitFix said \"Winslet gives one of the best performances of her career providing Hoffman with a gravitas that isn’t always in the script.\" She received her seventh Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress along with a nomination from the Screen Actors Guild and went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her role in the film.\n\nWinslet's final film of 2015 was Jocelyn Moorhouse's The Dressmaker based on the novel of same name, in which she stars as a femme fatale in the title role. Justin Chang of Variety called her performance \"crucial, stabilizing anchor\" of the film, as he wrote that \"Winslet, a difficult actress to root against under any circumstances, has us in her palm from the moment she steps into frame, looking like an avenging dark angel bathed in ’50s noir shadows\" and The Star called her \"smashing as Tilly Dunnage\". Winslet won an AACTA Award for Best Actress, for her performance in the film. \n\nWinslet's only release of 2016 was John Hillcoat's crime-thriller Triple 9, in which she appears as a Russian-Israeli mafia moll, described by Hillcoat as \"a really glamorous, nasty piece of work\". She received strong notices for her performance by the critics as Tom Huddleston of The Wrap said that \"Kate Winslet practically rips the screen in two as the mad-eyed Russian mob boss\" and Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter described her performance as \"commandingly and wittily, in a way that makes you instantly want to see her as Lady Macbeth.\" \n\nAs of June 2016, Winslet has various film projects in different states of production. She has completed filming for David Frankel's ensemble drama Collateral Beauty. In addition, she is set to appear alongside Idris Elba in Hany Abu-Assad's disaster film The Mountain Between Us, in a biopic based on American fashion model, artist and war correspondent Elizabeth \"Lee\" Miller during World War II and in Woody Allen's next film. \n\nPersonal life \n\nRelationships and children \n\nWhile on the set of the 1991 TV series Dark Season, Winslet met actor and writer Stephen Tredre, with whom she had a four-and-a-half-year relationship. Winslet and Tredre remained close after their separation in 1995. He died of bone cancer during the opening week of Titanic, causing her to miss the film's Los Angeles premiere to attend his funeral in London. \n\nOn 22 November 1998, Winslet married film director Jim Threapleton, whom she met while on the set of Hideous Kinky in 1997. They have a daughter, Mia Honey Threapleton, who was born on 12 October 2000 in London. Winslet and Threapleton divorced on 13 December 2001. \n\nFollowing her separation from Threapleton, Winslet began a relationship with director Sam Mendes in 2001, and she married him on 24 May 2003 on the island of Anguilla. Their son, Joe Alfie Winslet Mendes, was born on 22 December 2003 in New York City. Winslet and Mendes announced their separation in March 2010, and divorced in 2011.Ashley Reich. [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/08/kate-winslet-divorce-vogue_n_833068.html Kate Winslet Opens Up About Divorce From Sam Mendes In British Vogue.] Huffington Post. First Posted: 3/8/11. Updated: 25 May 2011Harper's Bazaar (UK), November 2011\n\nIn August 2011, a fire broke out at a residence in which Winslet, her children, and her then-boyfriend, model Louis Dowler, were staying on Necker Island, the private resort island of Virgin Group founder Richard Branson. The fire caused significant damage to the home, but no injuries.Gina Serpe. [http://ca.eonline.com/news/259446/kate-winslet-and-family-escape-unscathed-after-fire-breaks-out-at-vacation-spot Kate Winslet and Family Escape Unscathed After Fire Breaks Out at Vacation Spot] E! Online. 22 August 2011\n\nDuring the same August 2011 holiday on Necker Island, Winslet met fellow guest Ned Rocknroll, and they soon began dating.Natalie Finn. [http://ca.eonline.com/news/374130/ned-rocknroll-5-things-to-know-about-kate-winslet-s-third-husband Ned Rocknroll: 5 Things to Know About Kate Winslet's Third Husband] E! Online. 26 December 2012 Rocknroll was born Ned Abel Smith, but later legally changed his name. He is a nephew of Richard Branson and works for Virgin Galactic, the space-travel division of his uncle's business.Maggie Coughlan. [http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20659842,00.html Kate Winslet's New Husband, Ned Rocknroll: 5 Things You Should Know] People. 27 December 2012 Rocknroll was previously married to Eliza Pearson, daughter of Viscount Cowdray. Winslet and Rocknroll became engaged in the summer of 2012.Mike Fleeman. [http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20659821,00.html Kate Winslet Marries in Secret] People. 26 December 2012 It was announced in September 2012 that the couple had relocated from New York to live in the UK permanently, moving into a heritage home in South Downs National Park in West Wittering, West Sussex. Richard Eden. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/celebritynews/9560013/Kate-Winslet-moves-back-to-Britain-to-live-with-her-Rocknroll-lover.html Kate Winslet moves back to Britain to live with her Rocknroll lover] The Daily Telegraph. 23 September 2012Richard Eden. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/celebritynews/9716345/Titanic-battle-for-Kate-Winslet-over-her-suburban-house-plans.html Titanic battle for Kate Winslet over her 'suburban’ house plans] The Daily Telegraph. 2 December 2012 Winslet and Rocknroll married in a private ceremony in New York in December 2012. The couple's son, Bear Blaze Winslet, was born in the County of Sussex, England, on 7 December 2013. \n\nPhilanthropic work, experiences and interests \n\nWinslet's weight fluctuations over the years have been well documented by the media. She has been outspoken about her refusal to allow Hollywood to dictate her weight. In February 2003, the British edition of GQ magazine published photographs of Winslet that had been digitally altered to make her look dramatically thinner. Winslet issued a statement that the alterations were made without her consent, saying, \"I just didn't want people to think I was a hypocrite and that I'd suddenly lost 30 lbs or whatever\". GQ subsequently issued an apology. In 2007, she won a libel suit against Grazia magazine after it claimed that she had visited a diet doctor. She won another libel suit in 2009 against the British tabloid The Daily Mail after it printed that she had lied about her exercise regimen. Winslet stated that she had requested an apology to demonstrate her commitment to the views that she has always expressed regarding women's body issues, namely that women should accept their appearance with pride.\n\nIn 2010, Winslet narrated a video for PETA, encouraging chefs to remove foie gras from their menus and asking consumers to boycott restaurants that serve it. Winslet is a vegetarian. \n\nWinslet narrated the documentary A Mother's Courage: Talking Back to Autism, which focused on Keli Thorsteinsson, who has autism, and his mother, Margret Ericsdottir. The documentary was generally released on 24 September 2010, after airing on HBO in April of the same year. Her involvement in the documentary led to her founding the non-profit organisation, the Golden Hat Foundation, whose mission is to eliminate barriers for people living with autism. She also wrote a book titled \"The Golden Hat: Talking Back to Autism\", which contains personal statements and self-portraits from number of celebrities including Leonardo DiCaprio, Marion Cotillard and Michael Caine. In 2011, Winslet received the Yo Dona award for Best Humanitarian Work for her work with the Golden Hat. \n\nWinslet is the face of cosmetic and perfume house Lancôme and in 2010, she joined Longines as their \"Ambassador of Elegance\". In 2011, Lancôme collaborated with Winslet's Golden Hat Foundation to raise funds for the organization to help people with autism. \n\nWinslet supports ageing naturally and has always spoken against plastic surgery and botox. In 2015, Winslet appeared in Running Wild with Bear Grylls and talked about being bullied at school by her classmates, saying that \"I was chubby, always had big feet, the wrong shoes, bad hair\". The same year, she narrated anti-bullying animated short film Daisy Chain, about a victim of cyber-bullying. \n\nIn November 2015, Winslet stated that speaking publicly about the Hollywood wage gap was \"vulgar. ... I'm quite surprised by these conversations to be honest, simply because it seems quite a strange thing to be discussing out in the open like that. I am a very lucky woman and I'm quite happy with how things are ticking along.\" Later next month, she clarified more about her stance on the issue that \"Jennifer Lawrence is amazing for speaking up and I think that anyone in this industry, particularly women, if there’s something strongly that they feel isn’t working for them or if they’re being discriminated against in any way, shape or form, it’s very, very important to speak up and so I fully applaud that. What I have a problem with is that there’s a separate thing that has started happening is that the lid has been somewhat lifted for journalists, and so journalists on red carpets will now say, ‘So how do you feel about the gender pay gap?’. ‘What? What’s the specific question?’. ‘Well, do you know that you got paid less or more than Michael Fassbender?’. That question? That to me is not very nice. I’m not going to have that conversation with a friend or even a family member, let alone in public. And so what’s happened as a result of these big very important discussions is that we’re then subjected to a particular line of questioning that being a Brit strikes me as being a little bit vulgar. Why would I stand on a red carpet and talk about how much I get paid?\" \n\nFilmography \n\nWinslet in her career of over two decades has appeared in different genres of films, ranging from crime drama Heavenly Creatures (1994) to period drama Sense and Sensibility (1995) and Titanic (1997), to sci-fi dramedy Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), and to young-adult action Divergent (2014). As of July 2015, Winslet's films have grossed US$3.9 billion worldwide. \n\nAwards and nominations \n\nWinslet won an Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in The Reader (2008). She won two Golden Globe Awards in the same year; Best Actress (Drama) for Revolutionary Road and Best Supporting Actress for The Reader, becoming the third actress to achieve the feat, after Joan Plowright and Sigourney Weaver. She has won three BAFTA Awards: Best Actress for The Reader, and Best Supporting Actress for Sense and Sensibility (1995) and Steve Jobs (2016). She has earned a total of seven Academy Award nominations, eleven Golden Globe nominations, and eight BAFTA nominations. \n\nShe has received numerous awards from other organizations, including the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress for Iris (2001) and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role for Sense and Sensibility and The Reader. Premiere magazine named her portrayal of Clementine Kruczynski in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) as the 81st greatest film performance of all time. \n\nAcademy Award nomination milestones \n\nWinslet set the mark as the youngest actor to receive five nominations, at age 31, for Little Children (2006). She surpassed Bette Davis, who was 33 when she received her fifth nomination for her performance in The Little Foxes (1941). With her Best Actress nomination for The Reader, Winslet became the youngest actress to receive six Oscar nominations. At age 33, Winslet passed the mark Davis, one year older, set with Now, Voyager (1942). \n\nWinslet received Academy Award nominations as the younger versions of the characters played by fellow nominees Gloria Stuart, as Rose, in Titanic (1997) and Judi Dench, as Iris Murdoch, in Iris. These are the only instances of the younger and older versions of a character in the same film both yielding Academy Award nominations, thus making Winslet the only actor to twice share an Oscar nomination with another for portraying the same character. \n\nWhen she was not nominated for her work in Revolutionary Road, Winslet became only the second actress to win a Golden Globe for Best Actress Drama without getting an Oscar nomination for the same performance (Shirley MacLaine was the first for 1988's Madame Sousatzka). Academy rules allow an actor to receive no more than one nomination in a given category; as the Academy nominating process determined that Winslet's work in The Reader would be considered a lead performance—unlike the Golden Globes, which considered it a supporting performance—she could not also receive a Best Actress nomination for Revolutionary Road. \n\nAwards for other work \n\nIn 2000, Winslet won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children for Listen To the Storyteller. She was nominated for an Emmy Award Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for playing herself in a 2005 episode of Extras. At the 2011 Primetime Emmy Awards, Winslet won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for her role as the title character in Mildred Pierce. In 2014, American Library Association presented her with Odyssey Award for her audiobook performance of Roald Dahl's children's novel Matilda.\n\nHonours \n\nIn 2007, British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) honoured Winslet with Britannia Award. She received the 2009 Santa Barbara International Film Festival Modern Master (Montecito) Award in recognition of her accomplishments in the film industry. In 2011, Madame Tussauds unveiled a wax statue of her draped in the Elie Saab dress she wore at Primetime Emmy Awards of the same year. \n\nWinslet was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for the 2012 Birthday Honours for services to drama. The same year she was honoured with an Honorary César Award. In 2015, Film Society of Lincoln Center honoured her at 53rd New York Film Festival for her contributions to arts and BAFTA with a special career tribute titled BAFTA A Life in Pictures. \n\nWinslet was selected for a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2012. She received the star at 6262 Hollywood Blvd, which was unveiled on 17 March 2014 on Saint Patrick's Day by Winslet with Kathy Bates and James Cameron as guest speakers at the unveiling ceremony.", "Titanic is a 1997 American epic romance-disaster film directed, written, co-produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. A fictionalized account of the sinking of the RMS Titanic, it stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet as members of different social classes who fall in love aboard the ship during its ill-fated maiden voyage.\n\nCameron's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks; he felt a love story interspersed with the human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began in 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the actual Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer-generated imagery, and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Playas de Rosarito in Baja California were used to re-create the sinking. The film was partially funded by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox. It was the most expensive film made at that time, with an estimated budget of $200 million.