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What was The Zaire River called before 27th October 1971.	tc_1297	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Congo_River.txt", "Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.txt" ], "title": [ "Congo River", "Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Congo River (also known as the Zaire River; ; ) is a river in Africa. It is the second largest river in the world by discharge (after the Amazon), and the world's deepest river with measured depths in excess of 220 m. \nThe Congo-Chambeshi river has an overall length of 4700 km, which makes it the ninth longest river (in terms of discharge, the Chambeshi is a tributary of the Lualaba River, Lualaba being the name of the Congo River upstream of the Boyoma Falls, extending for 1,800 km).\nMeasured along the Lualaba, the Congo River has a total length of 4370 km. It crosses the equator twice.Forbath, Peter. The River Congo (1979), p. 6. \"Not until it crosses the equator will it at last turn away from this misleading course and, describing a remarkable counter-clockwise arc first to the west and then to the southwest, flow back across the equator and on down to the Atlantic.In this the Congo is exceptional. No other major river in the world crosses the equator even once, let alone twice.\"\nThe Congo Basin has a total area of about 4 million km2, or 13% of the entire African landmass.\n\nName\n\nThe name River Congo originated from the Kingdom of Kongo which was located on the southern bank of the river. The kingdom in turn is named South of the Kongo kingdom proper lay the similarly named Kakongo kingdom, mentioned in 1535.\nAbraham Ortelius in his world map of 1564 labels as Manicongo the city at the mouth of the river. \nThe tribal names in kongo possibly derive from a word for a public gathering or tribal assembly. Little is known about the peoples of the inner Congo, but \"It is probable that the word 'Kongo' itself implies a public gathering and that it is based on the root konga, 'to gather' (trans[itive]).\" \"The usual interpretations, admittedly unsatisfactory (Laman, 1953, p. 10), make the mistake of being too concrete; for example, they may claim that \"Kongo\" comes from n'kongo ('hunter')\". The modern name of the Kongo people or Bakongo was introduced in the early 20th century.\n\nThe name Zaire is from a Portuguese adaptation of a Kikongo word nzere (\"river\"), a truncation of nzadi o nzere (\"river swallowing rivers\"). \nThe river was known as Zaire during the 16th and 17th centuries;\nCongo seems to have replaced Zaire gradually in English usage during the 18th century, and Congo\nis the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to Zahir or Zaire as the name used by the natives (i.e. derived from Portuguese usage) remained common. \n\nThe Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo are named after it, as was the previous Republic of the Congo which had gained independence in 1960 from the Belgian Congo.\n\nThe state of Zaire during 1971–1997 was also named after the river, after its name in French and Portuguese.\n\nBasin and course\n\nThe Congo's drainage basin covers 4014500 km2. The Congo's discharge at its mouth ranges from 23000 to, with an average of 41000 m3/s.\n\nThe river and its tributaries flow through the Congo rainforest, the second largest rain forest area in the world, second only to the Amazon Rainforest in South America. The river also has the second-largest flow in the world, behind the Amazon; the third-largest drainage basin of any river, behind the Amazon and Plate rivers; and is one of the deepest rivers in the world, at depths greater than 220 m. Because its drainage basin includes areas both north and south of the equator, its flow is stable, as there is always at least one part of the river experiencing a rainy season. \n\nThe sources of the Congo are in the highlands and mountains of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru, which feed the Lualaba River, which then becomes the Congo below Boyoma Falls. The Chambeshi River in Zambia is generally taken as the source of the Congo in line with the accepted practice worldwide of using the longest tributary, as with the Nile River.\n\nThe Congo flows generally toward the northwest from Kisangani just below the Boyoma falls, then gradually bends southwestwards, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River, and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Kinshasa (formerly Léopoldville) and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool, where the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), running by Matadi and Boma, and into the sea at the small town of Muanda.\n\nThe Congo River Basin is one of the distinct physiographic sections of the larger Mid-African province, which in turn is part of the larger African massive physiographic division.\n\nTributaries\n\nSorted in order from the mouth heading upstream.\n;Lower Congo\nDownstream of Kinshasa, there are no important tributaries.\n* Inkisi\n;Middle Congo\n* Kwa-Kassai (left) - 2150 km - 881,900 km2, 9,900 m3/s\n Fimi\n* Lukenie\n Kwango\n Sankuru\n* Lefini (right)\n* Sangha (right) - 1,400 km, 213,400 km2, 750 m3/s\n** Kadéï\n* Ubangi/ (right) - 2,270 km, 772,800 km2, 4,000 m3/s\n Mbomou\n Uele\n* Tshuapa River (left) - 1,000 km\n* Lomami River (left) - 1,400 km\n\n;Upper Congo\nUpstream of Boyoma Falls near Kisangani, the river Congo is known as the Lualaba River.\n* Luvua\n** Luapula\n* Chambeshi\n\nEconomic importance\n\nAlthough the Livingstone Falls prevent access from the sea, nearly the entire Congo above them is readily navigable in sections, especially between Kinshasa and Kisangani. Large river steamers worked the river until quite recently. The Congo River still is a lifeline in a land with few roads or railways. \n\nRailways now bypass the three major falls, and much of the trade of Central Africa passes along the river, including copper, palm oil (as kernels), sugar, coffee, and cotton. The river is also potentially valuable for hydroelectric power, and the Inga Dams below Pool Malebo are first to exploit the Congo river.\n\nHydro-electric power\n\nThe Congo River is the most powerful river in Africa. During the rainy season over 50000 m3 of water per second flow into the Atlantic Ocean. Opportunities for the Congo River and its tributaries to generate hydropower are therefore enormous. Scientists have calculated that the entire Congo Basin accounts for 13 percent of global hydropower potential. This would provide sufficient power for all of sub-Saharan Africa's electricity needs. \n\nCurrently there are about forty hydropower plants in the Congo Basin. The largest is the Inga Falls dam, about 200 km southwest of Kinshasa. The project was launched in the early 1970s, when the first dam was completed. The plan as originally conceived called for the construction of five dams that would have had a total generating capacity of 34,500 megawatts. To date only two dams have been built, which are the Inga I and Inga II, with a total of fourteen turbines.\n\nIn February 2005, South Africa's state-owned power company, Eskom, announced a proposal to increase the capacity of the Inga dramatically through improvements and the construction of a new hydroelectric dam. The project would bring the maximum output of the facility to 40 GW, twice that of China's Three Gorges Dam. \n\nIt is feared that these new hydroelectric dams could lead to the extinction of many of the fish species that are endemic to the river.\n\nNatural history\n\nThe current course of the Congo River formed 1.5-2 million years BP, during the Pleistocene. \n\nThe Congo's formation may have led to the allopatric speciation of the bonobo and the common chimpanzee from their most recent common ancestor. The bonobo is endemic to the humid forests in the region, as are other iconic species like the Allen's swamp monkey, dryas monkey, aquatic genet, okapi and Congo peafowl. \n\nIn terms of aquatic life, the Congo River Basin has a very high species richness, and among the highest known concentrations of endemics. Until now, almost 700 fish species have been recorded from the Congo River Basin, and large sections remain virtually unstudied.Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). [http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco\n535 Sudanic Congo – Oubangi.] Accessed 2 May 2011. Due to this and the great ecological differences between the regions in the basin, it is often divided into multiple ecoregions (instead of treating it as a single ecoregion). Among these ecoregions, the Lower Congo Rapids alone has more than 300 fish species, including approximately 80 endemics while the southwestern part (Kasai Basin) alone has more than 200 fish species, of which about a quarter are endemic.Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). [http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco546 Kasai.] Accessed 2 May 2011. The dominant fish families – at least in parts of the river – are Cyprinidae (carp/cyprinids, such as Labeo simpsoni), Mormyridae (elephantfishes), Alestidae (African tetras), Mochokidae (squeaker catfishes), and Cichlidae (cichlids).Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). [http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco545 Upper Lualaba.] Accessed 2 May 2011. Among the natives in the river is the huge, highly carnivorous giant tigerfish. Two of the more unusual endemic cichlids are the whitish (non-pigmented) and blind Lamprologus lethops, which is believed to live as deep as 160 m below the surface, and Heterochromis multidens, which appears to be more closely related to cichlids of the Americas than other Africa cichlid. There are also numerous endemic frogs and snails.Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). [http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco549 Lower Congo Rapids.] Accessed 2 May 2011. Several hydroelectric dams are planned on the river, and these may lead to the extinction of many of the endemics.\n\nSeveral species of turtles, and the slender-snouted, Nile and dwarf crocodile are native to the Congo River Basin. African manatees inhabit the lower parts of the river. \n\nExploration\n\nThe entire Congo basin is populated by Bantu peoples, divided into several hundred ethnic or tribal groups (see ethnic groups of the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Bantu expansion is estimated to have reached the Middle Congo by about 500 BC, and the Upper Congo by the beginning of the Common Era. Remnants of the aboriginal population displaced by the Bantu migration, Pygmies/Abatwa of the Ubangian phylum, remain in the remote forest areas of the Congo basin.\n\nThe Kingdom of Kongo was formed around 1400 on the left banks of the lower Congo River. Its territorial control along the river remained limited to what corresponds to the modern Bas-Congo province. European exploration of the Congo begins in 1482, when Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão discovered the river estuary (likely in August 1482), which he marked by a Padrão, or stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on Shark Point. Cão also sailed up the river for a short distance, establishing contact with the Kingdom of Congo. The full course of the river remained unknown throughout the early modern period. \n\nThe upper Congo basin runs west of the Albertine Rift. Its connection to the Congo was unknown until 1877.\nThe extreme northeast of the Congo basin was reached by the Nilotic expansion at some point between the 15th and 18th centuries, by the ancestors of the Southern Luo speaking Alur people.\nFrancisco de Lacerda following the Zambezi reached the uppermost part of the Congo basin (the Kazembe in the upper Luapula basin) in 1796.\n\nThe upper Congo River, known as the Lualaba was first reached by the Arab slave trade by the 19th century. Nyangwe was founded as a slavers' outpost around 1860.\nDavid Livingstone was the first European to reach Nyangwe in 1871. Livingstone proposed to prove that the Lualaba connected to the Nile, but on 15 July, he witnessed a massacre of about 400 Africans by Arab slavers in Nyangwe, which experience left him too horrified and shattered to continue his mission to find the sources of the Nile, so he turned back to Lake Tanganyika.Livingstone, David (2012). Livingstone's 1871 Field Diary. A Multispectral Critical Edition. UCLA Digital Library: Los Angeles, CA. Available \n\nThe middle reaches of the Congo remained unexplored from either the east or west, until Henry Morton Stanley's expedition of 1876-77.\nAt the time one of the last open questions of the exploration of Africa (or indeed of the world)\nwhether the Lualaba River fed the Nile (Livingstone's theory), the Congo or even the Niger.\nFinanced in 1874, Stanley's first trans-Africa exploration\nstarted in Zanzibar, and reached the Lualaba on October 17, 1876.\nOverland he reached Nyangwe, the centre of a lawless area containing cannibal tribes at which Tippu Tip based his trade in slaves. Stanley managed to hire a force from Tippu Tip, to guard him for the next 150 km or so, for 90 days. The party left Nyangwe overland through the dense Matimba forest. On November 19 they reached the Lualaba again. Since the going through the forest was so heavy, Tippu Tip turned around with his party on December 28, leaving Stanley on his own, with 143 people, including 8 children and 16 women. They had 23 canoes. His first encounter with a local tribe was with the cannibal Wenya. In total Stanley would report 32 unfriendly meetings on the river, some violent, even though he attempted to negotiate a peaceful thoroughfare. But the tribes were wary as their only experience of outsiders was of slave traders, and they could not understand his motive of exploration.\n\nOn January 6, 1877, after , they reached Boyoma Falls (called Stanley Falls for some time after), consisting of seven cataracts spanning which they had to bypass overland. It took them to February 7 to reach the end of the falls. Here Stanley learned that the river was called Ikuta Yacongo, proving to him that he had reached the Congo, and that the Lualaba did not feed the Nile.\n\nFrom this point, the tribes were no longer cannibals, but possessed firearms, apparently as a result of Portuguese influence. Some four weeks and later he reached Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo), the site of the present day cities Kinshasa and Brazzaville. Further downstream were the Livingstone Falls, misnamed as Livingstone had never been on the Congo: a series of 32 falls and rapids with a fall of over .\nOn 15 March they started the descent of the falls, which took five months and cost numerous lives. From the Isangile Falls, five falls from the foot, they beached the canoes and Lady Alice and left the river, aiming for the Portuguese outpost of Boma via land. On August 3 they reached the hamlet Nsada. From there Stanley sent four men with letters forward to Boma, asking for food for his starving people. On August 7 relief came, being sent by representatives from the Liverpool trading firm Hatton & Cookson. On August 9 they reached Boma, 1,001 days since leaving Zanzibar on November 12, 1874. The party then consisted of 108 people, including three children born during the trip. Most probably (Stanley's own publications give inconsistent figures), he lost 132 people through disease, hunger, drowning, killing and desertion. \n\nKinshasa was founded as a trading post by Stanley in 1881 and named Léopoldville in honour of Leopold II of Belgium. The Congo basin was claimed by Belgium as Congo Free State in 1885.\n\nCultural references\n\n* The river is mentioned in \"Silence – A Fable\", a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, written in 1837 (see: bibliography); the passage is: \"The region of which I speak is a dreary region in Libya, by the borders of the river Zaire.\"\n* Henry Morton Stanley documented his journey down the Congo River in Through the Dark Continent, first published in 1878. \n* Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness (1899) tells Charles Marlow's life as an ivory transporter down the Congo River in Central Africa. The river is \"a mighty big river, that you could see on the map, resembling an immense snake uncoiled, with its head in the sea, its body at rest curving afar over a vast country, and its tail lost in the depths of the land\".\n* American poet Vachel Lindsay portrayed a dark and savage society around the Congo River in his 1914 poem The Congo: A Study of the Negro Race.\n* The Congo is mentioned in Langston Hughes's poem \"The Negro Speaks of Rivers\" (1921).\n* Both Congo River and basin form the setting of Hoity Toity (1930), a science fiction novel by Soviet writer Alexander Belyayev.\n* The Congo River is featured in a chapter of Michael Crichton's novel Congo (published in 1980), as well as in the 1995 film based on the book.\n* The Congo River is featured in the action film Congo (1995), by director Frank Marshall, although it is not mentioned by name in the film. The film is based on the 1980 novel of the same name by Michael Crichton.\n* British author Redmond O'Hanlon has a travelogue published by Penguin Books under the title of Congo Journey (1996).\n* The river's history is discussed in the 1998 book King Leopold's Ghost (by Adam Hochschild).\n* The river's history is discussed in the book Brazza, A Life for Africa (by Maria Petringa, Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2006).\n* The Congo River and the Democratic Republic of Congo are the scenario for the book Blood River (2007) by journalist Tim Butcher, based on his travels on the river.\n* The Congo River is a central element in the novel by Mario Vargas Llosa El sueño del celta (The Dream of the Celt, 2010), a fictionalisation of episodes in the life of the Irishman Roger Casement. The book is to be published in English in 2012.\n* Phil Harwood's book \"Canoeing the Congo\" and amateur film \"Mazungu Canoeing the Congo\" document his five-month solo journey by Canadian canoe.", "The Democratic Republic of the Congo (;; ), also known as DR Congo, DRC, DROC, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo is a country located in Central Africa. From 1971 to 1997 it was named Zaire, and from 1908 to 1960 it was called the Belgian Congo. The DRC borders the Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, and South Sudan to the north; Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania to the east; Zambia and Angola to the south; and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. It is the second largest country in Africa by area, the largest in Subsaharan Africa, and the eleventh largest in the world. With a population of over 79 million, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most populated officially Francophone country, the fourth most populated nation in Africa and the nineteenth most populated country in the world.\n\nThe Congolese Civil Wars, which began in 1996, brought about the end of Mobutu Sese Seko's 32-year reign and devastated the country. The wars ultimately involved nine African nations, multiple groups of UN peacekeepers and twenty armed groups, and resulted in the deaths of 5.4 million people. \n\nThe Democratic Republic of Congo is extremely rich in natural resources, but political instability, a lack of infrastructure, deep rooted corruption, and centuries of both commercial and colonial extraction and exploitation have limited holistic development. Besides the capital, Kinshasa, the other major cities, Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi, are both mining communities. DR Congo's largest export is raw minerals, with China accepting over 50% of DRC's exports in 2012. , according to the Human Development Index (HDI), DR Congo has a low level of human development, ranking 176 out of 187 countries. \n\nEtymology\n\nThe Democratic Republic of the Congo was formerly known as, in chronological order, Congo Free State, Belgian Congo, Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville), Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of Zaire and Democratic Republic of the Congo (again).\n\nThe country was known officially as the \"Democratic Republic of the Congo\" from 1965 to 27 October 1971, when it was changed to the \"Republic of Zaire.\" In 1992, the Sovereign National Conference voted to change the name of the country to the \"Democratic Republic of the Congo,\" but the change was not put into practice. The country's name was restored by former president Laurent Kabila following the fall of long time dictator Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nThe area now known as the DR Congo was populated as early as 80,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of the Semliki harpoon at Katanda, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, believed to have been used to catch giant river catfish. \n\nSome historians think that Bantu peoples began settling in the extreme northwest of Central Africa at the beginning of the 5th century and then gradually started to expand southward.\nTheir propagation was accelerated by the transition from Stone Age to Iron Age techniques. The people living in the south and southwest were mostly San Bushmen and hunter-gatherer groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of metal tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture and animal husbandry. This led to the displacement of the hunter-gatherer groups in the east and southeast.\n\nThe 10th century marked the final expansion of the Bantu in West-Central Africa. Rising populations soon made possible intricate local, regional and foreign commercial networks that traded mostly in salt, iron and copper.\n\nCongo Free State (1877–1908)\n\nBelgian exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s. It was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. The eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding, mainly from Arab–Swahili slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip, who was well known to Stanley. Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. In a succession of negotiations, Leopold, professing humanitarian objectives in his capacity as chairman of the front organization Association Internationale Africaine, actually played one European rival against another. \n\nLeopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and made the land his private property. He named it the Congo Free State. Leopold's rėgime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway that ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa), which took eight years to complete. Nearly all such infrastructure projects were aimed at making it easier to increase the assets which Leopold and his associates could extract from the colony.Hochschild, Adam. King Leopold's Ghost, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1999; ISBN 0-547-52573-7\n\nIn the Free State, colonists brutalized the local population into producing rubber, for which the spread of automobiles and development of rubber tires created a growing international market. Rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honor himself and his country. To enforce the rubber quotas, the army, the Force Publique, was called in and made the practice of cutting off the limbs of the natives a matter of policy. \n\nDuring the period of 1885–1908, millions of Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation and disease. In some areas the population declined dramatically – it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River. A government commission later concluded that the population of the Congo had been \"reduced by half\" during this period, but determining precisely how many people died is impossible, as no accurate records exist.\n\nBelgian Congo (1908–60)\n\nIn 1908, the Belgian parliament, despite initial reluctance, bowed to international pressure, especially from the United Kingdom, and took over the Free State from King Leopold II. On 18 October 1908, the Belgian parliament voted in favour of annexing the Congo as a Belgian colony. Executive power rested with the Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, assisted by a Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial) (both located in Brussels) and the Belgian parliament exercised legislative authority over the Belgian Congo. In 1926, the colonial capital moved from Boma to Léopoldville, some 300 km further upstream into the interior.\n\nThe transition from the Congo Free State to the Belgian Congo was a break but it was also marked by a large degree of continuity. The last Governor-general of the Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, remained in office in the Belgian Congo and the majority of Leopold II’s administration with him. Opening up the Congo and its natural and mineral riches for the Belgian economy remained the main motive for colonial expansion – however, other priorities, such as healthcare and basic education, slowly gained in importance.\n\nColonial administrators ruled the territory and a dual legal system existed (a system of European courts and one of indigenous courts, tribunaux indigènes). Indigenous courts had only limited powers and remained under the firm control of the colonial administration. In 1936 it was recorded that there were 728 Belgian administrators controlling the Colony. No political activity was permitted in the Congo whatsoever and the Force Publique, a locally-recruited army under Belgian command, put down any attempts at rebellion.\n\nThe Belgian population of the colony increased from 1,928 in 1910 to nearly 89,000 in 1959.\n\nThe Belgian Congo was directly involved in the two world wars. During World War I, an initial stand-off between the Force Publique and the German colonial army in German East Africa (Tanganyika) turned into open warfare with a joint Anglo-Belgian invasion of German colonial territory in 1916 and 1917 during the East African Campaign. The Force Publique gained a notable victory when it marched into Tabora in September 1916, under the command of General Charles Tombeur after heavy fighting.\n\nAfter the war, Belgium was rewarded for the participation of the Force Publique in the East African campaign with a League of Nations mandate over the previously German colony of Ruanda-Urundi. During World War II, the Belgian Congo was a crucial source of income for the Belgian government in exile in London, and the Force Publique again participated in Allied campaigns in Africa. Belgian Congolese forces under the command of Belgian officers notably fought against the Italian colonial army in Ethiopia in Asosa, Bortaï and Saïo under Major-General Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert during the second East African Campaign.\n\nIndependence and political crisis (1960–65)\n\nIn May 1960, a growing nationalist movement, the Mouvement National Congolais or MNC Party, led by Patrice Lumumba, won the parliamentary elections. Patrice Lumumba thus became the first Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The parliament elected as President Joseph Kasavubu, of the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO) party. Other parties that emerged included the Parti Solidaire Africain (or PSA) led by Antoine Gizenga, and the Parti National du Peuple (or PNP) led by Albert Delvaux and Laurent Mbariko. (Congo 1960, dossiers du CRISP, Belgium).\n\nThe Belgian Congo achieved independence on 30 June 1960 under the name \"République du Congo\" (\"Republic of Congo\" or \"Republic of the Congo\" in English). Shortly after independence, the provinces of Katanga (led by Moise Tshombe) and South Kasai engaged in secessionist struggles against the new leadership. Most of the 100,000 Europeans who had remained behind after independence fled the country, opening the way for Congolese to replace the European military and administrative elite. \n\nAs the neighboring French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name \"Republic of Congo\" upon achieving its independence, the two countries were more commonly known as \"Congo-Léopoldville\" and \"Congo-Brazzaville\", after their capital cities.\n\nOn 5 September 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba from office. Lumumba declared Kasavubu's action unconstitutional and a crisis between the two leaders developed. (cf. Sécession au Katanga – J.Gerald-Libois -Brussels- CRISP)\n\nOn 14 September, Lumumba was arrested by forces loyal to Joseph Mobutu. On 17 January 1961, he was handed over to Katangan authorities and executed by Belgian-led Katangese troops. Amidst widespread confusion and chaos, a temporary government was led by technicians (Collège des Commissaires) with Evariste Kimba. The Katanga secession was ended in January 1963 with the assistance of UN forces. Several short-lived governments, of Joseph Ileo, Cyrille Adoula and Moise Tshombe, took over in quick succession.\n\nLumumba had previously appointed Joseph Mobutu chief of staff of the new Congo army, Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC). Taking advantage of the leadership crisis between Kasavubu and Lumumba, Mobutu garnered enough support within the army to create mutiny. With financial support from the United States and Belgium, Mobutu paid his soldiers privately. The aversion of Western powers to communism and leftist ideology influenced their decision to finance Mobutu's quest to neutralize Kasavubu and Lumumba in a coup by proxy. A constitutional referendum after Mobutu's coup of 1965 resulted in the country's official name being changed to the \"Democratic Republic of the Congo.\" In 1971 Mobutu changed the name again, this time to \"Republic of Zaire\".\n\nZaire (1971–97)\n\nThe new president had the support of the United States because of his staunch opposition to Communism, believing that his administration would serve as an effective counter to communist movements in Africa. A one-party system was established, and Mobutu declared himself head of state. He periodically held elections in which he was the only candidate. Although relative peace and stability were achieved, Mobutu's government was guilty of severe human rights violations, political repression, a cult of personality and corruption.\n\nCorruption became so prevalent the term \"le mal Zairois\" or \"Zairean Sickness\", meaning gross corruption, theft and mismanagement, was coined, reportedly by Mobutu himself. International aid, most often in the form of loans, enriched Mobutu while he allowed national infrastructure such as roads to deteriorate to as little as one-quarter of what had existed in 1960. Zaire became a \"kleptocracy\" as Mobutu and his associates embezzled government funds.\n\nIn a campaign to identify himself with African nationalism, starting on 1 June 1966, Mobutu renamed the nation's cities: Léopoldville became Kinshasa [the country was now Democratic Republic of The Congo – Kinshasa], Stanleyville became Kisangani, Elisabethville became Lubumbashi, and Coquilhatville became Mbandaka. This renaming campaign was completed in the 1970s.\n\nIn 1971, Mobutu renamed the country the Republic of Zaire, its fourth name change in 11 years and its sixth overall. The Congo River was renamed the Zaire River.\n\nDuring the 1970s and 1980s, he was invited to visit the United States on several occasions, meeting with U.S. Presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush.Johns, Michael (29 June 1989) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060715000000/http://www.heritage.org/research/africa/upload/91612_1.pdf \"Zaire's Mobutu Visits America\"], Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union U.S. relations with Mobutu cooled, as he was no longer deemed necessary as a Cold War ally. Opponents within Zaire stepped up demands for reform. This atmosphere contributed to Mobutu's declaring the Third Republic in 1990, whose constitution was supposed to pave the way for democratic reform. The reforms turned out to be largely cosmetic. Mobutu continued in power until armed forces forced him to flee Zaire, in 1997.\n\nCivil wars (1996–present)\n\nBy 1996, following the Rwandan Civil War and genocide and the ascension of a Tutsi-led government in Rwanda, Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe) fled to eastern Zaire and used refugee camps as a base for incursions against Rwanda. They allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire.Thom, William G. [http://wayback.archive.org/web/20060821184303/http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get5.cgi?directoryfall99/&filename\nTHOM.htm \"Congo-Zaire's 1996–97 civil war in the context of evolving patterns of military conflict in Africa in the era of independence\"], Conflict Studies Journal at the University of New Brunswick, Vol. XIX No. 2, Fall 1999.\n\nA coalition of Rwandan and Ugandan armies invaded Zaire to overthrow the government of Mobutu, and ultimately to control the mineral resources of Zaire, launching the First Congo War. The coalition allied with some opposition figures, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, becoming the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL). In 1997 Mobutu fled and Kabila marched into Kinshasa, naming himself president and reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\n\nKabila later requested that foreign military forces return to their own countries—he had concerns that the Rwandan officers running his army were plotting a coup to give the presidency to a Tutsi who would report directly to the Rwandan president, Paul Kagame. Rwandan troops retreated to Goma and launched a new Tutsi-led rebel military movement called the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Democratie (RCD) to fight against Kabila, while Uganda instigated the creation of new rebel movement called the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the Congolese warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba. The two rebel movements, along with Rwandan and Ugandan troops, started the Second Congo War by attacking the DRC army in 1998. Angolan, Zimbabwean and Namibian militaries entered the hostilities on the side of the government.\n\nKabila was assassinated in 2001. His son Joseph Kabila succeeded him and called for multilateral peace-talks. UN peacekeepers, MONUC, now known as MONUSCO, arrived in April 2001. In 2002 and 2003 Bemba intervened in the Central African Republic on behalf of its former president, Ange-Félix Patassé. Talks led to the signing of a peace accord in which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003 all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. A transitional government was set up until the election was over. A constitution was approved by voters, and on 30 July 2006 DRC held its first multi-party elections. An election-result dispute between Kabila and Jean-Pierre Bemba turned into an all-out battle between their supporters in the streets of Kinshasa. MONUC took control of the city. A new election took place in October 2006, which Kabila won, and on December 2006 he was sworn in as President.\n\nHowever, Laurent Nkunda, a member of an RCD branch integrated to the army, RCD-Goma, defected along with troops loyal to him and formed the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP), which began an armed rebellion against the government, starting the Kivu conflict. They were believed to be again backed by Rwanda as a way to tackle the Hutu group, Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR). In March 2009, after a deal between the DRC and Rwanda, Rwandan troops entered the DRC and arrested Nkunda and were allowed to pursue FDLR militants. The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government in which it agreed to become a political party and to have its soldiers integrated into the national army in exchange for the release of its imprisoned members. In 2012 the leader of the CNDP, Bosco Ntaganda, and troops loyal to him, mutinied and formed the rebel military March 23 Movement, claiming a violation of the treaty by the government. \n\nIn the resulting M23 rebellion, M23 briefly captured the provincial capital of Goma in November 2012. Neighboring countries, particularly Rwanda, have been accused of using rebels groups as proxies to gain control of the resource-rich country and of arming rebels, a claim they deny. In March 2013, the United Nations Security Council authorized the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade, the first offensive United Nations peacekeeping unit, to neutralize armed groups. On 5 November 2013, M23 declared an end to its insurgency. \n\nAdditionally, in northern Katanga, the Mai-Mai created by Laurent Kabila slipped out of the control of Kinshasa with Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga's Mai Mai Kata Katanga briefly invading the provincial capital of Lubumbashi in 2013 and 400,000 persons displaced in the province . On and off fighting in the Ituri conflict occurred between the Nationalist and Integrationist Front (FNI) and the Union of Congolese Patriots (UPC) who claimed to represent the Lendu and Hema ethnic groups, respectively. In the northeast, Joseph Kony's LRA moved from their original bases in Uganda and South Sudan to DR Congo in 2005 and set up camps in the Garamba National Park. \n\nIn 2009 people in the Congo continued to die at a rate of an estimated 45,000 per month – estimates of the number who have died from the long conflict range from 900,000 to 5,400,000. The death toll is due to widespread disease and famine; reports indicate that almost half of the individuals who have died are children under five years of age. There have been frequent reports of weapon bearers killing civilians, of the destruction of property, of widespread sexual violence,[http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseactionpage.viewpage&pageid\n2104 \"IHL and Sexual Violence\"]. The Program for Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research. causing hundreds of thousands of people to flee their homes, and of other breaches of humanitarian and human rights law. One study found that more than 400,000 women are raped in the Democratic Republic of Congo every year. \n\nIn 2015 major protests broke out across the country and protesters demanded that Joseph Kabila step down as President. The protests began after the passage of a law by the Congolese lower house that, if also passed by the Congolese upper house, would keep Kabila in power at least until a national census was conducted (a process which would likely take several years and therefore keep him in power past the planned 2016 elections, which he is constitutionally barred from participating in).\n\nThis bill passed; however, it was gutted of the provision that would keep Joseph Kabila in power until a census took place. A census is supposed to take place, but it is no longer tied to when the elections take place. elections are scheduled for late 2016 and a tenuous peace holds over the Congo.\n\nGeography\n\nThe Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is located in central sub-Saharan Africa, bounded by (clockwise from the southwest) Angola, the South Atlantic Ocean, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania across Lake Tanganyika, and Zambia. The country lies between latitudes 6°N and 14°S, and longitudes 12° and 32°E. It straddles the Equator, with one-third to the North and two-thirds to the South. The size of Congo, 2345408 km2, is slightly greater than the combined areas of Spain, France, Germany, Sweden, and Norway.\n\nAs a result of its equatorial location, the DRC experiences high precipitation and has the highest frequency of thunderstorms in the world. The annual rainfall can total upwards of 2000 mm in some places, and the area sustains the Congo Rainforest, the second-largest rain forest in the world after the Amazon. This massive expanse of lush jungle covers most of the vast, low-lying central basin of the river, which slopes toward the Atlantic Ocean in the west. This area is surrounded by plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, by mountainous terraces in the west, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High, glaciated mountains (Rwenzori Mountains) are found in the extreme eastern region. \n\nThe tropical climate also produced the Congo River system which dominates the region topographically along with the rainforest it flows through, though they are not mutually exclusive. The name for the Congo state is derived in part from the river. The river basin (meaning the Congo River and all of its myriad tributaries) occupies nearly the entire country and an area of nearly 1000000 km2. The river and its tributaries form the backbone of Congolese economics and transportation. Major tributaries include the Kasai, Sangha, Ubangi, Ruzizi, Aruwimi, and Lulonga.\n\nThe sources of the Congo are in the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the western branch of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru. The river flows generally west from Kisangani just below Boyoma Falls, then gradually bends southwest, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River, and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Kinshasa and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool (see NASA image). Then the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons, collectively known as the Livingstone Falls, and runs past Boma into the Atlantic Ocean. The river also has the second-largest flow and the second-largest watershed of any river in the world (trailing the Amazon in both respects). The river and a 37 km wide strip of coastline on its north bank provide the country's only outlet to the Atlantic. \n\nThe Albertine Rift plays a key role in shaping the Congo's geography. Not only is the northeastern section of the country much more mountainous, but due to the rift's tectonic activity, this area also experiences volcanic activity, occasionally with loss of life. The geologic activity in this area also created the famous African Great Lakes, three of which lie on the Congo's eastern frontier: Lake Albert (known during the Mobutu era as Lake Mobutu Sese Seko), Lake Kivu (Unknown until late 1712), Lake Edward (known during the Amin era as Lake Idi Amin Dada), and Lake Tanganyika. Lake Edward and Lake Albert are connected by the Semliki River.\n\nThe Rift valley has exposed an enormous amount of mineral wealth throughout the south and east of the Congo, making it accessible to mining. Cobalt, copper, cadmium, industrial and gem-quality diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, and coal are all found in plentiful supply, especially in the Congo's southeastern Katanga region.\n\nOn 17 January 2002 Mount Nyiragongo erupted in Congo, with the lava running out at 64 km/h (40 mph) and 46 m (50 yards) wide. One of the three streams of extremely fluid lava flowed through the nearby city of Goma, killing 45 and leaving 120,000 homeless. Four hundred thousand people were evacuated from the city during the eruption. The lava poisoned the water of Lake Kivu, killing fish. Only two planes left the local airport because of the possibility of the explosion of stored petrol. The lava passed the airport but ruined the runway, trapping several airplanes. Six months after the 2002 eruption, nearby Mount Nyamulagira also erupted. Mount Nyamulagira also erupted in 2006 and again in January 2010. \n\nWorld Wide Fund for Nature ecoregions located in the Congo include:\n* Central Congolian lowland forests – home to the rare bonobo primate\n* The Eastern Congolian swamp forests along the Congo River\n* The Northeastern Congolian lowland forests, with one of the richest concentrations of primates in the world\n* Southern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic\n* A large section of the Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands\n* The Albertine Rift montane forests region of high forest runs along the eastern borders of the country.\n\nWorld Heritage Sites located in Democratic Republic of Congo are:\nVirunga National Park (1979),\nGaramba National Park (1980),\nKahuzi-Biega National Park (1980),\nSalonga National Park (1984) and\nOkapi Wildlife Reserve (1996).\n\nProvinces\n\nThe country is currently divided into 26 provinces and the city-province of Kinshasa. The provinces are subdivided into districts which are divided into territories.\n\nFlora and fauna\n\nThe rainforests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo contain great biodiversity, including many rare and endemic species, such as the common chimpanzee and the bonobo, the African forest elephant, the mountain gorilla, the okapi and the white rhino. Five of the country's national parks are listed as World Heritage Sites: the Garumba, Kahuzi-Biega, Salonga and Virunga National Parks, and the Okapi Wildlife Reserve.\nThe Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most biodiverse African country. \n\nThe civil war and resulting poor economic conditions have endangered much of this biodiversity. Many park wardens were either killed or could not afford to continue their work. All five sites are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage in Danger. \n\nConservationists have particularly worried about primates. The Congo is inhabited by several great ape species — the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), the bonobo (Pan paniscus), the eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei), and possibly the western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla). It is the only country in the world in which bonobos are found in the wild. Much concern has been raised about great ape extinction. Because of hunting and habitat destruction, the chimpanzee, the bonobo and the gorilla, each of whose populations once numbered in the millions, have now dwindled down to only about 200,000\n\n gorillas, 100,000 chimpanzees and possibly only about 10,000 bonobos. Gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos are all classified as endangered by the World Conservation Union, as well as the okapi, which is also native to the area.\n\nFile:Bas-congo.JPG\|Bas-Congo landscape\nFile:Okapi2.jpg\|An Okapi\nFile:Male gorilla in SF zoo.jpg\|A male Western gorilla\nFile:Hippo pod edit.jpg\|Hippopotamus\nFile:African Forest Elephant.jpg\|The African forest elephant\nFile:Colobus_angolensis.jpg \|An Angola colobus monkey\n\nBushmeat\n\nOver the past century or so, the DRC has become the center of what has been called the Central African \"bushmeat\" problem, regarded by many as a major environmental and socio-economic crisis. \"Bushmeat\" is another word for the meat of wild animals, typically obtained through trapping, usually with wire snares, or else with shotguns, poisoned arrows or arms originally intended for use in the DRC's numerous military conflicts. \n\nThe bushmeat crisis emerged mainly as a result of the poor living conditions of the Congolese people and a lack of education about the dangers of eating it. A rising population combined with deplorable economic conditions made many Congolese dependent on bushmeat, either as an income source (selling the meat), or for food. Unemployment and urbanization throughout Central Africa have exacerbated the problem further by turning cities like the urban sprawl of Kinshasa into prime markets for commercial bushmeat.\n \nThis combination has caused widespread endangerment of local fauna, and has forced humans to trudge deeper into the wilderness in search of the desired animal meat. This overhunting results in the deaths of more animals and makes resources even more scarce for humans. The hunting has also been facilitated by the extensive logging prevalent throughout the Congo's rainforests from both corporate logging, and farmers clearing forest landfor agriculture. Logging allows hunters much easier access to previously-unreachable jungle terrain, while simultaneously eroding away the habitats of animals. Deforestation is accelerating in Central Africa. \n\nPolitics\n\nGovernment\n\nAfter a four-year interlude between two constitutions, with new political institutions established at the various levels of government, as well as new administrative divisions for the provinces throughout the country, a new constitution came into effect in 2006 and politics in the Democratic Republic of the Congo finally settled into a stable presidential democratic republic.\nThe 2003 transitional constitution had established a parliament with a bicameral legislature, consisting of a Senate and a National Assembly.\n\nThe Senate had, among other things, the charge of drafting the new constitution of the country. The executive branch was vested in a 60-member cabinet, headed by a President and four vice presidents. The President was also the Commander-in Chief of the armed forces. The transitional constitution also established a relatively independent judiciary, headed by a Supreme Court with constitutional interpretation powers.\n\nThe 2006 constitution, also known as the Constitution of the Third Republic, came into effect in February 2006. It had concurrent authority, however, with the transitional constitution until the inauguration of the elected officials who emerged from the July 2006 elections. Under the new constitution, the legislature remained bicameral; the executive was concomitantly undertaken by a President and the government, led by a Prime Minister, appointed from the party able to secure a majority in the National Assembly.\n\nThe government – not the President – is responsible to the Parliament. The new constitution also granted new powers to the provincial governments, creating provincial parliaments which have oversight of the Governor and the head of the provincial government, whom they elect. The new constitution also saw the disappearance of the Supreme Court, which was divided into three new institutions. The constitutional interpretation prerogative of the Supreme Court is now held by the Constitutional Court. \n\nAlthough located in the Central African UN subregion, the nation is also economically and regionally affiliated with Southern Africa as a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). \n\nCorruption\n\nMobutu Sese Seko ruled the DRC, which he renamed Zaire, from 1965 to 1997. A relative explained how the government illicitly collected revenue: \"Mobutu would ask one of us to go to the bank and take out a million. We'd go to an intermediary and tell him to get five million. He would go to the bank with Mobutu's authority, and take out ten. Mobutu got one, and we took the other nine.\" Mobutu institutionalized corruption to prevent political rivals from challenging his control, leading to an economic collapse in 1996.\n\nMobutu allegedly stole as much as US$4-5 billion while in office; in July 2009, a Swiss court determined that the statute of limitations had run out on an international asset recovery case of about $6.7 million of deposits of Mobutu's in a Swiss bank, and therefore the assets should be returned to Mobutu's family. \n\nPresident Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001.\n\nHuman rights\n\nThe International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo was initiated by Joseph Kabila in April 2004. The international Criminal Court prosecutor opened the case in June 2004.\n\nChild soldiers have been used on a large scale in DRC, and in 2011 it was estimated that 30,000 children were still operating with armed groups.\n\nInstances of child labor and forced labor have been observed and reported in the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor in the DRC in 2013 and six goods produced by the country's mining industry appear on the department's December 2014 List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.\n\nViolence against women\n\nViolence against women seems to be perceived by large sectors of society to be normal. The 2013–2014 DHS survey (pp. 299) found that 74.8% of women agreed that a husband is justified in beating his wife in certain circumstances. \n\nThe United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 2006 expressed concern that in the post-war transition period, the promotion of women's human rights and gender equality is not seen as a priority. The eastern part of the country in particular has been described as the \"rape capital of the world\" and the prevalence of sexual violence there described as the worst in the world. \n\nFemale genital mutilation (FGM) is also practiced in DRC, although not on a large scale. The prevalence of FGM is estimated at about 5% of women. FGM is illegal: the law imposes a penalty of two to five years of prison and a fine of 200,000 Congolese francs on any person who violates the \"physical or functional integrity\" of the genital organs. \n\nIn July 2007, the International Committee of the Red Cross expressed concern about the situation in eastern DRC. A phenomenon of 'pendulum displacement' has developed, where people hasten at night to safety. According to Yakin Ertürk, the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women who toured eastern Congo in July 2007, violence against women in North and South Kivu included 'unimaginable brutality'. \"Armed groups attack local communities, loot, rape, kidnap women and children, and make them work as sexual slaves\", Ertürk added. In December 2008 GuardianFilms of The Guardian released a film documenting the testimony of over 400 women and girls who had been abused by marauding militia. \n\nIn June 2010, Oxfam reported a dramatic increase in the number of rapes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and researchers from Harvard discovered that rapes committed by civilians had increased seventeenfold. In June 2014 Freedom from Torture published reported rape and sexual violence being used routinely by state officials in Congolese prisons as punishment for politically active women. The women included in the report were abused in several locations across the country including the capital Kinshasa and other areas away from the conflict zones.\n\nIn 2015, figures both inside and outside of the country such as Filimbi and Emmanuel Weyi have spoken out about the need to curb violence and instability as the 2016 elections approach. \n\nForeign relations and military\n\nThe global growth in demand for scarce raw materials and the industrial surges in China, India, Russia, Brazil and other developing countries require that developed countries employ new, integrated and responsive strategies for identifying and ensuring, on a continual basis, an adequate supply of strategic and critical materials required for their security needs. Highlighting the DR Congo's importance to United States national security, the effort to establish an elite Congolese unit is the latest push by the U.S. to professionalize armed forces in this strategically important region. \n\nThere are economic and strategic incentives to bring more security to the Congo, which is rich in natural resources such as cobalt. Cobalt is a strategic and critical metal used in many industrial and military applications. The largest use of cobalt is in superalloys, used to make jet engine parts. Cobalt is also used in magnetic alloys and in cutting and wear-resistant materials such as cemented carbides. The chemical industry consumes significant quantities of cobalt in a variety of applications including catalysts for petroleum and chemical processing; drying agents for paints and inks; ground coats for porcelain enamels; decolourisers for ceramics and glass; and pigments for ceramics, paints, and plastics. The country contains 80% of the world's cobalt reserves. \n\nEconomy and infrastructure\n\nThe Central Bank of the Congo is responsible for developing and maintaining the Congolese franc, which serves as the primary form of currency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2007, The World Bank decided to grant the Democratic Republic of Congo up to $1.3 billion in assistance funds over the following three years. Kinshasa is currently negotiating membership in the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). \n\nThe Democratic Republic of Congo is widely considered to be one of the world's richest countries in natural resources; its untapped deposits of raw minerals are estimated to be worth in excess of US$24 trillion. The Congo has 70% of the world's coltan, a third of its cobalt, more than 30% of its diamond reserves, and a tenth of its copper. \n\nDespite such vast mineral wealth, the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The African country generated up to 70% of its export revenue from minerals in the 1970s and 1980s, and was particularly hit when resource prices deteriorated at that time. By 2005, 90% of the DRC's revenues derived from its minerals (Exenberger and Hartmann 2007:10).\n\n The country's woes mean that despite its potential its citizens are among the poorest people on earth. DR Congo consistently has the lowest, or nearly the lowest, nominal GDP per capita in the world. The DRC is also one of the twenty lowest-ranked countries on the Corruption Perception Index.\n\nMining\n\nThe Congo is the world's largest producer of cobalt ore, and a major producer of copper and diamonds. The latter come from Kasai province in the west. By far the largest mines in the Congo are located in the Katanga (formerly Shaba) province in the south, and are highly mechanized, with a maximum capacity of several millions of tons per year of copper and cobalt ore, and the capability of refining the ore into metal. In terms of annual carats produced, the DRC is the second largest diamond-producing nation in the world, with artisanal and small-scale miners accounting for most production.\n\nAt the time of its independence in 1960, DRC was the second-most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa; it boasted a thriving mining sector and a relatively productive agriculture sector. The conflicts (the First and Second Congo Wars) that began in 1996 have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, increased external debt, and resulted in deaths of more than five million people from war, and associated famine and disease. Malnutrition affects approximately two thirds of the country's population.\n\nForeign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict, lack of infrastructure, and the difficult operating environment. The war intensified the impact of such basic problems as an uncertain legal framework, corruption, inflation, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations.\n\nConditions improved in late 2002, when a large portion of the invading foreign troops withdrew. A number of International Monetary Fund and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Joseph Kabila has begun implementing reforms. Much economic activity still lies outside the GDP data. A United Nations Human Development Index report shows that the human development index of DR Congo is one of the worst it's had in decades. Through 2011 the Democratic Republic of the Congo had the lowest Human Development Index of the 187 ranked countries. It ranked lower than Niger, despite a higher margin of improvement than the latter country over 2010's numbers.\n\nThe economy of DR Congo, the second largest country in Africa, relies heavily on mining. However, the smaller-scale economic activity from artisanal mining occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data. A third of the DRC's diamonds are believed to be smuggled out of the country, making it difficult to quantify diamond production levels.[http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html \"Ranking Of The World's Diamond Mines By Estimated 2013 Production\"], Kitco, 20 August 2013. In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country, but to date has only been mined on a small scale. Smuggling of conflict minerals such as coltan and cassiterite, ores of tantalum and tin, respectively, helped to fuel the war in the Eastern Congo.\n\nIn September 2004, state-owned Gécamines signed an agreement with Global Enterprises Corporate (GEC), a company formed by the merger of Dan Gertler International (DGI) with Beny Steinmetz Global, to rehabilitate and operate the Kananga and Tilwezembe copper mines. The deal was ratified by presidential decree. In 2007 a World Bank report reviewed DR Congo's three biggest mining contracts, finding that the 2005 deals, including one with Global Enterprises Company, were approved with \"a complete lack of transparency\" (Mahtani, 3 January 2007).\n\n Gertler and Steinmetz put GEC's 75% share in Komoto Oliveira Virgule (KOV), the project made of up of Tilwezembe and Kananga, along with the Kolwesi concentrator, into Nikanor Plc. Registered in the Isle of Man, reached a market capitalization of $1.5 billion by 2007. In February 2007, 22% of the Nikanor Mining company was owned by the Gertner Family Trust and 14% by Dan Gertler. In January 2008 Katanga Mining acquired Nikanor for $452 million\n\nIn April 2006 Gertler's DGI took a major stake in DEM Mining, a cobalt-copper mining and services company based in Katanga. In June 2006 Gertler bought Tremalt from the Zimbabwean businessman John Bredenkamp for about $60 million. Tremalt had a half share in the Mukondo Mine. In 2007 Tremalt was owned by Prairie International Ltd, of which Dan Gertler's family trust was a major shareholder. Tremalt owned 80% of Savannah Mining, which held concessions C17 and C18 in Katanga Province and 50% of the Mukondo project. The other 50% of Mukonda was held by Boss Mining, which in turn was 80% owned by Central African Mining & Exploration Company (CAMEC). Boss Mining had rented and operated Bredenkamp's half of Mukondo. Gertler terminated this arrangement.\n\nKatanga Mining Limited, a Swiss-owned company, owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world. After a major rehabilitation program, the company resumed copper production operations in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008. \n\nIn April 2013, anti-corruption NGOs revealed that Congolese tax authorities had failed to account for $88 million from the mining sector, despite booming production and positive industrial performance. The missing funds date from 2010 and tax bodies should have paid them into the central bank. Later in 2013 the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative suspended the country's candidacy for membership due to insufficient reporting, monitoring and independent audits, but in July 2013 the country improved its accounting and transparency practices to the point where the EITI gave the country full membership.\n\nTransportation\n\nGround transport in the Democratic Republic of Congo has always been difficult. The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction, and the distances are enormous across this vast country. Chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflicts have led to long-term under-investment.\n\nRail\n\nRail transportation is provided by the Congo Railroad Company (Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo) and the Office National des Transports (Congo) (ONATRA) and the Office of the Uele Railways (Office des Chemins de fer des Ueles, CFU).\n\nRoad\n\nThe Democratic Republic of the Congo has fewer all-weather paved highways than any country of its population and size in Africa — a total of 2250 km, of which only 1226 km is in good condition (see below). To put this in perspective, the road distance across the country in any direction is more than 2500 km (e.g. Matadi to Lubumbushi, 2700 km by road). The figure of 2250 km converts to 35 km of paved road per 1,000,000 of population. Comparative figures for Zambia and Botswana are 721 km and 3427 km respectively. \n\nThree routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through DR Congo:\n* Tripoli-Cape Town Highway: this route crosses the western extremity of the country on National Road No. 1 between Kinshasa and Matadi, a distance of 285 km on one of the only paved sections in fair condition.\n* Lagos-Mombasa Highway: the DR Congo is the main missing link in this east-west highway and requires a new road to be constructed before it can function.\n* Beira-Lobito Highway: this east-west highway crosses Katanga and requires re-construction over most of its length, being an earth track between the Angolan border and Kolwezi, a paved road in very poor condition between Kolwezi and Lubumbashi, and a paved road in fair condition over the short distance to the Zambian border.\n\nWater\n\nThe Democratic Republic of Congo has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways, and traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around approximately two-thirds of the country.\n\nAir\n\nAs of June 2016, DR Congo had one major national airline (Congo Airways) that offered flights inside DR Congo. Congo Airways was based at Kinshasa's international airport. All air carriers certified by the DRC have been banned from European Union airports by the European Commission, due to inadequate safety standards. \n\nSeveral international airlines service Kinshasa's international airport and a few also offer international flights to Lubumbashi International Airport.\n\nEnergy\n\nIn the Democratic Republic of the Congo, there are both coal and crude oil resources that were mainly used domestically in 2008. The Democratic Republic of Congo has infrastructure for hydro-electricity from the Congo River at the Inga dams. The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50% of Africa's forests and a river system that could provide hydro-electric power to the entire continent, according to a UN report on the country's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa. \n\nThe generation and distribution of electricity is controlled by Société nationale d'électricité (SNEL)\n\nEducation\n\nIn 2014 the literacy rate for the population between the ages of 15 and 49 was estimated to be 75.9% (88.1% male and 63.8% female) according to a DHS nationwide survey. The education system in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is governed by three government ministries: the Ministère de l'Enseignement Primaire, Secondaire et Professionnel (MEPSP), the Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et Universitaire (MESU) and the Ministère des Affaires Sociales (MAS). Primary education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is not free or compulsory, even though the Congolese constitution says it should be (Article 43 of the 2005 Congolese Constitution). \n\nAs a result of the 6-year civil war in the late 1990s-early 2000s, over 5.2 million children in the country did not receive any education.\"Congo, Democratic Republic of the.\" [http://wayback.archive.org/web/20061201190837/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf www.dol.gov] 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Since the end of the civil war, the situation has improved tremendously, with the number of children enrolled in primary schools rising from 5.5 million in 2002 to 12 million in 2012, and the number of children enrolled in secondary schools rising from 2.8 million in 2007 to 3.9 million in 2012 according to UNESCO. \n\nActual school attendance has also improved greatly in recent years, with primary school net attendance estimated to be 82.4% in 2014 (82.4% of children ages 6–11 attended school; 83.4% for boys, 80.6% for girls). \n\nHealth\n\nThe hospitals in the Democratic Republic of the Congo include the General Hospital of Kinshasa. DRC has the world's second-highest rate of infant mortality (after Chad). In April 2011, through aid from Global Alliance for Vaccines, a new vaccine to prevent pneumococcal disease was introduced around Kinshasa. \n\nIn 2012, it was estimated that about 1.1% of adults aged 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS. Malaria is also a problem. Yellow fever also affects DRC. \n\nMaternal health is poor in DRC. According to 2010 estimates, DRC has the 17th highest maternal mortality rate in the world. According to UNICEF, 43.5% of children under five are stunted. \n\nCrime and law enforcement\n\nThe Congolese National Police (PNC) are the primary police force in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. \n\nDemographics\n\nLargest cities\n\nEthnic groups\n\nOver 200 ethnic groups populate the Democratic Republic of the Congo, of which the majority are Bantu peoples. Together, Mongo, Luba and Kongo peoples (Bantu) and Mangbetu-Azande peoples constitute around 45% of the population.\n\nIn 2009, the United Nations estimated the country's population to be 66 million people, a rapid increase from 39.1 million in 1992 despite the ongoing war. As many as 250 ethnic groups have been identified and named. The most numerous people are the Kongo, Luba, and Mongo. About 600,000 Pygmies are the aboriginal people of the DR Congo. Although several hundred local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by widespread use of French and the national intermediary languages Kituba, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala.\n\nMigration\n\nGiven the situation in the country and the condition of state structures, it is extremely difficult to obtain reliable migration data. However, evidence suggests that DRC continues to be a destination country for immigrants, in spite of recent declines in their numbers. Immigration is very diverse in nature; refugees and asylum-seekers – products of the numerous and violent conflicts in the Great Lakes Region – constitute an important subset of the population. Additionally, the country's large mine operations attract migrant workers from Africa and beyond. There is also considerable migration for commercial activities from other African countries and the rest of the world, but these movements are not well studied. Transit migration towards South Africa and Europe also plays a role.\n\nImmigration to the DRC has decreased steadily over the past two decades, most likely as a result of the armed violence that the country has experienced. According to the International Organization for Migration, the number of immigrants in the DRC has fallen from just over 1 million in 1960, to 754,000 in 1990, to 480,000 in 2005, to an estimated 445,000 in 2010. Official figures are unavailable, partly due to the predominance of the informal economy in the DRC. Data are also lacking on irregular immigrants, however given neighbouring countries' ethnic links to DRC nationals, irregular migration is assumed to be a significant phenomenon. \n\nFigures for Congolese nationals abroad vary greatly depending on the source, from 3 to 6 million. This discrepancy is due to a lack of official, reliable data. Emigrants from the DRC are above all long-term emigrants, the majority of whom live in Africa and to a lesser extent in Europe; 79.7% and 15.3% respectively, according to estimated 2000 data. New destination countries include South Africa and various points en route to Europe. The DRC has produced a considerable number of refugees and asylum-seekers located in the region and beyond. These numbers peaked in 2004 when, according to UNHCR, there were more than 460,000 refugees from the DRC; in 2008, Congolese refugees numbered 367,995 in total, 68% of whom were living in other African countries.\n\nSince 2003, more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola. \n\nReligion\n\nChristianity is the majority religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, followed by about 95% of the population according to a 2010 Pew Research Center estimate, and 80% according to the CIA World Factbook and Pew Research Center 2013 data. Indigenous beliefs account for about 1.8–10%, and Islam for 10–12%.\n\nThere are about 35 million Catholics in the country. There are six archdioceses and 41 dioceses. The impact of the Roman Catholic Church in the Democratic Republic of Congo is difficult to overestimate. Schatzberg has called it the country's \"only truly national institution apart from the state.\" Its schools have educated over 60% of the nation's primary school students and more than 40% of its secondary students. The church owns and manages an extensive network of hospitals, schools, and clinics, as well as many diocesan economic enterprises, including farms, ranches, stores, and artisans' shops. \n\nKimbanguism was seen as a threat to the colonial regime and was banned by the Belgians. Kimbanguism, officially \"the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet Simon Kimbangu\", now has about three million members,[http://wayback.archive.org/web/20010707120530/http://www.adherents.com/adhloc/Wh_365.html \"Zaire (Democratic Republic of Congo)\", Adherents.com – Religion by Location.] Sources quoted are The World Factbook (1998), 'official government web site' of Democratic Republic of Congo. Retrieved 25 May 2007. primarily among the Bakongo of Bas-Congo and Kinshasa.\n\n62 Protestant denominations are federated under the umbrella of the Church of Christ in Congo. It is often simply referred to as the Protestant Church, since it covers most of the DRC Protestants. With more than 25 million members, it constitutes one of the largest Protestant bodies in the world.\n\nAccording to the Pew Forum, Islam is the faith of 12% of the population. According to the CIA World Factbook, Muslims make up 10% of the population. Islam was introduced and mainly spread by traders/merchants. Congolose Muslims are divided into Sunnis (50%), Shias (10%), Ahmadis (6%), and non-denominational Muslims (14%). In 2013 the Allied Democratic Forces, a group linked to Al-Qaeda, began carrying out attacks in Congo which killed civilians, mostly Christians. \n\nThe first members of the Baha'i Faith to live in the country came from Uganda in 1953. Four years later the first local administrative council was elected. In 1970 the National Spiritual Assembly (national administrative council) was first elected. Though the religion was banned in the 1970s and 1980s, due to misrepresentations of foreign governments, the ban was lifted by the end of the 1980s. In 2012 plans were announced to build a national Baha'i House of Worship in the country. \n\nTraditional religions embody such concepts as monotheism, animism, vitalism, spirit and ancestor worship, witchcraft, and sorcery and vary widely among ethnic groups. The syncretic sects often merge elements of Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals and are not recognized by mainstream churches as part of Christianity. New variants of ancient beliefs have become widespread, led by US-inspired Pentecostal churches which have been in the forefront of witchcraft accusations, particularly against children and the elderly. Children accused of witchcraft are sent away from homes and family, often to live on the street, which can lead to physical violence against these children. The usual term for these children is enfants sorciers (child witches) or enfants dits sorciers (children accused of witchcraft). Non-denominational church organizations have been formed to capitalize on this belief by charging exorbitant fees for exorcisms. Though recently outlawed, children have been subjected in these exorcisms to often-violent abuse at the hands of self-proclaimed prophets and priests. \n\nLanguages\n\nFrench is the official language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is culturally accepted as the lingua franca facilitating communication among the many different ethnic groups of the Congo. According to a 2014 OIF report, 33 million Congolese people (47% of the population) can read and write in French. In the capital city Kinshasa, 67% of the population can read and write French, and 68.5% can speak and understand it. \n\nApproximately 242 languages are spoken in the country, but only four have the status of national languages: Kituba (\"Kikongo ya leta\"), Lingala, Tshiluba, and Swahili. Although some people speak these regional, or trade languages as first languages, most of the population speak them as a second language after their own tribal language. Lingala was the official language of the colonial army, the \"Force Publique\", under Belgian colonial rule, and remains to this day the predominant language in the armed forces. Since the recent rebellions, a good part of the army in the East also uses Swahili where it is prevalent.\n\nWhen the country was a Belgian colony, the Belgian colonizers instituted teaching and use of the four national languages in primary schools, making it one of the few African nations to have had literacy in local languages during the European colonial period. This trend was reversed after independence, when French became the sole language of education at all levels. Since 1975, the four national languages have been reintroduced in the first two years of primary education, with French becoming the sole language of education from the 3rd year onwards, but in practice many primary schools in urban areas solely use French from the first year of school onward.\n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo reflects the diversity of its hundreds of ethnic groups and their differing ways of life throughout the country — from the mouth of the River Congo on the coast, upriver through the rainforest and savanna in its centre, to the more densely populated mountains in the far east. Since the late 19th century, traditional ways of life have undergone changes brought about by colonialism, the struggle for independence, the stagnation of the Mobutu era, and most recently, the First and Second Congo Wars. Despite these pressures, the customs and cultures of the Congo have retained much of their individuality. The country's 60 million inhabitants are mainly rural. The 30% who live in urban areas have been the most open to Western influences.\n\nMusic\n\nAnother notable feature in Congo culture is its music. The DRC has blended its ethnic musical sources with Cuban rumba, and merengue to give birth to soukous. Other African nations produce music genres that are derived from Congolese soukous. Some of the African bands sing in Lingala, one of the main languages in the DRC. The same Congolese soukous, under the guidance of \"le sapeur\", Papa Wemba, has set the tone for a generation of young men always dressed up in expensive designer clothes. They came to be known as the fourth generation of Congolese music and mostly come from the former well-known band Wenge Musica. \n\nThe Congo is also known for its art. Traditional art includes masks and wooden statues.\n\nSports\n\nMany sports are played in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including football, basketball and rugby. The sports are played in numerous stadiums throughout the country, including the Stade Frederic Kibassa Maliba. \n\nInternationally, the country is especially famous for its NBA players. Dikembe Mutombo is one of the best African basketball players to ever play the game. Mutombo is well known for humanitarian projects in his home country. Serge Ibaka, Bismack Biyombo, Christian Eyenga and Emmanuel Mudiay are others who gained significant international attention.\n\nSince 1968 the Democratic Republic of the Congo has participated in the Olympic Games.\n\nFood\n\nMedia\n\nNewspapers of the DRC include L'Avenir, La Cité africaine de Matadi, La Conscience, L'Observateur, Le Phare, Le Potentiel, Le Soft and LeCongolais.CD, a web-based daily. Radio Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) is the national broadcaster of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. RTNC currently broadcasts in Lingala, French, and English.\n\nEnvironmental issues\n\nA dense tropical rainforest in the DRC's central river basin and eastern highlands is bordered on the west within the Albertine Rift (the western branch of Africa's Great Rift System) and includes several of Africa's Great Lakes.\n\nMajor environmental issues\n\nThe Democratic Republic of the Congo's major environmental issues include:\n* deforestation\n* poaching, which threatens wildlife populations\n* water pollution\nDisplaced refugees cause or are otherwise responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion and wildlife poaching. Another significant issue is environmental damage from mining of minerals (especially coltan – a mineral used in creating capacitors -- diamonds, and gold).\n\nRenewable energy\n\nBecause of sunlight, potential for solar development is very high in the DRC. There are already about 836 solar power systems in the DRC, with a total power of 83 kW, located in Equateur (167), Katanga (159), Nord-Kivu (170), the two Kasaï provinces (170), and Bas-Congo (170). Also, the 148 Caritas network system has a total power of 6.31 kW7." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "African Congo", "The Kongos", "Congo (disambiguation)", "Congo (country)", "Lower Congo", "Kongo", "Kongo (disambiguation)", "The Congo", "Kongô", "Congo", "Congos", "Kongou" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "lower congo", "kongou", "kongos", "congo country", "congo disambiguation", "congo", "african congo", "congos", "kongo", "kongo disambiguation", "kongô" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "congo", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Congo" }
What was the profession of Thomas Eakins?	tc_1299	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Thomas_Eakins.txt" ], "title": [ "Thomas Eakins" ], "wiki_context": [ "Thomas Cowperthwait Eakins (July 25, 1844 – June 25, 1916) was an American realist painter, photographer, sculptor, and fine arts educator. He is widely acknowledged to be one of the most important artists in American art history. \n\nFor the length of his professional career, from the early 1870s until his health began to fail some 40 years later, Eakins worked exactingly from life, choosing as his subject the people of his hometown of Philadelphia. He painted several hundred portraits, usually of friends, family members, or prominent people in the arts, sciences, medicine, and clergy. Taken en masse, the portraits offer an overview of the intellectual life of Philadelphia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; individually, they are incisive depictions of thinking persons.\n\nIn addition, Eakins produced a number of large paintings which brought the portrait out of the drawing room and into the offices, streets, parks, rivers, arenas, and surgical amphitheaters of his city. These active outdoor venues allowed him to paint the subject which most inspired him: the nude or lightly clad figure in motion. In the process he could model the forms of the body in full sunlight, and create images of deep space utilizing his studies in perspective. Eakins also took a keen interest in the new technologies of motion photography, a field in which he is now seen as an innovator.\n\nNo less important in Eakins' life was his work as a teacher. As an instructor he was a highly influential presence in American art. The difficulties which beset him as an artist seeking to paint the portrait and figure realistically were paralleled and even amplified in his career as an educator, where behavioral and sexual scandals truncated his success and damaged his reputation.\n\nEakins was a controversial figure whose work received little by way of official recognition during his lifetime. Since his death, he has been celebrated by American art historians as \"the strongest, most profound realist in nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century American art\". \n\nLife and work\n\nYouth\n\nEakins was born and lived most of his life in Philadelphia. He was the first child of Caroline Cowperthwait Eakins, a woman of English and Dutch descent, and Benjamin Eakins, a writing master and calligraphy teacher of Scots-Irish ancestry. Benjamin Eakins grew up on a farm in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, the son of a weaver. He was successful in his chosen profession, and moved to Philadelphia in the early 1840s to raise his family. Thomas Eakins observed his father at work and by twelve demonstrated skill in precise line drawing, perspective, and the use of a grid to lay out a careful design, skills he later applied to his art. \n\nHe was an athletic child who enjoyed rowing, ice skating, swimming, wrestling, sailing, and gymnastics—activities he later painted and encouraged in his students. Eakins attended Central High School, the premier public school for applied science and arts in the city, where he excelled in mechanical drawing. He studied drawing and anatomy at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts beginning in 1861, and attended courses in anatomy and dissection at Jefferson Medical College from 1864 to 65. For a while, he followed his father's profession and was listed in city directories as a \"writing teacher\". His scientific interest in the human body led him to consider becoming a surgeon. \n\nEakins then studied art in Europe from 1866 to 1870, notably in Paris with Jean-Léon Gérôme, being only the second American pupil of the French realist painter, famous as a master of Orientalism. He also attended the atelier of Léon Bonnat, a realist painter who emphasized anatomical preciseness, a method adapted by Eakins. While studying at the École des Beaux-Arts, he seems to have taken scant interest in the new Impressionist movement, nor was he impressed by what he perceived as the classical pretensions of the French Academy. A letter home to his father in 1868 made his aesthetic clear:\n\nShe [the female nude] is the most beautiful thing there is in the world except a naked man, but I never yet saw a study of one exhibited... It would be a godsend to see a fine man model painted in the studio with the bare walls, alongside of the smiling smirking goddesses of waxy complexion amidst the delicious arsenic green trees and gentle wax flowers & purling streams running melodious up & down the hills especially up. I hate affectation. \n\nAlready at age 24, \"nudity and verity were linked with an unusual closeness in his mind.\" Yet his desire for truthfulness was more expansive, and the letters home to Philadelphia reveal a passion for realism that included, but was not limited to, the study of the figure. \n\nA trip to Spain for six months confirmed his admiration for the realism of artists such as Diego Velázquez and Jusepe de Ribera. In Seville in 1869 he painted Carmelita Requeña, a portrait of a seven-year-old gypsy dancer more freely and colorfully painted than his Paris studies. That same year he attempted his first large oil painting, A Street Scene in Seville, wherein he first dealt with the complications of a scene observed outside the studio. Although he failed to matriculate in a formal degree program and had showed no works in the European salons, Eakins succeeded in absorbing the techniques and methods of French and Spanish masters, and he began to formulate his artistic vision which he demonstrated in his first major painting upon his return to America. \"I shall seek to achieve my broad effect from the very beginning\", he declared.\n\nEarly career\n\nEakins' first works upon his return from Europe included a large group of rowing scenes, eleven oils and watercolors in all, of which the first and most famous is Max Schmitt in a Single Scull (1871; also known as The Champion Single Sculling). Both his subject and his technique drew attention. His selection of a contemporary sport was \"a shock to the artistic conventionalities of the city\". Eakins placed himself in the painting, in a scull behind Schmitt, his name inscribed on the boat.\n\nTypically, the work entailed critical observation of the painting's subject, as well as preparatory drawings of the figure and perspective plans of the scull in the water. Its preparation and composition indicates the importance of Eakins' academic training in Paris. It was a completely original conception, true to Eakins' firsthand experience, and an almost startlingly successful image for the artist, who had struggled with his first outdoor composition less than a year before. His first known sale was the watercolor The Sculler (1874). Most critics judged the rowing pictures successful and auspicious, but after the initial flourish, Eakins never revisited the subject of rowing and went on to other sports themes. \n\nAt the same time that he made these initial ventures into outdoor themes, Eakins produced a series of domestic Victorian interiors, often with his father, his sisters or friends as the subjects. Home Scene (1871), Elizabeth at the Piano (1875), The Chess Players (1876), and Elizabeth Crowell and her Dog (1874), each dark in tonality, focus on the unsentimental characterization of individuals adopting natural attitudes in their homes. \n\nIt was in this vein that in 1872 he painted his first large scale portrait, Kathrin, in which the subject, Kathrin Crowell, is seen in dim light, playing with a kitten. In 1874 Eakins and Crowell became engaged; they were still engaged five years later, when Crowell died of meningitis in 1879. \n\nTeaching and forced resignation from Academy\n\nEakins returned to the Pennsylvania Academy to teach in 1876 as a volunteer after the opening of the school's new Frank Furness designed building. He became a salaried professor in 1878, and rose to director in 1882. His teaching methods were controversial: there was no drawing from antique casts, and students received only a short study in charcoal, followed quickly by their introduction to painting, in order to grasp subjects in true color as soon as practical. He encouraged students to use photography as an aid to understanding anatomy and the study of motion, and disallowed prize competitions. Although there was no specialized vocational instruction, students with aspirations for using their school training for applied arts, such as illustration, lithography, and decoration, were as welcome as students interested in becoming portrait artists.\n\nMost notable was his interest in the instruction of all aspects of the human figure, including anatomical study of the human and animal body, and surgical dissection; there were also rigorous courses in the fundamentals of form, and studies in perspective which involved mathematics. As an aid to the study of anatomy, plaster casts were made from dissections, duplicates of which were furnished to students. A similar study was made of the anatomy of horses; acknowledging Eakins' expertise, in 1891 his friend, the sculptor William Rudolf O'Donovan, asked him to collaborate on the commission to create bronze equestrian reliefs of Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant, for the Soldiers' and Sailors' Arch in Grand Army Plaza in Brooklyn. \n\nOwing to Eakins' devotion to working from life, the Academy's course of study was by the early 1880s the most \"liberal and advanced in the world\". Eakins believed in teaching by example and letting the students find their own way with only terse guidance. His students included painters, cartoonists, and illustrators such as Henry Ossawa Tanner, Thomas Pollock Anshutz, Edward Willis Redfield, Colin Campbell Cooper, Alice Barber Stephens, Frederick Judd Waugh, T. S. Sullivant and A. B. Frost.\n\nHe stated his teaching philosophy bluntly, \"A teacher can do very little for a pupil & should only be thankful if he don’t hinder him ... and the greater the master, mostly the less he can say.\" \nHe believed that women should \"assume professional privileges\" as would men. Life classes and dissection were segregated but women had access to male models (who were nude but for loincloths).\n\nThe line between impartiality and questionable behavior was a thin one. When a female student, Amelia Van Buren, asked about the movement of the pelvis, Eakins invited her to his studio, where he undressed and \"gave her the explanation as I could not have done by words only\". Such incidents, coupled with the ambitions of his younger associates to oust him and take over the school themselves, created tensions between him and the Academy's board of directors. He was ultimately forced to resign in 1886, for removing the loincloth of a male model in a class where female students were present.\n\nThe forced resignation was a major setback for Eakins. His family was split, with his in-laws siding against him in public dispute. He struggled to protect his name against rumors and false charges, had bouts of ill health, and suffered a humiliation which he felt for the rest of his life. Eakins' popularity amongst the students was such that a number of them broke with the Academy and formed the Art Students' League of Philadelphia (1886-1893), where Eakins subsequently instructed. It was there that he met the student, Samuel Murray, who would become his protege and lifelong friend. He also lectured and taught at a number of other schools, including the Art Students League of New York, the National Academy of Design, Cooper Union, and the Art Students' Guild in Washington DC. Dismissed in March 1895 by the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia for again using a fully nude male model, he gradually withdrew from teaching by 1898.\n\nPhotography\n\nEakins has been credited with having \"introduced the camera to the American art studio\". During his study abroad, he was exposed to the use of photography by the French realists, though the use of photography was still frowned upon as a shortcut by traditionalists.\n\nIn the late 1870s, Eakins was introduced to the photographic motion studies of Eadweard Muybridge, particularly the equine studies, and became interested in using the camera to study sequential movement. In the mid-1880s, Eakins worked briefly alongside Muybridge in the latter's photographic studio at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. Eakins soon performed his own independent motion studies, also usually involving the nude figure, and even developed his own technique for capturing movement on film. Whereas Muybridge's system relied on a series of cameras triggered to produce a sequence of individual photographs, Eakins preferred to use a single camera to produce a series of exposures superimposed on one negative. Eakins was more interested in precision measurements on a single image to aid in translating a motion into a painting, while Muybridge preferred separate images that could also be displayed by his primitive movie projector.\n\nAfter Eakins obtained a camera in 1880, several paintings, such as Mending the Net (1881) and Arcadia (1883), are known to have been derived at least in part from his photographs. Some figures appear to be detailed transcriptions and tracings from the photographs by some device like a magic lantern, which Eakins then took pains to cover up with oil paint. Eakins' methods appear to be meticulously applied, and rather than shortcuts, were likely used in a quest for accuracy and realism. \n\nAn excellent example of Eakins' use of this new technology is his painting A May Morning in the Park, which relied heavily on photographic motion studies to depict the true gait of the four horses pulling the coach of patron Fairman Rogers. But in typical fashion, Eakins also employed wax figures and oil sketches to get the final effect he desired.\n\nThe so-called \"Naked Series\", which began in 1883, were nude photos of students and professional models which were taken to show real human anatomy from several specific angles, and were often hung and displayed for study at the school. Later, less regimented poses were taken indoors and out, of men, women, and children, including his wife. The most provocative, and the only ones combining males and females, were nude photos of Eakins and a female model (see below). Although witnesses and chaperones were usually on site, and the poses were mostly traditional in nature, the sheer quantity of the photos and Eakins’ overt display of them may have undermined his standing at the Academy. In all, about eight hundred photographs are now attributed to Eakins and his circle, most of which are figure studies, both clothed and nude, and portraits. No other American artist of his time matched Eakins' interest in photography, nor produced a comparable body of photographic works. \n\nPortraits\n\n\"I will never have to give up painting, for even now I could paint heads good enough to make a living anywhere in America.\" \n\nFor Eakins, portraiture held little interest as a means of fashionable idealization or even simple verisimilitude. Instead, it provided the opportunity to reveal the character of an individual through the modeling of solid anatomical form. This meant that, notwithstanding his youthful optimism, Eakins would never be a commercially successful portrait painter, as few paid commissions came his way. But his total output of some two hundred and fifty portraits is characterized by \"an uncompromising search for the unique human being\". \n\nOften this search for individuality required that the subject be painted in his own daily working environment. Eakins' Portrait of Professor Benjamin H. Rand (1874) was a prelude to what many consider his most important work. \n\nIn The Gross Clinic (1875), a renowned Philadelphia surgeon, Dr. Samuel D. Gross, is seen presiding over an operation to remove part of a diseased bone from a patient's thigh. Gross lectures in an amphitheater crowded with students at Jefferson Medical College. Eakins spent nearly a year on the painting, again choosing a novel subject, the discipline of modern surgery, in which Philadelphia was in the forefront. He initiated the project and may have had the goal of a grand work befitting a showing at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. Though rejected for the Art Gallery, the painting was shown on the centennial grounds at an exhibit of a U.S. Army Post Hospital. In sharp contrast, another Eakins submission, The Chess Players, was accepted by the Committee and was much admired at the Centennial Exhibition, and critically praised. \n\nAt 96 by 78 inches, The Gross Clinic is one of the artist's largest works, and considered by some to be his greatest. Eakins' high expectations at the start of the project were recorded in a letter, \"What elates me more is that I have just got a new picture blocked in and it is very far better than anything I have ever done. As I spoil things less and less in finishing I have the greatest hopes of this one\" But if Eakins hoped to impress his home town with the picture, he was to be disappointed; public reaction to the painting of a realistic surgical incision and the resultant blood was ambivalent at best, and it was finally purchased by the college for the unimpressive sum of $200. Eakins borrowed it for subsequent exhibitions, where it drew strong reactions, such as that of the New York Daily Tribune, which both acknowledged and damned its powerful image, \"but the more one praises it, the more one must condemn its admission to a gallery where men and women of weak nerves must be compelled to look at it. For not to look it is impossible...No purpose is gained by this morbid exhibition, no lesson taught—the painter shows his skill and the spectators' gorge rises at it—that is all.\" The college now describes it thus: \"Today the once maligned picture is celebrated as a great nineteenth-century medical history painting, featuring one of the most superb portraits in American art\".\n\nIn 1876, Eakins completed a portrait of Dr. John Brinton, surgeon of the Philadelphia Hospital, and famed for his Civil War service. Done in a more informal setting than The Gross Clinic, it was a personal favorite of Eakins, and The Art Journal proclaimed \"it is in every respect a more favorable example of this artist's abilities than his much-talked-of composition representing a dissecting room.\" \n\nOther outstanding examples of his portraits include The Agnew Clinic (1889), Eakins' most important commission and largest painting, which depicted another eminent American surgeon, Dr. David Hayes Agnew, performing a mastectomy; The Dean's Roll Call (1899), featuring Dr. James W. Holland, and Professor Leslie W. Miller (1901), portraits of educators standing as if addressing an audience; a portrait of Frank Hamilton Cushing (ca. 1895), in which the prominent ethnologist is seen performing an incantation in a Zuñi pueblo; Professor Henry A. Rowland (1897), a brilliant scientist whose study of spectroscopy revolutionized his field; Antiquated Music (1900), in which Mrs. William D. Frishmuth is shown seated amidst her collection of musical instruments; and The Concert Singer (1890–92), for which Eakins asked Weda Cook to sing \"O rest in the Lord\", so that he could study the muscles of her throat and mouth. In order to replicate the proper deployment of a baton, Eakins enlisted an orchestral conductor to pose for the hand seen in the lower left-hand corner of the painting. \n\nOf Eakins' later portraits, many took as their subjects women who were friends or students. Unlike most portrayals of women at the time, they are devoid of glamor and idealization. For Portrait of Letitia Wilson Jordan (1888), Eakins painted the sitter wearing the same evening dress in which he had seen her at a party. She is a substantial presence, a vision quite different from the era's fashionable portraiture. So, too, his Portrait of Maud Cook (1895), where the obvious beauty of the subject is noted with \"a stark objectivity\". \n\nThe portrait of Miss Amelia Van Buren (ca. 1890), a friend and former pupil, suggests the melancholy of a complex personality, and has been called \"the finest of all American portraits\". Even Susan Macdowell Eakins, a strong painter and former student who married Eakins in 1884, was not sentimentalized: despite its richness of color, The Artist's Wife and His Setter Dog (ca. 1884–89) is a penetratingly candid portrait. \n\nSome of his most vivid portraits resulted from a late series done for the Catholic clergy, which included paintings of a cardinal, archbishops, bishops, and monsignors. As usual, most of the sitters were engaged at Eakins' request, and were given the portraits when Eakins had completed them. In portraits of His Eminence Sebastiano Cardinal Martinelli (1902), Archbishop William Henry Elder (1903), and Monsignor James P. Turner (ca. 1906), Eakins took advantage of the brilliant vestments of the offices to animate the compositions in a way not possible in his other male portraits.\n\nDeeply affected by his dismissal from the Academy, Eakins's later career focused on portraiture, such as his 1905 Portrait of Professor William S. Forbes. His steadfast insistence on his own vision of realism, in addition to his notoriety from his school scandals, combined to hurt his income in later years. Even as he approached these portraits with the skill of a highly trained anatomist, what is most noteworthy is the intense psychological presence of his sitters. However, it was precisely for this reason that his portraits were often rejected by the sitters or their families. As a result, Eakins came to rely on his friends and family members to model for portraits. His portrait of Walt Whitman (1887–1888) was the poet's favorite. \n\nThe figure\n\nEakins' lifelong interest in the figure, nude or nearly so, took several thematic forms. The rowing paintings of the early 1870s constitute the first series of figure studies. In Eakins' largest picture on the subject, The Biglin Brothers Turning the Stake (1873), the muscular dynamism of the body is given its fullest treatment.\n\nIn the 1877 painting William Rush and His Model, he painted the female nude as integral to a historical subject, even though there is no evidence that the model who posed for Rush did so in the nude. The Centennial Exhibition of 1876 helped foster a revival in interest in Colonial America and Eakins participated with an ambitious project employing oil studies, wax and wood models, and finally the portrait in 1877. William Rush was a celebrated Colonial sculptor and ship carver, a revered example of an artist-citizen who figured prominently in Philadelphia civic life, and a founder of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts where Eakins had started teaching.\n\nDespite his sincerely depicted reverence for Rush, Eakins' treatment of the human body once again drew criticism. This time it was the nude model and her heaped-up clothes depicted front and center, with Rush relegated to the deep shadows in the left background, that stirred dissatisfaction. Nonetheless, Eakins found a subject which referenced his native city, an earlier Philadelphia artist, and allowed for an assay on the female nude seen from behind. \n\nWhen he returned to the subject many years later, the narrative became more personal: In William Rush and His Model (1908), gone are the chaperon and detailed interior of the earlier work. The professional distance between sculptor and model has been eliminated, and the relationship has become intimate. In one version of the painting from that year, the nude is seen from the front, being helped down from the model stand by an artist who bears a strong resemblance to Eakins. \n\nThe Swimming Hole (1884–5) features Eakins' finest studies of the nude, in his most successfully constructed outdoor picture. The figures are those of his friends and students, and include a self-portrait. Although there are photographs by Eakins which relate to the painting, the picture's powerful pyramidal composition and sculptural conception of the individual bodies are completely distinctive pictorial resolutions. The work was painted on commission, but was refused. \n\nIn the late 1890s Eakins returned to the male figure, this time in a more urban setting. Taking the Count (1896), a painting of a prizefight, was his second largest canvas, but not his most successful composition. The same may be said of Wrestlers (1899). More successful was Between Rounds (1899), for which boxer Billy Smith posed seated in his corner at Philadelphia's Arena; in fact, all the principal figures were posed by models re-enacting what had been an actual fight. Salutat (1898), a frieze-like composition in which the main figure is isolated, \"is one of Eakins' finest achievements in figure-painting.\" \n\nAlthough Eakins was agnostic, he painted The Crucifixion in 1880. Art historian Akela Reason saysEakins's selection of this subject has puzzled some art historians who, unable to reconcile what appears to be an anomalous religious image by a reputedly agnostic artist, have related it solely to Eakins's desire for realism, thus divesting the painting of its religious content. Lloyd Goodrich, for example, considered this illustration of Christ's suffering completely devoid of \"religious sentiment\" and suggested that Eakins intended it simply as a realist study of the male nude body. As a result, art historians have frequently associated 'Crucifixion' (like Swimming) with Eakins's strong interest in anatomy and the nude. \n\nIn his later years Eakins persistently asked his female portrait models to pose in the nude, a practice which would have been all but prohibited in conventional Philadelphia society. Inevitably, his desires were frustrated. \n\nPersonal life and marriage\n\nThe nature of Eakins sexuality and its impact on his art is a matter of intense scholarly debate. Strong circumstantial evidence points to Eakins having been accused of homosexuality during his lifetime, and there is little doubt that he was attracted to men, as evidenced in his photography, and three major paintings where male buttocks are a focal point: The Gross Clinic, William Rush, and The Swimming Hole. The latter, in which Eakins appears, is increasingly seen as sensuous and autobiographical.\n\nUntil recently, major Eakins scholars persistently denied he was homosexual, and such discussion was marginalised. While there is still no consensus, today discussion of homoerotic desire plays a large role in Eakins scholarship. The discovery of a large trove of Eakins's personal papers in 1984 has also driven reassessment of his life.\n\nAn early romance with a Philadelphia girl, Emily Sartain, foundered after Eakins moved to Paris to study, and she accused him of immorality. It is likely Eakins had told her of frequenting places where prostitutes assembled. The son of Eakins physician also reported that Eakins had been \"very loose sexually – went to France, where there are no morals, and the french morality suited him to a T\".\n\nIn 1884, Eakins married Susan Hannah Macdowell, the daughter of a Philadelphia engraver. Two years earlier Eakins' sister Margaret, who had acted as his secretary and personal servant, had died of typhoid. It has been suggested that Eakins married to replace her.\n\nMacdowell was 25 when Eakins met her at the Hazeltine Gallery where The Gross Clinic was being exhibited in 1875. Unlike many, she was impressed by the controversial painting and she decided to study with him at the Academy, which she attended for 6 years, adopting a sober, realistic style similar to her teacher's. Macdowell was an outstanding student and winner of the Mary Smith Prize for the best painting by a matriculating woman artist. \n\nAfter their childless marriage, she only painted sporadically and spent most of her time supporting her husband's career, entertaining guests and students, and faithfully backing him in his difficult times with the Academy, even when some members of her family aligned against Eakins.\n\nShe and Eakins both shared a passion for photography, both as photographers and subjects, and employed it as a tool for their art. She also posed nude for many of his photos and took images of him. Both had separate studios in their home.\n\nAfter Eakins death in 1916, she returned to painting, adding considerably to her output right up to the 1930s, in a style that became warmer, looser, and brighter in tone. She died in 1938. Thirty-five years after her death, in 1973, she had her first one-woman exhibition at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.\n\nIn the latter years of his life, Eakins constant companion was the handsome sculptor Samuel Murray, who shared his interest in boxing and bicycling. The evidence suggests the relationship was more emotionally important to Eakins than that with his wife.\n\nThroughout his life, Eakins appears to have been drawn to those who were mentally vulnerable and then preyed upon those weaknesses. Several of his students ended their lives in insanity.\n\nLegacy\n\nLate in life Eakins did experience some recognition. In 1902 he was made a National Academician. In 1914 the sale of a portrait study of D. Hayes Agnew for The Agnew Clinic to Dr. Albert C. Barnes precipitated much publicity when rumors circulated that the selling price was fifty thousand dollars. In fact, Barnes bought the painting for four thousand dollars. \n\nIn the year after his death, Eakins was honored with a memorial retrospective at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and in 1917-18 the Pennsylvania Academy followed suit. Susan Macdowell Eakins did much to preserve his reputation, including gifting the Philadelphia Museum of Art with more than fifty of her husband's oil paintings. After her death in 1938, other works were sold off, and eventually another large collection of art and personal material was purchased by Joseph Hirshhorn, and now is part of the Hirshhorn Museum's collection. Since then, Eakins' home in North Philadelphia was put on the National Register of Historic Places list in 1966, and Eakins Oval, across from the Philadelphia Museum of Art on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, was named for the artist. In 1967 The Biglin Brothers Racing (1872) was reproduced on a United States postage stamp.\n\nEakins's attitude toward realism in painting, and his desire to explore the heart of American life proved influential. He taught hundreds of students, among them his future wife Susan Macdowell, African-American painter Henry Ossawa Tanner, and Thomas Anshutz, who taught, in turn, Robert Henri, George Luks, John Sloan, and Everett Shinn, future members of the Ashcan School, and other realists and artistic heirs to Eakins' philosophy. Though his is not a household name, and though during his lifetime Eakins struggled to make a living from his work, today he is regarded as one of the most important American artists of any period.\n\nSince the 1990s, Eakins has emerged as a major figure in sexuality studies in art history, for both the homoeroticism of his male nudes and for the complexity of his attitudes toward women. Controversy shaped much of his career as a teacher and as an artist. He insisted on teaching men and women \"the same\", used nude male models in female classes and vice versa, and was accused of abusing female students. \n\nRecent scholarship suggests that these scandals were grounded in more than the \"puritanical prudery\" of his contemporaries—as had once been assumed—and that Eakins's progressive academic principles may have protected unconscious and dubious agendas. These controversies may have been caused by a combination of factors such as the bohemianism of Eakins and his circle (in which students, for example, sometimes modeled in the nude for each other), the intensity and authority of his teaching style, and Eakins's inclination toward unorthodox or provocative behavior. \n\nDisposition of estate\n\nEakins was unable to sell many of his works during his lifetime, so when he died in 1916, a large body of artwork passed to his widow, Susan Macdowell Eakins. She carefully preserved it, donating some of the strongest pieces to various museums. When she in turn died in 1938, much of the remaining artistic estate was destroyed or damaged by executors, and the remainders were belatedly salvaged by a former Eakins student. For more details, see the article \"List of works by Thomas Eakins\".\n\nOn November 11, 2006 the Board of Trustees at Thomas Jefferson University agreed to sell The Gross Clinic to the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC, and the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas for a record $68,000,000, the highest price for an Eakins painting as well as a record price for an individual American-made portrait. On December 21, 2006, a group of donors agreed to match the price in order to keep the painting in Philadelphia. It is displayed alternately at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.\n\nAssessment\n\nOn October 29, 1917, Robert Henri wrote an open letter to the Art Students League about Eakins:\n\nThomas Eakins was a man of great character. He was a man of iron will and his will to paint and to carry out his life as he thought it should go. This he did. It cost him heavily but in his works we have the precious result of his independence, his generous heart and his big mind. Eakins was a deep student of life, and with a great love he studied humanity frankly. He was not afraid of what his study revealed to him.\n\nIn the matter of ways and means of expression, the science of technique, he studied most profoundly, as only a great master would have the will to study. His vision was not touched by fashion. He struggled to apprehend the constructive force in nature and to employ in his works the principles found. His quality was honesty. \"Integrity\" is the word which seems best to fit him. Personally I consider him the greatest portrait painter America has produced. \n\nIn 1982, in his two-volume Eakins biography, art historian Lloyd Goodrich wrote:\n\nIn spite of limitations — and what artist is free of them? — Eakins' achievement was monumental. He was our first major painter to accept completely the realities of contemporary urban America, and from them to create powerful, profound art... In portraiture alone Eakins was the strongest American painter since Copley, with equal substance and power, and added penetration, depth, and subtlety. \n\nJohn Canaday, art critic for The New York Times, wrote in 1964:\n\nAs a supreme realist, Eakins appeared heavy and vulgar to a public that thought of art, and culture in general, largely in terms of a graceful sentimentality. Today he seems to us to have recorded his fellow Americans with a perception that was often as tender as it was vigorous, and to have preserved for us the essence of an American life which, indeed, he did not idealize — because it seemed to him beautiful beyond the necessity of idealization." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Photographist", "Photographer", "Freelance photographer", "Freelance Photography", "Photographr" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "photographr", "photographist", "freelance photographer", "photographer", "freelance photography" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "photographer", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Photographer" }