\n\nUpon its release on December 19, 1997, Titanic achieved critical and commercial success. Nominated for fourteen Academy Awards, it tied All About Eve (1950) for the most Oscar nominations, and won eleven, including the awards for Best Picture and Best Director, tying Ben Hur (1959) for the most Oscars won by a single film. With an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion-dollar mark. It remained the highest-grossing film of all time until Cameron's 2009 film Avatar surpassed it in 2010. A 3D version of Titanic, released on April 4, 2012 to commemorate the centennial of the sinking, earned it an additional $343.6 million worldwide, pushing the film's worldwide total to $2.18 billion. It became the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide (after Avatar).\n\nPlot\n\nIn 1996, treasure hunter Brock Lovett and his team aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh search the wreck of RMS Titanic for a necklace with a rare diamond, the Heart of the Ocean. They recover a safe containing a drawing of a young woman wearing only the necklace dated April 14, 1912, the day the ship struck the iceberg. Rose Dawson Calvert, the woman in the drawing, is brought aboard Keldysh and tells Lovett of her experiences aboard Titanic.\n\nIn 1912 Southampton, 17-year-old first-class passenger Rose DeWitt Bukater, her fiancé Cal Hockley, and her mother Ruth board the luxurious Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Rose's marriage will resolve their family's financial problems. Distraught over the engagement, Rose considers suicide by jumping from the stern; Jack Dawson, a penniless artist, intervenes and discourages her. Discovered with Jack, Rose tells a concerned Cal that she was peering over the edge and Jack saved her from falling. When Cal becomes indifferent, she suggests to him that Jack deserves a reward. He invites Jack to dine with them in first class the following night. Jack and Rose develop a tentative friendship, despite Cal and Ruth being wary of him. Following dinner, Rose secretly joins Jack at a party in third class.\n\nAware of Cal and Ruth's disapproval, Rose rebuffs Jack's advances, but realizes she prefers him over Cal. After rendezvousing on the bow at sunset, Rose takes Jack to her state room; at her request, Jack sketches Rose posing nude wearing Cal's engagement present, the Heart of the Ocean necklace. They evade Cal's bodyguard and have sex in an automobile inside the cargo hold. On the forward deck, they witness a collision with an iceberg and overhear the officers and designer discussing its seriousness.\n\nCal discovers Jack's sketch of Rose and an insulting note from her in his safe along with the necklace. When Jack and Rose attempt to inform Cal of the collision, he has his bodyguard slip the necklace into Jack's pocket and accuses him of theft. Jack is arrested, taken to the master-at-arms' office, and handcuffed to a pipe. Cal puts the necklace in his own coat pocket.\n\nWith the ship sinking, Rose flees Cal and her mother, who has boarded a lifeboat, and frees Jack. On the boat deck, Cal and Jack encourage her to board a lifeboat; Cal claims he can get himself and Jack off safely. After Rose boards one, Cal tells Jack the arrangement is only for himself. As her boat lowers, Rose decides that she cannot leave Jack and jumps back on board. Cal takes his bodyguard's pistol and chases Rose and Jack into the flooding first-class dining saloon. After using up his ammunition, Cal realizes he gave his coat and consequently the necklace to Rose. He later boards a collapsible lifeboat by carrying a lost child.\n\nAfter braving several obstacles, Jack and Rose return to the boat deck. The lifeboats have departed and passengers are falling to their deaths as the stern rises out of the water. The ship breaks in half, lifting the stern into the air. Jack and Rose ride it into the ocean and he helps her onto a wooden panel only buoyant enough for one person. He assures her that she will die an old woman, warm in her bed. Jack dies of hypothermia but Rose is saved.\n\nWith Rose hiding from Cal en route, the RMS Carpathia takes the survivors to New York City where Rose gives her name as Rose Dawson. She later finds out Cal committed suicide after losing all his money in the 1929 Wall Street crash.\n\nBack in the present, Lovett decides to abandon his search after hearing Rose's story. Alone on the stern of Keldysh, Rose takes out the Heart of the Ocean — in her possession all along — and drops it into the sea over the wreck site. While she is seemingly asleep or has died in her bed, photos on her dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by the life she wanted to live with Jack. A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic Grand Staircase, applauded by those who died.\n\nCast\n\nFictional characters\n\n* Leonardo DiCaprio as Jack Dawson: Cameron said he needed the cast to feel as though they were really on the Titanic, relive its liveliness, and \"to take that energy and give it to Jack, [...] an artist who is able to have his heart soar\". Jack is portrayed as a homeless, poor man from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin who has toured numerous places in the world, primarily Paris. He wins two tickets onto the RMS Titanic in a poker game and travels as a third-class passenger with his friend Fabrizio. He is attracted to Rose at first sight and meets her when she attempts to throw herself off the stern of the ship. This enables him to mix with the first-class passengers for a night. When casting the role, various established actors, including Matthew McConaughey, Chris O'Donnell, Billy Crudup and Stephen Dorff, were considered, but Cameron felt that a few of the actors were too old for the part of a 20-year-old. Tom Cruise was interested in portraying the character, but the asking price was too much for the studio to consider. Cameron considered Jared Leto for the role but he refused to audition. DiCaprio, 22 years old at the time, was brought to Cameron's attention by casting director Mali Finn. Initially, he did not want to portray the character, and refused to read his first romantic scene on the set (see below). Cameron said, \"He read it once, then started goofing around, and I could never get him to focus on it again. But for one split second, a shaft of light came down from the heavens and lit up the forest.\" Cameron strongly believed in DiCaprio's acting ability, and told him, \"Look, I'm not going to make this guy brooding and neurotic. I'm not going to give him a tic and a limp and all the things you want.\" Cameron rather envisioned the character as a James Stewart type. Although Jack Dawson was a fictional character, there is a grave labeled \"J. Dawson\" in Fairview Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia where 121 victims are buried. The real J. Dawson was Joseph Dawson, who shoveled coal in the bowels of the ship. \"It wasn't until after the movie came out that we found out that there was a J. Dawson gravestone,\" said the film's producer, Jon Landau, in an interview. \n* Kate Winslet as Rose DeWitt Bukater: Cameron said Winslet \"had the thing that you look for\" and that there was \"a quality in her face, in her eyes,\" that he \"just knew people would be ready to go the distance with her\". Rose is a 17-year-old girl, originally from Philadelphia, who is forced into an engagement to 30-year-old Cal Hockley so she and her mother, Ruth, can maintain their high-class status after her father's death had left the family debt-ridden. Rose boards the RMS Titanic with Cal and Ruth, as a first-class passenger, and meets Jack. Winslet said of her character, \"She has got a lot to give, and she's got a very open heart. And she wants to explore and adventure the world, but she [feels] that's not going to happen.\" Gwyneth Paltrow, Winona Ryder, Claire Danes, and Gabrielle Anwar had been considered for the role. When they turned it down, 22-year-old Winslet campaigned heavily for the role. She sent Cameron daily notes from England, which led Cameron to invite her to Hollywood for auditions. As with DiCaprio, casting director Mali Finn originally brought her to Cameron's attention. When looking for a Rose, Cameron described the character as \"an Audrey Hepburn type\" and was initially uncertain about casting Winslet even after her screen test impressed him. After she screen tested with DiCaprio, Winslet was so thoroughly impressed with him, that she whispered to Cameron, \"He's great. Even if you don't pick me, pick him.\" Winslet sent Cameron a single rose with a card signed \"From Your Rose\" and lobbied him by phone. \"You don't understand!\" she pleaded one day when she reached him by mobile phone in his Humvee. \"I am Rose! I don't know why you're even seeing anyone else!\" Her persistence, as well as her talent, eventually convinced him to cast her in the role.\n* Billy Zane as Caledon Nathan \"Cal\" Hockley: Cal is Rose's 30-year-old fiancé. He is arrogant and snobbish, and the heir to a Pittsburgh steel fortune. He becomes increasingly embarrassed, jealous, and cruel about Rose's relationship with Jack. The part was originally offered to Matthew McConaughey.\n* Frances Fisher as Ruth DeWitt Bukater: Rose's widowed mother, who arranges her daughter's engagement to Cal to maintain her family's high-society status. She loves her daughter, but believes that social position is more important than having a loving marriage. She scorns Jack, even though he saved her daughter's life.\n* Gloria Stuart as Rose Dawson Calvert: Rose narrates the film in a modern-day framing device. Cameron stated, \"In order to see the present and the past, I decided to create a fictional survivor who is [close to] 101 years, and she connects us in a way through history.\" The 100-year-old Rose gives Lovett information regarding the \"Heart of the Ocean\" after he discovers a nude drawing of her in the wreck. She tells the story of her time aboard the ship, mentioning Jack for the first time since the sinking. At 87, Stuart had to be made up to look older for the role. Of casting Stuart, Cameron stated, \"My casting director found her. She was sent out on a mission to find retired actresses from the Golden Age of the thirties and forties.\" Cameron said that he did not know who Stuart was, and Fay Wray was also considered for the role. \"But [Stuart] was just so into it, and so lucid, and had such a great spirit. And I saw the connection between her spirit and [Winslet's] spirit,\" stated Cameron. \"I saw this joie de vivre in both of them, that I thought the audience would be able to make that cognitive leap that it's the same person.\" Stuart died on September 26, 2010, at age 100, approximately the same age elder Rose was in the film. \n* Bill Paxton as Brock Lovett: A treasure hunter looking for the \"Heart of the Ocean\" in the wreck of the Titanic in the present. Time and funding for his expedition are running out. He later reflects at the film's conclusion that, despite thinking about Titanic for three years, he has never understood it until he hears Rose's story.\n* Suzy Amis as Lizzy Calvert: Rose's granddaughter, who accompanies her when she visits Lovett on the ship and learns her grandmother's true identity and romantic past with Jack Dawson.\n* Danny Nucci as Fabrizio De Rossi: Jack's Italian best friend, who boards the RMS Titanic with him after Jack wins two tickets in a poker game. Fabrizio does not board a lifeboat when the Titanic sinks and is killed when one of the ship's funnels breaks and crashes into the water.\n* David Warner as Spicer Lovejoy: An ex-Pinkerton constable, Lovejoy is Cal's English valet and bodyguard, who keeps an eye on Rose and is suspicious about the circumstances surrounding Jack's rescue of her. He dies when the Titanic splits in half, causing him to fall into a massive opening.\n* Jason Barry as Thomas \"Tommy\" Ryan: An Irish third-class passenger who befriends Jack and Fabrizio. Tommy is killed when he is accidentally pushed forward and shot by a panicked First Officer Murdoch.\n\nHistorical characters\n\nAlthough not—and not intended to be—an entirely historically accurate depiction of events, the film includes portrayals of several historical figures:\n\n* Kathy Bates as Margaret \"Molly\" Brown: Brown is looked down upon by other first-class women, including Ruth, as \"vulgar\" and \"new money\" due to her sudden wealth. She is friendly to Jack and lends him a dinner jacket (bought for her son) when he is invited to dinner in the first-class dining saloon. Although Brown was a real person, Cameron chose not to portray her real-life actions. Molly Brown was dubbed \"The Unsinkable Molly Brown\" by historians because she, with the support of other women, commandeered Lifeboat 6 from Quartermaster Robert Hichens. Some aspects of this altercation are portrayed in Cameron's film.\n* Victor Garber as Thomas Andrews: The ship's builder, Andrews is portrayed as a very kind and pleasant man who is modest about his grand achievement. After the collision, he tries to convince the others, particularly Ismay, that it is a \"mathematical certainty\" that the ship will sink. He is depicted during the sinking of the ship as standing next to the clock in the first-class smoking room, lamenting his failure to build a strong and safe ship. Although this has become one of the most famous legends of the sinking of the Titanic, this story, which was published in a 1912 book (Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder) and therefore perpetuated, came from John Stewart, a steward on the ship who in fact left the ship in boat n. 15 at approximately 1:40 a.m. There were testimonies of sightings of Andrews after that moment. It appears that Andrews stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts, then he continued assisting with the evacuation. Another reported sighting was of Andrews frantically throwing deck chairs into the ocean for passengers to use as floating devices. Andrews was last seen leaving the ship at the last moment.\n* Bernard Hill as Captain Edward John Smith: Smith planned to make the Titanic his final voyage before retiring. He retreats into the wheelhouse on the bridge as the ship sinks, dying when the windows implode from the water whilst he clings to the ship's wheel. There are conflicting accounts as to whether he died in this manner or later froze to death in the water near the capsized collapsible lifeboat \"B\". \n* Jonathan Hyde as J. Bruce Ismay: Ismay is portrayed as a rich, ignorant upper-class man. In the film, he uses his position as White Star Line managing director to influence Captain Smith to go faster with the prospect of an earlier arrival in New York and favorable press attention; while this action appears in popular portrayals of the disaster, it is unsupported by evidence. After the collision, he struggles to comprehend that his \"unsinkable\" ship is doomed. Ismay later boards Collapsible C (one of the last lifeboats to leave the ship) just before it is lowered. He was branded a coward by the press and public for surviving the disaster while many women and children had drowned.