Who was the defending champion when Andre Agassi first won Wimbledon singles?	tc_1302	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Andre_Agassi.txt", "The_Championships,_Wimbledon.txt" ], "title": [ "Andre Agassi", "The Championships, Wimbledon" ], "wiki_context": [ "Andre Kirk Agassi (; born April 29, 1970) is an American retired professional tennis player and former World No. 1, who was one of the game's most dominant players from the early 1990s to the mid-2000s. Generally considered by critics and fellow players to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time, Agassi had been called the greatest service returner in the history of the game. Described by the BBC upon his retirement as \"perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history\", Agassi compiled performances that, along with his unorthodox apparel and attitude, saw him cited as one of the most charismatic players in the history of the game. As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s. \n\nIn singles tennis, Agassi is an eight-time Grand Slam champion and a 1996 Olympic gold medalist, as well as finishing runner-up in seven other Grand Slam tournaments. During the Open Era, Agassi is the first male player to win 4 Australian Open titles and those were an Open Era record until Novak Djokovic won his 5th title on February 1, 2015. Agassi is one of five male singles players to achieve the Career Grand Slam in the Open Era and one of eight in history, the first of two to achieve the Career Golden Slam (Career Grand Slam and Olympic Gold Medal), and the only man to win the Career Golden Slam and the ATP Tour World Championships (won in 1990): a distinction dubbed as a \"Career Super Slam\" by Sports Illustrated.\n\nAgassi was the first male player to win all four Grand Slam tournaments on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and the last American male to win the French Open, in 1999 and the Australian Open (2003). He also won 17 ATP Masters Series titles and was part of a winning Davis Cup team in 1990, 1992 and 1995. Agassi reached the World No. 1 ranking for the first time in 1995 but was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to World No. 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over. Agassi returned to World No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname \"The Punisher\". \n\nAfter suffering from sciatica caused by two bulging discs in his back, a spondylolisthesis (vertebral displacement) and a bone spur that interfered with the nerve, Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the US Open to Benjamin Becker. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation, which has raised over $60 million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada. In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K-12 public charter school for at-risk children. He has been married to fellow tennis player Steffi Graf since 2001.\n\n1970–85: Early life\n\nAndre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada to Emmanuel \"Mike\" Agassi and Elizabeth \"Betty\" Agassi (née Dudley). His father, a former Olympic boxer for Iran, stated he is from a mixed, mostly Armenian, heritage. He later elaborated that his grandfather was Assyrian. He married an Armenian woman.\" Andre Agassi's mother, Betty, is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita (last wife to Pancho Gonzales), Philip and Tami. One of his ancestors changed his surname from Agassian to Agassi to avoid persecution. \n\nIn a passage from the book Open, Agassi details how his father made him play a match for money with football legend Jim Brown, in 1979, when Agassi was 9 years old. Brown was at a Vegas tennis club complaining to the owner about a money match that was canceled. Agassi's father stepped in and told Brown that he could play his son and he would put up his house for the wager. Brown countered with a $10,000 bet, but after he was warned by the club owner not to take the bet because he would lose and be embarrassed, Brown agreed with Mike Agassi that they would set the amount after he and Andre played two sets. Brown lost those sets, 3–6, 3–6, declined the 10K wager, and offered to play the third set for $500. He lost 2–6.\n\nAt age 13, Andre was sent to Nick Bollettieri's Tennis Academy in Florida. He was meant to stay for only 3 months because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri called Mike and said: \"Take your check back. He's here for free,\" claiming that Agassi had more natural talent than anyone else he had seen. Agassi dropped out of school in the ninth grade. \n\nInternational tennis career biography\n\n1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title\n\nHe turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at La Quinta, California. He won his first match against John Austin, but then lost his second match to Mats Wilander. By the end of the year, Agassi was ranked world no. 91. He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the Sul American Open in Itaparica and ended the year ranked world no. 25. He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Forest Hills WCT, Stuttgart Outdoor, Volvo International and Livingston Open), and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$1 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level. During the year, he set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager, a record that stood for 17 years until Rafael Nadal broke it in 2005. His year-end ranking was world no. 3, behind second-ranked Ivan Lendl and top-ranked Mats Wilander. Both the Association of Tennis Professionals and Tennis magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988.\n\nIn addition to not playing the Australian Open (which later became his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code to which players at the event are required to conform.\n\nStrong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semifinals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1988 and made the US Open semifinals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to Andrés Gómez, which he attributes to worrying about his wig falling off. He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion Boris Becker in the semifinals. His opponent in the final was Pete Sampras; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets. The rivalry between these two American players became the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest of the decade. Also in 1990, Agassi helped the United States win its first Davis Cup in 8 years and won his only Tennis Masters Cup, beating reigning Wimbledon champion Stefan Edberg in the final.\n\nIn 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus Jim Courier. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to David Wheaton.\n\nAgassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated Goran Ivanišević in a five-set final. Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: Boris Becker and John McEnroe. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until Lleyton Hewitt ten years later. Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' Davis Cup winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years.\n\n1993 saw Agassi win the only doubles title of his career, at the Cincinnati Masters, partnered with Petr Korda. Agassi missed much of the early part of that year with injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and world no. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to Thomas Enqvist and required wrist surgery late in the year.\n\n1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall\n\nWith new coach Brad Gilbert on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the Canadian Open. His comeback culminated at the 1994 US Open with a five-set fourth-round victory against compatriot Michael Chang. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an unseeded player, beating Michael Stich in the final. Along the way, he beat 5 seeded players.\n\nIn 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old \"image is everything\" style. He competed in the 1995 Australian Open (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating Sampras in a four-set final. Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on hardcourt, with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 (Cincinnati, Key Biscayne, and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, with the last victory being in an intense late night four-set semifinal of the US Open against Boris Becker. The streak ended the next day when Agassi lost the final to Sampras.\n\nAgassi reached the world no. 1 ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras surpass him and finish ranked no. 1 at the year-ending ranking. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 matches while losing 9 and was also once again a key player on the United States' Davis Cup winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of Agassi's career.\n\n1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses at the hands of compatriots Chris Woodruff and Doug Flach at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semifinals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play Boris Becker, whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta, beating Sergi Bruguera of Spain in the final. Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne.\n\n1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He later confessed that he started using crystal methamphetamine at that time, allegedly on the urging of a friend. He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie. He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress Brooke Shields and had lost interest in the game. He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to world no. 141 on November 10, 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and that he would never again win any significant championships.\n\n1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam\n\nIn 1998, Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments, a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. After returning to top physical and mental shape, Agassi recorded the most successful period of his tennis career and also played classic matches in that period against Pete Sampras and Patrick Rafter.\n\nIn 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from world no. 110 to no. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year. At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to Tommy Haas. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne, losing to Marcelo Ríos, who became world no. 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career (the first being 10 years earlier in 1988).\n\nAgassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat Andrei Medvedev in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining Rod Laver, Fred Perry, Roy Emerson and Don Budge—these have since been joined by a sixth, Roger Federer, seventh, Rafael Nadal, and eighth, Novak Djokovic) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer, Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the open era. This win also made him the first (of only four, the second, third and fourth being Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts), a tribute to his adaptability, as the other four men won their Grand Slam titles on clay and grass courts. Agassi also became the only male player to win the Career Super Slam, consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a Year-End Championship.\n\nAgassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets. He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the US Open, beating Todd Martin in five sets (rallying from a two sets to one deficit) in the final. Overall during the year Agassi won 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris, where he beat Marat Safin. Agassi ended 1999 as the world no. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–98). This was the only time Agassi ended the year at no. 1.\n\nHe began the next year by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semifinal and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since Rod Laver achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title.. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semifinals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon. At the inaugural Tennis Masters Cup in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest world no. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to Gustavo Kuerten in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end world no. 1.\n\nAgassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over Arnaud Clément. En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semifinals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33 minute epic match with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7, with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked world no. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades (1980s, 1990s, 2000s). He also was the oldest player (age 31) to finish in the top three since 32-year-old Connors finished at world no. 2 in 1984.\n\n2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his Key Biscayne title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, Rome and Madrid, helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end world no. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.\n\nIn 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat Rainer Schüttler in straight sets in the final. In March, he won his sixth career and third consecutive Key Biscayne title, in the process surpassing his wife, Steffi Graf, who was a five-time winner of the event. The final was his 18th straight win in that tournament, which broke the previous record of 17 set by Sampras from 1993–95. (Agassi's winning streak continued to 20 after winning his first two matches at the 2004 edition of that tournament before bowing to Agustín Calleri.) With the victory, Agassi became the youngest (19 years old) and oldest (32) winner of the Key Biscayne tournament.\n\nOn April 28, 2003, he recaptured the world no. 1 ranking after a quarterfinal victory over Xavier Malisse at the Queen's Club Championships to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. He had held the world no. 1 ranking for two weeks, when Lleyton Hewitt took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the world no. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. During his career, Agassi held the world no. 1 ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from many events. He did manage to reach the US Open semifinals, where he lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero and surrendered his world no. 1 ranking to Ferrero. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer and finished the year ranked world no. 4. At age 33, he was the oldest player to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was world no. 4 in 1987.\n\n2004–2006: Final years\n\nIn 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semifinals of the Australian Open to Marat Safin; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event, a record that still stands. He won the Masters series event in Cincinnati to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in Monte Carlo and Hamburg. At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by Ken Rosewall, who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked world no. 8, the oldest player to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was world no. 7 in 1988. Agassi also became only the sixth male player during the open era to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over Alex Bogomolov in Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles.\n\nAgassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments, but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to Jarkko Nieminen in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the Rogers Cup, before falling to world no. 2 Rafael Nadal.\n\nAgassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating Răzvan Sabău and Ivo Karlović in straight sets and Tomáš Berdych in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over James Blake, where he rallied from two sets down to win 7–6 in the fifth set. His other five-set victims were Xavier Malisse in the fourth round and Robby Ginepri in the semifinals. In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets. Agassi finished 2005 ranked world no. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top-10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end.\n\nAgassi had a poor start to 2006. He was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season, including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then Wimbledon. He was defeated in the third round by world no. 2 (and eventual runner-up) Rafael Nadal. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match. At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season, with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles to Fernando González of Chile. As a result, he was unseeded at the US Open.\n\nAgassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against Andrei Pavel, Agassi faced eighth-seeded Marcos Baghdatis in the second round, who had earlier advanced to the 2006 Australian Open final and Wimbledon semifinals. Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving Benjamin Becker of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech.\n\nEarnings\n\nAgassi earned more than $30 million in prize-money during his career, sixth only to Federer, Djokovic, Nadal, Sampras and Murray to date (October 22, 2015). He also earned more than $25 million a year through endorsements during his career, fourth in all sports at the time. \n\nPost-retirement\n\nSince retiring after the 2006 US Open, Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the Andy Roddick/Roger Federer US Open quarterfinal. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with Tim Henman and Kim Clijsters. He played World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms in the summer of 2009. At the 2009 French Open, Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer, who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy. \n\nAlso in 2009 Agassi played at the Outback Champions Series event for the first time. He played the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships at Surprise, Arizona, where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion Todd Martin. He also announced that he will not be playing the tour on a full-time basis, and played the tournament as a favor to long-time friend Jim Courier. Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two. Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in Boston and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas. \n\nIn 2012 Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in San Jose, beating John McEnroe in the final. The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match. In the series season finale, he beat Michael Chang for the Acura Champions Cup. The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat James Blake for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal. He defeated Blake again in Portland to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships. In 2015 Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to Mark Philippoussis in the final of the Champions Shootout. \n\nIn 2009 in Macau Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets. The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the \"Hit for Haiti\" charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the earthquake. Partnered with Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal, the old rivals began making jokes on each other what ended up with Sampras intentionally striking a serve at Agassi's body. After the event Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras. Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at Madison Square Garden in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets. On March 3, 2014 Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual World Tennis Day. This time it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets. \n\nPlaying style\n\nEarly in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. His groundstrokes, return of serve, baseline game, anticipation, phenomenal eye–hand coordination were always among the best in the game. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for the winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but in particular down the line. His forehand was nearly as strong, in particular his inside-out forehand to the ad court. \n\nAgassi's strength was in dictating play from the back of the court. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way. When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot. A signature play later in his career was a change up drop shot to the deuce court after deep penetrating groundstrokes. This would often be followed by a passing shot or lob if the opponent was fast enough to retrieve it.\n\nAgassi's serve was never the strength of his game, but it improved steadily over the course of his career to being above average. He often used his hard slice serve to the deuce service box to send his opponent off the court, followed by a shot to the opposite corner. Agassi's service speed when hitting a flat first serve would range between 110 and. His second serve usually was a heavy \"kick\" serve in the mid-80s range.\n\nAgassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. His first major win was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time. His strongest surface over the course of his career, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors.\n\nBusiness ventures\n\nAgassi established a limited liability company named Andre Agassi Ventures (formerly named Agassi Enterprises). Agassi, along with five athlete partners (including Wayne Gretzky, Joe Montana, Shaquille O'Neal, Ken Griffey, Jr., and Monica Seles) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named Official All Star Café in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001. In 1999, he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006. In 2002, he joined the Tennis Channel to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry, and made an equity investment in the network. After meeting chef Michael Mina at one of his restaurants in San Francisco, Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco, San Jose, Dana Point, Atlantic City and Las Vegas. Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired Golden Nugget Las Vegas and Golden Nugget Laughlin from MGM Mirage for $215 million in 2004. One year later, the group sold the hotel-casino to Landry's, Inc. for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt. In 2007, he sat on the board of Meadows Bank, an independent bank in Nevada. He has invested in start-up companies backed by Allen & Company. \n\nAgassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE, a nightclub at Caesars Palace, which opened in 2004, and sold it to Angel Management Group in 2010. In August 2006, Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises. They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection. In September, Agassi and Graf, through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC, along with Bayview Financial LP, finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel, Fairmont Tamarack, at Tamarack Resort in Donnelly, Idaho. Due to difficult market conditions and delays, they withdrew from the project in 2009. The group still owns three small chunks of land. In September, they collaborated with Steve Case's Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers. \n\nThey also invested in online ticket reseller viagogo in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company. \n\nIn October 2012, Village Roadshow and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build new water park called Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%. The park opened in May 2013. \n\nIMG managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000, before switching to SFX Sports Group. His business manager, lawyer, and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008. In 2009, he and Graf signed with CAA. \n\nEquipment and endorsements\n\nAgassi used Prince Graphite racket early in his career. He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers Donnay. He later switched to Head Ti Radical racket and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket, having signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993. He renewed his contract in 1999 and in November 2003, he signed a lifetime agreement with Head. He also endorses Penn tennis balls. On July 25, 2005 Agassi left Nike after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with Adidas. A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas was more than happy to do so. On May 13, 2013 Agassi rejoined Nike. \n\nAgassi was sponsored by DuPont, Ebel, Mountain Dew in 1993, Mazda in 1997, Kia Motors in 2002, American Express and Deutsche Bank in 2003. In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for Canon Inc., promoting the Canon EOS Rebel camera. Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with Schick and became the worldwide spokesman for the company. Agassi signed a multiyear contract with Twinlab and promoted the company's nutritional supplements. In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by Aramis and signed a five-year deal with the company. In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with 24 Hour Fitness, which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end. Prior to the 2012 Australian Open, Agassi and Australian winemaker Jacobs Creek announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to \"[share] personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court.\" In 2007, watchmaker Longines named Agassi as their brand ambassador. \n\nAgassi and his mother appeared in a Got Milk? advertisement in 2002.\n\nAgassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed Deutsche Telekom in 2002, Genworth Financial and Canon Inc. in 2004, LVMH in 2007, and Nintendo Wii and Wii Fit U and Longines in 2013. \n\nPersonal life\n\nRelationships and family\n\nIn the early 1990s Agassi dated American entertainer Barbra Streisand. Writing about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, he said, \"We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're sympatico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo – another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava.\"\n\nAgassi was married to Brooke Shields from 1997 to 1999. \n\nHe married Steffi Graf on October 22, 2001 at their Las Vegas home, Graf being advanced in her pregnancy. They have two children: son Jaden Gil (born 2001) and daughter Jaz Elle (born 2003). Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players. The Graf-Agassi family resides in Summerlin, a community in the Las Vegas Valley. \n\nLong-time trainer Gil Reyes has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a \"father figure\" to Agassi. In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes. \n\nIn December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him. \n\nAutobiography\n\nAgassi's autobiography, Open (written with assistance from J. R. Moehringer ), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi admitted that he used and tested positive for methamphetamine in 1997. In response to this revelation, Roger Federer declared himself shocked and disappointed, while Marat Safin argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles. In an exclusive interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that \"It was a period in my life where I needed help.\" He also revealed that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also revealed he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought Pete Sampras was \"robotic\". The book reached No. 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list and received favorable reviews. It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 British Sports Book Awards. \n\nPolitics\n\nAgassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates. On September 1, 2010, when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program \"The Brian Lehrer Show,\" he stated that he is a registered Independent. \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nAgassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He is regularly cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation. \n\nAgassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics.\n\nIn 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school. In 2009, the graduating class had 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate. Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven. In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases. \n\nIn 2007, along with several other athletes, Agassi founded the charity Athletes for Hope, which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities. He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund and is now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change, focusing on the \"nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses.\" It has funded over 30 campuses for high performing charter schools and seeks to provide investors with a healthy return.\n\nIn September 2013, the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es, a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation. \n\nIn February 2014, Agassi remodeled the vacant University of Phoenix building as a new school called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014. The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in Henderson, Nevada to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas, which will relocate from its campus inside a church. \n\nCareer statistics\n\nSingles timeline overview\n\nGrand Slam Finals\n\nBy winning the 1999 French Open, Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 8 male players in history (after Budge, Perry, Laver, Emerson and before Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic) to achieve this.\n\nOpen Era records \n\n* These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis and in ATP World Tour Masters 1000 series since 1990.\n* Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.\n\nProfessional awards\n\n* ITF World Champion: 1999.\n* ATP Player of the Year: 1999.\n* ATP Most Improved Player: 1988, 1998\n\nRecognition\n\n* In 1992, Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year.\n* In 2010, Sports Illustrated named Agassi the 7th greatest male player of all time.\n* On July 9, 2011, Agassi was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame at a ceremony in Newport, Rhode Island.\n\nVideo\n\n* Wimbledon 2000 Semi-final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003) Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213 minutes, .\n* Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001) Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57 minutes.\n* Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005) Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52 minutes, .\n\nVideo games\n\n* Andre Agassi Tennis for the SNES, Sega Genesis, Sega Game Gear, Master System, and Mobile phone \n* Agassi Tennis Generation for PS2 and GBA\n* Smash Court Pro Tournament for PS2\n* Top Spin 4 (On cover of game) for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii", "The Championships, Wimbledon, commonly known simply as Wimbledon, is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and is widely considered the most prestigious. It has been held at the All England Club in Wimbledon, London since 1877. \n\nWimbledon is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, the others being the Australian Open, the French Open and the US Open. Since the Australian Open shifted to hardcourt in 1988, Wimbledon is the only major still played on grass.\n\nThe tournament takes place over two weeks in late June and early July, culminating with the Ladies' and Gentlemen's Singles Final, scheduled always for the second Saturday and Sunday of July respectively. Five major, junior, and invitational events are held each year. Wimbledon traditions include a strict dress code for competitors and Royal patronage. The tournament is also notable for the absence of sponsor advertising around the courts. In 2009, Wimbledon's Centre Court was fitted with a retractable roof to lessen the loss of playing time due to rain.\n\nHistory\n\nBeginning\n\nThe All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club is a private club founded on 23 July 1868, originally as \"The All England Croquet Club\". Its first ground was off Worple Road, Wimbledon. \n\nIn 1876, lawn tennis, a game devised by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield a year or so earlier and originally given the name Sphairistikè, was added to the activities of the club. In spring 1877, the club was renamed \"The All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club\" and signalled its change of name by instituting the first Lawn Tennis Championship. A new code of laws, replacing the code administered by the Marylebone Cricket Club, was drawn up for the event. Today's rules are similar except for details such as the height of the net and posts and the distance of the service line from the net.\n\nThe inaugural 1877 Wimbledon Championship opened on 9 July 1877. The Gentlemen's Singles was the only event held and was won by Spencer Gore, an old Harrovian rackets player, from a field of 22. About 200 spectators paid one shilling each to watch the final. \n\nThe lawns at the ground were arranged so that the principal court was in the middle with the others arranged around it, hence the title \"Centre Court\". The name was retained when the Club moved in 1922 to the present site in Church Road, although no longer a true description of its location. However, in 1980 four new courts were brought into commission on the north side of the ground, which meant the Centre Court was once more correctly defined. The opening of the new No. 1 Court in 1997 emphasised the description.\n\nBy 1882, activity at the club was almost exclusively confined to lawn tennis and that year the word \"croquet\" was dropped from the title. However, for sentimental reasons it was restored in 1899.\n\nIn 1884, the club added Ladies' Singles and Gentlemen's Doubles competitions. Ladies' Doubles and Mixed Doubles events were added in 1913. Until 1922, the reigning champion had to play only in the final, against whomever had won through to challenge him/her. As with the other three Major or Grand Slam events, Wimbledon was contested by top-ranked amateur players, professional players were prohibited from participating. This changed with the advent of the open era in 1968. No British man won the singles event at Wimbledon between Fred Perry in 1936 and Andy Murray in 2013, while no British woman has won since Virginia Wade in 1977, although Annabel Croft and Laura Robson won the Girls' Championship in 1984 and 2008 respectively. The Championship was first televised in 1937.\n\nThough properly called \"The Championships, Wimbledon\", depending on sources the event is also known as \"The All England Lawn Tennis Championships\", \"The Wimbledon Championships\" or simply \"Wimbledon\". From 1912 to 1924, the tournament was recognized by the International Lawn Tennis Federation as the \"World Grass Court Championships\".\n\n21st century\n\nWimbledon is considered the world's premier tennis tournament and the priority of the Club is to maintain its leadership. To that end a long-term plan was unveiled in 1993, intended to improve the quality of the event for spectators, players, officials and neighbours. Stage one (1994–1997) of the plan was completed for the 1997 championships and involved building the new No. 1 Court in Aorangi Park, a broadcast centre, two extra grass courts and a tunnel under the hill linking Church Road and Somerset Road. Stage two (1997–2009) involved the removal of the old No. 1 Court complex to make way for the new Millennium Building, providing extensive facilities for players, press, officials and members, and the extension of the West Stand of the Centre Court with 728 extra seats. Stage three (2000–2011) has been completed with the construction of an entrance building, club staff housing, museum, bank and ticket office. \n\nA new retractable roof was built in time for the 2009 championships, marking the first time that rain did not stop play for a lengthy time on Centre Court. The Club tested the new roof at an event called A Centre Court Celebration on Sunday, 17 May 2009, which featured exhibition matches involving Andre Agassi, Steffi Graf, Kim Clijsters and Tim Henman. The first Championship match to take place under the roof was the completion of the fourth round women's singles match between Dinara Safina and Amélie Mauresmo. The first match to be played in its entirety under the new roof took place between Andy Murray and Stanislas Wawrinka on 29 June 2009, which Murray won. Murray was also involved in the match completed latest in the day at Wimbledon, which ended at 11:02 pm in a victory over Marcos Baghdatis at Centre Court in the third round of the 2012 Championships. The 2012 Men's Singles Final on 8 July 2012, between Roger Federer and Murray, was the first final to be played under the roof, which was activated during the third set.\n\nA new 4000-seat No. 2 Court was built on the site of the old No. 13 Court in time for the 2009 Championships. A new 2000-seat No. 3 Court was built on the site of the old No. 2 and No. 3 Courts. \n\nOn 17 January 2016, it was reported The Championships at Wimbledon were among several high-level tennis tournaments being investigated for instances of alleged match-fixing. \n\nEvents\n\nWimbledon consists of five main events, five junior events and five invitation events. \n\nMain events\n\nThe five main events, and the number of players (or teams, in the case of doubles) are:\n* Gentlemen's Singles (128)\n* Ladies' Singles (128)\n* Gentlemen's Doubles (64)\n* Ladies' Doubles (64)\n* Mixed Doubles (48)\n\nJunior events\n\nThe five junior events and the number of players or teams are:\n* Boys' Singles (64)\n* Girls' Singles (64)\n* Boys' Doubles (32)\n* Girls' Doubles (32)\n* Disabled Doubles (12)\nNo mixed doubles event is held at this level.\n\nInvitation events\n\nThe five invitational events and the number of pairs are:\n* Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles (8 pairs Round Robin)\n* Senior Gentlemen's Invitation Doubles (8 pairs Round Robin) \n* Ladies' Invitation Doubles (8 pairs Round Robin)\n* Gentlemen's Wheelchair Doubles (4 pairs) \n* Ladies' Wheelchair Doubles (4 pairs)\nFrom 2016 singles draws for the existing wheelchair events were added. \n\nMatch formats\n\nMatches in the Gentlemen's Singles and Gentlemen's Doubles are best-of-five sets; all other events are best-of-three sets. A tiebreak game is played if the score reaches 6–6 in any set except the fifth (in a five-set match) or the third (in a three-set match), in which case a two-game lead must be reached.\n\nAll events are single-elimination tournaments, except for the Gentlemen's, Senior Gentlemen's and the Ladies' Invitation Doubles, which are round-robin tournaments.\n\nUntil 1922, the winners of the previous year's competition (except in the Ladies' Doubles and Mixed Doubles) were automatically granted byes into the final round (then known as the challenge round). This led to many winners retaining their titles in successive years, as they were able to rest while their opponent competed from the start of the competition. From 1922, the prior year's champions were required to play all the rounds, like other tournament competitors.\n\nSchedule\n\nEach year the tournament begins on the last Monday in June, two weeks after the Queen's Club Championships, which is one of the men's major warm-up tournaments, together with the Gerry Weber Open, which is held in Halle, Germany, during the same week. Other grass-court tournaments before Wimbledon are Eastbourne, England, and Rosmalen in the Netherlands, both combining mixed events. The other women's warm-up tournament for Wimbledon is Birmingham, also in England. The only grass-court tournament scheduled after the Championships is the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships at Newport, Rhode Island, USA, which takes place the week after Wimbledon.\n\nWimbledon is scheduled for 14 days, beginning on a Monday and ending on a Sunday. The five main events span both weeks, but the junior and invitational events are held mainly during the second week. Traditionally, there is no play on the \"Middle Sunday\", which is considered a rest day. However, rain has forced play on the Middle Sunday four times, in 1991, 1997, 2004 and 2016. On each of these occasions, Wimbledon staged a \"People's Sunday\", with unreserved seating and readily available, inexpensive tickets, allowing those with more limited means to sit on the show courts.\n\nSince 2015, the championships have begun one week later than in previous years, extending the gap between the tournament and the French Open from two to three weeks. Additionally the Stuttgart Open men's tournament converted to a grass surface and was rescheduled from July to June, extending the grass court season.\n\nPlayers and seeding\n\nBoth the men's and ladies' singles consist of 128 players. Players and doubles pairs are admitted to the main events on the basis of their international rankings, with 104 direct entries into the men's and 108 into the ladies' competitions. Both tournaments have 8 wild card entrants, with the remainder in each made up of qualifiers. Since the 2001 tournament 32 players have been given seedings in the Gentlemen's and Ladies' singles, 16 teams in the doubles events. The system of seeding was introduced during the 1924 Wimbledon Championships. This was a simplified version allowing countries to nominate four players who were placed in different quarters of the draw. This system was replaced for the 1927 Wimbledon Championships and from then on players were seeded on merit. The first players to be seeded as no. 1 were René Lacoste and Helen Wills.\n\nThe Committee of Management decide which players receive wildcards. Usually, wild cards are players who have performed well during previous tournaments, or would stimulate public interest in Wimbledon by participating. The only wild card to win the Gentlemen's Singles Championship was Goran Ivanišević in 2001. Players and pairs who neither have high enough rankings nor receive wild cards may participate in a qualifying tournament held one week before Wimbledon at the Bank of England Sports Ground in Roehampton. The singles qualifying competitions are three-round events; the same-sex doubles competitions last for only one round. There is no qualifying tournament for Mixed Doubles. The furthest that any qualifier has progressed in a Singles tournament is the semi-final round: John McEnroe in 1977 (Gentlemen's Singles), Vladimir Voltchkov in 2000 (Gentlemen's Singles), and Alexandra Stevenson in 1999 (Ladies' Singles).\n\nPlayers are admitted to the junior tournaments upon the recommendations of their national tennis associations, on their International Tennis Federation world rankings and, in the case of the singles events, on the basis of a qualifying competition. The Committee of Management determines which players may enter the four invitational events.\n\nThe Committee seeds the top players and pairs on the basis of their rankings, but it can change the seedings based on a player's previous grass court performance. Since 2002 a seeding committee has not been required for the Gentlemen's Singles following an agreement with the ATP. While the seeds are still the top 32 players according to rankings, the seeding order is determined using the formula: ATP Entry System Position points + 100% points earned for all grass court tournaments in the past 12 months + 75% points earned for the best grass court tournament in the 12 months before that. A majority of the entrants are unseeded. Only two unseeded players have won the Gentlemen's Singles: Boris Becker in 1985 and Goran Ivanišević in 2001. In 1985 there were only 16 seeds and Becker was ranked 20th; Ivanišević was ranked 125th when he won as a Wild Card entrant, although he had previously been a finalist three times, and been ranked no. 2 in the world; his low ranking was due to having been hampered by a persistent shoulder injury for three years, which had only just cleared up. In 1996, the title was won by Richard Krajicek, who was originally unseeded (ranked 17th, and only 16 players were seeded) but was promoted to a seeded position (still with the number 17) when Thomas Muster withdrew before the tournament. No unseeded player has captured the Ladies' Singles title; the lowest seeded female champion was Venus Williams, who won in 2007 as the 23rd seed; Williams was returning from an injury that had prevented her playing in previous tournaments, giving her a lower ranking than she would normally have had. Unseeded pairs have won the doubles titles on numerous occasions; the 2005 Gentlemen's Doubles champions were not only unseeded, but also (for the first time ever) qualifiers.\n\nGrounds\n\nSince 2001, the courts used for Wimbledon have been sown with 100% perennial ryegrass. Prior to 2001 a combination of 70% ryegrass and 30% Creeping Red Fescue was used. The change was made to improve durability and strengthen the sward to better withstand the increasing wear of the modern game. \n\nThe main show courts, Centre Court and No. 1 Court, are normally used for only two weeks a year, during the Championships, but play can extend into a third week in exceptional circumstances. The remaining 17 courts are regularly used for other events hosted by the Club. The show courts were in action for the second time in three months in 2012 as Wimbledon hosted the tennis events of the 2012 Olympic Games. One of the show courts is also used for home ties of the GB teams in the Davis Cup on occasions.\n\nWimbledon is the only Grand Slam event played on grass courts. At one time, all the Majors, except the French Open, were played on grass. The US Open abandoned grass in 1975 and the Australian Open in 1988.\n\nThe principal court, Centre Court, was opened in 1922 when the Club moved from Worple Road to Church Road. The Church Road venue was larger and was needed to meet the ever-growing public demand.\n\nDue to the possibility of rain during Wimbledon, a retractable roof was installed prior to the 2009 Championship. It is designed to close/open in about 20 minutes and will be closed primarily to protect play from inclement (and, if necessary, extremely hot) weather during The Championships. When the roof is being opened or closed, play is suspended. The first time the roof was closed during a Wimbledon Championship match was on Monday 29 June 2009, involving Amélie Mauresmo and Dinara Safina.\n\nBecause of the summer climate in southern England, Wimbledon employs 'Court Attendants' each year, who work to maintain court conditions. Their principal responsibility is to ensure that the courts are quickly covered when it begins to rain, so that play can resume as quickly as possible once the referees decide to uncover the courts. The court attendants are mainly university students working to make summer money. Centre Court is covered by full-time groundstaff, however.\n\nThe court has a capacity of 15,000. At its south end is the Royal Box, from which members of the Royal Family and other dignitaries watch matches. Centre Court usually hosts the finals and semifinals of the main events, as well as many matches in the earlier rounds involving top-seeded players or local favourites.\n\nThe second most important court is No. 1 Court. The court was constructed in 1997 to replace the old No.1 Court, which was adjacent to Centre Court. The old No.1 Court was demolished because its capacity for spectators was too low. The court was said to have had a unique, more intimate atmosphere and was a favourite of many players. The new No.1 Court has a capacity of approximately 11,000.\n\nFrom 2009, a new No. 2 Court is being used at Wimbledon with a capacity for 4,000 people. To obtain planning permission, the playing surface is around 3.5m below ground level, ensuring that the single-storey structure is only about 3.5m above ground level, and thus not affecting local views. Plans to build on the current site of Court 13 were dismissed due to the high capacity of games played at the 2012 Olympic Games. The old No.2 Court has been renamed as No.3 Court. The old No.2 Court was known as the \"Graveyard of Champions\" because many highly seeded players were eliminated there during early rounds over the years, including Ilie Năstase, John McEnroe, Boris Becker, Andre Agassi, Pete Sampras, Martina Hingis, Venus Williams, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova. The court has a capacity of 2,192 + 770 standing. In 2011 a new No.3 Court and a new Court 4 were unveiled on the sites of the old No.2 and 3 courts. \n\nAt the northern end of the grounds is a giant television screen on which important matches are broadcast. Fans watch from an area of grass officially known as the Aorangi Terrace. When British players do well at Wimbledon, the hill attracts fans for them, and is often renamed by the press for them: Greg Rusedski's followers convened at \"Rusedski Ridge\", and Tim Henman has had the hill nicknamed Henman Hill. As both of them have now retired and Andy Murray is the number 1 British player, the hill is occasionally referred to as \"Murray Mound\" or \"Murrayfield\", as a reference to his Scottish heritage and the Scottish ground of the same name, but this has largely failed to catch on – the area is still usually referred to as Henman Hill. None of these nicknames are official.\n\n;Grounds schedule\n\nThe grounds open at 10:30 am on each day. On the Centre Court, play starts at 1 pm, with exception of the final two days of the competition (Ladies' and Gentlemen's Finals), when play begins at 2 pm. On courts 2–19, play begins at noon for at least the first eight days of the competition. It then starts at 11 am for the Junior matches on the middle Saturday and during the second week.\n\nTraditions\n\nSocial commentator Ellis Cashmore describes Wimbledon as having \"a David Niven-ish propriety\", conforming to the standards of behaviour common in the 1950s. Writer Peter York sees the event as representing a particular white and affluent type of Britishness, describing the area of Wimbledon as \"a southern, well off, late Victorian suburb with a particular social character\". Cashmore has criticised the event for being \"remote and insulated\" from the changing multicultural character of modern Britain, describing it as \"nobody's idea of all-things-British\". \n\nBall boys and ball girls\n\nIn the championship games, ball boys and girls, known as BBGs, play a crucial role in the smooth running of the tournament, with a brief that a good BBG \"should not be seen. They should blend into the background and get on with their jobs quietly.\" \n\nFrom 1947 ball boys were supplied by Goldings, the only Barnardos school to provide them. Prior to this, from the 1920s onwards, the ball boys had been provided by The Shaftesbury Children's Home.\n\nSince 1969, BBGs have been provided by local schools. As of 2008 they are drawn from schools in the London boroughs of Merton, Sutton, Kingston, and Wandsworth, as well as from Surrey. Traditionally, Wandsworth Boys Grammar School in Sutherland Grove, Southfields and Mayfield Girls School on West Hill in Wandsworth, both now defunct, were the schools of choice for selection of BBGs. This was possibly owing to their proximity to the club. BBGs have an average age of 15, being drawn from the school years nine and ten. BBGs will serve for one, or if re-selected, up to five tournaments, from Year Nine to Year Thirteen. \n\nStarting in 2005, BBGs work in teams of six, two at the net, four at the corners, and teams rotate one hour on court, one hour off, (two hours depending on the court) for the day's play. Teams are not told which court they will be working on the day, to ensure the same standards across all courts. With the expansion of the number of courts, and lengthening the tennis day, as of 2008, the number of BBGs required is around 250. From the second Wednesday, BBGs are told to leave the Championships, leaving around 80 on the final Sunday. Each BBG receives a certificate, a can of used balls, a group photograph and a programme when leaving. BBG service is paid, with a total of £120-£180 being paid to each ball boy\nor girl after the 13-day period depending on the number of days served. Every BBG keeps all of their kit, typically consisting of three or four shirts, two or three shorts or skorts, track suit bottoms and top, twelve pairs of socks, three pairs of wristbands, a hat, water bottle holder, bag and trainers. Along with this it is seen as a privilege, and seen as a valuable addition to a school leaver's curriculum vitae, showing discipline. BBG places are split 50:50 between boys and girls, with girls having been used since 1977, appearing on centre court since 1985. \n\nProspective BBGs are first nominated by their school headteacher, to be considered for selection. To be selected, a candidate must pass written tests on the rules of tennis, and pass fitness, mobility and other suitability tests, against initial preliminary instruction material. Successful candidates then commence a training phase, starting in February, in which the final BBGs are chosen through continual assessment. As of 2008, this training intake was 600. The training includes weekly sessions of physical, procedural and theoretical instruction, to ensure that the BBGs are fast, alert, self-confident and adaptable to situations. As of 2011, early training occurs at the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis Club Covered Courts, to the side of the Grounds, and then moves to outside courts (8, 9, 10) the week before the Championships for a feel of the grass court.\n\nColours and uniforms\n\nDark green and purple are the traditional Wimbledon colours. However, all tennis players participating in the tournament are required to wear all-white or at least almost all-white clothing, a long-time tradition at Wimbledon. Wearing white clothing with some colour accents is also acceptable, provided the colour scheme is not that of an identifiable commercial brand logo (the outfitter's brand logo being the sole exception). Controversy followed Martina Navratilova's wearing branding for \"Kim\" cigarettes in 1982. Green clothing was worn by the chair umpire, linesmen, ball boys and ball girls until the 2005 Championships; however, beginning with the 2006 Championships, officials, ball boys and ball girls were dressed in new navy blue- and cream-coloured uniforms from American designer Ralph Lauren. This marked the first time in the history of the Championships that an outside company was used to design Wimbledon clothing; the contract with Polo Ralph Lauren is set to end in 2015.\n\nReferring to players\n\nBy tradition, the \"Men's\" and \"Women's\" competitions are referred to as \"Gentlemen's\" and \"Ladies'\" competitions at Wimbledon. The junior competitions are referred to as the \"Boys'\" and \"Girls'\" competitions.\n\nPrior to 2009 female players were referred to by the title \"Miss\" or \"Mrs\" on scoreboards. As dictated by strict rule of etiquette, married female players are referred to by their husbands' names: for example, Chris Evert-Lloyd appeared on scoreboards as \"Mrs. J. M. Lloyd\" during her marriage to John Lloyd, since \"Mrs. X\" essentially designates the wife of X. This tradition has continued at least to some extent. For the first time during the 2009 tournament, players were referred to on scoreboards by both their first and last names. \n\nThe title \"Mr\" is not used for male players who are professionals on scoreboards but the prefix is retained for amateurs, although chair umpires refer to players as \"Mr\" when they use the replay challenge. The chair umpire will say \"Mr is challenging the call...\" and \"Mr has X challenges remaining.\" However, the umpires still say Miss when announcing the score of the Ladies' matches.\n\nIf a match is being played with two competitors of the same surname (e.g. Venus and Serena Williams, Bob and Mike Bryan), the chair umpire will specify to whom they are referring by stating the player's first name and surname during announcements (e.g. \"Game, Miss Serena Williams\", \"Advantage, Mike Bryan\").\n\nRoyal Family\n\nPreviously, players bowed or curtsied to members of the Royal Family seated in the Royal Box upon entering or leaving Centre Court. In 2003, however, the President of the All England Club, His Royal Highness the Duke of Kent, decided to discontinue the tradition. Now, players are required to bow or curtsy only if HRH The Prince of Wales, or Her Majesty The Queen is present, as was in practice during the 2010 Championships when the Queen was in attendance at Wimbledon on 24 June. \nOn 27 June 2012, Roger Federer said in his post-match interview that he and his opponent had been asked to bow towards the Royal Box as Prince Charles and his wife were present, saying that that was no problem for him. \n\nServices Stewards\n\nPrior to the Second World War, members the Brigade of Guards and retired members of the Royal Artillery performed the role of stewards. In 1946 the AELTC offered employment to wartime servicemen returning to civilian life during their demobilization leave. Initially this scheme extended only to the Royal Navy, followed by the Army in 1947 and the Royal Air Force in 1949. In 1965 London Fire Brigade members joined the ranks of stewards. The service stewards, wearing uniform, are present in Centre Court and No.'s 1 and 2 courts. In 2015, 595 Service and London Fire Brigade stewards attended. Only enlisted members of the Armed Forces may apply for the role, which must be taken as leave, and half of each year's recruits must have stewarded at Wimbledon before. The AELTC pays a subsistence allowance to servicemen and women working as stewards to defray their accommodation costs for the period of the Championships. The Service Stewards are not to be confused with the 185 Honorary Stewards.\n\nTickets\n\nThe majority of centre and show court tickets sold to the general public have since 1924 been made available by a public ballot that the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club holds at the start of the year. The ballot has always been substantially oversubscribed. Successful applicants are selected at random by a computer. The most recent figures from 2011 suggested there were four applicants to every ballot ticket. Applications must be posted to the AELTC by mid December, the year prior to the tournament. Seats and days are allocated randomly and ballot tickets are not transferrable.\n\nThe All England Club, through its subsidiary The All England Lawn Tennis Ground plc, issues Debentures to tennis fans every five years to raise funds for capital expenditure. Fans who invest thus in the club receive a pair of tickets for every day of the Wimbledon Championships for the five years the investment lasts. Only debenture holders are permitted to sell on their tickets to third parties and demand for debentures has increased in recent years, to such an extent that they are even traded on the London Stock Exchange.\n\nWimbledon and the French Open are the only Grand Slam tournaments where fans without tickets for play can queue up and still get seats on the three show courts on the day of the match. Sequentially numbered queue cards were introduced in 2003. From 2008, there is a single queue, allotted about 500 seats for each court. When they join the queue, fans are handed queue cards. Anyone who then wishes to leave the queue temporarily, even if in possession of a queue card, must agree their position with the others nearby in the queue and/or a steward.\n\nTo get access to the show courts, fans will normally have to queue overnight. This is done by fans from all over the world and, although considered vagrancy, is part of the Wimbledon experience in itself. The All-England Club allows overnight queuing and provides toilet and water facilities for campers. Early in the morning when the line moves towards the Grounds, stewards walk along the line and hand out wristbands that are colour-coded to the specific court. The wrist band (and payment) is exchanged at the ticket office for the ticket when the grounds open. General admission to the grounds gives access to the outer courts and is possible without queuing overnight. Tickets returned by people leaving early go on sale at 2:30 pm and the money goes to charity. Queuing for the show courts ends after the quarter finals have been completed.\n\nAt 2.40pm on Day Seven (Monday 28 June) of the 2010 Championships, the one-millionth numbered Wimbledon queue card was handed out to Rose Stanley from South Africa. \n\nSponsorship\n\nWimbledon is notable for the longest running sponsorship in sports history due to its association with Slazenger who have supplied all tennis balls during the tournament since 1902. Since 1935 Wimbledon has a sponsorship association with the Robinsons fruit drink brand. \n\nMedia\n\nRadio Wimbledon\n\nFriday before the start of the tournament. Radio Wimbledon can be heard within a five-mile radius on 87.7 FM, and also online. It operates under a Restricted Service Licence and is arguably the most sophisticated RSL annually in the UK. The main presenters are Sam Lloyd and Ali Barton. Typically they work alternate four-hour shifts until the end of the last match of the day. Reporters and commentators include Gigi Salmon, Nick Lestor, Rupert Bell, Nigel Bidmead, Guy Swindells, Lucie Ahl, Nadine Towell and Helen Whitaker. Often they report from the \"Crow's Nest\", an elevated building housing the Court 3 and 4 scoreboards which affords views of most of the outside courts. Regular guests include Sue Mappin. In recent years Radio Wimbledon acquired a second low-power FM frequency (within the grounds only) of 96.3 FM for uninterrupted Centre Court commentary, and, from 2006, a third for coverage from No. 1 Court on 97.8 FM. Hourly news bulletins and travel (using RDS) are also broadcast.\n\nTelevision coverage\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nSince 1937 the BBC has broadcast the tournament on television in the UK. The matches covered are split between its two main terrestrial channels, BBC One and BBC Two. The BBC holds the broadcast rights for Wimbledon until 2017 and it distributes its commercial-free feed to outlets worldwide. During the days of British Satellite Broadcasting, its sports channel carried extra coverage of Wimbledon for subscribers. One of the most notable British commentators was Dan Maskell, who was known as the BBC's \"voice of tennis\" until his retirement in 1991. John Barrett succeeded him in that role until he retired in 2006. Current commentators working for the BBC at Wimbledon include British ex-players Andrew Castle, John Lloyd, Tim Henman, Greg Rusedski, Samantha Smith and Mark Petchey; tennis legends such as John McEnroe, Tracy Austin, Boris Becker and Lindsay Davenport; and general sports commentators including David Mercer, Barry Davies, Andrew Cotter and Nick Mullins. The coverage is presented by Sue Barker and highlights with Claire Balding. Previous BBC presenters include Des Lynam, David Vine, John Inverdale and Harry Carpenter.\n\nThe Wimbledon Finals are obliged to be shown live and in full on terrestrial television (BBC Television Service, ITV, Channel 4, or Channel 5) by government mandate. Highlights of the rest of the tournament must be provided by terrestrial stations; live coverage (excepting the finals) may be sought by satellite or cable TV. \n\nThe BBC was forced to apologise after many viewers complained about \"over-talking\" by its commentary team during the TV coverage of the event in 2011. It said in a statement that views on commentary were subjective but that they \"do appreciate that over-talking can irritate our audience\". The BBC added that it hoped it had achieved \"the right balance\" across its coverage and was \"of course sorry if on occasion you have not been satisfied\". Tim Henman and John McEnroe were among the ex-players commentating. \n\nWimbledon was also involved in a piece of television history, when on 1 July 1967 the first official colour television broadcast took place in the UK. Four hours live coverage of the 1967 Championships was shown on BBC Two, which was the first television channel in Europe to regularly broadcast in colour. Footage of that historic match no longer survives, however the Gentlemen's Final of that year is still held in the BBC archives because it was the first Gentlemen's Final transmitted in colour.\n\nSince 2007, Wimbledon matches have been transmitted in high-definition, originally on the BBC's free-to-air channel BBC HD, with continual live coverage during the tournament of Centre Court and Court No. 1 as well as an evening highlights show Today at Wimbledon. Since the closure of BBC HD, coverage is now shown on BBC One HD and BBC Two HD.\n\nThe BBC's opening theme music for Wimbledon was composed by Keith Mansfield and is titled \"Light and Tuneful\". A piece titled \"A Sporting Occasion\" is the traditional closing theme, though nowadays coverage typically ends either with a montage set to a popular song or with no music at all. Mansfield also composed the piece \"World Champion\", used by NBC during intervals (change-overs, set breaks, etc.) and at the close of broadcasts throughout the tournament.\n\nOther countries\n\nABC began showing taped highlights of the Wimbledon Gentlemen's Singles Final in the 1960s on its Wide World of Sports series. NBC began covering Wimbledon in 1969, with same-day taped (and often edited) coverage of the Gentlemen's Singles Final. In 1979, the network began carrying the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Singles Finals live. For the next few decades, Americans made a tradition of NBC's \"Breakfast at Wimbledon\" specials at weekends. Live coverage started early in the morning (the US being a minimum of 5 hours behind the UK) and continued well into the afternoon, interspersed with commentary and interviews from Bud Collins, whose tennis acumen and (in)famous patterned trousers were well-known to tennis fans in the USA. Collins was sacked by NBC in 2007, but was promptly hired by ESPN, the cable home for The Championships in the States. For many years NBC's primary Wimbledon host was veteran broadcaster Dick Enberg.\n\nFrom 1975 to 1999, premium channel HBO carried weekday coverage of Wimbledon. Hosts included Jim Lampley, Billie Jean King, Martina Navratilova, John Lloyd and Barry MacKay among others. \n\nPreviously, weekday coverage in the United States was exclusively handled by ESPN2 during the tournament's first week. During the tournament's second week it was split between ESPN2 and NBC. ESPN's online service ESPN3 provides full coverage of courts not televised using BBC graphics and commentary. Since the 2012 tournament, all live coverage, including the Finals, has been exclusively on ESPN and ESPN2, marking the second major tennis championship (after the Australian Open) available in the United States exclusively on pay television (although taped highlights from the tournament were presented at weekend afternoons on sister network ABC) through 2015. Taped coverage using the BBC world feed is aired in primetime and overnights on Tennis Channel and is branded Wimbledon Primetime.\n\nIn Ireland, RTÉ broadcast the tournament during the 1980s and 1990s on their second channel RTÉ Two, they also provided highlights of the games in the evening. The commentary provided was given by Matt Doyle a former Irish-American professional tennis player and Jim Sherwin a former RTÉ newsreader. Caroline Murphy was the presenter of the programme. RTÉ made the decision in 1998 to discontinue broadcasting the tournament due to falling viewing figures and the large number of viewers watching on the BBC. From 2005 until 2014 TG4 Ireland's Irish-language broadcaster provided coverage of the tournament. Live coverage was provided in the Irish language while they broadcast highlights in English at night. In 2015 Wimbledon moved to Pay TV broadcaster Setanta Sports under a 3-year agreement. \n\nIn Australia, the free-to-air Nine Network covered Wimbledon for almost 40 years but decided to drop their broadcast following the 2010 tournament, citing declining ratings and desire to use money saved to bid on other sports coverage. In April 2011, it was announced that the Seven Network, the host broadcaster of the Australian Open, along with its sister channel 7Two would broadcast the event from 2011.\n\nIn India and its Subcontinental region, it is broadcast on Star Sports.\n\nIn Canada, coverage of Wimbledon is exclusively carried by TSN (which is partially owned by ESPN).\n\nIn Mexico, the Televisa family of networks has aired Wimbledon since the early 1960s. Presently, most weekend matches are broadcast through Canal 5 with the weekday matches broadcast on the Televisa Deportes Network. As Mexico is six hours behind the U.K., some Canal 5 affiliates air the weekend matches as the first program of the day after sign-on. Although Mexico had begun broadcasting in colour in 1962, Wimbledon continued to air in black and white in Mexico until colour television came to the United Kingdom in 1967.\n\nIn most of Latin America, Wimbledon airs on ESPN, as the other Grand Slam tournaments. In Brazil, SporTV has exclusive rights to the broadcast.\n\nTrophies and prize money\n\nTrophies\n\nThe Gentlemen's Singles champion is presented with a silver gilt cup 18.5 inches (about 47 cm) in height and 7.5 inches (about 19 cm) in diameter. The trophy has been awarded since 1887 and bears the inscription: \"All England Lawn Tennis Club Single Handed Championship of the World.\" The actual trophy remains the property of the All England Club in their museum, so the champion receives a three-quarter size replica of the Cup bearing the names of all past Champions (height 13.5 inches). \n\nThe Ladies' Singles champion is presented with a sterling silver salver commonly known as the \"Venus Rosewater Dish\", or simply the \"Rosewater Dish\". The salver, which is 18.75 inches (about 48 cm) in diameter, is decorated with figures from mythology. The actual dish remains the property of the All England Club in their museum, so the champion receives a miniature replica bearing the names of all past Champions. From 1949 to 2006 the replica was 8 inches in diameter, and since 2007 it has been a three-quarter size replica with a diameter of 13.5 inches.\n\nThe winner of the Gentlemen's Doubles, Ladies' Doubles, and Mixed Doubles events receive silver cups. A trophy is awarded to each player in the Doubles pair, unlike the other Grand Slam tournaments where the winning Doubles duo shares a single trophy. The Gentlemen's Doubles silver challenge cup was originally from the Oxford University Lawn Tennis Club and donated to the All England Club in 1884. The Ladies' Doubles Trophy, a silver cup and cover known as The Duchess of Kent Challenge Cup, was presented to the All England Club in 1949 by HRH The Princess Marina. The Mixed Doubles Trophy is a silver challenge cup and cover presented to the All England Club by the family of two-time Wimbledon doubles winner S.H. Smith. \n\nThe runner-up in each event receives an inscribed silver plate. The trophies are usually presented by the President of the All England Club, The Duke of Kent.\n\nPrize money\n\nPrize money was first awarded in 1968, the year that professional players were allowed to compete in the Championships for the first time. Total prize money was £26,150; the winner of the men's title earned £2,000 while the women's singles champion earned £750. \n\nBefore 2007, among grand slam tournaments, Wimbledon and the French Open awarded more prize money in men's events than in women's events. In 2007, Wimbledon changed this policy, awarding the same amounts per event category to both men and women. The decision has been controversial because women generally spend considerably less time playing on court than men (except in mixed doubles) owing to their wins being based upon best of three sets, whereas men's are based upon best of five sets. \n\nIn 2009, a total of £12,500,000 in prize money was awarded with the singles champions receiving £850,000 each, an increase of 13.3 percent on 2008. \n\nFor the 2010 Championships, the total prize money increased to £13,725,000, and the singles champions received £1,000,000 each.\n\nFor the 2011 Wimbledon Championships it was announced that the total prize money would be £14,600,000, an increase of 6.4% from 2010. Both male and female singles champions prize money also increased to £1,100,000, a rise of 10% since the previous year. \n\nOn 24 April 2012, it was announced that the total prize money offered at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships would be £16,060,000, an increase of 10.0% from 2011. The bulk of the increases were given to players losing in earlier rounds. This move was in response to the growing angst among lower-ranked players concerning the inadequacy of their pay. Sergiy Stakhovsky, a member of the ATP Player Council and who was at the time ranked 68th, was among the most vocal in the push for higher pay for players who bow out in the earlier rounds. In an interview Stakhovsky intimated that it is not uncommon for lower-ranked players to be in the negative, for certain tour events, if their results weren't stellar. This issue gained the attention of the men's \"big four\"—Novak Djokovic, Roger Federer, Andy Murray, and Rafael Nadal—as well as the Championships.\n\nOn 23 April 2013, The All England Club announced the total prize money had been increased by about 40% from 2012 to £22,560,000. The losers in the earlier singles rounds of the tournament saw a highest 62% increase in their pay while the total prize money of the doubles increased by 22%. The prize money for participants of the qualifying matches saw an increase of 41%. Sergiy Stakhovsky, a member of the ATP Player Council, was the loudest voice for this increase. \n\nThe 2015 prize money is £1,880,000 each for the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Singles winners, £340,000 each pair for the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Doubles winners, and £100,000 per pair for the Mixed Doubles winners. The total prize money awarded is £26,750,000 up 7% from the £25,000,000 in 2014.\n\nThe 2016 Wimbledon Championships saw prize money for the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Singles winners reach £2,000,000 for the first time. The winning pair of the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Doubles will receive £350,000, a £10,000 increase from 2015. £100,000 will be awarded to the winning pair of the Mixed Doubles competition. The total prize money of £28,100,000 is a 5% increase on the 2015 prize money.\n\nRanking points\n\nRanking points for the ATP and WTA have varied at Wimbledon through the years but at present singles players receive the following points:\n\nChampions\n\nPast champions\n\n* Gentlemen's Singles\n* Ladies' Singles\n* Gentlemen's Doubles\n* Ladies' Doubles\n* Mixed Doubles\n\nSix of the 18 female winners in the Open Era have not reached world no. 1 ranking. These are, in chronological order: Ann Haydon-Jones, Virginia Wade, Conchita Martínez, Jana Novotná, Petra Kvitová, and Marion Bartoli. Although the men ranked world no. 1 have been dominant in Wimbledon (11 of the 20 Open Era winners), four champions reached a career high of world no. 2, Arthur Ashe, Michael Stich, Goran Ivanišević, and Andy Murray. Richard Krajicek, Pat Cash, and Jan Kodeš, who reached career highs of only no. 4, have also won the singles championship.\n\nCurrent champions\n\nFile:2015_Australian_Open_-_Andy_Murray_12_(cropped).jpg\|Andy Murray was the winner of the Gentlemen's Singles in 2016. It was his third Grand Slam Men's Singles title and his second Wimbledon title, following his victory in 2013.\nFile:Serena Williams Dish Venus Rosewater 2015.jpg\|Serena Williams was the winner of the Ladies' Singles in 2016. It was her twenty-second Grand Slam Women's Singles title and her seventh title at Wimbledon in singles, and fourteenth title at Wimbledon.\nFile:Pierre-Hugues Herbert (19047575640).jpg\|Pierre-Hugues Herbert was part of the winning Men's Doubles team in 2016. It was his second Grand Slam Men's Doubles title and his first title at Wimbledon.\nFile:Nicolas Mahut (27656705272).jpg\|Nicolas Mahut was part of the winning Men's Doubles team in 2016. It was his second Grand Slam Men's Doubles title and his first title at Wimbledon.\nFile:VWilliams WIM2010.jpg\|Venus Williams, along with sister Serena won the Women's Doubles title in 2016. This was her sixth Wimbledon Women's Doubles title and eleventh title overall at Wimbledon. \nFile:Serena Williams (19479794256).jpg\|Serena Williams won her 14th Grand Slam Doubles title along with older sister Venus. This win makes them the second most successful female doubles pairing in the Open Era.\nFile:Watson WM15 (8) (20442762998).jpg\|Heather Watson won the Mixed Doubles event with Henri Kontinen in 2016. It was her first senior Grand Slam title and she was the first British woman since Jo Durie in 1987 to win the Wimbledon Mixed Doubles title.\n\n \t\t \t\n \t\n\nRecords" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Michael Stich" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "michael stich" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "michael stich", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Michael Stich" }
In what year was the Kellogg Company set up to manufacture cornflakes?	tc_1311	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Kellogg's.txt" ], "title": [ "Kellogg's" ], "wiki_context": [ "Kellogg Company (also Kellogg's, Kellogg, and Kellogg's of Battle Creek) is an American multinational food manufacturing company headquartered in Battle Creek, Michigan, United States. Kellogg's produces cereal and convenience foods, including cookies, crackers, toaster pastries, cereal bars, fruit-flavored snacks, frozen waffles, and vegetarian foods. The company's brands include Froot Loops, Apple Jacks, Corn Flakes, Frosted Flakes, Rice Krispies, Special K, Cocoa Krispies, Keebler, Pringles, Pop-Tarts, Kashi, Cheez-It, Eggo, Nutri-Grain, Morningstar Farms, and many more. Kellogg's stated purpose is \"Nourishing families so they can flourish and thrive.\" \n\nKellogg's products are manufactured in 18 countries and marketed in over 180 countries. Kellogg's largest factory is at Trafford Park in Manchester, United Kingdom, which is also the location of its European headquarters. Kellogg's holds a Royal Warrant from Queen Elizabeth II and the Prince of Wales.\n\nHistory\n\nKellogg's was founded as the Battle Creek Toasted Corn Flake Company on February 19, 1906, by Will Keith Kellogg as an outgrowth of his work with his brother John Harvey Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanitarium following practices based on the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The company produced and marketed the hugely successful Kellogg's Toasted Corn Flakes and was renamed the Kellogg Company in 1922.\n\nIn 1930, the Kellogg Company announced that most of its factories would shift towards 30-hour work weeks, from the usual 40. W.K. Kellogg stated that he did this so that an additional shift of workers would be employed in an effort to support people through the depression era. This practice remained until World War II, and continued briefly after the war, although some departments and factories remained locked into 30-hour work weeks until 1980. \n\nFrom 1969 to 1977, Kellogg's acquired various small businesses including Salada Foods, Fearn International, Mrs. Smith's Pies, Eggo, and Pure Packed Foods; however, it was later criticized for not diversifying further like General Mills and Quaker Oats were. After underspending its competition in marketing and product development, Kellogg's U.S. market share hit a low 36.7% in 1983. A prominent Wall Street analyst called it \"a fine company that's past its prime\" and the cereal market was being regarded as \"mature\". Such comments invigorated Kellogg chairman William E. LaMothe to improve, which primarily involved approaching the demographic of 80 million baby boomers rather than marketing children-oriented cereals. In emphasizing cereal's convenience and nutritional value, Kellogg's helped persuade U.S. consumers age 25 to 49 to eat 26% more cereal than people of that age ate five years prior. The U.S. ready-to-eat cereal market, worth $3.7 billion at retail in 1983, totaled $5.4 billion by 1988, and had expanded three times as fast as the average grocery category. Kellogg's also introduced new products including Crispix, Raisin Squares, and Nutri-Grain Biscuits and reached out internationally with Just Right aimed at Australians and Genmai Flakes for Japan. During this time, the company maintained success over its top competitors: General Mills, which largely marketed children's cereals, and Post, which had difficulty in the adult cereal market. \n\nIn March 2001, Kellogg's made its largest acquisition, the Keebler Company. Over the years, it has also gone on to acquire Morningstar Farms and Kashi divisions or subsidiaries. Kellogg's also owns the Bear Naked, Natural Touch, Cheez-It, Murray, Austin cookies and crackers, Famous Amos, Gardenburger (acquired 2007), and Plantation brands. Presently, Kellogg's is a member of the World Cocoa Foundation.\n\nIn 2012, Kellogg's became the world's second-largest snack food company (after PepsiCo) by acquiring the Pringles potato crisps brand from Procter & Gamble for $2.7 billion in a cash deal. \n\nProducts\n\n* Austin\n* Bear Naked, Inc.\n* Chips Deluxe\n* Cheez-It Crackers\n* Eggo\n* Famous Amos\n* Fruit Winders\n* Fruity Snacks\n* Kashi (company)\n* Keebler Company\n* Krave\n* Mother's Cookies\n* Morningstar Farms\n* Murray Cookies, founded in Augusta, Georgia in 1940 as the Murray Biscuit Company, by John L. Murray and son John L. Murray Jr, known today for their line of sugar free cookies \n* Nutri-Grain \n* Pop-Tarts\n* Pringles\n* Sunshine Biscuits\n* Town house\n* Zesta Crackers\n\nCereal\n\nA list of cereal products produced by Kellogg's, with available varieties:\n\n* All-Bran: All-Bran Original, All-Bran Bran Buds, All-Bran Bran Flakes (UK), All-Bran Extra Fiber, All-Bran Guardian (Canada)\n* Apple Jacks\n* Apple Jacks Apple vs Cinnamon Limited Edition\n* Apple Jacks 72 Flavor Blast (Germany)\n* Bran Buds (New Zealand)\n* Bran Flakes\n* Chocos (India, Europe)\n* Chocolate Corn Flakes: a chocolate version of Corn Flakes. First sold in the UK in 1998 (as Choco Corn Flakes or Choco Flakes), but discontinued a few years later. Re-released in 2011.\n* Cinnabon\n* Cinnamon Mini Buns\n* Coco Pops Coco Rocks\n* Coco Pops Special Edition Challenger Spaceship\n* Coco Pops Crunchers\n* Coco Pops Mega Munchers\n* Coco Pops Moons and Stars\n* Cocoa Krispies or Coco Pops (also called Choco Pops in France, Choco Krispies in Portugal, Spain, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, Choco Krispis in Latin America)\n* Cocoa Flakes\n* Corn Flakes\n* Complete Wheat Bran Flakes/Bran Flakes\n* Corn Pops\n* Country Store\n* Crispix\n* Crunch: Caramel Nut Crunch, Cran-Vanilla Crunch, Toasted Honey Crunch\n* Crunchy Nut (formerly Crunchy Nut Cornflakes)\n* Crunch Nut Bran\n* Cruncheroos\n* Disney cereals: Disney Hunny B's Honey-Graham, Disney Mickey's Magix, Disney Mud & Bugs, Pirates of the Caribbean, Disney Princess\n* Eggo\n* Extra (Muesli): Fruit and Nut, Fruit Magic, Nut Delight\n* Froot Loops: Froot Loops, Froot Loops Less Sugar, Marshmallow Froot Loops\n* Frosted Flakes (Frosties outside of the US/Canada): Kellogg's Frosted Flakes, Kellogg's Frosted Flakes Kellogg's Banana Frosted Flakes, Kellogg's Birthday Confetti Frosted Flakes, Kellogg's Cocoa Frosted Flakes,Less Sugar, Tony's Cinnamon Krunchers\n* Frosted Mini-Wheats (known in the UK as Toppas until the early 1990s, when the name was changed to Frosted Wheats. The name Toppas is still applied to this product in other parts of Europe, as in Germany and Austria)\n* Fruit Harvest: Fruit Harvest Apple Cinnamon, Fruit Harvest Peach Strawberry, Fruit Harvest Strawberry Blueberry\n* Fruit 'n Fibre (not related to the Post cereal of the same name sold in the US)\n* Fruit Winders (UK)\n* Genmai Flakes (Japan)\n* Guardian (Australia, NZ, Canada)\n* Honey Loops (formerly Honey Nut Loops)\n* Honey Nut Corn Flakes\n* Honey Smacks (US)/Smacks (other markets)\n* Jif Peanut Butter Cereal (US only)\n* Just Right: Just Right Original, Just Right Fruit & Nut, Just Right Just Grains, Just Right Tropical, Just Right Berry & Apple, Just Right Crunchy Blends – Cranberry, Almond & Sultana (Australia/NZ), Just Right Crunchy Blends – Apple, Date & Sultana (Australia/NZ)\n* Kombos\n* Krave (Discontinued in the UK, US, Italy. Was returned to the European market in 2011, and to the US market in 2012)\n* Komplete (Australia)\n* Low-Fat Granola: Low-Fat Granola, Low-Fat Granola with Raisins\n* Mini Max\n* Mini Swirlz\n* Mini-Wheats: Mini-Wheats Frosted Original, Mini-Wheats Frosted Bite Size, Mini-Wheats Frosted Maple & Brown Sugar, Mini-Wheats Raisin, Mini-Wheats Strawberry, Mini-Wheats Vanilla Creme, Mini-Wheats Strawberry Delight, Mini-Wheats Blackcurrant\n* Mueslix: Mueslix with Raisins, Dates & Almonds\n* Nutri-Grain\n* Nut Feast\n* Oat Bran: Cracklin' Oat Bran\n\n* Optivita\n* Product 19\n* Raisin Bran/Sultana Bran: Raisin Bran, Raisin Bran Crunch, Sultana Bran (Australia/NZ), Sultana Bran Crunch (Australia/NZ)\n* Raisin Wheats\n* Rice Krispies/Rice Bubbles: Rice Krispies, Frosted Rice Krispies (Ricicles in the UK), Gluten Free Rice Krispies, Rice Bubbles, LCMs, Rice Krispies Cocoa (Canada only), Rice Crispies Multi-Grain Shapes, Rice Krispies Treats Cereal\n* Rocky Mountain Chocolate Factory Chocolatey Almond cereal\n* Scooby-Doo cereal: Cinnamon Marshmallow Scooby-Doo! Cereal\n* Smart Start: Smart Start, Smart Start Soy Protein Cereal\n* Smorz\n* Special K: Special K, Special K low carb lifestyle, Special K Red Berries, Special K Vanilla Almond, Special K Honey & Almond (Australia), Special K Forest Berries (Australia), Special K Purple Berries (UK), Special K Light Muesli Mixed Berries & Apple (Australia/NZ), Special K Light Muesli Peach & Mango flavour (Australia/NZ), Special K Dark Chocolate (Belgium), Special K Milk Chocolate (Belgium), Special K Sustain (UK)\n* Spider-Man cereal: Spider-Man Spidey-Berry\n* SpongeBob SquarePants cereal\n* Start (UK)\n* Strawberry Pops (South Africa)\n* Sustain: Sustain, Sustain Selection\n* Tresor (Europe)\n* Variety\n* Vector (Canada only)\n* Yeast bites with honey\n* Kringelz (formerly known as ZimZ!): mini cinnamon-flavored spirals. Only sold in Germany and Austria \n\nDiscontinued cereals and foods\n\n* Banana Bubbles\nA banana-flavoured variation of Rice Krispies. First appeared in the UK in 1995, but discontinued shortly thereafter.\n* Banana Frosted Flakes \n* Bart Simpson's No Problem-O's and Bart Simpson's Eat My Shorts\nSold in the UK for a limited period\n* Bart Simpson Peanut Butter Chocolate Crunch Cereal \n* Bigg Mixx cereal\n* Buzz Blasts (based on Buzz Lightyear from the Toy Story movies)\n* C-3PO's cereal: Introduced in 1984 and inspired by the multi-lingual droid from Star Wars, the cereal called itself \"a New (crunchy) Force at Breakfast\" and was composed of \"twin rings phased together for two crunches in every double-O\". In other words, they were shaped like the digit 8. After severing the cereal's ties to Star Wars, the company renamed it Pro-Grain and promoted it with sports-oriented commercials.\n* Chocolate Mud & Bugs\n* Cinnamon Crunch Crispix\n* Cinnamon Mini-Buns\n* Cocoa Hoots: Manufactured briefly in the early 1970s, this cereal resembled Cheerios but was chocolate-flavored. The mascot was a cartoon character named Newton the Owl, and one of its commercials featured a young Jodie Foster.\n* Coco Pops Strawss\n* Complete Oat Bran Flakes\n* Concentrate \n* Corn Flakes with Instant Bananas\n* Corn Soya cereal\n* Crunchy Loggs\n* Double Dip Crunch \n* Frosted Krispies\n* Frosted Rice: This was a combination of Frosted Flakes and Rice Krispies, using Rice Krispies with frosting on them. Tony Jr. was the brand's mascot.\n* Fruity Marshmallow Krispies\n* Golden Crackles\n* Golden Oatmeal Crunch (later revised to Golden Crunch)\n* Heartwise (which contained psyllium, an Indian-grown grain used as a laxative and cholesterol-reducer) \n* Homer's Cinnamon Donut Cereal (based on The Simpsons TV cartoon)\n* Kenmei Rice Bran cereal \n* KOMBOs (orange, strawberry and chocolate flavors) \n* Kream Krunch\n* Krumbles cereal: Manufactured approximately from the 1920s to the mid 1960s; based on shreds of wheat but different from shredded wheat in texture. Unlike the latter, it tended to remain crisp in milk. In the Chicago area, Krumbles was available into the late 1960s. It was also high in fiber, although that attribute was not in vogue at the time.\n* Marshmallow Krispies (later revised to Fruity Marshmallow Krispies)\n* Most\n* Mr. T's Muscle Crunch (1983–1985)\n* Nut & Honey Crunch\n* OJ's (\"All the Vitamin C of a 4-oz. Glass of Orange Juice\") \n* OKs cereal (early 1960s): Oat-based cereal physically resembling the competing brand Cheerios, with half the OKs shaped like letter O's and the other half shaped like K's, but did not taste like Cheerios. OKs originally featured Big Otis, a giant, burly Scotsman, on the box; this was replaced by the more familiar Yogi Bear.\n* Pep: Best remembered as the sponsor of the Superman radio serial.\n* Pokémon Cereal: A limited edition cereal that contained marshmallow shapes in the forms of Gen I Pokémon Pikachu, Oddish, Poliwhirl and Ditto.\n* Pop-Tarts Crunch\n* Powerpuff Girls Cereal\n* Puffa Puffa Rice (late 1960s–early 1970s)\n* Raisin Squares \n* Raisins Rice and Rye \n* Razzle Dazzle Rice Krispies\n* Sugar Stars/Stars/All-Stars cereal\n* Strawberry Rice Krispies\n* Strawberry Splitz\n* 3 Point Pops \n* Tony's Cinnamon Krunchers\n* Triple Snack\n* Woody Woodpecker cereal\n* Yogos (Berry, Mango, Strawberry, 72 Flavor Blast (Germany), Cookies and Cream, Tacos (Mexico))\n* Yogos Rollers\n\nMarketing \n\nVarious methods have been used in the company's history to promote the company and its brands. Foremost among these is the design of the Kellogg's logo by Ferris Crane under the art direction of famed type guru Y. Ames. Another was the well-remembered jingle \"K E double-L, O double-good, Kellogg's best to you!\"\n\nSome of Kellogg's marketing has been questioned in the press, prompted by an increase in consumer awareness of the mismatch between the marketing messages and the products themselves. \n\nFood bloggers are also questioning the marketing methods used by cereal manufacturing companies such as Kellogg's, due to their high sugar content and use of ingredients such as high-fructose corn syrup. \n\nKellogg's was a major sponsor throughout the run of the hit CBS panel show What's My Line? It and its associated products Frosted Flakes and Rice Krispies were also major sponsors for the PBS Kids children's animated series Dragon Tales. \n\nPremiums and prizes \n\nW.K. Kellogg was the first to introduce prizes in boxes of cereal. The marketing strategy that he established has produced thousands of different cereal box prizes that have been distributed by the tens of billions. \n\nChildren's premiums \n\nKellogg's Corn Flakes had the first cereal premium with The Funny Jungleland Moving Pictures Book. The book was originally available as a prize that was given to the customer in the store with the purchase of two packages of the cereal. But in 1909, Kellogg's changed the book give-away to a premium mail-in offer for the cost of a dime. Over 2.5 million copies of the book were distributed in different editions over a period of 23 years. \n\nCereal box prizes \n\nIn 1945, Kellogg's inserted a prize in the form of pin-back buttons into each box of Pep cereal. Pep pins have included U.S. Army squadrons as well as characters from newspaper comics and were available through 1947. There were five series of comic characters and 18 different buttons in each set, with a total of 90 in the collection. Other manufacturers of major brands of cereal, including General Mills, Malt-O-Meal, Nestlé, Post Foods, and Quaker Oats, followed suit and inserted prizes into boxes of cereal to promote sales and brand loyalty.\n\nMascots \n\nLicensed brands have been omitted since the corresponding mascots would be obvious (e.g. Spider-Man is the mascot for Spider-Man Spidey-Berry).\n\n* Cocoa Hoots cereal: Newton the Owl\n* Cocoa Krispies cereal (Known as Choco Krispis in Latin America, Choco Krispies in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, Chocos in India, and Coco Pops in Australia, the UK, and Europe): Jose (monkey), Coco (monkey), Melvin (elephant), Snagglepuss (Hanna-Barbera character), Ogg (caveman), Tusk (elephant), and Snap, Crackle and Pop (who were also, and remain as of February 2014, the Rice Krispies mascots; see below)\n* Corn Flakes cereal: Cornelius (rooster)\n* Frosted Flakes (known as Frosties outside the US/Canada, Zucaritas in Latin America and Sucrilhos in Brazil) cereal: Tony the Tiger\n* Froot Loops cereal: Toucan Sam\n* Honey Smacks (US)/Smacks (other markets) cereal: Dig 'Em Frog\n* Raisin Bran cereal: Sunny the Sun\n* Rice Krispies (known as Rice Bubbles in Australia) cereal: Snap, Crackle and Pop\n* Ricicles (UK Only) cereal: Captain Rik\n* Apple Jacks cereal: CinnaMon and Bad Apple\n* Honey Loops cereal: Loopy (bumblebee), Pops (honey bee)\n* Keebler cookies and crackers : Ernie and the Elves\n\nMotorsports \n\nKellogg's made its first foray into auto racing between 1991 and 1992, when the company sponsored the #41 Chevrolets fielded by Larry Hedrick Motorsports in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series and driven by Phil Parsons, Dave Marcis, Greg Sacks, Hut Stricklin, and Richard Petty, but they gained greater prominence for their sponsorship of 2-time Winston Cup Champion Terry Labonte from 1993 to 2006, the last 12 years of that as the sponsor for Hendrick Motorsports' #5 car. Kellogg's sponsored the #5 for Labonte, Kyle Busch, Casey Mears, and Mark Martin until 2010, and it then served as an associate sponsor for Carl Edwards' #99 car for Roush Fenway Racing.\n\nKellogg's placed Dale Earnhardt on Kellogg's Corn Flakes boxes for 1993 six-time Winston Cup champ and 1994 seven-time Winston Cup champ, as well as Jeff Gordon on the Mini Wheats box for the 1993 rookie of the year, 1995 Brickyard 400 inaugural race, 1997 Champion, and 1998 three-time champ, and a special three-pack racing box set with Dale Earnhardt, Jeff Gordon, Terry Labonte, and Dale Jarrett in 1996.\n\nMerchandising \n\nKellogg's has used some merchandising for their products. Kellogg's once released Mission Nutrition, a PC game that came free with special packs of cereal. It played in a similar fashion as Donkey Kong Country; users could play as Tony the Tiger, Coco the Monkey, or Snap, Crackle, and Pop. Kellogg's has also released \"Talking\" games. The two current versions are Talking Tony and Talking Sam. In these games, a microphone is used to play games and create voice commands for their computers. In Talking Tony, Tony the Tiger, one of Kellogg's most famous mascots, would be the main and only character in the game. In Talking Sam, Toucan Sam, another famous mascot, would be in the game, instead. Some toy cars have the Kellogg's logo on them, and occasionally their mascots.\n\nThere was also a Talking Snap Crackle and Pop software.\n\nControversies\n\nCalifornia Proposition 37\n\nKellogg's has donated around US$2 million opposing California Proposition 37, a ballot initiative that, if enacted, would have required compulsory labeling of genetically engineered food products. \n\n2010 Cereal Recall\n\nOn June 25, the company voluntarily began to recall about 28 million boxes of Apple Jacks, Corn Pops, Froot Loops and Honey Smacks because of an unusual smell and flavor from the packages' liners that could make people ill. Kellogg's said about 20 people complained about the cereals, including five who reported nausea and vomiting. Consumers reported the cereal smelled or tasted waxy or like metal or soap. Company spokeswoman J. Adaire Putnam said some described it as tasting stale. However, no serious health problems have been reported. \n\nThe suspected chemical that caused the illnesses was 2-methylnaphthalene, used in the cereal packaging process. Little is known about 2-methylnaphthalene's impact on human health as the Food and Drug Administration has no scientific data on its impact on humans, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also does not have health and safety data. This is despite the EPA having sought information on it from the chemical industry for 16 years. 2-Methylnaphthalene is a component of crude oil, and is \"structurally related to naphthalene, an ingredient in mothballs and toilet-deodorant blocks\" that the EPA considers a possible human carcinogen. \n\nKellogg's offered consumers refunds in the meantime. Only products with the letters \"KN\" following the use-by date were included in the recall. The products were distributed throughout the U.S. and began arriving in stores in late March 2010. Products in Canada were not affected.\n\n2012 Cereal Recall\n\nKellogg's issued a voluntary recall of some of its “Frosted Mini-Wheats Bite Size Original” and “Mini-Wheats Unfrosted Bite Size” products due to the possibility of flexible metal mesh fragments in the food. The affected products varied in size from single-serving bowls to large 70-ounce cartons. Use-by dates printed on the recalled packages ranged from April 1, 2013 to September 21, 2013, and were accompanied by the letters KB, AP or FK. \n\nAdvertising claims \n\nOn June 3, 2010, Kellogg's was found to be making unsubstantiated and misleading claims in advertising their cereal products by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). \n\nKellogg's responded by stating \"We stand behind the validity of our product claims and research, so we agreed to an order that covers those claims. We believe that the revisions to the existing consent agreement satisfied any remaining concerns.\"\n\nThe FTC had previously found fault with Kellogg's claims that Frosted Mini-Wheats cereal improved kids' attentiveness by nearly 20%. \n\nThe Children's Advertising Review Unit of the Council of Better Business Bureaus has also suggested that the language on Kellogg Pop-Tarts packages saying the pastries are \"Made with Real Fruit\" should be taken off the products. \nIn July 2012, the UK banned a \"Special K\" advertisement due to its citing caloric values that did not take into account the caloric value of milk consumed with the cereal. \n\nPeanut flour\n\nKellogg's disclosed on March 30, 2016 that they would be adding peanut flour to eight varieties of crackers. \n\nOperations\n\n* :\n Pagewood \n Charmhaven (snack and cereal plant closing in 2014.) \n* : Zaventem & Mechelen plant\n* : São Paulo\n* :\n Mississauga, Ontario – Canadian head office\n Anjou, Quebec – Eastern Canada sales office\n Calgary, Alberta – Western Canada sales office\n London, Ontario – manufacturers and distributes cereals (including Corn Flakes) in Canada. Set to close at end of 2014, \n** Belleville, Ontario – cereal production plant opened 2009 and upgraded 2011; will take over some operations from London after 2014\n* : Shanghai – Joint venture with agribusiness and food company Yihai Kerry\n* : Noisy-le-Grand, Paris \n* : Bremen\n* : Mumbai\n* : Kellogg Europe Trading, Swords, Dublin\n* : Milan\n* : Shinjuku, Tokyo \n* : Bandar Enstek, Negeri Sembilan \n* : Querétaro\n* Middle East \n : Lod\n : Jeddah\n : Dubai\n : Kuwait City\n : Manama\n : Azaiba, Muscat\n : Beirut\n : Amman\n : Doha\n : Damascus\n : Giza\n : Tripoli\n** : Tehran\n* : Den Bosch[http://annualreport2007.kelloggcompany.com/24.aspx Kellogg Annual Report 2007 – Kellogg North America Brands] \n* : Alaska Milk Corporation \n* : Kutno \n* : Lisbon\n* : Kellogg Rus LLC\n* : Springs \n* : Seoul\n* : Valls\n* : Colombo; Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte\n* : Bangkok, Rayong (snacks and cereals)\n* :\n : Manchester\n : Portable Foods Manufacturing Livingston\n** : Wrexham including Portable Foods Manufacturing\n* : Battle Creek, Michigan\n* : Maracay, Aragua\n*" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1906", "one thousand, nine hundred and six" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1906", "one thousand nine hundred and six" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1906", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1906" }