\n* Eric Braeden as John Jacob Astor IV: A first-class passenger whom Rose (correctly) calls the richest man on the ship. The film depicts Astor and his 18-year-old wife Madeleine (Charlotte Chatton) as being introduced to Jack by Rose in the first-class dining saloon. During the introduction, Astor asks if Jack is connected to the \"Boston Dawsons\", a question Jack neatly deflects by saying that he is instead affiliated with the Chippewa Falls Dawsons. Astor is last seen as the Grand Staircase glass dome implodes and water surges in. \n* Bernard Fox as Colonel Archibald Gracie IV: The film depicts Gracie making a comment to Cal that \"women and machinery don't mix\", and congratulating Jack for saving Rose from falling off the ship, though he is unaware that it was a suicide attempt. Fox had portrayed Frederick Fleet in the 1958 film A Night to Remember.\n* Michael Ensign as Benjamin Guggenheim: A mining magnate traveling in first-class. He shows off his French mistress Madame Aubert (Fannie Brett) to his fellow passengers while his wife and three daughters wait for him at home. When Jack joins the other first-class passengers for dinner after his rescue of Rose, Guggenheim refers to him as a \"bohemian\". He is seen in the flooding Grand Staircase during the sinking, saying he is prepared to go down as a gentleman.\n* Jonathan Evans-Jones as Wallace Hartley: The ship's bandmaster and violinist who plays uplifting music with his colleagues on the boat deck as the ship sinks. As the final plunge begins, he leads the band in a final performance of Nearer, My God, to Thee, to the tune of Bethany, and dies in the sinking.\n* Mark Lindsay Chapman as Chief Officer Henry Wilde: The ship's chief officer, who lets Cal on board a lifeboat because he has a child in his arms. Before he dies, he tries to get the boats to return to the sinking site to rescue passengers by blowing his whistle. After he freezes to death, Rose uses his whistle to attract the attention of Fifth Officer Lowe, which leads to her rescue.\n* Ewan Stewart as First Officer William Murdoch: The officer who is put in charge of the bridge on the night the ship struck the iceberg. During a rush for the lifeboats, Murdoch shoots Tommy Ryan as well as another passenger in a momentary panic, then commits suicide out of guilt. When Murdoch's nephew Scott saw the film, he objected to his uncle's portrayal as damaging to Murdoch's heroic reputation. A few months later, Fox vice-president Scott Neeson went to Dalbeattie, Scotland, where Murdoch lived, to deliver a personal apology, and also presented a £5000 donation to Dalbeattie High School to boost the school's William Murdoch Memorial Prize. Cameron apologized on the DVD commentary, but stated that there were officers who fired gunshots to enforce the \"women and children first\" policy. According to Cameron, his depiction of Murdoch is that of an \"honorable man,\" not of a man \"gone bad\" or of a \"cowardly murderer.\" He added, \"I'm not sure you'd find that same sense of responsibility and total devotion to duty today. This guy had half of his lifeboats launched before his counterpart on the port side had even launched one. That says something about character and heroism.\" \n* Jonathan Phillips as Second Officer Charles Lightoller. The film depicts Lightoller informing Captain Smith that it will be difficult to see icebergs without breaking water. He is seen brandishing a gun and threatening to use it to keep order. He can be seen on top of Collapsible B when the first funnel collapses. Lightoller was the most senior officer to have survived the disaster.\n* Kevin De La Noy as Third Officer Herbert Pitman: In charge of Lifeboat 5.\n* Simon Crane as Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall: The officer in charge of firing flares and manning Lifeboat 2 during the sinking. He is shown on the bridge wings helping the seamen firing the flares.\n* Ioan Gruffudd as Fifth Officer Harold Lowe: The ship's only officer to lead a lifeboat to retrieve survivors of the sinking from the icy waters. The film depicts Lowe rescuing Rose.\n* Edward Fletcher as Sixth Officer James Moody: The ship's only junior officer to have died in the sinking. The film depicts Moody admitting Jack and Fabrizio onto the ship only moments before it departs from Southampton. Moody is later shown following Mr. Murdoch's orders to put the ship to full speed ahead, and informs First Officer Murdoch about the iceberg. He is last seen clinging to one of the davits on the starboard side after having unsuccessfully attempted to launch collapsible A.\n* James Lancaster as Father Thomas Byles: Father Byles, a Catholic priest from England, is portrayed praying and consoling passengers during the ship's final moments.\n* Lew Palter and Elsa Raven as Isidor Straus and Ida Straus: Isidor is a former owner of R.H. Macy and Company, a former congressman from New York, and a member of the New York and New Jersey Bridge Commission. During the sinking, his wife Ida is offered a place in a lifeboat, but refuses, saying that she will honor her wedding pledge by staying with Isidor. They are last seen lying on their bed embracing each other as water fills their stateroom.\n* Martin Jarvis as Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon: A Scottish baronet who is rescued in Lifeboat 1. Lifeboats 1 and 2 were emergency boats with a capacity of 40. Situated at the forward end of the boat deck, these were kept ready to launch in case of a person falling overboard. On the night of the disaster, Lifeboat 1 was the fourth to be launched, with 12 people aboard, including Duff-Gordon, his wife and her secretary. The baronet was much criticized for his conduct during the incident. It was suggested that he had boarded the emergency boat in violation of the \"women and children first\" policy and that the boat had failed to return to rescue those struggling in the water. He offered five pounds to each of the lifeboat's crew, which those critical of his conduct viewed as a bribe. The Duff-Gordons at the time (and his wife's secretary in a letter written at the time and rediscovered in 2007) stated that there had been no women or children waiting to board in the vicinity of the launching of their boat, and there is confirmation that lifeboat 1 of the Titanic was almost empty and that First Officer William Murdoch was apparently glad to offer Duff-Gordon and his wife and her secretary a place (simply to fill it) after they had asked if they could get on. Duff-Gordon denied that his offer of money to the lifeboat crew represented a bribe. The British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster accepted Duff-Gordon's denial of bribing the crew, but maintained that, if the emergency boat had rowed towards the people who were in the water, it might very well have been able to rescue some of them. \n* Rosalind Ayres as Lady Duff-Gordon: A world-famous fashion designer and Sir Cosmo's wife. She is rescued in Lifeboat 1 with her husband. She and her husband never lived down rumors that they had forbidden the lifeboat's crew to return to the wreck site in case they would be swamped. \n* Rochelle Rose as Noëlle, Countess of Rothes: The Countess is shown to be friendly with Cal and the DeWitt Bukaters. Despite being of a higher status in society than Sir Cosmo and Lady Duff-Gordon, she is kind, and helps row the boat and even looks after the steerage passengers.\n* Scott G. Anderson as Frederick Fleet: The lookout who saw the iceberg. Fleet escapes the sinking ship aboard Lifeboat 6.\n* Paul Brightwell as Quartermaster Robert Hichens: One of the ship's six quartermasters and at the ship's wheel at the time of collision. He is in charge of lifeboat 6. He refuses to go back and pick up survivors after the sinking and eventually the boat is commandeered by Molly Brown.\n* Martin East as Reginald Lee: The other lookout in the crow's nest. He survives the sinking.\n* Gregory Cooke as Jack Phillips: Senior wireless operator on board the Titanic whom Captain Smith ordered to send the distress signal.\n* Craig Kelly as Harold Bride: Junior wireless operator on board the Titanic.\n* Liam Tuohy as Chief Baker Charles Joughin: The baker appears in the film on top of the railing with Jack and Rose as the ship sinks, drinking brandy from a flask. According to the real Joughin's testimony, he rode the ship down and stepped into the water without getting his hair wet. He also admitted to hardly feeling the cold, most likely thanks to alcohol. \n* Terry Forrestal as Chief Engineer Joseph G. Bell: Bell and his men worked until the last minute to keep the lights and the power on in order for distress signals to get out. Bell and all of the engineers died in the bowels of the Titanic.\n\nCameos\n\nSeveral crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear in the film, including Anatoly Sagalevich, creator and pilot of the MIR self-propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle. Anders Falk, who filmed a documentary about the film's sets for the Titanic Historical Society, makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda, then President and Vice President of the Society who served as film consultants, were cast as extras in the film. \n\nPre-production\n\nWriting and inspiration\n\nJames Cameron had a fascination with shipwrecks, and, for him, the RMS Titanic was \"the Mount Everest of shipwrecks.\" He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition, but said he still had \"a mental restlessness\" to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college. So when an IMAX film was made from footage shot of the wreck itself, he decided to seek Hollywood funding to \"pay for an expedition and do the same thing.\" It was \"not because I particularly wanted to make the movie,\" Cameron said. \"I wanted to dive to the shipwreck.\"\n\nCameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film, met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin, and pitched it as \"Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic\". Cameron stated, \"They were like, 'Oooooohkaaaaaay – a three-hour romantic epic? Sure, that's just what we want. Is there a little bit of Terminator in that? Any Harrier jets, shoot-outs, or car chases?' I said, 'No, no, no. It's not like that.'\" The studio was dubious about the idea's commercial prospects, but, hoping for a long-term relationship with Cameron, they gave him a greenlight.\n\nCameron convinced Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck itself, and organized several dives to the site over a period of two years. \"My pitch on that had to be a little more detailed,\" said Cameron. \"So I said, 'Look, we've got to do this whole opening where they're exploring the Titanic and they find the diamond, so we're going to have all these shots of the ship.\" Cameron stated, \"Now, we can either do them with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that, which will cost X amount of money – or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck.\" The crew shot at the real wreck in the Atlantic Ocean twelve times in 1995 and actually spent more time with the ship than its passengers. At that depth, with a water pressure of 6,000 pounds per square inch, \"one small flaw in the vessel's superstructure would mean instant death for all on board.\" Not only were the dives high-risk, but adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting the high quality footage that he wanted. During one dive, one of the submersibles collided with Titanics hull, damaging both sub and ship and leaving fragments of the submersible's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. The external bulkhead of Captain Smith's quarters collapsed, exposing the interior. The area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was also damaged. \n\nDescending to the actual site made both Cameron and crew want \"to live up to that level of reality.... But there was another level of reaction coming away from the real wreck, which was that it wasn't just a story, it wasn't just a drama,\" he said. \"It was an event that happened to real people who really died. Working around the wreck for so much time, you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it, and the message of it.\" Cameron stated, \"You think, 'There probably aren't going to be many filmmakers who go to Titanic. There may never be another one – maybe a documentarian.\" Due to this, he felt \"a great mantle of responsibility to convey the emotional message of it – to do that part of it right, too\".\n\nAfter filming the underwater shots, Cameron began writing the screenplay. He wanted to honor the people who died during the sinking, so he spent six months researching all of the Titanics crew and passengers. \"I read everything I could. I created an extremely detailed timeline of the ship's few days and a very detailed timeline of the last night of its life,\" he said. \"And I worked within that to write the script, and I got some historical experts to analyze what I'd written and comment on it, and I adjusted it.\" He paid meticulous attention to detail, even including a scene depicting the Californians role in Titanic demise, though this was later cut (see below). From the beginning of the shoot, they had \"a very clear picture\" of what happened on the ship that night. \"I had a library that filled one whole wall of my writing office with Titanic stuff, because I wanted it to be right, especially if we were going to dive to the ship,\" he said. \"That set the bar higher in a way – it elevated the movie in a sense. We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you'd gone back in a time machine and shot it.\"\n\nCameron felt the Titanic sinking was \"like a great novel that really happened\", but that the event had become a mere morality tale; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history. The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy, while the blossoming romance of Jack and Rose, Cameron believed, would be the most engaging part of the story: when their love is finally destroyed, the audience would mourn the loss. He said: \"All my films are love stories, but in Titanic I finally got the balance right. It's not a disaster film. It's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history.\"\n\nCameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant. While Winslet and Stuart stated their belief that, instead of being asleep in her bed, the character dies at the end of the film, Cameron stated that, although he knows what he intended with the ending, he will not reveal its intention, adding, \"The answer has to be something you supply personally; individually.\" \n\nScale modeling\n\nHarland and Wolff, the RMS Titanic builders, opened their private archives to the crew, sharing blueprints that were thought lost. For the ship's interiors, production designer Peter Lamont's team looked for artifacts from the era. The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch. Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico, and began building a new studio on May 31, 1996. A horizon tank of seventeen million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship, providing 270 degrees of ocean view. The ship was built to full scale, but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank, with the remaining sections filled with digital models. The lifeboats and funnels were shrunk by ten percent. The boat deck and A-deck were working sets, but the rest of the ship was just steel plating. Within was a fifty-foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences. Towering above was a 162 ft tower crane on 600 ft of rail track, acting as a combined construction, lighting, and camera platform.