Which wartime classic was the title of a 1980 film with Hanna Schygulla & Mel Ferrer?	tc_1312	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Hanna_Schygulla.txt" ], "title": [ "Hanna Schygulla" ], "wiki_context": [ "Hanna Schygulla (born 25 December 1943) is a German actress and chanson singer. Long associated with the theater and film director Rainer Werner Fassbinder, for whom Schygulla first worked in 1965, she is generally considered the most prominent German actress of the New German Cinema.\n\nLife and career\n\nSchygulla was born in Königshütte (present day Chorzów in Poland) to German parents Antonie (née Mzyk) and Joseph Schygulla. Both the names Schygulla (also spelled Szyguła) and Mzyk are of Polish/Silesian origin, indicating a mixed heritage as was very common in Silesia. Her father, a timber merchant by profession, was then drafted as an infantryman in the German Army and was captured by American forces in Italy, subsequently being held as a prisoner of war until 1948. In 1945 Schygulla and her mother arrived as refugees in Munich following the expulsion of the majority German-speaking population of Königshütte by Communist Poland. Much later, in the 1960s, Schygulla studied Romance languages and German studies, while taking acting lessons in Munich during her spare time.\n\nActing eventually became her focus, and she became particularly known for her film work with Rainer Werner Fassbinder. During the making of Effi Briest (1974), an adaptation of a German novel by Theodor Fontane, Fassbinder and Schygulla fell out over divergent interpretations of the character. Another issue for Schygulla was low pay, and she led a revolt against Fassbinder during the making of Effi Briest, shot in September 1972 some time before its commercial release. His response was typically blunt: \"I can't stand the sight of your face any more. You bust my balls\". They did not work together again for several years until The Marriage of Maria Braun in 1978. The film was entered into the 29th Berlin International Film Festival, where she won the Silver Bear for Best Actress for her performance. In 1980 she acted in Fassbinder's miniseries adaptation of Berlin Alexanderplatz.\n\nIn 1981 Schygulla starred alongside Bruno Ganz in Volker Schlöndorff's Circle of Deceit, and the following year with Isabelle Huppert in Jean-Luc Godard's Passion. She was a member of the jury at the 15th Moscow International Film Festival in 1987. \n\nIn the 1990s she became a well-known chanson singer. In Juliane Lorenz's documentary film Life, Love and Celluloid (1998), on Fassbinder and related topics, Schygulla performs several songs.\n\nSchygulla appeared in the 2000 Béla Tarr film Werckmeister Harmonies, and in 2002 in VB51, a performance by the artist Vanessa Beecroft. Five years later, she appeared in the film The Edge of Heaven, directed by Fatih Akın, to wide acclaim.\n\nIn 2007 she received the Honorary Award from the Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival and in 2010 she received the Honorary Golden Bear from the Berlin Film Festival. In 2011 she acted in the Alexander Sokurov film Faust. Schygulla lived in Paris from 1981 to 2014, when she left for Berlin.\n\nFilmography\n\n* Love is Colder than Death (1969)\n* Katzelmacher (1969)\n* Gods of the Plague (1970)\n* Why Does Herr R. Run Amok? (1970)\n* Mathias Kneissl (1970)\n* ' (1971)\n* Rio das Mortes (1971)\n* ' (1971)\n* Whity (1971)\n* Beware of a Holy Whore (1971)\n* The Merchant of Four Seasons (1972)\n* The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant (1972)\n* Acht Stunden sind kein Tag (1972, TV miniseries)\n* Effi Briest (1974)\n* The Wrong Move (1975)\n* The Clown (1976)\n* The Marriage of Maria Braun (1979)\n* The Third Generation (1979)\n* Berlin Alexanderplatz (1980, TV miniseries)\n* Circle of Deceit - Die Fälschung (1981)\n* Lili Marleen (1981)\n* That Night in Varennes (1982)\n* Passion (1982)\n* Antonieta (1982)\n* Sheer Madness (1983)\n* The Story of Piera (1983)\n* A Love in Germany (1983)\n* The Future is Woman (1984)\n* Peter the Great (1986, TV miniseries)\n* The Delta Force (1986)\n* Miss Arizona (1987)\n* Forever, Lulu (1987)\n* Casanova (1987)\n* The Summer of Miss Forbes (1989)\n* Abraham's Gold (1990)\n* Dead Again (1991)\n* Warsaw - Year 5703 (1992)\n* The Blue Exile (1993)\n* Pakten (1995)\n* A Hundred and One Nights (1995)\n* Metamorphosis of a Melody (1996)\n* Black Out p.s. Red Out (1998)\n* Werckmeister Harmonies (2000)\n* Winterreise (2006)\n* The Edge of Heaven (2007)\n* Faust (2011)\n* Lullaby to My Father (2012)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Lily Marlene", "Lily Marleen", "Lili Marleen (Connie Francis single)", "Lilly Marlene", "Lili Marleen (song)", "Lili Marlene", "Lili Marleen", "Lili Marlène", "Lili Marlen", "Lily Marlène" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "lily marlène", "lili marleen", "lily marlene", "lili marleen connie francis single", "lili marlene", "lily marleen", "lili marleen song", "lilly marlene", "lili marlène", "lili marlen" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "lili marlene", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Lili Marlene" }
Who was the voice of Matt Dillon for 11 years on radio's Gunsmoke?	tc_1314	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Matt_Dillon_(Gunsmoke).txt", "Gunsmoke.txt" ], "title": [ "Matt Dillon (Gunsmoke)", "Gunsmoke" ], "wiki_context": [ "Matt Dillon is a fictional character featured on both the radio and television versions of Gunsmoke. He serves as the U.S. Marshal of Dodge City, Kansas, who works to preserve law and order in the western frontier of the 1870s. The character was created by writer John Meston, who envisioned him as a man \"...whose hair is probably red, if he's got any left. He'd be handsomer than he is if he had better manners but life and his enemies have left him looking a little beat up, and I suppose having seen his mother (back about 1840) trying to take a bath in a wooden washtub without fully undressing left his soul a little warped. Anyway, there'd have to be something wrong with him or he wouldn't have hired on as a United States Marshal in the heyday of Dodge City, Kansas.\" Notwithstanding Meston's original vision, the character evolved considerably during Gunsmokes nine-year run on CBS Radio and its 20-year run on CBS Television.\n\nAs portrayed on the radio series\n\nOn the radio series (which ran from 1952 until 1961), Matt was portrayed by William Conrad, whose deep and resonant voice helped to project a larger than life presence. In the opening of most radio episodes, the announcer would describe the show as \"...the story of the violence that moved west with young America, and the story of a man who moved with it.\" William Conrad's Matt would take over, saying, \"I'm that man, Matt Dillon, United States Marshal -- the first man they look for and the last they want to meet. It's a chancy job, and it makes a man watchful . . . and a little lonely.\" Conrad's Matt provided bits of narration for many of the radio episodes, usually to help set the scene for the listener or to provide observations that assisted with character development. Inasmuch as the radio episodes were a bit darker and more violent in nature than the television episodes (especially in the radio series' early years), Conrad's Matt could sometimes be quick to anger and unhesitating with respect to taking violent courses of action. Paradoxically, however, Conrad's Matt often struggled internally with the need to utilize violence in order to fulfill his duties. He also struggled internally with the frequent needless tragedies that his job caused him to witness. These factors were the primary reasons that Conrad's Matt could occasionally become snappish and impatient with others (including his friends and allies). At all times, however, he managed to remain sufficiently in control of his emotions to perform his difficult job capably and impartially. Conrad's Matt would speak frequently of the still-fragile acceptance of law and order on the frontier and he would sometimes determine his course of action based upon what he honestly felt was necessary to preserve its long-term acceptance. In the radio version, Matt spoke of actual persons who were well known in the history of the American West, including Wyatt Earp and Billy the Kid (whose \"supposed\" origin figured in the very first episode of the radio series), and he often referred to Wild Bill Hickok as being a close personal friend.\n\nAs portrayed on the television series\n\nIn the television version (which ran from 1955 until 1975), and subsequent TV-movies (1987 to 1994), Matt was portrayed by James Arness. Since most of the early television episodes were based on stories and scripts from the radio version, Arness's initial interpretation and portrayal was similar to William Conrad's. However, as the television version continued, Arness's Matt evolved in a number of ways. In the television version, Matt became more resigned to the violent nature of his job, and he was generally less given to brooding about the dangers and tragedies inherent in it. Arness's Matt was somewhat more understanding and tolerant of people's foibles, and he was a bit more intuitive with respect to discerning persons who came to Dodge City with the intention of committing crimes. As Arness's Matt grew older and wiser, he became less inclined to use violence to subdue wrongdoers. However, he never hesitated to do so when the situation warranted. Because of Arness's large (6' 7\") physical presence, most of Matt's adversaries seemed overmatched unless there were several of them. In any event, only the toughest or the most foolhardy individuals dared challenge him to a fair fight. On a few occasions, he even proved himself capable of defeating burly bare-knuckle prize fighters. On television, Matt tended to be a man of fewer words, which can largely be attributed to the fundamental fact that television is a visual medium. Since the audience can see what is happening, there is less need to describe surroundings or events through the use of dialog. Arness's Matt thus naturally evolved into a \"strong, silent\" type of character who tended to act rather than talk at length about possible courses of action.\n\nCharacteristics common to both portrayals\n\nDuring the 9-year run of the radio version of Gunsmoke and the 20-year run of the television version, surprisingly little was revealed about Matt's family history or about events in his past that may have shaped his views or his attitude toward his work. In both the radio and the television episodes, stories would occasionally center around individuals with whom he had once been close friends. Usually his experiences with these friends involved jobs on the periphery of law enforcement, such as tracking down rustlers or lost cattle for ranch owners. It was often implied that he had led an adventurous and sometimes nomadic lifestyle before becoming a U. S. Marshal and one of his old friends proudly stated that \"I knew Matt Dillon before he was civilized!\" On another occasion, Matt stated that he had once been a preacher but that \"...the pay was too small to support (his) gambling habit\". This was apparently said in jest, as there was no other mention of it during the series' run on radio or television.\n\nCertain of Matt's characteristics remained common to both the radio and television versions. Throughout both, Matt remained steadfast, honest, absolutely incorruptible, and dedicated to the cause of bringing genuine law and order to the violent and untamed American West. He rarely acted in an impetuous manner and he was invariably fair and impartial in the performance of his duties, even when it required subordinating his personal views concerning people or incidents. However, a certain edge was often evident in his voice when dealing with individuals who seemed destined to cause trouble and he would occasionally mete out harsh treatment to those who publicly challenged his authority or unwisely pushed him too far. He was fast and accurate with the single gun he carried and could easily outdraw almost any adversary, despite the fact that he virtually always allowed them to draw first. Matt was also notably compassionate toward those who had fallen on hard times or who had lost a loved one to crime or violence. In both the television and the radio versions, his closest friends were his assistant Chester, town physician \"Doc\" Adams, and saloon-keeper Kitty Russell. These three individuals were among Matt's few real friends because he knew that he could trust them in any situation. In the television version, Chester was eventually replaced by Festus Haggen (Ken Curtis), an uneducated but savvy plainsman who ultimately became a badge-wearing Deputy U. S. Marshal (a position that always eluded Chester).\n\nRelationship with Kitty Russell\n\nIn both the radio and television versions, the exact nature of Matt's relationship with Kitty Russell was deliberately kept somewhat vague. Kitty was portrayed by Georgia Ellis in the radio version and by Amanda Blake in the television version. In both versions, she was initially just another saloon hostess, and a popular story holds that she was actually a prostitute in the early radio episodes. However, this was never actually stated (or even directly implied) in any of the story lines and Kitty eventually acquired a considerable measure of respectability by becoming a part-owner (and ultimately the sole owner) of the thriving Long Branch Saloon. In both the radio and television versions, Matt frequently dined and socialized with Kitty and he rarely showed more than polite interest in any other woman. Kitty was similarly devoted to Matt. Her job brought her into daily contact with many different men from all walks of life, but she seldom showed more than fleeting interest in any of them. It was evident that Kitty would have readily accepted Matt's proposal of marriage, but she was a realist. She was well aware that Matt was reluctant to marry because the high-risk nature of his job could have made her a widow at any time. She nevertheless found this situation difficult to accept at times, and she would occasionally decide to leave Dodge City to pursue other opportunities or relationships. This occurred more often in the television episodes than it did in the radio episodes, and it typically occurred after Matt had inadvertently been thoughtless. Kitty always returned to Dodge City and to her duties at the Long Branch, though, and on occasion Matt would demonstrate a profound depth of feeling for her. In any event, they always remained devoted to one another in their own unique fashion. Over time, Matt also learned to have considerable respect for Kitty's ability to spot female troublemakers. Whenever he disregarded Kitty's warnings about the intentions or character of a particular woman, he invariably regretted it.\n\nAn early (November 29, 1952) radio episode that was simply titled \"Kitty\" provided a particularly significant insight into a major reason for the affinity that the two felt toward one another. Matt invites Kitty to a public dance and she is reluctant to accept for fear that she will be viewed with disdain due to her vocation as a saloon hostess. Matt is persistent and Kitty eventually relents, but her instincts prove correct. She is shunned and treated rudely by the respectable citizens in attendance, including a few men who avidly seek her company in other venues. Genuinely hurt, Kitty abruptly leaves the dance in tears and Matt becomes uncharacteristically angry with several individuals who imply that it is improper for a U. S. Marshal to be seen in such company. Subsequently, Matt seeks Kitty out to comfort her and reassure her that she will always have his admiration, affection, and respect, regardless of the views of others. Kitty is moved and cheered by Matt's gesture and the episode ends with the two sharing a private dance in an empty barroom. Matt's sincerity is obvious inasmuch as he himself sometimes finds that the respectable citizens of Dodge City regard him with trepidation (and even suspicion) because his job involves being \"...paid to handle a bad element.\" It is apparent that the incident at the dance has considerably strengthened the bond and the trust between Matt and Kitty.\n\nCharacter name and casting decisions\n\nIn a 1949 audition show (or pilot) for the radio series, the character was named \"Mark Dillon,\" but by 1952, when the regular series aired, the name had been changed to Matt Dillon.\nWhen the program came to television in 1955, the first episode was introduced by John Wayne in a brief film clip in which Wayne predicted that James Arness would become a major star. He went on to play the part for the next twenty years. A popular story holds that Wayne himself had been offered the part and had turned it down. Charles Marquis Warren, who produced the first year of the television version of Gunsmoke and made the major casting decisions, stated that he had jokingly asked Wayne whether he would be interested in the part in a casual social setting. He added that Wayne had indicated in no uncertain terms that he had no interest whatsoever. (Wayne was arguably the cinema's foremost box office attraction at the time.) Warren stated that the inquiry had not been serious inasmuch as Wayne could not realistically have been expected to abandon a thriving movie career for a less certain and immensely less lucrative television role. Wayne did, however, recommend James Arness for the part and his offer to introduce the first episode was readily accepted by CBS. Others who had auditioned for the part included Raymond Burr, Richard Boone, Denver Pyle, and William Conrad. All would go on to other television successes. Conrad, in particular, would continue to portray Matt on the radio series until it ended in 1961. He would also go on to direct a number of television programs (including two episodes of Gunsmoke), to become \"The Narrator\" for the original television series of The Fugitive (1963–1967) and star in two television series, Cannon (1971–1976) and Jake and the Fat Man (1987–1992).\n\nIn popular culture\n\nIn the 1988 action classic, Die Hard, Hans Gruber (Alan Rickman), asks John McClane (Bruce Willis) who he is trying to imitate with his heroics, and he mentions Marshal Dillon among action heroes John Wayne and Rambo.\n\nIn Toby Keith's 1993 number one hit, \"Should've Been a Cowboy\", the entire first verse concerns the relationship between Dillon and Miss Kitty. In the song Miss Kitty would have said yes to Matt \"in a New York Minute,\" but Dillon's heart wasn't in it. \"He stole a kiss as he rode away...\"\n\nIn some episodes of Gilligan's Island, Gilligan would dream that he was \"Matt Dillon\" in Dodge City, and the CBS Gunsmoke set was used, including the jail and sheriff's office.", "Gunsmoke is an American radio and television Western drama series created by director Norman Macdonnell and writer John Meston. The stories take place in and around Dodge City, Kansas, during the settlement of the American West. The central character is lawman Marshal Matt Dillon, played by William Conrad on radio and James Arness on television. When aired in the UK, the television series was initially titled Gun Law, later reverting to Gunsmoke. \n\nThe radio series ran from 1952 to 1961. John Dunning wrote that among radio drama enthusiasts, \"Gunsmoke is routinely placed among the best shows of any kind and any time.\" The television series ran for 20 seasons from 1955 to 1975, and stands as the United States' longest-running prime time, live-action drama with 635 episodes. In 2010, Law & Order tied Gunsmoke for most seasons for a live action drama series when it finished its 20th and final season, but the show finished 179 episodes short of Gunsmokes final total; in terms of prime-time scripted series with continuing characters, The Simpsons is the only program to exceed 20 seasons. At the end of its run in 1975, Los Angeles Times columnist Cecil Smith wrote: \"Gunsmoke was the dramatization of the American epic legend of the west. Our own Iliad and Odyssey, created from standard elements of the dime novel and the pulp western as romanticized by [Ned] Buntline, [Bret] Harte, and [Mark] Twain. It was ever the stuff of legend.\" \n\nRadio series (1952-1961) \n\nIn the late 1940s, CBS chairman William S. Paley, a fan of the Philip Marlowe radio serial, asked his programming chief, Hubell Robinson, to develop a hardboiled Western series, a show about a \"Philip Marlowe of the Old West\". Robinson instructed his West Coast CBS Vice President, Harry Ackerman, who had developed the Philip Marlowe series, to take on the task.\n\nAckerman and his scriptwriters, Mort Fine and David Friedkin, created an audition script called \"Mark Dillon Goes to Gouge Eye\" based on one of their Michael Shayne radio scripts, \"The Crooked Wheel\". Two auditions were created in 1949. The first was very much like a hardboiled detective series and starred Michael Rye (credited as Rye Billsbury) as Dillon; the second starred Straight Arrow actor Howard Culver in a more Western, lighter version of the same script. CBS liked the Culver version better, and Ackerman was told to proceed.\n\nA complication arose, though; Culver's contract as the star of Straight Arrow would not allow him to do another Western series. The project was shelved for three years, when producer Norman Macdonnell and writer John Meston discovered it while creating an adult Western series of their own.\n\nMacdonnell and Meston wanted to create a radio Western for adults, in contrast to the prevailing juvenile fare such as The Lone Ranger and The Cisco Kid. Gunsmoke was set in Dodge City, Kansas, during the thriving cattle days of the 1870s. Dunning notes, \"The show drew critical acclaim for unprecedented realism.\"\n\nRadio cast and character biographies \n\nThe radio series first aired on CBS on April 26, 1952 with the episode \"Billy the Kid\", written by Walter Newman, and ended on June 18, 1961. The show stars William Conrad as Marshal Matt Dillon, Howard McNear as Doc Charles Adams, Georgia Ellis as Kitty Russell, and Parley Baer as Dillon's assistant, Chester Wesley Proudfoot.\n\nMatt Dillon\n\nTwo versions of the same pilot episode titled \"Mark Dillon Goes to Gouge Eye\" are in the archives with two different actors, Rye Billsbury and Howard Culver, playing Marshal \"Mark\" Dillon as the lead, not yet played by Conrad. Conrad was one of the last actors to audition for the role of Marshal Dillon. With a resonantly powerful and distinctive voice, Conrad was already one of radio's busiest actors. Though Meston championed him, Macdonnell thought Conrad might be overexposed. During his audition, however, Conrad won over Macdonnell after reading only a few lines. Dillon as portrayed by Conrad was a lonely, isolated man, toughened by a hard life. Macdonnell later claimed, \"Much of Matt Dillon's character grew out of Bill Conrad.\" \n\nMeston relished the upending of cherished Western fiction clichés and felt that few Westerns gave any inkling of how brutal the Old West was in reality. Many episodes were based on man's cruelty to man and woman, inasmuch as the prairie woman's life and the painful treatment of women as chattel were touched on well ahead of their time in most media. As originally pitched to CBS executives, this was to be an adult Western, not a grown-up Hopalong Cassidy.\n\nDunning writes that Meston was especially disgusted by the archetypal Western hero and set out \"to destroy [that type of] character he loathed\". In Meston's view, \"Dillon was almost as scarred as the homicidal psychopaths who drifted into Dodge from all directions.\" \n\nChester\n\nChester's character had no surname until Baer ad libbed \"Proudfoot\" during an early rehearsal. Initial Gunsmoke scripts gave him no name at all; his lines were simply slugged to be spoken by \"Townsman\". Again, Conrad's sense of what the program would be supervened, and Chester was born. The amiable Waco expatriate was usually described as Dillon's \"assistant\", but in the December 13, 1952, episode \"Post Martin\", Dillon described Chester as Dillon's deputy. Contradicting this description, in the July 5, 1954, episode \"Hank Prine\" (episode 116, minute 3:02) Dillon corrects a prisoner who describes Chester as his \"deputy\" stating \"Chester is not my deputy\", though they both agree Chester acts like he is. Whatever his title, Chester was Dillon's foil, friend, partner, and in an episode in which Chester nearly dies (\"Never Pester Chester\"), Dillon allows that Chester was the only person he could trust. The TV series changed the newly limping Chester's last name from Proudfoot to Goode.\n\nDoc Adams\n\nDoc Adams was, at first, a grumpy and somewhat dark character, but McNear's performances steadily became more warm-hearted. Doc Adams' backstory evokes a varied and experienced life: In some episodes, he had educational ties to Philadelphia; in others, he spent time as ship's doctor aboard the gambling boats that plied the Mississippi River, which provided a background for his knowledge of New Orleans (and acquaintance with Mark Twain). In the January 31, 1953, episode \"Cavalcade\", a fuller history is offered, though subsequent programs kept close listeners' heads spinning. In \"Cavalcade\", his real name is Calvin Moore, educated in Boston, and he practiced as a doctor for a year in Richmond, Virginia, where he fell in love with a beautiful young woman who was also being courted by a wealthy young man named Roger Beauregard. Beauregard forced Doc into fighting a duel with him, resulting in Beauregard's being shot and killed. Though it was a fair duel, because Doc was a Yankee and an outsider, he was forced to flee. The young woman fled after him and they were married in St. Louis, but two months later, she died of typhus. Doc wandered throughout the territories until he settled in Dodge City 17 years later under the name of \"Charles Adams\". The Adams moniker was another Conrad invention, borrowing the surname from cartoonist Charles Addams as a testament to Doc's occasionally ghoulish comportment.\n\nMiss Kitty\n\nGeorgia Ellis first appeared in the radio episode \"Billy the Kid\" (April 26, 1952) as \"Francie Richards\", a former girlfriend of Matt Dillon and the widow of a criminal. \"Miss Kitty\" did not appear until the May 10, 1952, episode \"Jaliscoe\". Kitty's profession was hinted at, but never explicit; in a 1953 interview with Time, Macdonnell declared, \"Kitty is just someone Matt has to visit every once in a while.\" An out-take from the program makes this hilariously obvious. The television show first portrayed Kitty as a saloon employee (dance-hall girl/prostitute) then later as the owner of the Long Branch Saloon. Sometime in 1959, Ellis was billed as Georgia Hawkins instead of Georgia Ellis.\n\nDistinction from other radio westerns \n\nGunsmoke was often a somber program, particularly in its early years. Dunning writes that Dillon \"played his hand and often lost. He arrived too late to prevent a lynching. He amputated a dying man's leg and lost the patient anyway. He saved a girl from brutal rapists then found himself unable to offer her what she needed to stop her from moving into ... life as a prostitute.\" Some listeners, such as Dunning, argue the radio version was more realistic. Episodes were aimed at adults and featured some of the most explicit content of their time, including violent crimes, scalpings, massacres, and opium addicts. Many episodes ended on a somber note, and villains often got away with their crimes. Nonetheless, due to the subtle scripts and outstanding ensemble cast, over the years, the program evolved into a warm, often humorous celebration of human nature.\n\nApart from the doleful tone, Gunsmoke was distinct from other radio Westerns, as the dialogue was often slow and halting, and due to the outstanding sound effects, listeners had a nearly palpable sense of the prairie where the show was set. The effects were subtle but multilayered, giving the show a spacious feel. John Dunning wrote, \"The listener heard extraneous dialogue in the background, just above the muted shouts of kids playing in an alley. He heard noises from the next block, too, where the inevitable dog was barking.\" \n\nGunsmoke was also unique from other Westerns in that it was unsponsored for the first few years of production. The program got its support from CBS for the first two years. Series producers felt that if the show were sponsored, they would have to \"clean the show up\". The producers wanted to find a sponsor that would allow them to keep the show the way it was. \n\nTalk of adapting Gunsmoke to television \n\nNot long after the radio show began, talk began of adapting it to television. Privately, Macdonnell had a guarded interest in taking the show to television, but publicly, he declared, \"our show is perfect for radio,\" and he feared, as Dunning writes, \"Gunsmoke confined by a picture could not possibly be as authentic or attentive to detail.\" \"In the end\", wrote Dunning, \"CBS simply took it away from Macdonnell and began preparing for the television version.\"\n\nConrad and the others were given auditions, but they were little more than token efforts—especially in Conrad's case, due to his obesity. However, Meston was kept as the main writer. In the early years, a majority of the TV episodes were adapted from the radio scripts, often using identical scenes and dialogue. Dunning wrote, \"That radio fans considered the TV show a sham and its players impostors should surprise no one. That the TV show was not a sham is due in no small part to the continued strength of Meston's scripts.\" \n\nMacdonnell and Meston continued the radio version of Gunsmoke until 1961, making it one of the most enduring vintage radio dramas.\n\nConrad directed two television episodes, in 1963 and 1971, while McNear appeared on six, playing characters other than Doc, including three times as storekeeper Howard Rudd.\n\nTelevision series (1955-1975) \n\nThe TV series ran from September 10, 1955, to March 31, 1975, on CBS, with 635 total episodes. It was the second Western television series written for adults, premiering on September 10, 1955, four days after The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp. The first 12 seasons aired Saturdays at 10 pm, seasons 13 through 16 aired Mondays at 7:30 pm, and the last four seasons aired Mondays at 8 pm. During its second season in 1956, the program joined the list of the top ten television programs broadcast in the United States. It quickly moved to number one and stayed there until 1961. It remained among the top 20 programs until 1964. \n\nLongevity records \n\nThe television series remains the longest-running, prime time live-action series of the 20th century. , it has the highest number of scripted episodes for any U.S. prime-time, commercial, live-action television series. Other TV show fans sometimes question its position as having the longest run. Outside the United States, some foreign-made programs have been broadcast in the United States which contend for the position as the longest-running series.Because the show was a \"primetime\" series, the competition does not include such long-lived shows as Captain Kangaroo (1955–84) and many daytime serials. As a \"commercial\" series, it cannot be compared to shows such as the PBS program Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1966–2001). As a \"live-action\" series, programs such as the adult animated series The Simpsons (1989–) are not included, whose voice-over actors age off-screen. Some foreign countries have broadcast series over a longer duration, but these programs have employed an array of actors in their principal lead roles. , Gunsmoke is rated fourth globally, after Doctor Who (1963–89, 2005–present), Taggart (1983–2010), and The Bill (1984–2010).\n\nCharacter longevity \n\nJames Arness and Milburn Stone portrayed their Gunsmoke characters for 20 consecutive years, a feat later matched by Kelsey Grammer as the character Frasier Crane, but over two half-hour sitcoms (Cheers and Frasier). George Walsh, the announcer for Gunsmoke, began in 1952 on radio's Gunsmoke and continued until television's Gunsmoke was canceled in 1975. The first seven seasons were jointly sponsored by L&M cigarettes and Remington shaving products.\n\nTransition to TV from radio \n\nWhen Gunsmoke was adapted for television in 1955, in spite of a campaign to persuade the network, the network was not interested in bringing either Conrad or his radio costars to the television medium. Conrad's weight was rumored to be a deciding factor. Denver Pyle was also considered for the leading role, as was Raymond Burr, who was ultimately also seen as too heavy for the part. Charles Warren, television Gunsmokes first director, said \"His voice was fine, but he was too big. When he stood up, his chair stood with him.\" According to Dennis Weaver's comments on the 50th Anniversary DVD, Disc One, Episode \"Hack Prine\", John Wayne was never considered for the role; to have done so would have been preposterous since Wayne was a top movie leading man. The belief that Wayne was asked to star is disputed by Warren. Although he agrees Wayne encouraged Arness to take the role, Warren says, \"I hired Jim Arness on the strength of a picture he's done for me ... I never thought for a moment of offering it to Wayne.\"\n\nAccording to Thomas \"Duke\" Miller, a TV/movie/celebrity expert, this story was told to him by legendary actor James Stewart: \"Jimmy said he was in the office with Charles Warren when Mr. Wayne came in. Mr. Warren asked Wayne if he knew James Arness, and Mr. Wayne said yes. Mr. Warren told Mr. Wayne about the transition of the show from radio to TV, and Mr. Wayne readily agreed that James Arness would be a terrific choice for the part of Matt Dillon. I have no reason to doubt the story, because Jimmy absolutely knew everybody.\"\n\nIn the end, the primary roles were all recast, with Arness taking the lead role of Marshal Matt Dillon (on the recommendation of Wayne, who also introduced the pilot); Dennis Weaver playing Chester Goode; Milburn Stone being cast as Dr. G. \"Doc\" Adams (later Galen \"Doc\" Adams); and Amanda Blake taking on the role of Miss Kitty Russell. Macdonnell became the associate producer of the TV show and later the producer. Meston was named head writer.\n\nAdditional casting \n\nChester and Festus Haggen are perhaps Dillon's most recognizable sidekicks, though others became acting deputies for - to -year stints: Quint Asper (Burt Reynolds) (1962–65), Thad Greenwood (Roger Ewing) (1966–68), and Newly O'Brian (Buck Taylor) (1967–75), who served as both back-up deputy and doctor-in-training, having some studies in medicine via his uncle, which then continued under Doc Adams.\n\nIn 1962, Burt Reynolds was added to the show's lineup, as the \"halfbreed\" blacksmith Quint Asper, and performed that role elipsing the years just before the departure of Chester Goode and just after the appearance of Festus Haggen. Three of the actors, who played Dodge deputies, Ken Curtis, Roger Ewing, and Buck Taylor, had previous guest roles. Curtis, a big band and Western singer (Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, Shep Fields Band, Sons of the Pioneers), had five previous guest roles, including one in 1963 as a shady ladies' man named Kyle Kelly (\"Lover Boy\", season 9, show 2 [episode 307]). \n\nCurtis first appeared in the 1959 episode \"Jayhawkers\" (season 4, episode 21 [episode 138]), where he played Phil Jacks, a Texas cowboy, with Jack Elam as his boss during a cattle drive from Texas. The second was another 1959 episode entitled \"Change of Heart\" (season 4, episode 32 [episode 149]), where he played Brisco. The third appearance is the 1960 episode \"The Ex-Urbanites\" (season 5, episode 30 [episode 186]), where he plays Jesse. He also had a small role as an Indian named Scout in the episode \"Speak Me Fair\" (season 5, episode 34 [episode 190]) in 1960. Curtis was reared in Las Animas, Colorado, and for a time was a son-in-law of director John Ford. \n\nIn 1963, Weaver left the series to pursue a broader acting career in TV series and films. In 1964, Curtis was signed as a regular to play the stubbornly illiterate hillbilly Festus Haggen. The character, heretofore a comic feature, came to town in a 1962 episode titled \"Us Haggens\", to avenge the death of his twin brother Fergus, and decided to stay in Dodge when the deed was done. Initially on the fringes of Dodge society, Festus was slowly phased in as a reliable sidekick/part-time deputy to Matt Dillon when Reynolds left in 1965. In the episode \"Alias Festus Haggen\", he is mistaken for a robber and killer whom he has to expose to free himself (both parts played by Curtis). In a comic relief episode (\"Mad Dog\"), another case of mistaken identity forces Festus to fight three sons of a man killed by his cousin. As a side note, only one episode has all three actors in it playing their respective roles. It is the 1964 episode entitled \"Prairie Wolfer\" (season 9, episode 16 [episode 321]), with Dennis Weaver as Chester, Burt Reynolds as Quint, and Ken Curtis as Festus. \n\nWhen Milburn Stone left the series for health reasons for several episodes in 1971, Pat Hingle played his temporary replacement, Dr. John Chapman, whose presence was at first roundly resisted by Festus, a bickersome but close friend of Doc Adams.\n\nCharacter back stories \n\nThe back stories of some of the main characters were largely left to the imagination of the viewer. Matt Dillon spent his early years in foster care, knew the Bible, was a wayward, brawling cowboy, and later mentored by a caring lawman. Kitty Russell, born in New Orleans and reared by a flashy foster mother (who once visited Dodge), apparently had no living family. Barkeep Sam was said to be married, but no sightings of a wife were made (In the episode \"Tafton\", he is seen side-by-side with a woman in a church singing). Quint Asper's white father was killed by white scavengers. Thad Greenwood's father, a storekeeper, was harassed to death by a trio of loathsome ne'er-do-well thieves. Chester Goode was known to be one of many brothers raised by an aunt and uncle, and he mentions his mother on one occasion; he referred to past service in the cavalry, and years as a cattle driver in Texas. The cause of Chester's stiff right leg was never given, but it was shown as his own leg and not a prosthesis. No direct reference was ever made to his disability in the script, although some oblique moments painted the free-spirited, comic deputy with a darker tone. Newly O'Brien was named after a physician uncle, who ignited his interest in medicine.\n\nWhile Dillon and Miss Kitty clearly had a close personal relationship, the two never married. In a July 2, 2002, Associated Press interview with Bob Thomas, Arness explained, \"If they were man and wife, it would make a lot of difference. The people upstairs decided it was better to leave the show as it was, which I totally agreed with.\" In the episode \"Waste\", featuring Johnny Whitaker as a boy with a prostitute mother, her madam questions Dillon as to why the law overlooks Miss Kitty's enterprise. It appears that bordellos could exist \"at the law's discretion\" (meaning the marshal's). As an historical matter, prior to the First World War, there were few laws criminalizing prostitution in the United States. Miss Kitty was written out in 1974. The actress sought more free time and reportedly missed her late co-star, Glenn Strange, who played her Long Branch barkeep, Sam. When Blake decided not to return for the show's 20th (and final) season, the character was said to have returned to New Orleans. She was replaced by the hoarse-voiced, matronly actress Fran Ryan (known to many as the second Doris Ziffel on CBS' Green Acres).\n\nFor over a decade on television, a sign hung over Doc's office that read \"Dr. G. Adams\". Milburn Stone was given free rein to choose the character's first name. The actor chose the name of an ancient Greek physician and medical researcher named Galen. He is first referred to in this manner by Theodore Bikel as \"Martin Kellums\" in the season-10 episode, \"Song for Dying\", aired February 13, 1965. \n\nRadio and TV character differences \n\nDifferences were noted between the characters on the radio and TV versions of Gunsmoke. In the radio series, Doc was acerbic, somewhat mercenary, and borderline alcoholic—at least in the program's early years. On radio's Gunsmoke, Doc Adams's real name was Dr. Calvin Moore. He came west and changed his name to escape a charge of murder. The television Doc, though still crusty, was in many ways softer and warmer.\n\nNothing in the radio series suggested that Chester Proudfoot was disabled; this merely visual feature was added to the Chester Goode character on television because of actor Dennis Weaver's athletic build, to emphasize Chester's role as a follower and not an independent agent.\n\nMiss Kitty, who after the radio series ended, was said by some to have engaged in prostitution, began in that role in the television series, working in the Long Branch Saloon. In an earlier 1956 episode, the owner of the Long Branch was named Bill Pence. A later 1956 episode begins with Chester pointing out to Matt (who had been out of town) a new sign under the Long Branch Saloon sign stating \"Russell & Pence, Proprietors\". In that same episode, John Dehner portrayed a dubious New Orleans businessman claiming to be Kitty's father, who tried to talk her into selling her half interest in the Long Branch and returning to New Orleans with him as a partner in his alleged freight business. In another 1956 episode (involving a new saloon girl named \"Rena Decker\" who causes four deaths by provoking men into fighting over her), Miss Kitty identifies herself as half-owner of the Long Branch with Mr. Pence (played by Judson Pratt). Subsequently, Miss Kitty transitioned to sole owner. Although early film episodes showed her descending from her second-floor rooms in the saloon with Matt, or showed her or one of her girls leading a cowboy up to those same rooms, these scenes disappeared later on, and viewers were guided to see Miss Kitty just as a kindhearted businesswoman.\n\nFormat \n\nFrom 1955 to 1961, Gunsmoke was a half-hour show (retitled Marshal Dillon in syndication). It then went to an hour-long format. The series was retitled Gun Law in the UK. The Marshal Dillon syndicated rerun lasted from 1961 until 1964 on CBS, originally on Tuesday nights within its time in reruns.\n\nBroadcast history \n\nPopularity \n\nGunsmoke was TV's number one-ranked show from 1957 to 1961 before slipping into a decline after expanding to an hour. In 1967, the show's 12th season, CBS planned to cancel the series, but widespread viewer reaction (including a mention in Congress and the behind-the-scenes pressure from the wife of CBS's president) prevented its demise. On the Biography Channel's Behind The Scenes: Gilligan's Island (2002); Gilligan's Island producer Sherwood Schwartz states that the wife of CBS's president pressured her husband not to cancel Gunsmoke in 1967, so the network cut Gilligan's Island instead. The show continued in its new time slot at 8 pm on Mondays. This scheduling move led to a spike in ratings that had it once again rally to the top 10 in the Nielsen ratings until the 1973–74 television season. In September 1975, despite still ranking among the top 30 programs in the ratings, Gunsmoke was canceled after a 20-year run; it was replaced by Mary Tyler Moore spin-offs Rhoda and Phyllis (though Rhoda actually debuted while Gunsmoke was still airing first-run). Thirty TV Westerns came and went during its 20-year tenure, and Gunsmoke was the sole survivor, with Alias Smith and Jones and Bonanza both leaving the airwaves in January 1973.\n\nArness and Stone remained with the show for its entire run, though Stone missed seven episodes in 1971.\n\nThe entire cast was stunned by the cancellation, as they were unaware that CBS was considering it. According to Arness, \"We didn't do a final, wrap-up show. We finished the 20th year, we all expected to go on for another season, or two or three. The (network) never told anybody they were thinking of canceling.\" The cast and crew read the news in the trade papers. \n\nTV movies \n\nIn 1987, CBS commissioned a reunion movie entitled Gunsmoke: Return to Dodge. James Arness and Amanda Blake returned in their iconic roles of Matt Dillon and Miss Kitty, with Fran Ryan returning in her role as Kitty's friend/saloon-owner Hannah and Buck Taylor returning as Newly O'Brian. Doc Adams and Festus Haggen were not featured in the film. Milburn Stone died in 1980 and the role of Doc was not recast. Ken Curtis, meanwhile, balked at the salary offer he received and said that he should be paid based on Festus' importance in the character hierarchy. The screenwriters responded to Curtis' absence by making Newly the new Dodge City marshal. The film, shot in Alberta, featured a now-retired Marshal Dillon being attacked and a vengeful former rival returning to Dodge City to entrap him.\n\nIn 1990, the second telefilm, Gunsmoke: The Last Apache, premiered. Since Amanda Blake had died the year before from AIDS-related complications, the writers decided to revisit a 1973 episode for the movie. The episode was based on \"Matt's Love Story\", which was noted for the marshal's first overnight visit to a female's lodgings. In the episode, Matt loses his memory and his heart, during a brief liaison with \"Mike\" Yardner (played by Michael Learned). In the film, Learned returned and Mike reveals to Marshal Dillon that he is the father of their daughter Beth (played by Amy Stock-Poynton) and asks him for help in saving her. Dodge City was never again seen.\n\nOther films included Gunsmoke: To the Last Man (1992), Gunsmoke: The Long Ride (1993), and Gunsmoke: One Man's Justice (1994). Arness appeared in all five films.\n\nRatings \n\nAs a top-30 series, Gunsmoke has an average rating of 28.3.\n\nPrimetime Emmy Award wins and nominations \n\n1955 (presented March 17, 1956) \n\n* Best Action or Adventure Series — nominated (winner: Disneyland)\n\n1956 (presented March 16, 1957) \n\n* Best Continuing Performance by an Actor in a Dramatic Series: James Arness — nominated (winner: Robert Young for Father Knows Best)\n\n1957 (presented April 15, 1958) \n\n* Best Continuing Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: James Arness — nominated (winner: Robert Young for Father Knows Best)\n* Best Continuing Supporting Performance by an Actor in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: Dennis Weaver — nominated (winner: Carl Reiner for Caesar's Hour)\n* Best Dramatic Series with Continuing Characters — won\n* Best Editing of a Film for Television: Mike Pozen for \"How to Kill a Woman\" — won\n* Best Teleplay Writing (Half-Hour or Less): John Meston for \"Born to Hang\" — nominated (winner: Paul Monash for Schlitz Playhouse of Stars - \"The Lonely Wizard\")\n\n1958 (presented May 6, 1959) \n\n* Best Actor in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series: James Arness — nominated (winner: Raymond Burr for Perry Mason)\n* Best Supporting Actor (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series: Dennis Weaver — won\n* Best Supporting Actress (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series: Amanda Blake — nominated (winner: Barbara Hale for Perry Mason)\n* Best Western Series — nominated (winner: Maverick)\n\n1965-1966 (presented May 22, 1966) \n\n* Individual Achievements in Music - Composition: Morton Stevens for \"Seven Hours to Dawn\" — nominated (winner: Laurence Rosenthal for Michelangelo: The Last Giant)\n\n1967-1968 (presented May 19, 1968) \n\n* Outstanding Achievement in Musical Composition: Morton Stevens for \"Major Glory\" (winner: Earle Hagen for I Spy - \"Laya\")\n* Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Drama: Milburn Stone — won\n\n1969-1970 (presented by June 7, 1970) \n\n* Outstanding Achievement in Film Sound Editing: Norman Karlin and Richard E. Raderman — won (tied with Alex Bamattre, Michael Colgan, Douglas H. Grindstaff, Joe Kavigan, Bill Lee, and Josef E. Von Stroheim for ABC Movie of the Week: The Immortal)\n\nSyndication \n\nAll 635 episodes of the television series, and almost all 480 episodes of the radio show, still exist.\n\nIn syndication, the entire 20-year run of Gunsmoke is separated into three packages by CBS Television Distribution:\n\n* 1955 – 61 half-hour episodes: These episodes are sometimes seen in their original format and sometimes in the Marshal Dillon format. When first-run, prime-time episodes of Gunsmoke expanded to an hour in fall 1961, CBS-TV reran the half-hour episodes as Marshal Dillon on the network on Tuesday nights from 1961 through 1964. These were later rerun in syndication. General syndication ended in the 1980s, but they do air occasionally on cable TV. Local stations would show the retitled Marshal Dillon version of the series, while the series under the original Gunsmoke title (with some episodes under the Marshal Dillon retitling) were seen in the late 1990s on TV Land and later Me-TV. Encore Westerns aired this version under the Marshal Dillon title. RetroPlex also aired two half-hour episodes under the original Gunsmoke title, although the episodes are advertised as Marshal Dillon, on Saturday nights from 8 to 9 pm Eastern time.\n* 1961 – 66 one-hour black-and-white episodes: These episodes have not been widely seen in regular syndication since the 1980s, although selected episodes did air from the mid-1980s through the early 1990s on CBN Cable/The Family Channel, and later on Encore Westerns on a three-year contract that ended around 2006. As of January 2010, Encore Westerns was again airing the episodes. In October 2015, Me-TV announced that it would begin airing the one-hour black-and-white episodes on October 26. \n* 1966 – 75 one-hour color episodes: The last nine seasons of the Western, the most widely syndicated episodes of the entire series' run, are still aired on some local stations, as well as nationally on TV Land and Me-TV.\n\nDVD releases \n\nIn 2006, as part of Gunsmokes 50th anniversary on TV, certain selected episodes were released on DVD in three different box sets. Twelve episodes, from 1955 to 1964, were selected for the Gunsmoke: Volume I box set, and another twelve episodes, from 1964 to 1975, were selected for the Gunsmoke: Volume II box set. Both sets are also available as a combined single \"Gift Box Set\". A third unique DVD box set, known as Gunsmoke: The Directors Collection, was also released with 10 selected episodes from certain seasons throughout the series' 20-year history. All of these box sets are available on Region 1 DVD from Paramount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD.\n\nAdditionally, Paramount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD have released the first 11 seasons (seasons one to six are known as the \"half-hour years\") on DVD in Region 1. Release Date for Gunsmoke - The 12th Season, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 - has been advertised on Amazon for release in September. This is also the first season in color. \n\nRegular cast; major characters \n\n* U.S. Marshal Matt Dillon (1955 – 75): James Arness\n* Galen \"Doc\" Adams, M.D. (1955 – 75): Milburn Stone\n* Kathleen \"Kitty\" Russell (1955 – 74): Amanda Blake\n* Chester B. Goode (1955 – 64): Dennis Weaver; left series to star in unsuccessful series Kentucky Jones\n* Festus Haggen (1964 – 75): Ken Curtis\n\nFile:James Arness Matt Dillon Gunsmoke 1969.JPG\|Matt Dillon, 1969\nFile:Gunsmoke supporting cast 1960.JPG\|Chester, Doc, and Kitty, 1960\nFile:Amanda Blake Milburn Stone Gunsmoke 1958.jpg\|Kitty and Doc, 1958\nFile:Amanda Blake Kitty Gunsmoke 1966.JPG\|Miss Kitty Russell, 1966\nFile:Dennis Weaver Chester Gunsmoke 1960.JPG\|Chester Goode\nFile:Ken Curtis Milburn Stone Gunsmoke 1974.JPG\|Festus Haggen and Doc Adams, 1974\n\nCast \n\n* Sam (bartender; 1955 – 59): (Bert Rumsey)\n* Clem (bartender; 1959 – 61): Clem Fuller\n* Sam (bartender; 1961 – 73): Glenn Strange\n* Rudy (bartender; 1965 – 67): Jeff McCann\n* Floyd (bartender; 1974 – 75): Robert Brubaker\n* Quint Asper (blacksmith; 1962 – 65): Burt Reynolds \n* Deputy Marshal Clayton Thaddeus \"Thad\" Greenwood (1965 – 67): Roger Ewing\n* Newly O'Brian (gunsmith/Deputy Marshal; 1967 – 75): Buck Taylor\n* Wilbur Jonas (storekeeper, 1955 – 63): Dabbs Greer\n* Howie Uzzell (hotel clerk, 1955 – 75): Howard Culver\n* Moss Grimmick (stableman; 1955 – 63): George Selk\n* Bill Pence (Long Branch owner/co-owner 1955?–56–?): Judson Pratt\n* Bill Pence, (1958–61): Barney Phillips\n* Big Ray (Bordello owner 1972 – 75): Matt Stroia\n* Jim Buck (stagecoach driver; 1957 – 62): Robert Brubaker\n* Louie Pheeters (town drunk; 1961 – 70): James Nusser\n* Ma Smalley (boardinghouse owner; 1961 – 72): Sarah Selby\n* Hank Miller (stableman; 1963 – 75): Hank Patterson\n* Mr. Bodkin (banker; 1963 – 70): Roy Roberts\n* Barney Danches (telegraph agent; 1965 – 74): Charles Seel\n* Roy (townsperson; 1965 – 69): Roy Barcroft\n* Halligan (rancher; 1966 – 75): Charles Wagenheim\n* Mr. Lathrop (storekeeper; 1966 – 75): Woody Chambliss\n* Bob La Mar (Backup gunslinger 1959)\n* Nathan Burke (freight agent; 1966 – 75): Ted Jordan\n* Percy Crump (undertaker; 1968 – 72): Justin McGeary\n* Ed O'Connor (rancher; 1968 – 72): Tom Brown\n* Judge Brooker (1970 – 75): Herb Vigran\n* Dr. John Chapman (1971): Pat Hingle\n* Miss Hannah (saloon owner; 1974 – 75): Fran Ryan\n* Angus McTabbott (1966): Chips Rafferty Australian actor\n* Dr. Rutherford B. Scraggleton (1972 – 73): David Cogan\n\nAwards \n\n* In TV Guide′s April 17, 1993, issue celebrating 40 years of television, the all-time-best-TV programs were chosen. \"No contest, this [Gunsmoke] was the TV western.\" \n* Entertainment Weekly (February 19, 1999, issue) ranked the premiere of Gunsmoke as No. 47 in the \"100 Greatest Moments in Television\". \n* Entertainment Weekly, in 1998, ranked Gunsmoke as No. 16 in The 100 Greatest TV Shows of all time. \n* In a 1998 TV Guide poll of 50,000, Gunsmoke was ranked as CBS's best western and James Arness was ranked as CBS's best \"Gunslinger\". \n* James Arness (Matt), Milburn Stone (Doc), Ken Curtis (Festus), Dennis Weaver (Chester), and Amanda Blake (Kitty) are all inductees of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. \n* In 1997, the episode \"The Jailer\" was ranked No. 28 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. \n* In 2002, TV Guide ranked Gunsmoke as No. 40 in the 50 greatest television shows of all time. \n* In 2013, TV Guide ranked it as #27 on their list of the 60 Best Series. \n\nMiscellaneous \n\n* Dodge City's Boot Hill Museum has a tribute to Gunsmoke, including furniture from the 1960s and an old television tuned to the show. Signed photographs from the show's actors and other memorabilia are on display including a vest worn by Sam the Bartender (actor Glenn Strange) and a dress worn by Miss Kitty, (actress Amanda Blake). \n* Despite a rumor to the contrary, Albert Einstein never appeared on Gunsmoke. Albert Einstein died on April 18, 1955, 4 1/2 months before Gunsmoke aired. The fact checking website Snopes attributes the likely origin of the rumor to Stephen Hawking appearing in an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1993. Actor Brent Spiner was quoted at the time as saying it was \"the most notable moment in television history since Albert Einstein guest-starred on Gunsmoke.\" Although Spiner's remark was a joke, someone wrote to TV Guide in 1994 to ask if Einstein really had appeared on the show. \n* The anime and manga Trigun, a western themed gunslinger tale, directly reference the series by naming the planet on which it is set planet Gunsmoke.\n\nNotable guest stars \n\n(partial list, alphabetical):\n\n* Willie Aames, Rico Alaniz, Jack Albertson, Mabel Albertson, Claude Akins, Chris Alcaide, Richard Anderson, Tige Andrews, R. G. Armstrong, Jenny Lee Arness, Jean Arthur, John Astin\n* Edward Asner, Val Avery, Lew Ayres, Jim Backus, Trevor Bardette, Patricia Barry, John Drew Barrymore, Richard Basehart, Ed Begley, Ralph Bellamy, James Best, Dan Blocker, Randy Boone, Bruce Boxleitner, Ray Boyle Lane Bradbury\n* Scott Brady, Eric Braeden, Peter Breck, Beau Bridges, Morgan Brittany, William Boyett, Charles Bronson, James Brown, Joyce Bulifant, Michael Burns, Gary Busey,\n* Sebastian Cabot, Frank Cady, David Canary, Harry Carey, Jr., David Carradine, John Carradine, Conlan Carter, Jack Cassidy, Mary Castle, Peggie Castle, Lonny Chapman, Andy Clyde, Phyllis Coates, Lee J. Cobb, Michael Cole, Don Collier, Chuck Connors\n* Mike Connors, Tim Considine, Pat Conway, Elisha Cook, Jr., Ben Cooper, Glenn Corbett, Noreen Corcoran, Alex Cord, Robert L. Crawford, Jr., Dennis Cross, Brandon Cruz, Robert Culp, Royal Dano, Kim Darby, Bette Davis\n* Jim Davis (multiple appearances), Richard Deacon, Gloria DeHaven, John Dehner, Bruce Dern\n* William Devane, Angie Dickinson, James Doohan, Richard Dreyfuss, Buddy Ebsen, Barbara Eden, Jack Elam, Sam Elliott, Jena Engstrom (two episodes), Gene Evans, Shug Fisher, Paul Fix\n* Jay C. Flippen, Constance Ford, Harrison Ford, Jodie Foster, Ron Foster, Anne Francis, Dean Fredericks, Bert Freed, Victor French\n* Beverly Garland, Leif Garrett, Sean Garrison, Lisa Gerritsen, Melissa Gilbert, Harold Gould, Karen Grassle, Virginia Gregg, James Gregory, Tom Greenway\n* Kevin Hagen, Ron Hagerthy, Alan Hale, Jr., Mariette Hartley, Ron Hayes, Anne Helm, Katherine Helmond, Earl Holliman, Ron Howard, Bo Hopkins, Dennis Hopper, Rodolfo Hoyos, Jr., Marsha Hunt\n* Josephine Hutchinson, Betty Hutton, Steve Ihnat, John Ireland, Richard Jaeckel, Salome Jens, Arch Johnson, Brad Johnson, Ben Johnson, Chubby Johnson\n* I. Stanford Jolley, L. Q. Jones, Robert Karnes, Don Keefer, DeForest Kelley, Jack Kelly, Ricky Kelman, Dan Kemp, Adam Kennedy, Douglas Kennedy, George Kennedy, Richard Kiley, Brett King, Wright King (eight times), Werner Klemperer, Jack Klugman, Robert Knapp (seven times) Ted Knight, Diane Ladd, Martin Landau\n* Allan Lane, Louise Latham, Harry Lauter, Anna Lee, June Lockhart, Jack Lord, Keye Luke, Dayton Lummis, Tyler MacDuff, Barton MacLane, George Macready, Rose Marie, Scott Marlowe, Nora Marlowe, Ross Martin\n* Strother Martin, Darren McGavin, Peggy McCay, Howard McNear, Patrick McVey, Tyler McVey, Vera Miles, Denny Scott Miller, John Mitchum, Roger Mobley, Ricardo Montalbán, Erin Moran, Harry Morgan, Read Morgan (12 times)\n* Wayne Morris, Anna Karen Morrow, Richard Mulligan, Diana Muldaur, Burt Mustin, Gene Nelson, Leslie Nielsen, Leonard Nimoy, Jimmy Noel, Jeanette Nolan, Nick Nolte, Carroll O'Connor, Simon Oakland, Warren Oates, Susan Olsen, Cliff Osmond\n* Manuel Padilla, Jr., Gregg Palmer (20 times), John Payne, Brock Peters, William Phipps, John Pickard (12 times), Slim Pickens, Suzanne Pleshette, Judson Pratt, Andrew Prine, Ainslie Pryor, Denver Pyle, Chips Rafferty (Australian actor), Dack Rambo, Gilman Rankin\n* Pernell Roberts, Wayne Rogers, Ruth Roman, Katharine Ross, Kurt Russell, Albert Salmi, John Saxon, Jacqueline Scott (nine episodes), Johnny Seven, Karen Sharpe\n* William Shatner, Dan Sheridan, Tom Simcox, Robert F. Simon, Tom Skerritt, Jeremy Slate, John Smith, Quintin Sondergaard, David Soul, Aaron Spelling, Loretta Swit, Harry Dean Stanton, Frank Sutton,Gloria Talbott, Russ Tamblyn, William Tannen, Vic Tayback\n* Dub Taylor, Robert Totten (also a director), Harry Townes (seven times), Daniel J. Travanti, Forrest Tucker, Lurene Tuttle, Cicely Tyson, Robert Urich, Joan Van Ark, Lee Van Cleef, Warren Vanders (12 times), Mitch Vogel, Joyce Van Patten, Robert Vaughn, Jan-Michael Vincent, Gary Vinson\n* Jon Voight, Lesley Ann Warren, Ruth Warrick, David Wayne, Adam West, James Westerfield, Jack Weston, Johnny Whitaker, James Whitmore, Robert J. Wilke, Elen Willard, Bill Williams, Chill Wills, Terry Wilson, William Windom, Morgan Woodward (19 times), Ian Wolfe, Dana Wynter, and Anthony Zerbe.\n\nGunsmoke had one spin-off series, Dirty Sally, a semi-comedy starring Jeanette Nolan as an old woman and Dack Rambo as a young gunfighter, leaving Dodge City for California in order to pan for gold. The program lasted only thirteen weeks and aired in the first half of 1974, a year before Gunsmoke ended.\n\nNotable directors \n\n* Andrew McLaglen\n* Richard Whorf\n* Arnold Laven\n* Arthur Hiller\n* Dennis Weaver\n* Gene Nelson\n* Irving J. Moore\n* John Rich\n* Leo Penn\n* Marc Daniels\n* Mark Rydell\n* Peter Graves\n* Philip Leacock\n* Robert Totten\n* Sam Peckinpah\n* Sobey Martin\n* Tay Garnett\n* Victor French\n* Vincent McEveety\n* William Conrad\n* William F. Claxton\n* [http://akas.imdb.com/name/nm0375570/filmoseries#tt0047736 Gunnar Hellström]\n\nMusic \n\nThe Gunsmoke radio theme song and later TV theme was titled [http://www.bobnolan-sop.net/Biographies/The%20Story%20of%20SOP/Ken%20Curtis/Ken%20Curtis.htm \"Old Trails\"], also known as \"Boothill\". The Gunsmoke theme was composed by Rex Koury. The original radio version was conducted by Koury. The TV version was thought to have been first conducted by CBS west coast music director Lud Gluskin. The lyrics of the theme, never aired on the radio or television show, were recorded and released by Tex Ritter in 1955. Ritter was backed on that Capitol record by Rex Koury and the radio Gunsmoke orchestra. William Lava composed the original theme music for television, as noted in the program credits.\n\nOther notable composers included:\n\n* Elmer Bernstein\n* Jerry Goldsmith\n* Bernard Herrmann\n* Franz Waxman\n\nProducts \n\nThe Gunsmoke brand was used to endorse numerous products, from cottage cheese to cigarettes.\n\nLowell Toy Manufacturing Corporation (\"It's a Lowell Game\") issued Gunsmoke as their game No. 822. Other products include Gunsmoke puzzles, \n\nIn 1985, Capcom released a video game for the arcade (and its corresponding game for the NES in 1988) with a Western theme, called Gun.Smoke. Other than the Western theme, the show and game have no relationship whatsoever.\n\nComics \n\n* Dell Comics published numerous issues of their Four Color comics series on Gunsmoke (including issues #679, 720, 769, 797, 844 and, in 1958 – 62, #6–27). \n* Gold Key Comics continued with issues #1 – 6 in 1969–70. \n* A comic strip version of the series ran in British newspapers for several years under the show's UK title, Gun Law.\n* Hardcover comic BBC Gunsmoke Annuals were marketed in Great Britain under the authority of the BBC which had broadcasting rights there. \n* Gunsmoke comics in Spanish were published under the title Aventura la ley del revolver (Gun-Law Adventures).\n\nBooks \n\n* In 1957, Ballantine Books published a collection of short stories. Each story is based on a half-hour Gunsmoke episode. Although a photo of James Arness and the CBS TV logo are on the book cover, in at least one story Matt introduces Chester as \"Chester Proudfoot\", an indication that the stories are actually adapted from radio scripts.\n* Whitman Books published\n Gunsmoke by Robert Turner in 1958, and\n Gunsmoke: \"Showdown on Front Street\" by Paul S. Newman in 1969...\n* In 1970, Popular Library published the following paperback book written by Chris Stratton:\n** Gunsmoke\n* In 1974, Award Books published the following paperback books written by Jackson Flynn based on the TV series:\n Gunsmoke #1: \"The Renegades\" \n Gunsmoke #2: \"Shootout\"\n Gunsmoke #3: \"Duel at Dodge City\"\n Gunsmoke #4: \"Cheyenne Vengeance\"\n* In 1998, Boulevard Books published the following paperbacks written by Gary McCarthy based on the TV series:\n #1: Gunsmoke\n #2: Gunsmoke: \"Dead Man's Witness\"\n** #3: Gunsmoke: \"Marshal Festus\"\n* A series of novels based upon the television series written by Joseph A. West with forewords by James Arness was published by Signet:\n Gunsmoke: \"Blood, Bullets and Buckskin\", January 2005 (ISBN 0-451-21348-3)\n Gunsmoke: \"The Last Dog Soldier\", May 2005 (ISBN 0-451-21491-9)\n Gunsmoke: \"Blizzard of Lead\", September 2005 (ISBN 0-451-21633-4)\n Gunsmoke: \"The Reckless Gun\", May 2006 (ISBN 0-451-21923-6)\n Gunsmoke: \"Dodge the Devil\", October 2006 (ISBN 0-451-21972-4)\n Gunsmoke: \"The Day of the Gunfighter\", January 2007 (ISBN 0-451-22015-3)\n\nIndependent E-book\n** Gunsmoke: Battlefield Dodge, June 2015, e-book, Amazon.com http://www.battlefielddodge.com\n\nEpisodes \n\nReruns and syndication \n\nThe program currently airs on three major venues: TV Land, which has carried the show since its inception in 1996, Encore Westerns, and Weigel Broadcasting's Me-TV digital subchannel network. Individual stations such as KFWD in Dallas also carry the series in their markets. It has also been shown on satellite channel CBS Action in the UK, Ireland and Poland. Beginning in May 2015, the series now appeared as a part of Weigel 's new \"Decades\" Network along with other vintage CBS and Paramount television properties.\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bill Conrad", "William Conrad" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bill conrad", "william conrad" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "william conrad", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "William Conrad" }
Which country does the airline Ladeco come from?	tc_1315	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Airline.txt", "Ladeco.txt" ], "title": [ "Airline", "Ladeco" ], "wiki_context": [ "An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body.\n\nAirlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group.\n\nHistory\n\nThe first airlines\n\nDELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, Florida. The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).\n\nEuropean airline industry\n\nBeginnings\n\nThe earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.\n\nOn 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force. \n\nOther British competitors were quick to follow - Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service.\n\nThe first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille. \n\nThe first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.\n\nThe Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.\n\nIn Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.\n\nEarly European airlines tend to favour comfort - the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors - over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.\n\nRationalization\n\nBy the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration. \n\nThe first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.\n\nTwo French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 7 October 1933.\n\nGermany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.\n\nGlobal expansion\n\nIn 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and was extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.\n\nImperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich - only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research. \n\nLike Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.\n\nAlthough Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937.\n\nFrom February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean. \n\nBy the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.\n\nEU airline deregulation\n\nDeregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.\n\nThere has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered - particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.\n\nU.S. airline industry\n\nEarly development\n\nTony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 ft above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008. \n\nFollowing World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.\n\nService during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.\n\nAt the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.\n\nWith the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.\n\nDevelopment since 1945\n\nAs governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom; U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been. This preference for \"open skies\" operating regimes continues, with limitations, to this day.\n\nWorld War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.\n\nIn the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.\n\nThe next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody (\"jumbo jet\") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.\n\nUS airline deregulation\n\nThe 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid off staff from other airlines.\n\nMajor airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.\n\nIn many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.\n\nBy the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.\n\nToward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called \"legacy airlines\", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.\n\nIncreasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.\n\nThus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:\n\n\"Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake. \"\n\nThe airline industry bailout\n\nCongress passed the [http://ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/stabilizationact.pdf Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act] (P.L. 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off. \n\nIn recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General. \n\nUltimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the US Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees. \n\nAsian airline industry\n\nAlthough Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.\n\nIndia was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first West Asian airline companies was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government. \n\nWith the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.\n\nOn July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.\n\nDuring the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1948, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.\n\nLatin American airline industry\n\nAmong the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca, Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LAN Airlines), Brazil with Varig, Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II.\n\nThe air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.\n\nThese airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.\n\nOnly three airlines: Avianca, LAN, and TAM Airlines have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LAN with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Argentina and some operations in the Dominican Republic. The recently formed AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal. And TAM with its Mercosur base in Asuncion, Paraguay. As of 2010, talks of uniting LAN and TAM have strongly developed to create a joint airline named LATAM.\n\nRegulatory considerations\n\nNational\n\nMany countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.\n\nThe United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have \"deregulated\" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.\n\nThe entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.\n\nAs a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.\n\nIn the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers. \n\nInternational\n\nGroups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.\n\nBilateral agreements are based on the \"freedoms of the air\", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.\n\nIn the 1990s, \"open skies\" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.\n\nEconomic considerations\n\nHistorically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction. \n\nOne argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world.\n\nAlthough many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.\n\nTop airline groups by revenue \n\nfor 2010, source : Airline Business August 2011, Flightglobal Data Research\n\nTicket revenue\n\nAirlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.\n\nBecause of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n\nMost airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.\n\nA complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (\"O&D control\"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.\n\nThe advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).\n\nThe intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term \"fare war\" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.\n\nThe extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.\n\nComputers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for \"no-shows,\" but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand. \n\nOperating costs\n\nFull-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.\n\nMoreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.\n\nAnalysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)\n\nThe widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle.\n\nAs a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of \"undead\" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups.\n\nWhere an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or \"hub\") for its scheduled flights.\n\nAssets and financing\n\nAirline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.\n\nA second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.\n\nIn view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.\n\nIf a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.\n\nOther factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.\n\nAirline partnerships\n\nCodesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.\n\nSince airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.\n\nA more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.\n\nOften the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.\n\nFuel hedging\n\nFuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. \n\nSouthwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.\n\nEnvironmental impacts\n\nAircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.\n\nGrowth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.\n\nDomestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from \"green activists\", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005. \n\nDespite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use. \n\nCO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3200 km airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3200 km airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet). \n\nIn the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. \n\nThe airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel: \n\n* Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.\n* Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative. \n* KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.\n\nThere are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.\n\nCall signs\n\nEach operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax.\n\nAirline personnel\n\nThe various types of airline personnel include:\nFlight operations personnel including flight safety personnel.\n* Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:\n Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator)\n Flight attendants, (led by a purser on larger aircraft)\n** In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)\n* Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:\n Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance\n* Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance\n*Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance\n Airframe and powerplant technicians\n Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems\nAvionics technicians, responsible for maintenance of avionics\n Flight dispatchers\n Baggage handlers\n Ramp Agents\n Remote centralised weight and balancing \n Gate agents\n Ticket agents\n Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees)\n Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport.\n** Crew schedulers\nAirlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations(including flight safety),\nand passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the\nairline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.\n\nIndustry trends\n\nThe pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. \n\nThe overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the 1950s and 1960s, annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the 1980s and 1990s. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett once said that despite all the money that has been invested in all airlines, the net profit is less than zero. He believes it is one of the hardest businesses to manage. \n\nAs in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.", "Ladeco was a Chilean airline; Ladeco is the acronym of \"Línea Aérea Del Cobre\" or the \"Airline of Copper,\" in reference to the principal Chilean export. \n\nHistory\n\nLadeco began operations in 1958 flying mostly internal routes between Chile's major cities and some international routes, and continued to run services until 1994 when LanChile (currently called Latam Chile) bought over 99% of the shares and merged Ladeco into its fleet. At the time of takeover, Ladeco was equipped mainly with Boeing 737 aircraft as well as some Boeing 727s and Boeing 757s. Ladeco then became exclusively an internal carrier between Chilean cities. Its name has since disappeared and most internal routes are covered by an affiliate of LAN Airlines called LAN Express. The airline's fleet included 20 Boeing 737-200, 7 Boeing 727, 4 BAC-111, 4 Boeing 707, 6 Douglas DC-6 B, 2 Boeing 757, 2 Douglas DC-8, 1 Airbus A300, 2 Boeing 737-300 and two Fokker 27 500 aircraft (Reg. CC CIS and CC CIT). and in the ´60s, numerous Douglas DC 3; Cargo fleet includes 3 Boeing 707 aircraft. \n\nDestinations\n\nChile\n* Arica (Chacalluta International Airport)\n Iquique (Diego Aracena International Airport)\n Antofagasta (Cerro Moreno International Airport) (Focus City)\n Calama (El Loa International Airport) (Focus City)\n El Salvador (Ricardo García Posada Airport)\n Copiapó (Chamonate Airport)\n La Serena (La Florida Airport (Chile))\n Viña del Mar (Torquemada Airport)\n Santiago (Comodoro Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport) (Main Hub)\n Concepción (Carriel Sur International Airport)\n Los Ángeles (María Dolores Airport)\n Temuco (Maquehue Airport)\n Valdivia (Pichoy Airport)\n Osorno (Cañal Bajo Carlos Hott Siebert Airport)\n Puerto Montt (El Tepual Airport)\n** Balmaceda (Balmaceda Airport)\n* Punta Arenas (Presidente Carlos Ibáñez del Campo International Airport)\n\nInternational Destinations:\nCanada\n* Montreal - Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport\nUnited States of America\nMiami - Miami International Airport (Focus City)\nNew York City - John F. Kennedy International Airport\n* Baltimore/Washington, BWI - Baltimore-Washington International Airport\nMexico \nCancún - Cancún International Airport \nMexico City - Benito Juárez International Airport \nDominican Republic\nPunta Cana, Punta Cana International Airport\nSanto Domingo, Las Américas International Airport \nPanama\nPanama City - Tocumen International Airport \nColombia\n*Bogotá - El Dorado International Airport (Focus City)\nEcuador\n*Guayaquil - Simón Bolívar International Airport\nGuatemala\n*Guatemala City - La Aurora International Airport\nJamaica\n*Montego Bay - Sir Donald Sangster International Airport\nCosta Rica\n*San José de Costa Rica - Juan Santamaría International Airport\nCuba\n*Havana - José Martí International Airport \nArgentina \nBuenos Aires/Ezeiza -Ministro Pistarini International Airport (Focus City)\nMendoza, Argentina - El Plumerillo International Airport \nSalta - Martín Miguel de Güemes International Airport (Via Iquique)\nSan Miguel de Tucumán - Teniente Benjamín Matienzo International Airport (Via Iquique)\nSan Juan (Argentina) - Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Airport (Via La Serena)\nUshuaia - Ushuaia – Malvinas Argentinas International Airport (Via Puerto Montt-Punta Arenas)\nComodoro Rivadavia - General Enrique Mosconi International Airport (Via Balmaceda)\nNeuquén - Presidente Perón International Airport (Via Temuco)\nParaguay\nAsunción - Silvio Pettirossi International Airport\nBrazil\nSao Paulo - São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport\nRio de Janeiro - Galeão International Airport\n*Salvador de Bahía - Deputado Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport\n Uruguay\n** Montevideo - Carrasco International Airport\n\nAccidents and incidents\n\nOn 8 April 1968, Douglas C-49K CC-CBM crashed on approach to Balmaceda Airport killing all 36 people on board. The aircraft was operating a domestic scheduled passenger flight from Los Cerrillos Airport, Santiago." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "ISO 3166-1:CL", "Cxilio", "Cile", "Etymology of Chile", "Republic of Chile", "Chilean Republic", "State of Chile", "Chile", "Name of Chile", "República de Chile", "Chilé" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cxilio", "etymology of chile", "republic of chile", "chilean republic", "chile", "name of chile", "chilé", "iso 3166 1 cl", "república de chile", "state of chile", "cile" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chile", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Chile" }
Oran international airport is in which country?	tc_1317	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Oran.txt" ], "title": [ "Oran" ], "wiki_context": [ "Oran ( Wahrān; Berber: ⵡⴻⵀ Wehran) is an important coastal city that is located in the north-west of Algeria. It is considered the second most important city after the capital Algiers, due to its commercial, industrial, and cultural importance. It is 432 km from Algiers. The total population of the city was 759,645 in 2008 (2008), while the metropolitan area has a population of approximately 1,500,000, making it the second largest city in Algeria. \n\nThe name \"Wahran\" (Oran in Arabic) is derived from the Berber word \"uharan\" that means (two lions).\n\nA legend says that in 900 AD, lions still lived in the area. The last two lions were hunted on a mountain near Oran and are elsewhere referred to as \"mountain lions\". \n\nHistory\n\nDuring the Roman empire, a small settlement called Unica Colonia existed in the area of current Oran. but this settlement disappeared after the Arab conquest of the Maghreb.\n\nPresent-day Oran was founded in 903 by Moorish Andalusi traders. It was captured by the Castilians under Cardinal Cisneros in 1509, Spanish sovereignty lasted until 1708, when the city was conquered by the Ottomans. Spain recaptured the city in 1732. However, its value as a trading post had decreased greatly, so King Charles IV sold the city to the Turks in 1792. Ottoman rule lasted until 1831, when it fell to the French.\n\nDuring French rule over Algeria during the 19th and 20th centuries, Oran was the capital of a département of the same name (number 92). In July 1940, the British navy shelled French warships in the port after they refused a British ultimatum to surrender; this action was taken to ensure the fleet would not fall into German hands, as the Nazis had defeated France and occupied Paris. The action increased the hatred of the Vichy regime for Britain but convinced the world that the British would fight on alone against Nazi Germany and its allies. The Vichy government held Oran during World War II until its capture by the Allies in late 1942, during Operation Torch.\n\nBefore the Algerian War, 1954–1962, Oran had one of the highest proportions of Europeans of any city in North Africa. In July 1962, after a cease fire and accords with France, the FLN entered Oran and were shot at by a European. A mob attacked pied-noir neighborhoods and massacred thousands of Europeans in Oran; 453 have been said to have \"disappeared.\" This triggered a larger exodus of Europeans to France, which was already underway. Shortly after the end of the war, most of the Europeans and Algerian Jews living in Oran fled to France. In less than three months, Oran lost about half its population.\n\nTimeline of dynasties\n\nSpanish period\n\nBefore the Spaniards, the Portuguese launched a failed expedition to capture the city in July 1501. Four years later, the Spanish took Mers-el-Kébir, located just four miles (4 mi) to the west of the Oran. Thus began the first organized incursions against the city which, at the time, numbered 25,000 inhabitants and counted 6,000 fueros. Count Pedro Navarro, on the orders of Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, captured the city on May 17, 1509. The occupying forces set fire to the books and archives of the town. \n \nBy 1554, the Turks had reached Algiers. The governor of Oran, Count Alcaudete, allied himself with Moroccan Sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh against them. Nine years later, in 1563, Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis de Santa Cruz, built the fort of Santa-Cruz, strategically placed at the top of a mountain, l'Aïdour, more than 1000 ft above the sea, directly to the west of the city. Pedro Garcerán de Borja, Grand Master of the Order of Montesa, was captain of Oran when, on July 14, 1568, John of Austria (the illegitimate son of Charles I and paternal half-brother of King Philip II), led a flotilla of 33 galleys against the Algerians.\n\nIn April 1669 the Spanish governor, the Marquis del los Vélez, expelled all the Jews who lived in Oran and Mers El Kébir sending them to be resettled in either Nice, or Livorno.\n\nThe Spanish rebuilt Santa Cruz Fort to accommodate their city governors. \"The fortifications of the place were composed of thick and continuous walls of over two and a half kilometers in circumference, surmounted by strong towers spaced between them,\" with a central castle or kasbah where the Spanish governor had his headquarters. The city under Spanish rule continued to grow, requiring enlargement of the city walls. In spite of the improved fortifications, the city was the object of repeated attacks. Notable in this regard, Moroccan Sharif Moulay Ismail tried to force his way past the defences in 1707, only to see his army decimated.\n\nOttoman period\n\nThe Spaniards occupied the city until 1708, when the Turkish Bey, Mustapha Ben Youssef (Bouchelaghem) took advantage of the War of Spanish Succession to drive them out. In 1732, Spanish forces returned under José Carrillo de Albornoz, capturing the city from Bey Hassan in the Battle of Aïn-el-Turk.\n \nIn the night after October 8, 1790, a violent earthquake claimed more than 3,000 victims in less than seven minutes. Charles IV saw no advantage in continuing the occupation of the city, which had become increasingly expensive and perilous. He initiated discussions with the Bey of Algiers. They signed a treaty on September 12, 1792 by which the Spanish transferred the city to the Ottoman Empire. After another earthquake damaged the Spanish defences, Bey Ben Othman's forces took possession of Oran on October 8 of the same year. In 1792, the Ottomans settled a Jewish community there. In 1796, the Pasha Mosque (in honour of Hassan Pasha, Dey of Algiers), was built by the Turks with ransom money paid for the release of Spanish prisoners after Spain's final departure. In 1830 the Beys moved their Algerian capital from Mascara to Oran.\n\nFrench period\n\nThe town of 10,000 inhabitants was still in the possession of the Ottoman Empire when a squadron under the command of captain Bourmand seized el-Kébir on December 14, 1830. The city was in a wretched state. On January 4, 1831, the French commanded by General Damrémont occupied Oran.\nIn September 1831, General Berthezène appointed Mr. Pujol as mayor of Oran; he had been captain of cavalry in retirement and was wounded in the right hand under the Empire.\n\nIn 1832, leading a force of five thousand men, the young Emir Abd al-Qadir attacked Oran. In April 1833, commander-in-chief, General Boyer, was replaced by the baron Louis Alexis Desmichels. The city's defenders, under attack by Abd al Qadir, held their ground .\n\nEtymology\n\nThe word derives from the Berber root hr, meaning lion (see also Tahert and Souk Ahras). The name is attested in multiple Berber languages, for instance as uharu and ahra. A locally popular legend tells that in the period around 900 BC, there were sightings of lions in the area. The two last lions were killed on a mountain near Oran, and it became known as La montagne des lions (\"The Mountain of Lions\"). Two giant lion statues stand in front of Oran's city hall, symbolizing the city.\n\nOran today\n\nToday, Oran is a major port and a commercial centre, and has three universities. The old quarter of Oran has a casbah and an 18th-century mosque.\n\nOran has become a major trading centre for the wider area, serving Arzew, the area's oil/gas port as well as Sonatrach, the country's biggest oil and gas company. Sonalgas has built a new congress centre in Oran and in 2010 the 16th International Conference & Exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas was held in the city of Oran, which attracted around 3,000 visitors and major companies from around the world. To accommodate all visitors, new hotels are currently being constructed and floating hotels will be used in the future.\n\nClimate\n\nOran features a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk/BSh) with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Oran’s climate does show influences of a Mediterranean climate; however the combination of the city's relatively high average annual temperature and relatively low annual precipitation precludes it from falling under that climate category. Oran averages 326 mm of precipitation annually, the bulk of which falls between November and May. Summers are hot and dry with average high temperatures in the warmest month (August) approaching 32 degrees Celsius. Winters are mild in Oran, with high temperatures in the coolest month (January) at around 17 degrees Celsius. \n\nCulture\n\nThe folk music Raï (\"opinion\" in Arabic), had its beginnings in Oran. This genre of music was formulated by shepherds in the 1930s through Arab and European influences. This music was surrounded by controversy due to women's key role in public performances of the music, as well as the hedonistic lyrics about love and alcohol. This led to strict governmental control in the area which led to arrests, injuries, and assassinations. Many notable Raï musicians (including Cheb Hasni, Cheb Khaled, and Rachid Taha) hail from Oran. The violinist Akim el Sikameya was also born in Oran.\n\nRepresentation in other media\n\nEl Gallardo Español 1615 by Miguel de Cervantes and Albert Camus' novel The Plague (1947) take place in Oran.\nIn the movie Casablanca (1942), the route for refugees fleeing to the Americas was Paris to Marseille, across the Mediterranean to Oran, then by train, auto or foot to Casablanca. If they acquired an exit visa, they went on to Lisbon from there.\nPaul Bowles' 1949 novel The Sheltering Sky mainly takes place in Oran.\nPart of Arturo Pérez-Reverte's Capitán Alatriste adventure novel, Corsarios de Levante (Pirates of the Levant, 2006), takes place in early 17th-century Oran. The action of the book occurs a few years after the forced expulsion of the last Moriscos (Spanish Christians of Muslim descent) from Valencia. Oran is featured as a sun-blasted North African military stronghold. Capitán Diego Alatriste finds Oran to be manned by an impoverished garrison of Spanish Christians, living alongside Muslims (some fiercely loyal to Spain), and Sephardic Jews, descendants of refugees from the 1492 expulsions from Spain. \nIn the ITV drama series Hornblower, Lieutenant Hornblower is sent by Captain Pellew to Oran to obtain supplies, only to discover that the city was suffering from a bubonic plague epidemic. \nThe heroine of Geraldine Brooks' novel, Year of Wonders, ends up in Oran after a year in a village quarantined in 1666 because of the plague.\nJoann Sfar's graphic novel The Rabbi's Cat 2 begins in Oran.\nKamel Daoud's novel The Meursault Investigation is set in a bar in Oran. \n\nCity districts\n\nDistricts of Oran \n\nMedina Jedida\n\nMedina Jedida which means in English new city is a large historical and popular district. It was one of the Muslim quarters in the French colonial period. In this district, there is one of the biggest markets in the country, called Le Marché de Medina Jedida (Medina Jedida Market).\n\nEl Hamri\n\nEl Hamri is a too large popular district in the center of Oran known under French rule as Lamur. One finds there the football club Mouloudia d'Oran.\n\nNeighborhood streets \n* Avenue of Lamur\n* Street Captain-Rahou\n* Sebbalet Ayada\n* Place The Sahara\n* Gahwat Ettoubi\n* Street Staoueli\n* Street Djemaa Gazouna\n* Street Bougandoura\n* Street Belhadri Smain\n\nSidi El Houari\n\nThe historical district is a suburb in the north of the d'Oran city. One finds the Saint-Louis college there, as well as the old mosque of the Pasha dating from the 17th century. In this district the skin of Saint-Patron of the city in the name of \"Sidi El Houari\" rests;. Other tourist curiosities: one ancient prefecture of the data base Stalingrad, the Spanish vestiges dating from the 16th century, and especially the Palate of the Bey d'Oran.\n\nOranian agglomeration\n\nThe Oranian metropolis comprises several communes.\n\nMers-El-Kébir\n\nThe Municipality of Mers-El-Kebir is located north-west of Oran, about seven km (7 km) from the city centre. As its name indicates (The Great Port), it is a major port and has an important naval base, home to the Algerian Navy.\n\nAïn-El-Turk\n\nAïn El Turk, whose name means Fountain of the Turks is also located at the North-West of Oran to 15 km of the center. It is a seaside town which includes several hotels and other tourist attractions.\n\nEs-Sénia\n\nEs-Sénia, located in the south of Oran, is home to industrial parks, several university institutes (Oran-Es-Sénia University, Institut of Communication, ENSET \"Higher Teacher training school,\" CRASC \"Research center in social sciences,\" etc.) and the international airport.\n\nBir-El-Djir\n\nThis commune represents the suburbs of Oran (apart from the districts). It is the future beating heart of the Oranian agglomeration. It has several buildings which are the seats of institutions as the headquarters of Sonatrach's downstream activity, the hospital Etablissement Hospitalo-universitaire \"November 1st, 1954\", the convention center (Palais des Congrès), University of sciences and technology (conceived by the Japanese architect Kenzō Tange), the Institute of medical sciences, the Court of Justice and the National Centre of Research in Social and Cultural Anthropology. There is as well a stadium with a capacity of 50000 places under construction.\n\nBir El Djir is the urban extension to the East of Oran, 8 km far from the city center, with a population of 118.000 inhabitants.\n\nMisserghin\n\nThis is a small city in the Western extreme of the metropolis.\n\nTourism\n\nOran has numerous hotels in all categories, from luxury to basic, as well as many restaurants offering Algerian specialities and other foods. Tourists will also find a variety of cinemas, arts centres, the regional theatre, an open-air theatre, the Museum, the historic city centre of Oran, the district of Sidi El Houari, the municipal gardens, Médina Djedida with its artisanal products, the cathedral, Djebel Murdjadjo, and nearby seaside resorts. [http://membres.lycos.fr/oranairport/ International airport Es-Senia] is from the town centre. One can also reach Oran by ferries from the ports of Marseilles, Sète, Alicante and Almería, via the national company Algérie Ferries.\n\nTransportation\n\nThe city had limited means of transport, which do not cover sufficiently the non-urban zones, but today it does have a tramway and ETO (Enterprise of Oranian Transport) the company acquired new and modern buses. There is an extensive network of \"clandestine\" taxis in the City. A project started in 2008/9 and lasted approximately two to three years, to deliver the first line of the tramway in 2010. It should comprise 31 stations, distributed on going to Es-Sénia, in the South and Sidi Maarouf in the east side, while passing by the centre town The tramway should serve Haï Sabbah, University of Sciences and Technology (USTO), the Crossroads of the Three Private clinics, the Law courts, Dar El Baïda, the Plate-Saint Michel, the Place of the 1st November, Saint-Anthony, Boulanger, Saint-Hubert, the 3rd Ring road and finally The University of Es-Sénia. The Oran Es Senia Airport, for domestic and international flights. Oran Es Senia Airport serves both, domestic and international flights, with frequent connections to the capital Algiers, served by the public airline company Air Algerie. The same company also has flights to many French cities (Marseille, Paris, Lyon, etc.) and other European and EMEA cities. The Es Senia Airport also serves passengers from most smaller towns in proximity to Oran (Sig, Mostaganem, Arzew, etc.). The airport building is a fairly limited construction and does not operate on a 24-h basis.\n\nInternational marathon\n\nOran held its first international marathon on November 10, 2005. The event, sponsored by Toyota of Algeria, attracted runners from Morocco, Libya, Spain, France, and Kenya. The marathon served to publicize the health benefits of running and to provide a novel form of public entertainment for the city's residents.\n\n2021 Mediterranean Games\n\nXIX Mediterranean Games will be held in Oran in 2021.\n\nInternational relations\n\nOran is twinned with:" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Popular Democratic Republic of Algeria", "AlgeriA", "Name of Algeria", "Algerian People's Democratic Republic", "Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah", "الجزائر", "Algeria country", "Algerie", "ISO 3166-1:DZ", "Algeria", "Algerian Peoples Democratic Republic", "Dzayer", "Administrative divisions of Algeria", "People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria", "People's Democratic Algerian Republic", "Ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyah ash-Sha’bīyah", "Subdivision of Algeria", "Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah ash Shabiyah", "Subdivisions of Algeria", "Algérie", "Etymology of Algeria", "Algerian State", "République algérienne démocratique et populaire", "Republic of Algeria", "People's Republic of Algeria", "Algery", "Al-Jumhuriyah al-Jaza'iriyah", "People's Democratic Republic of Algeria", "الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية", "Ad-Dimuqratiyah ash-Sha'biyah" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "al jumhuriyah al jaza iriyah ad dimuqratiyah ash shabiyah", "algeria", "algerian peoples democratic republic", "republic of algeria", "algery", "al jumhūrīyah al jazā irīyah", "الجزائر", "people s republic of algeria", "الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية", "etymology of algeria", "iso 3166 1 dz", "algerie", "popular democratic republic of algeria", "algeria country", "ad dīmuqrāṭīyah ash sha bīyah", "name of algeria", "people s democratic algerian republic", "subdivisions of algeria", "algérie", "people s democratic republic of algeria", "algerian state", "algerian people s democratic republic", "subdivision of algeria", "administrative divisions of algeria", "république algérienne démocratique et populaire", "al jumhuriyah al jaza iriyah", "dzayer", "ad dimuqratiyah ash sha biyah" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "algeria", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Algeria" }