\n\nThe sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly as originally built, using photographs and plans from the Titanic builders. \"The liner's first-class staircase, which figures prominently in the script was constructed out of real wood and actually destroyed in the filming of the sinking.\" The rooms, the carpeting, design and colors, individual pieces of furniture, decorations, chairs, wall paneling, cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece, completed ceilings, and costumes were among the designs true to the originals. Cameron additionally hired two Titanic historians, Don Lynch and Ken Marschall, to authenticate the historical detail in the film.\n\nProduction\n\nPrincipal photography of Titanic began in July 1996 at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia with the filming of the modern day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh. In September 1996, the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios at Rosarito, Mexico where a full scale RMS Titanic had been constructed. The poop deck was built on a hinge which could rise from zero to ninety degrees in a few seconds as the ship's stern rose during the sinking. For the safety of the stuntmen, many props were made of foam rubber. By November 15, the boarding scenes were being shot. Cameron chose to build his RMS Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data showed prevailing north-to-south wind which blew the funnel smoke aft. This posed a problem for shooting the ship's departure from Southampton, as it was docked on its port side. Any writing on props and costumes had to be reversed, and if someone walked to their right in the script, they had to walk left during shooting. In post-production, the film was flipped to the correct direction. \n\nA full-time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast on the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912. Despite this, several critics picked up on anachronisms in the film, not least involving the two main stars. \n\nCameron sketched Jack's nude portrait of Rose for a scene which he feels has the backdrop of repression. \"You know what it means for her, the freedom she must be feeling. It's kind of exhilarating for that reason,\" he said. The nude scene was DiCaprio and Winslet's first scene together. \"It wasn't by any kind of design, although I couldn't have designed it better. There's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them,\" Cameron stated. \"They had rehearsed together, but they hadn't shot anything together. If I'd had a choice, I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot.\" He said he and his crew \"were just trying to find things to shoot\" because the big set was not yet ready. \"It wasn't ready for months, so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot.\" After seeing the scene on film, Cameron felt it worked out considerably well.\n\nOther times on the set were not as smooth. The shoot was an arduous experience that \"cemented Cameron's formidable reputation as 'the scariest man in Hollywood'. He became known as an uncompromising, hard-charging perfectionist\" and a \"300-decibel screamer, a modern-day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie-talkie, swooping down into people's faces on a 162ft crane\". Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming, and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m-gallon water tank the ship was to be sunk in. \"There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him. Jim has a temper like you wouldn't believe,\" she said. \"'God damn it!' he would yell at some poor crew member, 'that's exactly what I didn't want!'\" Her co-star, Bill Paxton, was familiar with Cameron's work ethic from his earlier experience with him. \"There were a lot of people on the set. Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds,\" he said. The crew felt that Cameron had an evil alter ego, and nicknamed him \"Mij\" (Jim spelt backwards). In response to the criticism, Cameron stated, \"Film-making is war. A great battle between business and aesthetics.\"\n\nDuring the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada, an angry crew member put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. It sent more than 50 people to the hospital including actor Bill Paxton. \"There were people just rolling around, completely out of it. Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics,\" said actor Lewis Abernathy. Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold. Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked. \"One eye was completely red, like the Terminator eye. A pupil, no iris, beet red. The other eye looked like he'd been sniffing glue since he was four.\" The person behind the poisoning was never caught. \n\nThe filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160. Many cast members came down with colds, flu, or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water, including Winslet. In the end, she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned \"a lot of money\". Several others left and three stuntmen broke their bones, but the Screen Actors Guild decided, following an investigation, that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set. Additionally, DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming. Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets, although he acknowledged:I'm demanding, and I'm demanding on my crew. In terms of being kind of militaresque, I think there's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe. I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people.\n\nThe costs of filming Titanic eventually began to mount, and finally reached $200 million. Fox executives panicked, and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three-hour film. They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings, thus less money even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars. Cameron refused, telling Fox, \"You want to cut my movie? You're going to have to fire me! You want to fire me? You're going to have to kill me!\" The executives did not want to start over, because it would mean the loss of their entire investment, but they also initially rejected Cameron's offer of forfeiting his share of the profits as an empty gesture; they felt that profits would be unlikely. Cameron explained forfeiting his share as complex. \"...the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than T2 and True Lies. Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget. Titanic also had a large budget to begin with, but it went up a lot more,\" said Cameron. \"As the producer and director, I take responsibility for the studio that's writing the checks, so I made it less painful for them. I did that on two different occasions. They didn't force me to do it; they were glad that I did.\"\n\nPost-production\n\nEffects\n\nCameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects with his film, and enlisted Digital Domain to continue the developments in digital technology which the director pioneered while working on The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about the RMS Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing. He encouraged them to shoot their 45 ft miniature of the ship as if \"we're making a commercial for the White Star Line\". Afterwards, digital water and smoke were added, as were extras captured on a motion capture stage. Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors, including himself and his children, for the digital extras and stuntmen. There was also a 65 ft model of the ship's stern that could break in two repeatedly, the only miniature to be used in water. For scenes set in the ship's engines, footage of the SS Jeremiah O'Briens engines were composited with miniature support frames and actors shot against a greenscreen. In order to save money, the first-class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop. \n\nAn enclosed 5000000 usgal tank was used for sinking interiors, in which the entire set could be tilted into the water. In order to sink the Grand Staircase, 90000 usgal of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank. Unexpectedly, the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel-reinforced foundations, although no one was hurt. The 744 ft exterior of the RMS Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank, but being the heaviest part of the ship meant it acted as a shock absorber against the water; to get the set into the water, Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself. After submerging the dining saloon, three days were spent shooting Lovett's ROV traversing the wreck in the present. The post-sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350000 usgal tank, where the frozen corpses were created by applying a powder on actors that crystallized when exposed to water, and wax was coated on hair and clothes.\n\nThe climactic scene, which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks, as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic, involved a tilting full-sized set, 150 extras and 100 stunt performers. Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the final plunge of the liner as sliding gracefully underwater. He \"wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was\". When carrying out the sequence, people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck, plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down. A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt people resulted in some minor injuries and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts. The risks were eventually minimized \"by using computer generated people for the dangerous falls\".\n\nEditing\n\nThere was one \"crucial historical fact\" Cameron chose to omit from the film – the ship that was close to the Titanic, but had turned off its radio for the night and did not hear their SOS calls. \"Yes, the [SS] Californian. That wasn't a compromise to mainstream filmmaking. That was really more about emphasis, creating an emotional truth to the film,\" stated Cameron. He said there were aspects of retelling the sinking that seemed important in pre and post-production, but turned out to be less important as the film evolved. \"The story of the Californian was in there; we even shot a scene of them switching off their Marconi radio set,\" said Cameron. \"But I took it out. It was a clean cut, because it focuses you back onto that world. If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor, as a microcosm, for the end of the world in a sense, then that world must be self-contained.\"\n\nDuring the first assembly cut, Cameron altered the planned ending, which had given resolution to Brock Lovett's story. In the original version of the ending, Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat, and fear she is going to commit suicide. Rose then reveals that she had the \"Heart of the Ocean\" diamond all along, but never sold it, in order to live on her own without Cal's money. She tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean, after allowing him to hold it. After accepting that treasure is worthless, Brock laughs at his stupidity. Rose then goes back to her cabin to sleep, whereupon the film ends in the same way as the final version. In the editing room, Cameron decided that by this point, the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the resolution to his story, so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond. He also did not want to disrupt the audience's melancholy after the Titanic sinking. \n\nThe version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy which takes place after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon, but the test audiences disliked it. The scene was written to give the film more suspense, and featured Cal (falsely) offering to give Lovejoy, his valet, the \"Heart of the Ocean\" if he can get it from Jack and Rose. Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first-class dining room. Just as they are about to escape him, Lovejoy notices Rose's hand slap the water as it slips off the table behind which she is hiding. In revenge for framing him for the \"theft\" of the necklace, Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a glass window, which explains the gash on Lovejoy's head that can be seen when he dies in the completed version of the film. In their reactions to the scene, test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one's life for wealth, and Cameron cut it for this reason, as well as for timing and pacing reasons. Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons.\n\nMusic and soundtrack\n\nThe soundtrack album for Titanic was composed by James Horner. For the vocals heard throughout the film, subsequently described by Earle Hitchner of The Wall Street Journal as \"evocative\", Horner chose Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø, commonly known as \"Sissel\". Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen, and he particularly liked how she sang \"Eg veit i himmerik ei borg\" (\"I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle\"). He had tried twenty-five or thirty singers before he finally chose Sissel as the voice to create specific moods within the film. \n\nHorner additionally wrote the song \"My Heart Will Go On\" in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs with singing in the film. Céline Dion agreed to record a demo with the persuasion of her husband René Angélil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, although worried that he would have been criticized for \"going commercial at the end of the movie\". Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and \"saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion\".\n\nRelease\n\nInitial screening\n\n20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures co-financed Titanic, with Paramount handling the North American distribution and Fox handling the international release. They expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2, 1997. The film was to be released on this date \"in order to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better\". In April, Cameron said the film's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film for summer would not be possible. With production delays, Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19, 1997. \"This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster.\" A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 \"generated positive reviews\" and \"[c]hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the [film]\". This eventually led to more positive media coverage.\n\nThe film premiered on November 1, 1997, at the Tokyo International Film Festival, where reaction was described as \"tepid\" by The New York Times. Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14, 1997, where \"the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media\".