Where did Johnny Ace die in 1954?	tc_1318	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Johnny_Ace.txt" ], "title": [ "Johnny Ace" ], "wiki_context": [ "John Marshall Alexander, Jr. (June 9, 1929 – December 25, 1954), known by the stage name Johnny Ace, was an American rhythm-and-blues singer. He had a string of hit singles in the mid-1950s. He died of an accidental self-inflicted gunshot wound at the age of 25.\n\nCareer\n\nAlexander was born in Memphis, Tennessee, the son of a preacher, and grew up near LeMoyne-Owen College. After serving in the U.S. Navy during the Korean War, he joined Adolph Duncan's Band as a pianist. He then joined the B. B. King band. Soon King departed for Los Angeles, and the band's singer, Bobby Bland, joined the army. Alexander took over vocal duties and renamed the band the Beale Streeters. He also took over King's radio show on WDIA.\n\nHe began performing as Johnny Ace. He signed with Duke Records (originally a Memphis label associated with WDIA) in 1952. His first recording, \"My Song\", an urbane \"heart-ballad\", topped the R&B chart for nine weeks in September. (A cover version by Aretha Franklin was released in 1968, on the flip side of \"See Saw\".)\n\nAce began heavy touring, often with Willie Mae \"Big Mama\" Thornton. In the next two years, he had eight hits in a row, including \"Cross My Heart\", \"Please Forgive Me\", \"The Clock\", \"Yes, Baby\", \"Saving My Love for You\" and \"Never Let Me Go\". In December 1954 he was named the Most Programmed Artist of 1954 according to the results of a national poll of disc jockeys conducted by the U.S. trade weekly Cash Box. \n\nAce's recordings sold very well for those times. Early in 1955, Duke Records announced that three of his 1954 recordings, along with Thornton's \"Hound Dog\", had sold more than 1,750,000 copies.\n\nDeath\n\nAfter touring for a year, Ace had been performing at the City Auditorium in Houston, Texas, on Christmas Day 1954. During a break between sets, he was playing with a .22-caliber revolver. Members of his band said he did this often, sometimes shooting at roadside signs from their car.\n\nIt was widely reported that Ace killed himself playing Russian roulette. However, Big Mama Thornton's bass player, Curtis Tillman, who witnessed the event, said, \"I will tell you exactly what happened! Johnny Ace had been drinking and he had this little pistol he was waving around the table and someone said ‘Be careful with that thing…’ and he said ‘It’s okay! Gun’s not loaded… see?’ and pointed it at himself with a smile on his face and ‘Bang!’ — sad, sad thing. Big Mama ran out of the dressing room yelling ‘Johnny Ace just killed himself!'\" \n\nThornton said in a written statement (included in the book The Late Great Johnny Ace) that Ace had been playing with the gun but not playing Russian roulette. According to Thornton, Ace pointed the gun at his girlfriend and another woman who were sitting nearby, but did not fire. He then pointed the gun toward himself, bragging that he knew which chamber was loaded. The gun went off, shooting him in the side of the head.\n\nAccording to Nick Tosches, Ace shot himself with a .32 pistol, not a .22, and it happened little more than an hour after he had bought a new 1955 Oldsmobile. \n\nAce's funeral was held on January 9, 1955, at Clayborn Temple AME church in Memphis. It was attended by an estimated 5,000 people. \n\n\"Pledging My Love\" was a posthumous R&B number 1 hit for ten weeks beginning February 12, 1955. As Billboard bluntly put it, Ace's death \"created one of the biggest demands for a record that has occurred since the death of Hank Williams just over two years ago.\" His single recordings were compiled and released as The Johnny Ace Memorial Album.\n\nTributes\n\nBob Dylan and Joan Baez performed \"Never Let Me Go\" on tour with the Rolling Thunder Revue in 1975.\n\nElvis Presley recorded \"Pledging My Love\" in his last studio session, in 1976. The song appeared on the album Moody Blue in 1977.\n\nPaul Simon wrote and performed the song \"The Late Great Johnny Ace\", in which a boy, upon hearing of the death of Ace, orders a photograph of the deceased singer: \"It came all the way from Texas / With a sad and simple face / And they signed it on the bottom / From the Late Great Johnny Ace.\" The song develops a touching counterpoint with the death of two other Johnnies – John Lennon and John F. Kennedy. Simon also performed \"Pledging My Love\" on his tour of Europe and North America in 2000.\n\nDavid Allan Coe covered \"Pledging My Love\", introducing the song with his own recollections of hearing the news of Ace's death.\n\nAce is mentioned in \"House Band in Hell\", by Root Boy Slim, and in the song \"Johnny Ace\", by Dash Rip Rock. \n\n\"Pledging My Love\" was used in the 1973 film Mean Streets, directed by Martin Scorsese; the 1983 film Christine, directed by John Carpenter; the 1985 film Back to the Future, directed by Robert Zemeckis; and the 1992 film Bad Lieutenant, directed by Abel Ferrara.\n\nThe Teen Queens' song \"Eddie My Love\", originally entitled \"Johnny My Love\", was written in memory of Ace.\n\nThe Swiss singer Polo Hofer and the Schmetterband wrote the song \"Johnny Ace\" in 1985; it was released on the album Giggerig.\n\nRock-and-roll historian Harry Hepcat noted that \"Johnny Ace was a crooner who sounded like Johnny Mathis with soul. ....Soon after the death of Johnny Ace, Varetta Dillard recorded \"Johnny Has Gone\" for Savoy Records in early 1955. She incorporated many of Ace's song titles in the lyrics. This was the first of the many teen tragedy records that were to follow in the later 50s and early 1960s.\" \n\nWill Oldham noted Ace's death in the lyrics of his song \"Let the Wires Ring\", on his 2000 albbum Guarapero/Lost Blues 2. \n\nDave Alvin's 2011 album, Eleven Eleven, contains the song \"Johnny Ace is Dead\", about Ace's death.\n\nThe Squirrel Nut Zippers' Christmas album, Christmas Caravan, contains the song \"A Johnny Ace Christmas\", a love song about Ace killing himself on Christmas.\n\nDiscography\n\nSingles\n\nOriginal singles, all issued simultaneously on 78- and 45-rpm discs by Duke Records\n* \"My Song\" / \"Follow the Rule\" (1952)\n* \"Cross My Heart\" / \"Angel\" (1953)\n* \"The Clock\" / \"Aces Wild\" (1953)\n* \"Saving My Love for You\" / \"Yes, Baby\" (the B-side is a duet with Willie Mae \"Big Mama\" Thornton) (1954)\n* \"Please Forgive Me\" / \"You've Been Gone So Long\" (1954)\n* \"Never Let Me Go\" / \"Burley Cutie\" (instrumental) (1954)\n* \"Pledging My Love\" / \"Anymore\" / \"No Money\" (1955), #1 on U.S. R&B chart for 10 weeks, peaked at #17 on U.S. Pop chart\n* \"Anymore\" / \"How Can You Be So Mean\" (1955)\n* \"So Lonely\" / \"I'm So Crazy, Baby\" (1956)\n* \"Don't You Know\" / \"I Still Love You So\" (1956)\nOne split single, issued on 78- and 45-rpm discs by Flair Records\n* \"Mid Night Hours Journey\" (Johnny Ace) / \"Trouble and Me\" (Earl Forest) (1953)\n\nAlbums\n\nStudio albums and compilations containing only or mostly recordings by Ace\n* Johnny Ace Memorial Album, Duke (1955)\n* Johnny Ace: Pledging My Love, Universal Special Products (1986)\n* Johnny Ace: The Complete Duke Recordings, Geffen (2004)\n* The Chronological Johnny Ace: 1951–1954, Classics (2005)\n* Johnny Ace: Essential Masters, Burning Fire, digital download (2008)\n\nNotes and references\n\nBibliography\n\n* Bashe, Patricia Romanowski; George-Warren, Holly; Pareles, Jon (1995). The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (rev. updated ed.). New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-684-81044-1.\n* Rees, Dafydd; Crampton, Luke (1991). Rock Movers and Shakers. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0-87436-661-5.\n* Rock On: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Rock n' Roll: The Solid Gold Years: 1974. 1982: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, Harper & Row: New York. ISBN 0-06-181642-6." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Houstonians", "Houston, Texas", "The City of Houston", "Houstan, TX", "Houston texas", "City of Houston", "Media of Houston", "Houston city", "Houstan, Texas", "Houston, Texas, USA", "Ciudadehouston.org", "Media in Houston", "Houston Texas", "Houston, Texas (redir)", "Houston, USA", "The Energy Capital of the World", "Houston, United States", "Houston, Texas, U.S.A.", "Houston, Texas, U.S.", "Houstontx.gov", "Houston, TX, USA", "Houston, US-TX", "Hoston", "UN/LOCODE:USHOU", "Houston, Texas, United States", "Houston, Tx", "Houston", "Houston, texas", "Houston,Texas", "Houston, Tex.", "Houstan", "Houston (TX)", "Houston TX", "Houston,TX", "City of Houston, Texas", "Houston, TX", "Houston,Texas, United States" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "houston texas usa", "houstonians", "ciudadehouston org", "houston city", "houstan texas", "hoston", "un locode ushou", "houstontx gov", "media of houston", "houston", "houston us tx", "houston usa", "houston tx usa", "houston texas redir", "houston texas", "houston texas u s", "houston united states", "city of houston", "houstan tx", "houston tx", "city of houston texas", "houston texas united states", "energy capital of world", "houston tex", "houstan", "media in houston" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "houston texas", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Houston, Texas" }
Who was the first chemist to be Britain's Prime Minister?	tc_1319	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.txt" ], "title": [ "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister (informal abbreviation: PM) and Cabinet (consisting of all the most senior ministers, most of whom are government department heads) are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party and ultimately to the electorate. The , Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016.\n\nThe office is not established by any constitution or law but exists only by long-established convention, which stipulates that the monarch must appoint as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The position of Prime Minister was not created; it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to numerous acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective. The origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement (1688–1720) and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. Although the Sovereign was not stripped of the ancient prerogative powers and legally remained the head of government, politically it gradually became necessary for him or her to govern through a Prime Minister who could command a majority in Parliament.\n\nBy the 1830s the Westminster system of government (or cabinet government) had emerged; the Prime Minister had become primus inter pares or the first among equals in the Cabinet and the head of government in the United Kingdom. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of modern political parties, the introduction of mass communication (inexpensive newspapers, radio, television and the internet), and photography. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged; the office had become the pre-eminent position in the constitutional hierarchy vis-à-vis the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet.\n\nPrior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister's authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process.\n\nThe Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service. Certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury.\n\nAuthority\n\nAs the \"Head of Her Majesty's Government\" the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet (the Executive). In addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons (the lower house of the legislature). As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers. Under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the law-making process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. In an executive capacity the Prime Minister appoints (and may dismiss) all other cabinet members and ministers, and co-ordinates the policies and activities of all government departments, and the staff of the Civil Service. The Prime Minister also acts as the public \"face\" and \"voice\" of Her Majesty's Government, both at home and abroad. Solely upon the advice of the Prime Minister, the Sovereign exercises many statutory and prerogative powers, including high judicial, political, official and Church of England ecclesiastical appointments; the conferral of peerages, knighthoods, decorations and other honours. Although they may sometimes appear to be heavily under the influence of their aides, in reality the Prime Minister is in control. \n\nConstitutional background\n\nThe British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, meaning that it is not set out in any single document. The British constitution consists of many documents and, most importantly for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister, it is based on customs known as constitutional conventions that became accepted practice. In 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs:\n\nIn this country we live ... under an unwritten Constitution. It is true that we have on the Statute-book great instruments like Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights which define and secure many of our rights and privileges; but the great bulk of our constitutional liberties and ... our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the formal assent of the King, Lords and Commons. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, but which in the course of time received universal observance and respect. \n\nThe relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Minister's executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still formally vested in the Sovereign, who remains the head of state. Despite its growing dominance in the constitutional hierarchy, the Premiership was given little formal recognition until the 20th century; the legal fiction was maintained that the Sovereign still governed directly. The position was first mentioned in statute only in 1917, in the schedule of the Chequers Estate Act. Increasingly during the 20th century, the office and role of Prime Minister featured in statute law and official documents; however, the Prime Minister's powers and relationships with other institutions still largely continue to derive from ancient royal prerogatives and historic and modern constitutional conventions. Prime Ministers continue to hold the position of First Lord of the Treasury and, since November 1968, that of Minister for the Civil Service, the latter giving them authority over the civil service.\n\nUnder this arrangement, Britain might appear to have two executives: the Prime Minister and the Sovereign. The concept of \"the Crown\" resolves this paradox. The Crown symbolises the state's authority to govern: to make laws and execute them, impose taxes and collect them, declare war and make peace. Before the \"Glorious Revolution\" of 1688, the Sovereign exclusively wielded the powers of the Crown; afterwards, Parliament gradually forced monarchs to assume a neutral political position. Parliament has effectively dispersed the powers of the Crown, entrusting its authority to responsible ministers (the Prime Minister and Cabinet), accountable for their policies and actions to Parliament, in particular the elected House of Commons.\n\nAlthough many of the Sovereign's prerogative powers are still legally intact,The Sovereign's prerogative powers are sometimes called reserve powers. They include the sole authority to dismiss a Prime Minister and government of the day in extremely rare and exceptional circumstances, and other essential powers (such as withholding Royal Assent, and summoning and proroguing Parliament) to preserve the stability of the nation. These reserve powers can be exercised without the consent of Parliament. Reserve powers, in practice, are the court of absolute last resort in resolving situations that fundamentally threaten the security and stability of the nation as a whole and are almost never used. constitutional conventions have removed the monarch from day-to-day governance, with ministers exercising the royal prerogatives, leaving the monarch in practice with three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise, and to warn. \n\nFoundations of the office of Prime Minister\n\nRevolutionary settlement\n\nBecause the Premiership was not intentionally created, there is no exact date when its evolution began. A meaningful starting point, however, is 1688–9 when James II fled England and the Parliament of England confirmed William and Mary as joint constitutional monarchs, enacting legislation that limited their authority and that of their successors: the Bill of Rights (1689), the Mutiny Bill (1689), the Triennial Bill (1694), the Treason Act (1696) and the Act of Settlement (1701). Known collectively as the Revolutionary Settlement, these acts transformed the constitution, shifting the balance of power from the Sovereign to Parliament. They also provided the basis for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister, which did not exist at that time.\n\nTreasury Bench\n\nThe Revolutionary Settlement gave the Commons control over finances and legislation and changed the relationship between the Executive and the Legislature. For want of money, Sovereigns had to summon Parliament annually and could no longer dissolve or prorogue it without its advice and consent. Parliament became a permanent feature of political life. The veto fell into disuse because Sovereigns feared that if they denied legislation Parliament would deny them money. No Sovereign has denied royal assent since Queen Anne vetoed the Scottish Militia Bill in 1708. \n\nTreasury officials and other department heads were drawn into Parliament serving as liaisons between it and the Sovereign. Ministers had to present the government's policies, and negotiate with Members to gain the support of the majority; they had to explain the government's financial needs, suggest ways of meeting them and give an account of how money had been spent. The Sovereign's representatives attended Commons sessions so regularly that they were given reserved seats at the front, known as the Treasury Bench. This is the beginning of \"unity of powers\": the Sovereign's Ministers (the Executive) became leading members of Parliament (the Legislature). Today the Prime Minister (First Lord of the Treasury), the Chancellor of the Exchequer (responsible for The Budget) and other senior members of the Cabinet sit on the Treasury bench and present policies in much the same way Ministers did late in the 17th century.\n\nStanding Order 66\n\nAfter the Revolution, there was a constant threat that non-government members of Parliament would ruin the country's finances by proposing ill-considered money bills. Vying for control to avoid chaos, the Crown's Ministers gained an advantage in 1706, when the Commons informally declared, \"That this House will receive no petition for any sum of money relating to public Service, but what is recommended from the Crown.\" On 11 June 1713, this non-binding rule became Standing Order 66: that \"the Commons would not vote money for any purpose, except on a motion of a Minister of the Crown.\" Standing Order 66 remains in effect today (though renumbered as no. 48), essentially unchanged for three hundred years. \n\nEmpowering Ministers with sole financial initiative had an immediate and lasting impact. Apart from achieving its intended purpose – to stabilise the budgetary process – it gave the Crown a leadership role in the Commons; and, the Lord Treasurer assumed a leading position among Ministers.\n\nThe power of financial initiative was not, however, absolute. Only Ministers might initiate money bills, but Parliament now reviewed and consented to them. Standing Order 66 therefore represents the beginnings of Ministerial responsibility and accountability. \n\nThe term \"Prime Minister\" appears at this time as an unofficial title for the leader of the government, usually the head of the Treasury. Jonathan Swift, for example, wrote in 1713 about \"those who are now commonly called Prime Minister among us\", referring to Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley, Queen Anne's Lord Treasurers and chief ministers. Since 1721, every head of the Sovereign's government – with one exception in the 18th century (William Pitt the Elder) and one in the 19th (Lord Salisbury) – has been First Lord of the Treasury.\n\nBeginnings of the Prime Minister's party leadership\n\nPolitical parties first appeared during the Exclusion Crisis of 1678–1681. The Whigs, who believed in limited monarchy, wanted to exclude James Stuart from succeeding to the throne because he was a Catholic. The Tories, who believed in the \"Divine Right of Kings\", defended James' hereditary claim. These parties dominated British politics for over 150 years, with the Whigs evolving into the Liberal Party and the Tories into the Conservative. Even today, Conservatives are often called \"Tories\".\n\nPolitical parties were not well organised or disciplined in the 17th century. They were more like factions with \"members\" drifting in and out, collaborating temporarily on issues when it was to their advantage, then disbanding when it was not. A major deterrent to the development of opposing parties was the idea that there could only be one \"King's Party\" and to oppose it would be disloyal or even treasonous. This idea lingered throughout the 18th century. Nevertheless it became possible at the end of the 17th century to identify Parliaments and Ministries as being either \"Whig\" or \"Tory\" in composition.\n\nCabinet\n\nThe modern Prime Minister is also the leader of the Cabinet. A convention of the constitution, the modern Cabinet is a group of ministers who formulate policies. As the political heads of government departments Cabinet Ministers ensure that policies are carried out by permanent civil servants. Although the modern Prime Minister selects Ministers, appointment still rests with the Sovereign. With the Prime Minister as its leader, the Cabinet forms the executive branch of government.\n\nThe term \"Cabinet\" first appears after the Revolutionary Settlement to describe those ministers who conferred privately with the Sovereign. The growth of the Cabinet met with widespread complaint and opposition because its meetings were often held in secret and it excluded the ancient Privy Council (of which the Cabinet is formally a committee) from the Sovereign's circle of advisers, reducing it to an honorary body. The early Cabinet, like that of today, included the Treasurer and other department heads who sat on the Treasury bench. However, it might also include individuals who were not members of Parliament such as household officers (e.g. the Master of the Horse) and members of the royal family. The exclusion of non-members of Parliament from the Cabinet was essential to the development of ministerial accountability and responsibility.\n\nBoth William and Anne appointed and dismissed Cabinet members, attended meetings, made decisions, and followed up on actions. Relieving the Sovereign of these responsibilities and gaining control over the Cabinet's composition was an essential part of evolution of the Premiership. This process began after the Hanoverian Succession. Although George I (1714–1727) attended Cabinet meetings at first, after 1717 he withdrew because he did not speak fluent English and was bored with the discussions. George II (1727–1760) occasionally presided at Cabinet meetings but his grandson, George III (1760–1820), is known to have attended only two during his 60-year reign. Thus, the convention that Sovereigns do not attend Cabinet meetings was established primarily through royal indifference to the everyday tasks of governance. The Prime Minister became responsible for calling meetings, presiding, taking notes, and reporting to the Sovereign. These simple executive tasks naturally gave the Prime Minister ascendancy over his Cabinet colleagues. \n\nAlthough the first three Hanoverians rarely attended Cabinet meetings they insisted on their prerogatives to appoint and dismiss ministers and to direct policy even if from outside the Cabinet. It was not until late in the 18th century that Prime Ministers gained control over Cabinet composition (see section Emergence of Cabinet Government below).\n\n\"One Party Government\"\n\nBritish governments (or Ministries) are generally formed by one party. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are usually all members of the same political party, almost always the one that has a majority of seats in the House of Commons. Coalition governments (a ministry that consists of representatives from two or more parties) and minority governments (a one-party ministry formed by a party that does not command a majority in the Commons) are relatively rare. \"One party government\", as this system is sometimes called, has been the general rule for almost three hundred years.\n\nEarly in his reign, William III (1689–1702) preferred \"Mixed Ministries\" (or coalitions) consisting of both Tories and Whigs. William thought this composition would dilute the power of any one party and also give him the benefit of differing points of view. However, this approach did not work well because the members could not agree on a leader or on policies, and often worked at odds with each other.\n\nIn 1697, William formed a homogeneous Whig ministry. Known as the Junto, this government is often cited as the first true Cabinet because its members were all Whigs, reflecting the majority composition of the Commons. \n\nAnne (1702–1714) followed this pattern but preferred Tory Cabinets. This approach worked well as long as Parliament was also predominantly Tory. However, in 1708, when the Whigs obtained a majority, Anne did not call on them to form a government, refusing to accept the idea that politicians could force themselves on her merely because their party had a majority. She never parted with an entire Ministry or accepted an entirely new one regardless of the results of an election. Anne preferred to retain a minority government rather than be dictated to by Parliament. Consequently, her chief ministers Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley, who were called \"Prime Minister\" by some, had difficulty executing policy in the face of a hostile Parliament. \n\nWilliam's and Anne's experiments with the political composition of the Cabinet illustrated the strengths of one party government and the weaknesses of coalition and minority governments. Nevertheless, it was not until the 1830s that the constitutional convention was established that the Sovereign must select the Prime Minister (and Cabinet) from the party whose views reflect those of the majority in Parliament. Since then, most ministries have reflected this one party rule.\n\nDespite the \"one party\" convention, Prime Ministers may still be called upon to lead either minority or coalition governments. A minority government may be formed as a result of a \"hung parliament\" in which no single party commands a majority in the House of Commons after a general election or the death, resignation or defection of existing members. By convention the serving Prime Minister is given the first opportunity to reach agreements that will allow them to survive a vote of confidence in the House and continue to govern. The last minority government was led by Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson for eight months after the February 1974 general election produced a hung parliament. In the October 1974 general election, the Labour Party gained 18 seats, giving Wilson a majority of three.\n\nA hung parliament may also lead to the formation of a coalition government in which two or more parties negotiate a joint programme to command a majority in the Commons. Coalitions have also been formed during times of national crisis such as war. Under such circumstances, the parties agree to temporarily set aside their political differences and to unite to face the national crisis. Coalitions are rare: since 1721, there have been fewer than a dozen.\n\nWhen the general election of 2010 produced a hung parliament, the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties agreed to form the first Cameron ministry, the first coalition in seventy years. The previous coalition in the UK before 2010 was led by Conservative Prime Minister Winston Churchill during most of the Second World War, from May 1940 to May 1945. Clement Attlee, the leader of the Labour Party, served as deputy prime minister. After the general election of 2015, the nation returned to one party government after the Tories won an outright majority.\n\nTreasury Commission\n\nThe Premiership is still largely a convention of the constitution; its legal authority is derived primarily from the fact that the Prime Minister is also First Lord of the Treasury. The connection of these two offices – one a convention, the other a legal office – began with the Hanoverian Succession in 1714.\n\nWhen George I succeeded to the British throne in 1714, his German ministers advised him to leave the office of Lord High Treasurer vacant because those who had held it in recent years had grown overly powerful, in effect, replacing the Sovereign as head of the government. They also feared that a Lord High Treasurer would undermine their own influence with the new King. They therefore suggested that he place the office in \"commission\", meaning that a committee of five ministers would perform its functions together. Theoretically, this dilution of authority would prevent any one of them from presuming to be the head of the government. The King agreed and created the Treasury Commission consisting of the First Lord of the Treasury, the Second Lord, and three Junior Lords.\n\nNo one has been appointed Lord High Treasurer since 1714; it has remained in commission for three hundred years. The Treasury Commission ceased to meet late in the 18th century but has survived, albeit with very different functions: the First Lord of the Treasury is now the Prime Minister, the Second Lord is the Chancellor of the Exchequer (and actually in charge of the Treasury), and the Junior Lords are government Whips maintaining party discipline in the House of Commons; they no longer have any duties related to the Treasury, though when subordinate legislation requires the consent of the Treasury it is still two of the Junior Lords who sign on its behalf.See e.g. the various orders prescribing fees to be taken in public offices \n\nEarly prime ministers\n\n\"First\" Prime Minister\n\nSince the office evolved rather than being instantly created, it may not be totally clear-cut who was the first Prime Minister. However, this appellation is traditionally given to Sir Robert Walpole who became First Lord of the Treasury in 1721.\n\nIn 1720, the South Sea Company, created to trade in cotton, agricultural goods and slaves, collapsed, causing the financial ruin of thousands of investors and heavy losses for many others, including members of the royal family. King George I called on Robert Walpole, well known for his political and financial acumen, to handle the emergency. With considerable skill and some luck, Walpole acted quickly to restore public credit and confidence, and led the country out of the crisis. A year later, the King appointed him First Lord of the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Leader of the House of Commons – making him the most powerful minister in the government. Ruthless, crude, and hard-working, he had a \"sagacious business sense\" and was a superb manager of men. At the head of affairs for the next two decades, Walpole stabilised the nation's finances, kept it at peace, made it prosperous, and secured the Hanoverian Succession. \n\nWalpole demonstrated for the first time how a chief minister – a Prime Minister – could be the actual Head of the Government under the new constitutional framework. First, recognising that the Sovereign could no longer govern directly but was still the nominal head of the government, he insisted that he was nothing more than the \"King's Servant\". Second, recognising that power had shifted to the Commons, he conducted the nation's business there and made it dominant over the Lords in all matters. Third, recognising that the Cabinet had become the executive and must be united, he dominated the other members and demanded their complete support for his policies. Fourth, recognising that political parties were the source of ministerial strength, he led the Whig party and maintained discipline. In the Commons, he insisted on the support of all Whig members, especially those who held office. Finally, he set an example for future Prime Ministers by resigning his offices in 1742 after a vote of confidence, which he won by just 3 votes. The slimness of this majority undermined his power, even though he still retained the confidence of the Sovereign. \n\nAmbivalence and denial\n\nFor all his contributions, Walpole was not a Prime Minister in the modern sense. The King – not Parliament – chose him; and the King – not Walpole – chose the Cabinet. Walpole set an example, not a precedent, and few followed his example. For over 40 years after Walpole's fall in 1742, there was widespread ambivalence about the position. In some cases, the Prime Minister was a figurehead with power being wielded by other individuals; in others there was a reversion to the \"chief minister\" model of earlier times in which the Sovereign actually governed. At other times, there appeared to be two prime ministers. During Britain's participation in the Seven Years' War, for example, the powers of government were divided equally between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, leading to them both alternatively being described as Prime Minister. Furthermore, many thought that the title \"Prime Minister\" usurped the Sovereign's constitutional position as \"head of the government\" and that it was an affront to other ministers because they were all appointed by and equally responsible to the Sovereign.\n\nFor these reasons there was a reluctance to use the title. Although Walpole is now called the \"first\" Prime Minister, the title was not commonly used during his tenure. Walpole himself denied it. In 1741, during the attack that led to Walpole's downfall, Samuel Sandys declared that \"According to our Constitution we can have no sole and prime minister.\" In his defence, Walpole said \"I unequivocally deny that I am sole or Prime Minister and that to my influence and direction all the affairs of government must be attributed.\" George Grenville, Prime Minister in the 1760s, said it was \"an odious title\" and never used it. Lord North, the reluctant head of the King's Government during the American War of Independence, \"would never suffer himself to be called Prime Minister, because it was an office unknown to the Constitution.\" The 18th-century ambivalence causes problems for researchers trying to identify who was a Prime Minister and who was not. Every list of Prime Ministers may omit certain politicians. For instance, unsuccessful attempts to form ministries – such as the two-day government formed by the Earl of Bath in 1746, often dismissed as the \"Silly Little Ministry\" – may be included in a list or omitted, depending on the criteria selected.\n\nDenials of the Premiership's legal existence continued throughout the 19th century. In 1806, for example, one member of the Commons said, \"the Constitution abhors the idea of a prime minister\". In 1829, Lord Lansdowne said, \"nothing could be more mischievous or unconstitutional than to recognise by act of parliament the existence of such an office.\" \n\nBy the turn of the 20th century the Premiership had become, by convention, the most important position in the constitutional hierarchy. Yet there were no legal documents describing its powers or acknowledging its existence. The first official recognition given to the office had only been in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, when Disraeli signed as \"First Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister of her Britannic Majesty\". Incumbents had no statutory authority in their own right. As late as 1904, Arthur Balfour explained the status of his office in a speech at Haddington: \"The Prime Minister has no salary as Prime Minister. He has no statutory duties as Prime Minister, his name occurs in no Acts of Parliament, and though holding the most important place in the constitutional hierarchy, he has no place which is recognised by the laws of his country. This is a strange paradox.\" \n\nIn 1905 the position was given some official recognition when the \"Prime Minister\" was named in the order of precedence, outranked, among non-royals, only by the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and the Lord Chancellor. \n\nThe first Act of Parliament to mention the Premiership – albeit in a schedule – was the Chequers Estate Act on 20 December 1917. This law conferred the Chequers Estate owned by Sir Arthur and Lady Lee, as a gift to the Crown for use as a country home for future Prime Ministers.\n\nUnequivocal legal recognition was given in the Ministers of the Crown Act 1937, which made provision for payment of a salary to the person who is both \"the First Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister\". Explicitly recognising two hundred years' of ambivalence, the Act states that it intended \"To give statutory recognition to the existence of the position of Prime Minister, and to the historic link between the Premiership and the office of First Lord of the Treasury, by providing in respect to that position and office a salary of ...\" The Act made a distinction between the \"position\" (Prime Minister) and the \"office\" (First Lord of the Treasury), emphasising the unique political character of the former. Nevertheless, the brass plate on the door of the Prime Minister's home, 10 Downing Street, still bears the title of \"First Lord of the Treasury\", as it has since the 18th century.\n\n\"First among equals\"\n\nEmergence of Cabinet government\n \n\nDespite the reluctance to legally recognise the Premiership, ambivalence toward it waned in the 1780s. During the first 20 years of his reign, George III (1760–1820) tried to be his own \"prime minister\" by controlling policy from outside the Cabinet, appointing and dismissing ministers, meeting privately with individual ministers, and giving them instructions. These practices caused confusion and dissension in Cabinet meetings; King George's experiment in personal rule was generally a failure. After the failure of Lord North's ministry (1770–1782) in March 1782 due to Britain's defeat in the American Revolutionary War and the ensuing vote of no confidence by Parliament, the Marquess of Rockingham reasserted the Prime Minister's control over the Cabinet. Rockingham assumed the Premiership \"on the distinct understanding that measures were to be changed as well as men; and that the measures for which the new ministry required the royal consent were the measures which they, while in opposition, had advocated.\" He and his Cabinet were united in their policies and would stand or fall together; they also refused to accept anyone in the Cabinet who did not agree.This event also marks the beginnings of collective Cabinet responsibility. This principle states that the decisions made by any one Cabinet member become the responsibility of the entire Cabinet. King George threatened to abdicate but in the end reluctantly agreed out of necessity: he had to have a government.\n\nFrom this time, there was a growing acceptance of the position of Prime Minister and the title was more commonly used, if only unofficially. Associated initially with the Whigs, the Tories started to accept it. Lord North, for example, who had said the office was \"unknown to the constitution\", reversed himself in 1783 when he said, \"In this country some one man or some body of men like a Cabinet should govern the whole and direct every measure.\" In 1803, William Pitt the Younger, also a Tory, suggested to a friend that \"this person generally called the first minister\" was an absolute necessity for a government to function, and expressed his belief that this person should be the minister in charge of the finances.\n\nThe Tories' wholesale conversion started when Pitt was confirmed as Prime Minister in the election of 1784. For the next 17 years until 1801 (and again from 1804 to 1806), Pitt, the Tory, was Prime Minister in the same sense that Walpole, the Whig, had been earlier.\n\nTheir conversion was reinforced after 1810. In that year, George III, who had suffered periodically from mental instability (due to a blood disorder now known as porphyria), became permanently insane and spent the remaining 10 years of his life unable to discharge his duties. The Prince Regent was prevented from using the full powers of Kingship. The Regent became George IV in 1820, but during his 10-year reign was indolent and frivolous. Consequently, for 20 years the throne was virtually vacant and Tory Cabinets led by Tory Prime Ministers filled the void, governing virtually on their own.\n\nThe Tories were in power for almost 50 years, except for a Whig ministry from 1806 to 1807. Lord Liverpool was Prime Minister for 15 years; he and Pitt held the position for 34 years. Under their long, consistent leadership, Cabinet government became a convention of the constitution. Although subtle issues remained to be settled, the Cabinet system of government is essentially the same today as it was in 1830.\n\nUnder this form of government, called the Westminster system, the Sovereign is head of state and titular head of Her Majesty's Government. She selects as her Prime Minister the person who is able to command a working majority in the House of Commons, and invites him or her to form a government. As the actual Head of Government, the Prime Minister selects his Cabinet, choosing its members from among those in Parliament who agree or generally agree with his intended policies. He then recommends them to the Sovereign who confirms his selections by formally appointing them to their offices. Led by the Prime Minister, the Cabinet is collectively responsible for whatever the government does. The Sovereign does not confer with members privately about policy, nor attend Cabinet meetings. With respect to actual governance, the monarch has only three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise, and to warn. In practice this means that the Sovereign reviews state papers and meets regularly with the Prime Minister, usually weekly, when she may advise and warn him or her regarding the proposed decisions and actions of Her Government. \n\nLoyal Opposition\n\nThe modern British system includes not only a government formed by the majority party (or coalition of parties) in the House of Commons but also an organised and open opposition formed by those who are not members of the governing party. Called Her Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition, they occupy the benches to the Speaker's left. Seated in the front, directly across from the ministers on the Treasury Bench, the leaders of the opposition form a \"Shadow Government\", complete with a salaried \"Shadow Prime Minister\", the Leader of the Opposition, ready to assume office if the government falls or loses the next election.\n\nOpposing the King's government was considered disloyal, even treasonous, at the end of the 17th century. During the 18th century this idea waned and finally disappeared as the two party system developed. The expression \"His Majesty's Opposition\" was coined by John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton. In 1826, Broughton, a Whig, announced in the Commons that he opposed the report of a Bill. As a joke, he said, \"It was said to be very hard on His Majesty's ministers to raise objections to this proposition. For my part, I think it is much more hard on His Majesty's Opposition to compel them to take this course.\" The phrase caught on and has been used ever since. Sometimes rendered as the \"Loyal Opposition\", it acknowledges the legitimate existence of the two party system, and describes an important constitutional concept: opposing the government is not treason; reasonable men can honestly oppose its policies and still be loyal to the Sovereign and the nation.\n\nInformally recognized for over a century as a convention of the constitution, the position of Leader of the Opposition was given statutory recognition in 1937 by the Ministers of the Crown Act.\n\nGreat Reform Act and the Premiership\n\nBritish Prime Ministers have never been elected directly by the public. A Prime Minister need not be a party leader; David Lloyd George was not a party leader during his service as prime minister during World War I, and neither was Ramsay MacDonald from 1931 to 1935. Prime Ministers have taken office because they were members of either the Commons or Lords, and either inherited a majority in the Commons or won more seats than the opposition in a general election.\n\nSince 1722, most Prime Ministers have been members of the Commons; since 1902, all have had a seat there.Except Lord Home, who resigned his peerage to stand in a by-election soon after becoming Prime Minister Like other members, they are elected initially to represent only a constituency. Former Prime Minister Tony Blair, for example, represented Sedgefield in County Durham from 1983 to 2007. He became Prime Minister because in 1994 he was elected Labour Party leader and then led the party to victory in the 1997 general election, winning 418 seats compared to 165 for the Conservatives and gaining a majority in the House of Commons.\n\nNeither the Sovereign nor the House of Lords had any meaningful influence over who was elected to the Commons in 1997 or in deciding whether or not Blair would become Prime Minister. Their detachment from the electoral process and the selection of the Prime Minister has been a convention of the constitution for almost 200 years.\n\nPrior to the 19th century, however, they had significant influence, using to their advantage the fact that most citizens were disenfranchised and seats in the Commons were allocated disproportionately. Through patronage, corruption and bribery, the Crown and Lords \"owned\" about 30% of the seats (called \"pocket\" or \"rotten boroughs\") giving them a significant influence in the Commons and in the selection of the Prime Minister. \n\nIn 1830, Charles Grey, the 2nd Earl Grey and a life-long Whig, became Prime Minister and was determined to reform the electoral system. For two years, he and his Cabinet fought to pass what has come to be known as the Great Reform Bill of 1832. The greatness of the Great Reform Bill lay less in substance than in symbolism. As John Bright, a liberal statesman of the next generation, said, \"It was not a good Bill, but it was a great Bill when it passed.\" Substantively, it increased the franchise by 65% to 717,000; with the middle class receiving most of the new votes. The representation of 56 rotten boroughs was eliminated completely, together with half the representation of 30 others; the freed up seats were distributed to boroughs created for previously disenfranchised areas. However, many rotten boroughs remained and it still excluded millions of working class men and all women. \n\nSymbolically, however, the Reform Act exceeded expectations. It is now ranked with Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights as one of the most important documents of the British constitutional tradition.\n\nFirst, the Act removed the Sovereign from the election process and the choice of Prime Minister. Slowly evolving for 100 years, this convention was confirmed two years after the passage of the Act. In 1834, King William IV dismissed Melbourne as Premier, but was forced to recall him when Robert Peel, the King's choice, could not form a working majority. Since then, no Sovereign has tried to impose a Prime Minister on Parliament.\n\nSecond, the Bill reduced the Lords' power by eliminating many of their pocket boroughs and creating new boroughs in which they had no influence. Weakened, they were unable to prevent the passage of more comprehensive electoral reforms in 1867, 1884, 1918 and 1928 when universal equal suffrage was established. \n\nUltimately, this erosion of power led to the Parliament Act of 1911, which marginalised the Lords' role in the legislative process and gave further weight to the convention that had developed over the previous centuryAs early as 1839, the former Prime Minister Duke of Wellington had argued in the House of Lords that \"I have long entertained the view that the Prime Minister of this country, under existing circumstances, ought to have a seat in the other House of Parliament, and that he would have great advantage in carrying on the business of the Sovereign by being there.\" Quoted in Barnett, p. 246 that a Prime Minister cannot sit in the House of Lords. The last to do so was Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, from 1895 to 1902.The last Prime Minister to be a member of the Lords during any part of his tenure was Alec Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home in 1963. Lord Home was the last Prime Minister who was a hereditary peer, but, within days of attaining office, he disclaimed his peerage, abiding by the convention that the Prime Minister should sit in the House of Commons. A junior member of his Conservative Party who had already been selected as candidate in a by-election in a staunch Conservative seat stood aside, allowing Home to contest and win the by-election, and thus procure a seat in the lower House. Throughout the 19th century, governments led from the Lords had often suffered difficulties governing alongside ministers who sat in the Commons. \n\nGrey set an example and a precedent for his successors. He was primus inter pares (first among equals), as Bagehot said in 1867 of the Prime Minister's status. Using his Whig victory as a mandate for reform, Grey was unrelenting in the pursuit of this goal, using every Parliamentary device to achieve it. Although respectful toward the King, he made it clear that his constitutional duty was to acquiesce to the will of the people and Parliament.\n\nThe Loyal Opposition acquiesced too. Some disgruntled Tories claimed they would repeal the Bill once they regained a majority. But in 1834, Robert Peel, the new Conservative leader, put an end to this threat when he stated in his Tamworth Manifesto that the Bill was \"a final and irrevocable settlement of a great constitutional question which no friend to the peace and welfare of this country would attempt to disturb\". \n\nPopulist prime ministers\n\nThe Premiership was a reclusive office prior to 1832. The incumbent worked with his Cabinet and other government officials; he occasionally met with the Sovereign, and attended Parliament when it was in session during the spring and summer. He never went out on the stump to campaign, even during elections; he rarely spoke directly to ordinary voters about policies and issues.\n\nAfter the passage of the Great Reform Bill, the nature of the position changed: Prime Ministers had to go out among the people. The Bill increased the electorate to 717,000. Subsequent legislation (and population growth) raised it to 2 million in 1867, 5.5 million in 1884 and 21.4 million in 1918. As the franchise increased, power shifted to the people and Prime Ministers assumed more responsibilities with respect to party leadership. It naturally fell on them to motivate and organise their followers, explain party policies, and deliver its \"message\". Successful leaders had to have a new set of skills: to give a good speech, present a favourable image, and interact with a crowd. They became the \"voice\", the \"face\" and the \"image\" of the party and ministry.\n\nRobert Peel, often called the \"model Prime Minister\", was the first to recognise this new role. After the successful Conservative campaign of 1841, J. W. Croker said in a letter to Peel, \"The elections are wonderful, and the curiosity is that all turns on the name of Sir Robert Peel. It's the first time that I remember in our history that the people have chosen the first Minister for the Sovereign. Mr. Pitt's case in '84 is the nearest analogy; but then the people only confirmed the Sovereign's choice; here every Conservative candidate professed himself in plain words to be Sir Robert Peel's man, and on that ground was elected.\" \n\nBenjamin Disraeli and William Ewart Gladstone developed this new role further by projecting \"images\" of themselves to the public. Known by their nicknames \"Dizzy\" and the \"Grand Old Man\", their colourful, sometimes bitter, personal and political rivalry over the issues of their time – Imperialism vs. Anti-Imperialism, expansion of the franchise, labour reform, and Irish Home Rule – spanned almost twenty years until Disraeli's death in 1881.Even after death their rivalry continued. When Disraeli died in 1881, Gladstone proposed a state funeral, but Disraeli's will specified that he have a private funeral and be buried next to his wife. Gladstone replied, \"As [Disraeli] lived, so he died—all display, without reality or genuineness.\" Disraeli, for his part, once said that GOM (the acronym for \"Grand Old Man\") really stood for \"God's Only Mistake\". Documented by the penny press, photographs and political cartoons, their rivalry linked specific personalities with the Premiership in the public mind and further enhanced its status.\n\nEach created a different public image of himself and his party. Disraeli, who expanded the Empire to protect British interests abroad, cultivated the image of himself (and the Conservative Party) as \"Imperialist\", making grand gestures such as conferring the title \"Empress of India\" on Queen Victoria in 1876. Gladstone, who saw little value in the Empire, proposed an anti-Imperialist policy (later called \"Little England\"), and cultivated the image of himself (and the Liberal Party) as \"man of the people\" by circulating pictures of himself cutting down great oak trees with an axe as a hobby.\n\nGladstone went beyond image by appealing directly to the people. In his Midlothian campaign – so called because he stood as a candidate for that county – Gladstone spoke in fields, halls and railway stations to hundreds, sometimes thousands, of students, farmers, labourers and middle class workers. Although not the first leader to speak directly to voters – both he and Disraeli had spoken directly to party loyalists before on special occasions – he was the first to canvass an entire constituency, delivering his message to anyone who would listen, encouraging his supporters and trying to convert his opponents. Publicised nationwide, Gladstone's message became that of the party. Noting its significance, Lord Shaftesbury said, \"It is a new thing and a very serious thing to see the Prime Minister on the stump.\" \n\nCampaigning directly to the people became commonplace. Several 20th century Prime Ministers, such as David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill, were famous for their oratorical skills. After the introduction of radio, motion pictures, television, and the internet, many used these technologies to project their public image and address the nation. Stanley Baldwin, a master of the radio broadcast in the 1920s and 1930s, reached a national audience in his talks filled with homely advice and simple expressions of national pride. Churchill also used the radio to great effect, inspiring, reassuring and informing the people with his speeches during the Second World War. Two recent Prime Ministers, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair (who both spent a decade or more as prime minister), achieved celebrity status like rock stars, but have been criticised for their more 'presidential' style of leadership. According to Anthony King, \"The props in Blair's theatre of celebrity included ... his guitar, his casual clothes ... footballs bounced skilfully off the top of his head ... carefully choreographed speeches and performances at Labour Party conferences.\" \n\nModern Premiership\n\nParliament Act and the Premiership\n\nIn addition to being the leader of a great political party and the head of Her Majesty's Government, the modern Prime Minister directs the law-making process, enacting into law his or her party's programme. For example, Tony Blair, whose Labour party was elected in 1997 partly on a promise to enact a British Bill of Rights and to create devolved governments for Scotland and Wales, subsequently stewarded through Parliament the Human Rights Act (1998), the Scotland Act (1998) and the Government of Wales Act (1998).\n\nFrom its appearance in the 14th century Parliament has been a bicameral legislature consisting of the Commons and the Lords. Members of the Commons are elected; those in the Lords are not. Most Lords are called \"Temporal\" with titles such as Duke, Marquess, Earl and Viscount. The balance are Lords Spiritual (prelates of the Anglican Church).\n\nFor most of the history of the Upper House, Lords Temporal were landowners who held their estates, titles and seats as an hereditary right passed down from one generation to the next – in some cases for centuries. In 1910, for example, there were nineteen whose title was created before 1500. Following a series of reforms in the 20th century the Lords now consists almost entirely of appointed members who hold their title only for their own lifetime. As of 11 June 2012 the Lords had 763 members (excluding 49 who were on leave of absence or otherwise disqualified from sitting), compared to 646 in the Commons. \n\nUntil 1911, Prime Ministers had to guide legislation through the Commons and the Lords and obtain majority approval in both houses for it to become law. This was not always easy, because political differences often separated the chambers. Representing the landed aristocracy, Lords Temporal were generally Tory (later Conservative) who wanted to maintain the status quo and resisted progressive measures such as extending the franchise. The party affiliation of members of the Commons was less predictable. During the 18th century its makeup varied because the Lords had considerable control over elections: sometimes Whigs dominated it, sometimes Tories. After the passage of the Great Reform Bill in 1832, the Commons gradually became more progressive, a tendency that increased with the passage of each subsequent expansion of the franchise.\n\nIn 1906, the Liberal party, led by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, won an overwhelming victory on a platform that promised social reforms for the working class. With 379 seats compared to the Conservatives' 132, the Liberals could confidently expect to pass their legislative programme through the Commons. At the same time, however, the Conservative Party had a huge majority in the Lords; it could easily veto any legislation passed by the Commons that was against their interests. \n\nFor five years, the Commons and the Lords fought over one bill after another. The Liberals pushed through parts of their programme, but the Conservatives vetoed or modified others. When the Lords vetoed the \"People's Budget\" in 1909, the controversy moved almost inevitably toward a constitutional crisis. \n\nIn 1910, Prime Minister H. H. AsquithCampbell-Bannerman retired and died in 1908 introduced a bill \"for regulating the relations between the Houses of Parliament\" which would eliminate the Lords' veto power over legislation. Passed by the Commons, the Lords rejected it. In a general election fought on this issue, the Liberals were weakened but still had a comfortable majority. At Asquith's request, King George V then threatened to create a sufficient number of new Liberal Peers to ensure the bill's passage. Rather than accept a permanent Liberal majority, the Conservative Lords yielded, and the bill became law. \n\nThe Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the Commons. It provided that the Lords could not delay for more than one month any bill certified by the Speaker of the Commons as a money bill. Furthermore, the Act provided that any bill rejected by the Lords would nevertheless become law if passed by the Commons in three successive sessions provided that two years had elapsed since its original passage. The Lords could still delay or suspend the enactment of legislation but could no longer veto it. Subsequently the Lords \"suspending\" power was reduced to one year by the Parliament Act 1949.\n\nIndirectly, the Act enhanced the already dominant position of Prime Minister in the constitutional hierarchy. Although the Lords are still involved in the legislative process and the Prime Minister must still guide legislation through both Houses, the Lords no longer have the power to veto or even delay enactment of legislation passed by the Commons. Provided that he controls the Cabinet, maintains party discipline, and commands a majority in the Commons, the Prime Minister is assured of putting through his legislative agenda.\n\n\"Presidential\" Premiership\n\nThe role and power of the Prime Minister have been subject to much change in the last fifty years. There has gradually been a change from Cabinet decision-making and deliberation to the dominance of the Prime Minister. As early as 1965, in a new introduction to Walter Bagehot's classic work The English Constitution, Richard Crossman identified a new era of \"Prime Ministerial\" government. Some commentators, such as the political scientist Michael Foley, have argued there is a de facto \"British Presidency\". In Tony Blair's government, many sources such as former ministers have suggested that decision-making was controlled by him and Gordon Brown, and the Cabinet was no longer used for decision-making. Former ministers such as Clare Short and Chris Smith have criticised the lack of decision-making power in Cabinet. When she resigned, Short denounced \"the centralisation of power into the hands of the Prime Minister and an increasingly small number of advisers\". The Butler Review of 2004 condemned Blair's style of \"sofa government\".\n\nPrime Ministers may dominate the Cabinet so much that they become \"Semi-Presidents\". Examples are William Ewart Gladstone, David Lloyd George, Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill, Margaret Thatcher, and Tony Blair. The powers of some Prime Ministers waxed or waned, depending upon their own level of energy, political skills or outside events: Ramsay MacDonald, for example, was dominant in his Labour governments, but during his National Government his powers diminished so that he was merely the figurehead of the government. In modern times, Prime Ministers have never been merely titular; dominant or somewhat dominant personalities are the norm.\n\nGenerally, however, the Prime Minister is held responsible by the nation for the consequences of legislation or of general government policy. Margaret Thatcher's party forced her from power after the introduction of the poll tax; Sir Anthony Eden fell from power following the Suez Crisis; and Neville Chamberlain resigned in 1940 after the Allies were forced to retreat from Norway, as he believed a government supported by all parties was essential, and the Labour and Liberal parties would not join a government headed by him.\n\nThe Prime Minister's powers are also limited by the House of Commons, whose support the Government is obliged to maintain. The Commons checks the powers of the Prime Minister through committee hearings and through Prime Minister's Questions, a weekly occurrence in which the Prime Minister is obliged to respond to the questions of the Leader of the Opposition and other members of the House. In practice, however, a Government with a strong majority need rarely fear \"backbench rebellions\".\n\nPowers and constraints\n\nWhen commissioned by the Sovereign, a potential Prime Minister's first requisite is to \"form a Government\" – to create a cabinet of ministers that has the support of the House of Commons, of which they are expected to be a member. The Prime Minister then formally kisses the hands of the Sovereign, whose royal prerogative powers are thereafter exercised solely on the advice of the Prime Minister and Her Majesty's Government (\"HMG\"). The Prime Minister has weekly audiences with the Sovereign, whose rights are constitutionally limited: \"to warn, to encourage, and to be consulted\"; the extent of the Sovereign's ability to influence the nature of the Prime Ministerial advice is unknown, but presumably varies depending upon the personal relationship between the Sovereign and the Prime Minister of the day.\n\nThe Prime Minister will appoint all other cabinet members (who then become active Privy Counsellors) and ministers, although consulting senior ministers on their junior ministers, without any Parliamentary or other control or process over these powers. At any time, the PM may obtain the appointment, dismissal or nominal resignation of any other minister; the PM may resign, either purely personally or with the whole government. The Prime Minister generally co-ordinates the policies and activities of the Cabinet and Government departments, acting as the main public \"face\" of Her Majesty's Government.\n\nAlthough the Commander-in-Chief of the British Armed Forces is legally the Sovereign, under constitutional practice the Prime Minister can declare war, and through the Secretary of State for Defence (whom the PM may appoint and dismiss, or even appoint himself or herself to the position) as chair of the Defence Council the power over the deployment and disposition of British forces. The Prime Minister can authorise, but not directly order, the use of Britain's nuclear weapons and the Prime Minister is hence a Commander-in-Chief in all but name.\n\nThe Prime Minister makes all the most senior Crown appointments, and most others are made by Ministers over whom the PM has the power of appointment and dismissal. Privy Counsellors, Ambassadors and High Commissioners, senior civil servants, senior military officers, members of important committees and commissions, and other officials are selected, and in most cases may be removed, by the Prime Minister. The PM also formally advises the Sovereign on the appointment of Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England,Barnett, p. 249 but the PM's discretion is limited by the existence of the Crown Nominations Commission. The appointment of senior judges, while constitutionally still on the advice of the Prime Minister, is now made on the basis of recommendations from independent bodies.\n\nPeerages, knighthoods, and most other honours are bestowed by the Sovereign only on the advice of the Prime Minister. The only important British honours over which the Prime Minister does not have control are the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Order of Merit, the Royal Victorian Order, and the Venerable Order of Saint John, which are all within the \"personal gift\" of the Sovereign.\n\nThe Prime Minister appoints officials known as the \"Government Whips\", who negotiate for the support of MPs and to discipline dissenters. Party discipline is strong since electors generally vote for individuals on the basis of their party affiliation. Members of Parliament may be expelled from their party for failing to support the Government on important issues, and although this will not mean they must resign as MPs, it will usually make re-election difficult. Members of Parliament who hold ministerial office or political privileges can expect removal for failing to support the Prime Minister. Restraints imposed by the Commons grow weaker when the Government's party enjoys a large majority in that House, or among the electorate. In most circumstances, however, the Prime Minister can secure the Commons' support for almost any bill by internal party negotiations, with little regard to Opposition MPs.\n\nHowever, even a government with a healthy majority can on occasion find itself unable to pass legislation. For example, on 9 November 2005, Tony Blair's Government was defeated over plans which would have allowed police to detain terror suspects for up to 90 days without charge, and on 31 January 2006, was defeated over certain aspects of proposals to outlaw religious hatred. On other occasions, the Government alters its proposals to avoid defeat in the Commons, as Tony Blair's Government did in February 2006 over education reforms. \n\nFormerly, a Prime Minister whose government lost a Commons vote would be regarded as fatally weakened, and the whole government would resign, usually precipitating a general election. In modern practice, when the Government party has an absolute majority in the House, only loss of supply and the express vote \"that this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government\" are treated as having this effect; dissenters on a minor issue within the majority party are unlikely to force an election with the probable loss of their seats and salaries.\n\nLikewise, a Prime Minister is no longer just \"first amongst equals\" in HM Government; although theoretically the Cabinet might still outvote the PM, in practice the PM progressively entrenches his or her position by retaining only personal supporters in the Cabinet. In occasional reshuffles, the Prime Minister can sideline and simply drop from Cabinet the Members who have fallen out of favour: they remain Privy Counsellors, but the Prime Minister decides which of them are summoned to meetings. The Prime Minister is responsible for producing and enforcing the Ministerial Code.\n\nPrecedence, privileges, and form of address\n\nBy tradition, before a new Prime Minister can occupy 10 Downing Street, they are required to announce to the country and the world that they have \"kissed hands\" with the reigning monarch, and have thus become Prime Minister. This is usually done by saying words to the effect of:\n\nHer Majesty the Queen [His Majesty the King] has asked me to form a government and I have accepted. \n\nThroughout the United Kingdom, the Prime Minister outranks all other dignitaries except members of the Royal Family, the Lord Chancellor, and senior ecclesiastical figures.These include: in England and Wales, the Anglican Archbishops of Canterbury and York; in Scotland, the Lord High Commissioner and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland; in Northern Ireland, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Archbishops of Armagh and Dublin and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church.\n\nIn 2010 the Prime Minister received £142,500 including a salary of £65,737 as a member of parliament. Until 2006, the Lord Chancellor was the highest paid member of the government, ahead of the Prime Minister. This reflected the Lord Chancellor's position at the head of the judicial pay scale. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 eliminated the Lord Chancellor's judicial functions and also reduced the office's salary to below that of the Prime Minister.\n\nThe Prime Minister is customarily a member of the Privy Council and thus entitled to the appellation \"The Right Honourable\". Membership of the Council is retained for life. It is a constitutional convention that only a Privy Counsellor can be appointed Prime Minister. Most potential candidates have already attained this status. The only case when a non-Privy Counsellor was the natural appointment was Ramsay MacDonald in 1924. The issue was resolved by appointing him to the Council immediately prior to his appointment as Prime Minister.\n\nAccording to the now defunct Department for Constitutional Affairs, the Prime Minister is made a Privy Counsellor as a result of taking office and should be addressed by the official title prefixed by \"The Right Honourable\" and not by a personal name. Although this form of address is employed on formal occasions, it is rarely used by the media. As \"Prime Minister\" is a position, not a title, the incumbent should be referred to as \"the Prime Minister\". The title \"Prime Minister\" (e.g. \"Prime Minister John Smith\") is technically incorrect but is sometimes used erroneously outside the United Kingdom, and has more recently become acceptable within it. Within the UK, the expression \"Prime Minister Smith\" is never used, although it, too, is sometimes used by foreign dignitaries and news sources.\n\n10 Downing Street, in London, has been the official place of residence of the Prime Minister since 1732; they are entitled to use its staff and facilities, including extensive offices. Chequers, a country house in Buckinghamshire, gifted to the government in 1917, may be used as a country retreat for the Prime Minister.\n\nUpon retirement, it is customary for the Sovereign to grant a Prime Minister some honour or dignity. The honour bestowed is commonly, but not invariably, membership of the United Kingdom's most senior order of chivalry, the Order of the Garter. The practice of creating a retired Prime Minister a Knight (or, in the case of Margaret Thatcher, a Lady) of the Garter (KG and LG respectively) has been fairly prevalent since the mid-19th century. On the retirement of a Prime Minister who is Scottish, it is likely that the primarily Scottish honour of Knight of the Thistle (KT) will be used instead of the Order of the Garter, which is generally regarded as an English honour.This circumstance is somewhat confused, however, as since the Great Reform Act 1832, only seven Scots have served as Prime Minister. Of these, two – Bonar Law and Ramsay MacDonald – died while still sitting in the Commons, not yet having retired; another, the Earl of Aberdeen, was appointed to both the Order of the Garter and the Order of the Thistle; yet another, Arthur Balfour, was appointed to the Order of the Garter, but represented an English constituency and may not have considered himself entirely Scottish; and of the remaining three, the Earl of Rosebery became a KG, Alec Douglas-Home became a KT, and Gordon Brown remained in the Commons as a backbencher until 2015.\n\nIt has also been common for Prime Ministers to be granted a peerage upon retirement from the Commons, which elevates the individual to the House of Lords. Formerly, the peerage bestowed was usually an earldom (which was always hereditary), with Churchill offered a dukedom. However, since the 1960s, hereditary peerages have generally been eschewed, and life peerages have been preferred, although in 1984 Harold Macmillan was created Earl of Stockton. Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Harold Wilson, James Callaghan and Margaret Thatcher accepted life peerages, although Douglas-Home had previously disclaimed his hereditary title as Earl of Home. Edward Heath, John Major and Tony Blair did not accept peerages of any kind, although Heath and Major were later appointed as Knights of the Garter. Gordon Brown remained a member of parliament until the 2015 general election, and has not, to date, accepted a peerage.\n\nLiving former Prime Ministers\n\nAs of , there are four living former Prime Ministers, as seen below.\n\nFile:JMajor.JPG\|Sir John Majorserved 1990–97born 1943 (age )\nFile:WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM ANNUAL MEETING 2009 - Tony Blair.jpg\|Tony Blairserved 1997–2007born 1953 (age )\nFile:Accelerating Infrastructure Development Gordon Brown (8412051140).jpg\|Gordon Brownserved 2007–10born 1951 (age )\nFile:Prime Minister David Cameron (5570842655).jpg\|David Cameron MPserved 2010–16born 1966 (age )" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Baroness Margaret Thatcher", "Lady Thatcher", "Margret thatcher", "The Baroness Thatcher", "Margret Thatcher", "The Lady Thatcher", "Margaret Tatcher", "Margaret Thatcher", "Mrs T", "Mrs Thatcher", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher", "Mrs. T", "Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven", "Margaret Thatcer", "Margaret Thatcher's", "Mrs Finchley", "Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher", "Thatcherian", "Margaret Thacher", "Margaret Thatcher bibliography", "Margaret Thatcher Day", "M thatcher", "Lady T", "Maggie Thatcher", "Margaret Hilda Thatcher", "Milk snatcher", "Baroness The Margaret Thatcher", "Margaret Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher", "Margaret Hilda Roberts Thatcher", "Margeret Thatcher", "Margareth Thatcher", "Mrs Denis Thatcher", "Margaret Hilda Roberts", "Mrs. Thatcher", "Milk Snatcher", "Margaret Thatcher Library", "Margaret thatcher", "Baroness Thatcher", "Margeret thatcher" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "margaret hilda thatcher", "margaret hilda thatcher baroness thatcher", "baroness thatcher", "margaret thatcher", "margaret thatcher s", "margaret tatcher", "prime minister margaret thatcher", "margaret thatcher day", "maggie thatcher", "mrs thatcher", "m thatcher", "thatcherian", "lady thatcher", "mrs finchley", "baroness margaret thatcher", "margaret thatcher library", "margareth thatcher", "margret thatcher", "mrs t", "baroness thatcher of kesteven", "milk snatcher", "margaret hilda roberts", "margaret thatcer", "margaret thacher", "margeret thatcher", "margaret thatcher baroness thatcher", "margaret hilda roberts thatcher", "mrs denis thatcher", "margaret thatcher bibliography", "lady t" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "margaret thatcher", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Margaret Thatcher" }
What was Jimi Hendrix's middle name?	tc_1322	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jimi_Hendrix.txt" ], "title": [ "Jimi Hendrix" ], "wiki_context": [ "James Marshall \"Jimi\" Hendrix (born Johnny Allen Hendrix; November 27, 1942 – September 18, 1970) was an American rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter. Although his mainstream career spanned only four years, he is widely regarded as one of the most influential electric guitarists in the history of popular music, and one of the most celebrated musicians of the 20th century. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes him as \"arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music\". \n\nBorn in Seattle, Washington, Hendrix began playing guitar at the age of 15. In 1961, he enlisted in the US Army and trained as a paratrooper in the 101st Airborne Division; he was granted an honorable discharge the following year. Soon afterward, he moved to Clarksville, Tennessee, and began playing gigs on the chitlin' circuit, earning a place in the Isley Brothers' backing band and later with Little Richard, with whom he continued to work through mid-1965. He then played with Curtis Knight and the Squires before moving to England in late 1966 after being discovered by Linda Keith, who in turn interested bassist Chas Chandler of the Animals in becoming his first manager. Within months, Hendrix had earned three UK top ten hits with the Jimi Hendrix Experience: \"Hey Joe\", \"Purple Haze\", and \"The Wind Cries Mary\". He achieved fame in the US after his performance at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, and in 1968 his third and final studio album, Electric Ladyland, reached number one in the US; it was Hendrix's most commercially successful release and his first and only number one album. The world's highest-paid performer, he headlined the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the Isle of Wight Festival in 1970 before his accidental death from barbiturate-related asphyxia on September 18, 1970, at the age of 27.\n\nHendrix was inspired musically by American rock and roll and electric blues. He favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain, and was instrumental in utilizing the previously undesirable sounds caused by guitar amplifier feedback. He helped to popularize the use of a wah-wah pedal in mainstream rock, and was the first artist to use stereophonic phasing effects in music recordings. Holly George-Warren of Rolling Stone commented: \"Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source. Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began.\"\n\nHendrix was the recipient of several music awards during his lifetime and posthumously. In 1967, readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year, and in 1968, Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year. Disc and Music Echo honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970, Guitar Player named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year. The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. Rolling Stone ranked the band's three studio albums, Are You Experienced, Axis: Bold as Love, and Electric Ladyland, among the 100 greatest albums of all time, and they ranked Hendrix as the greatest guitarist and the sixth greatest artist of all time.\n\nAncestry and childhood\n\nJimi Hendrix was of African-American descent. Both his mother Lucille and father Al were African-Americans. His paternal grandmother, Zenora \"Nora\" Rose Moore, was African-American and one-quarter Cherokee. Hendrix's paternal grandfather, Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix (born 1866), was the result of an extramarital affair between a woman named Fanny, and a grain merchant from Urbana, Ohio or Illinois, one of the wealthiest men in the area at that time. On June 10, 1919, Hendrix and Moore had a son they named James Allen Ross Hendrix; people called him Al. \n\nIn 1941, Al met Lucille Jeter (1925–1958) at a dance in Seattle; they married on March 31, 1942. Al, who had been drafted by the U.S. Army to serve in World War II, left to begin his basic training three days after the wedding. Johnny Allen Hendrix was born on November 27, 1942, in Seattle, Washington; he was the first of Lucille's five children. In 1946, Johnny's parents changed his name to James Marshall Hendrix, in honor of Al and his late brother Leon Marshall.\n\nStationed in Alabama at the time of Hendrix's birth, Al was denied the standard military furlough afforded servicemen for childbirth; his commanding officer placed him in the stockade to prevent him from going AWOL to see his infant son in Seattle. He spent two months locked up without trial, and while in the stockade received a telegram announcing his son's birth. During Al's three-year absence, Lucille struggled to raise their son. When Al was away, Hendrix was mostly cared for by family members and friends, especially Lucille's sister Delores Hall and her friend Dorothy Harding. Al received an honorable discharge from the US Army on September 1, 1945. Two months later, unable to find Lucille, Al went to the Berkeley, California home of a family friend named Mrs. Champ, who had taken care of and had attempted to adopt Hendrix; this is where Al saw his son for the first time. \n\nAfter returning from service, Al reunited with Lucille, but his inability to find steady work left the family impoverished. They both struggled with alcohol, and often fought when intoxicated. The violence sometimes drove Hendrix to withdraw and hide in a closet in their home. His relationship with his brother Leon (born 1948) was close but precarious; with Leon in and out of foster care, they lived with an almost constant threat of fraternal separation. In addition to Leon, Hendrix had three younger siblings: Joseph, born in 1949, Kathy in 1950, and Pamela, 1951, all of whom Al and Lucille gave up to foster care and adoption. The family frequently moved, staying in cheap hotels and apartments around Seattle. On occasion, family members would take Hendrix to Vancouver to stay at his grandmother's. A shy and sensitive boy, he was deeply affected by his life experiences. In later years, he confided to a girlfriend that he had been the victim of sexual abuse by a man in uniform. On December 17, 1951, when Hendrix was nine years old, his parents divorced; the court granted Al custody of him and Leon.\n\nFirst instruments\n\nAt Horace Mann Elementary School in Seattle during the mid-1950s, Hendrix's habit of carrying a broom with him to emulate a guitar gained the attention of the school's social worker. After more than a year of his clinging to a broom like a security blanket, she wrote a letter requesting school funding intended for underprivileged children, insisting that leaving him without a guitar might result in psychological damage. Her efforts failed, and Al refused to buy him a guitar.\n\nIn 1957, while helping his father with a side-job, Hendrix found a ukulele amongst the garbage that they were removing from an older woman's home. She told him that he could keep the instrument, which had only one string. Learning by ear, he played single notes, following along to Elvis Presley songs, particularly Presley's cover of Leiber and Stoller's \"Hound Dog\". By the age of thirty-three, Hendrix's mother Lucille had developed cirrhosis of the liver, and on February 2, 1958, she died when her spleen ruptured. Al refused to take James and Leon to attend their mother's funeral; he instead gave them shots of whiskey and instructed them that was how men were supposed to deal with loss. In mid-1958, at age 15, Hendrix acquired his first acoustic guitar, for $5. He earnestly applied himself, playing the instrument for several hours daily, watching others and getting tips from more experienced guitarists, and listening to blues artists such as Muddy Waters, B.B. King, Howlin' Wolf, and Robert Johnson. The first tune Hendrix learned how to play was the theme from Peter Gunn. \n\nSoon after he acquired the acoustic guitar, Hendrix formed his first band, the Velvetones. Without an electric guitar, he could barely be heard over the sound of the group. After about three months, he realized that he needed an electric guitar in order to continue. In mid-1959, his father relented and bought him a white Supro Ozark. Hendrix's first gig was with an unnamed band in the basement of a synagogue, Seattle's Temple De Hirsch, but after too much showing off, the band fired him between sets. He later joined the Rocking Kings, which played professionally at venues such as the Birdland club. When someone stole his guitar after he left it backstage overnight, Al bought him a red Silvertone Danelectro. In 1958, Hendrix completed his studies at Washington Junior High School, though he did not graduate from Garfield High School. \n\nMilitary service\n\nBefore Hendrix was 19 years old, law enforcement authorities had twice caught him riding in stolen cars. When given a choice between spending time in prison or joining the Army, he chose the latter and enlisted on May 31, 1961. After completing eight weeks of basic training at Fort Ord, California, he was assigned to the 101st Airborne Division and stationed at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. He arrived there on November 8, and soon afterward he wrote to his father: \"There's nothing but physical training and harassment here for two weeks, then when you go to jump school ... you get hell. They work you to death, fussing and fighting.\" In his next letter home, Hendrix, who had left his guitar at his girlfriend Betty Jean Morgan's house in Seattle, asked his father to send it to him as soon as possible, stating: \"I really need it now.\" His father obliged and sent the red Silvertone Danelectro on which Hendrix had hand-painted the words \"Betty Jean\", to Fort Campbell. His apparent obsession with the instrument contributed to his neglect of his duties, which led to verbal taunting and physical abuse from his peers, who at least once hid the guitar from him until he had begged for its return.\n\nIn November 1961, fellow serviceman Billy Cox walked past an army club and heard Hendrix playing guitar. Intrigued by the proficient playing, which he described as a combination of \"John Lee Hooker and Beethoven\", Cox borrowed a bass guitar and the two jammed. Within a few weeks, they began performing at base clubs on the weekends with other musicians in a loosely organized band called the Casuals.\n\nHendrix completed his paratrooper training in just over eight months, and Major General C. W. G. Rich awarded him the prestigious Screaming Eagles patch on January 11, 1962. By February, his personal conduct had begun to draw criticism from his superiors. They labeled him an unqualified marksman and often caught him napping while on duty and failing to report for bed checks. On May 24, Hendrix's platoon sergeant, James C. Spears, filed a report in which he stated: \"He has no interest whatsoever in the Army ... It is my opinion that Private Hendrix will never come up to the standards required of a soldier. I feel that the military service will benefit if he is discharged as soon as possible.\" On June 29, 1962, Captain Gilbert Batchman granted Hendrix an honorable discharge on the basis of unsuitability. Hendrix later spoke of his dislike of the army and falsely stated that he had received a medical discharge after breaking his ankle during his 26th parachute jump. \n\nMusic career\n\nEarly years\n\nIn September 1963, after Cox was discharged from the Army, he and Hendrix moved to Clarksville, Tennessee and formed a band called the King Kasuals. Hendrix had watched Butch Snipes play with his teeth in Seattle and by now Alphonso 'Baby Boo' Young, the other guitarist in the band, was performing this guitar gimmick. Not to be upstaged, Hendrix learned to play with his teeth. He later commented: \"The idea of doing that came to me...in Tennessee. Down there you have to play with your teeth or else you get shot. There's a trail of broken teeth all over the stage.\" Although they began playing low-paying gigs at obscure venues, the band eventually moved to Nashville's Jefferson Street, which was the traditional heart of the city's black community and home to a thriving rhythm and blues music scene. They earned a brief residency playing at a popular venue in town, the Club del Morocco, and for the next two years Hendrix made a living performing at a circuit of venues throughout the South who were affiliated with the Theater Owners' Booking Association (TOBA), widely known as the Chitlin' Circuit. In addition to playing in his own band, Hendrix performed as a backing musician for various soul, R&B, and blues musicians, including Wilson Pickett, Slim Harpo, Sam Cooke, and Jackie Wilson.\n\nIn January 1964, feeling he had outgrown the circuit artistically and frustrated by having to follow the rules of bandleaders, Hendrix decided to venture out on his own. He moved into the Hotel Theresa in Harlem, where he befriended Lithofayne Pridgon, known as \"Faye\", who became his girlfriend. A Harlem native with connections throughout the area's music scene, Pridgon provided him with shelter, support, and encouragement. Hendrix also met the Allen twins, Arthur and Albert. In February 1964, Hendrix won first prize in the Apollo Theater amateur contest. Hoping to secure a career opportunity, he played the Harlem club circuit and sat in with various bands. At the recommendation of a former associate of Joe Tex, Ronnie Isley granted Hendrix an audition that led to an offer to become the guitarist with the Isley Brothers' back-up band, the I.B. Specials, which he readily accepted.\n\nFirst recordings\n\nIn March 1964, Hendrix recorded the two-part single \"Testify\" with the Isley Brothers. Released in June, it failed to chart. In May, he provided guitar instrumentation for the Don Covay song, \"Mercy Mercy\". Issued in August by Rosemart Records and distributed by Atlantic, the track reached number 35 on the Billboard chart. \n\nHendrix toured with the Isleys during much of 1964, but near the end of October, after growing tired of playing the same set every night, he left the band. Soon afterward, Hendrix joined Little Richard's touring band, the Upsetters. During a stop in Los Angeles in February 1965, he recorded his first and only single with Richard, \"I Don't Know What You Got (But It's Got Me)\", written by Don Covay and released by Vee-Jay Records. Richard's popularity was waning at the time, and the single peaked at number 92, where it remained for one week before dropping off the chart. Hendrix met singer Rosa Lee Brooks while staying at the Wilcox Hotel in Hollywood, and she invited him to participate in a recording session for her single, which included the Arthur Lee penned \"My Diary\" as the A-side, and \"Utee\" as the B-side. Hendrix played guitar on both tracks, which also included background vocals by Lee. The single failed to chart, but Hendrix and Lee began a friendship that lasted several years; Hendrix later became an ardent supporter of Lee's band, Love.\n\nIn July 1965, on Nashville's Channel 5 Night Train, Hendrix made his first television appearance. Performing in Little Richard's ensemble band, he backed up vocalists Buddy and Stacy on \"Shotgun\". The video recording of the show marks the earliest known footage of Hendrix performing. Richard and Hendrix often clashed over tardiness, wardrobe, and Hendrix's stage antics, and in late July, Richard's brother Robert fired him. He then briefly rejoined the Isley Brothers, and recorded a second single with them, \"Move Over and Let Me Dance\" backed with \"Have You Ever Been Disappointed\". Later that year, he joined a New York-based R&B band, Curtis Knight and the Squires, after meeting Knight in the lobby of a hotel where both men were staying. Hendrix performed with them for eight months. In October 1965, he and Knight recorded the single, \"How Would You Feel\" backed with \"Welcome Home\" and on October 15, Hendrix signed a three-year recording contract with entrepreneur Ed Chalpin. While the relationship with Chalpin was short-lived, his contract remained in force, which later caused legal and career problems for Hendrix. During his time with Knight, Hendrix briefly toured with Joey Dee and the Starliters, and worked with King Curtis on several recordings including Ray Sharpe's two-part single, \"Help Me\". Hendrix earned his first composer credits for two instrumentals, \"Hornets Nest\" and \"Knock Yourself Out\", released as a Curtis Knight and the Squires single in 1966.\n\nFeeling restricted by his experiences as an R&B sideman, Hendrix moved to New York City's Greenwich Village in 1966, which had a vibrant and diverse music scene. There, he was offered a residency at the Cafe Wha? on MacDougal Street and formed his own band that June, Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, which included future Spirit guitarist Randy California. The Blue Flames played at several clubs in New York and Hendrix began developing his guitar style and material that he would soon use with the Experience. In September, they gave some of their last concerts at the Cafe au Go Go, as John Hammond Jr.'s backing group.\n\nThe Jimi Hendrix Experience\n\nBy May 1966, Hendrix was struggling to earn a living wage playing the R&B circuit, so he briefly rejoined Curtis Knight and the Squires for an engagement at one of New York City's most popular nightspots, the Cheetah Club. During a performance, Linda Keith, the girlfriend of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards, noticed Hendrix. She remembered: \"[His] playing mesmerised me\". She invited him to join her for a drink; he accepted and the two became friends.\n\nWhile he was playing with Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, Keith recommended Hendrix to Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham and producer Seymour Stein. They failed to see Hendrix's musical potential, and rejected him. She then referred him to Chas Chandler, who was leaving the Animals and interested in managing and producing artists. Chandler liked the Billy Roberts song \"Hey Joe\", and was convinced he could create a hit single with the right artist. Impressed with Hendrix's version of the song, he brought him to London on September 24, 1966, and signed him to a management and production contract with himself and ex-Animals manager Michael Jeffery. On September 24, Hendrix gave an impromptu solo performance at The Scotch of St James, and later that night he began a relationship with Kathy Etchingham that lasted for two and a half years. \n\nFollowing Hendrix's arrival in London, Chandler began recruiting members for a band designed to highlight the guitarist's talents, the Jimi Hendrix Experience. Hendrix met guitarist Noel Redding at an audition for the New Animals, where Redding's knowledge of blues progressions impressed Hendrix, who stated that he also liked Redding's hairstyle. Chandler asked Redding if he wanted to play bass guitar in Hendrix's band; Redding agreed. Chandler then began looking for a drummer and soon after, he contacted Mitch Mitchell through a mutual friend. Mitchell, who had recently been fired from Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, participated in a rehearsal with Redding and Hendrix where they found common ground in their shared interest in rhythm and blues. When Chandler phoned Mitchell later that day to offer him the position, he readily accepted. Chandler also convinced Hendrix to change the spelling of his first name from Jimmy to the exotic looking Jimi.\n\nOn September 30, Chandler brought Hendrix to the London Polytechnic at Regent Street, where Cream was scheduled to perform, and where Hendrix and Eric Clapton met. Clapton later commented: \"He asked if he could play a couple of numbers. I said, 'Of course', but I had a funny feeling about him.\" Halfway through Cream's set, Hendrix took the stage and performed a frantic version of the Howlin' Wolf song \"Killing Floor\". In 1989, Clapton described the performance: \"He played just about every style you could think of, and not in a flashy way. I mean he did a few of his tricks, like playing with his teeth and behind his back, but it wasn't in an upstaging sense at all, and that was it ... He walked off, and my life was never the same again\".\n\nUK success\n\nIn mid-October 1966, Chandler arranged an engagement for the Experience as Johnny Hallyday's supporting act during a brief tour of France. Thus, the Jimi Hendrix Experience performed their very first show on October 13, 1966, at the Novelty in Evreux. Their enthusiastically received 15-minute performance at the Olympia theatre in Paris on October 18 marks the earliest known recording of the band. In late October, Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp, managers of the Who, signed the Experience to their newly formed label, Track Records, which released the Experience's first single on October 23. \"Hey Joe\", which included a female chorus provided by the Breakaways, was backed by Hendrix's first songwriting effort after arriving in England, \"Stone Free\".\n\nIn mid-November, they performed at the Bag O'Nails nightclub in London, with Clapton, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Jeff Beck, Pete Townshend, Brian Jones, Mick Jagger, and Kevin Ayers in attendance. Ayers described the crowd's reaction as stunned disbelief: \"All the stars were there, and I heard serious comments, you know 'shit', 'Jesus', 'damn' and other words worse than that.\" The successful performance earned Hendrix his first interview, published in Record Mirror with the headline: \"Mr. Phenomenon\". \"Now hear this ... we predict that [Hendrix] is going to whirl around the business like a tornado\", wrote Bill Harry, who asked the rhetorical question: \"Is that full, big, swinging sound really being created by only three people?\" Hendrix commented: \"We don't want to be classed in any category ... If it must have a tag, I'd like it to be called, 'Free Feeling'. It's a mixture of rock, freak-out, rave and blues\". After appearances on the UK television shows Ready Steady Go! and the Top of the Pops, \"Hey Joe\" entered the UK charts on December 29, 1966, peaking at number six. Further success came in March 1967 with the UK number three hit \"Purple Haze\", and in May with \"The Wind Cries Mary\", which remained on the UK charts for eleven weeks, peaking at number six.\n\nOn March 31, 1967, while the Experience waited to perform at the London Astoria, Hendrix and Chandler discussed ways in which they could increase the band's media exposure. When Chandler asked journalist Keith Altham for advice, Altham suggested that they needed to do something more dramatic than the stage show of the Who, which involved the smashing of instruments. Hendrix joked: \"Maybe I can smash up an elephant\", to which Altham replied: \"Well, it's a pity you can't set fire to your guitar\". Chandler then asked road manager Gerry Stickells to procure some lighter fluid. During the show, Hendrix gave an especially dynamic performance before setting his guitar on fire at the end of a 45-minute set. In the wake of the stunt, members of London's press labeled Hendrix the \"Black Elvis\" and the \"Wild Man of Borneo\".\n\nAre You Experienced\n\nAfter the moderate UK chart success of their first two singles, \"Hey Joe\" and \"Purple Haze\", the Experience began assembling material for a full-length LP. Recording began at De Lane Lea Studios and later moved to the prestigious Olympic Studios. The album, Are You Experienced, features a diversity of musical styles, including blues tracks such as \"Red House\" and \"Highway Chile\", and the R&B song \"Remember\". It also included the experimental science fiction piece, \"Third Stone from the Sun\" and the post-modern soundscapes of the title track, with prominent backwards guitar and drums. \"I Don't Live Today\" served as a medium for Hendrix's guitar feedback improvisation and \"Fire\" was driven by Mitchell's drumming.