\n\nBox office\n\nIncluding revenue from the 2012 reissue, Titanic earned $658,672,302 in North America and $1,526,700,000 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $2,185,372,302. It became the highest-grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998, and remained so for twelve years, until Avatar (2009), also written and directed by Cameron, surpassed it in 2010. On March 1, 1998,[https://books.google.com/books?id7A9ws0inw4YC&pg\nPA223&lpgPA223&dq\nmarch+1998+titanic+billion&sourcebl&ots\nO6HEVdyls_&sigpYVqXoUtqvLsMcPu4p3p_zO1VAY&hl\nen&saX&ei\ni33AT8_NO9HM6QGh84DJCg&ved0CFEQ6AEwAg#v\nonepage&qmarch%201998%20titanic%20billion&f\nfalse Titanic and the Making of James Cameron: The Inside Story of the Three-Year ... - Paula Parisi - Google Books] it became the first film to earn more than $1 billion worldwide and on the weekend April 13–15, 2012—a century after the original vessel's foundering, Titanic became the second film to cross the $2 billion threshold during its 3D re-release. Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth highest-grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation. The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. \n\nInitial theatrical run\n\nThe film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday, December 19, 1997. By the end of that same weekend, theaters were beginning to sell out. The film earned $8,658,814 on its opening day and $28,638,131 over the opening weekend from 2,674 theaters, averaging to about $10,710 per venue, and ranking number one at the box office, ahead of the eighteenth James Bond film, Tomorrow Never Dies. By New Year's Day, Titanic had made over $120 million, had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out. Its highest grossing single day was Saturday, February 14, 1998, on which it earned $13,048,711, more than eight weeks after its North American debut. It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America, a record for any film. The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday, October 1, 1998 with a final domestic gross of $600,788,188. Outside North America, the film made double its North American gross, generating $1,242,413,080 and accumulating a grand total of $1,843,201,268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run. \n\nCommercial analysis\n\nBefore Titanics release, various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, especially due to it being the most expensive film ever made at the time. When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997, \"it was with massive forebodings\" since the \"people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs – because of this great albatross of a picture on which, finally, two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making\". Cameron also thought he was \"headed for disaster\" at one point during filming. \"We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose $100 million. It was a certainty,\" he stated. As the film neared release, \"particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance\". A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that \"Cameron's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project\" and that the film was \"a hackneyed, completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances\".\n\nWhen the film became a success, with an unprecedented box office performance, it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers emotions. The film was playing on 3,200 screens ten weeks after it opened, and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts, jumped 43% in total sales in its ninth week of release. It earned over $20 million a week for ten weeks, and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than $1 million a week. 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week. Although young women who saw the film several times, and subsequently caused \"Leo-Mania\", were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all-time box office record, other reports have attributed the film's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground-breaking special effects. \n\nThe film's impact on men has also been especially credited. Now considered one of the films that \"make men cry\", MSNBC's Ian Hodder stated that men admire Jack's sense of adventure, stowing away on a steamship bound for America. \"We cheer as he courts a girl who was out of his league. We admire how he suggests nude modeling as an excuse to get naked. So when [the tragic ending happens], an uncontrollable flood of tears sinks our composure,\" he said. Titanic ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland, where character Tallahassee (Woody Harrelson), when recalling the death of his young son, states: \"I haven't cried like that since Titanic.\" \n\nIn 2010, the BBC analyzed the stigma over men crying during Titanic and films in general. \"Middle-aged men are not 'supposed' to cry during movies,\" stated Finlo Rohrer of the website, citing the ending of Titanic as having generated such tears, adding that \"men, if they have felt weepy during [this film], have often tried to be surreptitious about it.\" Professor Mary Beth Oliver, of Penn State University, stated, \"For many men, there is a great deal of pressure to avoid expression of 'female' emotions like sadness and fear. From a very young age, males are taught that it is inappropriate to cry, and these lessons are often accompanied by a great deal of ridicule when the lessons aren't followed.\" Rohrer said, \"Indeed, some men who might sneer at the idea of crying during Titanic will readily admit to becoming choked up during Saving Private Ryan or Platoon.\" For men in general, \"the idea of sacrifice for a 'brother' is a more suitable source of emotion\".\n\nScott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense, given its success, it is considered a film \"for 15-year-old girls\" by its main detractors. He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for 15-year-old girls fails to consider the film's accomplishment: \"that [this] grandiose, 3+ hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone—including teenage boys.\" Meslow stated that the despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18, matching the ratings for teenage boy-targeted films like Iron Man, it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic. He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it. \"It's this collection of elements—the history, the romance, the action—that made (and continues to make) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe,\" he stated. \"Titanic has flaws, but for all its legacy, it's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe. It's a great movie for 15-year-old girls, but that doesn't mean it's not a great movie for everyone else too.\"\n\nQuotes in the film aided its popularity. Titanic catchphrase \"I'm the king of the world!\" became one of the film industry's more popular quotations. According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University, who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. \"People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh\", he said.\n\nCameron explained the film's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing. \"When people have an experience that's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it,\" he said. \"They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. That's how Titanic worked.\" Media Awareness Network stated, \"The normal\nrepeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5%. The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20%.\" The box office receipts \"were even more impressive\" when factoring in \"the film's 3-hour-and-14-minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie's four showings\". In response to this, \"[m]any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3:30 am\".\n\nTitanic held the record for box office gross for twelve years. Cameron's follow-up film, Avatar, was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross, and did so in 2010. Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given. For one, \"Two-thirds of Titanic haul was earned overseas, and Avatar [tracked] similarly... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no. 1 in all of them\" and the markets \"such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white-hot today\" with \"more screens and moviegoers\" than ever before. Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, said that while Avatar may beat Titanic revenue record, the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. \"Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s.\" In December 2009, Cameron had stated, \"I don't think it's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch. Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years. Titanic just struck some kind of chord.\" In a January 2010 interview, he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar performance was easier to predict. \"It's gonna happen. It's just a matter of time,\" he said.\n\nAuthor Alexandra Keller, when analyzing Titanics success, stated that scholars could agree that the film's popularity \"appears dependent on contemporary culture, on perceptions of history, on patterns of consumerism and globalization, as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s – awesome screen spectacle, expansive action, and, more rarely seen, engaging characters and epic drama.\" \n\nCritical reception\n\nTitanic garnered mainly positive reviews from film critics, and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars, who commented on the film's cultural, historical and political impacts. It holds an overall 88% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 178 reviews, with a rating average of 8 out of 10. The site's consensus reads: \"A mostly unqualified triumph for Cameron, who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old-fashioned melodrama.\" At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 0–100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 74 based on 34 reviews, classified as a generally favorably reviewed film. \n\nWith regard to the film's overall design, Roger Ebert stated, \"It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all, but almost impossible to make well.\" He credited the \"technical difficulties\" with being \"so daunting that it's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion\" and \"found [himself] convinced by both the story and the sad saga\". He named it his ninth best film of 1997. On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film received \"two thumbs up\" and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship's sinking; Ebert described the film as \"a glorious Hollywood epic\" and \"well worth the wait,\" and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio \"captivating\". James Berardinelli stated, \"Meticulous in detail, yet vast in scope and intent, Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity. You don't just watch Titanic, you experience it.\" It was named his second best film of 1997. Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that \"the sinking of the great ship is no secret, yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy\" and that \"when you consider that [the film] tops a bum-numbing three-hour running time, then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron\". Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded, \"To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short. James Cameron's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the 'unsinkable' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood.\"\n\nThe romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised. Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said, \"You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time, but of its enormous emotive power, big as the engines of the ship itself, determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart, and as lasting as the love story that propels it.\" Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as, \"A lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom. Writer-director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking.\" Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that \"Cameron's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind.\" Richard Corliss of Time magazine, on the other hand, wrote a mostly negative review, criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements. \n\nSome reviewers felt that the story and dialogue were weak, while the visuals were spectacular. Kenneth Turan's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he stated, \"What really brings on the tears is Cameron's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only is it not, it is not even close.\", and later claimed that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total. Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying, \"The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two [lead characters] refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say.\" Also, filmmaker Robert Altman called it \"the most dreadful piece of work I've ever seen in my entire life\". In his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic, historian Richard Davenport-Hines said, \"Cameron's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English, anathematizing their emotional restraint, good tailoring, punctilious manners and grammatical training, while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered\". \n\nTitanic suffered backlash in addition to its success. In 2003, the film topped a poll of \"Best Film Endings\", and yet it also topped a poll by Film 2003 as \"the worst movie of all time\". The British film magazine Empire reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review, to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition, to accommodate its readers' tastes, who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film, and the reported activities of its fans, such as those attending multiple screenings. In addition to this, positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet, often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film. Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film. \"What really irks me...,\" he said, \"are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it.\" Willcock stated, \"I obviously don't have anything against those who dislike Titanic, but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so (and they do exist, trust me) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy.\"\n\nCameron responded to the backlash, and Kenneth Turan's review in particular. \"Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off,\" he stated. \"They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3-hour and 14-minute chunk out of their lives, and dragging others with them, so they can share the emotion.\" Cameron emphasized people from all ages (ranging from 8 to 80) and from all backgrounds were \"celebrating their own essential humanity\" by seeing it. He described the script as earnest and straightforward, and said it intentionally \"incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless – and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric\" and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes. He did not see it as pandering. \"Turan mistakes archetype for cliche,\" he said. \"I don't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience, or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration.\" \n\nEmpire eventually reinstated its original five star rating of the film, commenting, \"It should be no surprise then that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet's favourite film. Ever.