\n\nReleased in the UK on May 12, 1967, Are You Experienced spent 33 weeks on the charts, peaking at number two. It was prevented from reaching the top spot by the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. On June 4, 1967, Hendrix opened a show at the Saville Theatre in London with his rendition of Sgt. Pepper title track, which was released just three days previous. Beatles manager Brian Epstein owned the Saville at the time, and both George Harrison and Paul McCartney attended the performance. McCartney described the moment: \"The curtains flew back and he came walking forward playing 'Sgt. Pepper'. It's a pretty major compliment in anyone's book. I put that down as one of the great honors of my career.\" Released in the U.S. on August 23 by Reprise Records, Are You Experienced reached number five on the Billboard 200. \n\nIn 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of Guitar World magazine, described Are You Experienced as \"the album that shook the world ... leaving it forever changed\". In 2005, Rolling Stone called the double-platinum LP Hendrix's \"epochal debut\", and they ranked it the 15th greatest album of all time, noting his \"exploitation of amp howl\", and characterizing his guitar playing as \"incendiary ... historic in itself\". \n\nMonterey Pop Festival\n\nAlthough popular in Europe at the time, the Experience's first U.S. single, \"Hey Joe\", failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 chart upon its release on May 1, 1967. The group's fortunes improved when McCartney recommended them to the organizers of the Monterey Pop Festival. He insisted that the event would be incomplete without Hendrix, whom he called \"an absolute ace on the guitar\", and he agreed to join the board of organizers on the condition that the Experience perform at the festival in mid-June. \n\nIntroduced by Brian Jones as \"the most exciting performer [he had] ever heard\", Hendrix opened with a fast arrangement of Howlin' Wolf's song \"Killing Floor\", wearing what author Keith Shadwick described as \"clothes as exotic as any on display elsewhere.\" Shadwick wrote: \"[Hendrix] was not only something utterly new musically, but an entirely original vision of what a black American entertainer should and could look like.\" The Experience went on to perform renditions of \"Hey Joe\", B.B. King's \"Rock Me Baby\", Chip Taylor's \"Wild Thing\", and Bob Dylan's \"Like a Rolling Stone\", as well as four original compositions: \"Foxy Lady\", \"Can You See Me\", \"The Wind Cries Mary\", and \"Purple Haze\". The set ended with Hendrix destroying his guitar and tossing pieces of it out to the audience. Rolling Stone Alex Vadukul wrote:\n\nCaraeff stood on a chair next to the edge of the stage while taking a series of four monochrome pictures of Hendrix burning his guitar. Caraeff was close enough to the fire that he had to use his camera as a shield to protect his face from the heat. Rolling Stone later colorized the image, matching it with other pictures taken at the festival before using the shot for a 1987 magazine cover. According to author Gail Buckland, the fourth and final frame of \"Hendrix kneeling in front of his burning guitar, hands raised, is one of the most famous images in rock.\" Author and historian Matthew C. Whitaker wrote: \"Hendrix's burning of his guitar became an iconic image in rock history and brought him national attention.\" The Los Angeles Times asserted that, upon leaving the stage, Hendrix \"graduated from rumor to legend\". Author John McDermott commented: \"Hendrix left the Monterey audience stunned and in disbelief at what they'd just heard and seen.\" According to Hendrix: \"I decided to destroy my guitar at the end of a song as a sacrifice. You sacrifice things you love. I love my guitar.\" The performance was filmed by D. A. Pennebaker, and later included in the concert documentary Monterey Pop, which helped Hendrix gain popularity with the U.S. public. \n\nImmediately after the festival, the Experience were booked for a series of five concerts at Bill Graham's Fillmore, with Big Brother and the Holding Company and Jefferson Airplane. The Experience outperformed Jefferson Airplane during the first two nights, and replaced them at the top of the bill on the fifth. Following their successful West Coast introduction, which included a free open-air concert at Golden Gate Park and a concert at the Whisky a Go Go, the Experience were booked as the opening act for the first American tour of the Monkees. They requested Hendrix as a supporting act because they were fans, but their young audience disliked the Experience, who left the tour after six shows. Chandler later admitted that he engineered the tour in an effort to gain publicity for Hendrix. \n\nAxis: Bold as Love\n\nThe second Experience album, Axis: Bold as Love, opens with the track \"EXP\", which innovatively utilized microphonic and harmonic feedback. It also showcased an experimental stereo panning effect in which sounds emanating from Hendrix's guitar move through the stereo image, revolving around the listener. The piece reflected his growing interest in science fiction and outer space. He composed the album's title track and finale around two verses and two choruses, during which he pairs emotions with personas, comparing them to colors. The song's coda features the first recording of stereo phasing. Shadwick described the composition as \"possibly the most ambitious piece on Axis, the extravagant metaphors of the lyrics suggesting a growing confidence\" in Hendrix's songwriting. His guitar playing throughout the song is marked by chordal arpeggios and contrapuntal motion, with tremolo-picked partial chords providing the musical foundation for the chorus, which culminates in what musicologist Andy Aledort described as \"simply one of the greatest electric guitar solos ever played\". The track fades out on tremolo-picked thirty-second note double stops. \n\nThe scheduled release date for Axis was almost delayed when Hendrix lost the master tape of side one of the LP, leaving it in the back seat of a London taxi. With the deadline looming, Hendrix, Chandler, and engineer Eddie Kramer remixed most of side one in a single overnight session, but they could not match the quality of the lost mix of \"If 6 Was 9\". Bassist Noel Redding had a tape recording of this mix, which had to be smoothed out with an iron as it had gotten wrinkled. During the verses, Hendrix doubled his singing with a guitar line which he played one octave lower than his vocals. Hendrix voiced his disappointment about having re-mixed the album so quickly, and he felt that it could have been better had they been given more time.\n\nAxis featured psychedelic cover art that depicts Hendrix and the Experience as various forms of Vishnu, incorporating a painting of them by Roger Law, from a photo-portrait by Karl Ferris. The painting was then superimposed on a copy of a mass-produced religious poster. Hendrix stated that the cover, which Track spent $5,000 producing, would have been more appropriate had it highlighted his American Indian heritage. He commented: \"You got it wrong ... I'm not that kind of Indian.\" Track released the album in the UK on December 1, 1967, where it peaked at number five, spending 16 weeks on the charts. In February 1968, Axis: Bold as Love reached number three in the U.S.\n\nWhile author and journalist Richie Unterberger described Axis as the least impressive Experience album, according to author Peter Doggett, the release \"heralded a new subtlety in Hendrix's work\". Mitchell commented: \"Axis was the first time that it became apparent that Jimi was pretty good working behind the mixing board, as well as playing, and had some positive ideas of how he wanted things recorded. It could have been the start of any potential conflict between him and Chas in the studio.\" \n\nElectric Ladyland\n\nRecording for the Experience's third and final studio album, Electric Ladyland, began at the newly opened Record Plant Studios, with Chandler as producer and engineers Eddie Kramer and Gary Kellgren. As the sessions progressed, Chandler became increasingly frustrated with Hendrix's perfectionism and his demands for repeated takes. Hendrix also allowed numerous friends and guests to join them in the studio, which contributed to a chaotic and crowded environment in the control room and led Chandler to sever his professional relationship with Hendrix. Redding later recalled: \"There were tons of people in the studio; you couldn't move. It was a party, not a session.\" Redding, who had formed his own band in mid-1968, Fat Mattress, found it increasingly difficult to fulfill his commitments with the Experience, so Hendrix played many of the bass parts on Electric Ladyland. The album's cover stated that it was \"produced and directed by Jimi Hendrix\".\n\nDuring the Electric Ladyland recording sessions, Hendrix began experimenting with other combinations of musicians, including Jefferson Airplane's Jack Casady and Traffic's Steve Winwood, who played bass and organ, respectively, on the fifteen-minute slow-blues jam, \"Voodoo Chile\". During the album's production, Hendrix appeared at an impromptu jam with B.B. King, Al Kooper, and Elvin Bishop. Electric Ladyland was released on October 25, and by mid-November it had reached number one in the U.S., spending two weeks at the top spot. The double LP was Hendrix's most commercially successful release and his only number one album. It peaked at number six in the UK, spending 12 weeks on the chart. Electric Ladyland included Hendrix's cover of Bob Dylan's song, \"All Along the Watchtower\", which became Hendrix's highest-selling single and his only U.S. top 40 hit, peaking at number 20; the single reached number five in the UK. \"Burning of the Midnight Lamp\", which was his first recorded song to feature the use of a wah-wah pedal, was added to the album. It was originally released as his fourth single in the UK in August 1967 and reached number 18 in the charts. \n\nIn 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of Guitar World magazine, described Electric Ladyland as \"Hendrix's masterpiece\". According to author Michael Heatley, \"most critics agree\" that the album is \"the fullest realization of Jimi's far-reaching ambitions.\" In 2004, author Peter Doggett commented: \"For pure experimental genius, melodic flair, conceptual vision and instrumental brilliance, Electric Ladyland remains a prime contender for the status of rock's greatest album.\" Doggett described the LP as \"a display of musical virtuosity never surpassed by any rock musician.\"\n\nBreak-up of the Experience\n\nIn January 1969, after an absence of more than six months, Hendrix briefly moved back into his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham's Brook Street apartment, which was next door to the Handel House Museum in the West End of London. During this time, the Experience toured Scandinavia, Germany, and gave their final two performances in France. On February 18 and 24, they played sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall, which were the last European appearances of this line-up.\n\nBy February 1969, Redding had grown weary of Hendrix's unpredictable work ethic and his creative control over the Experience's music. During the previous month's European tour, interpersonal relations within the group had deteriorated, particularly between Hendrix and Redding. In his diary, Redding documented the building frustration during early 1969 recording sessions: \"On the first day, as I nearly expected, there was nothing doing ... On the second it was no show at all. I went to the pub for three hours, came back, and it was still ages before Jimi ambled in. Then we argued ... On the last day, I just watched it happen for a while, and then went back to my flat.\" The last Experience sessions that included Redding—a re-recording of \"Stone Free\" for use as a possible single release—took place on April 14 at Olmstead and the Record Plant in New York. Hendrix then flew bassist Billy Cox to New York; they started recording and rehearsing together on April 21.\n\nThe last performance of the original Experience line-up took place on June 29, 1969, at Barry Fey's Denver Pop Festival, a three-day event held at Denver's Mile High Stadium that was marked by police using tear gas to control the audience. The band narrowly escaped from the venue in the back of a rental truck, which was partly crushed by fans who had climbed on top of the vehicle. Before the show, a journalist angered Redding by asking why he was there; the reporter then informed him that two weeks earlier Hendrix announced that he had been replaced with Billy Cox. The next day, Redding quit the Experience and returned to London. He announced that he had left the band and intended to pursue a solo career, blaming Hendrix's plans to expand the group without allowing for his input as a primary reason for leaving. Redding later commented: \"Mitch and I hung out a lot together, but we're English. If we'd go out, Jimi would stay in his room. But any bad feelings came from us being three guys who were traveling too hard, getting too tired, and taking too many drugs ... I liked Hendrix. I don't like Mitchell.\"\n\nSoon after Redding's departure, Hendrix began lodging at the eight-bedroom Ashokan House, in the hamlet of Boiceville near Woodstock in upstate New York, where he had spent some time vacationing in mid-1969. Manager Michael Jeffery arranged the accommodations in the hope that the respite might encourage Hendrix to write material for a new album. During this time, Mitchell was unavailable for commitments made by Jeffery, which included Hendrix's first appearance on U.S. TV—on The Dick Cavett Show—where he was backed by the studio orchestra, and an appearance on The Tonight Show where he appeared with Cox and session drummer Ed Shaughnessy.\n\nWoodstock\n\nBy 1969, Hendrix was the world's highest-paid rock musician. In August, he headlined the Woodstock Music and Art Fair that included many of the most popular bands of the time. For the concert, he added rhythm guitarist Larry Lee and conga players Juma Sultan and Jerry Velez. The band rehearsed for less than two weeks before the performance, and according to Mitchell, they never connected musically. Before arriving at the engagement, he heard reports that the size of the audience had grown to epic proportions, which gave him cause for concern as he did not enjoy performing for large crowds. He was an important draw for the event, and although he accepted substantially less money for the appearance than his usual fee he was the festival's highest-paid performer. As his scheduled time slot of midnight on Sunday drew closer, he indicated that he preferred to wait and close the show in the morning; the band took the stage around 8:00 a.m. on Monday. By the time of their set, Hendrix had been awake for more than three days. The audience, which peaked at an estimated 400,000 people, was now reduced to 30–40,000, many of whom had waited to catch a glimpse of Hendrix before leaving during his performance. The festival MC, Chip Monck, introduced the group as the Jimi Hendrix Experience, but Hendrix clarified: \"We decided to change the whole thing around and call it Gypsy Sun and Rainbows. For short, it's nothin' but a Band of Gypsys\".\n\nHendrix's performance featured a rendition of the U.S. national anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", during which he used copious amounts of amplifier feedback, distortion, and sustain to replicate the sounds made by rockets and bombs. Although contemporary political pundits described his interpretation as a statement against the Vietnam War, three weeks later Hendrix explained its meaning: \"We're all Americans ... it was like 'Go America!'... We play it the way the air is in America today. The air is slightly static, see\". Immortalized in the 1970 documentary film, Woodstock, his guitar-driven version would become part of the sixties Zeitgeist. Pop critic Al Aronowitz of The New York Post wrote: \"It was the most electrifying moment of Woodstock, and it was probably the single greatest moment of the sixties.\" Images of the performance showing Hendrix wearing a blue-beaded white leather jacket with fringe, a red head-scarf, and blue jeans are widely regarded as iconic pictures that capture a defining moment of the era. He played \"Hey Joe\" during the encore, concluding the 3½-day festival. Upon leaving the stage, he collapsed from exhaustion. In 2011, the editors of Guitar World placed his rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" at Woodstock at number one in their list of his 100 greatest performances.\n\nBand of Gypsys\n\nA legal dispute arose in 1966 regarding a record contract that Hendrix had entered into the previous year with producer Ed Chalpin. After two years of litigation, the parties agreed to a resolution that granted Chalpin the distribution rights to an album of original Hendrix material. Hendrix decided that they would record the LP, Band of Gypsys, during two live appearances. In preparation for the shows he formed an all-black power-trio with Cox and drummer Buddy Miles, formerly with Wilson Pickett, the Electric Flag, and the Buddy Miles Express. Critic John Rockwell described Hendrix and Miles as jazz-rock fusionists, and their collaboration as pioneering. Others identified a funk and soul influence in their music. Concert promoter Bill Graham called the shows \"the most brilliant, emotional display of virtuoso electric guitar\" that he had ever heard. Biographers have speculated that Hendrix formed the band in an effort to appease members of the Black Power movement and others in the black communities who called for him to use his fame to speak-up for civil rights.\n\nHendrix had been recording with Cox since April and jamming with Miles since September, and the trio wrote and rehearsed material which they performed at a series of four shows over two nights on December 31 and January 1, at the Fillmore East. They used recordings of these concerts to assemble the LP, which was produced by Hendrix. The album includes the track \"Machine Gun\", which musicologist Andy Aledort described as the pinnacle of Hendrix's career, and \"the premiere example of [his] unparalleled genius as a rock guitarist ... In this performance, Jimi transcended the medium of rock music, and set an entirely new standard for the potential of electric guitar.\" During the song's extended instrumental breaks, Hendrix created sounds with his guitar that sonically represented warfare, including rockets, bombs, and diving planes.\n\nThe Band of Gypsys album was the only official live Hendrix LP made commercially available during his lifetime; several tracks from the Woodstock and Monterey shows were released later that year. The album was released in April 1970 by Capitol Records; it reached the top ten in both the U.S. and the UK. That same month a single was issued with \"Stepping Stone\" as the A-side and \"Izabella\" as the B-side, but Hendrix was dissatisfied with the quality of the mastering and he demanded that it be withdrawn and re-mixed, preventing the songs from charting and resulting in Hendrix's least successful single; it was also his last.\n\nOn January 28, 1970, a third and final Band of Gypsys appearance took place; they performed during a music festival at Madison Square Garden benefiting the anti-Vietnam War Moratorium Committee titled the \"Winter Festival for Peace\". American blues guitarist Johnny Winter was backstage before the concert; he recalled: \"[Hendrix] came in with his head down, sat on the couch alone, and put his head in his hands ... He didn't move until it was time for the show.\" Minutes after taking the stage he snapped a vulgar response at a woman who had shouted a request for \"Foxy Lady\". He then began playing \"Earth Blues\" before telling the audience: \"That's what happens when earth fucks with space\". Moments later, he briefly sat down on the drum riser before leaving the stage. Both Miles and Redding later stated that Jeffery had given Hendrix LSD before the performance. Miles believed that Jeffery gave Hendrix the drugs in an effort to sabotage the current band and bring about the return of the original Experience lineup. Jeffery fired Miles after the show and Cox quit, ending the Band of Gypsys.\n\nCry of Love Tour\n\nSoon after the abruptly ended Band of Gypsys performance and their subsequent dissolution, Jeffery made arrangements to reunite the original Experience line-up. Although Hendrix, Mitchell, and Redding were interviewed by Rolling Stone in February 1970 as a united group, Hendrix never intended to work with Redding. When Redding returned to New York in anticipation of rehearsals with a reformed Experience, he was told that he had been replaced with Cox. During an interview with Rolling Stone Keith Altham, Hendrix defended the decision: \"It's nothing personal against Noel, but we finished what we were doing with the Experience and Billy's style of playing suits the new group better.\" Although the lineup of Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox became known as the Cry of Love band, after their accompanying tour, billing, advertisements, and tickets were printed with the New Jimi Hendrix Experience or occasionally just Jimi Hendrix.\n\nDuring the first half of 1970, Hendrix sporadically worked on material for what would have been his next LP. Many of the tracks were posthumously released in 1971 as The Cry of Love. He had started writing songs for the album in 1968, but in April 1970 he told Keith Altham that the project had been abandoned. Soon afterward, he and his band took a break from recording and began the Cry of Love tour at the L.A. Forum, performing for 20,000 people. Set-lists during the tour included numerous Experience tracks as well as a selection of newer material. Several shows were recorded, and they produced some of Hendrix's most memorable live performances. At one of them, the second Atlanta International Pop Festival, on July 4, he played to the largest American audience of his career. According to authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz, as many as 500,000 people attended the concert. On July 17, they appeared at the New York Pop Festival; Hendrix had again consumed too many drugs before the show, and the set was considered a disaster. The American leg of the tour, which included 32 performances, ended at Honolulu, Hawaii, on August 1, 1970. This would be Hendrix's final concert appearance in the U.S.\n\nElectric Lady Studios\n\nIn 1968, Hendrix and Jeffery jointly invested in the purchase of the Generation Club in Greenwich Village. They had initially planned to reopen the establishment, but after an audit revealed that Hendrix had incurred exorbitant fees by block-booking lengthy sessions at peak rates they decided that the building would better serve them as a recording studio. With a facility of his own, Hendrix could work as much as he wanted while also reducing his recording expenditures, which had reached a reported $300,000 annually. Architect and acoustician John Storyk designed Electric Lady Studios for Hendrix, who requested that they avoid right angles where possible. With round windows, an ambient lighting machine, and a psychedelic mural, Storyk wanted the studio to have a relaxing environment that would encourage Hendrix's creativity. The project took twice as long as planned and cost twice as much as Hendrix and Jeffery had budgeted, with their total investment estimated at $1 million.\n\nHendrix first used Electric Lady on June 15, 1970, when he jammed with Steve Winwood and Chris Wood of Traffic; the next day, he recorded his first track there, \"Night Bird Flying\". The studio officially opened for business on August 25, and a grand opening party was held the following day. Immediately afterwards, Hendrix left for England; he never returned to the States. He boarded an Air India flight for London with Cox, joining Mitchell for a performance as the headlining act of the Isle of Wight Festival.\n\nEuropean tour\n\nWhen the European leg of the Cry of Love tour began, Hendrix was longing for his new studio and creative outlet, and was not eager to fulfill the commitment. On September 2, 1970, he abandoned a performance in Aarhus after three songs, stating: \"I've been dead a long time\". Four days later, he gave his final concert appearance, at the Isle of Fehmarn Festival in Germany. He was met with booing and jeering from fans in response to his cancellation of a show slated for the end of the previous night's bill due to torrential rain and risk of electrocution. Immediately following the festival, Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox travelled to London.\n\nThree days after the performance, Cox, who was suffering from severe paranoia after either taking LSD or being given it unknowingly, quit the tour and went to stay with his parents in Pennsylvania. Within days of Hendrix's arrival in England, he had spoken with Chas Chandler, Alan Douglas, and others about leaving his manager, Michael Jeffery. On September 16, Hendrix performed in public for the last time during an informal jam at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in Soho with Eric Burdon and his latest band, War. They began by playing a few of their recent hits, and after a brief intermission Hendrix joined them during \"Mother Earth\" and \"Tobacco Road\". His performance was uncharacteristically subdued; he quietly played backing guitar, and refrained from the histrionics that people had come to expect from him. He died less than 48 hours later.\n\nDrugs and alcohol\n\nIn July 1962, after Hendrix was discharged from the U.S. Army, he entered a small club in Clarksville, Tennessee. Drawn in by live music, he stopped for a drink and ended up spending most of the $400 he had saved. He explained: \"I went in this jazz joint and had a drink. I liked it and I stayed. People tell me I get foolish, good-natured sometimes. Anyway, I guess I felt real benevolent that day. I must have been handing out bills to anyone that asked me. I came out of that place with sixteen dollars left.\" According to the authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber: \"Alcohol would later be the scourge of his existence, driving him to fits of pique, even rare bursts of atypical, physical violence.\"\n\nWhile Roby and Schreiber assert that Hendrix first used LSD when he met Linda Keith in late 1966, according to the authors Harry Shapiro and Caesar Glebbeek, the earliest that Hendrix is known to have taken it was in June 1967, while attending the Monterey Pop Festival. According to Hendrix biographer Charles Cross, the subject of drugs came up one evening in 1966 at Keith's New York apartment; when one of Keith's friends offered Hendrix acid, a street name for lysergic acid diethylamide, Hendrix asked for LSD instead, showing what Cross described as \"his naivete and his complete inexperience with psychedelics\". Before that, Hendrix had only sporadically used drugs, his experimentation was significantly limited to cannabis, hashish, amphetamines and occasionally cocaine. After 1967, he regularly smoked cannabis and hashish and used LSD and amphetamines, particularly while touring. According to Cross, by the time of his death in September 1970, \"few stars were as closely associated with the drug culture as Jimi\".\n\nSubstance abuse and violence\n\nHendrix would often become angry and violent when he drank too much alcohol or when he mixed alcohol with drugs. His friend Herbie Worthington explained: \"You wouldn't expect somebody with that kind of love to be that violent ... He just couldn't drink ... he simply turned into a bastard\". According to journalist and friend Sharon Lawrence, Hendrix \"admitted he could not handle hard liquor, which set off a bottled-up anger, a destructive fury he almost never displayed otherwise\".\n\nIn January 1968, the Experience travelled to Sweden for a one-week tour of Europe. During the early morning hours of the first day, Hendrix became engaged in a drunken brawl in the Hotel Opalen, in Gothenburg, smashing a plate-glass window and injuring his right hand, for which he received medical treatment. The incident culminated in his arrest and release, pending a court appearance that resulted in a large fine. After the 1969 burglary of a house Hendrix was renting in Benedict Canyon, California and while he was under the influence of drugs and alcohol, he punched his friend Paul Caruso and accused him of the theft. He then chased Caruso away from the residence while throwing stones at him. A few days later, one of Hendrix's girlfriends, Carmen Borrero, required stitches after he hit her above her eye with a vodka bottle during a drunken, jealous rage.\n\nCanadian drug charges and trial\n\nOn May 3, 1969, while Hendrix was passing through customs at Toronto International Airport, authorities detained him after finding a small amount of what they suspected to be heroin and hashish in his luggage. Four hours later, he was formally charged with drug possession and released on $10,000 bail. He was required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing. The incident proved stressful for Hendrix, and it weighed heavily on his mind during the seven months that he awaited trial. For the Crown to prove possession they had to show that Hendrix knew the drugs were there. During the jury trial, which took place in December, he testified that a fan had given him a vial of what he thought was legal medication, which he put in his bag not knowing what was in it. He was acquitted of the charges. Mitchell and Redding later revealed that everyone had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto; both men also stated that they believed that the drugs had been planted in Hendrix's bag. \n\nDeath, post-mortem, and burial\n\nAlthough the details of Hendrix's last day and death are widely disputed, he spent much of September 17, 1970, in London with Monika Dannemann, the only witness to his final hours. Dannemann said that she prepared a meal for them at her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel, 22 Lansdowne Crescent, Notting Hill, sometime around 11 p.m., when they shared a bottle of wine. She drove Hendrix to the residence of an acquaintance at approximately 1:45 a.m., where he remained for about an hour before she picked him up and drove them back to her flat at 3 a.m. Dannemann said they talked until around 7 a.m., when they went to sleep. She awoke around 11 a.m., and found Hendrix breathing, but unconscious and unresponsive. She called for an ambulance at 11:18 a.m.; they arrived on the scene at 11:27 a.m. Paramedics then transported Hendrix to St Mary Abbot's Hospital where Dr. John Bannister pronounced him dead at 12:45 p.m. on September 18, 1970.\n\nTo determine the cause of death, coroner Gavin Thurston ordered a post-mortem examination on Hendrix's body, which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare, a forensic pathologist. Thurston completed the inquest on September 28, and concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates. Citing \"insufficient evidence of the circumstances\", he declared an open verdict. Dannemann later revealed that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets, 18 times the recommended dosage. \n\nAfter Hendrix's body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley, it was flown to Seattle, Washington, on September 29, 1970. After a service at Dunlop Baptist Church on October 1, it was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton, Washington, the location of his mother's gravesite. Hendrix's family and friends traveled in twenty-four limousines and more than two hundred people attended the funeral, including several notable musicians such as original Experience members Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding, as well as Miles Davis, John Hammond, and Johnny Winter.\n\nUnauthorized and posthumous releases\n\nBy 1967, as Hendrix was gaining in popularity, many of his pre-Experience recordings were marketed to an unsuspecting public as Jimi Hendrix albums, sometimes with misleading later images of Hendrix. The recordings, which came under the control of producer Ed Chalpin of PPX, with whom Hendrix had signed a recording contract in 1965, were often re-mixed between their repeated reissues, and licensed to record companies such as Decca and Capitol. Hendrix publicly denounced the releases, describing them as \"malicious\" and \"greatly inferior\", stating: \"At PPX, we spent on average about one hour recording a song. Today I spend at least twelve hours on each song.\" These unauthorized releases have long constituted a substantial part of his recording catalogue, amounting to hundreds of albums. \n\nSome of Hendrix's unfinished material was released as the 1971 title The Cry of Love. Although the album reached number three in the U.S. and number two in the UK, producers Mitchell and Kramer later complained that they were unable to make use of all the available songs because some tracks were used for 1971's Rainbow Bridge; still others were issued on 1972's War Heroes. Material from The Cry of Love was re-released in 1997 as First Rays of the New Rising Sun, along with the other tracks that Mitchell and Kramer had wanted to include.\n\nIn 1993, MCA Records delayed a multimillion-dollar sale of Hendrix's publishing copyrights because Al Hendrix was unhappy about the arrangement. He acknowledged that he had sold distribution rights to a foreign corporation in 1974, but stated that it did not include copyrights and argued that he had retained veto power of the sale of the catalogue. Under a settlement reached in July 1995, Al Hendrix prevailed in his legal battle and regained control of his son's song and image rights. He subsequently licensed the recordings to MCA through the family-run company Experience Hendrix LLC, formed in 1995. In August 2009, Experience Hendrix announced that it had entered a new licensing agreement with Sony Music Entertainment's Legacy Recordings division which would take effect in 2010. Legacy and Experience Hendrix launched the 2010 Jimi Hendrix Catalog Project, starting with the release of Valleys of Neptune in March of that year. In the months before his death, Hendrix recorded demos for a concept album tentatively titled Black Gold, which are now in the possession of Experience Hendrix LLC; as of 2013 no official release date has been announced.\n\nEquipment\n\nGuitars and amplifiers\n\nHendrix played a variety of guitars throughout his career, but the instrument that became most associated with him was the Fender Stratocaster. He acquired his first Stratocaster in 1966, when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used one that had been built around 1964. He thereafter used the model prevalently during performances and recordings. In 1967, he described the instrument as \"the best all-around guitar for the stuff we're doing\"; he praised its \"bright treble and deep bass sounds\".\n\nWith few exceptions, Hendrix played right-handed guitars that were turned upside down and restrung for left-hand playing. This had an important effect on the sound of his guitar; because of the slant of the bridge pickup, his lowest string had a brighter sound while his highest string had a darker sound, which was the opposite of the Stratocaster's intended design. In addition to Stratocasters, Hendrix also used Fender Jazzmasters, Duosonics, two different Gibson Flying Vs, a Gibson Les Paul, three Gibson SGs, a Gretsch Corvette, and a Fender Jaguar. He used a white Gibson SG Custom for his performances on The Dick Cavett Show in September 1969, and a black Gibson Flying V during the Isle of Wight festival in 1970.\n\nDuring 1965 and 1966, while Hendrix was playing back-up for soul and R&B acts in the U.S., he used an 85-watt Fender Twin Reverb amplifier. When Chandler brought Hendrix to England in October 1966, he supplied him with 30-watt Burns amps, which Hendrix thought were too small for his needs. After an early London gig when he was unable to use his preferred Fender Twin, he asked about the Marshall amps that he had noticed other groups using. Years earlier, Mitch Mitchell had taken drum lessons from the amp builder, Jim Marshall, and he introduced Hendrix to Marshall. At their initial meeting, Hendrix bought four speaker cabinets and three 100-watt Super Lead amplifiers; he would grow accustomed to using all three in unison. The equipment arrived on October 11, 1966, and the Experience used the new gear during their first tour. Marshall amps were well-suited for Hendrix's needs, and they were paramount in the evolution of his heavily overdriven sound, enabling him to master the use of feedback as a musical effect, creating what author Paul Trynka described as a \"definitive vocabulary for rock guitar\". Hendrix usually turned all of the amplifier's control knobs to the maximum level, which became known as the Hendrix setting. During the four years prior to his death, he purchased between 50 and 100 Marshall amplifiers. Jim Marshall said that he was \"the greatest ambassador\" his company ever had.\n\nEffects\n\nOne of Hendrix's signature effects was the wah-wah pedal, which he first heard used with an electric guitar in Cream's \"Tales of Brave Ulysses\", released in May 1967. In July of that year, while playing gigs at the Scene club in New York City, Hendrix met Frank Zappa, whose band, the Mothers of Invention were performing at the adjacent Garrick Theater. Hendrix was fascinated by Zappa's application of the pedal, and he experimented with one later that evening. He used a wah pedal during the opening to \"Voodoo Child (Slight Return)\", creating one of the best-known wah-wah riffs of the classic rock era. He can also be heard using the effect on \"Up from the Skies\", \"Little Miss Lover\", and \"Still Raining, Still Dreaming\".\n\nHendrix consistently used a Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and a Vox wah pedal during recording sessions and live performances, but he also experimented with other guitar effects. He enjoyed a fruitful long-term collaboration with electronics enthusiast Roger Mayer, whom he once called \"the secret\" of his sound. Mayer introduced him to the Octavia, an octave doubling effect pedal, in December 1966, and he first recorded with the effect during the guitar solo to \"Purple Haze\". \n\nHendrix also utilized the Uni-Vibe, which was designed to simulate the modulation effects of a rotating Leslie speaker by providing a rich phasing sound that could be manipulated with a speed control pedal. He can be heard using the effect during his performance at Woodstock and on the Band of Gypsys track \"Machine Gun\", which prominently features the Uni-vibe along with an Octavia and a Fuzz Face. His signal flow for live performance involved first plugging his guitar into a wah-wah pedal, then connecting the wah-wah pedal to a Fuzz Face, which was then linked to a Uni-Vibe, before connecting to a Marshall amplifier.\n\nInfluences\n\nAs an adolescent during the 1950s, Hendrix became interested in rock and roll artists such as Elvis Presley, Little Richard, and Chuck Berry. In 1968, he told Guitar Player magazine that electric blues artists Muddy Waters, Elmore James, and B.B. King inspired him during the beginning of his career; he also cited Eddie Cochran as an early influence. Of Muddy Waters, the first electric guitarist of which Hendrix became aware, he said: \"I heard one of his records when I was a little boy and it scared me to death because I heard all of these sounds.\" In 1970, he told Rolling Stone that he was a fan of western swing artist Bob Wills and while he lived in Nashville, the television show the Grand Ole Opry.\n\nCox stated that during their time serving in the U.S. military he and Hendrix primarily listened to southern blues artists such as Jimmy Reed and Albert King. According to Cox, \"King was a very, very powerful influence\". Howlin' Wolf also inspired Hendrix, who performed Wolf's \"Killing Floor\" as the opening song of his U.S. debut at the Monterey Pop Festival. The influence of soul artist Curtis Mayfield can be heard in Hendrix's guitar playing, and the influence of Bob Dylan can be heard in Hendrix's songwriting; he was known to play Dylan's records repeatedly, particularly Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde.\n\nLegacy\n\nThe Experience's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography states: \"Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music. Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll.\" Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as \"one of the most creative\" and \"influential musicians that has ever lived\". Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote: \"In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians, Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers. His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s.\" \n\nHendrix favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain. He was instrumental in developing the previously undesirable technique of guitar amplifier feedback, and helped to popularize use of the wah-wah pedal in mainstream rock. He rejected the standard barre chord fretting technique used by most guitarists in favor of fretting the low 6th string root notes with his thumb. He applied this technique during the beginning bars of \"Little Wing\", which allowed him to sustain the root note of chords while also playing melody. This method has been described as piano style, with the thumb playing what a pianist's left hand would play and the other fingers playing melody as a right hand. Having spent several years fronting a trio, he developed an ability to play rhythm chords and lead lines together, giving the audio impression that more than one guitarist was performing. He was the first artist to incorporate stereophonic phasing effects in rock music recordings. Holly George-Warren of Rolling Stone commented: \"Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source. Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began.\" Aledort wrote: \"In rock guitar, there are but two eras — before Hendrix and after Hendrix.\"\n\nWhile creating his unique musical voice and guitar style, Hendrix synthesized diverse genres, including blues, R&B, soul, British rock, American folk music, 1950s rock and roll, and jazz. Musicologist David Moskowitz emphasized the importance of blues music in Hendrix's playing style, and according to authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber, \"[He] explored the outer reaches of psychedelic rock\". His influence is evident in a variety of popular music formats, and he has contributed significantly to the development of hard rock, heavy metal, funk, post-punk, and hip hop music. His lasting influence on modern guitar players is difficult to overstate; his techniques and delivery have been abundantly imitated by others. Despite his hectic touring schedule and notorious perfectionism, he was a prolific recording artist who left behind numerous unreleased recordings. More than 40 years after his death, Hendrix remains as popular as ever, with annual album sales exceeding that of any year during his lifetime.\n\nHendrix has influenced numerous funk and funk rock artists, including Prince, George Clinton, John Frusciante, formerly of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic, and Ernie Isley of the Isley Brothers. Hendrix's influence also extends to many hip hop artists, including De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Digital Underground, Beastie Boys, and Run–D.M.C. Miles Davis was deeply impressed by Hendrix, and he compared Hendrix's improvisational abilities with those of saxophonist John Coltrane. Hendrix also influenced industrial artist Marilyn Manson, blues legend Stevie Ray Vaughan, Metallica Kirk Hammett, instrumental rock guitarist Joe Satriani, and heavy metal virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen, who said: \"[Hendrix] created modern electric playing, without question ... He was the first. He started it all. The rest is history.\" \n\nRecognition and awards\n\nHendrix received several prestigious rock music awards during his lifetime and posthumously. In 1967, readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year. In 1968, Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year. Also in 1968, the City of Seattle gave him the Keys to the City. Disc & Music Echo newspaper honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970, Guitar Player magazine named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year. \n\nRolling Stone ranked his three non-posthumous studio albums, Are You Experienced (1967), Axis: Bold as Love (1967), and Electric Ladyland (1968) among the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. They ranked Hendrix number one on their list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time, and number six on their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time. Guitar Worlds readers voted six of Hendrix's solos among the top 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time: \"Purple Haze\" (70), \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" (52; from Live at Woodstock), \"Machine Gun\" (32; from Band of Gypsys), \"Little Wing\" (18), \"Voodoo Child (Slight Return)\" (11), and \"All Along the Watchtower\" (5). Rolling Stone placed seven of his recordings in their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time: \"Purple Haze\" (17), \"All Along the Watchtower\" (47) \"Voodoo Child (Slight Return)\" (102), \"Foxy Lady\" (153), \"Hey Joe\" (201), \"Little Wing\" (366), and \"The Wind Cries Mary\" (379). They also included three of Hendrix's songs in their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time: \"Purple Haze\" (2), \"Voodoo Child\" (12), and \"Machine Gun\" (49). \n\nA star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated to Hendrix on November 14, 1991, at 6627 Hollywood Boulevard. The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992, and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. In 1999, readers of Rolling Stone and Guitar World ranked Hendrix among the most important musicians of the 20th century. In 2005, his debut album, Are You Experienced, was one of 50 recordings added that year to the United States National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress, \"[to] be preserved for all time ... [as] part of the nation's audio legacy\". \n\nThe blue plaque identifying his former residence at 23 Brook Street, London (next door to the former residence of George Frideric Handel) was the first one issued by English Heritage to commemorate a pop star. A memorial statue of Hendrix playing a Stratocaster stands near the corner of Broadway and Pine Streets in Seattle. In May 2006, the city renamed a park near its Central District, Jimi Hendrix Park, in his honor. In 2012, an official historic marker was erected on the site of the July 1970 Second Atlanta International Pop Festival near Byron, Georgia. The marker text reads, in part: “Over thirty musical acts performed, including rock icon Jimi Hendrix playing to the largest American audience of his career.” \n\nHendrix's music has received a number of Hall of Fame Grammy awards, starting with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1992, followed by two Grammys in 1999 for his albums Are You Experienced and Electric Ladyland; Axis: Bold as Love received a Grammy in 2006. In 2000, he received a Hall of Fame Grammy award for his original composition, \"Purple Haze\", and in 2001 for his recording of Dylan's \"All Along the Watchtower\". Hendrix's rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" was honored with a Grammy in 2009.\n\nThe United States Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Hendrix in 2014. \n\nDiscography\n\n;The Jimi Hendrix Experience\n* Are You Experienced (1967)\n* Axis: Bold as Love (1967)\n* Electric Ladyland (1968)\n\n;Jimi Hendrix/Band of Gypsys\n* Band of Gypsys (1970; recorded live)\n\n;Posthumous albums\n* The Cry of Love (1971)\n* Rainbow Bridge (1971)\n* War Heroes (1972)\n* Loose Ends (1974)\n* Crash Landing (1975)\n* Midnight Lightning (1975)\n* Nine to the Universe (1980)\n* Radio One (1988)\n* First Rays of the New Rising Sun (1997)\n* South Saturn Delta (1997)\n* Valleys of Neptune (2010)\n* People, Hell and Angels (2013)\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Marshall", "Marshall (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "marshall", "marshall disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "marshall", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Marshall" }
In which month of the year did Bing Crosby record White Christmas?	tc_1326	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bing_Crosby.txt", "White_Christmas_(song).txt" ], "title": [ "Bing Crosby", "White Christmas (song)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Harry Lillis \"Bing\" Crosby, Jr. (May 3, 1903 – October 14, 1977) was an American singer and actor. Crosby's trademark warm bass-baritone voice made him the best-selling recording artist of the 20th century, having sold over one billion records, tapes, compact discs and digital downloads around the world.\n\nThe first multimedia star, from 1931 to 1954 Crosby was a leader in record sales, radio ratings, and motion picture grosses. His early career coincided with technical recording innovations such as the microphone. This allowed him to develop a laid-back, intimate singing style that influenced many of the popular male singers who followed him, including Perry Como, Frank Sinatra, Dick Haymes, and Dean Martin. Yank magazine recognized Crosby as the person who had done the most for American G.I. morale during World War II and, during his peak years, around 1948, American polls declared him the \"most admired man alive\", ahead of Jackie Robinson and Pope Pius XII. Also in 1948, the Music Digest estimated that Crosby recordings filled more than half of the 80,000 weekly hours allocated to recorded radio music.\n\nCrosby won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Father Chuck O'Malley in the 1944 motion picture Going My Way, and was nominated for his reprise of the role in The Bells of St. Mary's opposite Ingrid Bergman the next year, becoming the first of six actors to be nominated twice for playing the same character. In 1963, Crosby received the first Grammy Global Achievement Award. He is one of the 22 people to have three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (a star for motion pictures, radio, and audio recording).\n\nCrosby also exerted an important influence on the development of the postwar recording industry. He became the first performer to pre-record his radio shows and master his commercial recordings onto magnetic tape. Through the medium of recording, Crosby constructed his radio programs with the same directorial tools and craftsmanship (editing, retaking, rehearsal, time shifting) used in motion picture production, which became the industry standard. In addition to his work with early tape recording, he helped to finance the development of videotape, bought television stations, bred racehorses, and co-owned the Pittsburgh Pirates baseball team.\n\nChildhood\n\nCrosby was born on May 3, 1903Grudens, 2002, p. 236. \"Bing was born on May 3, 1903. He always believed he was born on May 2, 1904.\" in Tacoma, Washington, in a house his father built at 1112 North J Street. In 1906, Crosby's family moved to Spokane, and in 1913, Crosby's father built a house at 508 E. Sharp Ave. The house now sits on the campus of Crosby's alma mater Gonzaga University and formerly housed the Alumni Association.\n\nHe was the fourth of seven children: brothers Larry (1895–1975), Everett (1896–1966), Ted (1900–1973), and Bob (1913–1993); and two sisters, Catherine (1904–1974) and Mary Rose (1906–1990). His parents were Harry Lowe Crosby, Sr. (1870–1950), a bookkeeper, and Catherine Helen \"Kate\" (née Harrigan; 1873–1964). Crosby's mother was a second generation Irish-American. His father was of English descent; some of his ancestors had emigrated to America in the 17th century, and included Mayflower passenger William Brewster (c. 1567 – April 10, 1644). \n\nIn 1910, seven-year-old Harry Crosby Jr. was forever renamed. The Sunday edition of the Spokesman-Review published a feature called \"The Bingville Bugle\". Written by humorist Newton Newkirk, The Bingville Bugle was a parody of a hillbilly newsletter filled with gossipy tidbits, minstrel quips, creative spelling, and mock ads. A neighbor, 15-year-old Valentine Hobart, shared Crosby's enthusiasm for \"The Bugle\" and noting Crosby's laugh, took a liking to him and called him \"Bingo from Bingville\". Eventually the last vowel was dropped and the nickname stuck. \n\nIn 1917, Crosby took a summer job as property boy at Spokane's \"Auditorium\", where he witnessed some of the finest acts of the day, including Al Jolson, who held Crosby spellbound with his ad libbing and spoofs of Hawaiian songs. Crosby later described Jolson's delivery as \"electric\".\n\nCrosby graduated from Gonzaga High School (today's Gonzaga Prep) in 1920 and enrolled at Gonzaga University. He attended Gonzaga for three years, but did not earn a bachelor's degree. As a freshman, he played on the University's baseball team. The university granted him an honorary doctorate in 1937.\n \n\nPerformance career\n\nMusic\n\nEarly years\n\nIn 1923, Crosby was invited to join a new band composed of high school students a few years younger than himself. Al Rinker, Miles Rinker, James Heaton, Claire Pritchard and Robert Pritchard, along with drummer Crosby, formed the Musicaladers, who performed at dances both for high school students and club-goers. The group did perform on Spokane radio station KHQ, but disbanded after two years. Crosby and Al Rinker then obtained work at the Clemmer Theatre in Spokane (now known as the Bing Crosby Theater). Crosby was initially a member of a vocal trio called 'The Three Harmony Aces' with Al Rinker accompanying on piano from the pit, to entertain between the films. Bing and Al continued at the Clemmer Theatre for several months often with three other men - Wee Georgie Crittenden, Frank McBride and Lloyd Grinnell - and they were billed as 'The Clemmer Trio' or 'The Clemmer Entertainers' depending which men were used. \n\nIn October 1925, Crosby and his partner Al Rinker, brother of singer Mildred Bailey, decided to seek fame in California and they traveled to Los Angeles where they met up with Mildred Bailey. She introduced them to her show business contacts and the Fanchon and Marco Time Agency hired them for thirteen weeks to take part in a revue called The Syncopation Idea, starting at the Boulevard Theater in Los Angeles and then on the Loew's circuit. They each earned $75 a week. Bing and Al Rinker began as a minor part of The Syncopation Idea and it was there that they started to develop as entertainers. They had a lively and individual style and they were particularly popular with college students. After The Syncopation Idea closed, Bing and Al obtained work in the Will Morrissey Music Hall Revue which must have been fascinating if insecure. However, their skills were further honed during their time with Morrissey and when they subsequently had the chance to present their own independent act, they blossomed and were quickly spotted by the Paul Whiteman organization. At that time, it was felt that Whiteman needed something different and entertaining to break up the musical selections he was presenting and Crosby and Rinker filled this requirement admirably. After less than a year in full-time show business, they had become part of one of the biggest names in the entertainment world. Hired for $150 a week in 1926, they made their debut with Whiteman on December 6 at the Tivoli Theatre in Chicago. Their first recording, in October 1926, was \"I've Got the Girl\", with Don Clark's Orchestra, but the Columbia-issued record did them no vocal favors, as it was inadvertently recorded at a speed slower than it should have been, which increased the singers' pitch when played at 78 rpm. Throughout his career, Crosby often credited Mildred Bailey for getting him his first important job in the entertainment business. \n\nThe Rhythm Boys\n\nInitial successes with Whiteman were followed by disaster when they reached New York and for a while Whiteman must have thought of letting them go. Possibly Bing might have been retained as Whiteman was already using him as a solo performer on record, but the prospects for Rinker must have been bleak. However, the addition of pianist and aspiring songwriter Harry Barris made all the difference to the act and \"The Rhythm Boys\" were born. The additional voice meant that the boys could be heard more easily in the large New York theaters and they quickly became a real success. A year touring with Whiteman performing and recording with musicians Bix Beiderbecke, Jack Teagarden, Tommy Dorsey, Jimmy Dorsey, Eddie Lang and Hoagy Carmichael, provided valuable experience and then they were sent out on tour alone. Much has been written about the escapades of the three men during this period and clearly they were living life to the full. Despite all of this, Bing was continuing to develop and when the Rhythm Boys rejoined the Whiteman troupe in 1929, he had matured considerably as a performer. He was constantly in demand as a solo artist on record and radio. \n\nCrosby soon became the star attraction of the Rhythm Boys, and in 1928 he had his first number one hit with the Whiteman orchestra, a jazz-influenced rendition of \"Ol' Man River\". In 1929, the Rhythm Boys appeared in the film The King of Jazz with Whiteman but Bing's growing dissatisfaction with Whiteman led to the Rhythm Boys leaving his organization. They joined the Gus Arnheim Orchestra performing nightly in The Cocoanut Grove of the Ambassador Hotel. Singing with the Arnheim Orchestra, Bing's solos began to steal the show, while the Rhythm Boys act gradually became redundant. Harry Barris wrote several of Crosby's subsequent hits including \"At Your Command\", \"I Surrender Dear\", and \"Wrap Your Troubles In Dreams\". In the early months of 1931, a solo recording contract came Bing's way, Mack Sennett signed him to make film shorts and a break with the Rhythm Boys became almost inevitable. Bing had married Dixie Lee in September 1930 and after a threatened divorce in March 1931, he started to apply himself seriously to his career. His gramophone records in 1931 broke new ground as his powerful and emotional singing started to change the face of popular music forever.\n\nTheir low salaries at the Cocoanut Grove of the Ambassador Hotel had led the Rhythm Boys to walk out, causing union problems for Bing. Bing's brother, Everett, interested Bill Paley of CBS in his brother and Paley beckoned Bing to come to New York. A settlement was reached with the Ambassador Hotel and Bing made his first solo national radio broadcast in September 1931 and then went on to star at the New York Paramount Theatre.\n\nSuccess as a solo singer\n\nOn September 2, 1931, Crosby made his solo radio debut. Before the end of the year, he signed with both Brunswick Records and CBS Radio. Doing a weekly 15-minute radio broadcast, Crosby quickly became a huge hit. His songs \"Out of Nowhere\", \"Just One More Chance\", \"At Your Command\" and \"I Found a Million Dollar Baby (in a Five and Ten Cent Store)\" were all among the best selling songs of 1931.\n\nAs the 1930s unfolded, Crosby became the leading singer in America. Ten of the top 50 songs for 1931 featured Crosby, either solo or with others. A so-called \"Battle of the Baritones\" with singing star Russ Columbo proved short-lived, replaced with the slogan \"Bing Was King\". Crosby played the lead in a series of sound-era musical comedy short films for Mack Sennett, signed with Paramount and starred in his first full-length feature, 1932's The Big Broadcast, the first of 55 films in which he received top billing. He would appear in 79 pictures, and signed a long-term deal with Jack Kapp's new record company Decca in late 1934.\n\nHis first commercial sponsor on radio was Cremo Cigars and increasingly his fame spread nationwide. After a long run in New York, Bing went back to Hollywood to film The Big Broadcast and his personal appearances, his records, and his radio work substantially increased his impact. The success of his first full-length film brought him a contract with Paramount and he began a regular pattern of making three films a year. On radio, he fronted his own show for Woodbury Soap for two seasons and gradually his live appearances dwindled. His records produced hit after hit at a time when record sales generally were in decline because of the Depression. Critically acclaimed audio engineer Steve Hoffman once stated: \"By the way, Bing actually saved the record business in 1934 when he agreed to support Decca founder Jack Kapp's crazy idea of lowering the price of singles from a dollar to 35 cents and getting a royalty for records sold instead of a flat fee. Bing's name and his artistry saved the recording industry. All the other artists signed to Decca after Bing did. Without him, Jack Kapp wouldn't have had a chance in hell of making Decca work and the Great Depression would have wiped out phonograph records for good.\" His social life was hectic, his first son Gary was born in 1933 with twin boys following in 1934. By 1936, he'd replaced his former boss, Paul Whiteman, as host of the prestigious NBC radio program Kraft Music Hall, the weekly radio program where he remained for the next ten years. \"Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)\", which showcased one of his then-trademark whistling interludes, became his theme song and signature tune.\n\nAlso in 1936, Crosby exercised an option from Paramount to make a film out-of-house. Quickly signed to a one-picture agreement with Columbia, Crosby dreamt of having his icon and friend Louis Armstrong, an African-American, who largely influenced his singing style, in a screen adaptation of The Peacock Feather called Pennies from Heaven. Crosby talked to Harry Cohn about the matter, but he disagreed saying: \"... no reason to entail the expense of flying him in and having no desire to negotiate with Armstrong's crude, mob-linked but devoted manager, Joe Glaser.\" Bing threatened to walk out on the film and refused to discuss it with Cohn. Armstrong's musical scenes, along with some comical dialogue as well, heightened his career. Bing also had it that Armstrong made high billing alongside his white co-stars, one of the first times ever for a black performer in a wide-audience film. He starred as himself in many more films to come and had a large appreciation for Bing's unracist views, often thanking him in his later years. \n\nCrosby's much-imitated style helped take popular singing beyond the kind of \"belting\" associated with boisterous performers like Al Jolson and Billy Murray, who had been obliged to reach the back seats in New York theaters without the aid of the microphone. As Henry Pleasants noted in The Great American Popular Singers, something new had entered American music, a style that might be called \"singing in American\" with conversational ease. This new sound led to the popular epithet \"crooner\".\n\nDuring the Second World War, Crosby made numerous live appearances before American troops fighting in the European Theater. He also learned how to pronounce German from written scripts and would read propaganda broadcasts intended for the German forces. The nickname \"Der Bingle\" was common among Crosby's German listeners and came to be used by his English-speaking fans. In a poll of U.S. troops at the close of World War II, Crosby topped the list as the person who had done the most for G.I. morale, ahead of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, General Dwight Eisenhower, and Bob Hope.\n\nThe June 18, 1945, issue of Life magazine stated: \"America's number one star, Bing Crosby, has won more fans, made more money than any entertainer in history. Today he is a kind of national institution.\" They also state: \"In all, 60,000,000 Crosby disks have been marketed since he made his first record in 1931. His biggest best seller is White Christmas, 2,000,000 impressions of which have been sold in the U.S. and 250,000 in Great Britain.\" They go on to say: \"Nine out of ten singers and bandleaders listen to Crosby's broadcasts each Thursday night and follow his lead. The day after he sings a song over the air - any song - some 50,000 copies of it are sold throughout the U.S. Time and again Crosby has taken some new or unknown ballad, has given it what is known in trade circles as the \"big goose\" and made it a hit single-handed and overnight.\" and \"Precisely what the future holds for Crosby neither his family nor his friends can conjecture. He has achieved greater popularity, made more money, attracted vaster audiences than any other entertainer in history. And his star is still in the ascendant. His contract with Decca runs until 1955. His contract with Paramount runs until 1954. Records which he made ten years ago are selling better than ever before. The nation's appetite for Crosby's voice and personality appears insatiable. To soldiers overseas and to foreigners he has become a kind of symbol of America, of the amiable, humorous citizen of a free land. Crosby, however, seldom bothers to contemplate his future. For one thing, he enjoys hearing himself sing, and if ever a day should dawn when the public wearies of him, he will complacently go right on singing - to himself.\" \n\nWhite Christmas\n\nThe biggest hit song of Crosby's career was his recording of Irving Berlin's \"White Christmas\", which he first introduced on a Christmas Day radio broadcast in 1941. (A copy of the recording from the radio program is owned by the estate of Bing Crosby and was loaned to CBS Sunday Morning for their December 25, 2011, program.) The song then appeared soon after in his 1942 movie Holiday Inn. Crosby's recording hit the charts on October 3, 1942, and rose to No. 1 on October 31, where it stayed for 11 weeks. A holiday perennial, the song was repeatedly re-released by Decca, charting another 16 times. It topped the charts again in 1945, and for a third time in January 1947. The song remains the best-selling single of all time. According to Guinness World Records, Crosby's recording of \"White Christmas\" has \"sold over 100 million copies around the world, with at least 50 million sales as singles\". Crosby's recording was so popular that he was obliged to re-record it in 1947 using the same musicians and backup singers; the original 1942 master had become damaged due to its frequent use in pressing additional singles. Though the two versions are very similar, it is the 1947 recording which is most familiar today. After Crosby's death in 1977, the song was re-released and reached the No.5 position in the UK Singles Chart in December 1977. Typically, in his usual modest way, Crosby was dismissive of his role in the song's success, saying later that \"a jackdaw with a cleft palate could have sung it successfully.\"\n\nMotion pictures\n\nA survey in 2000 by tlavideo.com of estimated ticket sales over the years, found that with 1,077,900,000 movie tickets sold, Crosby was—by that measure—the third most popular actor of all time, behind Clark Gable (1,168,300,000) and John Wayne (1,114,000,000). The Quigley Publishing Company's International Motion Picture Almanac lists Crosby in a tie for second on the \"All Time Number One Stars List\" with Clint Eastwood, Tom Hanks, and Burt Reynolds. Crosby's most popular film, White Christmas, grossed $30 million in 1954 ($ million in current value). Crosby won an Academy Award for Best Actor for Going My Way in 1944, and was nominated for the 1945 sequel, The Bells of St. Mary's. He received critical acclaim for his performance as an alcoholic entertainer in The Country Girl, and received his third Academy Award nomination.\n\nCrosby starred with Bob Hope and actress Dorothy Lamour in seven Road to musical comedies between 1940 and 1962, cementing Crosby and Hope as an on-and-off duo, despite never officially declaring themselves a \"team\" in the sense that Laurel and Hardy or Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis were teams. The series consists of Road to Singapore (1940), Road to Zanzibar (1941), Road to Morocco (1942), Road to Utopia (1946), Road to Rio (1947), Road to Bali (1952), and The Road to Hong Kong (1962). Appearing solo, Crosby and Hope frequently made note of the other during their various appearances, typically in a comically insulting fashion, and they appeared together countless times on stage, radio, and television over the decades as well as cameos in numerous additional films, to the point that it became difficult for audiences to think of one without thinking of the other.\n\nIn the 1949 Disney animated film The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad, Crosby provided the narration and song vocals for The Legend of Sleepy Hollow segment.\n\nBy the late 1950s, Crosby had become seen as an avuncular elder statesman of music, and his albums Bing Sings Whilst Bregman Swings and Bing With A Beat sold reasonably well, even in the rock-and-roll era. In 1960, Crosby starred in High Time, a collegiate comedy with Fabian Forte and Tuesday Weld that predicted the emerging gap between him and the new young generation of musicians and actors who had begun their careers after WWII. The following year, Crosby and Hope reunited for one more Road movie, The Road to Hong Kong, which teamed them up with the much younger Joan Collins and Peter Sellers. Collins was used in place of their longtime partner Dorothy Lamour, whom Crosby felt was getting too old for the role, although Hope refused to do the movie without her so she instead made a lengthy cameo appearance. Not long before his death in 1977, Crosby had plans for yet another Road film in which the aging trio of himself, Hope, and Lamour search for the legendary Fountain of Youth. Ever media-savvy, he was alleged to have asked the scriptwriters to model The Road To The Fountain Of Youth on the Monty Python series so as to keep the humor fresh and contemporary for 1970s audiences.\n\nWarner Bros. cartoons occasionally caricatured Crosby, alternately as an animal and as himself. His recognizable appearance popped up in I've Got to Sing a Torch Song, Hollywood Steps Out and What's Up, Doc?, while bird versions appeared in The Woods Are Full of Cuckoos, Swooner Crooner and Curtain Razor. Bingo Crosbyana had an insect version of him.\n\nTelevision\n\nThe Fireside Theater (1950) was Crosby's first television production. The series of 26-minute shows was filmed at Hal Roach Studios rather than performed live on the air. The \"telefilms\" were syndicated to individual television stations.\n\nCrosby was a frequent guest on the musical variety shows of the 1950s and 1960s. He was especially closely associated with ABC's variety show The Hollywood Palace. He was the show's first and most frequent guest host, and appeared annually on its Christmas edition with his wife Kathryn and his younger children. In the early 1970s he made two famous late appearances on the Flip Wilson Show, singing duets with the comedian. Crosby's last TV appearance was a Christmas special filmed in London in September 1977 and aired just weeks after his death. It was on this special that Crosby recorded a duet of \"The Little Drummer Boy\" and \"Peace on Earth\" with the flamboyant rock star David Bowie. It was released in 1982 as a single 45-rpm record and reached No.3 in the UK singles charts. It has since become a staple of holiday radio, and the final popular hit of Crosby's career. At the end of the century, TV Guide listed the Crosby–Bowie duet as one of the 25 most memorable musical moments of 20th-century television.\n\nBing Crosby Productions, affiliated with Desilu Studios and later CBS Television Studios, produced a number of television series, including Crosby's own unsuccessful ABC sitcom The Bing Crosby Show in the 1964–1965 season (with co-stars Beverly Garland and Frank McHugh). The company produced two ABC medical dramas, Ben Casey (1961–1966) and Breaking Point (1963–1964), the popular Hogan's Heroes (1965–1971) military comedy on CBS, as well as the lesser-known show Slattery's People (1964–1965). Another show that Crosby Productions produced was the game show Beat the Odds.\n\nSinging style and vocal characteristics\n\nCrosby was one of the first singers to exploit the intimacy of the microphone, rather than using the deep, loud \"vaudeville style\" associated with Al Jolson and others. He, was, by his own definition, a \"phraser\" or a singer that placed equal emphasis on both the lyrics and the music. Crosby's love and appreciation of jazz music helped bring the genre to a wider mainstream audience. Within the framework of the novelty-singing style of the Rhythm Boys, Crosby bent notes and added off-tune phrasing, an approach that was firmly rooted in jazz. He had already been introduced to Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith prior to his first appearance on record. Crosby and Armstrong would remain professionally friendly for decades, notably in the 1956 film High Society, where they sang the duet \"Now You Has Jazz\".\n\nDuring the early portion of his solo career (about 1931–1934), Crosby's emotional, often pleading style of crooning was widely popular. But Jack Kapp (manager of Brunswick and later Decca) talked Crosby into dropping many of his jazzier mannerisms, in favor of a straight-ahead clear vocal style. Crosby credited Kapp for choosing hit songs, working with many other artists, and most importantly, diversifying his repertoire into various styles and genres. This approach's wide appeal helped Crosby become highly successful, charting number-one hits in the genres of Christmas music, Hawaiian music and Country music, as well as top-thirty hits in Irish music, French music, Rhythm and blues, as well as Ballad songs. \nCrosby also elaborated on a further idea of Al Jolson's: phrasing, or the art of making a song's lyric ring true. His success in doing so was influential. \"I used to tell Sinatra over and over,\" said Tommy Dorsey, \"there's only one singer you ought to listen to and his name is Crosby. All that matters to him is the words, and that's the only thing that ought to for you, too.\" \n\nVocal critic Henry Pleasants wrote:\n[While] the octave B flat to B flat in Bing's voice at that time [1930s] is, to my ears, one of the loveliest I have heard in forty-five years of listening to baritones, both classical and popular, it dropped conspicuously in later years. From the mid-1950s, Bing was more comfortable in a bass range while maintaining a baritone quality, with the best octave being G to G, or even F to F. In a recording he made of 'Dardanella' with Louis Armstrong in 1960, he attacks lightly and easily on a low E flat. This is lower than most opera basses care to venture, and they tend to sound as if they were in the cellar when they get there. \n\nCareer statistics\n\nCrosby's was among the most popular and successful musical acts of the 20th century. Although Billboard magazine operated under different methodologies for the bulk of Crosby's career, his chart numbers remain astonishing: 396 chart singles, including 41 No. 1 hits. If you count the multiple times \"White Christmas\" charted, that would bring that number up to 43 - more than The Beatles and Elvis combined. Crosby had separate charting singles in every calendar year between 1931 and 1954; the annual re-release of \"White Christmas\" extended that streak to 1957. He had 24 separate popular singles in 1939 alone. It is widely believed that Crosby is the best selling recording artist ever, with plus or minus 1 billion units sold. Billboards statistician Joel Whitburn determined Crosby to be America's most successful recording act of the 1930s, and again in the 1940s.\n\nFor 15 years (1934, 1937, 1940, 1943–1954), Crosby was among the top 10 in box-office drawing power, and for five of those years (1944–1948) he topped the world. He sang four Academy Award-winning songs – \"Sweet Leilani\" (1937), \"White Christmas\" (1942), \"Swinging on a Star\" (1944), \"In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening\" (1951) – and won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in Going My Way (1944).\n\nHe collected 23 gold and platinum records, according to the book Million Selling Records. The Recording Industry Association of America did not institute its gold record certification program until 1958, by which point Crosby's record sales were barely a blip; prior to that point, gold records were awarded by an artist's own record company. Universal Music, current owner of Crosby's Decca catalog, has never requested RIAA certification for any of his hit singles.\n\nAlthough often overlooked in many biographies, Crosby charted 23 Billboard hits from 47 recorded songs with the Andrews Sisters, whose Decca record sales were second only to Crosby's throughout the 1940s. Patty, Maxene, and LaVerne were his most frequent collaborators on disc from 1939 to 1952, a partnership which produced four million-selling singles: \"Pistol Packin' Mama\", \"Jingle Bells\", \"Don't Fence Me In\", and \"South America, Take it Away\". They made one film appearance together in \"Road to Rio\" singing \"You Don't Have to Know the Language\", and they sang together countless times on radio shows throughout the 1940s and 1950s (appearing as guests on each other's shows quite often, as well as on many shows for the Armed Forces Radio Service during and after World War II). The quartet's Top-10 Billboard hits from 1943–1945 including \"The Vict'ry Polka\", \"There'll Be a Hot Time in the Town of Berlin (When the Yanks Go Marching In)\", and \"Is You Is or Is You Ain't (Ma' Baby?)\" were major morale-boosters for the American public during the war years. \n\nIn 1962, Crosby was given the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. He has been inducted into the halls of fame for both radio and popular music. In 2007 Crosby was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame, and in 2008 into the Western Music Hall of Fame. \n\nEntrepreneurship\n\nRole in early tape recording\n\nDuring the \"Golden Age of Radio\", performers had to create their shows live, sometimes even redoing the program a second time for the west coast time zone. Crosby's radio career took a significant turn in 1945, when he clashed with NBC over his insistence that he be allowed to pre-record his radio shows. (The live production of radio shows was also reinforced by the musicians' union and ASCAP, which wanted to ensure continued work for their members.) In On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio, historian John Dunning wrote about German engineers having developed a tape recorder with a near-professional broadcast quality standard:\n[Crosby saw] an enormous advantage in prerecording his radio shows. The scheduling could now be done at the star's convenience. He could do four shows a week, if he chose, and then take a month off. But the networks and sponsors were adamantly opposed. The public wouldn't stand for 'canned' radio, the networks argued. There was something magic for listeners in the fact that what they were hearing was being performed and heard everywhere, at that precise instant. Some of the best moments in comedy came when a line was blown and the star had to rely on wit to rescue a bad situation. Fred Allen, Jack Benny, Phil Harris, and also Crosby were masters at this, and the networks weren't about to give it up easily.\n\nCrosby's insistence eventually factored into the further development of magnetic tape sound recording and the radio industry's widespread adoption of it. He used his clout, both professional and financial, to innovate new methods of reproducing audio of his performances. But NBC (and competitor CBS) were also insistent, refusing to air prerecorded radio programs. Crosby walked away from the network and stayed off the air for seven months, creating a legal battle with Kraft, his sponsor, that was settled out of court. Crosby returned to the air for the last 13 weeks of the 1945–1946 season.\n\nThe Mutual network, on the other hand, had pre-recorded some of its programs as early as the 1938 run of The Shadow with Orson Welles. And the new ABC network, which had been formed out of the sale of the old NBC Blue Network in 1943 following a federal anti-trust action, was willing to join Mutual in breaking the tradition. ABC offered Crosby $30,000 per week to produce a recorded show every Wednesday that would be sponsored by Philco. He would also get an additional $40,000 from 400 independent stations for the rights to broadcast the 30-minute show, which was sent to them every Monday on three 16-inch lacquer/aluminum discs that played ten minutes per side at 33⅓ rpm.\n\nCrosby wanted to change to recorded production for several reasons. The legend that has been most often told is that it would give him more time for his golf game. And he did record his first Philco program in August 1947 so he could enter the Jasper National Park Invitational Golf Tournament in September, just when the new radio season was to start. But golf was not the most important reason.\n\nThough Crosby did want more time to tend to his other business and leisure activities, he also sought better quality through recording, including being able to eliminate mistakes and control the timing of his show performances. Because his own Bing Crosby Enterprises produced the show, he could purchase the latest and best sound equipment and arrange the microphones his way; the logistics of microphone placement had long been a hotly debated issue in every recording studio since the beginning of the electrical era. No longer would he have to wear the hated toupee on his head previously required by CBS and NBC for his live audience shows (he preferred a hat). He could also record short promotions for his latest investment, the world's first frozen orange juice, sold under the brand name Minute Maid. This investment allowed Crosby to make more money by finding a loophole whereby the IRS couldn't tax him at a 77% rate. \n\nThe transcription method posed problems, however. The acetate surface coating of the aluminum discs was little better than the wax that Edison had used at the turn of the 20th century, with the same limited dynamic range and frequency response.\n\nHowever, Murdo MacKenzie of Bing Crosby Enterprises had seen a demonstration of the German Magnetophon in June 1947—the same device that Jack Mullin had brought back from Radio Frankfurt, along with 50 reels of tape, at the end of the war. It was one of the magnetic tape recorders that BASF and AEG had built in Germany starting in 1935. The 6.5mm ferric-oxide-coated tape could record 20 minutes per reel of high-quality sound. Alexander M. Poniatoff ordered his Ampex company, which he'd founded in 1944, to manufacture an improved version of the Magnetophone.\n\nCrosby hired Mullin to start recording his Philco Radio Time show on his German-made machine in August 1947, using the same 50 reels of I.G. Farben magnetic tape that Mullin had found at a radio station at Bad Nauheim near Frankfurt while working for the U.S. Army Signal Corps. The crucial advantage was editing. As Crosby wrote in his autobiography:\nBy using tape, I could do a thirty-five or forty-minute show, then edit it down to the twenty-six or twenty-seven minutes the program ran. In that way, we could take out jokes, gags, or situations that didn't play well and finish with only the prime meat of the show; the solid stuff that played big. We could also take out the songs that didn't sound good. It gave us a chance to first try a recording of the songs in the afternoon without an audience, then another one in front of a studio audience. We'd dub the one that came off best into the final transcription. It gave us a chance to ad lib as much as we wanted, knowing that excess ad libbing could be sliced from the final product. If I made a mistake in singing a song or in the script, I could have some fun with it, then retain any of the fun that sounded amusing.\n\nMullin's 1976 memoir of these early days of experimental recording agrees with Crosby's account:\nIn the evening, Crosby did the whole show before an audience. If he muffed a song then, the audience loved it—thought it was very funny—but we would have to take out the show version and put in one of the rehearsal takes. Sometimes, if Crosby was having fun with a song and not really working at it, we had to make it up out of two or three parts. This ad lib way of working is commonplace in the recording studios today, but it was all new to us.\n\nCrosby invested US$50,000 in Ampex with an eye towards producing more machines. In 1948, the second season of Philco shows was taped with the new Ampex Model 200 tape recorder using the new Scotch 111 tape from the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing (3M) company. Mullin explained how one new broadcasting technique was invented on the Crosby show with these machines:\nOne time Bob Burns, the hillbilly comic, was on the show, and he threw in a few of his folksy farm stories, which of course were not in Bill Morrow's script. Today they wouldn't seem very off-color, but things were different on radio then. They got enormous laughs, which just went on and on. We couldn't use the jokes, but Bill asked us to save the laughs. A couple of weeks later he had a show that wasn't very funny, and he insisted that we put in the salvaged laughs. Thus the laugh-track was born.\nCrosby had launched the tape recorder revolution in America. In his 1950 film Mr. Music, Crosby is seen singing into one of the new Ampex tape recorders that reproduced his voice better than anything else. Also quick to adopt tape recording was his friend Bob Hope. He gave one of the first Ampex Model 200 recorders to his friend, musician Les Paul, which led directly to Paul's invention of multitrack recording. His organization, the Crosby Research Foundation, also held various tape recording patents and developed equipment and recording techniques such as the laugh track that are still in use today. \n\nAlong with Frank Sinatra, Crosby was also one of the principal backers behind the famous United Western Recorders recording studio complex in Los Angeles. \n\nVideotape development\n\nMullin continued to work for Crosby to develop a videotape recorder (VTR). Television production was mostly live television in its early years, but Crosby wanted the same ability to record that he had achieved in radio. 1950's The Fireside Theater, sponsored by Procter & Gamble, was his first television production. Mullin had not yet succeeded with videotape, so Crosby filmed the series of 26-minute shows at the Hal Roach Studios, and the \"telefilms\" were syndicated to individual television stations.\n\nCrosby continued to finance the development of videotape. Bing Crosby Enterprises (BCE), gave the world's first demonstration of videotape recording in Los Angeles on November 11, 1951. Developed by John T. Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since 1950, the device aired what were described as \"blurred and indistinct\" images, using a modified Ampex 200 tape recorder and standard quarter-inch (6.3 mm) audio tape moving at 360 inches (9.1 m) per second. \n\nTV station ownership\n\nA Crosby-led group purchased station KCOP-TV, in Los Angeles, California, in 1954. NAFI Corporation and Crosby together purchased the television station KPTV, in Portland, Oregon, for $4 million on September 1, 1959. In 1960, NAFI purchased KCOP from Crosby's group.\n\nThoroughbred horse racing\n\nCrosby was a fan of thoroughbred horse racing and bought his first racehorse in 1935. In 1937, he became a founding partner of the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club and a member of its Board of Directors. Operating from the Del Mar Racetrack at Del Mar, California, the group included millionaire businessman Charles S. Howard, who owned a successful racing stable that included Seabiscuit. Charles' son, Lindsay C. Howard became one of Crosby's closest friends; Crosby named his son Lindsay after him, and would purchase his 40-room Hillsborough, California estate from Lindsay in 1965.\n\nCrosby and Lindsay Howard formed Binglin Stable to race and breed thoroughbred horses at a ranch in Moorpark in Ventura County, California. They also established the Binglin stock farm in Argentina, where they raced horses at Hipódromo de Palermo in Palermo, Buenos Aires. A number of Argentine-bred horses were purchased and shipped to race in the United States. On August 12, 1938, the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club hosted a $25,000 winner-take-all match race won by Charles S. Howard's Seabiscuit over Binglin's horse Ligaroti. In 1943, Binglin's horse Don Bingo won the Suburban Handicap at Belmont Park in Elmont, New York. \n\nThe Binglin Stable partnership came to an end in 1953 as a result of a liquidation of assets by Crosby, who needed to raise enough funds to pay the hefty federal and state inheritance taxes on his deceased wife's estate. The Bing Crosby Breeders' Cup Handicap at Del Mar Racetrack is named in his honor.\n\nCrosby was also a co-owner of the British colt Meadow Court, with jockey Johnny Longden's friend Max Bell. Meadow Court won the 1965 King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes, and the Irish Derby. In the Irish Derby's winner's circle at the Curragh, Crosby sang \"When Irish Eyes Are Smiling\".\n\nThough Crosby's stables had some success, he often joked about his horse racing failures as part of his radio appearances. \"Crosby's horse finally came in\" became a running gag.\n\nSports\n\nCrosby had an interest in sports. In the 1930s, his friend and former college classmate, Gonzaga head coach Mike Pecarovich appointed Crosby as an assistant football coach. From 1946 until the end of his life, he was part-owner of baseball's Pittsburgh Pirates. Although he was passionate about his team, he was too nervous to watch the deciding Game 7 of the 1960 World Series, choosing to go to Paris with Kathryn and listen to the game on the radio. Crosby had the NBC telecast of the game recorded on kinescope. The game was one of the most famous in baseball history, capped off by Bill Mazeroski's walk-off home run. He apparently viewed the complete film just once, and then stored it in his wine cellar, where it remained undisturbed until it was discovered in December 2009. The restored broadcast was shown on MLB Network in December 2010.\n\nCrosby was also an avid golfer, and in 1978, he and Bob Hope were voted the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship. He is a member of the World Golf Hall of Fame. In 1937, Bing Crosby hosted the first National Pro-Am Golf Championship, the 'Crosby Clambake' as it was popularly known, at Rancho Santa Fe Golf Club in Rancho Santa Fe, California, the event's location prior to World War II. Sam Snead won the first tournament, in which the first place check was for $500. After the war, the event resumed play in 1947 on golf courses in Pebble Beach, where it has been played ever since. Now the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am, it has been a leading event in the world of professional golf.\n\nCrosby first took up golf at 12 as a caddy, dropped it, and started again in 1930 with some fellow cast members in Hollywood during the filming of The King of Jazz. Crosby was accomplished at the sport, with a two handicap. He competed in both the British and U.S. Amateur championships, was a five-time club champion at Lakeside Golf Club in Hollywood, and once made a hole-in-one on the 16th at Cypress Point.\n\nPersonal life\n\nCrosby was married twice. His first wife was actress/nightclub singer Dixie Lee, to whom he was married from 1930 until her death from ovarian cancer in 1952; they had four sons: Gary, twins Dennis and Phillip, and Lindsay. The 1947 Susan Hayward film, Smash-Up: The Story of a Woman, is indirectly based on Lee's life. Bing and Dixie along with their children lived at 10500 Camarillo Street in North Hollywood for over five years. After her death, Crosby had relationships with model/Goldwyn Girl Pat Sheehan (who married his son Dennis in 1958) and actresses Inger Stevens and Grace Kelly before marrying the actress Kathryn Grant, who converted to Catholicism, in 1957. They had three children: Harry Lillis III (who played Bill in Friday the 13th), Mary (best known for portraying Kristin Shepard, who shot J. R. Ewing on TV's Dallas), and Nathaniel (the 1981 U.S. Amateur champion in golf).\n\nCrosby was a registered Republican, and actively campaigned for Wendell Willkie in 1940 against President Roosevelt, arguing that no man should serve more than two terms in the White House. After Willkie lost, Crosby decreed that he would never again make any open political contributions.\n\nCrosby reportedly had an alcohol problem in his youth, and may have been dismissed from Paul Whiteman's orchestra because of it, but he later got a handle on his drinking. According to Giddins, Crosby told his son Gary to stay away from alcohol, adding, \"It killed your mother.\"Giddins, 2001, p. 181.\n\nAfter Crosby's death, his eldest son, Gary, wrote a highly critical memoir, Going My Own Way, depicting his father as cruel, cold, remote, and both physically and psychologically abusive. \nGary Crosby wrote:\n\nWe had to keep a close watch on our actions ... When one of us left a sneaker or pair of underpants lying around, he had to tie the offending object on a string and wear it around his neck until he went off to bed that night. Dad called it \"the Crosby lavalier\". At the time the humor of the name escaped me ...\n\n\"Satchel Ass\" or \"Bucket Butt\" or \"My Fat-assed Kid\". That's how he introduced me to his cronies when he dragged me along to the studio or racetrack ... By the time I was ten or eleven he had stepped up his campaign by adding lickings to the regimen. Each Tuesday afternoon he weighed me in, and if the scale read more than it should have, he ordered me into his office and had me drop my trousers ... I dropped my pants, pulled down my undershorts and bent over. Then he went at it with the belt dotted with metal studs he kept reserved for the occasion. Quite dispassionately, without the least display of emotion or loss of self-control, he whacked away until he drew the first drop of blood, and then he stopped. It normally took between twelve and fifteen strokes. As they came down I counted them off one by one and hoped I would bleed early ...\n\nWhen I saw Going My Way I was as moved as they were by the character he played. Father O'Malley handled that gang of young hooligans in his parish with such kindness and wisdom that I thought he was wonderful too. Instead of coming down hard on the kids and withdrawing his affection, he forgave them their misdeeds, took them to the ball game and picture show, taught them how to sing. By the last reel, the sheer persistence of his goodness had transformed even the worst of them into solid citizens. Then the lights came on and the movie was over. All the way back to the house I thought about the difference between the person up there on the screen and the one I knew at home. \n\nYounger son Phillip vociferously disputed his brother Gary's claims about their father. Around the time Gary made his claim, Phillip stated to the press that \"Gary is a whining ... crybaby, walking around with a 2-by-4 and just daring people to nudge it off.\" However, Phillip did not deny that Crosby believed in corporal punishment. In an interview with People, Phillip stated that \"we never got an extra whack or a cuff we didn't deserve.\" During a later interview conducted in 1999 by the Globe, Phillip said:\n\nMy dad was not the monster my lying brother said he was; he was strict, but my father never beat us black and blue, and my brother Gary was a vicious, no-good liar for saying so. I have nothing but fond memories of Dad, going to studios with him, family vacations at our cabin in Idaho, boating and fishing with him. To my dying day, I'll hate Gary for dragging Dad's name through the mud. He wrote Going My Own Way out of greed. He wanted to make money and knew that humiliating our father and blackening his name was the only way he could do it. He knew it would generate a lot of publicity. That was the only way he could get his ugly, no-talent face on television and in the newspapers. My dad was my hero. I loved him very much. He loved all of us too, including Gary. He was a great father. \n\nHowever, Dennis and Lindsay Crosby confirmed that their father was physically abusive. Lindsay added, \"I'm glad [Gary] did it. I hope it clears up a lot of the old lies and rumors.\" Unlike Gary, however, Lindsay said that he preferred to remember \"all the good things I did with my dad and forget the times that were rough.\" Dennis asserted that the book was \"Gary's business\" and a result of his \"anger,\" but would not deny the book's claims. Bing's younger brother, singer and jazz bandleader Bob Crosby, recalled at the time of Gary's revelations that Bing was a \"disciplinarian,\" as their mother and father had been. He added, \"We were brought up that way.\" In an interview for the same article, Gary clarified that Bing was abusive as a means of administering punishment: \"He was not out to be vicious, to beat children for his kicks.\"\n\nHowever, the Bing Crosby website asserts that late in his life, Gary claimed that he made up large portions of the book in an attempt to blame his irresponsible life decisions on his father. The website says:\n \nHowever, several years after Bing died, Doubleday approached Gary to write an autobiography. To guarantee success, he was asked to wildly exaggerate Bing's self-acknowledged paternal strictness. Going My Own Way, published in 1983 and co-authored by Ross Firestone, was Gary's controversial attempt to transfer his professional and personal shortcomings onto his father; and to achieve the long desired leading role – playing Bing, no less – should his book be adapted to the screen. This wasn't to be, as the book created considerable turmoil within the Crosby family. Subsequently, Gary recanted large portions of his unfortunate memoir. To further the rehabilitation Gary decided in 1995 to record an album overdubbing his father's classic recordings. This came too late. With one side complete, a persistent cough interfered with the endeavor. A doctor's visit confirmed that he had advanced lung cancer. Gary died on August 24, 1995.\n\nIt was revealed that Crosby's will had established a blind trust, with none of the sons receiving an inheritance until they reached the age of 65. \n\nLindsay Crosby died in 1989 and Dennis Crosby died in 1991, both by suicide from self-inflicted gunshot wounds, at ages 51 and 56, respectively. Gary Crosby died in 1995 at the age of 62 of lung cancer and 69-year-old Phillip Crosby died in 2004 of a heart attack. \n\nWidow Kathryn Crosby dabbled in local theater productions intermittently, and appeared in television tributes to her late husband.\n\nNathaniel Crosby, Crosby's youngest son from his second marriage, was a high-level golfer who won the U.S. Amateur at age 19 in 1981, at the time the youngest-ever winner of that event. Harry Crosby is an investment banker who occasionally makes singing appearances.\n\nDenise Crosby, Dennis Crosby's daughter, is also an actress and is known for her role as Tasha Yar on Star Trek: The Next Generation, and for the recurring role of the Romulan Sela (daughter of Tasha Yar) after her withdrawal from the series as a regular cast member. She also appeared in the film adaptation of Stephen King's novel Pet Sematary. In 2006, Crosby's niece, Carolyn Schneider, published the laudatory book Me and Uncle Bing.\n\nThere have been disputes between Crosby's two families beginning in the late 1990s. When Dixie died in 1952, her will provided that her share of the community property be distributed in trust to her sons. After Crosby's death in 1977, he left the residue of his estate to a marital trust for the benefit of his widow, Kathryn, and HLC Properties, Ltd., was formed for the purpose of managing his interests, including his right of publicity. In 1996, Dixie's trust sued HLC and Kathryn for declaratory relief as to the trust's entitlement to interest, dividends, royalties, and other income derived from the community property of Crosby and Dixie. In 1999, the parties settled for approximately $1.5 million. Relying on a retroactive amendment to the California Civil Code, Dixie's trust brought suit again, in 2010, alleging that Crosby's right of publicity was community property, and that Dixie's trust was entitled to a share of the revenue it produced. The trial court granted Dixie's trust's claim. The California Court of Appeal reversed, however, holding that the 1999 settlement barred the claim. In light of the court's ruling, it was unnecessary for the court to decide whether a right of publicity can be characterized as community property under California law. \n\nIllness and death\n\nFollowing his recovery from a life-threatening fungal infection of his right lung in January 1974, Crosby emerged from semi-retirement to start a new spate of albums and concerts. In March 1977, after videotaping a concert at the Ambassador Theater in Pasadena for CBS to commemorate his 50th anniversary in show business, and with Bob Hope looking on, Crosby fell off the stage into an orchestra pit, rupturing a disc in his back requiring a month in the hospital. His first performance after the accident was his last American concert, on August 16, 1977 (the day singer Elvis Presley died); when the power went out during his performance, he continued singing without amplification.\n\nIn September, Crosby, his family, and singer Rosemary Clooney began a concert tour of Britain that included two weeks at the London Palladium. While in the UK, Crosby recorded his final album, Seasons, and his final TV Christmas special with guest David Bowie on 11 September (which aired a little over a month after Crosby's death). His last concert was in the Brighton Centre on October 10, four days before his death, with British entertainer Dame Gracie Fields in attendance. The following day he made his final appearance in a recording studio and sang eight songs at the BBC Maida Vale studios for a radio program, which also included an interview with Alan Dell. Accompanied by the Gordon Rose Orchestra, Crosby's last recorded performance was of the song \"Once in a While\". Later that afternoon, he met with Chris Harding to take photographs for the Seasons album jacket.\n\nOn October 13, 1977, Crosby flew alone to Spain to play golf and hunt partridge. On October 14, 1977, at the La Moraleja Golf Course near Madrid, Crosby played eighteen holes of golf. His partner was World Cup champion Manuel Piñero; their opponents were club president Cesar de Zulueta and Valentin Barrios. According to Barrios, Crosby was in good spirits throughout the day, and was photographed several times during the round. At the ninth hole, construction workers building a house nearby recognized him, and when asked for a song, Crosby sang \"Strangers in the Night\". Crosby, who had a 13 handicap, lost to his partner by one stroke. As Crosby and his party headed back to the clubhouse, Crosby said, \"That was a great game of golf, fellas.\" However, others say his final words were, \"Let's go get a Coke.\" At about 6:30 pm, Crosby collapsed about 20 yards from the clubhouse entrance and died instantly from a massive heart attack. At the clubhouse and later in the ambulance, house physician Dr. Laiseca tried to revive him, but was unsuccessful. At Reina Victoria Hospital he was administered the last rites of the Catholic Church and was pronounced dead. On October 18, following a private funeral mass at St. Paul's Catholic Church in Westwood, Crosby was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. \n\nLegacy\n\nHe is a member of the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame in the radio division. \n\nThe family launched an official website on October 14, 2007, the 30th anniversary of Crosby's death.\n\nIn his autobiography Don't Shoot, It's Only Me! (1990), Bob Hope wrote, \"Dear old Bing. As we called him, the Economy-sized Sinatra. And what a voice. God I miss that voice. I can't even turn on the radio around Christmas time without crying anymore.\" \n\nCalypso musician Roaring Lion wrote a tribute song in 1939 entitled \"Bing Crosby\", in which he wrote: \"Bing has a way of singing with his very heart and soul / Which captivates the world / His millions of listeners never fail to rejoice / At his golden voice ...\" \n\nBing Crosby Stadium in Front Royal, Virginia was named after Crosby in honor of his fundraising efforts and direct cash contributions for its construction in the 1948 to 1950 timeframe. \n\nBing Crosby in lyrics of popular songs\n\nCrosby's name often appeared in popular songs, including: \n\n#Ain't We Got Fun (Bob Hope / Margaret Whiting version “the poor get Crosby”)\n#Inka Dinka Doo (Jimmy Durante “that note was given to me by Bing Crosby”)\n#Mister Gallagher and Mister Shean (Mr. Crosby & Mr. Mercer)\n#My Baby Just Cares for Me (Nat King Cole with Woody Herman “my baby’s no Crosby fan, Dick Tracy is not her man”)\n#Only Forever (Al Bowlly / Jimmy Messini version “...direct from Crosby we bring it to you”)\n#Opus One (Mills Brothers “and maybe old Bing will give it a fling”)\n#Rum and Coca-Cola (The Andrews Sisters “and the natives swoon every time der Bingle croon”)\n#The Best Is Yet to Come (Val Doonican) “Mr. Crosby had the nation’s No.1 tune”\n#These Foolish Things (“the song that Crosby sings”)\n#When You Were Sweet Sixteen (Judy Garland version “I decided to join a monastery and would have too if it had not been for Bing Crosby”)\n#You're the Top (Louis Armstrong “You’re Crosby’s salary”)\n\nCompositions\n\nCrosby wrote or co-wrote lyrics to 22 songs. His composition \"At Your Command\" was no. 1 for three weeks on the U.S. pop singles chart beginning on August 8, 1931. \"I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance With You\" was his most successful composition, recorded by Duke Ellington, Frank Sinatra, Thelonious Monk, Billie Holiday, and Mildred Bailey, among others. Songs co-written by Crosby include:\n\n# \"That's Grandma\" (1927), with Harry Barris and James Cavanaugh\n# \"From Monday On\" (1928), with Harry Barris and recorded with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra featuring Bix Beiderbecke on cornet, no. 14 on US pop singles charts\n# \"What Price Lyrics?\" (1928), with Harry Barris and Matty Malneck\n# \"Ev'rything's Agreed Upon\" (1930), with Harry Barris \n# \"At Your Command\" (1931), with Harry Barris and Harry Tobias, US, no. 1 (3 weeks)\n# \"Believe Me\" (1931), with James Cavanaugh and Frank Weldon \n# \"Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)\" (1931), with Roy Turk and Fred Ahlert, US, no. 4; US, 1940 re-recording, no. 27\n# \"You Taught Me How to Love\" (1931), with H. C. LeBlang and Don Herman\n# \"I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance with You\" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington, US, no. 5\n# \"My Woman\" (1932), with Irving Wallman and Max Wartell\n# \"Cutesie Pie\" (1932), with Red Standex and Chummy MacGregor\n# \"I Was So Alone, Suddenly You Were There (1932), with Leigh Harline, Jack Stern and George Hamilton\n# \"Love Me Tonight\" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington, US, no. 4\n# \"Waltzing in a Dream\" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington, US, no.6\n# \"You're Just a Beautiful Melody of Love\" (1932), lyrics by Bing Crosby, music by Babe Goldberg\n# \"Where Are You, Girl of My Dreams?\" (1932), written by Bing Crosby, Irving Bibo, and Paul McVey, featured in the 1932 Universal film The Cohens and Kellys in Hollywood\n# \"I Would If I Could But I Can't\" (1933), with Mitchell Parish and Alan Grey\n# \"Where the Turf Meets the Surf\" (1941) with Johnny Burke and James V. Monaco.\n# \"Tenderfoot\" (1953) with Bob Bowen and Perry Botkin, originally issued using the pseudonym of \"Bill Brill\" for Bing Crosby.\n# \"Domenica\" (1961) with Pietro Garinei / Gorni Kramer / Sandro Giovannini\n# \"That's What Life is All About\" (1975), with Ken Barnes, Peter Dacre, and Les Reed, US, AC chart, no. 35; UK, no. 41\n# \"Sail Away from Norway\" (1977) - Crosby wrote lyrics to go with a traditional song.\n\nGrammy Hall of Fame\n\nFour performances by Bing Crosby have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have \"qualitative or historical significance\".\n\nFilmography\n\nDiscography\n\nTV appearances\n\nRadio\n\n* 15 Minutes with Bing Crosby (1931, CBS), Unsponsored. 6 nights a week, 15 minutes.\n* The Cremo Singer (1931–1932, CBS), 6 nights a week, 15 minutes.\n* 15 Minutes with Bing Crosby (1932, CBS), initially 3 nights a week, then twice a week, 15 minutes.\n* Chesterfield Cigarettes Presents Music that Satisfies (1933, CBS), broadcast two nights a week, 15 minutes.\n* Bing Crosby Entertains (1933–1935, CBS), weekly, 30 minutes.\n* Kraft Music Hall (1935–1946, NBC), Thursday nights, 60 minutes until January 1943, then 30 minutes.\n* Bing Crosby on Armed Forces Radio in World War II (1941–1945; World War II). \n* Philco Radio Time (1946–1949, ABC), 30 minutes weekly.\n* This Is Bing Crosby (The Minute Maid Show) (1948–1950, CBS), 15 minutes each weekday morning; Bing as disc jockey.\n* The Bing Crosby – Chesterfield Show (1949–1952, CBS), 30 minutes weekly.\n* The Bing Crosby Show for General Electric (1952–1954, CBS), 30 minutes weekly.\n* The Bing Crosby Show (1954-1956) (CBS), 15 minutes, 5 nights a week.\n* A Christmas Sing with Bing (1955–1962), (CBS, VOA and AFRS), 1 hour each year, sponsored by the Insurance Company of North America.\n* The Ford Road Show Featuring Bing Crosby (1957–1958, CBS), 5 minutes, 5 days a week.\n* The Bing Crosby – Rosemary Clooney Show (1960–1962, CBS), 20 minutes, 5 mornings a week, with Rosemary Clooney.\n\nRIAA certification\n\nAwards and nominations", "\"White Christmas\" is a 1942 Irving Berlin song reminiscing about an old-fashioned Christmas setting. According to the Guinness World Records, the version sung by Bing Crosby is the best-selling single of all time, with estimated sales in excess of 100 million copies worldwide. Other versions of the song, along with Crosby's, have sold over 150 million copies.[http://img299.imageshack.us/img299/3315/guinness2007.pdf Guinness Book of Records, 2007 Edition, page 187] [http://img827.imageshack.us/img827/4387/guinness2009.pdf Guinness Book of Records, 2009 Edition, pages 14, 15 & 169]\n\nAccounts vary as to when and where Berlin wrote the song. One story is that he wrote it in 1940, in warm La Quinta, California, while staying at the La Quinta Hotel, a frequent Hollywood retreat also favored by writer-director-producer Frank Capra, although the Arizona Biltmore also claims the song was written there. He often stayed up all night writing — he told his secretary, \"Grab your pen and take down this song. I just wrote the best song I've ever written — heck, I just wrote the best song that anybody's ever written!\" \n\nBing Crosby version\n\nThe first public performance of the song was by Bing Crosby, on his NBC radio show The Kraft Music Hall on Christmas Day, 1941; a copy of the recording from the radio program is owned by Crosby's estate and was loaned to CBS News Sunday Morning for their December 25, 2011, program. He subsequently recorded the song with the John Scott Trotter Orchestra and the Ken Darby Singers and Chorus for Decca Records in just 18 minutes on May 29, 1942, and it was released on July 30 as part of an album of six 78-rpm discs from the musical film Holiday Inn. At first, Crosby did not see anything special about the song. He just said \"I don't think we have any problems with that one, Irving.\" The song established and solidified the fact that there could be commercially successful secular Christmas songs - in this case, written by a Jewish-American songwriter, who also wrote \"God Bless America.\"\n\nThe song initially performed poorly and was overshadowed by Holiday Inns first hit song: \"Be Careful, It's My Heart\". By the end of October 1942, \"White Christmas\" topped the Your Hit Parade chart. It remained in that position until well into the new year. It has often been noted that the mix of melancholy — \"just like the ones I used to know\" — with comforting images of home — \"where the treetops glisten\" — resonated especially strongly with listeners during World War II. The Armed Forces Network was flooded with requests for the song. The recording is noted for Crosby's whistling during the second chorus.\n\nIn 1942 alone, Crosby's recording spent eleven weeks on top of the Billboard charts. The original version also hit number one on the Harlem Hit Parade for three weeks, Crosby's first-ever appearance on the black-oriented chart. Re-released by Decca, the single returned to the #1 spot during the holiday seasons of 1945 and 1946 (on the chart dated January 4, 1947), thus becoming the only single with three separate runs at the top of the U.S. charts. The recording became a chart perennial, reappearing annually on the pop chart twenty separate times before Billboard magazine created a distinct Christmas chart for seasonal releases.\n\nFollowing its prominence in Holiday Inn, the composition won the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1942. In the film, Crosby sings \"White Christmas\" as a duet with actress Marjorie Reynolds, though her voice was dubbed by Martha Mears. This now-familiar scene was not the moviemakers' initial plan. In the script as originally conceived, Reynolds, not Crosby, would sing the song. The song would feature in another Crosby film — the 1954 musical White Christmas — becoming the highest-grossing film of 1954.\n\nThe version most often heard today on radio during the Christmas season is the 1947 re-recording. The 1942 master was damaged due to frequent use. Crosby re-recorded the track on March 19, 1947, accompanied again by the Trotter Orchestra and the Darby Singers, with every effort made to reproduce the original recording session. The re-recording is recognizable by the addition of flutes and celesta in the beginning.\n\nAlthough Crosby dismissed his role in the song's success, saying later that \"a jackdaw with a cleft palate could have sung it successfully,\" he was associated with it for the rest of his career.\n\nThe 1947 version is heard in the 2004 movie The Polar Express.\n\nSales figures\n\nCrosby's \"White Christmas\" single has been credited with selling 50 million copies, the most by any release and therefore it is the biggest-selling single worldwide of all time. The Guinness Book of World Records 2009 Edition lists the song as a 100-million seller, encompassing all versions of the song, including albums. Crosby's holiday collection Merry Christmas was first released as an LP in 1949, and has never been out of print since.\n\nThere has been confusion and debate on whether Crosby's record is or is not the best-selling single, due to a lack of information on sales of \"White Christmas,\" because Crosby's recording was released before the advent of the modern-day US and UK singles charts. However, after careful research, Guinness World Records in 2007 concluded that, worldwide, Crosby's recording of \"White Christmas\" has, in their estimation, sold at least 50 million copies, and that Elton John's recording of \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" has sold 33 million, making Crosby's recording the best-selling single of all time. However, an update in the 2009 edition of the book decided to further help settle the controversy amicably by naming both John's and Crosby's songs to be \"winners\" by stating that John's recording is the \"best-selling single since UK and US singles charts began in the 1950s,\" while maintaining that \"the best-selling single of all time was released before the first pop charts,\" and that this distinction belongs to \"White Christmas,\" which it says \"was listed as the world's best-selling single in the first-ever Guinness Book of Records (published in 1955) and—remarkably—still retains the title more than 50 years later.\" See also: Guinness Book of Records, 2009 Edition, pages 14, 15 & 169 [http://img827.imageshack.us/img827/4387/guinness2009.pdf]\n\nHistoric influence\n\nIn 1999, National Public Radio included it in the \"NPR 100\", which sought to compile the one hundred most important American musical works of the 20th century. Crosby's version of the song also holds the distinction of being ranked #2 on the \"Songs of the Century\" list, behind only Judy Garland's \"Over the Rainbow,\" as voted by members of the RIAA. In 2002, the original 1942 version was one of 50 historically significant recordings chosen that year by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry. In 2004, it finished at #5 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.\n\nThe recording was broadcast on Armed Forces Radio on April 30, 1975, as a secret, pre-arranged signal precipitating the U.S. evacuation from Saigon. \n\nOriginal verse\n\nIrving Berlin's opening verse is often dropped in recordings, but is included on A Christmas Gift for You from Philles Records, sung by Darlene Love, on Barbra Streisand's A Christmas Album, on the Carpenters' Christmas Portrait sung by Karen Carpenter, on Bette Midler's Cool Yule, on Libera's Christmas Album and on Crash Test Dummies' Jingle All the Way.\n\nCertifications\n\nOther versions\n\n\"White Christmas\" is the most-recorded Christmas song; there have been more than 500 recorded versions of the song, in several different languages. The following is an incomplete list of some notable renditions.\n\nIn the years 1940-1942\n\n;1942:\n* Gordon Jenkins and his Orchestra (with Bob Carroll on lead vocal) released a version of the song (Capitol F-124) that reached number 16 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart. \n* Charlie Spivak and his Orchestra (with Garry Stevens on lead vocal) released a version of the song that reached number 18 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart. \n* Freddy Martin and his Orchestra (with Clyde Rogers on lead vocal) released a version of the song that reached number 20 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart (this same version charted on the Billboard pop singles chart again in December 1945, reaching number 16). \n;1944:\n* Frank Sinatra released a version of the song (with backing orchestration under the direction of Axel Stordahl) that reached number 7 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart (this same version charted on the Billboard pop singles chart two more times: in December 1945, reaching number 5, and in December 1946, reaching number 6). \n;1945:\n* On December 23, Kay Thompson performed her version of the song on the CBS radio program Request Performance backed by the Kay Thompson Rhythm Singers and an orchestra conducted by Leith Stevens. A recording of this radio performance has survived and can be heard on Sepia Records' 2009 3-CD compilation Think Pink! A Kay Thompson Party produced and annotated by Sam Irvin, author of Kay Thompson: From Funny Face to Eloise published by Simon & Schuster in 2010.\n;1946:\n* Jo Stafford (with backing vocals by the Lyn Murray Singers and backing orchestration by Paul Weston) released a version of the song that reached number 9 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart.\n;1947:\n* Eddy Howard and his Orchestra released a version of the song that reached number 21 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart. \n* Perry Como (with backing orchestration by Lloyd Shaffer) released a version of the song that reached number 23 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart. \n* Harry James released a version on Columbia 37955 with vocals by Marion Morgan. \n;1948:\n* R&B vocal group the Ravens released a version of the song that reached number 9 on Billboard magazine's Rhythm & Blues Records chart in January 1949. Their version was released as the flip-side of a single that included their version of \"Silent Night\". \n;1949:\n* Country singer Ernest Tubb (with female backing vocals by The Troubadettes) released a version of the song that reached number 7 on Billboard magazine's Country & Western Records chart. \n\n1950s\n\n;1952:\n* On July 15, singer Eddie Fisher with Hugo Winterhalter's orchestra & chorus recorded a version of the song at Manhattan Center, New York City. The song was released by RCA Victor Records as catalog number 20-4910 (in USA) and by EMI on the His Master's Voice label as catalog number B 10779 and JO 420.\n* Mantovani and His orchestra released a version of the song that reached number 23 on Billboard magazine's pop singles chart.\n;1954:\n* The Drifters released a cover version of the song that showcased the talents of lead singer Clyde McPhatter and the bass vocals of Bill Pinkney. Their recording of the song peaked at number 2 on Billboard's Rhythm & Blues Records chart in December 1954 (it also returned to the same chart in the next two years). In December 1955, \"White Christmas\" became the Drifters' first of 34 singles to register on the mainstream Billboard Top 100 singles chart, reaching number 80. For decades, the Drifters' version of the song was primarily heard on R&B radio stations, getting little exposure elsewhere. It received a boost in popularity in the early 1990s, when it was prominently featured in the film Home Alone during a scene in which the lead character Kevin (Macaulay Culkin) is applying his father's aftershave while mouthing the lyrics. Radio formats as diverse as oldies, adult contemporary, Top 40, and country began playing the Drifters' version of the song, which was later featured in the 1994 films Mixed Nuts and The Santa Clause.\n* Frank Sinatra recorded the song (with backing orchestration by Nelson Riddle) for a holiday single on Capitol Records.\n;1957:\n* Elvis Presley recorded the song for his first holiday album, Elvis' Christmas Album.\n;1958:\n* Johnny Mathis recorded the song for his first holiday album, Merry Christmas.\n;1959:\n* Perry Como recorded the song for his holiday album, Season's Greetings from Perry Como.\n* The Ray Conniff Singers recorded the song for their holiday album, Christmas with Conniff.\n* Dean Martin recorded the song for his holiday album, A Winter Romance.\n\n1960s\n\n;1960:\n* Ella Fitzgerald recorded the song for her holiday album, Ella Wishes You a Swinging Christmas.\n;1961:\n* Mitch Miller included the song on his album Holiday Sing Along with Mitch. Instead of the lyrics, Miller printed a disclaimer on the album cover stating \"The publisher assumes everyone knows the lyrics to this song!\"\n* Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., mostly known as David Seville, covered the song for the first holiday album by Alvin and the Chipmunks, Christmas with The Chipmunks.\n* Haunani Kahalewai sang the song, including some lyrics in Hawaiian language, on the holiday album A Merry Hawaiian Christmas by the Hawaii Calls Orchestra and Chorus.\n;1963:\n* Before he emigrated to the USA, Italo-American tenor Sergio Franchi recorded an Italian language version of the song titled \"Bianco Natale.\" It was recorded in Italy and produced in Canada (Durium DC 26099).\n* Robert Goulet recorded the song for his holiday album, This Christmas I Spend with You.\n* Andy Williams recorded the song for his first holiday album, The Andy Williams Christmas Album. This version of \"White Christmas\" was also released as a single, and reached number 1 on Billboard's special, year-end, weekly Christmas Singles chart (the B-side of the single contained Williams's version of \"The Christmas Song\"). This same version of \"White Christmas\" charted again on Billboard's Christmas Singles chart again in 1967, reaching number 22.\n* Darlene Love recorded the song for the Phil Spector-produced holiday album, A Christmas Gift for You from Philles Records.\n* Smokey Robinson & the Miracles recorded the song for their holiday album, Christmas with the Miracles.\n* Jimmy McGriff recorded the song for his holiday album, Christmas with McGriff.\n* Jim Reeves recorded the song for his holiday album, Twelve Songs of Christmas.\n;1964:\n* The Beach Boys recorded the song for their holiday album, The Beach Boys' Christmas Album.\n* Doris Day recorded the song for her holiday album, The Doris Day Christmas Album.\n* Jack Jones recorded the song for his holiday album, The Jack Jones Christmas Album.\n* Jo Stafford recorded the song for her holiday album, The Joyful Season.\n* Jerry Vale recorded the song for his holiday album, Christmas Greetings from Jerry Vale.\n;1965:\n* The Supremes recorded the song for their holiday album, Merry Christmas.\n* Bob Marley recorded the song with the Wailers and released it as a single. This version later appeared on his compilation album Destiny: Rare Ska Sides from Studio 1.\n;1966:\n* Kenny Burrell recorded the song for his holiday album, Have Yourself a Soulful Little Christmas.\n* Eydie Gorme, backed by Trio Los Panchos, recorded \"Blanca Navidad\", a Spanish language version of the song.\n* Dean Martin recorded the song for his holiday album, The Dean Martin Christmas Album.\n* Kate Smith recorded the song for her holiday album, The Kate Smith Christmas Album.\n;1967:\n* Barbra Streisand's version of the song, recorded for her first holiday album, A Christmas Album, contains the seldom-heard verse.\n;1968:\n* Tony Bennett recorded the song for his holiday album, Snowfall: The Tony Bennett Christmas Album. \n* Otis Redding's version of the song was released as a single (posthumously), and reached number 12 on Billboard magazine's special, year-end, weekly Christmas Singles chart in December of '68.\n* Lana Cantrell released a version of the song on the various-artists holiday album Christmas Day with Colonel Sanders. This version was later included on other various-artists Christmas albums.\n* Tennessee Ernie Ford Recorded \"White Christmas\" for his LP O Come, All ye Faithful.\n\n1970s\n\n;1971:\n* The Partridge Family recorded a version of the song for their holiday album, A Partridge Family Christmas Card.\n;1972:\n* Keith Lamb recorded a reggae version of the song with his band Hush in December 1972 (EPW 263) for Warner for an EP entitled Hush Power.\n;1973:\n* Shu-Bi-Dua, from Denmark, released a rock version of the song under the title \"Rap Jul\" (\"Quack (/Quick) Christmas\" - in Danish, the word \"rap\" also translates into \"quick\"). The Danish lyrics depicts a duck (that turns out to be none other than Donald Duck) not looking forward to Christmas, because all humans tend to eat duck at Christmas Eve. Therefore, he dreams about a quick Christmas.\n;1975:\n* John Denver recorded the song during the sessions for his holiday album, Rocky Mountain Christmas. While the song was not included on the original LP, it later appeared as a bonus track on the 1998 CD reissue of the album.\n;1979:\n* Willie Nelson recorded the song for his holiday album, Pretty Paper.\n* Stiff Little Fingers covered the song and released it as part of the \"Silly Encores\" B-side to their UK 7\" single \"At the Edge\". This version also appeared as a bonus track on the American 2005 CD reissue of the band's 1980 live album, Hanx!\n\n1980s\n\n;1980:\n* Slim Whitman covered this song on the Epic album Christmas With Slim Whitman.\n* Darts covered this song, released with a B-side of \"Sh-Boom\", which reached #48 in the UK Singles Chart.\n;1981:\n* Boney M. covered the song creating a reggae-version in the process and included it on their album Christmas Album.\n;1984:\n* Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton recorded a version of the song for their holiday album, Once Upon a Christmas.\n;1985:\n* The Canadian Brass recorded an instrumental version for their holiday album, A Canadian Brass Christmas.\n;1989:\n* New Kids on the Block recorded a version of the song for their holiday album, Merry, Merry Christmas.\n\n1990s\n\n;1990:\n* John Denver recorded the song for his holiday album, Christmas, Like a Lullaby.\n;1991:\n* Marco T. La Voz del Rock and Roll in Colombia recorded the song in Spanish for his album Pequeño Pueblo de Belen.\n;1992:\n* Neil Diamond recorded a doo-wop version of the song for his first holiday album, The Christmas Album.\n* Michael Bolton recorded the song for his non-holiday album Timeless: The Classics. This version of the song reached number 73 on Billboard's Hot 100 Airplay chart in January 1993. \n* Garth Brooks covered the song for his first holiday album, Beyond the Season. This version of the song reached number 70 on Billboard's Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in January 1995. \n;1993:\n* Shu-Bi-Dua, from Denmark, this time under the pseudonym \"Shu-Bi-40\" (parodying British based reggae-band UB 40), recorded a Christmas album containing reggae versions of well-known Christmas songs including \"White Christmas\", making it their second cover version of the song (see also 1973).\n* Aaron Neville, recorded a version like The Drifters version. It was from his album Soulful Christmas\n;1994:\n* Kenny G recorded an instrumental version of the song for his holiday album, Miracles: The Holiday Album.\n;1995:\n* Michie Tomizawa (as Sailor Mars) covered the song on the holiday album Sailor Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon SuperS: Christmas For You\n;1998:\n* Martina McBride covered the song for her holiday album, White Christmas. This version of the song charted twice, reaching number 75 on Billboard's Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in December 1999, and number 62 on the same chart in December 2000. \n* Chicago recorded the song for their first Christmas album, Chicago XXV: The Christmas Album.\n* Samples of the song are in Jane McDonald's medley \"Cruise into Christmas\".\n;1999:\n* A1 released an a cappella version of the song that was included on their \"Ready or Not/Everytime\" CD single.\n\n2000–2009\n\n;2000:\n* Rockapella recorded the song for their holiday album, Christmas.\n* Linda Ronstadt recorded the song for her holiday album, A Merry Little Christmas.\n* Country singer Billy Gilman recorded the song for his debut holiday album, Classic Christmas.\n;2001:\n* Destiny's Child recorded the song for their holiday album, 8 Days of Christmas.\n* Mannheim Steamroller included the song on their holiday album, Christmas Extraordinaire.\n;2002:\n* Crash Test Dummies included the song on their holiday album, Jingle All The Way.\n;2003:\n* Bette Midler covered the song for her non-holiday album Bette Midler Sings the Rosemary Clooney Songbook. This version of the song reached number 15 on Billboard's Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart in December 2003. It also later appeared on her 2006 Christmas album Cool Yule.\n* Michael Bublé covered the song for his five-track holiday EP, Let It Snow.\n* The Moody Blues covered the song on their seasonal album, December.\n;2004:\n* LeAnn Rimes recorded the song for her first holiday album, What a Wonderful World.\n* Dionne Warwick recorded the song for her holiday album, My Favorite Time of the Year.\n* Jazz guitarist Royce Campbell recorded the song for his holiday album, A Jazz Guitar Christmas.\n* Tina Sugandh recorded the song for the Columbia/Sony film Christmas With the Kranks with Indian/Bollywood elements added to the song.\n;2005:\n* Girls Aloud recorded the song and included it on their Chemistry Christmas bonus disc.\n* Diana Krall recorded the song for her holiday album, Christmas Songs.\n* Westlife covered the song and included it as a B-side on their single, \"When You Tell Me That You Love Me.\"\n* Dutch singer René Froger covered the song on his first holiday album, Pure Christmas (re-released as Happy Christmas in 2009).\n;2006:\n* The song was covered by Twisted Sister featuring Doro Pesch and was released on their holiday album, A Twisted Christmas, with German/English lyrics. \n* Aimee Mann included the song on her holiday album, One More Drifter in the Snow.\n;2007:\n* Taylor Swift recorded the song for her holiday EP, Sounds of the Season: The Taylor Swift Holiday Collection\n* Frank Rendo recorded the song as part of a medley with \"Count Your Blessings Instead of Sheep\" for his holiday album, Remembering Christmas.\n;2008:\n* Rascal Flatts included a version of the song as a bonus track on a limited edition version of their compilation album Greatest Hits Volume 1.\n* Neil Sedaka recorded the song for his first holiday album, The Miracle of Christmas.\n* Al Jarreau recorded the song for his holiday album, Christmas.\n* Edyta Górniak recorded the song for her holiday album, Zakochaj się na Święta w kolędach (Fall in love for Christmas in carols), with Polish/English lyrics.\n* Italian singer Irene Grandi recorded an Italian version of the song, titled \"Bianco Natale\", for her Christmas album, Canzoni per Natale.\n* Rick Astley sang the song at the DR Christmas Show.\n* Jason Castro recorded and released the song for a free download.\n;2009:\n* Andrea Bocelli recorded the song for his first holiday album, My Christmas. The song debuted at No. 30 on the Portuguese Singles Chart; it spent the following two weeks at No. 19, then rose to No. 18 in its fourth week, before reaching No. 16 in its fifth week. The song also debuted at No. 7 on the Hungarian Singles Chart. \n* Boy George recorded a cover of the song that was released as a single in digital download format.\n* Ray Stevens recorded a cover of the song for his CD of non-comical Christmas recordings.\n* Marco Mengoni recorded a cover of the song for the compilation album X Factor - The Christmas Album. Despite not being released as a single, the song charted at number 13 on the Italian Singles Chart, based on digital downloads of the track. \n\n2010–present\n\n;2010:\n* The Wanted covered the song. Sarah Geronimo also covered the song.\n* In October, Argos released an advert appearing to show Crosby beatboxing to the tune of the song.\n* Panic! at the Disco released their version of the song to their fan club \"Northern Downpour\".\n* Norwegian former World Idol winner Kurt Nilsen recorded the song for his album Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas.\n;2011:\n* Deana Martin and Andy Williams recorded this song as a duet on her 2011 album, White Christmas released by Big Fish Records.\n* Michael Bublé recorded the song again in a duet featuring Shania Twain, this time for his full-length holiday album, Christmas. This version is based on the 1954 arrangement by The Drifters.\n* Sheryl Crow recorded the song for her holiday album Home for Christmas with a walking bass and an enigmatic, subversive twist.\n* Jackie Evancho recorded the song for her holiday album, Heavenly Christmas. \n* Lady Gaga recorded a version of the song for her holiday television special, A Very Gaga Thanksgiving, which was also included as one of four tracks on her holiday EP, A Very Gaga Holiday with an additional self-created verse.\n* Asker recorded and released a version for their holiday EP, A Yuletide Yell.\n;2012:\n* Ivi Adamou recorded the song for her holiday album, Christmas with Ivi Adamou.\n* Cee Lo Green recorded the song for his holiday album Cee Lo's Magic Moment.\n* Rod Stewart recorded the song for his holiday album, Merry Christmas, Baby.\n* The Glee cast members Darren Criss and Chris Colfer recorded the song for Glee's Christmas episode \"Glee, Actually\".\n* Blake Shelton recorded the song for his holiday album, Cheers, It's Christmas.\n* Taylor Schlicht recorded the song for her first holiday album, Christmas 2012.\n* [http://legacyusa.wix.com/andrea-white-christmas#!about Andrea Densley] recorded a big-band, swing version of the song for her 5-track Christmas EP, [http://legacyusa.wix.com/andrea-white-christmas White Christmas].\n;2013:\n* Bad Religion recorded the song for their holiday album, Christmas Songs.\n* Kelly Clarkson recorded the song for her first holiday album, Wrapped in Red, which was released as the first promotional single from the album. \n* Leona Lewis recorded the song for her first holiday album, Christmas, with Love.\n* Erasure recorded the song for their holiday album, Snow Globe.\n* A version performed by Iggy Pop was included on the compilation album Psych-Out Christmas\n* Contemporary Christian group Sidewalk Prophets recorded the song in their 2013 Christmas album Merry Christmas to You\n* Keith Urban played a live version of this during his concert in Louisville, Kentucky.\n;2014:\n* Darius Rucker recorded the song for his first holiday album, Home for the Holidays.\n* Idina Menzel recorded the song as the final track of her holiday album Holiday Wishes.\n* Hayden Panettiere recorded the song for the Nashville holiday album Christmas With Nashville.\n* Jared Padalecki recorded the song for Jason Manns' holiday album Christmas With Friends.\n;2015:\n* Donna Burke and Stefanie Joosten recorded a cover of the song in the digital download format. \n* Mac Demarco released his version of the song on YouTube on December 26.\n* The Hot Sardines on their debut album released in 2014 \n\nNotes and references" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "㋄", "May sickness", "May", "Veliki traven", "May (month)", "Month May" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "month may", "veliki traven", "may month", "may sickness", "㋄", "may" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "may", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "May" }
Which country does the airline Transkei Airways come from?	tc_1327	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Transkei.txt" ], "title": [ "Transkei" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Transkei ( or, meaning the area beyond Great Kei River\|[the river] Kei), officially the Republic of Transkei (), was a Bantustan—an area set aside for members of a specific ethnicity—and nominal parliamentary democracy in the southeastern region of South Africa. Its capital was Umtata, which was renamed Mthatha in 2004.\n\nTranskei represented a significant precedent and historic turning point in South Africa's policy of apartheid and \"separate development\"; it was the first of four territories to be declared independent of South Africa. Throughout its existence, it remained an internationally unrecognised, diplomatically isolated, politically unstable de facto one-party state, which at one point broke relations with South Africa, the only country that acknowledged it as a legal entity. In 1994, it was reintegrated into its larger neighbour and became part of the Eastern Cape province.\n\nHistory\n\nEstablishment\n\nThe South African government set up the area as one of the two homelands for Xhosa-speaking people in Cape Province, the other being Ciskei; it was given nominal autonomy in 1963. Although the first election was contested and won by the Democratic Party, whose founder Chief Victor Poto was opposed to the notion of Bantustan independence, the government was formed by the Transkei National Independence Party. Of the 109 members in the regional parliament, only 45 were elected; the remaining seats held by ex officio chiefs. \n\nThe entity became a nominally independent state in 1976 with its capital at Umtata (now Mthatha), although it was recognised only by South Africa and later by the other nominally independent republics within the TBVC-system. Chief Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima was Transkei's Prime Minister until 1979, when he assumed the office of President, a position he held until 1986.\n\nInternational reaction\n\nSouth African prime minister B. J. Vorster justified the declaration of Transkei as an independent republic by referring to \"the right of every people to have full control over its own affairs\" and wished \"Transkei and its leaders God's richest blessings on the road ahead.\" \n\nA press release by the African National Congress at the time rejected the Transkei's independence and condemned it as \"designed to consolidate the inhuman policies of apartheid\". During its thirty-first session, in resolution A/RES/31/6 A, the General Assembly of the United Nations referred to Transkei's \"sham independence\" as \"invalid,\" re-iterated its labeling of South Africa as a \"racist régime,\" and called upon \"all [g]overnments to deny any form of recognition to the so-called independent Transkei.\" An article published in Time Magazine opined that though Transkei declared independence theoretically as a \"free Black state\", Matanzima ruled as the dictator of a one-party state. He banned local opposition parties and bought farmlands for himself and his family offered by the South African government at subsidised prices. \n\nMatanzima published Independence my Way in 1976, a book in which he argued that true liberation could only be gained through a confederation of black states; he described Transkei as a positive precedent and maintained that the liberation struggle chosen by the ANC would not be successful. \n\nThe United Nations Security Council supported moves not to recognise Transkei, and in Resolution 402 (1976) condemned moves by South Africa to pressure Lesotho to recognise Transkei by closing its borders with the country.\n\nTroubled existence\n\nThroughout its existence, Transkei's economy remained dependent on that of its larger neighbour, with the local population being recruited as workers into South Africa's Rand mines. \n\nBecause of a territorial dispute, Matanzima announced on 10 April 1978 that Transkei would break all diplomatic ties with South Africa, including a unilateral withdrawal from the non-aggression pact between the two governments, and ordered that all South African Defence Force members seconded to the Transkei Army should leave. This created the unique situation of a country refusing to deal with the only internationally recognised nation it was recognised by. Matanzima soon backed down in the face of Transkei's dependence on South African economic aid.\n\nDuring his reign, Matanzima arrested state officials and journalists at will; in late 1979, he detained the head of the newly formed Democratic Progressive Party, Sabata Dalindyebo, king of the Thembu people and vocal opponent of apartheid, for violating the dignity and injuring the reputation of the president. Dalindyebo went into exile in Zambia, a move that marked the end of official opposition politics in Transkei, and in the 1981 election, the ruling Transkei National Independence Party was re-elected, gaining 100% of all open seats. \n\nOn 20 February 1986, faced with South African evidence of corruption, Matanzima was forced to retire as President. He was succeeded by his brother George. Kaiser Matanzima was still described as Transkei's effective leader for a time, but soon the two fell out and Kaiser was temporarily detained in the Transkei gaols in 1987; upon release, he was restricted to Qamata.\n\nGeneral Bantu Holomisa of the Transkei Defence Force forced the resignation and exile of Prime Minister George Matanzima in October 1987 and then overthrew Matanzima's successor, Prime Minister Stella Sigcau in December 1987. Holomisa became the Head of State, and the Transkei was from that point onwards effectively in (often uneasy) alliance with the African National Congress and provided a relatively safe area for the ANC's activities. In 1990, Holomisa himself evaded a failed attempt to be ousted from his post, and when asked about the fate of his opponents, he claimed that they had died in the ensuing battles with TDF soldiers. It was later found that those deemed responsible for the foiled coup had only suffered minor injuries, but were subsequently executed without trial. \n\nDissolution\n\nThe Transkei government was a participant in the Codesa negotiations for a new South Africa. The territory was reincorporated into South Africa on 27 April 1994, and the area became part of the Eastern Cape province.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nNominally, the Republic of Transkei was a parliamentary democracy which allowed for a multi-party system. During its existence, six different parties registered to compete in elections at different points of its history. Until the military coup of 1987, the TNIP remained the ruling party, while the Transkei People's Freedom Party constituted the official opposition. Because its founder, Cromwell Diko, was a former member of the ruling party, and due to its continued support of President Matanzima's policies, there is a widely held belief that it was actually initiated by Matanzima himself to give the impression of free elections when in fact there were none. Other parties that existed never did gain any representation in parliament.\n\nAccording to the Constitution of Transkei, parliament consisted of the president in joint session with the National Assembly and its laws and legislative decisions were immune to judicial review. Seventy-five of its members were elected by popular vote from the various districts Transkei's territory was divided into. The remaining members were unelected Paramount Chiefs and ex officio chiefs whose number per district was enshrined in the constitution. \n\nCitizenship\n\nWith the establishment of the republic, the citizenry consisted of all those who had been holding the citizenship of the former territory of Transkei. Individuals were given no choice in this matter as the Transkeian constitution was a legally binding act; for the future, it provided citizenship regulations based on both jus sanguinis and jus soli. Citizenship by descent was given along the paternal line, regardless of a person's place of birth; in addition, any individual born within the republic's territory was eligible for citizenship, excluding those whose father held diplomatic immunity or was deemed an illegal immigrant and whose mother was a non-citizen. Dual citizenship at birth was not permitted, and renunciation of one's citizenship was legally possible, but rendered the individual stateless in most cases. In effect, the regulations thus created an almost homogeneous population of Xhosa ethnicity, though exceptions existed.\nFlag\n\nThe flag of Transkei is a triband. The colors are (from the top down) red ochre, white, and green. \n\nGeography and demographics\n\nThe Transkei consisted of three disconnected sections with a total area covering ,. The large main segment was bordered by the Umtamvuna River in the north and the Great Kei River in the south, with the Indian Ocean and the Drakensberg mountain range, including parts of the landlocked kingdom of Lesotho, served as the eastern and western frontiers. A further two small segments occurred as landlocked isolates within South Africa. One of these was in the north-west, along the Orange River adjoining south-western Lesotho, and the other in the uMzimkhulu area to the east, each reflecting colonially designated tribal areas where Xhosa speaking peoples predominated. A large portion of the area was mountainous and not suitable for agriculture. \n\nThe majority of the population was Xhosa-speaking, and according to the Constitution of the Republic of Transkei, Xhosa was the sole official language, but laws had to be translated into Sotho and English in order for them to come into effect, and Afrikaans was permissible in court proceedings and for other administrative purposes. In addition, many thousands of northern Transkei residents spoke a small hybrid Nguni–Sotho language, called Phuthi. \n\nConflicting data exist about the number of inhabitants. According to the South African Encyclopaedia, the total population of the Transkei increased from 2,487,000 to 3,005,000 between 1960 and 1970. An estimate of 1982 puts the number at about 2.3 million, with approximately 400,000 citizens residing permanently outside the territory's borders. Fewer than 10,000 individuals were of European descent, and the urbanization-rate for the entire population was around 5%.\n\nSecurity forces\n\nThe Transkei Defence Force (TDF) was formed in October 1976 and numbered about 2,000, including one infantry battalion and an air wing with two light transporters and two helicopters. By 1993, the number of troops had risen to 4,000. Initial training was provided by the SADF, and despite its diplomatic isolation, the government of Transkei received advice from and collaborated with Israeli counterinsurgency experts. Armscor/Krygkor was its main supplier of weaponry.\n\nAfter breaking all diplomatic ties with South Africa, President Matanzima announced construction-plans for an international airport by an unnamed French consortium in order for \"arms and troops from other countries\" to be brought into Transkei without touching South African soil, but did not elaborate on where those resources would originate. \n\nDuring its last days in 1994, the Transkei Police had 4,993 police officers, operating from 61 police stations throughout the territory. \n\nWith the dissolution of Transkei in 1994, the TDF and the Transkei Police were incorporated into the South African National Defence Force and the South African Police Service, respectively.\n\nNotable persons\n\nNelson Rolihlahla Mandela, former president of the ANC and President of South Africa 1994–1999\nThabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki, Co-Deputy President of South Africa 1994–1996, Deputy President of South Africa 1996–1999, President of South Africa 1999–2008\nGovan Archibald Mvuyelwa Mbeki, former South African politician and leader of the ANC\nWalter Max Ulyate Sisulu, former South African anti-apartheid activist and member of the ANC\nChief Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima, Transkei's first and longest serving president until 1986\nGeorge Mzivubu Mathanzima, Transkei's Prime Minister\nBantu Holomisa, Chief of Staff of the Transkei Defense Force 1985–1987, Transkei's Head of State 1987–1994, South African Member of Parliament, President of the United Democratic Movement\nOliver Tambo, former president of the ANC 1967-1991\nChris Hani, former SACP General Secretary and liberation fighter.\nStella Sigcau, Transkei Prime Minister and minister of public entreprises." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "South africa", "South Africa's", "Southafrica", "Third Republic (South Africa)", "Republiek van Suid-Afrika", "Sou'frica", "Zuid Afrika", "Zuid-Afrika", "ISO 3166-1:ZA", "South-African", "S Africa", "Zuid Africa", "Mzansi", "Afrique du sud", "Zuidafrika", "Ningizimu Afrika", "Capital of South Africa", "Suid-Afrika", "South-Africa", "Rep. of SOUTH AFRICA", "The Republic of South Africa", "Suid Africa", "Azania/South Africa", "S Afr", "Saffa", "South African", "Seth efrika", "South Africa", "Soufrica", "Republic of south africa", "South Africaà", "The Beloved Country", "S. Africa", "Rep. of South Africa", "South Africans", "Republic of South Africa" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "zuidafrika", "azania south africa", "south africans", "zuid africa", "suid africa", "afrique du sud", "saffa", "south africa s", "third republic south africa", "ningizimu afrika", "sou frica", "iso 3166 1 za", "soufrica", "capital of south africa", "s afr", "seth efrika", "zuid afrika", "suid afrika", "south africaà", "s africa", "republic of south africa", "rep of south africa", "south african", "beloved country", "south africa", "southafrica", "mzansi", "republiek van suid afrika" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "south africa", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "South Africa" }
What was the last name of Judy in radio's A Date With Judy series?	tc_1329	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "A_Date_with_Judy.txt" ], "title": [ "A Date with Judy" ], "wiki_context": [ "This article is about the American radio series. For the 1948 MGM film starring Wallace Beery, Jane Powell, and Elizabeth Taylor, see A Date with Judy (film).\n\nA Date with Judy is a comedy radio series aimed at a teenage audience which ran from 1941 to 1950. \n\nThe show began as a summer replacement for Bob Hope's show, sponsored by Pepsodent and airing on NBC from June 24 to September 16, 1941, with 14-year-old Ann Gillis in the title role. Mercedes McCambridge played Judy's girl friend. Dellie Ellis portrayed Judy Foster when the series returned the next summer (June 23 – September 15, 1942).\n\nLouise Erickson, then 15, took over the role the following summer (June 30 – September 22, 1943) when the series, with Bristol Myers as its new sponsor, replaced The Eddie Cantor Show for the summer. Louise Erickson continued in the role of Judy over the next seven years as the series, sponsored by Tums, aired from January 18, 1944 to January 4, 1949. Ford Motors and Revere Cameras were the sponsors for the final season of the radio series on ABC from October 13, 1949 to May 25, 1950. Richard Crenna costarred on the series.\n\nThe series was so popular CBS developed a rival program Meet Corliss Archer featuring Janet Waldo, which also enjoyed a long run and proved to be equally successful.\n\nFilm and television\n\nAs the popularity of the radio series peaked, Jane Powell starred as Judy in the 1948 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer movie A Date with Judy. Wallace Beery, Elizabeth Taylor, Robert Stack, and Carmen Miranda also headed the cast.\n\nA television version of the show ran on ABC on Saturdays during daytime hours beginning on June 2, 1951. It originally starred Pat Crowley as Judy. The series moved to prime time during the summer of 1952 and was brought back again midway through the 1952-53 season. The series ended its run on September 30, 1953. This version featured Mary Linn Beller as Judy, John Gibson and Flora Campbell as her parents, Peter Avramo as her brother, and Jimmy Sommer as her sort-of boyfriend Oogie.\n\nComic book\n\nA Date with Judy also had a long run as a comic book based on the radio and TV series. It was published by National Periodical Publications from October–November 1947 to October–November 1960. There were 79 issues." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Foster (disambiguation)", "Fostered", "Foster" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "fostered", "foster", "foster disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "foster", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Foster" }
Which hit starting with the word Rock took over NO 1 from Rock The Boat?	tc_1330	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Rock_the_Boat_(The_Hues_Corporation_song).txt" ], "title": [ "Rock the Boat (The Hues Corporation song)" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Rock the Boat\" is a song by American disco group The Hues Corporation in 1974. \"Rock the Boat\" was written by Waldo Holmes, who also wrote the Blacula songs. \"Rock the Boat\" was first featured on The Hues Corporation's 1973 album, Freedom for the Stallion (a different edit version, which was the single, later appeared on certain editions of the band's follow-up album, 1974's Rockin' Soul). It was released as the second single from the album in early 1974 to follow-up Stallions title song, which had peaked at #63 on the Hot 100.\n\nInitially, \"Rock the Boat\" appeared as though it would flop, as months went by without any radio airplay or sales activity. Not until the song became a disco/club favorite in New York did Top 40 radio finally pick up on the song, leading the record to finally enter the Hot 100 and zip up the chart to #1 the week of July 6, 1974, in only its seventh week on the chart (and fourth week in the Top 40). The record also reached the top 10 in the United Kingdom (number 6). \"Rock the Boat\" is considered one of the earliest disco songs. Some authorities proclaim it to be the first disco song to hit #1, while others give that distinction to \"Love's Theme\" by Love Unlimited Orchestra, a chart-topper from earlier in 1974. The song became a gold record. It is a heavy airplay favorite on oldie and adult-contemporary stations today.\n\nComposition\n\nThe song features a lead vocal by Fleming Williams, who left The Hues Corporation shortly after the song was recorded. According to The Billboard Book of Number One Hits by Fred Bronson, the lone female member of the group, H. Ann Kelly, had originally been pegged to sing lead, but this idea was discarded out of fear that groups with female lead singers were less commercially viable. The bass player on the session was Wilton Felder, not James Jamerson as previously reported.\n\nThe Hues Corporation member St. Clair Lee claims \"It was a song that you could do anything on. You could cuddle or you could get crazy if you wanted to. It was a love song without being a love song. But, it was a Disco hit and it happened because of the discos.\" \n\nThe song features a change in meter during the pre-chorus \"We've been sailing with a cargo full of love and devotion\" where it is for one measure while the rest of the song is in common time. The 'Rock the Boat' dance also a favourite at weddings and birthday parties and involves many people sitting down in a row and 'rowing' a boat to the tune of the song.\n\nSamples and covers\n\n\"Rock the Boat\" was covered in 1982 by the Dutch/American singer Forrest Thomas. His version also made the UK top five (number 4) and the top 10 of the American Dance/Disco chart. Jacob Miller and the Inner Circle cut a reggae version of the song in 1974.\n\nThere is a reference to the song's distinctive bridge in Jurassic 5 track \"Concrete Schoolyard\".\n\nSingaporean band Lizard's Convention also covered the song in the 1990s.\n\nRichard Finch of KC and the Sunshine Band has said that \"Rock The Boat\" played a partial role in inspiring the hit \"Rock Your Baby\". The song was also featured in the 1993 film Carlito's Way, the 1996 film The Cable Guy, the 1999 film Man on the Moon, the HBO series The Sopranos (Season 2, episode 5, Big Girls Don't Cry), commercial for M&M's, and (sung in character by Seth MacFarlane as Glenn Quagmire, Patrick Warburton as Joe Swanson, and Mike Henry as Cleveland Brown) the Family Guy episode A Very Special Family Guy Freakin' Christmas.The song appeared in the 1997 movie The Devil's Own with Harrison Ford and Brad Pitt, and a short extract of the refrain (\"Love is a ship on the ocean..\") in the 2015 movie The Martian directed by Ridley Scott and starring Matt Damon.\n\nOne of the furthest reaches \"Rock The Boat\" has made has been on the Australian series Playschool in a program theme about water. \n\nChart performance\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Rock Your Baby" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "rock your baby" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "rock your baby", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Rock Your Baby" }
In the 1940s, the University of North Carolina was founded at Charlotte and where else?	tc_1332	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "University_of_North_Carolina.txt", "North_Carolina.txt" ], "title": [ "University of North Carolina", "North Carolina" ], "wiki_context": [ "The University of North Carolina is a multi-campus public university system composed of all 16 of North Carolina's public universities, as well as the NC School of Science and Mathematics, the nation's first public residential high school for gifted students. Commonly referred to as the University of North Carolina system or the UNC system to differentiate it from the original campus in Chapel Hill, the university has a total enrollment of over 183,000 students and confers over 75% of all baccalaureate degrees in North Carolina in 2008.\n UNC campuses conferred 43,686 degrees for 2008–2009, the bulk of which were Bachelor's level with 31,055 degrees awarded. \n\nHistory \n\nFounded in 1789, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is the oldest public university in the United States. In 1877, the State of North Carolina began sponsoring additional higher education institutions. Over time the state added a women's college (now known as the University of North Carolina at Greensboro), a land-grant university (North Carolina State University), five historically black institutions (North Carolina A&T State University, North Carolina Central University, Winston-Salem State University, Fayetteville State University, and Elizabeth City State University) and one to educate American Indians (the University of North Carolina at Pembroke). Others were created to prepare teachers for public education and to instruct performing artists.\n\nDuring the Depression, the North Carolina General Assembly searched for cost savings within state government. Towards this effort in 1931, it redefined the University of North Carolina, which at the time referred exclusively to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; the new Consolidated University of North Carolina was created to include the existing campuses of University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina State University, and the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. The three campuses came under the leadership of just one board and one president. By 1969, three additional campuses had joined the Consolidated University through legislative action: the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, the University of North Carolina at Asheville, and the University of North Carolina at Wilmington.\n\nIn 1971, North Carolina passed legislation bringing into the University of North Carolina all 16 public institutions that confer bachelor's degrees. This round of consolidation granted each constituent institution a Chancellor and a Board of Trustees. In 1985, the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, a residential high school for gifted students, was declared an affiliated school of the university. In 2007, the high school became a full member of the university.\n\nLegal mandate \n\nThe legal authority and mandate for the University of North Carolina can be found in the North Carolina Constitution. Article 9 of the constitution deals with all forms of public education in the state. Sections 8 and 9 of that article stipulate the function and cost to students of the University of North Carolina. \n\nSec. 8. Higher education.\n\nThe General Assembly shall maintain a public system of higher education, comprising The University of North Carolina and such other institutions of higher education as the General Assembly may deem wise. The General Assembly shall provide for the selection of trustees of The University of North Carolina and of the other institutions of higher education, in whom shall be vested all the privileges, rights, franchises, and endowments heretofore granted to or conferred upon the trustees of these institutions. The General Assembly may enact laws necessary and expedient for the maintenance and management of The University of North Carolina and the other public institutions of higher education.\n\nSec. 9. Benefits of public institutions of higher education.\n\nThe General Assembly shall provide that the benefits of The University of North Carolina and other public institutions of higher education, as far as practicable, be extended to the people of the State free of expense.\n \n\nInstitutions \n\nWithin its seventeen campuses, UNC houses two medical schools and one teaching hospital, ten nursing programs, two schools of dentistry, and a school of pharmacy, as well as a two law schools, 15 schools of education, three schools of engineering, and a school for performing artists. The oldest university, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, first admitted students in 1795. The smallest and newest member is the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, a residential two-year high school, founded in 1980 and a full member of the University since 2007. The largest university is North Carolina State University, with 34,340 students as of fall 2012.\n\nWhile the official names of each campus are determined by the North Carolina General Assembly, abbreviations are determined by the individual school. \n\nNotes\n\nThe enrollment numbers are the official headcounts (including all full-time and part-time, undergrad and postgrad students) from University of North Carolina website: http://www.northcarolina.edu/web/facts.php . This does not include the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, the figure for NCSSM is taken from its own website: http://www.ncssm.edu/about-ncssm/facts.php .\n\nThe following universities became four-year institutions after their founding (date each became a four-year institution in parentheses):\nEast Carolina University (1920)\nNorth Carolina Central University (1925)\nWinston-Salem State University (1925) \nWestern Carolina University (1929)\nAppalachian State University (1929)\nElizabeth City State University (1937)\nUniversity of North Carolina at Pembroke (1939)\nFayetteville State University (1939)\nUniversity of North Carolina at Asheville (1963)\nUniversity of North Carolina at Charlotte (1963)\nUniversity of North Carolina at Wilmington (1963)\n\nWith the exception of the University of North Carolina at Pembroke and the University of North Carolina School of the Arts, the institutions that joined the University of North Carolina in 1972 did so under their current name. As of 1972, all public four-year institutions in North Carolina are members of the University.\n\nAffiliates \n\nPresidents \n\nAn asterisk () denotes acting president.", "North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the 50 United States. North Carolina is known as the Tar Heel State and the Old North State.\n\nThe state is composed of 100 counties. Its two largest metropolitan areas are among the top ten fastest-growing in the country: its capital, Raleigh, and its largest city, Charlotte. In the past five decades, North Carolina's economy has undergone a transition from reliance upon tobacco, textiles, and furniture-making to a more diversified economy with engineering, energy, biotechnology, and finance sectors. \n\nThe state has a wide range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6684 ft at Mount Mitchell, the highest point in North America east of the Mississippi River. The climate of the coastal plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the state falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 mi from the coast to the western, mountainous part of the state has a subtropical highland climate.\n\nGeography\n\nNorth Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. The United States Census Bureau classifies North Carolina as a southern state within the subcategory of the South Atlantic States.\n\nNorth Carolina consists of three main geographic sections: the Atlantic coastal plain, which occupies the eastern 45% of the state; the Piedmont region, which contains the middle 35%; and the Appalachian Mountains and foothills. The extreme eastern section of the state contains the Outer Banks, a string of sandy, narrow barrier islands between the Atlantic Ocean and two inland waterways or \"sounds\": Albemarle Sound in the north and Pamlico Sound in the south. They are the two largest landlocked sounds in the United States.\n\nSo many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the \"Graveyard of the Atlantic\"; more than 1,000 ships have sunk in these waters since records began in 1526. The most famous of these is the Queen Anne's Revenge (flagship of the pirate Blackbeard), which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. \n\nImmediately inland, the coastal plain is relatively flat, with rich soil ideal for growing tobacco, soybeans, melons, and cotton. The coastal plain is North Carolina's most rural section, with few large towns or cities. Agriculture remains an important industry.\n\nThe coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, a line which marks the elevation at which waterfalls first appear on streams and rivers. The Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the state's most urbanized and densely populated section. It consists of gently rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. Small, isolated, and deeply eroded mountain ranges and peaks are located in the Piedmont, including the Sauratown Mountains, Pilot Mountain, the Uwharrie Mountains, Crowder's Mountain, King's Pinnacle, the Brushy Mountains, and the South Mountains. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 to in elevation in the east to over 1000 ft in the west. Because of the rapid population growth in the Piedmont, a significant part of the rural area in this region is being transformed into suburbs with shopping centers, housing, and corporate offices. Agriculture is steadily declining in importance. The major rivers of the Piedmont, such as the Yadkin and Catawba, tend to be fast-flowing, shallow, and narrow.\n\nThe western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, Great Balsam Mountains, and Black Mountains. The Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6684 ft the highest point east of the Mississippi River. Although agriculture still remains important, tourism has become a dominant industry in the mountains. Growing Christmas trees has recently become an important industry as well. Because of the higher altitude, the climate in the mountains often differs markedly from that of the rest of the state. Winter in western North Carolina typically features high snowfall and subfreezing temperatures more akin to those of a midwestern state than of a southern state.\n\nNorth Carolina has 17 major river basins. The basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico (via the Ohio and then the Mississippi River). All the others flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins, 11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the state's border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. \n\nClimate\n\nThe geographical divisions of North Carolina are useful when discussing the climate of the state.\n\nThe climate is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, especially along the coast, where maritime flow keeps conditions mild in winter and moderate, although humid, in summer. The highest coastal daytime temperature averages less than 89 °F during summer months. The coast enjoys mild temperatures in winter, with daytime highs rarely below 40 °F and average highs usually in the mid-50s °F (11–14 °C). Temperatures in the coastal plain only occasionally drop below the freezing point at night. The coastal plain averages only around 1 in of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all.\n\nThe Atlantic Ocean exerts less influence on the climate of the Piedmont region, which has hotter summers and colder winters than along the coast. Daytime highs in the Piedmont often reach over 90 °F in the summer. While it is not common for the temperature to reach over 100 °F in the state, such temperatures, when they occur, typically are found only in the lower-elevation areas of the Piedmont and far-inland areas of the coastal plain. The weaker influence of the Atlantic also means that the diurnal temperature variation in the Piedmont typically is greater than in the coastal plain.\n\nIn winter, the Piedmont is colder than the coast, with temperatures usually averaging in the upper 40s–lower 50s °F (8–12 °C) during the day and often dropping below the freezing point at night. Southern areas of the Piedmont, around Charlotte, average around 3 – of snowfall annually, with more north toward the Virginia border. The Piedmont is especially notorious for sleet and freezing rain. Freezing rain can be heavy enough to snarl traffic and break down trees and power lines. Annual precipitation and humidity are lower in the Piedmont than in the mountains or the coast, but even at its lowest, the average is 40 in per year.\n\nThe Appalachian Mountains are the coolest area of the state, with temperatures averaging in the low 40s and upper 30s °F (6–3 °C) for highs in the winter and commonly falling into the low 20s °F (−5 °C) or lower on winter nights. Relatively cool summers see temperatures rarely rising above 80 °F. Average snowfall in many areas exceeds 30 in per year, and totals be heavy at the higher elevations; for example, during the Blizzard of 1993 more than 60 in of snow fell on Mount Mitchell over a period of three days. Mount Mitchell has received snow in every month of the year.\n\nSevere weather occurs regularly in North Carolina. On the average, a hurricane inflicts significant damage on the state once a decade. Destructive hurricanes that have hit North Carolina include Hurricane Fran, Hurricane Floyd, and Hurricane Hazel, the latter being the strongest storm ever to make landfall in the state, as a Category 4 in 1954. Hurricane Isabel ranks as the most destructive of the 21st century. Tropical storms arrive every 3 or 4 years. In addition, many hurricanes and tropical storms graze the state without hitting it directly. In some years, several hurricanes or tropical storms can directly strike the state or brush across the coastal areas. Only Florida and Louisiana are struck by hurricanes more often. Although many people believe that hurricanes menace only coastal areas, the rare hurricane which moves inland quickly enough can cause severe damage; for example, in 1989, Hurricane Hugo caused heavy damage in Charlotte and even as far inland as the Blue Ridge Mountains in the northwestern part of the state. On the average, North Carolina has 50 days of thunderstorm activity per year, with many storms becoming severe enough to produce hail, flash floods, and damaging winds.\n\nNorth Carolina averages fewer than 20 tornadoes per year, many of them produced by hurricanes or tropical storms along the coastal plain. Tornadoes from thunderstorms are a risk, especially in the eastern part of the state. The western Piedmont is often protected by the mountains, which tend to break up storms as they try to cross over; the storms will often re-form farther east. A phenomenon known as \"cold-air damming\" often occurs in the northwestern part of the state, which can weaken storms but can also lead to major ice events in winter. \n\nIn April 2011, the worst tornado outbreak in North Carolina's history occurred. Thirty confirmed tornadoes touched down, mainly in the Eastern Piedmont and Sandhills, killing at least 24 people. Damage in the capital of Raleigh alone totalled over $115 million. Sanford and Fayetteville suffered a similar degree of devastation. \n\nHistory\n\nBefore A.D. 200, residents were building earthwork mounds, which were used for ceremonial and religious purposes. Succeeding peoples, including those of the ancient Mississippian culture established by A.D. 1000 in the Piedmont, continued to build or add onto such mounds. In the 500–700 years preceding European contact, the Mississippian culture built large, complex cities and maintained far-flung regional trading networks. Historically documented tribes in the North Carolina region included the Carolina Algonquian-speaking tribes of the coastal areas, such as the Chowanoke, Roanoke, Pamlico, Machapunga, Coree, Cape Fear Indians, and others, who were the first to encounter the English; Iroquoian-speaking Meherrin, Cherokee and Tuscarora of the interior; and Southeastern Siouan tribes, such as the Cheraw, Waxhaw, Saponi, Waccamaw, and Catawba.\n\nSpanish colonial forces were the first Europeans to make a permanent settlement in the area, when the Juan Pardo-led expedition built Fort San Juan in 1567 at the site of the Native American community of Joara, a Mississippian culture regional chiefdom in the western interior, near the present-day city of Morganton. The fort lasted only 18 months; the local inhabitants killed all but one of the 120 men Pardo had stationed at a total of six forts in the area. \n\nIn June 1718 Blackbeard, aka Edward Teach, ran his flagship, the Queen Anne's Revenge, aground at Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina, in present-day Carteret County. After the grounding her crew and supplies were transferred to smaller ships. In 1996 Intersal, Inc., a private firm, discovered the remains of a vessel likely to be the Queen Anne's Revenge, which was added to the US National Register of Historic Places. In November, after losing his ship and appealing to the governor of North Carolina who promised safe-haven and a pardon, the notorious pirate, Blackbeard (Edward Teach) was killed in an ambush by troops from Virginia. \n\nNorth Carolina became one of the English Thirteen Colonies and with the territory of South Carolina was originally known as the Province of Carolina. The northern and southern parts of the original province separated in 1729. Originally settled by small farmers, sometimes having a few slaves, who were oriented toward subsistence agriculture, the colony lacked cities or towns. Pirates menaced the coastal settlements, but by 1718 the pirates had been captured and killed. Growth was strong in the middle of the 18th century, as the economy attracted Scots-Irish, Quaker, English and German immigrants. The colonists generally supported the American Revolution, as the number of Loyalists was smaller than in some other colonies.\n\nDuring colonial times, Edenton served as the state capital beginning in 1722, and New Bern was selected as the capital in 1766. Construction of Tryon Palace, which served as the residence and offices of the provincial governor William Tryon, began in 1767 and was completed in 1771. In 1788 Raleigh was chosen as the site of the new capital, as its central location protected it from attacks from the coast. Officially established in 1792 as both county seat and state capital, the city was named after Sir Walter Raleigh, sponsor of Roanoke, the \"lost colony\" on Roanoke Island. \n\nNorth Carolina made the smallest per-capita contribution to the war of any state, as only 7,800 men joined the Continental Army under General George Washington; an additional 10,000 served in local militia units under such leaders as General Nathanael Greene. There was some military action, especially in 1780–81. Many Carolinian frontiersmen had moved west over the mountains, into the Washington District (later known as Tennessee), but in 1789, following the Revolution, the state was persuaded to relinquish its claim to the western lands. It ceded them to the national government so that the Northwest Territory could be organized and managed nationally.\n\nAfter 1800, cotton and tobacco became important export crops. The eastern half of the state, especially the Tidewater region, developed a slave society based on a plantation system and slave labor. Many free people of color migrated to the frontier along with their European-American neighbors, where the social system was looser. By 1810, nearly 3 percent of the free population consisted of free people of color, who numbered slightly more than 10,000. The western areas were dominated by white families, especially Scots-Irish, who operated small subsistence farms. In the early national period, the state became a center of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy, with a strong Whig presence, especially in the West. After Nat Turner's slave uprising in 1831, North Carolina and other southern states reduced the rights of free blacks. In 1835 the legislature withdrew their right to vote.\n\nOn May 20, 1861, North Carolina was the last of the Confederate states to declare secession from the Union, 13 days after the Tennessee legislature voted for secession. Some 125,000 North Carolinians served in the military; 20,000 were killed in battle, the most of any state in the Confederacy, and 21,000 died of disease. The state government was reluctant to support the demands of the national government in Richmond, and the state was the scene of only small battles.\n\nWith the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865, the Reconstruction Era began. The United States abolished slavery without compensation to slaveholders or reparations to freedmen. A Republican Party coalition of black freedmen, northern carpetbaggers and local scalawags controlled state government for three years. The white conservative Democrats regained control of the state legislature in 1870, in part by Ku Klux Klan violence and terrorism at the polls, to suppress black voting. Republicans were elected to the governorship until 1876, when the Red Shirts, a paramilitary organization that arose in 1874 and was allied with the Democratic Party, helped suppress black voting. More than 150 black Americans were murdered in electoral violence in 1876.\n\nDemocrats were elected to the legislature and governor's office, but the Populists attracted voters displeased with them. In 1896 a biracial, Populist-Republican Fusionist coalition gained the governor's office. The Democrats regained control of the legislature in 1896 and passed laws to impose Jim Crow and racial segregation of public facilities. Voters of North Carolina's 2nd congressional district elected a total of four African-American congressmen through these years of the late 19th century.\n\nPolitical tensions ran so high that a small group of white Democrats in 1898 planned to take over the Wilmington government if their candidates were not elected. In the Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, more than 1,500 white men attacked the black newspaper and neighborhood, killed numerous men, and ran off the white Republican mayor and aldermen. They installed their own people and elected Alfred M. Waddell as mayor, in the only coup d'état in United States history. \n\nIn 1899 the state legislature passed a new constitution, with requirements for poll taxes and literacy tests for voter registration which disfranchised most black Americans in the state. Exclusion from voting had wide effects: it meant that black Americans could not serve on juries or in any local office. After a decade of white supremacy, many people forgot that North Carolina had ever had thriving middle-class black Americans. Black citizens had no political voice in the state until after the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 were passed to enforce their constitutional rights. It was not until 1992 that another African American was elected as a US Representative from North Carolina.\n\nAs in the rest of the former Confederacy, North Carolina had become a one-party state, dominated by the Democratic Party. Impoverished by the Civil War, the state continued with an economy based on tobacco, cotton and agriculture. Towns and cities remained few in the east. A major industrial base emerged in the late 19th century in the western counties of the Piedmont, based on cotton mills established at the fall line. Railroads were built to connect the new industrializing cities. The state was the site of the first successful controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air flight, by the Wright brothers, near Kitty Hawk on December 17, 1903. In the first half of the 20th century, many African Americans left the state to go North for better opportunities, in the Great Migration. Their departure changed the demographic characteristics of many areas.\n\nNorth Carolina was hard hit by the Great Depression, but the New Deal programs of Franklin D. Roosevelt for cotton and tobacco significantly helped the farmers. After World War II, the state's economy grew rapidly, highlighted by the growth of such cities as Charlotte, Raleigh, and Durham in the Piedmont. Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill form the Research Triangle, a major area of universities and advanced scientific and technical research. In the 1990s, Charlotte became a major regional and national banking center. Tourism has also been a boon for the North Carolina economy as people flock to the Outer Banks coastal area and the Appalachian Mountains anchored by Asheville.\n\nBy the 1970s, spurred in part by the increasingly leftward tilt of national Democrats, conservative whites began to vote for Republican national candidates and gradually for more Republicans locally. The Greensboro Sit-ins played a crucial role in the Civil Rights Movement to bring full equality to American blacks.\n\nNative Americans, lost colonies, and permanent settlement\n\nNorth Carolina was inhabited for thousands of years by succeeding cultures of prehistoric indigenous cultures. Before 200 AD, they were building earthwork mounds, which were used for ceremonial and religious purposes. Succeeding peoples, including those of the ancient Mississippian culture established by 1000 AD in the Piedmont, continued to build or add on to such mounds. In the 500–700 years preceding European contact, the Mississippian culture built large, complex cities and maintained far-flung regional trading networks. Its largest city was Cahokia, located in present-day Illinois near the Mississippi River.\n\nHistorically documented tribes in the North Carolina region include the Carolina Algonquian-speaking tribes of the coastal areas, such as the Chowanoke, Roanoke, Pamlico, Machapunga, Coree, and Cape Fear Indians, who were the first encountered by the English; the Iroquoian-speaking Meherrin, Cherokee, and Tuscarora of the interior; and Southeastern Siouan tribes, such as the Cheraw, Waxhaw, Saponi, Waccamaw, and Catawba.\n\nSpanish explorers traveling inland in the 16th century met Mississippian culture people at Joara, a regional chiefdom near present-day Morganton. Records of Hernando de Soto attested to his meeting with them in 1540. In 1567 Captain Juan Pardo led an expedition to claim the area for the Spanish colony and to establish another route to protect silver mines in Mexico. Pardo made a winter base at Joara, which he renamed Cuenca. His expedition built Fort San Juan and left a contingent of 30 men there, while Pardo traveled further, and built and garrisoned five other forts. He returned by a different route to Santa Elena on Parris Island, South Carolina, then a center of Spanish Florida. In the spring of 1568, natives killed all but one of the soldiers and burned the six forts in the interior, including the one at Fort San Juan. Although the Spanish never returned to the interior, this effort marked the first European attempt at colonization of the interior of what became the United States. A 16th-century journal by Pardo's scribe Bandera and archaeological findings since 1986 at Joara have confirmed the settlement. \n\nIn 1584, Elizabeth I granted a charter to Sir Walter Raleigh, for whom the state capital is named, for land in present-day North Carolina (then part of the territory of Virginia). It was the second American territory which the English attempted to colonize. Raleigh established two colonies on the coast in the late 1580s, but both failed. The fate of the \"Lost Colony\" of Roanoke Island remains one of the most widely debated mysteries of American history. Virginia Dare, the first English child to be born in North America, was born on Roanoke Island on August 18, 1587; Dare County is named for her.\n\nAs early as 1650, settlers from the Virginia colony moved into the area of Albemarle Sound. By 1663, King Charles II of England granted a charter to start a new colony on the North American continent; it generally established North Carolina's borders. He named it Carolina in honor of his father Charles I. By 1665, a second charter was issued to attempt to resolve territorial questions. In 1710, owing to disputes over governance, the Carolina colony began to split into North Carolina and South Carolina. The latter became a crown colony in 1729.\n\nIn the 1700s, a series of smallpox epidemics swept the South, causing high fatalities among the Native Americans, who had no immunity to the new disease (it had become endemic in Europe). According to the historian Russell Thornton, \"The 1738 epidemic was said to have killed one-half of the Cherokee, with other tribes of the area suffering equally.\" \n\nColonial period and Revolutionary War\n\nAfter the Spanish in the 16th century, the first permanent European settlers of North Carolina were English colonists who migrated south from Virginia. The latter had grown rapidly and land was less available. Nathaniel Batts was documented as one of the first of these Virginian migrants. He settled south of the Chowan River and east of the Great Dismal Swamp in 1655. By 1663, this northeastern area of the Province of Carolina, known as the Albemarle Settlements, was undergoing full-scale English settlement. During the same period, the English monarch Charles II gave the province to the Lords Proprietors, a group of noblemen who had helped restore Charles to the throne in 1660. The new province of \"Carolina\" was named in honor and memory of King Charles I (Latin: Carolus). In 1712, North Carolina became a separate colony. Except for the Earl Granville holdings, it became a royal colony seventeen years later. A large revolt happened in the state in 1711 known as Cary's Rebellion.\n\nDifferences in the settlement patterns of eastern and western North Carolina, or the Low Country and uplands, affected the political, economic, and social life of the state from the 18th until the 20th century. The Tidewater in eastern North Carolina was settled chiefly by immigrants from rural England and the Scottish Highlands. The upcountry of western North Carolina was settled chiefly by Scots-Irish, English, and German Protestants, the so-called \"cohee\". Arriving during the mid- to late 18th century, the Scots-Irish from what is today Northern Ireland were the largest non-English immigrant group before the Revolution; English indentured servants were overwhelmingly the largest immigrant group before the Revolution. During the American Revolutionary War, the English and Highland Scots of eastern North Carolina tended to remain loyal to the British Crown, because of longstanding business and personal connections with Great Britain. The English, Welsh, Scots-Irish, and German settlers of western North Carolina tended to favor American independence from Britain.\n\nMost of the English colonists had arrived as indentured servants, hiring themselves out as laborers for a fixed period to pay for their passage. In the early years the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid. Some Africans were allowed to earn their freedom before slavery became a lifelong status. Most of the free colored families formed in North Carolina before the Revolution were descended from unions or marriages between free white women and enslaved or free African or African-American men. Because the mothers were free, their children were born free. Many had migrated or were descendants of migrants from colonial Virginia. As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in Great Britain, planters imported more slaves, and the state's legal delineations between free and slave status tightened, effectively hardening the latter into a racial caste. The economy's growth and prosperity was based on slave labor, devoted first to the production of tobacco.\n\nOn April 12, 1776, the colony became the first to instruct its delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for independence from the British Crown, through the Halifax Resolves passed by the North Carolina Provincial Congress. The dates of both of these events are memorialized on the state flag and state seal. Throughout the Revolutionary War, fierce guerrilla warfare erupted between bands of pro-independence and pro-British colonists. In some cases the war was also an excuse to settle private grudges and rivalries. A major American victory in the war took place at King's Mountain along the North Carolina–South Carolina border; on October 7, 1780, a force of 1000 mountain men from western North Carolina (including what is today the state of Tennessee) and southwest Virginia overwhelmed a force of some 1000 British troops led by Major Patrick Ferguson. Most of the soldiers fighting for the British side in this battle were Carolinians who had remained loyal to the Crown (they were called \"Tories\" or Loyalists). The American victory at Kings Mountain gave the advantage to colonists who favored American independence, and it prevented the British Army from recruiting new soldiers from the Tories.\n\nThe road to Yorktown and America's independence from Great Britain led through North Carolina. As the British Army moved north from victories in Charleston and Camden, South Carolina, the Southern Division of the Continental Army and local militia prepared to meet them. Following General Daniel Morgan's victory over the British Cavalry Commander Banastre Tarleton at the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781, southern commander Nathanael Greene led British Lord Charles Cornwallis across the heartland of North Carolina, and away from the latter's base of supply in Charleston, South Carolina. This campaign is known as \"The Race to the Dan\" or \"The Race for the River.\"\n\nIn the Battle of Cowan's Ford, Cornwallis met resistance along the banks of the Catawba River at Cowan's Ford on February 1, 1781, in an attempt to engage General Morgan's forces during a tactical withdrawal. Morgan had moved to the northern part of the state to combine with General Greene's newly recruited forces. Generals Greene and Cornwallis finally met at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in present-day Greensboro on March 15, 1781. Although the British troops held the field at the end of the battle, their casualties at the hands of the numerically superior Continental Army were crippling. Following this \"Pyrrhic victory\", Cornwallis chose to move to the Virginia coastline to get reinforcements, and to allow the Royal Navy to protect his battered army. This decision would result in Cornwallis' eventual defeat at Yorktown, Virginia, later in 1781. The Patriots' victory there guaranteed American independence.\n\nAntebellum period\n\nOn November 21, 1789, North Carolina became the twelfth state to ratify the Constitution. In 1840, it completed the state capitol building in Raleigh, still standing today. Most of North Carolina's slave owners and large plantations were located in the eastern portion of the state. Although North Carolina's plantation system was smaller and less cohesive than that of Virginia, Georgia, or South Carolina, significant numbers of planters were concentrated in the counties around the port cities of Wilmington and Edenton, as well as suburban planters around the cities of Raleigh, Charlotte, and Durham in the Piedmont. Planters owning large estates wielded significant political and socio-economic power in antebellum North Carolina, which was a slave society. They placed their interests above those of the generally non-slave-holding \"yeoman\" farmers of western North Carolina. In mid-century, the state's rural and commercial areas were connected by the construction of a 129-mile (208 km) wooden plank road, known as a \"farmer's railroad\", from Fayetteville in the east to Bethania (northwest of Winston-Salem).\n\nBesides slaves, there were a number of free people of color in the state. Most were descended from free African Americans who had migrated along with neighbors from Virginia during the 18th century. The majority were the descendants of unions in the working classes between white women, indentured servants or free, and African men, indentured, slave or free. After the Revolution, Quakers and Mennonites worked to persuade slaveholders to free their slaves. Some were inspired by their efforts and the language of the Revolution to arrange for manumission of their slaves. The number of free people of color rose markedly in the first couple of decades after the Revolution. \n\nOn October 25, 1836, construction began on the Wilmington and Raleigh Railroad to connect the port city of Wilmington with the state capital of Raleigh. In 1849 the North Carolina Railroad was created by act of the legislature to extend that railroad west to Greensboro, High Point, and Charlotte. During the Civil War, the Wilmington-to-Raleigh stretch of the railroad would be vital to the Confederate war effort; supplies shipped into Wilmington would be moved by rail through Raleigh to the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia.\n\nDuring the antebellum period, North Carolina was an overwhelmingly rural state, even by Southern standards. In 1860 only one North Carolina town, the port city of Wilmington, had a population of more than 10,000. Raleigh, the state capital, had barely more than 5,000 residents.\n\nWhile slaveholding was slightly less concentrated than in some Southern states, according to the 1860 census, more than 330,000 people, or 33% of the population of 992,622, were enslaved African Americans. They lived and worked chiefly on plantations in the eastern Tidewater. In addition, 30,463 free people of color lived in the state. They were also concentrated in the eastern coastal plain, especially at port cities such as Wilmington and New Bern, where a variety of jobs were available. Free African Americans were allowed to vote until 1835, when the state revoked their suffrage in restrictions following the slave rebellion of 1831 led by Nat Turner. Southern slave codes criminalized willful killing of a slave in most cases. \n\nAmerican Civil War\n\nIn 1860, North Carolina was a slave state, in which one-third of the population was enslaved. This was a smaller proportion than in many Southern states. The state did not vote to join the Confederacy until President Abraham Lincoln called on it to invade its sister state, South Carolina, becoming the last or second-to-last state to officially join the Confederacy. The title of \"last to join the Confederacy\" has been disputed; although Tennessee's informal secession on May 7, 1861, preceded North Carolina's official secession on May 20, the Tennessee legislature did not formally vote to secede until June 8, 1861. \n\nNorth Carolina was the site of few battles, but it provided the Confederacy with at least 125,000 troops, which is far more than any other state did. Approximately 40,000 of those troops died: more than half of disease, the remainder from battlefield wounds and from starvation. North Carolina also supplied about 15,000 Union troops. Elected in 1862, Governor Zebulon Baird Vance tried to maintain state autonomy against Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Richmond.\n\nAfter secession, some North Carolinians refused to support the Confederacy. Some of the yeoman farmers in the state's mountains and western Piedmont region remained neutral during the Civil War, while some covertly supported the Union cause during the conflict. Approximately 2,000 North Carolinians from western North Carolina enlisted in the Union Army and fought for the North in the war. Two additional Union Army regiments were raised in the coastal areas of the state, which were occupied by Union forces in 1862 and 1863. Numerous slaves escaped to Union lines, where they became essentially free.\n\nConfederate troops from all parts of North Carolina served in virtually all the major battles of the Army of Northern Virginia, the Confederacy's most famous army. The largest battle fought in North Carolina was at Bentonville, which was a futile attempt by Confederate General Joseph Johnston to slow Union General William Tecumseh Sherman's advance through the Carolinas in the spring of 1865. In April 1865, after losing the Battle of Morrisville, Johnston surrendered to Sherman at Bennett Place, in what is today Durham. North Carolina's port city of Wilmington was the last Confederate port to fall to the Union, in February 1865, after the Union won the nearby Second Battle of Fort Fisher, its major defense downriver.\n\nThe first Confederate soldier to be killed in the Civil War was Private Henry Wyatt from North Carolina, in the Battle of Big Bethel in June 1861. At the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, the 26th North Carolina Regiment participated in Pickett/Pettigrew's Charge and advanced the farthest into the Northern lines of any Confederate regiment. During the Battle of Chickamauga, the 58th North Carolina Regiment advanced farther than any other regiment on Snodgrass Hill to push back the remaining Union forces from the battlefield. At Appomattox Court House in Virginia in April 1865, the 75th North Carolina Regiment, a cavalry unit, fired the last shots of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the Civil War. For many years, North Carolinians proudly boasted that they had been \"First at Bethel, Farthest at Gettysburg and Chickamauga, and Last at Appomattox.\"\n\nDemographics\n\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of North Carolina was 10,042,802 on July 1, 2015, a 5.32% increase since the 2010 United States Census. Of the people residing in North Carolina, 58.5% were born in North Carolina, 33.1% were born in another US state, 1.0% were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent(s), and 7.4% were born in another country. \nAs of 2011, 49.8% of North Carolina's population younger than age 1 were minorities. \n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nDemographics of North Carolina covers the varieties of ethnic groups that reside in North Carolina, along with the relevant trends.\n\nThe state's racial composition in the 2010 Census: \n* White: 68.5% (65.3% non-Hispanic white, 3.2% White Hispanic)\n* Black or African American: 21.5%\n* Asian American: 2.2%\n* Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander: 0.1%\n* Some other race: 4.3%\n* Multiracial American: 2.2%\n* Latino and Hispanic American of any race: 8.4%\n\nAs of 2011, 49.8% of North Carolina's population younger than age 1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white). \n\nLanguages\n\nAs of 2010, 89.66% (7,750,904) of North Carolina residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 6.93% (598,756) spoke Spanish, 0.32% (27,310) French, 0.27% (23,204) German, and Chinese (which includes Mandarin) was spoken as a main language by 0.27% (23,072) of the population over the age of five. In total, 10.34% (893,735) of North Carolina's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English. \n\nReligion\n\nNorth Carolina residents, like those of other Southern states, since the colonial era have historically been overwhelmingly Protestant, first Anglican, then Baptist and Methodist. By the late 19th century, the largest Protestant denomination was the Baptist. After the Civil War, black Baptists were not allowed in white churches, due to segregation, and set up their own independent congregations. Black Baptists went on to develop their own state and national associations, to be free of white supervision.\n\nWhile the Baptists in total (counting both blacks and whites) have maintained the majority in this part of the country (known as the Bible Belt), the population in North Carolina practices a wide variety of faiths, including Judaism, Islam, Baha'i, Buddhism, and Hinduism. As of 2010 the Southern Baptist Church was the biggest denomination, with 4,241 churches and 1,513,000 members; the second largest was the United Methodist Church, with 660,000 members and 1,923 churches. The third was the Roman Catholic Church, with 428,000 members in 190 congregations. The fourth greatest was the Presbyterian Church (USA), with 186,000 members and 710 congregations; this denomination was brought by Scots-Irish immigrants who settled the backcountry in the colonial era. \n\nThe state also has a special history with the Moravian Church, as settlers of this faith (largely of German origin) found a home in the Winston-Salem area in the 18th and 19th centuries. Presbyterians, historically Scots-Irish, have had a strong presence in Charlotte and in Scotland County.\n\nCurrently, the rapid influx of northerners and immigrants from Latin America is steadily increasing ethnic and religious diversity: the number of Roman Catholics and Jews in the state has increased, as well as general religious diversity. The second-largest Protestant denomination in North Carolina after Baptist traditions is Methodism, which is strong in the northern Piedmont, especially in populous Guilford County. There are also a substantial number of Quakers in Guilford County and northeastern North Carolina. Many universities and colleges in the state have been founded on religious traditions, and some currently maintain that affiliation, including: \n\n* Belmont Abbey College (Catholic)\n* Bennett College for Women (United Methodist Church)\n* Campbell University (Baptist)\n* Catawba College (United Church of Christ)\n* Chowan University (Baptist)\n* Davidson College (Presbyterian)\n* Duke University (Historically Methodist)\n* Elon University (United Church of Christ)\n* Gardner-Webb University (Cooperative Baptist Fellowship)\n* Greensboro College (Methodist)\n* Guilford College (Religious Society of Friends [Quakers])\n* High Point University (United Methodist Church)\n* Lees-McRae College (Presbyterian)\n* Lenoir-Rhyne University (Evangelical Lutheran Church in America)\n* Livingstone College (African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church)\n* Louisburg College (United Methodist Church)\n* Mars Hill University (Christian)\n* Methodist University (United Methodist Church)\n* Montreat College (Christian)\n* University of Mount Olive (Baptist)\n* North Carolina Wesleyan College (United Methodist Church)\n* William Peace University (Presbyterian)\n* Pfeiffer University (Methodist)\n* Queens University of Charlotte (Presbyterian)\n* St. Andrews Presbyterian College (Presbyterian)\n* Saint Augustine's College (Episcopal)\n* Salem College (Historically Moravian [Protestant])\n* Shaw University (Baptist)\n* Wake Forest University (Historically Baptist)\n* Warren Wilson College (Historically Presbyterian)\n* Wingate University (Historically Baptist)\n\nThe state also has several major seminaries, including the Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary in Wake Forest, and the Hood Theological Seminary (AME Zion) in Salisbury.\n\nMost Populated Counties\n\nIn 2016, the US Census Bureau released 2015 population estimate counts for North Carolina's counties with populations. Mecklenburg has the largest population, while Wake has the second largest population in North Carolina. \n\nMajor cities\n\nIn 2016, the US Census Bureau released 2015 population estimate counts for North Carolina's cities with populations above 70,000. Charlotte has the largest population, while Raleigh has the highest population density of North Carolina's largest cities. \n\nLargest combined statistical areas\n\nNorth Carolina has three major Combined Statistical Areas with populations of more than 1.6 million (U.S. Census Bureau 2015 estimates): \nMetrolina: Charlotte–Gastonia–Salisbury, North Carolina-South Carolina – population 2,583,956\nThe Triangle: Raleigh–Durham–Cary, North Carolina – population 2,117,103\nThe Triad: Greensboro–Winston-Salem–High Point, North Carolina – population 1,642,506\n\nEconomy\n\nAccording to a Forbes article written in 2013 Employment in the \"Old North State\" has gained many different industry sectors. See the following article summary: science, technology, energy and math, or STEM, industries in the area surrounding North Carolina's capital have grown 17.9 percent since 2001, placing Raleigh-Cary at No. 5 among the 51 largest metro areas in the country where technology is booming. In 2010 North Carolina's total gross state product was $424.9 billion, while the state debt in November 2012, according to one source, totalled US$2.4bn, while according to another, was in 2012 US$57.8bn. In 2011 the civilian labor force was at around 4.5 million with employment near 4.1 million. The working population is employed across the major employment sectors. The economy of North Carolina covers 15 metropolitan areas.[http://www.bls.gov/eag/eag.nc.htm Economy at a Glance]. For North Carolina. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2011. In 2010, North Carolina was chosen as the third-best state for business by Forbes Magazine, and the second-best state by Chief Executive Officer Magazine. \n\nTransportation\n\nTransportation systems in North Carolina consist of air, water, road, rail, and public transportation including intercity rail via Amtrak and light rail in Charlotte. North Carolina has the second-largest state highway system in the country as well as the largest ferry system on the east coast. \n\nNorth Carolina's airports serve destinations throughout the United States and international destinations in Canada, Europe, Central America, and the Caribbean. In 2013 Charlotte Douglas International Airport ranked as the 23rd busiest airport in the world. \n\nNorth Carolina has a growing passenger rail system with Amtrak serving most major cities. Charlotte is also home to North Carolina's only light rail system known as the Lynx.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nThe government of North Carolina is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. These consist of the Council of State (led by the Governor), the bicameral legislature (called the General Assembly), and the state court system (headed by the North Carolina Supreme Court). The state constitution delineates the structure and function of the state government. North Carolina has 13 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives and two seats in the U.S. Senate.