\" \n\nAccolades\n\nTitanic began its awards sweep starting with the Golden Globes, winning four, namely Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song. Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart were also nominees. It won the ACE \"Eddie\" Award, ASC Award, Art Directors Guild Award, Cinema Audio Society Awards, Screen Actors Guild Award (Best Supporting Actress for Gloria Stuart), The Directors Guild of America Award, and Broadcast Film Critics Association Award (Best Director for James Cameron), and The Producer Guild of America Award. It was also nominated for ten BAFTA awards, including Best Film and Best Director; it failed to win any.\n\nThe film garnered fourteen Academy Awards nominations, tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz's All About Eve and won eleven: Best Picture (the second film about the Titanic to win that award, after 1933's Cavalcade), Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound (Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano), Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, Best Original Song. Kate Winslet, Gloria Stuart and the make-up artists were the three nominees that did not win. James Cameron's original screenplay and Leonardo DiCaprio were not nominees. It was the second film to win eleven Academy Awards, after Ben-Hur. The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King would also match this record in 2004.\n\nTitanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as three Grammy Awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television. The film's soundtrack became the best-selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time, and became a worldwide success, spending sixteen weeks at number-one in the United States, and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone. The soundtrack also became the best-selling album of 1998 in the U.S. \"My Heart Will Go On\" won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television. The film also won Best Male Performance for Leonardo DiCaprio and Best Movie at the MTV Movie Awards, Best Film at the People's Choice Awards, and Favorite Movie at the 1998 Kids' Choice Awards. It won various awards outside the United States, including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year. Titanic eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty-seven nominations from various award-giving bodies around the world. Additionally, the book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times bestseller list for several weeks, \"the first time that such\na tie-in book had achieved this status\".\n\nSince its release, Titanic has appeared on the American Film Institute's award-winning 100 Years… series. So far, it has ranked on the following six lists:\n\nHome media\n\nTitanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS and laserdisc on September 1, 1998. The VHS was also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie. A DVD version was released on August 31, 1999 in a widescreen-only (non-anamorphic) single-disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later. This release became the best-selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000, becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies. At the time, fewer than 5% of all U.S. homes had a DVD player. \"When we released the original Titanic DVD, the industry was much smaller, and bonus features were not the standard they are now,\" said Meagan Burrows, Paramount's president of domestic home entertainment, which made the film's DVD performance even more impressive.\n\nTitanic was re-released to DVD on October 25, 2005 when a three-disc Special Collector's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada. This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film, as well as various special features. An international two and four-disc set followed on November 7, 2005. The two-disc edition was marketed as the Special Edition, and featured the first two discs of the three-disc set, only PAL-enabled. A four-disc edition, marketed as the Deluxe Collector's Edition, was also released on November 7, 2005.\n\nAlso, available only in the United Kingdom, a limited 5-disc set of the film, under the title Deluxe Limited Edition, was released with only 10,000 copies manufactured. The fifth disc contains Cameron's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss, which contained two discs, only the first disc was included in the set.\n\nAs regards to television broadcasts, the film airs occasionally across the United States on networks such as TNT. To permit the scene where Jack draws the nude portrait of Rose to be shown on network and specialty cable channels, in addition to minor cuts, the sheer, see-through robe worn by Winslet was digitally painted black. Turner Classic Movies also began to show the film, specifically during the days leading up to the 82nd Academy Awards. \n\n3D conversion\n\nA 2012 re-release, also known as Titanic in 3D, was created by re-mastering the original to 4K resolution and post-converting to stereoscopic 3D format. The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and $18 million to produce, including the 4K restoration. The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D and Sony with Slam Content's Panther Records remastering the soundtrack. Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process. For the 3D release, Cameron opened up the Super 35 film and expanded the image of the film into a new aspect ratio, from 2:35:1 to 1:78:1, allowing the viewer to see more image on the top and bottom of the screen. The only scene entirely redone for the re-release was Rose's view of the night sky at sea, on the morning of April 15, 1912. The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night-sky star pattern, including the Milky Way, adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912. The change was prompted by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who had criticized the scene for showing an unrealistic star pattern. He agreed to send film director Cameron a corrected view of the sky, which was the basis of the new scene. \n\nThe 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27, 2012, with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance, and entered general release on April 4, 2012, six days shy of the centenary of RMS Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage. \n\nRolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue 3.5 stars out of 4, explaining he found it \"pretty damn dazzling\". He said, \"The 3D intensifies Titanic. You are there. Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule.\" Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade. He wrote, \"For once, the visuals in a 3-D movie don't look darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive.\" Richard Corliss of Time who was very critical in 1997 remained in the same mood, \"I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water-logged.\" In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the \"careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments ... [but] in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels.\" Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking \"whether the film's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron's 3-D conversion, and the answer to that is: They aren't.\" She further added that the \"3-D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy, not to mention odd moments in framing and composition.\" \n\nThe film grossed an estimated $4.7 million on the first day of its re-release in North America (including midnight preview showings) and went on to make $17.3 million over the weekend, finishing in third place. Outside North America it earned $35.2 million finishing second, and improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with $98.9 million. China has proven to be its most successful territory where it earned $11.6 million on its opening day, going on to earn a record-breaking $67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run. The reissue ultimately earned $343.4 million worldwide, with $145 million coming from China and $57.8 million from Canada and United States. \n\nThe 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories, which allows the audience to experience the film's environment using motion, wind, fog, lighting and scent-based special effects." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Hulthemia", "The Roses", "Long stemmed roses", "Rose bush", "Rose", "Rose bushes", "Culture of rose", "Roses (song)", "Roses", "Zephirine Drouhin", "Rosa (plant)", "RoSe", "🌹", "Rose bud", "Rosa (genus)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "roses song", "long stemmed roses", "rosa plant", "🌹", "rosa genus", "culture of rose", "zephirine drouhin", "rose bush", "rose bushes", "rose bud", "hulthemia", "roses", "rose" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "rose", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Rose" }
Which spin-off from a 60s sitcom was a 1999 movie with Jeff Daniels and Christopher Lloyd?	tc_1113	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jeff_Daniels.txt", "Christopher_Lloyd.txt" ], "title": [ "Jeff Daniels", "Christopher Lloyd" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jeffrey Warren \"Jeff\" Daniels (born February 19, 1955) is an American actor, musician, and playwright, whose career includes roles in films, stage productions and on television, for which he has won an Emmy Award and received Golden Globe, Screen Actors Guild and Tony Award nominations.\n\nMaking his film debut in Ragtime (1981), Daniels's film credits include Terms of Endearment (1983), Arachnophobia (1990), Gettysburg (1993), Speed (1994), 101 Dalmatians (1996), Fly Away Home (1996), Pleasantville (1998), The Hours (2002), Good Night, and Good Luck (2005), The Lookout (2007), Infamous (2009), Looper (2012), Steve Jobs (2015), and The Martian (2015).\n\nOne of his most notable roles is Harry Dunne in the buddy comedy Dumb and Dumber (1994) opposite Jim Carrey, a role he reprised in the 2014 sequel Dumb and Dumber To (2014). He received Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actor for his performances in The Purple Rose of Cairo (1985), Something Wild (1986) and The Squid and the Whale (2005).\n\nDaniels' work outside of the film industry has received similar acclaim and accolades as to his work on screen. He has received a number of award nominations for his work on stage, including Tony Award nominations for Best Actor for his roles in the plays God of Carnage and Blackbird. He is the founder and current executive director of the Chelsea, Michigan-based Purple Rose Theatre Company. From 2012-14, Daniels starred as Will McAvoy in the HBO political drama series The Newsroom, for which he won the 2013 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and received Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations.\n\nEarly life\n\nDaniels was born in Athens, Georgia, to Marjorie J. (née Ferguson) and Robert Lee \"Bob\" Daniels. He spent the first six weeks of his life in Georgia, where his father was then teaching, and grew up in Chelsea, Michigan. His father owned The Chelsea Lumber Company and was also a onetime mayor of Chelsea. \n\nDaniels was raised Methodist. He attended Central Michigan University and participated in the school's theater program. In the summer of 1976, Daniels attended the Eastern Michigan University drama school to participate in a special Bicentennial Repertory program, where he performed in The Hot l Baltimore and three other plays performed in repertoire. Marshall W. Mason was the guest director at EMU and he invited Jeff to come to New York to work at the Circle Repertory Theatre, where he performed in Fifth of July by Lanford Wilson in the 1977–78 season. Daniels performed in New York in The Shortchanged Review (1979) at Second Stage Theatre. It was the first show of the inaugural season for Second Stage Theatre.\n\nCareer\n\nStage career\n\nDaniels has starred in a number of New York productions, on and off Broadway. On Broadway, he has appeared in Lanford Wilson's Redwood Curtain, A. R. Gurney's The Golden Age and Wilson's Fifth of July, for which he won a Drama Desk Award for Best Supporting Actor. Off-Broadway, he received a Drama Desk nomination for Wilson's Lemon Sky, and an Obie Award for his performance in the Circle Repertory Company production of Johnny Got His Gun. He returned to the stage in 2009, appearing in Broadway's God of Carnage opposite Hope Davis, James Gandolfini and Marcia Gay Harden. \n\nIn 1991, he founded the Purple Rose Theatre Company, a nonprofit stage company in Chelsea. Daniels has written more than a dozen plays for the company. \n\nIn 2016, Daniels received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his performance in Blackbird, opposite Michelle Williams.\n\nFilm career\n\nDaniels made his screen debut in Miloš Forman's Ragtime in 1981. His next film, the Oscar-winning Terms of Endearment, in which he played Debra Winger's callow and unfaithful husband, was his breakthrough. He garnered a Golden Globe nomination as the star of The Purple Rose Of Cairo, directed by Woody Allen. It was the last film that inspired the name for the theater company he established. \n\nDaniels earned his second Golden Globe nomination for starring in Jonathan Demme's Something Wild as an unassuming businessman swept up into a wild night by a mysterious woman (Melanie Griffith). Daniels then starred in the horror–comedy (or \"thrill-omedy\", as it was described in the promotion) Arachnophobia in 1990. The next year, Daniels starred in two films (Love Hurts and The Butcher's Wife). His next notable role was as Colonel Joshua Chamberlain in Gettysburg. Daniels reprised the role of Chamberlain ten years later in the prequel film Gods and Generals. \n\nIn 1994, Daniels would co-star with Jim Carrey in one of his most successful films, Dumb and Dumber. It was a noted departure for Daniels, owing to his status as a dramatic actor. That same year Daniels appeared with Keanu Reeves in the action blockbuster Speed; the film was an enormous hit, grossing over $350 million at the box office. \n\nDaniels would then host Saturday Night Live a second time before the release of the 1996 Disney live-action remake of 101 Dalmatians. Daniels starred as the owner of a litter of dalmatians stolen by the evil Cruella De Vil (Glenn Close). The film was successful, grossing $320 million. Also in 1996 was the family hit film Fly Away Home with Daniels as the supportive single father of Anna Paquin's goose-raising preteen. Daniels then had a critical and commercial misfire with Trial and Error (1997). Daniels would rebound, however, with 1998's Pleasantville as diner owner Bill Johnson, who learns to act as an individual and rebel against the norm at the urging of Tobey Maguire's David. Also starring Reese Witherspoon, Joan Allen, and Don Knotts, Pleasantville was nominated for three Academy Awards. Daniels starred alongside Christopher Lloyd in the critically and commercially unsuccessful film, My Favorite Martian. \n\nDaniels starred in the TV films The Crossing, Cheaters, and the direct-to-video release Chasing Sleep. At this point, in the early 2000s, Daniels began to focus more on his theater work at The Purple Rose Theatre as well as writing, starring, and directing the films Escanaba in da Moonlight