\n\nNorth Carolina's party loyalties have undergone a series of important shifts in the last few years: While the 2010 midterms saw Tar Heel voters elect a bicameral Republican majority legislature for the first time in over a century, North Carolina has also become a Southern swing state in presidential races. Since Southern Democrat Jimmy Carter's comfortable victory in the state in 1976, the state had consistently leaned Republican in presidential elections until Democrat Barack Obama narrowly won the state in 2008. In the 1990s, Democrat Bill Clinton came within a point of winning the state in 1992 and also only narrowly lost the state in 1996. In the early 2000s, Republican George W. Bush easily won the state by over 12 points, but by 2008, demographic shifts, population growth, and increased liberalization in heavily populated areas such as the Research Triangle, Charlotte, Greensboro, Winston-Salem, Fayetteville, and Asheville, propelled Barack Obama to victory in North Carolina, the first Democrat to win the state since 1976. In 2012, North Carolina was again considered a competitive swing state, with the Democrats even holding their 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte. However, Republican Mitt Romney ultimately eked out a 2-point win in North Carolina, the only 2012 swing state that Obama lost, and one of only two states (along with Indiana) to flip from Obama in 2008 to the GOP in 2012.\n\nIn 2012, the state elected a Republican Governor (Pat McCrory) and Lieutenant Governor (Dan Forest) for the first time in more than two decades, while also giving the Republicans veto-proof majorities in both the State House of Representatives and the State Senate. Several U.S. House of Representatives seats also flipped control, with the Republicans holding nine seats to the Democrats' four. In the 2014 mid-term elections, Republican David Rouzer won the state's Seventh Congressional District seat, increasing the congressional delegation party split to 10-3 in favor of the GOP.\n\nEducation\n\nPrimary and secondary education\n\nElementary and secondary public schools are overseen by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. The North Carolina Superintendent of Public Instruction is the secretary of the North Carolina State Board of Education, but the board, rather than the superintendent, holds most of the legal authority for making public education policy. In 2009, the board's chairman also became the \"chief executive officer\" for the state's school system. North Carolina has 115 public school systems, each of which is overseen by a local school board. A county may have one or more systems within it. The largest school systems in North Carolina are the Wake County Public School System, Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, Guilford County Schools, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, and Cumberland County Schools. In total there are 2,425 public schools in the state, including 99 charter schools. North Carolina Schools were segregated until the Brown v. Board of Education trial and the release of the Pearsall Plan.\n\nColleges and universities\n\nIn 1795, North Carolina opened the first public university in the United States—the University of North Carolina (now named the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). More than 200 years later, the University of North Carolina system encompasses 17 public universities including North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, North Carolina Central University, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, East Carolina University, Western Carolina University, Winston-Salem State University, the University of North Carolina at Asheville, the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, the University of North Carolina at Pembroke, UNC Wilmington, Elizabeth City State University, Appalachian State University, Fayetteville State University, and UNC School of the Arts, and . Along with its public universities, North Carolina has 58 public community colleges in its community college system.The largest university in North Carolina is currently North Carolina State University, with more than 34,000 students. North Carolina is home to many excellent universities as well as dozens of community colleges and private universities.\n\nNorth Carolina is also home to many well-known private colleges and universities, including Duke University, Wake Forest University, Pfeiffer University, Lees-McRae College, Davidson College, Barton College, North Carolina Wesleyan College, Elon University, Guilford College, Livingstone College, Salem College, Shaw University (the first historically black college or university in the South), Laurel University, Meredith College, Methodist University, Belmont Abbey College (the only Catholic college in the Carolinas), Campbell University, University of Mount Olive, Montreat College, High Point University, Lenoir-Rhyne University (the only Lutheran university in North Carolina) and Wingate University.\n\nSports\n\nNorth Carolina is home to three major league sports franchises: the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League and the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association are based in Charlotte, while the Raleigh-based Carolina Hurricanes play in the National Hockey League. The Panthers and Hurricanes are the only two major professional sports teams that have the same geographical designation while playing in different metropolitan areas. The Hurricanes are the only major professional team from North Carolina to have won a league championship, having captured the Stanley Cup in 2006. North Carolina is also home to Charlotte Hounds of the Major League Lacrosse.\n\nWhile North Carolina has no Major League Baseball team, it does have numerous minor league baseball teams, with the highest level of play coming from the AAA-affiliated Charlotte Knights and Durham Bulls. Additionally, North Carolina has minor league teams in other team sports including soccer and ice hockey, most notably the Carolina RailHawks and Charlotte Checkers, both of which play in the second tier of their respective sports.\n\nIn addition to professional team sports, North Carolina has a strong affiliation with NASCAR and stock-car racing, with Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord hosting two Sprint Cup Series races every year. Charlotte also hosts the NASCAR Hall of Fame, while Concord is the home of several top-flight racing teams, including Hendrick Motorsports, Roush Fenway Racing, Richard Petty Motorsports, Stewart-Haas Racing, and Chip Ganassi Racing. Numerous other tracks around North Carolina host races from low-tier NASCAR circuits as well.\n\nGolf is a popular summertime leisure activity, and North Carolina has hosted several important professional golf tournaments. Pinehurst Resort in Pinehurst has hosted a PGA Championship, Ryder Cup, and two U.S. Open tournaments. The Wells Fargo Championship is a regular stop on the PGA Tour and is held at Quail Hollow Club in Charlotte, while the Wyndham Championship is played annually in Greensboro.\n\nCollege sports are also popular in North Carolina, with 18 schools competing at the Division I level. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) is headquartered in Greensboro, and both the ACC Football Championship Game (Charlotte) and the ACC Men's Basketball Tournament (Greensboro) were most recently held in North Carolina. College basketball in particular is very popular, buoyed by the Tobacco Road rivalries between Duke, North Carolina, North Carolina State, and Wake Forest. The ACC Championship Game and The Belk Bowl are held annually in Charlotte's Bank of America Stadium, featuring teams from the ACC and the Southeastern Conference. Additionally, the state has hosted the NCAA Men's Basketball Final Four on two occasions, in Greensboro in 1974 and in Charlotte in 1994.\n\nTourism\n\n Every year the Appalachian Mountains attract several million tourists to the Western part of the state, including the historic Biltmore Estate. The scenic Blue Ridge Parkway and Great Smoky Mountains National Park are the two most visited national park and unit in the United States with over 25 million visitors in 2013. The City of [http://www.exploreasheville.com/ Asheville] is consistently voted as one of the top places to visit and live in the United States, known for its rich art deco architecture, mountain scenery and outdoor activities, and liberal and happy residents. \n\nIn Raleigh many tourists visit the Capital, African American Cultural Complex, Contemporary Art Museum of Raleigh, Gregg Museum of Art & Design at NCSU, Haywood Hall House & Gardens, Marbles Kids Museum, North Carolina Museum of Art, North Carolina Museum of History, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame, Raleigh City Museum, J. C. Raulston Arboretum, Joel Lane House, Mordecai House, Montfort Hall, and the Pope House Museum. The Carolina Hurricanes NHL hockey team is also located in the city.\n\nIn the Charlotte area, amenities include the Carolina Panthers NFL football team and Charlotte Hornets basketball team, Carowinds amusement park, Charlotte Motor Speedway, U.S. National Whitewater Center, and the Discovery Place. Nearby Concord has the Great Wolf Lodge and Sea Life Aquarium.\n\nIn the Conover – Hickory area, Hickory Motor Speedway, RockBarn Golf and Spa, home of the Greater Hickory Classic at Rock Barn; Catawba County Firefighters Museum, and SALT Block attract many tourists to Conover. Hickory which has Valley Hills Mall.\n\nThe Piedmont Triad, or center of the state, is home to Krispy Kreme, Mayberry, Texas Pete, the Lexington Barbecue Festival, and Moravian cookies. The internationally acclaimed North Carolina Zoo in Asheboro attracts visitors to its animals, plants, and a 57-piece art collection along five miles of shaded pathways in the world's largest-land-area natural-habitat park. Seagrove, in the central portion of the state, attracts many tourists along Pottery Highway (NC Hwy 705). MerleFest in Wilkesboro attracts more than 80,000 people to its four-day music festival; and Wet 'n Wild Emerald Pointe water park in Greensboro is another attraction.\n\nThe Outer Banks and surrounding beaches attract millions of people to the Atlantic beaches every year.\n\nThe mainland northeastern part of the state, having recently adopted the name the Inner Banks, is also known as the Albemarle Region, for the Albemarle Settlements, some of the first settlements on North Carolina's portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. The regions historic sites are connected by the Historic Albemarle Tour.\n\nRecreation\n\nNorth Carolina provides a large range of recreational activities, from swimming at the beach to skiing in the mountains. North Carolina offers fall colors, freshwater and saltwater fishing, hunting, birdwatching, agritourism, ATV trails, ballooning, rock climbing, biking, hiking, skiing, boating and sailing, camping, canoeing, caving (spelunking), gardens, and arboretums. North Carolina has theme parks, aquariums, museums, historic sites, lighthouses, elegant theaters, concert halls, and fine dining.\n\nNorth Carolinians enjoy outdoor recreation utilizing numerous local bike paths, 34 state parks, and 14 national parks. National Park Service units include the Appalachian National Scenic Trail, the Blue Ridge Parkway, Cape Hatteras National Seashore, Cape Lookout National Seashore, Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site at Flat Rock, Fort Raleigh National Historic Site at Manteo, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Guilford Courthouse National Military Park in Greensboro, Moores Creek National Battlefield near Currie in Pender County, the Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail, Old Salem National Historic Site in Winston-Salem, the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, and Wright Brothers National Memorial in Kill Devil Hills. National Forests include Uwharrie National Forest in central North Carolina, Croatan National Forest in Eastern North Carolina, Pisgah National Forest in the northern mountains, and Nantahala National Forest in the southwestern part of the state.\n\nArts and culture\n\nNorth Carolina has rich traditions in art, music, and cuisine. The nonprofit arts and culture industry generates $1.2 billion in direct economic activity in North Carolina, supporting more than 43,600 full-time equivalent jobs and generating $119 million in revenue for local governments and the state of North Carolina. North Carolina established the North Carolina Museum of Art as the first major museum collection in the country to be formed by state legislation and funding and continues to bring millions into the NC economy. Also see this list of museums in North Carolina.\n\nOne of the more famous arts communities in the state is Seagrove, the handmade-pottery capital of the U.S., where artisans create handcrafted pottery inspired by the same traditions that began in this community more than 200 years ago. With nearly 100 shops and galleries scattered throughout the area, visitors can find everything from traditional tableware to folk and collectible art pieces and historical reproductions.\n\nMusic\n\nNorth Carolina boasts a large number of noteworthy jazz musicians, some among the most important in the history of the genre. These include: John Coltrane, (Hamlet, High Point); Thelonious Monk (Rocky Mount); Billy Taylor (Greenville); Woody Shaw (Laurinburg); Lou Donaldson (Durham); Max Roach (Newland); Tal Farlow (Greensboro); Albert, Jimmy and Percy Heath (Wilmington); Nina Simone (Tryon); and Billy Strayhorn (Hillsborough).\n\nNorth Carolina is also famous for its tradition of old-time music, and many recordings were made in the early 20th century by folk-song collector Bascom Lamar Lunsford. Musicians such as the North Carolina Ramblers helped solidify the sound of country music in the late 1920s, while the influential bluegrass musician Doc Watson also hailed from North Carolina. Both North and South Carolina are hotbeds for traditional rural blues, especially the style known as the Piedmont blues.\n\nBen Folds Five originated in Winston-Salem, and Ben Folds still records and resides in Chapel Hill.\n\nThe British band Pink Floyd is named, in part, after Chapel Hill bluesman Floyd Council.\n\nThe Research Triangle area has long been a well-known center for folk, rock, metal, jazz and punk. James Taylor grew up around Chapel Hill, and his 1968 song \"Carolina in My Mind\" has been called an unofficial anthem for the state. Other famous musicians from North Carolina include J. Cole, Shirley Caesar, Roberta Flack, Clyde McPhatter, Nnenna Freelon, Jimmy Herring, Michael Houser, Eric Church, Future Islands, Randy Travis, Ryan Adams, Ronnie Milsap, Anthony Hamilton, and The Avett Brothers.\n\nMetal and punk acts such as Corrosion of Conformity, Between the Buried and Me, and Nightmare Sonata are native to North Carolina.\n\nEDM producer Porter Robinson hails from Chapel Hill.\n\nNorth Carolina is the home of more American Idol finalists than any other state: Clay Aiken (season two), Fantasia Barrino (season three), Kellie Pickler (season five), Bucky Covington (season five), Chris Daughtry (season five), Anoop Desai (season eight), Scotty McCreery (season ten), and Caleb Johnson (season thirteen).\n\nIn the mountains, the Brevard Music Center hosts choral, orchestral, and solo performances during its annual summer schedule.\n\nAlso, see the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame.\n\nShopping\n\nNorth Carolina has a variety of shopping choices. SouthPark Mall in Charlotte is currently the largest in the Carolinas, with almost 2.0 million square feet. Other major malls in Charlotte include Northlake Mall and Carolina Place Mall in nearby suburb Pineville. Other major malls throughout the state include Hanes Mall in Winston-Salem; Crabtree Valley Mall, North Hills Mall, and Triangle Town Center in Raleigh; Friendly Center and Four Seasons Town Centre in Greensboro; Oak Hollow Mall in High Point; Concord Mills in Concord; Valley Hills Mall in Hickory; and The Streets at Southpoint and Northgate Mall in Durham and Independence Mall in Wilmington, NC, and Tanger Outlets in Charlotte, Nags Head, Blowing Rock, and Mebane, NC.\n\nCuisine and agriculture\n\nA culinary staple of North Carolina is pork barbecue. There are strong regional differences and rivalries over the sauces and methods used in making the barbecue. The common trend across Western North Carolina is the use of premium grade Boston butt. Western North Carolina pork barbecue uses a tomato-based sauce, and only the pork shoulder (dark meat) is used. Western North Carolina barbecue is commonly referred to as Lexington barbecue after the Piedmont Triad town of Lexington, home of the Lexington Barbecue Festival, which attracts over 100,000 visitors each October. Eastern North Carolina pork barbecue uses a vinegar-and-red-pepper-based sauce and the \"whole hog\" is cooked, thus integrating both white and dark meat.\n\nKrispy Kreme, an international chain of doughnut stores, was started in North Carolina; the company's headquarters are in Winston-Salem. Pepsi-Cola was first produced in 1898 in New Bern. A regional soft drink, Cheerwine, was created and is still based in the city of Salisbury. Despite its name, the hot sauce Texas Pete was created in North Carolina; its headquarters are also in Winston-Salem. The Hardee's fast-food chain was started in Rocky Mount. Another fast-food chain, Bojangles', was started in Charlotte, and has its corporate headquarters there. A popular North Carolina restaurant chain is Golden Corral. Started in 1973, the chain was founded in Fayetteville, with headquarters located in Raleigh. Popular pickle brand Mount Olive Pickle Company was founded in Mount Olive in 1926. Fast casual burger chain Hwy 55 Burgers, Shakes & Fries also makes its home in Mount Olive. Cook Out, a popular fast-food chain featuring burgers, hot dogs, and milkshakes in a wide variety of flavors, was founded in Greensboro in 1989 and has begun expanding outside of North Carolina. In 2013, Southern Living named Durham - Chapel Hill the South's \"Tastiest City.\"\n\nOver the last decade, North Carolina has become a cultural epicenter and haven for internationally prize-winning wine (Noni Bacca Winery), internationally prized cheeses (Ashe County), \"L'institut International aux Arts Gastronomiques: Conquerront Les Yanks les Truffes, January 15, 2010\" international hub for truffles (Garland Truffles), and beer making, as tobacco land has been converted to grape orchards while state laws regulating alcohol content in beer allowed a jump in ABV from 6% to 15%. The Yadkin Valley in particular has become a strengthening market for grape production, while Asheville recently won the recognition of being named 'Beer City USA.' Asheville boasts the largest breweries per capita of any city in the United States. Recognized and marketed brands of beer in North Carolina include Highland Brewing, Duck Rabbit Brewery, Mother Earth Brewery, Weeping Radish Brewery, Big Boss Brewing, Foothills Brewing, Carolina Brewing Company, Lonerider Brewing, and White Rabbit Brewing Company.\n\nTobacco was one of the first major industries to develop after the Civil War. Many farmers grew some tobacco, and the invention of the cigarette made the product especially popular. Winston-Salem is the birthplace of R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJR), founded by R. J. Reynolds in 1874 as one of 16 tobacco companies in the town. By 1914 it was selling 425 million packs of Camels a year. Today it is the second-largest tobacco company in the U.S. (behind Altria Group). RJR is an indirect wholly owned subsidiary of Reynolds American Inc., which in turn is 42% owned by British American Tobacco. \n\nShips named for the state\n\nSeveral ships have been named after the state. Most famous is the , a World War II battleship. The ship served in several battles against the forces of Imperial Japan in the Pacific theater during the war. Now decommissioned, it is part of the USS North Carolina Battleship Memorial in Wilmington. Another , a nuclear attack submarine, was commissioned in Wilmington, NC, on May 3, 2008. \n\nState parks\n\nThe state maintains a group of protected areas known as the North Carolina State Park System, which is managed by the North Carolina Division of Parks & Recreation (NCDPR), an agency of the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR).\n\nState symbols\n\n State motto: Esse quam videri (\"To be, rather than to seem\") (1893)\n* State song: \"The Old North State\" (1927)\n* State flower: Dogwood (1941)\n* State bird: Cardinal (1943)\n* State colors: The red and blue of the N.C. and U.S. flags (1945)\n* State toast: \"The Tar Heel Toast\" (1957)\n* State tree: Pine (1963) \n* State shell: Scotch bonnet (1965)\n* State mammal: Eastern gray squirrel (1969)\n* State salt water fish: Red drum (also known as the channel bass) (1971)\n* State insect: European honey bee (1973)\n* State gemstone: Emerald (1973)\n* State reptile: Eastern box turtle (1979)\n* State rock: Granite (1979)\n* State beverage: Milk (1987)\n* State historical boat: Shad boat (1987)\n* State language: English (1987)\n* State dog: Plott Hound (1989)\n* State military academy: Oak Ridge Military Academy (1991)\n* State tartan: Carolina Tartan (1991) \n* State vegetable: Sweet potato (1995)\n* State red berry: Strawberry (2001)\n* State blue berry: Blueberry (2001)\n* State fruit: Scuppernong grape (2001)\n* State wildflower: Carolina lily (2003)\n* State Christmas tree: Fraser fir (2005)\n* State carnivorous plant: Venus flytrap (2005)\n* State folk dance: Clogging (2005)\n* State popular dance: Carolina shag (2005)\n* State birthplace of traditional pottery: The Seagrove area (2005)\n* State sport: NASCAR (2011) \n\nArmed forces installations\n\nFort Bragg, near Fayetteville and Southern Pines, is a large and comprehensive military base and is the headquarters of the XVIII Airborne Corps, 82nd Airborne Division, and the U.S. Army Special Operations Command. Serving as the air wing for Fort Bragg is Pope Field, also located near Fayetteville.\n\nLocated in Jacksonville, Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, combined with nearby bases Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Cherry Point, MCAS New River, Camp Geiger, Camp Johnson, Stone Bay and Courthouse Bay, makes up the largest concentration of Marines and sailors in the world. MCAS Cherry Point is home of the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing. Located in Goldsboro, Seymour Johnson Air Force Base is home of the 4th Fighter Wing and 916th Air Refueling Wing. One of the busiest air stations in the United States Coast Guard is located at the Coast Guard Air Station in Elizabeth City. Also stationed in North Carolina is the Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point in Southport." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Wilmington (disambiguation)", "Wilmington" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "wilmington", "wilmington disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "wilmington", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Wilmington" }
Christa McAuliffe died in an accident in what type of vehicle in 1986?	tc_1335	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Christa_McAuliffe.txt" ], "title": [ "Christa McAuliffe" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sharon Christa McAuliffe (September 2, 1948 – January 28, 1986) was an American teacher from Concord, New Hampshire, and was one of the seven crew members killed in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.\n\nShe received her bachelor's degree in education and history from Framingham State College in 1970, and also a master's in education supervision and administration from Bowie State University in 1978. She took a teaching position as a social studies teacher at Concord High School in New Hampshire in 1983.\n\nIn 1985, she was selected from more than 11,000 applicants to participate in the NASA Teacher in Space Project and was scheduled to become the first teacher in space. As a member of mission STS-51-L, she was planning to conduct experiments and teach two lessons from Space Shuttle Challenger. On January 28, 1986, the shuttle broke apart 73.124 seconds after launch. After her death, schools and scholarships were named in her honor, and in 2004 she was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.\n\nEarly life\n\nMcAuliffe was born as Sharon Christa Corrigan on December 22, 1948, in Boston, Massachusetts. She was the eldest of the five children of accountant Edward Christopher Corrigan (1922–1990) of Irish descent and Grace Mary Corrigan (née George), a substitute teacher, whose father was of Lebanese Maronite descent. McAuliffe was a great niece of Lebanese-American historian Philip Khuri Hitti. She was known by her middle name from an early age, although in later years she signed her name \"S. Christa Corrigan\", and eventually \"S. Christa McAuliffe\". \n\nThe year she was born, her father was completing his sophomore year at Boston College. Not long thereafter, he took a job as an assistant comptroller in a Boston department store, and they moved to Framingham, Massachusetts, where she attended and graduated from Marian High School in 1966. As a youth, she was inspired by Project Mercury and the Apollo moon landing program. The day after John Glenn orbited the Earth in Friendship 7, she told a friend at Marian High, \"Do you realize that someday people will be going to the Moon? Maybe even taking a bus, and I want to do that!\" She wrote years later on her NASA application form: \"I watched the Space Age being born, and I would like to participate.\" \n\nA few weeks later, she married her longtime boyfriend whom she had known since high school, Steven J. McAuliffe, a 1970 graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, and they moved closer to Washington, D.C., so that he could attend the Georgetown University Law Center. They had two children, Scott and Caroline, who were nine and six, respectively, when she died. \n\nShe obtained her first teaching position in 1970, as an American history teacher at Benjamin Foulois Junior High School in Morningside, Maryland. From 1971 to 1978, she taught history and civics at Thomas Johnson Middle School in Lanham, Maryland. In addition to teaching, she completed a Master of Arts in education supervision and administration from Bowie State University in Maryland. In 1978, she moved to Concord, New Hampshire, when Steven accepted a job as an assistant to the New Hampshire Attorney General. McAuliffe taught 7th and 8th grade American history and English in Concord, New Hampshire, and 9th grade English in Bow, New Hampshire, before taking a teaching post at Concord High School in 1983. \n\nShe was a social studies teacher, and taught several courses including American history, law, and economics, in addition to a self-designed course: \"The American Woman\". Taking field trips and bringing in speakers were an important part of her teaching techniques. According to The New York Times, she \"emphasized the impact of ordinary people on history, saying they were as important to the historical record as kings, politicians or generals.\" \n\nTeacher in Space Project\n\nIn 1984, President Ronald Reagan announced the Teacher in Space Project, and McAuliffe learned about NASA's efforts to find the first civilian, an educator, to fly into space. NASA wanted to find an \"ordinary person,\" a gifted teacher who could communicate with students while in orbit. McAuliffe became one of more than 11,000 applicants.\n\n NASA hoped that sending a teacher into space would increase public interest in the Space Shuttle program, and also demonstrate the reliability of space flight at a time when the agency was under continuous pressure to find financial support. President Reagan said it would also remind Americans of the important role that teachers and education serve in their country. \n\nThe Council of Chief State School Officers, a non-profit organization of public officials in education, was chosen by NASA to coordinate the selection process. Out of the initial applicant pool, 114 semi-finalists were nominated by state, territorial, and agency review panels. McAuliffe was one of two teachers nominated by the state of New Hampshire. The semi-finalists gathered in Washington, DC, from June 22–27, 1985, for a conference on space education and to meet with the National Review Panel that would select the 10 finalists.\n\nOn July 1, 1985, she was announced as one of the 10 finalists, and on July 7 she traveled to Johnson Space Center for a week of thorough medical examinations and briefings about space flight. The finalists were interviewed by an evaluation committee composed of senior NASA officials, and the committee made recommendations to NASA Administrator James M. Beggs for the primary and backup candidates for the Teacher in Space Project. On July 19, 1985, Vice President George H. W. Bush announced that she had been selected for the position. Another teacher, Barbara Morgan, served as her backup. According to Mark Travis of the Concord Monitor, it was her manner that set her apart from the other candidates. NASA official Alan Ladwig said \"she had an infectious enthusiasm\", and NASA psychiatrist Terrence McGuire told New Woman magazine that \"she was the most broad-based, best-balanced person of the 10.\"\n\nLater that year, she and Morgan each took a year-long leave of absence from teaching in order to train for a space shuttle mission in early 1986. (NASA paid both their salaries.) While not a member of the NASA Astronaut Corps, McAuliffe was to be part of the STS-51-L crew, and would conduct experiments and teach lessons from space. Her planned duties included basic science experiments in the fields of chromatography, hydroponics, magnetism, and Newton's laws. She was also planning to conduct two 15-minute classes from space, including a tour of the spacecraft, called \"The Ultimate Field Trip\", and a lesson about the benefits of space travel, called \"Where We've Been, Where We're Going, Why.\" The lessons were to be broadcast to millions of schoolchildren via closed-circuit TV. To record her thoughts, McAuliffe intended to keep a personal journal like a \"woman on the Conestoga wagons pioneering the West.\" \n\nAfter being chosen to be the first teacher in space, she was a guest on several television programs, including Good Morning America; the CBS Morning News; the Today Show; and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, where, when asked about the mission, she stated, \"If you’re offered a seat on a rocket ship, don’t ask what seat. Just get on.\" She had an immediate rapport with the media, and the Teacher in Space Project received popular attention as a result.\n\nDisaster and aftermath \n\nOn January 28, 1986, McAuliffe boarded Challenger with the other six crew members of STS-51-L. Just 73 seconds into its flight at an altitude of 48,000 feet, the shuttle broke apart, resulting in the deaths of all seven crew members. According to NASA, it was in part because of the excitement over her presence on the shuttle that the accident had such a significant effect on the nation. Many schoolchildren were viewing the launch live, and media coverage of the accident was extensive. \n\nThe Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident—also known as the Rogers Commission—was formed to investigate the disaster. It determined that the accident was due to a failure of rubber O-rings made by Morton-Thiokol that provided a pressure seal in the aft field joint of the shuttle's right Solid Rocket Booster. The failure of the O-rings was attributed to a design flaw, as their performance could be too easily compromised by factors that included the low temperature on the day of launch. The Commission found that O-ring resiliency is directly related to temperature and due to the low temperature at launch—36 degrees Fahrenheit or 15 degrees lower than the next coldest previous launch—it was probable the O-rings had not provided a proper seal.\n\nBarbara Morgan, her backup, became a professional astronaut in January 1998, and flew on Space Shuttle mission STS-118, to the International Space Station, on August 8, 2007, aboard Endeavour, the orbiter that replaced Challenger. \n\nLegacy \n\nMcAuliffe was buried at Blossom Hill Cemetery in her hometown, Concord. She has since been honored at many events, including the Daytona 500 NASCAR race in 1986. The McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center in Concord and the Christa Corrigan McAuliffe Center for Education and Teaching Excellence at Framingham State University are named in her memory, as are the asteroid 3352 McAuliffe, the crater McAuliffe on the Moon, and a crater on the planet Venus, which was named McAuliffe by the Soviet Union. Approximately 40 schools around the world have been named after her, including the Christa McAuliffe Space Education Center in Pleasant Grove, Utah. \n\nScholarships and other events have also been established in her memory. The Christa McAuliffe Technology Conference has been held in Nashua, New Hampshire, every year since 1986, and is devoted to the use of technology in all aspects of education. The Nebraska McAuliffe Prize honors a Nebraska teacher each year for courage and excellence in education. Grants in her name, honoring innovative teachers, are provided by the American Association of State Colleges and Universities and the National Council for the Social Studies. \n\nIn 1990, she was portrayed by Karen Allen in the TV movie Challenger. The spaceship on the 1996–1997 children's science-fiction series Space Cases, about a group of students lost in space, was called \"Christa\". In 2006, a documentary film about her and Morgan called Christa McAuliffe: Reach for the Stars aired on CNN in the CNN Presents format. The film, produced by Renee Sotile and Mary Jo Godges, commemorated the 20th anniversary of her death. It was narrated by Susan Sarandon, and included an original song by Carly Simon. \n\nHer parents worked with Framingham State College to establish the McAuliffe Center for Education. Her husband Steven J. McAuliffe remarried and in 1992 became a federal judge, serving with the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire in Concord. Her son, Scott, completed graduate studies in marine biology, and her daughter, Caroline, went on to pursue the same career as her mother: teaching. On July 23, 2004, she and all the other 13 astronauts lost in both the Challenger and Columbia disasters were posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor by President George W. Bush. \n\nOn January 28, 2016, Space Shuttle Challenger was honored once again, but in a uniquely memorable way. Dozens of teachers who competed alongside the fallen Christa McAuliffe traveled to Cape Canaveral, Florida to remember those lost on that day 30 years ago. Christa McAuliffe’s son Scott and husband Steven also participated in the ceremony. After remarking on the fact that 30 years had indeed passed, Steven said “Challenger will always be an event that occurred just recently. Our thoughts and memories of Christa will always be fresh and comforting.”\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "SPACE SHUTTLE", "Spaceshuttle", "Space shuttle launch", "Rockwell Space Shuttle", "Space shuttle", "Space Shuttles", "Sci.space.shuttle", "مكوك الفضاء", "Space Shuttle", "Space Transport System", "NASA shuttle", "Space shutle", "Space shuttle in popular culture", "Sci.space.history", "Space shuttles", "U.S. Space Shuttle" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "space transport system", "nasa shuttle", "sci space history", "مكوك الفضاء", "sci space shuttle", "space shuttle launch", "rockwell space shuttle", "spaceshuttle", "space shutle", "space shuttles", "space shuttle in popular culture", "u s space shuttle", "space shuttle" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "space shuttle", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Space Shuttle" }
Who was Benazir Bhutto's Father who was executed in 1988?	tc_1336	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Benazir_Bhutto.txt" ], "title": [ "Benazir Bhutto" ], "wiki_context": [ "Benazir Bhutto (; 21 June 1953 – 27 December 2007) was the 11th and 13th Prime Minister of Pakistan, serving two non-consecutive terms in 1988–90 and then 1993–96. A scion of the politically powerful Bhutto family, she was the eldest daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, a former prime minister who founded the centre-left Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). She was the first woman democratically elected as head of a majority Islamic nation. \n\nIn 1982 Bhutto became the chairperson of the PPP, making her the first woman in Pakistan to head a major political party. In 1988, she also became the first woman elected head of an Islamic state's government, and she remains Pakistan's only female prime minister. Noted for charismatic authority\n and political astuteness, Bhutto drove economic and national security initiatives, and implemented capitalist policies for industrial development and growth. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation, particularly of the financial sector, flexible labour markets, denationalisation of state-owned corporations, and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. Bhutto's popularity waned amid recession, corruption allegations and high unemployment. Eventually conservative President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed her government.\n\nBhutto was elected for a second term in the 1993 parliamentary elections. She survived an attempted coup d'état in 1995. Her hard line against the trade unions and tough rhetorical opposition to her domestic political rivals and to neighbouring India earned her the nickname \"Iron Lady\";\n she was also respectfully referred to as \"BB\". In 1996 more charges of corruption led to the another dismissal of her government by President Farooq Leghari. Bhutto conceded her defeat in the 1997 Parliamentary elections and went into exile in Dubai in 1998. Nine years later, in 2007, she reached an understanding with President Pervez Musharraf, and returned to Pakistan. He granted her amnesty and withdrew all corruption charges against her.\n\nBhutto was assassinated in a bombing on 27 December 2007, after leaving a PPP rally in Rawalpindi two weeks before the scheduled 2008 general election. She was the leading candidate, and projected winner. She is buried next to her father in the Garhi Khuda Baksh, the Bhutto family graveyard. Her party won the election and her husband, Asif Ali Zardari, served as President of Pakistan from 2008 to 13.\n\nHer son Bilawal Bhutto Zardari presently leads the PPP, which as of 2013 was currently in the Pakistani political opposition.\n\nEarly life, 1953–77\n\nBenazir Bhutto was born at Karachi's Pinto Hospital on 21 June 1953.\n She was the eldest child of Sindhi Rajput Zulfikar Ali Bhutto\n\n and Begum Nusrat Ispahani, of Iranian Kurdish descent.\n She had three younger siblings—Murtaza, Shahnawaz and Sanam. According to Benazir, her mother's Kurdish culture played a big role in Bhutto becoming Prime Minister.\n\nBhutto grew up speaking both English and Urdu, with English her first language. While she spoke fluent Urdu, it was often colloquial rather than formal. In her autobiography 'Daughter of the East', Bhutto also makes reference to using Sindhi, joking about misunderstanding the \"Mohenjo-daro\". According to various interviews given by former household servants, she and her father would speak to them in their native Sindhi.\n\nShe attended the Lady Jennings Nursery School and the Convent of Jesus and Mary in Karachi. After two years at the Rawalpindi Presentation Convent, she was sent to the Jesus and Mary Convent at Murree. She passed her O-level examinations at 15. She then completed her A-Levels at the Karachi Grammar School.\n\nShe pursued her higher education in the United States; from 1969 to 1973 she attended Radcliffe College at Harvard University, where she obtained a BA with cum laude honours in comparative government. She was also elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Bhutto later called her time at Harvard \"four of the happiest years of my life\" and said it formed \"the very basis of her belief in democracy\". In 1995, as Prime Minister, she arranged a gift from the Pakistani government to Harvard Law School. \n\nBetween 1973 and 1977 Bhutto studied Philosophy, Politics, and Economics at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford (LMH) and took additional courses in International Law and Diplomacy. After LMH she attended St Catherine's College, Oxford. In December 1976 Bhutto was elected president of the Oxford Union, and became the first Asian woman to head the prestigious debating society. Her undergraduate career was dogged by controversy, partly due to her father's unpopularity with student politicians. She was also president of the Oxford Majlis Asian Society. \n\nMarriage\n\nOn 18 December 1987, Bhutto married Asif Ali Zardari in Karachi. The couple had three children: two daughters, Bakhtawar and Asifa, and a son, Bilawal. When she gave birth to Bakhtawar in 1990, she became the first modern head of government to give birth while in office. \n\nZia's Pakistan, 1977–88\n\nZulfikar's assassination and Benazir's arrests\n\nBhutto's father, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was removed from office in a 1977 military coup led by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the Chief of Army Staff. Zia imposed martial law and promised to hold elections within three months. But instead Zia charged Zulfikar with conspiring to murder the father of dissident politician Ahmed Raza Kasuri. Zulfikar's family opposed Zia's imposition of ultra-conservative military dictatorship, despite the consequences to themselves drawn by their opposition. Benazir Bhutto and her brother Murtaza spent the next eighteen months in and out of house arrest while she worked to rally political support and attempted to pressure Zia to drop the murder charges against her father.\n\nOn behalf of Bhutto's former law minister Abdul Hafeez Pirzada and Fakhruddin Abrahim, the Bhutto family filed a petition at the Chief Martial Law Administrator Office asking reconsideration of Zulfikar Bhutto's sentence as well as the release of his friend Mubashir Hassan. General Zia said he misplaced the petition. Although the murder accusation remained \"widely doubted by the public\", and many foreign leaders appealed for clemency, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was condemned, then hanged 4 April 1979 under the effective orders of Supreme Court of Pakistan.\n Bhutto and her immediate family were held in a \"police camp\" until May 1979. \n\nBenazir and Murtaza were arrested. After a PPP victory in local elections, General Zia postponed national elections indefinitely and moved Benazir, Murtaza, and their mother Nusrat from Karachi to Larkana Central Jail. This was the seventh time Nusrat and her children had been arrested in the two years since the coup. After repeatedly placing the family under house arrest, in March 1981 the régime finally imprisoned Benazir in solitary confinement in a desert cell at Sukkur in Sindh. Every so often, a bottle of poison would appear in her cell.\n In her autobiography,Daughter of Destiny, she described conditions in her wall-less cage in that prison:\n\nAfter six months of this Bhutto spent months in the hospital, then was moved to Karachi Central Jail, where she remained until 11 December 1981. She was then placed under house arrest in Larkana for eleven months, and transferred to Karachi where she spent 14 more months under house arrest.\n\nRelease and self-imposed exile\n\nIn January 1984, after six years of house arrest and imprisonment, General Zia bowed to international pressure and allowed Bhutto and her family to leave Pakistan for medical reasons. After surgery, she remained abroad and resumed political activities, raising awareness about mistreatment of political prisoners in Pakistan at the hands of the Zia regime. In exile in the United Kingdom, Bhutto became a leader in exile of the populist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). Bhutto's efforts intensified political pressure on Zia, forcing him to holding a referendum to prove his government's legitimacy. The vote held 1 December 1984 was a farce. Despite the best efforts of the government, only 10% of the electorate turned out to vote. In 1985 Benazir's brother Shahnawaz died, apparently poisoned The Bhutto family believed the murder was ordered by Zia and went into hiding.\n\nFurther pressure from the international community forced the president to hold elections; he scheduled them on a non-party basis for a unicameral legislature. Bhutto called for a boycott of this election because it was not in accordance with the constitution. She continued to raise her voice against the human rights violations of the Zia régime, and addressed the European Parliament in Strasbourg in 1985. In retaliation for this speech, Zia pronounced death sentences against 54 members of her party, through a military court in Lahore that he headed himself.\n\nWhen Zia died in a plane crash in August 1988. That November Pakistan held the first open general elections in more than a decade. Bhutto's PPP won several provinces and won the largest percentage of seats in the National Assembly, the lower house of Pakistan's parliament. As head of her party, Bhutto therefore became Prime Minister of Pakistan.\n\nFirst term as Prime Minister, 1988–90\n\nBenazir Bhutto became the 11th Prime Minister of Pakistan on 2 December 1988. On arriving at the Secretariat, her official residence, she addressed the huge crowd:\n\nBhutto formed a coalition government December 2 with the liberal Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) party, an ally she required as head of a minority government. Over time, Bhutto quietly isolated MQM from power, later ousting them to establish a single-party government that claimed a mandate from all of Pakistan. The effects of Zia's domestic policies began to reveal themselves, and she found them difficult to counter. Bhutto had vowed to repeal the controversial Hudood Ordinance in her first term, and also to revert the Eighth Amendment, General Zia's modification of the Constitution giving himself the power to dissolve Parliament and call for fresh elections.\n Bhutto also promised to shift Pakistan's semi-presidential system to a parliamentary system. But none of these reforms were implemented and Bhutto began to struggle with conservative president Ghulam Ishaq Khan over issues of executive authority. Khan systematically vetoed proposed laws and ordinances that would lessen presidential authority. Bhutto however did manage modernization and reform initiatives during this period, which some conservatives characterised as Westernization.\n\nRelations with India and Afghanistan war\n\nBhutto took office at the end of the Cold War, and aligned herself closely to United States (US) president George H. W. Bush based on their shared distrust of communism. However she strongly opposed US support for the Afghan Mujahideen, and told George W. Bush he was creating a Frankenstein. Bhutto's government oversaw major events in the alignment of the Middle East and South Asia. In the west, the Soviet Union was withdrew from the Afghanistan in 1989=1990, and the US-Pakistan alliance broke off in 1990 due to US government's suspicions about Pakistan's nuclear-weapons program.\n\nBhutto attempted to warm relations with neighbouring India and met with Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1989. She negotiated a trade agreement when the Indian premier paid a farewell visit to Pakistan. The goodwill in Indian-Pakistani relations continued until 1990, when V. P. Singh succeeded Gandhi as premier. The influence of the right-wing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on Singh forced him to abrogate the agreements. Tensions also began to rise with Pakistan after the BJP enforced hardline policies inside Kashmir which the Pakistani government denounced. Soon the Singh administration launched a military operation in Kashmir to curb secessionists. In response, Benazir allegedly authorized covert operations to support secession movements in Indian Kashmir. In 1990 Major General Pervez Musharraf, then head of the Directorate-General for the Military Operations (DGMO), proposed a strategy against India to Bhutto that called for Kargil infiltration, but she declined because he didn't have a contingency plan for dealing with any international fallout that might result In 1988, Lieutenant General Hamid Gul, chief of the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), met with Bhutto and advocated for a supporting the Khalistan movement, a Sikh nationalist movement. Gul justified this as the only way to pre-empt new Indian threats to Pakistan's territory. Bhutto disagreed and asked him to stop playing this card. Gul reportedly told her \"Madam Prime Minister, keeping [Indian] Punjab destabilized is equivalent... to the Pakistan Army... having an extra division at no cost to the taxpayers.\n\nBhutto also authorised further aggressive military operations in Afghanistan to topple the fragile communist regime and Soviet influence in the region. One notable military authorisation was military action in Jalalabad in Soviet Afghanistan to retaliate for the Soviets' long unconditional support for India, a proxy war in Pakistan and Pakistan's loss in the 1971 War. This operation was \"a defining moment for her government\", proof of the loyalty to the armed forces. Planned by Hamid Gul and U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan Robert B. Oakley and known as the Battle of Jalalabad, it intended a conventional victory over withdrawing Soviet troops. The mission brutally failed within a couple of months with effectively no results. The morale of the involved mujahideen slumped and many local commanders ended truces with the government.\n\nAngered and frustrated by the outcome of the operation, Bhutto, already displeased with Gul, now sacked him. The decision to dismiss Gul was an authoritative move that surprised many senior statesman, although they did back her. Gul's replacement, Lieutenant General Shamsur Rahman Kallu, proved himself more a capable officer. Bhutto favoured a political settlement between all the Afghan Mujahideen factions and hence international legitimacy for the new government. This was never achieved and the factions began fighting each other, further destabilising the country.\n\nScience policy\n\nDuring her 1990 trip to Britain, Bhutto paid a visit to Dr. Abdus Salam, a Nobel laureate in physics and a science advisor to her father's government. During both her terms as Prime Minister, Bhutto followed the science and technology policy her father laid out in 1972, and promoted military funding of science and technology as part of that policy. However, in 1988, Bhutto was denied access to the classified national research institutes run by the military, which remained however under the control of the civilian president Ghulam Ishaq Khan and the Chief of Army Staff. Bhutto was kept unaware about the progress of the nuclear complexes, even when the country passed the milestone in 1986 of fissile core manufacturing capability U.S. Ambassador Robert Oakley was the first diplomat notified about the complexes,in 1988. Shortly afterwards Bhutto summoned chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Munir Ahmad Khan to her office; Khan brought Abdul Qadeer Khan with him and introduced him to the Prime Minister.\n\nAt that meeting Bhutto learned the status of this program which had matured since its beginnings in 1978, and on request of A. Q. Khan, visited Khan Research Laboratories for the first time in 1989, much to the anger of Ishaq Khan. \n Bhutto also responded to Khan when she moved the Ministry of Science and Technology's office to the Prime Minister Secretariat with Munir Ahmad Khan directly reporting to her. Bhutto had successfully eliminated any possibility of Khan's involvement and prevented him from having any influence in science-research programmes, a policy which also benefited her successor Nawaz Sharif. During both her prime-ministerial terms Bhutto funded many projects entirely devoted to the country's national defence and security. The dismissal of Lieutenant-General Gul by Benazir Bhutto had played a significant role on Chief of Army Staff General Mirza Aslam Beg, who did not interfere in matters pertaining to science and technology, and remained supportive towards Benazir Bhutto's hard-line actions against the President.\n\nIn 1990 Benazir declined to allot funds to any military-science projects that would be placed under Lieutenant-General Zahid Ali Akbar, despite Akbar's being known to have been close to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In 1990 she forced Akbar to resign from active duty, and as director-general of Army Technological Research Laboratories (ATRL); she replaced him with Lieutenant-General Talat Masood as E-in-C of ATRL as well as director of all military projects.\n\nIn the 1980s, Benazir Bhutto started aerospace projects such as Project Sabre II, Project PAC, Ghauri project under Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan in 1990 and the Shaheen programme in 1995 under Dr. Samar Mubarakmand.\n\nDuring her second term, Benazir Bhutto declared 1996 as a year of \"information technology\" and envisioned her policy of making Pakistan a \"global player\" in information technology. One of her initiatives was the launching of a package to promote computer literacy through participation from the private sector. Benazir issued an executive decree allowing the completion of duty-tariff free imports of hardware and software exports, in order to provide a low rate for data communications in both the public and private sectors. Benazir Bhutto also established and set up the infrastructure of software-technology parks in rural areas and in cities, and approved a financial-assistance loan for software houses for the public sector.\n\nNuclear weapons programme\n\nIn opposition to her conservative opponent Nawaz Sharif, whose policy was to make the nuclear weapons programme benefit the economy, Benazir Bhutto took aggressive steps to modernise and expand the integrated atomic weapons programme begun by her father in 1972, who was one of the key political administrative figures of Pakistan's nuclear deterrent development. During her first term, Benazir Bhutto established the separate but integrated nuclear testing programme in the atomic bomb programme, requiring the authorisation of the Prime minister and the military leadership. Despite Benazir's denial that she authorised the nuclear testing programme in her second term she continued to modernise the programme which she termed a \"contractual obligation\".\n\nIt was during her régime that the Pressler amendment came into effect, an attempt to freeze the programme. During frequent trips to the United States, Bhutto refused to compromise on the nuclear weapons programme, and attacked the Indian nuclear programme on multiple occasions. Benazir Bhutto misled the U.S. when she told them that the programme had been frozen; the programme was progressively modernized and continued under her watch. Under her regime, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) conducted series of improvised designs of nuclear weapons designed by the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) at PAEC. Benazir Bhutto also carried messages to Munir Ahmad Khan from her father and back in 1979 as her father, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, had instructed his daughter to remain in touch with the Chairman of PAEC.Munir Ahmad Khan, technical director of Pakistan's integrated weapons programme and former Chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), \"She was the eldest child of former prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto\", 1999. In this context, Bhutto had appointed Munir Ahmad Khan as her Science Adviser, and he kept her informed about the development of the programme. In all, the nuclear weapons and energy program remained a top priority, along with the country's economy. During her first term, the nuclear program was under attack and under pressure from the Western world, particularly the United States. Despite economic aid offered by the European Union and the United States in return for halting or freezing the program, Benazir continued the program in both her first and second terms.\n\nDuring her first term, Bhutto approved and launched the Shaheen programme and advocated for the programme. Bhutto also allotted funds for the programme. On 6 January 1996, Bhutto publicly announced that if India conducted a nuclear test, Pakistan could be forced to \"follow suit\". Bhutto later said that the day will never arise when we have to use our knowledge to make and detonate a [nuclear] device and export our technology. \n\nSpace programme\n\nBenazir Bhutto continued her policy to modernise and expand the space programme and as part of that policy, she launched and supervised the clandestine project integrated research programme (IRP), a missile programme which remained under Benazir Bhutto's watch and successfully ended in 1996. Benazir established the National Development Complex and the University Observatory at Karachi University and expanded facilities for space research. Pakistan's first military satellite, Badr-I, was also launched under her government through China, while the second military satellite Badr-II was completed during her second term. With launching of Badr-I, Pakistan became the first Muslim country to launch and place a satellite in Earth's orbit. She declared 1990 a year of space in Pakistan and conferred national awards on scientists and engineers who participated in the development of this satellite.\n\n1989 military scandal\n\nIn 1989, the media reported a sting operation and political scandal, codenamed Midnight Jackal, in which former members of ISI hatched a plan to topple the Bhutto government. Midnight Jackal was a political intelligence operation launched under President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and army chief General Mirza Aslam Beg, whose objective was to pass a no-confidence motion in Parliament by bribing PPP members. Lieutenant-General Asif Nawaz had suspected the activities of Brigadier-General Imtiaz Ahmed, therefore, a watch cell unit was dispatched to keep an eye on him.\n\nThis operation was exposed by ISI when it obtained a VHS tape containing the conversation between two former army officers and former members of ISI, from the Intelligence Bureau (IB). The tape was confiscated by ISI director-general Lieutenant-General Shamsur Rahman Kallu, who showed it to Benazir the next day. The video tape showed the conversation of Major Amir Khan and Brigadier-General Imtiaz Ahmad revealed that Chief of Army Staff General Mirza Aslam Baig of that time wanted to end the government. Though the Brigadier failed to prove General Beg's involvement, General Mirza, on the other hand, sharply denied the accusation and started a full-fledged courts martial of these officers, with Benazir being the civilian judge of JAG Branch to proceed the hearings. The officers were removed from their positions and placed at Adiala military correctional institute in 1989. The officers were released from the military correctional institute by order of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif in 1996.\n\nDismissal\n\nBy 1990 the revelation of Midnight Jackal lessened President Ghulam Ishaq Khan's influence in national politics, government and the military. Bhutto was thought by the president to be a young and inexperienced figure in politics, though highly educated. But he miscalculated her capabilities; she emerged as a 'power player' in international politics. Bhutto's authoritative actions frustrated the president; he was not taken in confidence when decisions were made. By 1990 a power struggle between the prime minister and president ensued. Because of the semi-presidential system, Bhutto needed permission from Khan to impose new policies. Khan vetoed many, as he felt they contradicted his point of view. Bhutto, through her legislators, also attempted to shift to a parliamentary democracy from the semi-presidential system, but Khan always used his constitutional powers to veto Bhutto's attempts.\n\nTales of corruption in public-sector industries began to surface, which undermined the credibility of Bhutto. The unemployment and labour strikes began to take place which halted and jammed the economic wheel of the country, and Bhutto was unable to solve these issues due to the cold war with the President. In November 1990, after a long political battle, Khan used the Eighth Amendment to dismiss the Bhutto government following charges of corruption, nepotism, and despotism. Khan called for new elections in 1990, where Bhutto conceded defeat.\n\nFirst term as leader of the opposition, 1990–93\n\nThe Election Commission of Pakistan called for the new parliamentary elections in 1990. The Islami Jamhoori Ittehad, or Islamic Democratic Alliance (IDA), under the leadership of Nawaz Sharif, won a majority in the Parliament. For the first time in the history of Pakistan, conservatives had a chance to rule the country. Sharif became the 12th prime minister of Pakistan and Bhutto was the leader of the opposition for the next five years.\n\nIn November 1992, Bhutto attempted to perform a 10-mile march from Rawalpindi to Islamabad. However, she was forced to discontinue the rally due to a threat of arrest from Prime Minister Sharif. The demonstration was an anti-government rally that upset Pakistan officials. She was placed under house arrest and vowed to bring down the Pakistani government. In December 1992, a two-day march was conducted in protest of Nawaz Sharif. In July 1993, Nawaz Sharif resigned from his position due to political pressure.\n\nFrom 1990 to 1993, Benazir Bhutto worked for her voice and screen image. Pakistan affairs intellectual Anatol Lieven compared her accent as \"cut-glass accent\", but acknowledged her education and academic background. Bhutto began to regularly attend lunches at the Institute of Development Economics (IDE), a think tank founded in the 1950s; she had been visiting IDE and reading its publications since the mid-1970s. During that time, the IDA launched a secret campaign against Benazir Bhutto's image to demoralise party workers; the campaign brutally backfired on Nawaz Sharif when the media exposed the campaign and its motives.\n More than ₨. 5 million were spent on the campaign and it undermined the credibility of conservatives, who also failed to resolve issues among between them.\n\nDespite an economic recovery in late 1993, the IDA government faced public unease about the direction of the country and an industrialisation that revolved around and centred only in Punjab Province. Amid protest and civil disorder in Sindh Province following the imposition of Operation Clean-up, the IDA government lost control of the province. The Peoples Party attacked the IDA government's record on unemployment and industrial racism.\n\nPresident Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed the conservative government when Sharif attempted to revert the 8th Amendment but was unsuccessful. Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto would unite to oust the president who lost the control of the country in a matter of weeks. Khan too was forced to resign along with Nawaz Sharif in 1993, and an interim government was formed until the new elections. A parliamentary election was called after by the Pakistan Armed Forces. Both Sharif and Benazir Bhutto campaigned with full force, targeting each other's personalities.\n Their policies were very similar but a clash of personalities occurred, with both parties making many promises but not explaining how they were going to pay for them.\n\nSharif stood on his record of privatisation and development, and pledged to restore his Taxicab\|taxi giveaway program.\n Bhutto promised price supports for agriculture, pledged a partnership between government and business, and campaigned strongly for the female vote.\n\nSecond term as Prime Minister, 1993–96\n\nThough the PPP won the most seats (86 seats) in the election but fell short of an outright majority, with the PML-N in second place with 73 seats in the Parliament. The PPP performed extremely well in Bhutto's native province, Sindh, and rural Punjab, while the PML-N was strongest in industrial Punjab and the largest cities such as Karachi, Lahore and Rawalpindi.Edward A. Gargan. \"[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/08/world/bhutto-wins-plurality-and-faces-a-new-struggle.html Bhutto Wins Plurality and Faces a New Struggle]\". The New York Times. 8 October 1993. On 19 October 1993, Benazir Bhutto was sworn as Prime Minister for second term allowing her to continue her reform initiatives.\n\nBenazir Bhutto learned a valuable experience and lesson from the presidency of Ghulam Ishaq Khan, and the presidential elections were soon called after her re election. After carefully examining the candidates, Benazir Bhutto decided to appoint Farooq Leghari as for her president, in which, Leghari sworned as 8th President of Pakistan on 14 November 1993 as well as first Baloch to have become president since the country's independence. Leghari was an apolitical figure who was educated Kingston University London receiving his degree in same discipline as of Benazir Bhutto. But unlike Khan, Leghari had no political background, no experience in government running operations, and had no background understanding the civil-military relations. In contrast, Leghari was a figurehead and puppet president with all of the military leadership directly reporting to Benazir Bhutto.\n\nShe first time gave the main ministry to the minorities and appointed Julius Salik as Minister for Population Welfare. The previous governments only give ministry for minority affairs as a minister of state or parliamentary secretary. J. Salik is a very popular leader among minorities and won the MNA seat by getting highest votes throughout Pakistan.\n\nDomestic affairs\n\nBenazir Bhutto was prime minister at a time of great racial tension in Pakistan. Her approval poll rose by 38% after she appeared and said in a private television interview after the elections: \"We are unhappy with the manner in which tampered electoral lists were provided in a majority of constituencies; our voters were turned away.\" The Conservatives attracted voters from religious society (MMA) whose support had collapsed. The Friday Times noted \"Both of them (Nawaz and Benazir) have done so badly in the past, it will be very difficult for them to do worse now. If Bhutto's government fails, everyone knows there will be no new elections. The army will take over\". In confidential official documents Benazir Bhutto had objected to the number of Urdu speaking class in 1993 elections, in context that she had no Urdu-speaking sentiment in her circle and discrimination was continued even in her government. Her stance on these issues was perceived as part of rising public disclosure which Altaf Hussain called \"racism\". Due to Benazir Bhutto's stubbornness and authoritative actions, her political rivals gave her the nickname \"Iron Lady\" of Pakistan. No response was issued by Bhutto, but she soon associated with the term.\nThe racial violence in Karachi was reached at peak and became a problem for Benazir Bhutto to counter. The MQM attempted to make an alliance with Benazir Bhutto under her own conditions, but Benazir Bhutto refused. Soon the second operation, Operation Blue Fox, was launched to wipe the MQM from country's political spectrum. The results of this operation remain inconclusive and resulted in thousands killed or gone missing, with the majority being Urdu speaking. Bhutto demanded the MQM to surrender to her government unconditionally. Though the operation was halted in 1995, but amid violence continued and, Shahid Javed Burki, a professor of economics, noted that \"Karachi problem was not so much an ethnic problem as it was an economic question.\" Amid union and labour strikes beginning to take place in Karachi and Lahore, which were encouraged by both Altaf Hussain and Nawaz Sharif to undermine her authority, Benazir Bhutto responded by disbanding those trade union and issuing orders to arrest the leaders of the trade unions, while on the other hand, she provided incentives to local workers and labourers as she had separated the workers from their union leaders successfully. Benazir Bhutto expanded the authoritative rights of Police Combatant Force and the provisional governments that tackled the local opposition aggressively. Bhutto, through her Internal Security Minister Naseerullah Babar, intensified the internal security operations and steps, gradually putting down the opposition's political rallies, while she did not completely abandon the reconciliation policy. In her own worlds, Benazir Bhutto announced: \"There was no basis for (strikes)... in view of the ongoing political process...\".\n\nIn August 1993, Benazir Bhutto narrowly escaped an assassination attempt near her residence in the early morning. While no one was injured or killed, the culprits of this attempt went into hiding. In December 1993, news began to surface in the Swat valley when Sufi Muhammad, a religious cleric, began to mobilise the local militia calling for overthrow of the \"un-Islamic rule of [Iron] Lady\". Benazir Bhutto responded quickly and ordered the Pakistan Army to crack down n the militia, leading to the movement's being crushed by the Army and the cleric was apprehended before he could escape. \n\nHowever, corruption grew during her government, and her government became increasingly unpopular amid corruption scandals which became public. One of the most internationally and nationally reported scandals was the Agosta Submarine scandal. Benazir Bhutto's spouse Asif Ali Zardari was linked with former Admiral Mansurul Haq who allegedly made side deals with French officials and Asif Ali Zardari while acquiring the submarine technology. It was one of the consequences that her government was dismissed and Asif Ali Zardari along with Mansurul Haq were arrested and a trial was set in place. Both Zardari and Haq were detained due to corruption cases and Benazir Bhutto flew to Dubai from Pakistan in 1998.\n\nWomen's issues\n\nDuring her election campaigns, she had promised to repeal controversial laws (such as Hudood and Zina ordinances) that curtail the rights of women in Pakistan. Bhutto was pro-life and spoke forcefully against abortion, most notably at the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, where she accused the West of \"seeking to impose adultery, abortion, intercourse education and other such matters on individuals, societies and religions which have their own social ethos.\" However, Bhutto was not supported by the leading women organisations, who argued that after being elected twice, none of the reforms were made, instead controversial laws were exercised more toughly. Therefore, in 1997 elections, Bhutto failed to secure any support from women's organisations and minorities also gave Bhutto the cold-shoulder when she approached them. It was not until 2006 that the Zina ordinance was finally repealed by a Presidential Ordinance issued by Pervez Musharraf in July 2006. \n\nBhutto was an active and founding member of the Council of Women World Leaders, a network of current and former prime ministers and presidents. \n\nEconomic issues\n\nBhutto was an economist by profession; therefore during her terms as prime minister, she herself took charge of the Ministry of Finance. Bhutto sought to improve the country's economy which was declining as time was passing. Benazir disagreed with her father's nationalization and socialist economics. Soon after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Benazir attempted to privatize major industries that were nationalized in the 1970s. Bhutto promised to end the nationalisation programme and to carry out the industrialisation programme by means other than state intervention. But controversially Bhutto did not carry out the denationalization programme or liberalization of the economy during her first government. No nationalized units were privatized, few economic regulations were reviewed. \n\nPakistan suffered a currency crisis when the government failed to arrest the 30% fall in the value of the Pakistani Rupee from ₨. 21 to ₨.30 compared to the United States dollar. Soon economic progress became her top priority but her investment and industrialisation programs faced major setbacks due to conceptions formed by investors based upon her People's Party nationalisation program in the 1970s. By the 1990s, Khan and Bhutto's government had also ultimately lost the currency war with the Indian Rupee which beat the value of Pakistan rupee for the first time in the 1970s. Bhutto's denationalisation program also suffered from many political setbacks, as many of her government members were either directly or indirectly involved with the government corruption in major government-owned industries, and her appointed government members allegedly sabotaged her efforts to privatise the industries.\n\nOverall, the living standard for people in Pakistan declined as inflation and unemployment grew at an exponential rate particularly as UN sanctions began to take effect. During her first and second term, the difference between rich and poor visibly increased and the middle class in particular were the ones who bore the brunt of the economic inequality. According to a calculation completed by the Federal Bureau of Statistics, the rich were statistically were improved and the poor declined in terms of living standards. Benazir attributed this economic inequality to be a result of ongoing and continuous illegal Bangladeshi immigration. Bhutto ordered a crackdown on and deportation of illegal Bangladeshi immigrants. Her action strained and created tensions in Bangladesh–Pakistan relations, as Bangladesh Prime Minister Khaleda Zia refused to accept the deportees and reportedly sent two planeloads back to Pakistan. Religious parties also criticised Bhutto and dubbed the crackdown as anti-Islamic.\n\nThis operation backfired and had devastating effects on Pakistan's economy. President Khan saw this as a major economic failure despite Khan's permission granted to Bhutto for the approval of her economic policies. Khan blamed Bhutto for this extensive economic slowdown and her policy that failed to stop the illegal immigration. Khan attributed Bhutto's government members corruption in government-owned industries as the major sink hole in Pakistan's economy that failed to compete with neighbouring India's economy.\n\nPrivatization and era of stagflation\n\nDuring her second term, Bhutto continued to follow former prime minister Nawaz Sharif's privatisation policies, which she called a \"disciplined macroeconomics policy\". After the 1993 general elections, the privatisation programme of state-owned banks and utilities accelerated; more than ₨ 42 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised corporations and industries, and another US$20 billion from the foreign investment made the United States. After 1993, the country's national economy again entered in the second period of the stagflation and more roughly began bite the country's financial resources and the financial capital. Bhutto's second government found it extremely difficult to counter the second era of stagflation with Pressler amendment and the US financial and military embargo tightened its position. After a year of study, Bhutto implemented and enforced the Eighth Plan to overcome the stagflation by creating a dependable and effective mechanism for accelerating economic and social progress. But, according to American ambassador to Pakistan, William Milam's bibliography, Bangladesh and Pakistan:Flirting with Failure in South Asia, the Eighth Plan (which reflected the planned economy of the Soviet Union) was doomed to meet with failure from the very beginning of 1994, as the policies were weak and incoherent. \n\nOn many occasions, Bhutto resisted to privatise globally competitive and billion-dollar-worth state-owned enterprises (such as Pakistan Railways and Pakistan Steel Mills), instead the grip of nationalisation in those state-owned enterprises was tightened in order to secure the capital investment of these industries. The process of privatisation of the nationalised industries was associated with the marked performance and improvement, especially the terms of labour productivity. A number of privatization of industries such as gas, water supply and sanitation, and electricity general, were natural monopolies for which the privatization involved little competition. Furthermore, Benazir denied that privatisation of the Pakistan Railways would take place despite the calls made in Pakistan, and was said to have told Planning Commission chief Naveed Qamar, \"Railways privatization will be the 'blackhole' of this government. Please never mention the railways to me again\". Bhutto always resisted privatisation of United Bank Limited Pakistan (UBL), but its management sent the recommendation for the privatisation which dismayed the labour union. The United Group of Employees Management asked Bhutto for issue of regulation sheet which she denied. The holding of UBL in government control turned out to be a move that ended in \"disaster\" for Bhutto's government. \n\nForeign policy\n\nBenazir Bhutto's foreign policy was controversial. In her second term, Bhutto expanded Pakistan's relations with the rest of the world. Like her father, Benazir Bhutto sought to strengthen relations with socialist states, and her visit to Libya strengthened the relations between the two countries. Benazir also thanked Muammar al-Gaddafi for his tremendous efforts and support for her father before and during Zulfikar's trial in 1977. Ties continued with Libya but deteriorated after Nawaz Sharif became prime minister in 1990 and again in 1997. Gaddafi was said to be very fond of Bhutto and was a family friend of Bhutto family, but disliked Nawaz Sharif due to his ties with General Zia in the 1980s. \n\nBenazir Bhutto is said to have paid a state visit to North Korea in early 1990 and again in 1996. According to journalist Shyam Bhatia, Bhutto smuggled CDs containing uranium enrichment data to North Korea on a state visit that same year in return for data on missile technology. According to the expert, Benazir Bhutto acted as a female \"James Bond\", and left with a bag of computer disks to pass on to her military from North Korea.\n\nMajor-General Pervez Musharraf worked closely with Bhutto and her government in formulating an Israel strategy. In 1993 Bhutto ordered Musharraf, then Director-General of the Pakistani Army's Directorate-General for the Military Operation (DGMO), to join her state visit to the United States, an unusual and unconventional participation. Bhutto and Musharraf chaired a secret meeting with Israeli officials who travelled to the US especially for the meeting. Under Bhutto's guidance Musharraf intensified the ISI's liaison with Israel's Mossad. A final meeting took place in 1995, which Musharraf also joined. Bhutto also strengthened relations with communist Vietnam, and visited Vietnam to sign an agreement for mutual trade and international political cooperation the two countries. In 1995 Benazir Bhutto made another state visit to the United States and held talks with U.S. President Bill Clinton. Bhutto urged him to revise the Pressler Amendment and launch a campaign against extremism. She criticized US nonproliferation policy and demanded that the United States honour its contractual obligation.\n\nDuring her second term, relations with Indian Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao further deteriorated. Like her father, Benazir Bhutto used rhetoric to oppose to India and campaign in the international community against the Indian nuclear programme. On 1 May 1995 she used harsh language in her public warning to India that \"continuation of [Indian] nuclear programme would have terrible consequences\".\n India responded to this saying she was interfering in an \"internal matter\" of India, and the Indian Army fired a RPG at the Kahuta, which further escalated events, leading to full-fledged war.\n When this news reached Bhutto, she responded by high-alerting the Air Force Strategic Command. It ordered heavily armed Arrows, Griffins, Black Panthers and the Black Spiders to begin air sorties and to patrol the Indo-Pakistan border on day-and-night regular missions. All of these squadrons are part of the Strategic Command. On 30 May, India test-fired a Prithvi-1 missile near the Pakistan border, which Bhutto condemned. She responded by deploying Shaheen-I missiles; however, they were not armed. Benazir Bhutto permitted the PAF to deploy the Crotale missile defence and the Anza-Mk-III near the Indian border, which escalated the conflict, but effectively kept the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force from launching any surprise attack.\n\nIn 1995 the ISI reported to Bhutto that Narasimha Rao had authorised nuclear tests, and that they could be conducted at any minute. Benazir put the country's nuclear arsenal programme on high-alert made emergency preparations, and ordered the Pakistani armed forces to remain on high-alert. However the United States intervened, Indian operations for conducting the nuclear tests were called off and the Japanese government attempted to mediate. In 1996, Benazir Bhutto met with Japanese officials and warned India about conducting nuclear tests. She revealed for the first time that Pakistan had achieved parity with India in its capacity to produce nuclear weapons and their delivery capability. She told the Indian press, that Pakistan \"cannot afford to negate the parity we maintain with India\". These statements represented a departure from Pakistan's previous policy of \"nuclear ambivalence.\" Bhutto issued a statement on the tests and told the international press that she condemned the Indian nuclear tests. \"If (India) conducts a nuclear test, it would forced her (Pakistan) to.. \"follow suit...\" she said.\n\nBhutto also ratcheted up her policy on Indian Kashmir, rallying against India.\n At an Inter-Parliamentary Union meeting at the United Nations, Bhutto, who was accompanied by her then-Speaker and future prime minister Yousaf Raza Gillani (future prime minister) upset and angered the Indian delegation, headed by prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, with a vehement criticism of India. Vajpayee responded, saying: \"It is Pakistan which is flouting the United Nations resolution by not withdrawing its forces from Kashmir...You people create problems every time. You know the Kashmiri people themselves acceded to India. First, the Maharajah, then the Kashmiri parliament, both decided to go with India\".\n\nBhutto described Indian held-Kashmir as the worst example of \"Indian intransigence\" and dismissed Indian allegations of putative Pakistani nuclear tests as \"baseless\". Bhutto criticised India's bid to hide its plan to explode a nuclear device, and failure to cover up its domestic problems including its failure to suppress the freedom struggle in Kashmir. \n\nRelations with military\n\nDuring her first term, Benazir Bhutto had strained relationship with the Pakistan Armed Forces, especially with Pakistan Army. Army chief Mirza Aslam Beg had cold relations with the elected prime minister, and continued to undermine her authority. As for the military appointments, Benazir Bhutto refused to appoint General Beg as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, instead invited Admiral Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey to take the chairmanship of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In 1988, Benazir Bhutto appointed Air Chief Marshal Hakimullah as the Chief of Air Staff and Admiral Jastural Haq as the Chief of Naval Staff. In 1988, shortly after assuming the office, Benazir Bhutto paid a visit to Siachen region, to boost the moral of the soldiers who fought the Siachen war with India. This was the first visit of any civilian leader to any military war-zone area since the country's independence in 1947. In 1988, Benazir appointed Major-General Pervez Musharraf as Director-General of the Army Directorate General for Military Operations (DGMO); and then-Brigadier-General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani as her Military-Secretary. In 1989, the Pakistan Army exposed the alleged Operation Midnight Jackal against the government of Benazir Bhutto. When she learned the news, Benazir Bhutto ordered the arrest and trial of former ISI officer Brigadier Imtiaz Ahmad and Major Amir Khan, it was later revealed that it was General Beg who was behind this plot. General Beg soon paid the price in 1993 elections, when Benazir Bhutto politically destroyed the former general and his career was over before taking any shifts in politics. During her first term, Benazir Bhutto had successfully removed senior military officers including Lieutenant-Generals Hamid Gul, Zahid Ali Akbar Khan, General Jamal A. Khan, and Admiral Tariq Kamal Khan, all of whom had anti-democratic views and were closely aligned to General Zia, replacing them with officers who were educated in Western military institutes and academies, generally the ones with more westernised democratic views.\n\nDuring her second term, Benazir Bhutto's relations with the Pakistan Armed Forces took a different and pro-Bhutto approach, when she carefully appointed General Abdul Waheed Kakar as the Chief of Army Staff. General Abdul Waheed was an uptight, strict, and a professional officer with a views of Westernized democracy. Benazir also appointed Admiral Saeed Mohammad Khan as Chief of Naval Staff; General Abbas Khattak as Chief of Air Staff. Whilst, Air Chief Marshal Farooq Feroze Khan was appointed chairman Joint Chiefs who was the first (and to date only) Pakistani air officer to have reached to such 4 star assignment. Benazir Bhutto enjoyed a strong relations with the Pakistan Armed Forces, and President who was hand-picked by her did not questioned her authority. She hand-picked officers and promoted them based on their pro-democracy views while the puppet President gave constitutional authorisation for their promotion. The senior military leadership including Jehangir Karamat, Musharraf, Kayani, Ali Kuli Khan, Farooq Feroze Khan, Abbas Khattak and Fasih Bokhari, had strong Western-democratic views, and were generally close to Bhutto as they had resisted Nawaz Sharif's conservatism. Unlike Nawaz Sharif's second democratic term, Benazir worked with the military on many issues where the military disagreement, solving many problems relating directly to civil–military relations. Her tough and hardline policies on Afghanistan, Kashmir and India, which the military had backed Benazir Bhutto staunchly.\n\nAfter the assassination was attempted, Benazir Bhutto's civilian security team headed under Rehman Malik, was disbanded by the Pakistan Army whose X-Corps' 111th Psychological Brigade— an army brigade tasked with countering the psychological warfare— took control of the security of Benazir Bhutto, that directly reported to Chief of Army Staff and the Prime Minister. Benazir Bhutto ordered General Abdul Waheed Kakar and the Lieutenant-General Javed Ashraf Qazi director-general of ISI, to start a sting and manhunt operation to hunt down the ringmaster, Ramzi Yousef. After few arrests and intensive manhunt search, the ISI finally captured Ramzi before he could flew the country. In matter of weeks, Ramzi was secretly extradited to the United States, while the ISI managed to kill or apprehend all the culprits behind the plot. In 1995, she personally appointed General Naseem Rana as the Director-General of the ISI, who later commanded the Pakistan Army's assets in which came to known as \"Pakistan's secret war in Afghanistan\". During this course, General Rana directly reported to the prime minister, and led the intelligence operations after which were approved by Benazir Bhutto. In 1995, Benazir also appointed Admiral Mansurul Haq as the Chief of Naval Staff, as the Admiral had personal contacts with the Benazir's family. However, it was the Admiral's large-scale corruption, sponsored by her husband Asif Zardari, that shrunk the credibility of Benazir Bhutto by the end of 1996 that led to end of her government after all.\n\nPolicy on Taliban\n\n1996 was crucial for Bhutto's policy on Afghanistan when Pakistan-backed extremely religious group Taliban took power in Kabul in September. She continued her father's policy on Afghanistan taking aggressive measures to curb the anti-Pakistan sentiments in Afghanistan. During this time, many in the international community at the time, including the United States government, viewed the Taliban as a group that could stabilise Afghanistan and enable trade access to the Central Asian Republics, according to author Steve Coll. \n\nHe claims that her government provided military and financial support for the Taliban, even sending a small unit of the Pakistan Army into Afghanistan. Benazir had approved the appointment of Lieutenant-General Naseem Rana who she affectionately referred to him as \"Georgy Zhukov\"; and had reported to her while providing strategic support to Taliban. During her regime, Benazir Bhutto's government had controversially supported the hardline Taliban, and many of her government officials were providing financial assistance to the Taliban. Fazal-ur-Rehman, a right-wing cleric, had a traditionally deep influence on Bhutto as he convinced and later assisted her to help the regime of Taliban she established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. In a reference written by American scholar, Steve Coll in Ghost Wars, he dryly put it: \"Benazir Bhutto was suddenly the matron of a new Afghan faction—the Taliban.\"\n\nUnder her government, Pakistan had recognised the Taliban regime as legitimate government in Afghanistan, allowing the Taliban to open an embassy in Islamabad. In 1996, the newly appointed Afghan Ambassador to Pakistan Mullah Abdul Salam Zaeef presented her diplomatic credentials while he paying a visit to her. Other authors also wrote extensively on Bhutto's directives towards Taliban, according to one author, that it was later founded and became a historical fact that it was Bhutto, a Western-educated woman, who set in motion the events leading to the September 11 attacks in the United States. \n\nHowever, in 2007, she took an anti-Taliban stance, and condemned terrorist acts allegedly committed by the Taliban and their supporters. \n\nCoup d'état attempt\n\nIn 1995, Benazir Bhutto's government survived an attempted coup d'état hatched by renegade military officers of the Pakistan Army. The culprit and ringleader of the coup was a junior level officer, Major-General Zahirul Islam Abbasi, who had radical views. Others included Brigadier-Generals Mustansir Billa, and Qari Saifullah of Pakistan Army. The secret ISI learned of this plot and tipped off the Pakistan Army and at midnight before the coup could take place, it was thwarted. The coup was exposed by Ali Kuli Khan, the Military Intelligence chief, and Jehangir Karamat, Chief of General Staff. The Military Intelligence led the arrest of 36 army officers and 20 civilians in Rawalpindi; General Ali Kuli Khan reported to Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto early morning and submitted his report on the coup. After learning this, Benazir was angered and dismayed, therefore a full-fledged running court martial was formed by Benazir Bhutto. Prime Minister Benazir issued arrests of numbers of religiously conservatives leaders and therefore denied the amnesty and clemency calls made by the Army officers. By 1996, all of the dissident officers were either jailed or shot dead by the Pakistan Army and a report was submitted to the Prime minister. General Kuli Khan and General Karamat received wide appreciation from the prime minister and were decorated with the civilian decorations and award by her.\n\nDeath of younger brother\n\nIn 1996, the Bhutto family suffered another tragedy in Sindh Province, Benazir Bhutto's stronghold and political rival. Murtaza Bhutto, Benazir's younger brother, was controversially and publicly shot down in a police encounter in Karachi. Since 1989, Murtaza and Benazir had a series of disagreements regarding the PPP's policies and Murtaza's opposition towards Benazir's operations against the Urdu-speaking class. Murtaza also developed serious disagreement with Benazir's husband, Zardari, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove his influence in the government. Benazir and Murtaza's mother, Nusrat, sided with Murtaza which also dismayed the daughter. In a controversial interview, Benazir declared that Pakistan only needed one Bhutto, not two, though she denied giving or passing any comments. Her younger brother increasingly made it difficult for her to run the government after he raised voices against Benazir's alleged corruption. Alone in Sindh, Benazir lost the support of the province to her younger brother. At the political campaign, Murtaza demanded party elections inside the PPP, which according to Zardari, Benazir would have lost due to Nusrat backing Murtaza and many workers inside the party being willing to see Murtaza as the country's Prime minister as well as the chair of the party. More problems arose when Abdullah Shah Lakiyari, Chief Minister of Sindh, and allegedly her spouse created disturbances in Murtaza's political campaign. On 20 September 1996, in a controversial police encounter, Murtaza Bhutto was shot dead near his residence along with six other party activists. As the news reached all of Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto hurriedly returned to Karachi, and an emergency was proclaimed in the entire province. Benazir Bhutto's limo was stoned by angered PPP members when she tried to visit Murtaza's funeral ceremonies. Her brother's death had crushed their mother, and she was immediately admitted to the local hospital after learning that her son had been killed. At Murtaza's funeral, Nusrat accused Benazir and Zardari of being responsible, and vowed to pursue prosecution.\n\nPresident Farooq Leghari, who dismissed the Bhutto government seven weeks after Murtaza's death, also suspected Benazir and Zardari's involvement. Several of Pakistan's leading newspapers alleged that Zardari wanted his brother-in-law out of the way because of Murtaza's activities as head of a breakaway faction of the PPP. In all, after this incident, Benazir Bhutto lost all support from Sindh Province. Public opinion later turned against her, with many believing that her spouse was involved in the murder, a claim her spouse strongly rejected.\n\nSecond dismissal\n\nIn spite of her tough rhetoric to subdue her political rivals and neighbouring India and Afghanistan, the Bhutto government's corruption heightened and exceeded its limits during her second regime; the most notable figures among those suspect were Asif Ali Zardari and Admiral Mansurul Haq. Soon after the death of her younger brother, Bhutto widely became unpopular and public opinion turned against her government. In Sindh, Bhutto lost all the support from the powerful feudal lords and the political spectrum turned against her. In 1996, the major civil–military scandal became internationally and nationally known when her spouse Zardari was linked with then-navy chief and former Admiral Mansurul Haq. Known as Agosta class scandal, many of higher naval admirals and government officials of both French and Pakistan governments were accused of getting heavy commissions while the deal was disclosed to sell this sensitive submarine technology to Pakistan Navy.\n\nOn 20 July 1996, Qazi Hussain Ahmed of Jamaat e Islami announced to start protests against government alleging corruption. Qazi Hussain resigned from senate on 27 September and announced to start long march against Benazir government. Protest started on 27 October 1996 by Jamaat e Islami and opposition parties. On 4 November 1996, Bhutto's government was dismissed by President Leghari primarily because of corruption and Murtaza's death, who used the Eighth Amendment discretionary powers to dissolve the government. Benazir was surprised when she discovered that it was not the military who had dismissed her but her own hand-picked puppet President who had used the power to dismiss her. She turned to the Supreme Court hoping for gaining Leghari's actions unconstitutional. But the Supreme Court justified and affirmed President Leghari's dismissal in a 6–1 ruling. Many military leaders who were close to Prime minister rather than the President, did not wanted Benazir Bhutto's government to fall, as they resisted the Nawaz Sharif's conservatism. When President Leghari, through public media, discovered that General Kakar (Chief of Army Staff), General Khattak (Chief of Air Staff), and Admiral Haq (Chief of Naval Staff) had been backing Benazir to come back in the government; President Leghari aggressively responded by dismissing the entire military leadership by bringing the pro-western democracy views but neutral military leadership that would supervise the upcoming elections. This was the move that Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif (elected in 1997) did repeat in 1999, when Nawaz Sharif had deposed General Jehangir Karamat after developing serious disagreements on the issues of national security.\n\nCriticism against Benazir Bhutto came from the powerful political spectrum of the Punjab Province and the Kashmir Province who opposed Benazir Bhutto, particularly the nationalisation issue that led the lost of Punjab's privatised industries under the hands of her government. Bhutto blamed this opposition for the destabilisation of Pakistan. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee General Jehangir Karamat at one point intervened in the conflict between President and the Prime Minister, and urged Benazir Bhutto to focus on good governance and her ambitious programme of making the country into a welfare state, but the misconduct of her cabinet ministers continued and the corruption which she was unable to struck it down with a full force. Her younger brother's death had devastating effect on Benazir's image and her political career that shrunk her and her party's entire credibility. At one point, Chairman of Joint Chiefs General Jehangir Karamat noted that:\n\nSoon after her government was ended, the Naval intelligence led the arrest of Chief of Naval Staff and acquitted him with a running court-martial sat up at the Naval Judge Advocate General Corps led by active duty 4-star admiral. Many of her government members and cabinet ministers including her spouse were thrown in jails and the trials were sat up at the civilian Supreme Court. Faced with serious charges by the Nawaz Sharif's government, Bhutto flew to Dubai with her three young children while her spouse was thrown in jail. Shortly after rising to power in a 1999 military coup, General Pervez Musharraf characterized Bhutto's terms as an \"era of sham democracy\" and others characterized her terms a period of corrupt, failed governments. \n\nSecond term as leader of the opposition, 1996–99\n\nBenazir Bhutto faced wide public disapproval after the corruption cases became public public, and this was clearly seen in Bhutto's defeat in the 1997 parliamentary elections. Bhutto left for Dubai soon afterwards taking her three children with her, while her husband was set for trial.\n\nBhutto acted as Leader of the Opposition despite living in Dubai, and worked to enhance her public image while supporting public reforms. In 1998, soon after India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests, Bhutto publicly called for Pakistan to begin its own nuclear testing programme, rallying and pressuring Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to make this decision. Bhutto learned from sources close to Sharif that he was reluctant to carry out nuclear testing. Therefore, she felt, her public call to test should increase her popularity. However, the strategy backfired—Nawaz indeed authorised and ordered the scientists from PAEC and KRL to perform the tests. It was another political setback for Bhutto and her image gradually declined in 1998.\n\nHowever, 1999 would brought dramatic changes for Bhutto as well as the entire country. Bhutto criticized Sharif for violating the Armed Forces's code of conduct when he illegally appointed General Pervez Musharraf as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee. Nuclear scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan also criticised the Prime Minister. In early 1999 Sharif enjoyed widespread popularity as he tried to make peace with India. However, all this changed when Pakistan became enmeshed with an unpopular and undeclared war with India. Known as the Kargil war, the conflict brought international embarrassment upon Pakistan, and the prime minister's prestige and public image were destroyed in a matter of two months. Bhutto criticised the prime minister, and called the Kargil War, \"Pakistan's greatest blunder\".\n\nAli Kuli Khan, Director-General of ISI at that time, also publicly criticised the prime minister and labelled the fighting \"a disaster bigger than East Pakistan\". Religious and liberal forces joined Bhutto in condemng Sharif for the conflict, and she made a tremendous effort to destroy his prestige and credibility, says historian William Dalrymple. Then in August 1999, an event completely shattered the remains of Sharif's image and support. Two Indian Air Force MiG-21 fighters shot down a Pakistani Navy reconnaissance plane, killing 16 naval officers. Bhutto criticised Sharif for having failed to gather any support from the navy. The Armed Forces began to criticise the prime minister for causing the military disasters. Bhutto's approval ratings were favourable and the Armed Forces chiefs remained sympathetic towards Bhutto as she continued to criticise the now-unpopular Sharif.\n\nBhutto was highly confident that her party would secure an overwhelming victory in the coming Senate elections in 1999, due to the prime minister's widening widening unpopularity. Controversially, when the Pakistani armed forced initiated a coup d'état, Bhutto neither criticised nor issued any comment, remaining silent on supporting General Musharraf, as Dalrymple notes. She continued to support Musharraf's coordinated arrests of the supporters and staff of Sharif. Musharraf destroyed Sharif's political presence in Sindh and Kashmir provinces. Many political offices in Sharif's constituency or district were forcibly closed and many sympathisers were jailed. In 2002, Bhutto and the MQM made a side-line deal with Musharraf that allows both to continue underground political activities in Sindh and Kashmir, and to fill the gap after Musharraf had destroyed Sharif's presence in the both provinces. The effects of the arrests was seen clearly in the 2008 parliamentary elections, when Nawaz Sharif failed to secure support back in those two provinces.\n\nCharges of corruption\n\nAfter President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed Bhutto's first government on 6 August 1990 because of corruption allegations, the government of Pakistan directed its intelligence agencies to investigate. Nawaz Sharif became prime minister in the ensuing elections and intensified prosecution investigation of Bhutto. Pakistani embassies through western Europe—in France, Switzerland, Spain, Poland and Britain—were directed to investigate. Bhutto and her husband Zardari faced several legal proceedings, including a charge in Switzerland of money-landering through Swiss banks. While never convicted, Zardari spent eight years in prison on similar corruption charges. Released on bail in 2004, Zardari hinted that while in prison he was tortured; human rights groups have supported his claim that his rights were violated. \n\nA 1998 New York Times (NYT) investigative report\n\n claims that Pakistani investigators have documents that outine a network of bank accounts, all linked to the family's lawyer in Switzerland, naming Asif Zardari as the principal shareholder. According to the NYT article, documents released by the French authorities indicate that Zardari offered exclusive rights to Dassault, a French aircraft manufacturer, to replace the aging fighter jets of the Indian Air Force in exchange for a 5% commission to be paid to a Swiss corporation he controlled. The article also said that a Dubai company received an exclusive license to import gold into Pakistan, for which it paid more than than $10 million into Zardari's Dubai-based Citibank accounts. The owner of the Dubai company denied making the payments and said the documents were forged.