and Super Sucker. \n\nDaniels's next major film role would be in Clint Eastwood's Blood Work, which received mixed reviews and was a commercial failure. He would rebound later that year with Stephen Daldry's Academy Award–winning The Hours. The film was also a financial success, grossing well over $100 million. Gods and Generals followed in 2003, as did the action film I Witness, which co-starred James Spader. Daniels then starred in Imaginary Heroes and the 2004 television film adaptation of fellow Michigander and friend Mitch Albom's bestseller The Five People You Meet in Heaven. \n\nThe year 2005 proved to be a strong year for Daniels as he garnered notice as the star of the lauded Noah Baumbach film The Squid and the Whale. Daniels received his third Golden Globe nomination for the film, about a divorcing couple and the effect the split has on their children. That year Daniels also starred in the family film adaptation of Because of Winn-Dixie. He would round out the year with a supporting role in the Oscar-nominated film Good Night and Good Luck, directed by George Clooney. \n\nDaniels then starred as the redneck comic foil to Robin Williams's uptight business man in the vacation comedy RV, directed by Barry Sonnenfeld. He had a supporting role in the Truman Capote biopic Infamous and in two other independent films, Mama's Boy and The Lookout, for which he was nominated for a Satellite Award. \n\nDaniels had a starring voice-over role as the villain Zartog in animated film Space Chimps. He then took back-to-back supporting roles in political thrillers: Traitor with Don Cheadle and State of Play with Russell Crowe and Rachel McAdams. Also in 2009, Daniels would appear in the indie hit Away We Go. 2010 would be a slow year for Daniels. He continued his theater work and had a starring role in the little-seen indie Howl, alongside James Franco as Allen Ginsberg. \n\nIn 2012, Daniels became the new announcing voice for Apple with the iPhone 5 ads. In 2014, Daniels reprised his role as Harry Dunne in Dumb and Dumber To. Daniels portrayed CEO John Sculley in the 2015 biographical drama film Steve Jobs, directed by Academy Award winner Danny Boyle, and starring Michael Fassbender in the title role. He played David in the last two films of the Divergent series, The Divergent Series: Allegiant and the upcoming The Divergent Series: Ascendant. \n\nMusical career\n\nDaniels has focused on recording a number of songs that he has written throughout his life, apparently marking key moments. He has kept busy with frequent gigs and six full-length albums, Jeff Daniels Live and Unplugged, Jeff Daniels Live at The Purple Rose Theater, Grandfather's Hat, Keep It Right Here, Together Again, and Days Like These. Proceeds from the album sales benefit The Purple Rose Theater.\n\nDaniels was featured on the cover of the April–May 2011 issue of Guitar Aficionado magazine as well as the July–August 2011 issue of Making Music, where he discussed his experiences with music.\n\nPersonal life\n\nDaniels married his college sweetheart, a fellow Michigander from the Upper Peninsula (Marquette) Kathleen Rosemary Treado, in 1979. In 1986, Daniels moved back to his native Chelsea, Michigan. The couple has three children: Benjamin (born 1984), Lucas (born 1987), and Nellie (born 1990).\n\nDaniels has appeared as the TV spokesman for the Michigan Economic Development Corporation, promoting Michigan's effectiveness in bringing in new companies, featured on CNBC. He was inducted into the Michigan Walk of Fame on May 25, 2006, in Lansing, Michigan, and delivered the winter commencement address at the University of Michigan on December 20, 2009, at which he was granted an Honorary Doctorate in Fine Arts. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nPurple Rose Theatre Company\n\nThe Purple Rose Theatre Company (or PRTC) was founded by Daniels in 1991. Originally known as the Garage Theatre, 'The Rose' takes its name from Woody Allen's 1985 film The Purple Rose of Cairo, which starred Daniels and Mia Farrow. The theatre provides resources for training actors, playwrights and other theatre artists residing in the Midwest region and develops new plays based on life in the Great Lakes Basin. The main performance space and administrative offices occupy a building in Chelsea, Michigan once owned by Daniels' grandfather. The theatre produces four shows a year on a 3/4 thrust stage in a 168-seat house. The PRTC is a 501(c)3 not-for-profit organization and operates under a Small Professional Theatre (SPT) Agreement with the Actors' Equity Association (AEA). \n\nApprentice program\n\nThe Purple Rose offers a year-long apprenticeship program for young artists entering a career in theatre. Apprentices are paid a 'modest stipend' and work as many as 60–80 hours per week gaining experience in lighting, sound, stage management, design, set construction, and administrative/box office work. The seven apprentices also maintain and clean the theatre's facilities. The program was inspired by Jeff Daniels' experience as an apprentice with the Circle Repertory Company in New York City.\n\nAwards and nominations", "Christopher Allen Lloyd (born October 22, 1938) is an American actor and voice actor, best known for his roles as Emmett \"Doc\" Brown in the Back to the Future trilogy, Jim Ignatowski on the television series Taxi, Uncle Fester in the film The Addams Family (1991) and its sequel Addams Family Values (1993), and Judge Doom in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988).\n\nLloyd has won three Primetime Emmy Awards and an Independent Spirit Award, along with being nominated for two Saturn Awards and two Daytime Emmy Awards. He has also done voice-over work in animation.\n\nEarly life \n\nLloyd was born in Stamford, Connecticut, on October 22, 1938, the son of Samuel R. Lloyd, a lawyer, and his wife Ruth (née Lapham), a singer and sister of San Francisco mayor Roger Lapham. He is the youngest of four girls and three boys, one of whom, Samuel Lloyd, was an actor in the 1950s and 1960s. Lloyd's maternal grandfather, Lewis Henry Lapham, was one of the founders of the Texaco oil company, and Lloyd is also a descendant of Mayflower passengers, including John Howland. Lloyd was raised in New Canaan, Connecticut.\n\nCareer \n\nLloyd began his career apprenticing at summer theaters in Mount Kisco, New York, and Hyannis, Massachusetts. He took acting classes in New York City at age 19—some at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre with Sanford Meisner—and he recalled making his New York theater debut in Fernando Arrabal's play And They Put Handcuffs on the Flowers, saying, \"I was a replacement and it was my first sort of job in New York.\" He made his Broadway debut in the short-lived Red, White and Maddox (1969), and went on to Off-Broadway roles in A Midsummer Night's Dream, Kaspar, The Harlot and the Hunted, The Seagull, Total Eclipse, Macbeth, In the Boom Boom Room, Cracks, Professional Resident Company, What Every Woman Knows, The Father, King Lear and Power Failure. He returned to Broadway for the musical Happy End. He performed in Andrzej Wajda's adaptation of Dostoyevsky's The Possessed at Yale Repertory Theater, and in Jay Broad's premiere of White Pelican at the P.A.F. Playhouse in Huntington Station, New York, on Long Island. \n\nIn 1977, he said of his training at the Neighborhood Playhouse under Meisner, \"My work up to then had been very uneven. I would be good one night, dull the next. Meisner made me aware of how to be consistent in using the best that I have to offer. But I guess nobody can teach you the knack, or whatever it is, that helps you come to life on stage.\" \n\nHis first movie role was as a psychiatric patient in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975). He is perhaps best known for his roles as \"Reverend\" Jim Ignatowski, the ex-hippie cabbie on the sitcom Taxi, for which he won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series; and the eccentric inventor Emmett \"Doc\" Brown in the Back to the Future trilogy of science fiction films, for which he was nominated for a Saturn Award. In 1986, he played the reviled Professor B.O. Beanes on the television series Amazing Stories. Other roles include Klingon Commander Kruge in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984) (on suggestion of fellow actor and friend Leonard Nimoy), Professor Plum in Clue (1985), Professor Dimple in an episode of Road to Avonlea (for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series); the villain Judge Doom in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988); a wacky sound-effects man named Zoltan in Radioland Murders (1994); and Uncle Fester in the movie adaptations of The Addams Family (1991).\n\nLloyd portrayed the star character in the point-and-click adventure game Toonstruck, released in November 1996. In 1999, he was reunited onscreen with Michael J. Fox in an episode of Spin City entitled \"Back to the Future IV — Judgment Day\", in which Lloyd plays Owen Kingston—the former mentor of Fox's character, Mike Flaherty's—who stops by City Hall to see him, only to proclaim himself God. That same year, Lloyd starred in the movie remake of the 1960s series My Favorite Martian. He starred on the television series Deadly Games in the mid-1990s, and was a regular on the sitcom Stacked in the mid-2000s. In 2003, he guest-starred in three of the 13 produced episodes of Tremors: The Series as the character Cletus Poffenburger. In November 2007, Lloyd was reunited onscreen with his former Taxi co-star Judd Hirsch in the season-four episode \"Graphic\" of the television series Numb3rs. He played Ebenezer Scrooge in a 2008 production of A Christmas Carol at the Kodak Theatre with John Goodman and Jane Leeves. In 2009, he appeared in a comedic trailer for a faux horror film entitled Gobstopper, in which he played Willy Wonka as a horror-movie-style villain. In October 2009, he did a two-man show with comic performer Joe Gallois in several Midwest cities.\n\nIn the summer of 2010, he starred as Willy Loman in a Weston Playhouse production of Death of a Salesman. That September, he reprised his role as Doctor Emmett Brown in Back to the Future: The Game, an episodic adventure game series developed by Telltale Games. On January 21, 2011, he appeared in the episode \"The Firefly\" of the J. J. Abrams television series Fringe. That August, he reprised the role of Dr. Emmett Brown (from Back to the Future) as part of an advertising campaign for Garbarino, an Argentine appliance company, and also as part of the Nike Company's \"Back For the Future\" campaign for the benefit of The Michael J. Fox Foundation. In 2012 and 2013, Lloyd reprised the role of Brown in two episodes of the stopmotion series Robot Chicken. He was a guest star on the 100th episode of the USA Network sitcom Psych as Martin Khan in 2013.\n\nIn May 2013, Lloyd appeared as the narrator and the character Azdak in the Bertold Brecht play The Caucasian Chalk Circle, produced by the Classic Stage Company in New York. \n\nPersonal life \n\nLloyd has been married four times, but has never had any children. He was first married to Catharine Dallas Dixon Boyd on June 6, 1959. Abstract; full article via subscription or fee. The couple divorced in 1971 after 12 years of marriage. He next was married to actress Kay Tornborg, from 1974 to 1987. Lloyd's third marriage, to Carol Ann Vanek, lasted from the late 1980s to 1991. His fourth marriage, to screenwriter Jane Walker Wood, lasted from 1992 to 2005.\n\nAfter his divorce from Wood, in Montecito, California, Lloyd bought a smaller house on March 23, 2007, and that May listed his 8.07-acre old estate for over $11 million; although the price was later dropped to $6.5 million. Wood and he had bought the house in 1997 for $1.6 million. This home, which was on the market at the time, was destroyed in the Tea Fire of November 2008 in Montecito, California.\n\nLloyd's philanthropist mother, Ruth Lapham Lloyd, died in 1984 at age 88. Her surviving children at the time aside from Christopher were Donald L. Mygatt, Antoinette L. Mygatt Lucas, Samuel Lloyd III, Ruth Lloyd Scott Ax and Adele L. Kinney. Lloyd's nephew, Sam Lloyd, is best known for playing Ted Buckland, the lawyer on Scrubs.\n\nFilmography \n\nFilm \n\nTelevision\n\nVideo games\n\nAwards" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Tim O'Hara", "My favourite martian", "My Favorite Martians", "Uncle Martin", "My Favourite Martian", "My Favorite Martian" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "tim o hara", "my favourite martian", "my favorite martians", "uncle martin", "my favorite martian" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "my favorite martian", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "My Favorite Martian" }
Who played the young Obi-Wan Kenobi in the Star Wars prequel?	tc_1118	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Obi-Wan_Kenobi.txt" ], "title": [ "Obi-Wan Kenobi" ], "wiki_context": [ "Obi-Wan \"Ben\" Kenobi is a fictional character in the Star Wars universe, played by Sir Alec Guinness and Ewan McGregor. In the original trilogy, he is a mentor to Luke Skywalker, to whom he introduces the ways of the Jedi. In the prequel trilogy, he is a master and friend to Anakin Skywalker. In the sequel trilogy, he appears to Rey as a voice in a dream-like-flashback in Maz Kanata's castle. He is frequently featured as a main character in various other Star Wars media.\n\nLucas borrowed liberally from the films of Akira Kurosawa. Kenob is the name, incidentally, of the son of Tokuemon's mistress in Yojimbo.\n\nAppearances\n\nOriginal trilogy \n\nObi-Wan Kenobi is introduced in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope living as the hermit \"Ben Kenobi\" on the planet Tatooine. When Luke Skywalker and the droid C-3PO wander off in search of the lost droid R2-D2, Ben rescues them from a band of native Tusken Raiders. At his home, R2-D2 plays Ben a recording of Princess Leia Organa which explains that R2-D2 contains the battle plans for the Death Star, the evil Galactic Empire's superweapon. Leia asks him to deliver the droid and the plans safely to the planet Alderaan in order to help the Rebel Alliance. Ben reveals to Luke that his real name is Obi-Wan and that he is a Jedi Master, member of an ancient group of warriors that were hunted down by his apprentice Darth Vader, the apparent killer of Luke's father. He gives Luke his father's lightsaber and asks Luke to accompany him to Alderaan and take up Jedi training. Luke declines, but promises to take Obi-Wan as far as Anchorhead Station. After Luke finds his uncle and aunt killed by Imperial troops, however, he agrees to go with Obi-Wan to Alderaan and train as a Jedi.\n\nIn the spaceport city Mos Eisley, Obi-Wan uses the Force to trick Imperial troops into letting them through a military checkpoint. They enter a local cantina and make a deal with two smugglers, Han Solo and Chewbacca, to fly them to Alderaan in their ship, the Millennium Falcon. During the journey, Obi-Wan begins instructing Luke in lightsaber training. He suddenly becomes weak and tells Luke of \"a great disturbance in the Force\". Emerging from hyperspace, the party finds that Alderaan has been destroyed, and the Falcon is attacked by an Imperial TIE Fighter. Obi-Wan advises Han to fly away, but Han ignores him and is caught in the Death Star's tractor beam. On board the Death Star, Obi-Wan shuts down the tractor beam, but Darth Vader confronts him and they engage in a lightsaber duel. Obi-Wan uses the duel to distract Vader as Luke, Leia, Han and Chewbacca escape to the Falcon. Although Vader strikes Obi-Wan down, his body mysteriously vanishes the moment he dies. At the climax of the film during the Rebel attack on the Death Star, Obi-Wan speaks to Luke through the Force to help him destroy the Imperial station.\n\nIn Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back, Obi-Wan Kenobi appears several times as a spirit, having survived death through the Force. On the planet Hoth, he appears to instruct Luke to go to the planet Dagobah to find the exiled Jedi Master Yoda. Despite Yoda's skepticism, Obi-Wan convinces his old master to continue Luke's training. He appears later to beseech Luke not to leave Dagobah to try to rescue his friends on Cloud City, although Luke ignores this advice. \n\nIn Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi, Obi-Wan Kenobi appears to Luke again after Yoda's death on Dagobah. Obi-Wan acknowledges that Darth Vader is indeed Luke's father - revealed by Vader in the previous film, and confirmed by Yoda on his deathbed - and also reveals that Leia is Luke's twin sister. After the second Death Star is destroyed and the Empire defeated, Obi-Wan appears at the celebration in the Ewok village, alongside the spirits of Yoda and the redeemed Anakin Skywalker. \n\nPrequel trilogy \n\nIn Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, Obi-Wan Kenobi appears as the Jedi Padawan (or student) of Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn. He accompanies his master in negotiations with the Trade Federation, which is blockading the planet Naboo with a fleet of spaceships. After they are attacked by battle droids and forced to retreat to Naboo, Obi-Wan and Qui-Gon rescue Queen Padmé Amidala through the help of native Gungan Jar Jar Binks and escape in a spaceship toward Coruscant, the Republic capital. Their ship is damaged in the escape, however, and they are forced to land on Tatooine, where they discover a young Anakin Skywalker. Qui-Gon senses Anakin's extraordinarily strong link to the Force and brings the boy to Coruscant to begin Jedi training, although Obi-Wan expresses concerns.\n\nWhen Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan return to Naboo to defeat the Trade Federation, they are met by Sith Lord Darth Maul. When Maul mortally wounds Qui-Gon in the ensuing duel, Obi-Wan rushes to fight the Sith lord, who nearly kills him. However, Obi-Wan manages to turn the tables and defeat Maul, slicing him in half and sending him plunging down a vast reactor shaft. He promises to fulfill Qui-Gon's dying wish of training Anakin in the ways of the Jedi. Yoda proclaims Obi-Wan a Jedi and reluctantly allows him to take Anakin on as his own Padawan. \n\nIn Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, set 10 years later, Obi-Wan Kenobi is now a respected Jedi Knight and the master of Anakin Skywalker. The two have formed a close friendship, although Anakin is arrogant and believes his master is \"holding him back\". After they save Senator Padmé Amidala from an assassination attempt, Obi-Wan goes on a solo mission and traces the bounty hunters involved to the planet Kamino. There, he learns of a massive clone army that the planet's inhabitants are building for the Republic. He is introduced to bounty hunter Jango Fett, the clones' template, and the two fight after Obi-Wan deduces that Fett must be behind the attempted assassination. Fett escapes to the planet Geonosis with his clone son while Obi-Wan is in pursuit.\n\nOn Geonosis, Obi-Wan discovers that a conspiracy of star systems bent on secession from the Republic is led by Sith Lord Count Dooku, Qui-Gon's old master. After sending a message to Anakin, Obi-Wan is captured, interrogated and sentenced to death by Dooku. A cadre of Jedi arrive with the Kaminoan clone army just in time to prevent the executions. Obi-Wan and Anakin confront Dooku during the ensuing battle, but are defeated in a lightsaber duel. Yoda intervenes and saves their lives, at the cost of Dooku's escape. \n\nIn Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, set three years later, Obi-Wan Kenobi is a Jedi Master, a member of the Jedi Council and a General in the Army of the Republic. Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker remains Obi-Wan's partner and the two have become war heroes and best friends. The film opens with the two on a rescue mission to save the kidnapped Supreme Chancellor Palpatine from Separatist commander General Grievous onboard his starship. Count Dooku discovers the attempt and fights the Jedi, knocking Obi-Wan unconscious; while Obi-Wan is out cold, Dooku is defeated by Anakin, who then executes the Sith Lord in cold blood on Palpatine's orders. The mission succeeds and soon after returning to Coruscant, Obi-Wan is called away to the planet Utapau to track down the escaped Grievous.\n\nAfter finding the Separatist encampment, Obi-Wan fights Grievous and eventually kills the cyborg with a blaster after failing to overcome him in hand-to-hand combat. When Palpatine — who is secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious — issues Order 66 to have the clone troopers turn on the Jedi, Obi-Wan survives the attempt on his life and escapes, rendezvousing with Yoda and Senator Bail Organa of Alderaan aboard Organa's ship Tantive IV. Returning to Coruscant, he and Yoda discover that every Jedi in the Jedi Temple has been murdered. After sending a beacon to all surviving Jedi to scatter across the galaxy and remain in hiding, a heartbroken Obi-Wan watches security footage revealing that it was Anakin — who is now Sidious' Sith apprentice Darth Vader — who led the slaughter. Yoda charges Obi-Wan with hunting down Vader while Yoda fights Sidious. Obi-Wan is loath to fight his best friend, but reluctantly accepts.\n\nObi-Wan visits Padmé to learn of Vader's whereabouts and after noticing Padme's pregnancy realizes that Vader is the baby's father. When Padmé sets out to the volcanic planet Mustafar to confront her husband herself, Obi-Wan secretly stows away in the ship. After they arrive on Mustafar, Obi-Wan reveals himself and confronts Vader. After a long and ferocious lightsaber duel, Obi-Wan defeats Vader by severing his legs and left arm; he then takes his former friend's lightsaber and returns to Padmé's ship, leaving Vader to die beside a molten lava river. Unknown to Obi-Wan, the horribly injured Vader is rescued by Sidious and reconstructed into a cyborg.\n\nObi-Wan takes a heartbroken Padmé to a remote asteroid belt, where she dies after giving birth to twins, Luke and Leia. Afterwards, Yoda instructs Obi-Wan to give Luke to his uncle and aunt on Tatooine, but also reveals that the spirit of his old master Qui-Gon has returned from the Force to continue Obi-Wan's training. Obi-Wan hands Luke off to his family and goes into exile on Tatooine.\n\nSequel trilogy \n\nIn Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens, set 30 years after Return of the Jedi, Obi-Wan's voice is heard by the young scavenger Rey upon touching the lightsaber that previously belonged to Luke. Obi-Wan calls out to Rey, before saying the words of encouragement he gave to Luke during his training on the Millennium Falcon. Han Solo and Leia Organa also honoured Obi-Wan by naming their son Ben, a name he abandoned when he became the dark warrior Kylo Ren.\n\nEwan McGregor recorded new dialogue for Obi-Wan, and archival audio of Sir Alec Guinness is also used. \n\nTelevision\n\nObi-Wan Kenobi is a main character in the animated micro-series Star Wars: Clone Wars and the CGI animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars, voiced by James Arnold Taylor. In both series, he is a general in the Clone Wars, and he and Anakin have many adventures fighting the Separatists. The latter series highlights his numerous confrontations with General Grievous, his adversarial relationship with Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress, his romance with Duchess Satine Kryze, and the return of his old enemy Darth Maul.\n\nThe character appears as a hologram in Star Wars Rebels.\n\nLegends\n\nWith the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014. \n\nObi-Wan Kenobi appears extensively in the Star Wars expanded universe of comic books and novels.\n\nNovels\n\nObi-Wan's life prior to The Phantom Menace is portrayed mostly in Jude Watson's Jedi Apprentice and Jedi Quest series. The Jedi Apprentice books follow his adventures as Qui-Gon's Padawan. Notable events in the series include battling the Dark Jedi Xanatos and going on his first independent mission. The Jedi Quest books detail his adventures with Anakin in the years leading up to Attack of the Clones.\n\nHis heroism just before and during the Clone Wars is portrayed in novels such as Outbound Flight, The Approaching Storm, and The Cestus Deception.\n\nObi-Wan's life between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope is portrayed mostly in Jude Watson's The Last of the Jedi series. Set roughly a year after the fall of the Republic, the series follows Obi-Wan as he seeks out possible survivors of the Great Jedi Purge, most notably Anakin's former rival Ferus Olin. The books also portray Obi-Wan adjusting to life as a hermit on Tatooine, and quietly watching over Luke. He also discovers that Vader is still alive after seeing him on the Holonet, the galaxy's official news source.\n\nObi-Wan appears in the final chapter of Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader, set just after the events in Revenge of the Sith. He is also the protagonist in John Jackson Miller's novel Star Wars: Kenobi, which takes place during his exile on Tatooine.\n\nObi-Wan appears in spirit form in many novels set after Return of the Jedi. In The Truce at Bakura, he appears to Luke to warn him about the threat presented by the Ssi-ruuk; in The Lost City of the Jedi, he guides Luke to the titular city on Yavin IV; in Heir to the Empire, meanwhile, he bids farewell to Luke, explaining that he must abandon his spiritual form to \"move on\" to a new, higher plane of consciousness. Before parting, Luke tells him that Obi-Wan was like a father to him, to which Obi-Wan replies that he loved Luke like a son.\n\nVideo games\n\nObi-Wan Kenobi appears in several video games. He is a playable character in all four Lego Star Wars video games, as well as Battlefront II and Renegade Squadron. He is also the lead character in Star Wars: Obi-Wan. The older version is only playable in Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy and Star Wars: The Complete Saga, and Star Wars Episode III: Revenge Of The Sith multiplayer mode and Death Star bonus mission Star Wars: Renegade Squadron, and Star Wars: The Force Unleashed in multiplayer mode and the droid PROXY disguises as him. He also appears in Star Wars: The Clone Wars – Jedi Alliance, Star Wars: Jedi Power Battles and Star Wars: The Clone Wars – Lightsaber Duels as a playable character.He is also playable in the strategy game Star Wars: Empire at War. He will be a playable character in Disney Infinity 3.0.\n\nComic books\n\nIn the comic book series Star Wars: Republic, Obi-Wan Kenobi faces many grave threats while fighting against the Separatists. Among other notable storylines, he is kidnapped and tortured by Asajj Ventress before being rescued by Anakin (\"Hate & Fear\"), and apprehends corrupted Jedi Master Quinlan Vos (\"The Dreadnaughts of Rendili\"). Throughout the series, he grows increasingly wary of Palpatine's designs on the Republic and his influence on Anakin.\n\nIn the non-canon story \"Old Wounds\", set a few years after the events of Revenge of the Sith, Obi-Wan confronts Darth Maul on Tatooine to protect Luke. The duel ends when Owen Lars shoots and kills Maul; he then warns Obi-Wan to stay away from his nephew. Through the Force, Obi-Wan reassures Luke that he will be there for him when needed.\n\nCultural impact\n\nThe character is loosely inspired by General Makabe Rokurōta, a character from Akira Kurasawa's film The Hidden Fortress, played by Toshiro Mifune (whom series creator George Lucas also considered casting as Obi-Wan). Mad magazine parodied the original film under the title Star Roars and included a character named 'Oldie Von Moldie', a grizzled 97-year-old whose lightsaber runs on an extension cord. The Shanghai nightclub shown in the beginning of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom is called \"Club Obi-Wan\" (Lucas wrote both the Star Wars and Indiana Jones series). A real bar/club by this name existed in the Xihai district of Beijing, China but closed in the summer of 2010. The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! episode \"Star Koopa\" (a spoof of Star Wars) also had its own parody of Obi-Wan called 'Obi-Wan Toadi', and the live-action segment \"Zenned Out Mario\" featured a parody called \"Obi-Wan Cannoli\". The 1998 Animaniacs episode \"Star Warners\" (which spoofed Star Wars) featured Slappy Squirrel portraying a parody of Obi-Wan as 'Slappy Wanna Nappy'. In the Family Guy episode \"Blue Harvest\", Obi-Wan Kenobi is parodied by the character Herbert. In the short film Thumb Wars, Obi-Wan is parodied as the character \"Oobedoob Benubi\". In the film, his full name is 'Oobedoob Scooby-Doobi Benubi, the silliest name in the galaxy.' In the 1977 Star Wars parody Hardware Wars, Obi-Wan is parodied by the character \"Augie Ben Doggie\".\n\nTV Tropes uses Obi-Wan's name for the archetype mentor figure.\n\nIn 2003, the American Film Institute selected Obi-Wan Kenobi as the 37th greatest movie hero of all time. He was also listed as IGN's third greatest Star Wars character, as well as one of UGO Networks's favorite heroes of all time. \n\nIn 2004, the Council of the Commune Lubicz in Poland passed a resolution giving the name \"Obi-Wan Kenobi\" to one of the streets in Grabowiec, a small village near Toruń. The street was named in 2005. The spelling of the street name, Obi-Wana Kenobiego is the genitive form of the noun in the Polish language: (the street) of Obi-Wan Kenobi. \n\nGuardian cartoonist Steve Bell portrays Jeremy Corbyn (leader of the British Labour Party) as Obi-Wan Kenobi." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Ewan McGregor", "Eve Mavrakis", "Ewan mcgregor", "Euan Mcgregor", "Ewen McGregor", "Evan Macgregor", "Filmography of Ewan McGregor", "Ewan Mcgregor", "Euan Macgregor", "Evan Mcgregor", "Euan Macgreggor", "Ewan MacGregor", "Evan Mcgreggor", "Ewen MacGregor", "Euan Mcgreggor", "Evan Macgreggor", "The Great Pretender film", "Ewan Macgregor", "Ewan Gordon McGregor", "Ewan Macgreggor", "Ewan mcgreggor", "Ewan magregor", "Ewan McGregor filmography", "Euan McGregor" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ewan mcgregor", "ewen macgregor", "eve mavrakis", "euan mcgregor", "euan mcgreggor", "ewan gordon mcgregor", "euan macgregor", "euan macgreggor", "ewan macgregor", "great pretender film", "ewan magregor", "ewan macgreggor", "ewan mcgregor filmography", "filmography of ewan mcgregor", "evan macgreggor", "ewan mcgreggor", "evan mcgregor", "evan macgregor", "ewen mcgregor", "evan mcgreggor" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "ewan mcgregor", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Ewan McGregor" }

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