\n\nBhutto maintained that the charges against her and her husband were purely political.\n An report by a Pakistani auditor-general (AGP) supports Bhutto's claim. It presents information suggesting that Benazir Bhutto was ousted from power in 1990 as the result of a witch hunt approved by then-president Ghulam Ishaq Khan. The AGP report says Khan illegally paid legal advisers 28 million rupees to file 19 corruption cases against Bhutto and her husband in 1990–92. \n\nYet the assets held by Bhutto and her husband continue to be scrutinised and to generate speculation. Prosecutors have alleged that the couple's Swiss bank accounts contain £740 million.\n Zardari also bought a neo-Tudor mansion and estate worth over £4 million in Surrey, England. Pakistani investigations have tied other overseas properties to Zardari's family. These include a $2.5 million manor in Normandy owned by Zardari's parents, who had only modest assets when he his married. Bhutto has denied owning substantive overseas assets.\n\nDespite numerous investigations, court cases and charges of corruption registered against Bhutto by Nawaz Sharif between 1996 and 1999 and Pervez Musharraf from 1999 to 2008, she has yet to be convicted in any case, after twelve years of investigation. The Pakistani cases were withdrawn by the government of Pakistan after the return to power of Bhutto's PPP in 2008.\n\nPanama Papers\n\nBhutto was a client of Mossack Fonseca, whose customer records were disclosed in the Panama Papers leak. In 2001 the firm set up a company registered in the British Virgin Islands for Bhutto. She shared ownership of Petroline International Inc. with her nephew Hassan Ali Jaffery Bhutto, and her aide and head of security Rehman Malik, who later became a Senator and Interior Minister in the government of Yousaf Raza Gillani. Mossack Fonseca had declined to do business with Bhutto's first company, similarly-named Petrofine FZC, established in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates (UAE). in 2000. Petrofine was \"politically sensitive\" they said, and \"declined to accept Mrs Bhutto as a client.\"\n A United Nations committee chaired by former head of the US Federal Reserve, Paul Volcker, concluded in a 2005 investigation into abuses of the oil-for-food program that Petrofine FZC had paid US$2 million to the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein to obtain US $115–145 million in oil contracts.\n\nIn 2006, the Pakistani National Accountability Bureau (NAB) accused Bhutto, Malik and Ali Jaffery of owning Petrofine. Bhutto and the PPP denied this. In April 2006 an NAB court froze assets owned in Pakistan and elsewhere by Bhutto and Zardari. The $1.5 billion in assets were acquired through corrupt practices, the NAB said, and noting that the 1997 Swiss charges of criminal money-laundering were still in litigation. \n\nEarly 2000s in exile\n\nOnce a populist, by the end of the 1990s, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had become widely unpopular, and following the military coup, Sharif's credibility, image and career were destroyed by Musharraf who formed the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PMLQ) in order to banish the former prime minister's party support across the country. The PMLQ consisted of those who were initially part of Sharif's party but then switched to Musharraf to avoid persecution and jail. 2000 brought positive change for Bhutto, who became widely unpopular in Pakistan in 1996.\n\nIn the 2000s, following the declassification of the Hamoodur Rahman Commission papers and other secret documents from the 1970s, Bhutto's support in Pakistan began to grow. Her image became more positive and the PPP seemed likely to return to government, perhaps as soon the 2002 elections. Amid fears of Bhutto's return, a threatened Musharraf released from imprisonment many members of the liberal-secular force MQM who had held beeb as political prisoners. Musharraf saw MQM as a vital political weapon to stave off and hold back the PPP. But MQM support was limited to Karachi at the time, and very lacking in the urban areas of Sindh, which remained a critical electoral threat for Musharraf. Therefore, in 2002 President Musharraf amended Pakistan's constitution to ban prime ministers from serving more than two terms. This disqualified Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif from holding the office again and was widely considered to attack them directly.\n\nWhile she lived in Dubai Bhutto cared for her three children and her mother, who suffered from Alzheimer's disease. She also travelled to give lectures in the U.S. and kept in touch with PPP supporters. She and the children were reunited with her husband in December 2004 after more than five years. \n \n\nAt the request of Pakistan, Interpol issued a request in 2006 for the arrest of Bhutto and her husband on corruption charges. The Bhuttos questioned the legality of the requests in a letter to Interpol. On 27 January 2007, she was invited by the United States to speak to President George W. Bush and Congressional and State Department officials. Bhutto appeared as a panellist on the BBC TV programme Question Time in the United Kingdom in March 2007. She also appeared on the BBC current affairs programme Newsnight on several occasions. She rebuked comments made by Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq in May 2007 regarding the knighthood of Salman Rushdie, noting that he was calling for the assassination of foreign citizens. \n\nIn mid-2007, Bhutto declared her intention to return to Pakistan by the end of the year. But Musharraf said he would not allow her to enter the country before general election, scheduled for late 2007 or early 2008. Still, speculation circulated that she might have been offered the office of Prime Minister again. At the same time, the US appeared to be pushing for a deal in which Musharraf would remain president, but step down as head of the military, and either Bhutto or one of her nominees became prime minister.\n\nOn 11 July 2007, in an article about the possible aftermath of the Red Mosque incident, the Associated Press quoted Bhutton saying \"I'm glad there was no cease-fire with the militants in the mosque because cease-fires simply embolden the militants.\" \n\n This assessment was received with dismay in Pakistan, as reportedly hundreds of young students had burned to death. The remains were untraceable and cases were being heard in the Pakistani supreme court, as a missing persons issue. This and subsequent support for Musharraf led Elder Bhutto's comrades like Khar to criticise her publicly. Bhutto however advised Musharraf in an early phase of the latter's quarrel with the Chief Justice, to restore him. Her PPP did not capitalise on its influential CEC statesman, Aitzaz Ahsan, the chief Barrister for the Chief Justice, in successful restoration. Rather, he was seen as a rival of Bhutto, and isolated on that issue with PPP.\n\n2002 election\n\nThe Bhutto-led PPP secured the highest number of votes (28.4%) and won 80 seats (23%) in the national assembly during the October 2002 general elections. Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML-N) managed to win only 18 seats. Some of the elected candidates of PPP formed a faction of their own, calling it PPP-Patriots, which was being led by Faisal Saleh Hayat, the former leader of Bhutto-led PPP. They later formed a coalition government with Musharraf's party, PML-Q.\n\nReturn to Pakistan\n\nPossible deal with the Musharraf government\n\nIn mid-2002 Musharraf implemented a two-term limit on prime ministers. Both Bhutto and Musharraf's other chief rival, Nawaz Sharif, had already served two terms as prime minister. \n\nIn July 2007, some of Bhutto's frozen funds were released. Bhutto continued to face significant charges of corruption. In an 8 August 2007 interview with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Bhutto revealed the meeting focused on her desire to return to Pakistan for the 2008 elections, and for Musharraf to retain the Presidency with Bhutto as Prime Minister. On 29 August 2007, Bhutto announced that Musharraf would step down as chief of the army. On 1 September 2007, Bhutto vowed to return to Pakistan \"very soon\", regardless of whether or not she reached a power-sharing deal with Musharraf before then. \nOn 17 September 2007, Bhutto accused Musharraf's allies of pushing Pakistan into crisis by their refusal to permit democratic reforms and power-sharing. A nine-member panel of Supreme Court judges deliberated on six petitions (including one from Jamaat-e-Islami, Pakistan's largest Islamic group) asserting that Musharraf should be disqualified from contending for the presidency of Pakistan. Bhutto stated that her party could join one of the opposition groups, potentially that of Nawaz Sharif. Attorney-general Malik Mohammed Qayyum stated that pendente lite the Election Commission was \"reluctant\" to announce the schedule for the presidential vote. Farhatullah Babar of Bhutto's party stated that the Constitution of Pakistan could bar Musharraf from being elected again because he was already chief of the army: \"As Gen. Musharraf was disqualified from contesting for President, he has prevailed upon the Election Commission to arbitrarily and illegally tamper with the Constitution of Pakistan.\" \n\nMusharraf prepared to switch to a strictly civilian role by resigning as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He still faced other legal obstacles to running for re-election. On 2 October 2007, Musharraf named Lt. Gen. Ashfaq Kayani vice-chief of the army starting 8 October 2007, so that with the intent that if Musharraf won the presidency and resigned his military post, Kayani would become head of the army. Meanwhile, Minister Sheikh Rashid Ahmed stated that officials agreed to grant Benazir Bhutto amnesty from pending corruption charges. She has emphasised a smooth transition and return to civilian rule and asked Pervez Musharraf to shed his uniform. On 5 October 2007, Musharraf signed the National Reconciliation Ordinance, giving amnesty to Bhutto and other political leaders—except exiled former premier Nawaz Sharif—in all court cases against them, including all corruption charges. The Ordinance was signed a day before Musharraf faced the crucial presidential poll. Both Bhutto's opposition party, the PPP, and the ruling PMLQ, were involved in negotiations beforehand about the deal. In return, Bhutto and the PPP agreed not to boycott the Presidential election. \n\nOn 6 October 2007, Musharraf won a parliamentary election to become President. However, the Supreme Court ruled that no winner could be officially proclaimed until it finished deciding whether it was legal for Musharraf to run for President while an Army General. Bhutto's PPP party did not join the other opposition parties' boycott of the election, but did abstain from voting. Later, Bhutto demanded security coverage on-par with the President's. Bhutto also contracted foreign security firms for her protection.\n\nReturn to Pakistan and the assassination attempt\n\nBhutto was well aware of the risk to her own life that might result from her return from exile to campaign for the leadership position. In an interview on 28 September 2007, with reporter Wolf Blitzer of CNN, she readily admitted the possibility of attack on herself. \n\nAfter eight years in exile in Dubai and London, Bhutto returned to Karachi on 18 October 2007, to prepare for the 2008 national elections. \n\nEn route to a rally in Karachi on 18 October 2007, two explosions occurred shortly after Bhutto had landed and left Jinnah International Airport. She was not injured but the explosions, later found to be a suicide-bomb attack, killed 136 people and injured at least 450. The dead included at least 50 of the security guards from her PPP who had formed a human chain around her truck to keep potential bombers away, as well as six police officers. A number of senior officials were injured. Bhutto, after nearly ten hours of the parade through Karachi, ducked back down into the steel command center to remove her sandals from her swollen feet, moments before the bomb went off. \nShe was escorted unharmed from the scene.\n\nBhutto later claimed that she had warned the Pakistani government that suicide bomb squads would target her upon her return to Pakistan and that the government had failed to act. She was careful not to blame Pervez Musharraf for the attacks, accusing instead \"certain individuals within the government who abuse their positions, who abuse their powers\" to advance the cause of Islamic militants. Shortly after the attempt on her life, Bhutto wrote a letter to Musharraf naming four persons whom she suspected of carrying out the attack. Those named [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vxt_NJi90fT0] included Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi, a rival PML-Q politician and chief minister of Pakistan's Punjab province, Hamid Gul, former director of the Inter-Services Intelligence, and Ijaz Shah, the director general of the Intelligence Bureau, another of the country's intelligence agencies. All those named are close associates of General Musharraf. Bhutto had a long history of accusing parts of the government, particularly Pakistan's premier military intelligence agencies, of working against her and her party because they oppose her liberal, secular agenda. Bhutto claimed that the ISI has for decades backed militant Islamic groups in Kashmir and in Afghanistan. She was protected by her vehicle and a \"human cordon\" of supporters who had anticipated suicide attacks and formed a chain around her to prevent potential bombers from getting near her. The total number of injured, according to PPP sources, stood at 1000, with at least 160 dead (The New York Times claims 134 dead and about 450 injured).\n\nA few days later, Bhutto's lawyer Senator Farooq H. Naik said he received a letter threatening to kill his client.\n\n2007 state of emergency and response\n\nOn 3 November 2007, President Pervez Musharraf declared a state of emergency, citing actions by the Supreme Court of Pakistan and religious extremism in the nation. Bhutto returned to the country, interrupting a visit to family in Dubai. She was greeted by supporters chanting slogans at the airport. After staying in her plane for several hours she was driven to her home in Lahore, accompanied by hundreds of supporters. While acknowledging that Pakistan faced a political crisis, she noted that Musharraf's declaration of emergency, unless lifted, would make it very difficult to have fair elections. She commented that \"The extremists need a dictatorship, and dictatorship needs extremists.\" \n\nOn 8 November 2007, Bhutto was placed under house arrest just a few hours before she was due to lead and address a rally against the state of emergency.\n\nThe following day, the Pakistani government announced that Bhutto's arrest warrant had been withdrawn and that she was free to travel and to appear at public rallies. However, leaders of other opposition political parties remained prohibited from speaking in public.\n\nPreparation for 2008 elections\n\nOn 2 November 2007, Bhutto participated in an interview with David Frost on Al Jazeera, stating Osama Bin Laden had been murdered by Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, who is one of the men convicted of kidnapping and killing U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl. Frost never asked a follow up question regarding the claim that Bin Laden was dead. Her interview could later be viewed on BBC's website, although it was initially altered by the BBC as her apparent claim about Bin Laden's death was taken out. But, once people discovered this and started posting about her statement on YouTube, the BBC replaced its version with the version that was originally aired on Al Jazeera. Several commentators have noted that as she had just been speaking about one of the sons of bin Laden, in all likelihood, Bhutto simply misspoke and instead intended to say, \"Omar Sheikh, the man who murdered Daniel Pearl,\" rather than \"...the man who murdered bin Laden\" – such an important revelation about bin Laden's fate would certainly not have been stated so casually. Additionally, in subsequent interviews, Bhutto spoke about bin Laden in the context of him being alive.\n\nOn 24 November 2007, Bhutto filed her nomination papers for January's Parliamentary elections; two days later, she filed papers in the Larkana constituency for two regular seats. She did so as former Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, following seven years of exile in Saudi Arabia, made his much-contested return to Pakistan and bid for candidacy. \n\nWhen sworn in again on 30 November 2007, this time as a civilian president after relinquishing his post as military chief, Musharraf announced his plan to lift the Pakistan's state of emergency rule on 16 December. Bhutto welcomed the announcement and launched a manifesto outlining her party's domestic issues. Bhutto told journalists in Islamabad that her party, the PPP, would focus on \"the five E's\": employment, education, energy, environment, equality. \n\nOn 4 December 2007, Bhutto met with Nawaz Sharif to publicise their demand that Musharraf fulfill his promise to lift the state of emergency before January's parliamentary elections, threatening to boycott the vote if he failed to comply. They promised to assemble a committee that would present to Musharraf the list of demands upon which their participation in the election was contingent. \n\nOn 8 December 2007, three unidentified gunmen stormed Bhutto's PPP office in the southern western province of Balochistan. Three of Bhutto's supporters were killed. \n\nAssassination\n\nOn 27 December 2007, Benazir Bhutto was killed while leaving a campaign rally for the PPP at Liaquat National Bagh in the run-up to the January 2008 parliamentary elections. After entering her bulletproof vehicle, Bhutto stood up through its sunroof to wave to the crowds. At this point, a gunman fired shots at her, and subsequently explosives were detonated near the vehicle killing approximately 20 people. Bhutto was critically wounded and was rushed to Rawalpindi General Hospital. She was taken into surgery at 17:35 local time, and pronounced dead at 18:16. The cause of death, whether it was gunshot wounds, the explosion, or a combination thereof, was not fully determined until February 2008. Eventually, Scotland Yard investigators concluded that it was due to blunt force trauma to the head as she was tossed by the explosion. She was buried next to her father in the Bhutto family mausoleum, Garhi Khuda Baksh, her family graveyard near Larkana. \n\nThe events leading up to Benazir Bhutto's death correlated with the protest in 1992. In December, Bhutto met with Nawaz Sharif and expressed frustration with their government. In response, a rally was conducted in Rawalpindi, the same place as 1992.\n\nAl-Qaeda commander Mustafa Abu al-Yazid claimed responsibility for the attack, and the Pakistani government stated that it had proof that Baitullah Mehsud, affiliated with Lashkar i Jhangvi—an al-Qaeda-linked militant group—was the mastermind. However this was vigorously disputed by the Bhutto family, the PPP that Bhutto had headed, and by Mehsud. On 12 February 2011, an Anti-Terrorism Court in Rawalpindi issued an arrest warrant for Musharraf, claiming he was aware of an impending assassination attempt by the Taliban, but did not pass the information on to those responsible for protecting Bhutto. After the assassination, there were initially a number of riots resulting in approximately 20 deaths, of which three were of police officers. President Musharraf decreed a three-day period of mourning.\n\nBhutto's 19-year-old son Bilawal Bhutto Zardari succeeded his mother as titular head of the PPP, with his father effectively running the party until his son completes his studies at Christ Church, Oxford. \n\nOn 26 April 2013 a court ordered house arrest for Musharraf in connection with the death of Bhutto, and on 3 May 2013, Chaudhry Zulfiqar Ali, the special prosecutor in charge of the investigation of Bhutto's murder was killed in Islamabad when attackers on a motorcycle sprayed his car with bullets as he drove to the courthouse.\n\nControversies\n\nAtomic proliferation with North Korea\n\nThe defence cooperation between North Korea and Pakistan started sometime in 1994 and the country led by Benazir Bhutto and her personal role had a much deeper and more controversial role in North Korea's nuclear programme. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had lasting friendship with Kim Il-sung— founder of the North Korean communist state. In a state visit paid by Benazir Bhutto in 1994, Benazir Bhutto closed the deal with the transfer of North Korean missile technology in return of nuclear technology, an allegation Benazir Bhutto had strongly dismissed. According to Zahid Hussain, author of \"Frontline Pakistan\", there was a huge respect for Benazir Bhutto in the North Korean military, and they persuaded Bhutto to go and meet with Kim Jong-il.\n\nShyam Bhatia, an Indian journalist, alleged in his book Goodbye Shahzadi that in 1993, Bhutto had downloaded secret information on uranium enrichment, through Pakistan's former top scientist Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, to give to North Korea in exchange for information on developing ballistic missiles (Rodong-1) and that Benazir Bhutto had asked him to not tell the story during her lifetime. David Albright of the Institute of Science and International Security said the allegations \"made sense\" given the timeline of North Korea's nuclear program. George Perkovich of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace called Bhatia a \"smart and serious guy.\" Selig Harrison of the Center for International Policy called Bhatia \"credible on Bhutto.\" The officials at the Pakistan Embassy in Washington, D.C. sharply denied the claims and the senior U.S. State Department officials dismissed them, insisting that, Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, who had been earlier accused of proliferating secrets to North Korea (only to deny them later, prior to Bhatia's book), was the source, in spite of Pakistan Government's denial. In 2012, senior scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan, summed up to The News International that \"the transfer of atomic technology was not so easy that one could put it into his pocket and hand it over to another country.\" Abdul Qadeer Khan also asserted that: \"The-then prime minister (Mohtarma) Benazir Bhutto summoned me and named the two countries which were to be assisted and issued clear directions in this regard.\" \n\nThe members of PPP and the government itself strongly dismissed all the \"allegations\" made by Qadeer Khan regarding Benazir Bhutto's role in atomic proliferation. The Foreign Office categorically rejected Qadeer Khan's claim, and maintained to the fact that \"the proliferation activity was an individual act, and did not carry authorization of any Pakistan Government, at any stage.\" The spokesperson of peoples party, Farhatullah Babar, also rebutted the claims as \"a desperate attempt to wash his own guilt.\" \n\nPosition on 1998 tests\n\nIn May 1998, India detonated its five nuclear devices in the Pokhran test range, and established itself as the world's sixth nuclear power. The Bhutto-headed Central Executive Committee of the PPP publicly called for Pakistan's nuclear tests in response. It was later confirmed that Bhutto and the PPP had political gains for the calls of conducting atomic tests to increase their popularity numbers on the country's political scoring board, which had been shattered in the 1996 scandals. However, Bhutto's calls for the tests gained momentum on Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to order and authorise the nuclear testing programme, which bloomed the Prime minister's reputation at a record level, despite Bhutto being first to publicly call for them.\n\nIn recent declassified and undated papers released by Wikileaks in 2011, Bhutto falsely assured the American diplomats that she was against conducting nuclear tests, as the similar assurances given by Nawaz Sharif to American diplomats. But it later turns out that Bhutto did not keep to that commitment and made another public calls for Pakistan to conduct tests in reply to Indian nuclear tests (see Pokhran-II). Bhutto justified that the \"eat grass\" statements – frequently used by her father Zulfikar Bhutto and rival Nawaz Sharif – have been used to assure people of Pakistan that austerity measures would be adopted but national security would not be compromised. In an undated leaks, Bhutto was sought by the American diplomats multiple times to soften her stance and support for nuclear tests, and cautioned Bhutto that her reaction to India's tests had been criticized in the West media. At that meeting, Bhutto and her party's elite officials notified the senior U.S. diplomats that \"PPP publicly state that the issue of tests was too important to be used as a \"political football\". While talking to an unnamed American diplomat, Bhutto said that: \"The time for the test had passed and it would have a disastrous impact on Pakistan's national economy and an international reputation. She maintained and famously quoted: \"I cannot say these things publicly, but neither will I call for a (nuclear) detonation\".\n\nAfter observing the successful detonation and her rival's public speech, Bhutto calculated her rival's popularity in Pakistan after the Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had authorized the tests. Bhutto asserted that these tests \"had erased the existed doubts and fear from the minds of people of Pakistan who questioned Pakistan's deterrence capability after 1971 collapse\". \n\nLegacy\n\nCommenting on her legacy, William Dalrymple writes that \"it's wrong for the West simply to mourn Benazir Bhutto as a martyred democrat since her legacy was far murkier and more complex\".\n Despite her western and positive image in the world, Bhutto's controversial policies and support have made her legacy much more complicated. Benazir Bhutto failed to revert the controversial Hudood Ordinance — a controversial presidential ordinance which suppressed women's rights, making them subordinate to men. In 2009, the CBS News, described her legacy as \"mixed\", and commented that: \"it's only in death that she will become an icon—in some ways people will look at her accomplishments through rose-tinted glasses rather than remembering the corruption charges, her lack of achievements or how much she was manipulated by other people.\" In spite of criticism, Benazir Bhutto, the Iron Lady, remains respected among her rivals, and is often remembered with good wishes. Her rivals always referred to her as \"BB\" and have never called her by her actual name in accordance to her respect. Benazir Bhutto is often seen as a symbol of women's empowerment and today parties from across Pakistan's political spectrum allow women to be part of their organisation and to fully participate in elections.\n\nHer efforts and struggle to save her father and democracy remain a lasting legacy that is deeply respected among her rivals. The Pakistani government honored Bhutto on her birthday by renaming Islamabad's airport Benazir Bhutto International Airport, Muree Road of Rawalpindi as Benazir Bhutto Road and Rawalpindi General Hospital as Benazir Bhutto Hospital. Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani, a member of Bhutto's PPP, also asked President Pervez Musharraf to pardon convicts on death row on her birthday in honour of Bhutto.\n The city of Nawabshah in Sindh was renamed Benazirabad in her honour. A university in the Dir Upper district of NWFP was founded in her name. Benazir Income Support Program (BISP), a program which provides benefits to the poorest Pakistanis, is named after Bhutto. \n\nEponymous entities\n\n* Benazir Bhutto Hospital\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto City University\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University of Veterniary & Animal Sciences\n* Benazir Bhutto Shaheed University (Karachi)\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University (Sheringal)\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Dewan University\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University (Shaheed Benazirabad)\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University\n* Benazir Bhutto Shaheed University\n* Shaheed Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Medical University\n* Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Shaheed Medical College\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Medical College\n* Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Law College\n* Benazir Income Support Program\n* Benazir Bhutto International Airport\n* Benazir Bhutto Shaheed Youth Development Program\n* Shaheed Mohtarama Benazir Bhutto International Cricket Stadium\n* Shaheed Benazir Abad District\n* Benazirabad Town\n* Benazir Bhutto Road\n\nLiterary work\n\n* \n* \nDaughter of the East was also released as:\n* \n\nAt the time of Bhutto's death, the manuscript for her third book, to be called Reconciliation: Islam, Democracy and the West, had been received by HarperCollins. The book, written with Mark Siegel, was published in February 2008. \n* \n\nFootnotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bhutto, Zulfiqar Ali", "Dalai camp", "Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto", "Ali Bhutto", "Zulfikar Bhutto", "Quaid-e-Awam", "Zalfikar Ali Bhutto", "Zulfiqar 'Ali Bhutto", "Zulfi Bhutto", "Dalai Camp", "Zulfiqqar Ali Bhuttoo", "ذوالفقار علي ڀُٽو", "Zulfqar Bhutto", "Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali", "Zulfiqar Bhutto", "Zulfikar Ali Bhutto", "Zulifikar Bhutto", "ذوالفقار علی بھٹو", "Zulifiqar Ali Bhutto", "ZA Bhutto", "Z. A. 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Which form of death penalty was abolished by Francois Mitterrand?	tc_1339	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Capital_punishment.txt" ], "title": [ "Capital punishment" ], "wiki_context": [ "Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, whereas the act of carrying out the sentence is known as an execution. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offences. The term capital is derived from the Latin capitalis (\"of the head\", referring to execution by beheading).\n\nThirty-six countries actively practise capital punishment, 103 countries have completely abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes (while maintaining it for special circumstances such as war crimes), and 50 have abolished it de facto (have not used it for at least ten years or are under moratorium).\n\nCapital punishment is a matter of active controversy in various countries and states, and positions can vary within a single political ideology or cultural region. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment. Also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members.\n\nThe United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012 and 2014 non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, with a view to eventual abolition. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the world's population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India, the United States and Indonesia. \n\nHistory\n\nExecution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime and to suppress political dissent. In most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries sexual crimes, such as rape, adultery, incest and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy in Islamic nations (the formal renunciation of the state religion). In many countries that use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. \n\nThe use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history. Most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment and execution. Usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, compensation or blood feuds.\n\nA blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour. \"Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished.\" However, in practice, it is often difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest.\n\nSevere historical penalties include breaking wheel, boiling to death, flaying, slow slicing, disembowelment, crucifixion, impalement, crushing (including crushing by elephant), stoning, execution by burning, dismemberment, sawing, decapitation, scaphism, necklacing or blowing from a gun.\n\nAncient history\n\nElaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system. Compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material (for example, cattle, slave) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or blood money or in some case an offer of a person for execution. The person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals. Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Norsemen things. Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (for example, trial by combat). One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the duel.\n\nIn certain parts of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged. These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties. Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nations. Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slave emerged. Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalized the relation between the different \"classes\" rather than \"tribes\". The earliest and most famous example is Code of Hammurabi which set the different punishment and compensation, according to the different class/group of victims and perpetrators. The Torah (Jewish Law), also known as the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Christian Old Testament), lays down the death penalty for murder, kidnapping, magic, violation of the Sabbath, blasphemy, and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence suggests that actual executions were rare. \n\nA further example comes from Ancient Greece, where the Athenian legal system was first written down by Draco in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes, though Solon later repealed Draco's code and published new laws, retaining only Draco's homicide statutes. The word draconian derives from Draco's laws. The Romans also used death penalty for a wide range of offences.\n\nTang dynasty\n\nAlthough many are executed in the People's Republic of China each year in the present day, there was a time in the Tang dynasty when the death penalty was abolished. This was in the year 747, enacted by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756). When abolishing the death penalty Xuanzong ordered his officials to refer to the nearest regulation by analogy when sentencing those found guilty of crimes for which the prescribed punishment was execution. Thus depending on the severity of the crime a punishment of severe scourging with the thick rod or of exile to the remote Lingnan region might take the place of capital punishment. However, the death penalty was restored only 12 years later in 759 in response to the An Lushan Rebellion. At this time in the Tang dynasty only the emperor had the authority to sentence criminals to execution. Under Xuanzong capital punishment was relatively infrequent, with only 24 executions in the year 730 and 58 executions in the year 736.\n\nThe two most common forms of execution in the Tang dynasty were strangulation and decapitation, which were the prescribed methods of execution for 144 and 89 offences respectively. Strangulation was the prescribed sentence for lodging an accusation against one's parents or grandparents with a magistrate, scheming to kidnap a person and sell them into slavery and opening a coffin while desecrating a tomb. Decapitation was the method of execution prescribed for more serious crimes such as treason and sedition. Despite the great discomfort involved, most of the Tang Chinese preferred strangulation to decapitation, as a result of the traditional Tang Chinese belief that the body is a gift from the parents and that it is, therefore, disrespectful to one's ancestors to die without returning one's body to the grave intact.\n\nSome further forms of capital punishment were practised in the Tang dynasty, of which the first two that follow at least were extralegal. The first of these was scourging to death with the thick rod which was common throughout the Tang dynasty especially in cases of gross corruption. The second was truncation, in which the convicted person was cut in two at the waist with a fodder knife and then left to bleed to death.Benn, p. 210 A further form of execution called Ling Chi (slow slicing), or death by/of a thousand cuts, was used from the close of the Tang dynasty (around 900) to its abolition in 1905.\n\nWhen a minister of the fifth grade or above received a death sentence the emperor might grant him a special dispensation allowing him to commit suicide in lieu of execution. Even when this privilege was not granted, the law required that the condemned minister be provided with food and ale by his keepers and transported to the execution ground in a cart rather than having to walk there.\n\nNearly all executions under the Tang dynasty took place in public as a warning to the population. The heads of the executed were displayed on poles or spears. When local authorities decapitated a convicted criminal, the head was boxed and sent to the capital as proof of identity and that the execution had taken place.\n\nMiddle Ages\n\nIn medieval and early modern Europe, before the development of modern prison systems, the death penalty was also used as a generalized form of punishment. During the reign of Henry VIII of England, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed. \n\nDuring early modern Europe, a massive moral panic regarding witchcraft swept across Europe and later the European colonies in North America. During this period, there were widespread claims that malevolent Satanic witches were operating as an organized threat to Christendom. As a result, tens of thousands of women were prosecuted and executed through the witch trials of the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries).\n\nThe death penalty also targeted sexual offences such as sodomy. In England, the Buggery Act 1533 stipulated hanging as punishment for \"buggery\". James Pratt and John Smith were the last two Englishmen to be executed for sodomy in 1835. \n\nDespite the wide use of the death penalty, calls for reform were not unknown. The 12th century Jewish legal scholar, Moses Maimonides, wrote, \"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent man to death.\" He argued that executing an accused criminal on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely \"according to the judge's caprice\". Maimonides's concern was maintaining popular respect for law, and he saw errors of commission as much more threatening than errors of omission. \n\nIslam on the whole accepts capital punishment, and the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad, such as Al-Mu'tadid, were often cruel in their punishments. For hudud crimes such as zina (consensual extramarital or homosexual sex) and apostasy (leaving Islam and converting to another religion), Sharia requires capital punishment in public, while for crimes such as murder and manslaughter, the victim's family can either seek execution (Qisas) or can choose to spare the life of the killer in exchange for blood money restitution (Diyya). \n\nModern era\n\nIn the last several centuries, with the emergence of modern nation states, justice came to be increasingly associated with the concept of natural and legal rights. The period saw an increase in standing police forces and permanent penitential institutions. Rational choice theory, a utilitarian approach to criminology which justifies punishment as a form of deterrence as opposed to retribution, can be traced back to Cesare Beccaria, whose influential treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764) was the first detailed analysis of capital punishment to demand the abolition of the death penalty. Jeremy Bentham, regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, also called for the abolition of the death penalty. Beccaria, and later Charles Dickens and Karl Marx noted the incidence of increased violent criminality at the times and places of executions. Official recognition of this phenomenon led to executions being carried out inside prisons, away from public view.\n\nIn England in the 18th century, when there was no police force, there was a large increase in the number of capital offences to more than 200. These were mainly property offences, for example cutting down a cherry tree in an orchard. In 1820, there were 160, including crimes such as shoplifting, petty theft or stealing cattle. The severity of the so-called Bloody Code was often tempered by juries who refused to convict, or judges, in the case of petty theft, who arbitrarily set the value stolen at below the statutory level for a capital crime. \n\nContemporary era\n\nThe 20th century was a violent period. Tens of millions were killed in wars between nation-states as well as genocide perpetrated by nation states against political opponents (both perceived and actual), ethnic and religious minorities; the Turkish assault on the Armenians, Hitler's attempt to exterminate the European Jews, the Khmer Rouge decimation of Cambodia, the massacre of the Tutsis in Rwanda, to cite four of the most notorious examples. A large part of execution was the summary execution of enemy combatants. In Nazi Germany there were three types of capital punishment; hanging, decapitation and death by shooting. Also, modern military organisations employed capital punishment as a means of maintaining military discipline. The Soviets, for example, executed 158,000 soldiers for desertion during World War II. In the past, cowardice, absence without leave, desertion, insubordination, looting, shirking under enemy fire and disobeying orders were often crimes punishable by death (see decimation and running the gauntlet). One method of execution, since firearms came into common use, has also been firing squad, although some countries use execution with a single shot to the head or neck.\n\nVarious authoritarian states— for example those with fascist or Communist governments—employed the death penalty as a potent means of political oppression. According to Robert Conquest, the leading expert on Stalin's purges, more than 1 million Soviet citizens were executed during the Great Terror of 1937–38, almost all by a bullet to the back of the head. Mao Zedong publicly stated that \"800,000\" people had been executed after the Communist Party's victory in 1949. Partly as a response to such excesses, civil rights organizations have started to place increasing emphasis on the concept of human rights and an abolition of the death penalty.\n\nAmong countries around the world, almost all European and many Pacific Area states (including Australia, New Zealand and Timor Leste), and Canada have abolished capital punishment. In Latin America, most states have completely abolished the use of capital punishment while some countries, such as Brazil, allow for capital punishment only in exceptional situations, such as treason committed during wartime. The United States (the federal government and 32 of the states), Guatemala, most of the Caribbean and the majority of democracies in Asia (for example, Japan and India) and Africa (for example, Botswana and Zambia) retain it. South Africa's Constitutional Court, in judgment of the case of State v Makwanyane and Another, unanimously abolished the death penalty on 6 June 1995.\n\nAbolition was often adopted due to political change, as when countries shifted from authoritarianism to democracy, or when it became an entry condition for the European Union. The United States is a notable exception: some states have had bans on capital punishment for decades, the earliest is Michigan, where it was abolished in 1846, while others actively use it today. The death penalty there remains a contentious issue which is hotly debated.\n\nIn abolitionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived by particularly brutal murders though few countries have brought it back after abolishing it. However, a spike in serious, violent crimes, such as murders or terrorist attacks, has prompted some countries (such as Sri Lanka and Jamaica) to effectively end the moratorium on the death penalty. In retention countries, the debate is sometimes revived when a miscarriage of justice has occurred though this tends to cause legislative efforts to improve the judicial process rather than to abolish the death penalty.\n\nModern-day public opinion\n\nThe public opinion on the death penalty varies considerably by country and by the crime in question. Countries where a majority of people are against execution include New Zealand, where 55 percent of the population oppose its use, Australia where only 23 percent support the death penalty, and Norway where only 25 percent are in favour. Most French, Finns and Italians also oppose the death penalty. A 2010 Gallup poll shows that 64% of Americans support the death penalty for someone convicted of murder, down from 65% in 2006 and 68% in 2001. \n\nUse of capital punishment is growing in India in the 2010s due to both a growth in right wing politics and due to anger over several recent brutal cases of rape. While support for the death penalty for murder is still high in China, executions have dropped precipitously, with 3,000 executed in 2012 versus 12,000 in 2002. A poll in South Africa found that 76 percent of millennium generation South Africans support re-introduction of the death penalty, which is abolished in South Africa. \n\nMovements towards non-painful execution\n\nTrends in most of the world have long been to move to less painful, or more humane, executions. France developed the guillotine for this reason in the final years of the 18th century, while Britain banned drawing and quartering in the early 19th century. Hanging by turning the victim off a ladder or by kicking a stool or a bucket, which causes death by suffocation, was replaced by long drop \"hanging\" where the subject is dropped a longer distance to dislocate the neck and sever the spinal cord. The Shah of Persia introduced throat-cutting and blowing from a gun as quick and painless alternatives to more torturous methods of executions used at that time. In the U.S., the electric chair and the gas chamber were introduced as more humane alternatives to hanging, but have been almost entirely superseded by lethal injection. A small number of countries still employ slow hanging methods and stoning.\n\nA study of executions carried out in the U.S. between 1977 and 2001 indicated that at least 34 of the 749 executions, or 4.5%, involved \"unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner.\" The rate of these \"botched executions\" remained steady over the period of the study. A separate study published in The Lancet in 2005 found that in 43% of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics was insufficient to guarantee unconsciousness. However, the US Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (Baze v. Rees) that lethal injection is a constitutional form of punishment, and again in 2015 (Glossip v. Gross).\n\nAbolition of capital punishment\n\nMany countries have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice. Since World War II there has been a trend toward abolishing capital punishment. Capital punishment has been completely abolished by 103 countries, a further 6 have done so for all offences except under special circumstances and 50 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years or are under a moratorium.\n\nThe death penalty was banned in China between 747 and 759. In Japan, Emperor Saga abolished the death penalty in 818 under the influence of Shinto and it lasted until 1156. \n\nIn England, a public statement of opposition was included in The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards, written in 1395. Sir Thomas More's Utopia, published in 1516, debated the benefits of the death penalty in dialogue form, coming to no firm conclusion. More recent opposition to the death penalty stemmed from the book of the Italian Cesare Beccaria Dei Delitti e Delle Pene (\"On Crimes and Punishments\"), published in 1764. In this book, Beccaria aimed to demonstrate not only the injustice, but even the futility from the point of view of social welfare, of torture and the death penalty. Influenced by the book, Grand Duke Leopold II of Habsburg, famous enlightened monarch and future Emperor of Austria, abolished the death penalty in the then-independent Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the first permanent abolition in modern times. On 30 November 1786, after having de facto blocked capital executions (the last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. In 2000, Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on 30 November to commemorate the event. The event is commemorated on this day by 300 cities around the world celebrating Cities for Life Day.\n\nThe Roman Republic banned capital punishment in 1849. Venezuela followed suit and abolished the death penalty in 1854 and San Marino did so in 1865. The last execution in San Marino had taken place in 1468. In Portugal, after legislative proposals in 1852 and 1863, the death penalty was abolished in 1867.\n\nAbolition occurred in Canada in 1976 (except for some military offences, with complete abolition in 1998), in France in 1981, and in Australia in 1973 (although the state of Western Australia retained the penalty until 1984). In 1977, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed in a formal resolution that throughout the world, it is desirable to \"progressively restrict the number of offences for which the death penalty might be imposed, with a view to the desirability of abolishing this punishment\". \n\nIn the United Kingdom, it was abolished for murder (leaving only treason, piracy with violence, arson in royal dockyards and a number of wartime military offences as capital crimes) for a five-year experiment in 1965 and permanently in 1969, the last execution having taken place in 1964. It was abolished for all peacetime offences in 1998. \n\nIn the United States, Michigan was the first state to ban the death penalty, on 18 May 1846. The death penalty was declared unconstitutional between 1972 and 1976 based on the Furman v. Georgia case, but the 1976 Gregg v. Georgia case once again permitted the death penalty under certain circumstances. Further limitations were placed on the death penalty in Atkins v. Virginia (death penalty unconstitutional for people with an intellectual disability) and Roper v. Simmons (death penalty unconstitutional if defendant was under age 18 at the time the crime was committed). In the United States, 18 states and the District of Columbia ban capital punishment.\n\nOne of the latest countries to abolish the death penalty for all crimes was Gabon, in February 2010. \n\nAbolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and capital punishment violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture. Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it \"cruel, inhuman, and degrading punishment\". Amnesty International considers it to be \"the ultimate, irreversible denial of Human Rights\". \n\nSee also: Capital punishment abolition chronology.\n\nContemporary use\n\nCapital punishment by country\n\nMost countries including almost all First World nations have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice. Notable exceptions are the United States, China, North Korea, Japan, and most Islamic states. The U.S. is the only Western country to use the death penalty. \n\nSince World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing the death penalty. 36 countries retain the death penalty in active use, 103 countries have abolished capital punishment altogether, six have done so for all offences except under special circumstances, and 50 have abolished it in practice because they had not used it for at least ten years or are under a moratorium.\n\nAccording to Amnesty International, 25 countries are known to have performed executions in 2015, three more than in 2014. There are countries which do not publish information on the use of capital punishment, most significantly China and North Korea.\n\nThe use of the death penalty is becoming increasingly restrained in some retentionist countries including Taiwan and Singapore. Indonesia carried out no executions between November 2008 and March 2013. Japan and the United States are the only developed countries that are classified by Amnesty International as 'retentionist' (South Korea is classified as 'abolitionist in practice'). Nearly all retentionist countries are situated in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean. The only retentionist country in Europe is Belarus. The death penalty was overwhelmingly practised in poor and authoritarian states, which often employed the death penalty as a tool of political oppression. During the 1980s, the democratisation of Latin America swelled the ranks of abolitionist countries.\n\nThis was soon followed by the fall of Communism in Europe. Many of the countries which restored democracy aspired to enter the EU. The European Union and the Council of Europe both strictly require member states not to practise the death penalty (see Capital punishment in Europe). Public support for the death penalty in the EU varies. The last execution on the present day territory of the Council of Europe took place in 1997 in Ukraine. On the other hand, rapid industrialisation in Asia has been increasing the number of developed retentionist countries. In these countries, the death penalty enjoys strong public support, and the matter receives little attention from the government or the media; in China there is a small but growing movement to abolish the death penalty altogether. This trend has been followed by some African and Middle Eastern countries where support for the death penalty is high.\n\nSome countries have resumed practising the death penalty after having suspended executions for long periods. The United States suspended executions in 1972 but resumed them in 1976; there was no execution in India between 1995 and 2004; and Sri Lanka declared an end to its moratorium on the death penalty on 20 November 2004, although it has not yet performed any executions. The Philippines re-introduced the death penalty in 1993 after abolishing it in 1987, but abolished it again in 2006.\n\nThe United States and Japan are the only developed countries to have carried out executions. The federal government and 32 states have a valid death penalty statute, and over 1,400 executions have been carried in the country since it reinstated the death penalty in 1976, including 28 in 2015.\n\nThe most recent country to abolish the death penalty was Suriname in March 2015. \n\nJuvenile offenders\n\nThe death penalty for juvenile offenders (criminals aged under 18 years at the time of their crime) has become increasingly rare. Considering the age of majority is still not 18 in some countries, since 1990 nine countries have executed offenders who were juveniles at the time of their crimes: The People's Republic of China (PRC), Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United States, and Yemen. The PRC, Pakistan, the United States, Yemen and Iran have since raised the minimum age to 18. Amnesty International has recorded 61 verified executions since then, in several countries, of both juveniles and adults who had been convicted of committing their offences as juveniles. The PRC does not allow for the execution of those under 18, but child executions have reportedly taken place. \n\nStarting in 1642 within British America, an estimated 365 juvenile offenders were executed by the states and federal government of the United States. The United States Supreme Court abolished capital punishment for offenders under the age of 16 in Thompson v. Oklahoma (1988), and for all juveniles in Roper v. Simmons (2005).\n\nBetween 2005 and May 2008, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen were reported to have executed child offenders, the most being from Iran. \n\nThe United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which forbids capital punishment for juveniles under article 37(a), has been signed by all countries and ratified, except for Somalia and the United States (notwithstanding the latter's Supreme Court decisions abolishing the practice). The UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights maintains that the death penalty for juveniles has become contrary to a jus cogens of customary international law. A majority of countries are also party to the U.N. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (whose Article 6.5 also states that \"Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age...\").\n\nIran, despite its ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, was the world's largest executioner of juvenile offenders, for which it has received international condemnation; the country's record is the focus of the Stop Child Executions Campaign. But on 10 February 2012, Iran's parliament changed the controversial law of executing juveniles. In the new law, the age of 18 (solar year) would be for both genders considered and juvenile offenders will be sentenced on a separate law than of adults. Based on the Islamic law which now seems to have been revised, girls at the age of 9 and boys at 15 of lunar year (11 days shorter than a solar year) were fully responsible for their crimes. Iran accounted for two-thirds of the global total of such executions, and currently has roughly 140 people on death row for crimes committed as juveniles (up from 71 in 2007).[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-09-17-child-executions_N.htm Iranian activists fight child executions], Ali Akbar Dareini, Associated Press, 17 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-22. The past executions of Mahmoud Asgari, Ayaz Marhoni and Makwan Moloudzadeh became international symbols of Iran's child capital punishment and the judicial system that hands down such sentences. \n\nSaudi Arabia also executes criminals who were minors at the time of the offence. In 2013, Saudi Arabia was the center of an international controversy after it executed Rizana Nafeek, a Sri Lankan domestic worker, who was believed to have been 17 years old at the time of the crime. \n\nThere is evidence that child executions are taking place in the parts of Somalia controlled by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). In October 2008, a girl, Aisho Ibrahim Dhuhulow was buried up to her neck at a football stadium, then stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people. Somalia's established Transitional Federal Government announced in November 2009 (reiterated in 2013) that it plans to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child. This move was lauded by UNICEF as a welcome attempt to secure children's rights in the country. \n\nMethods\n\nThe following methods of execution were used in 2015: \n\n* Hanging (Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Palestinian National Authority, Yemen, Egypt, India, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Liberia, Chad, Washington state in the USA)\n* Shooting (the People's Republic of China, Republic of China, Vietnam, Belarus, North Korea, Indonesia, Yemen, and in the U.S. states of Oklahoma and Utah).\n* Lethal injection (United States, Guatemala, Thailand, the People's Republic of China, Vietnam)\n* Electrocution and gas inhalation (some U.S. states, but only if the prisoner request it or if lethal injection is unavailable)\n* Beheading (Saudi Arabia)\n\nPublic execution\n\nA public execution is a form of capital punishment in which \"members of the general public may voluntarily attend\". The standard definition normally excludes the presence of a limited number of \"passive citizens\" that \"witness the event to assure executive accountability\". While today the great majority of the world considers public executions to be uncivilized and distasteful and most countries have outlawed the practice, throughout much of history executions were performed publicly as a means for the state to demonstrate \"its power before those who fell under its jurisdiction be they criminals, enemies, or political opponents\". Additionally, it afforded the public a chance to witness \"what was considered a great spectacle\". \n\nAccording to Amnesty International, in 2012 \"public executions were known to have been carried out in Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Somalia\". Public executions have also taken place in Hamas-controlled Gaza. \n\nCapital crime\n\nCrimes against humanity\n\nCrimes against humanity such as genocide are usually punished by the death penalty in countries retaining it. Death sentences were handed down and carried out during the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 and the Tokyo Trials in 1948, but the current International Criminal Court doesn't uses capital punishment, life imprisonment being the highest penalty available.\n\nMurder\n\nIntentional homicide is punishable by death in most countries retaining capital punishment, but generally provided it involves an aggravating factor required by statute or judicial precedents.\n\nDrug trafficking\n\nSome countries provide the death penalty for drug trafficking, mostly in Asia. Among countries who regularly execute drug offenders are China, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Singapore.\n\nOther offences\n\nOther crimes that are punishable by death include treason, and other graves crimes against the state (most countries with the death penalty), rape (China, Iran, Saudi Arabia), economic crimes (China), adultery, sodomy, religious offences such as apostasy (many Islamic countries), blasphemy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan), and forms of aggravated robbery (Saudi Arabia, Kenya, Zambia).\n\nControversy and debate\n\nCapital punishment is controversial. Death penalty opponents regard the death penalty as inhumane and criticize it for its irreversibility. They assert also that capital punishment lacks deterrent effect, discriminates against minorities and the poor, and that it encourages a \"culture of violence\". There are many organizations worldwide, such as Amnesty International, and country-specific, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), that have abolition of the death penalty as a fundamental purpose. \n\nAdvocates of the death penalty argue that it deters crime, is a good tool for police and prosecutors (in plea bargaining for example), makes sure that convicted criminals do not offend again, and is a just penalty for atrocious crimes. \n\nRetribution\n\nSupporters of the death penalty argued that death penalty is morally justified when applied in murder especially with aggravating elements such as for murder of law enforcement officers, child murder, torture murder, multiple homicide and mass killing such as terrorism, massacre and genocide. This argument is strongly defended by New York Law School's Professor Robert Blecker, who says that the punishment must be painful in proportion to the crime. 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant defended a more extreme position, according to which every murderer deserves to die on the grounds that loss of life is incomparable to any jail term. \n\nSome abolitionists argue that retribution is simply revenge and cannot be condoned. Others while accepting retribution as an element of criminal justice nonetheless argue that life without parole is a sufficient substitute. It is also argued that the punishing of a killing with another death is a relatively unique punishment for a violent act, because in general violent crimes are not punished by subjecting the perpetrator to a similar act (e.g. rapists are not punished by corporal punishment). \n\nHuman rights\n\nAbolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and capital punishment violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture. Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it \"cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment\". Amnesty International considers it to be \"the ultimate irreversible denial of Human Rights\". Albert Camus wrote in a 1956 book called Reflections on the Guillotine, Resistance, Rebellion & Death:\n\nIn the classic doctrine of natural rights as expounded by for instance Locke and Blackstone, on the other hand, it is an important idea that the right to life can be forfeited.Joel Feinberg: [http://www.tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/feinberg80.pdf Voluntary Euthanasia and the Inalienable Right to Life] The Tanner Lecture on Human Values, 1 April 1977. As John Stuart Mill explained in a speech against an amendment to abolish capital punishment for murder in 1868:\n\nWrongful execution\n\nIt is frequently argued that capital punishment leads to miscarriage of justice through the wrongful execution of innocent persons. Many people have been proclaimed innocent victims of the death penalty.[http://capitaldefenseweekly.com/innocent.html Capital Defense Weekly] \n\nSome have claimed that as many as 39 executions have been carried out in the face of compelling evidence of innocence or serious doubt about guilt in the US from 1992 through 2004. Newly available DNA evidence prevented the pending execution of more than 15 death row inmates during the same period in the US, but DNA evidence is only available in a fraction of capital cases. As of 2010, 139 prisoners on death row have been exonerated by DNA or other evidence, which is seen as an indication that innocent prisoners have almost certainly been executed. \n\nImproper procedure may also result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore \"the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift the burden of proof from the prosecution to the accused. This conflicts with the universally guaranteed right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty\". This refers to a situation when someone is being caught with drugs. In this situation, in almost any jurisdiction, the prosecution has a prima facie case.\n\nSince the death penalty reinstatement in the United States during the 1970s, no inmate executed has been granted posthumous exoneration. \n\nRacial, ethnic and social class bias\n\nOpponents of the death penalty argue that this punishment is being used more often against perpetrators from racial and ethnic minorities and from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, than against those criminals who come from a privileged background; and that the background of the victim also influences the outcome. Researchers have shown that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty when told that it is mostly applied to African Americans, and that more stereotypically black-looking defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death if the case involves a white victim. \n\nSupporters of the death penalty retort that the over-representation of minorities among those sentenced to death only reflects their over-representation among criminals in general. \n\nInternational views\n\nThe United Nations introduced a resolution during the General Assembly's 62nd sessions in 2007 calling for a universal ban. The approval of a draft resolution by the Assembly's third committee, which deals with human rights issues, voted 99 to 52, with 33 abstentions, in favour of the resolution on 15 November 2007 and was put to a vote in the Assembly on 18 December. \n\nAgain in 2008, a large majority of states from all regions adopted a second resolution calling for a moratorium on the use of the death penalty in the UN General Assembly (Third Committee) on 20 November. 105 countries voted in favour of the draft resolution, 48 voted against and 31 abstained.\n\nA range of amendments proposed by a small minority of pro-death penalty countries were overwhelmingly defeated. It had in 2007 passed a non-binding resolution (by 104 to 54, with 29 abstentions) by asking its member states for \"a moratorium on executions with a view to abolishing the death penalty\". \n\nA number of regional conventions prohibit the death penalty, most notably, the Sixth Protocol (abolition in time of peace) and the 13th Protocol (abolition in all circumstances) to the European Convention on Human Rights. The same is also stated under the Second Protocol in the American Convention on Human Rights, which, however has not been ratified by all countries in the Americas, most notably Canada and the United States. Most relevant operative international treaties do not require its prohibition for cases of serious crime, most notably, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. This instead has, in common with several other treaties, an optional protocol prohibiting capital punishment and promoting its wider abolition. \n\nSeveral international organizations have made the abolition of the death penalty (during time of peace) a requirement of membership, most notably the European Union (EU) and the Council of Europe. The EU and the Council of Europe are willing to accept a moratorium as an interim measure. Thus, while Russia is a member of the Council of Europe, and the death penalty remains codified in its law, it has not made use of it since becoming a member of the Council – Russia has not executed anyone since 1996. With the exception of Russia (abolitionist in practice), Kazakhstan (abolitionist for ordinary crimes only), and Belarus (retentionist), all European countries are classified as abolitionist.\n\nLatvia abolished de jure the death penalty for war crimes in 2012, becoming the last EU member to do so. \n\nThe [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT187&CM\n&DF&CL\nENG Protocol no.13] calls for the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances (including for war crimes). The majority of European countries have signed and ratified it. Some European countries have not done this, but all of them except Belarus and Kazakhstan have now abolished the death penalty in all circumstances (de jure, and Russia de facto). Poland is the most recent country to ratify the protocol, on 28 August 2013. \n\nThe [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT114&CM\n&DF&CL\nENG Protocol no.6] which prohibits the death penalty during peacetime has been ratified by all members of the European Council, except Russia (which has signed, but not ratified).\n\nThere are also other international abolitionist instruments, such as the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which has 81 parties; and the [http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-53.html Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty] (for the Americas; ratified by 13 states). \n\nIn Turkey, over 500 people were sentenced to death after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état. About 50 of them were executed, the last one 25 October 1984. Then there was a de facto moratorium on the death penalty in Turkey. As a move towards EU membership, Turkey made some legal changes. The death penalty was removed from peacetime law by the National Assembly in August 2002, and in May 2004 Turkey amended its constitution in order to remove capital punishment in all circumstances. It ratified Protocol no. 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights in February 2006. As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice, all states but Russia, which has entered a moratorium, having ratified the Sixth Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, with the sole exception of Belarus, which is not a member of the Council of Europe. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has been lobbying for Council of Europe observer states who practise the death penalty, the U.S. and Japan, to abolish it or lose their observer status. In addition to banning capital punishment for EU member states, the EU has also banned detainee transfers in cases where the receiving party may seek the death penalty. \n\nSub-Saharan African countries that have recently abolished the death penalty include Burundi, which abolished the death penalty for all crimes in 2009, and Gabon which did the same in 2010. On 5 July 2012, Benin became part of the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which prohibits the use of the death penalty. \n\nThe newly created South Sudan is among the 111 UN member states that supported the resolution passed by the United Nations General Assembly that called for the removal of the death penalty, therefore affirming its opposition to the practice. South Sudan, however, has not yet abolished the death penalty and stated that it must first amend its Constitution, and until that happens it will continue to use the death penalty. \n\nAmong non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch are noted for their opposition to capital punishment. A number of such NGOs, as well as trade unions, local councils and bar associations formed a World Coalition Against the Death Penalty in 2002.\n\nReligious views\n\nThe world's major religions have mixed opinions on the death penalty, depending on the sect, the individual believer, and the time period.\n\nBuddhism\n\nThere is disagreement among Buddhists as to whether or not Buddhism forbids the death penalty. The first of the Five Precepts (Panca-sila) is to abstain from destruction of life. Chapter 10 of the Dhammapada states:\n\nEveryone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore you do not kill or cause to be killed. \n\nChapter 26, the final chapter of the Dhammapada, states, \"Him I call a brahmin who has put aside weapons and renounced violence toward all creatures. He neither kills nor helps others to kill.\" These sentences are interpreted by many Buddhists (especially in the West) as an injunction against supporting any legal measure which might lead to the death penalty. However, as is often the case with the interpretation of scripture, there is dispute on this matter. Historically, most states where the official religion is Buddhism have imposed capital punishment for some offences. One notable exception is the abolition of the death penalty by the Emperor Saga of Japan in 818. This lasted until 1165, although in private manors executions continued to be conducted as a form of retaliation. Japan still imposes the death penalty, although some recent justice ministers have refused to sign death warrants, citing their Buddhist beliefs as their reason. Other Buddhist-majority states vary in their policy. For example, Bhutan has abolished the death penalty, but Thailand still retains it, although Buddhism is the official religion in both. Mongolia abolished the death penalty in 2012.\n\nMany stories in Buddhist scripture stress the superior power of the Buddha's teaching to rehabilitate murderers and other criminals. The most well-known example is Angulimala in the Theravadan Pali canon who had killed 999 people and then attempted to kill his own mother and the Buddha, but under the influence of the Buddha he repented and entered the monkhood. The Buddha succeeded when the King and all his soldiers failed to eliminate the murderer by force. \n\nWithout one official teaching on the death penalty, Thai monks are typically divided on the issue, with some favoring abolition of the death penalty while others see it as bad karma stemming from bad actions in the past.\n \n\nIn the edicts of the great Buddhist king Ashoka (ca. 304–232 BC) inscribed on great pillars around his kingdom, the King showed reverence for all life by giving up the slaughtering of animals, and many of his subjects followed his example. King Ashoka also extended the period before execution of those condemned to death so they could make a final appeal for their lives.\n\nA close reading of texts in the Pali canon reveals different attitudes towards violence and capital punishment. The Pali scholar [http://salc.uchicago.edu/faculty/collins Steven Collins] finds Dhamma in the Pali canon divided into two categories according to the attitude taken towards violence. In Mode 1 Dhamma the use of violence is \"context-dependent and negotiable\". A King should not pass judgement in haste or anger, but the punishment should fit the crime, with warfare and capital punishment acceptable in certain situations. In Mode 2 Dhamma the use of violence is \"context-independent and non-negotiable\" and the only advice to kings is to abdicate, renounce the world and leave everything to the law of karma. Buddhism is incompatible with any form of violence especially warfare and capital punishment.\n \n\nIn the world that humans inhabit there is a continual tension between these two modes of Dhamma. This tension is best exhibited in the [http://www.basicbuddhism.org/index.cfm?GPID=29 Cakkavatti Sihanada Sutta] (Digha Nikaya 26 of the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon), the story of humanity's decline from a golden age in the past. A critical turning point comes when the King decides not to give money to a man who has committed theft, but instead to cut off his head and also to carry out this punishment in a particularly cruel and humiliating manner, parading him in public to the sound of drums as he is taken to the execution ground outside the city. In the wake of this decision by the king, thieves take to imitating the King's actions and murder the people from whom they steal to avoid detection. Thieves turn to highway robbery and attacking small villages and towns far away from the royal capital where they won't be detected. A downwards spiral towards social disorder and chaos has begun.\n \n\nChristianity\n\nViews on the death penalty in Christianity run a spectrum of opinions, from complete condemnation of the punishment, seeing it as a form of revenge and as contrary to Christ's message of forgiveness, to enthusiastic support based primarily on Old Testament law.\n\nAmong the teachings of Jesus Christ in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew, the message to his followers that one should \"Turn the other cheek\" and his example in the story Pericope Adulterae, in which Jesus intervenes in the stoning of an adulteress, are generally accepted as his condemnation of physical retaliation (though most scholars agree that the latter passage was \"certainly not part of the original text of St John's Gospel\" ). More militant Christians consider Romans 13:3–4 to support the death penalty. Many Christians have believed that Jesus' doctrine of peace speaks only to personal ethics and is distinct from civil government's duty to punish crime.\n\nIn the Old Testament, Leviticus provides a list of transgressions in which execution is recommended. Christian positions on these passages vary. The sixth commandment (fifth in the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches) is translated as \"Thou shalt not kill\" by some denominations and as \"Thou shalt not murder\" by others. As some denominations do not have a hard-line stance on the subject, Christians of such denominations are free to make a personal decision. \n\nEastern Orthodox Christianity does not officially condemn or endorse capital punishment. It states that it is not a totally objectionable thing, but also that its abolition can be driven by genuine Christian values, especially stressing the need for mercy. \n\nThe Rosicrucian Fellowship and many other Christian esoteric schools condemn capital punishment in all circumstances. \n\nRoman Catholic Church\n\nIn recent times, the Catholic Church has generally moved away from any explicit condoning or approval of the death penalty and has instead increasingly adopted a more disapproving stance on the issue. Many modern Church figures such as Pope John Paul II, Pope Francis, and the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops have in fact actively discouraged the death penalty or advocated for the out-right abolition of the death penalty. Historically and officially, however, the Catholic Church has held that, in certain cases, a legal system may be justified in levying a death sentence, as such a sentence may deter crime, may protect society from potential future acts of violence by an offender, may bring retribution for an offender's wrongful acts, and may even help the offender to move closer to reconciliation with God in the face of death. St. Thomas Aquinas, a Doctor of the Church, accepted the death penalty as a deterrent and prevention method but not as a means of vengeance. (See Aquinas on the death penalty.) In 1566, the Roman Catechism stated this teaching thus:\n\nAnother kind of lawful slaying belongs to the civil authorities, to whom is entrusted power of life and death, by the legal and judicious exercise of which they punish the guilty and protect the innocent. The just use of this power, far from involving the crime of murder, is an act of paramount obedience to this Commandment which prohibits murder. The end of the Commandment is the preservation and security of human life. Now the punishments inflicted by the civil authority, which is the legitimate avenger of crime, naturally tend to this end, since they give security to life by repressing outrage and violence. Hence these words of David: In the morning I put to death all the wicked of the land, that I might cut off all the workers of iniquity from the city of the Lord. \n\nThe 1911 edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia suggested that Catholics should hold that \"the infliction of capital punishment is not contrary to the teaching of the Catholic Church, and the power of the State to visit upon culprits the penalty of death derives much authority from revelation and from the writings of theologians\", but that the matter of \"the advisability of exercising that power is, of course, an affair to be determined upon other and various considerations.\" \n\nMore recently, however, in the 1995 Evangelium Vitae, Pope John Paul II suggested that capital punishment should be avoided unless it is the only way to defend society from the offender in question, opining that punishment \"ought not go to the extreme of executing the offender except in cases of absolute necessity: in other words, when it would not be possible otherwise to defend society. Today however, as a result of steady improvements in the organization of the penal system, such cases are very rare, if not practically non-existent.\" The most recent edition of the Catechism of the Catholic Church restates this view, and further states that:\n\nAssuming that the guilty party’s identity and responsibility have been fully determined, the traditional teaching of the Church does not exclude recourse to the death penalty if this is the only possible way of effectively defending human lives against the unjust aggressor. If, however, non-lethal means are sufficient to defend and protect people’s safety from the aggressor, authority will limit itself to such means, as these are more in keeping with the concrete conditions of the common good and more in conformity to the dignity of the human person.\n\nThat the assessment of the contemporary situation advanced by John Paul II is not binding on the Catholic faithful was confirmed by Cardinal Ratzinger when he wrote in 2004 that,\n\nif a Catholic were to be at odds with the Holy Father on the application of capital punishment or on the decision to wage war, he would not for that reason be considered unworthy to present himself to receive Holy Communion. While the Church exhorts civil authorities to seek peace, not war, and to exercise discretion and mercy in imposing punishment on criminals, it may still be permissible to take up arms to repel an aggressor or to have recourse to capital punishment. There may be a legitimate diversity of opinion even among Catholics about waging war and applying the death penalty, but not however with regard to abortion and euthanasia. \n\nIn 2015, Pope Francis stated in an address to the International Commission against the Death Penalty that: \"Today the death penalty is inadmissible, no matter how serious the crime committed.\" Francis argued that the death penalty is no longer justified by a society's need to defend itself and has lost all legitimacy due to the possibility of judicial error. He further stated that capital punishment is an offense \"against the inviolability of life and the dignity of the human person, which contradicts God's plan for man and society\" and \"does not render justice to the victims, but rather fosters vengeance.\" In the address, Francis further explained: \n\n In certain circumstances, when hostilities are underway, a measured reaction is necessary in order to prevent the aggressor from causing harm, and the need to neutralize the aggressor may result in his elimination; it is a case of legitimate defence (cf. Evangelium Vitae, n. 55). Nevertheless, the prerequisites of legitimate personal defence are not applicable in the social sphere without the risk of distortion. In fact, when the death penalty is applied, people are killed not for current acts of aggression, but for offences committed in the past. Moreover, it is applied to people whose capacity to cause harm is not current, but has already been neutralized, and who are deprived of their freedom. [...] \n\nFor a constitutional State the death penalty represents a failure, because it obliges the State to kill in the name of justice [...] Justice is never reached by killing a human being. [...] The death penalty loses all legitimacy due to the defective selectivity of the criminal justice system and in the face of the possibility of judicial error. Human justice is imperfect, and the failure to recognize its fallibility can transform it into a source of injustice. With the application of capital punishment, the person sentenced is denied the possibility to make amends or to repent of the harm done; the possibility of confession, with which man expresses his inner conversion; and of contrition, the means of repentance and atonement, in order to reach the encounter with the merciful and healing love of God. Furthermore, capital punishment is a frequent practice to which totalitarian regimes and fanatical groups resort, for the extermination of political dissidents, minorities, and every individual labelled as “dangerous” or who might be perceived as a threat to their power or to the attainment of their objectives. As in the first centuries and also in the current one, the Church suffers from the application of this penalty to her new martyrs. \n\nThe death penalty is contrary to the meaning of humanitas and to divine mercy, which must be models for human justice. It entails cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment, as is the anguish before the moment of execution and the terrible suspense between the issuing of the sentence and the execution of the penalty, a form of “torture” which, in the name of correct procedure, tends to last many years, and which oftentimes leads to illness and insanity on death row. \n\nShortly prior to Francis's address, the Vatican had officially given support to a 2015 United Nations campaign against the death penalty. During a U.N. Human Rights Council meeting concerning the abolishment of capital punishment, Archbishop Silvano Tomasi declared that \"The Holy See Delegation fully supports the efforts to abolish the use of the death penalty.\" The Archbishop stated: \n\n Considering the practical circumstances found in most States ... it appears evident nowadays that means other than the death penalty 'are sufficient to defend human lives against an aggressor and to protect public order and the safety of persons [...] We should take into account that no clear positive effect of deterrence results from the application of the death penalty and that the irreversibility of this punishment does not allow for eventual corrections in the case of wrongful convictions. \n\nDespite recent Church statements, the Catholic Church still officially holds, as per the most recent 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, that the death penalty may be employed where public authority cannot find any other way to contain a dangerous person.\n\nProtestants\n\nSouthern Baptists support the fair and equitable use of capital punishment for those guilty of murder or treasonous acts, so long as it does not constitute as an act of personal revenge or discrimination. \n\nThe Lambeth Conference of Anglican bishops condemned the death penalty in 1988:\n\nThe United Methodist Church, along with other Methodist churches, also condemns capital punishment, saying that it cannot accept retribution or social vengeance as a reason for taking human life. The Church also holds that the death penalty falls unfairly and unequally upon marginalised persons including the poor, the uneducated, ethnic and religious minorities, and persons with mental and emotional illnesses. The General Conference of the United Methodist Church calls for its bishops to uphold opposition to capital punishment and for governments to enact an immediate moratorium on carrying out the death penalty sentence.\n\nIn a 1991 social policy statement, the ELCA officially took a stand to oppose the death penalty. It states that revenge is a primary motivation for capital punishment policy and that true healing can only take place through repentance and forgiveness. \n\nCommunity of Christ, the former Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS), is opposed to capital punishment. The first stand against capital punishment was taken by the church's Presiding High Council in 1995. This was followed by a resolution of the World Conference in 2000. This resolution, WC 1273, states: \n\nSeveral key leaders early in the Protestant Reformation, including Martin Luther and John Calvin, followed the traditional reasoning in favour of capital punishment, and the Lutheran Church's Augsburg Confession explicitly defended it. Some Protestant groups have cited Genesis 9:5–6, Romans 13:3–4, and\nLeviticus 20:1–27 as the basis for permitting the death penalty. \n\nMennonites, Church of the Brethren and Friends have opposed the death penalty since their founding, and continue to be strongly opposed to it today. These groups, along with other Christians opposed to capital punishment, have cited Christ's Sermon on the Mount (transcribed in Matthew Chapter 5–7) and Sermon on the Plain (transcribed in Luke 6:17–49). In both sermons, Christ tells his followers to turn the other cheek and to love their enemies, which these groups believe mandates nonviolence, including opposition to the death penalty.\n\nThe Church of Scotland considers that capital punishment is unacceptable and does not provide an answer for even the most serious crimes. \n\nIn 2015, a large association representing over 30 U.S. Protestant denominations ceased promoting a pro-death penalty stance and announced its affirmation of Christians who oppose the death penalty as well as those who support it, and also affirmed both sides' ethical reasoning in doing so.\n\nMormonism\n\nThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints neither supports nor opposes capital punishment, although the church's founder, Joseph Smith, supported it. However, today the church officially states that it is a \"matter to be decided solely by the prescribed processes of civil law.\" \n\nHinduism\n\nA basis can be found in Hindu teachings both for permitting and forbidding the death penalty. Hinduism preaches ahimsa (or ahinsa, non-violence), but also teaches that the soul cannot be killed and death is limited only to the physical body. The soul is reborn into another body upon death (until Moksha), akin to a human changing clothes. The religious, civil and criminal law of Hindus is encoded in the Dharmaśāstras and the Arthasastra. The Dharmasastras describe many crimes and their punishments and call for the death penalty in several instances, including murder and righteous warfare. \n\nIslam\n\nSharia, the religious law in Islam, requires capital punishment for certain crimes.Samuel M. Zwemer, The law of Apostasy, The Muslim World\nVolume 14, Issue 4, pp. 373–391 For example, the Quran states,\n\nSimilarly, capital punishment by stoning for zina (extramarital sex) is prescribed in the Hadiths, the most trusted books in Islam after the official text called the Quran, particularly in Kitab Al-Hudud.Z. Mir-Hosseini (2011), Criminalizing sexuality: zina laws as violence against women in Muslim contexts, Int'l Journal on Human Rights, 15, 7–16 \n\nIn the four primary schools of Sunni fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and the two primary schools of Shi'a fiqh, certain types of crimes mandate capital punishment. Certain hudud crimes, for example, are considered crimes against God and require capital punishment in public.Mohamed El-Awa (1993), Punishment in Islamic Law, American Trust Publications, ISBN 978-0892591428, pp 1–68 These include apostasy (leaving Islam to become an atheist or convert to another religion such as Christianity),David Forte, [http://www.cepos.eu/pdf/revista%20de%20stiinte%20politice%20nr%2029.pdf Islam's Trajectory], Revue des Sciences Politiques, No. 29 (2011), pages 92–101 fasad (mischief in the land, or moral corruption against Allah, social disturbance and creating disorder within the Muslim state) and zina (consensual heterosexual or homosexual relations not allowed by Islam).\n\nQisas is another category of sentencing where sharia permits capital punishment, for intentional or unintentional murder. In the case of death, sharia gives the murder victim's nearest relative or Wali () a right to, if the court approves, take the life of the killer. \n\nFurther, in case of Qisas-related capital punishment, sharia offers the victim's guardian the option of Diyya (monetary compensation). In several Islamic countries such as the Sunni Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, as well as the Shiite Islamic Republic of Iran, both hudud and qisas type capital punishment is part of the legal system and in use. In others, there is variation in the use of capital punishment. Some Islamic or Muslim-majority nations like the Republic of Turkey have abolished the death penalty.\n\nCapital punishment for apostasy in Islam and stoning to death in Islam are controversial topics. Similarly, the discriminatory option between capital punishment and monetary compensation for crimes such as murder is controversial, where jurists have asked if poor offenders face trial and capital punishment while wealthy offenders are able to avoid a trial by paying off the Qisas compensation money. Another historic and continuing controversy is the perceived discrimination between the death of a Muslim and a non-Muslim dhimmi, as well as discrimination between the death of a male and a female, used in sharia-ruled states. A woman's life is considered half the worth of a man, while Christians and Jews are worth half of a Muslim, and the life of Buddhist, Hindu, folk religion or atheist is considered 1/16th the worth of a Muslim by some Islamist governments. This has reporedly led certain Islamic nations to discriminate between Muslims and non-Muslims while imposing capital punishment and compensation, for both intentional murder and manslaughter, depending on whether the victim is Muslim or non-Muslim, as well as based on the religion of the individual who has committed the crime. \n\nLethal stoning and beheading in public under sharia is controversial for being a perceived as a strict form of capital punishment. These forms of execution remain part of the religious law enforced in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Pakistan and Mauritania. \n\nJudaism\n\nThe official teachings of Judaism approve the death penalty in principle but the standard of proof required for application of death penalty is extremely stringent. In practice, it has been abolished by various Talmudic decisions, making the situations in which a death sentence could be passed effectively impossible and hypothetical. A capital case could not be tried by a normal Beit Din of three judges, it can only be adjudicated by a Sanhedrin of a minimum of 23 judges. Forty years before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in approximately the year 70 CE, i.e. in approximately 30 CE, the Sanhedrin effectively abolished capital punishment, making it a hypothetical upper limit on the severity of punishment, fitting in finality for God alone to use, not fallible people.\n\nThe 12th-century Jewish legal scholar, Maimonides said:\n\n\"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death.\" \n\nMaimonides argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely \"according to the judge's caprice\". Maimonides was concerned about the need for the law to guard itself in public perceptions, to preserve its majesty and retain the people's respect. \n\nOne of the only two executions in Israeli history occurred in 1961, when Adolf Eichmann, one of the principal organizers of the Holocaust, was hanged after his trial in Jerusalem. It is the last judicial execution carried out by the country." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Guillitine", "Use of the Guillotine in Paris", "Henri Languille", "The Guillotine", "Gullotine", "Guilotine", "Guilottine", "Gillotine", "Guillotines", "Use of the guillotine in Paris", "Guillotine", "Guillotined", "Fallbeil", "Louisette" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "use of guillotine in paris", "guillitine", "guillotines", "louisette", "gillotine", "guillotine", "guilottine", "henri languille", "guillotined", "fallbeil", "guilotine", "gullotine" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "guillotine", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Guillotine" }
Which capital city was the scene of a major summit between Reagan and Gorbachev in 1986?	tc_1342	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Iceland.txt" ], "title": [ "Iceland" ], "wiki_context": [ "Iceland (; ), also called the Republic of Iceland,While sometimes referred to as the \"Republic of Iceland\" ([http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland] [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/26th-gegn-docs/WP/WP54_UNGEGN%20WG%20Country%20Names%20Document%202011.pdf]) and sometimes its counterpart Lýðveldið Ísland in Icelandic, the official name of the country is simply Iceland. [http://translate.google.com/translate?jsn&prev\n_t&hlid&ie\nUTF-8&layout2&eotf\n1&slis&tl\nen&uhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.visindavefur.is%2Fsvar.php%3Fid%3D54970&act\nurl][http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id54970] One example of the former is the name of the Constitution of Iceland, which in Icelandic is Stjórnarskrá lýðveldisins Íslands and literally means \"the Constitution of the republic of Iceland\", but note that \"republic\" is not capitalized. The official title of the President of Iceland (Forseti Íslands) does also not include the word republic as in some other republics. See Names for Iceland. is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean. It has a population of and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.\n\nAccording to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year AD 874 when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, mainly Norwegians and to a smaller extent other Scandinavians settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1814, Iceland was ruled by Norway and afterwards by Denmark. Until the 20th century, the country relied largely on fishing and agriculture. Iceland became independent in 1918 and a republic in 1944. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity and Iceland became one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world. In 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which supported diversification into economic and financial services.\n\nIceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality. In 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations' Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy. Affected by the ongoing worldwide financial crisis, the nation's entire banking system systemically failed in October 2008, leading to a severe depression, substantial political unrest, the Icesave dispute, and the institution of capital controls. Many bankers were jailed and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. \n\nIcelandic culture is founded upon the nation's Scandinavian heritage. Most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic (Celtic) settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is closely related to Faroese and West Norwegian dialects. The country's cultural heritage includes traditional Icelandic cuisine, Icelandic literature and medieval sagas. Iceland has the smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army, its lightly armed coast guard being in charge of defence. \n\nHistory\n\nSettlement and Commonwealth 874–1262\n\nAccording to both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók, Celtic monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before Scandinavian settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission. Recent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula. Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880. \n\nSwedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. He stayed over winter and built a house in Húsavík. Garðar departed the following summer but one of his men, Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík and he and his slaves became the first permanent residents of Iceland. \n\nThe Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in the year 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls, many of whom were Irish or Scottish. By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing, a legislative and judicial assembly, was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth. Lack of arable land also served impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986. The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period, when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century. At this time, about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day. Christianity was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among some segments of the population for some years afterwards.\n\nThe Middle Ages\n\nThe Icelandic Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century, when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains. The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed from the Norwegian Empire to the Kalmar Union in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united. After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway.\n\nIn the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe. Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%. \n\nReformation and the Early Modern period\n\nAround the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason, the last Catholic bishop of Hólar, was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country subsequently became officially Lutheran and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion.\n\nIn the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruption and disease, contributed to a decreasing population. Pirates from several countries, including the Barbary Coast, raided its coastal settlements and abducted people into slavery. A great smallpox epidemic in the 18th century killed around a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. In the years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin), over half of all livestock died in the country. Around a quarter of the population died in the ensuing famine. \n\nIndependence movement 1814–1918\n\nIn 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly to the region of Gimli, Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland. About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000. \n\nA national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in the 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. This was expanded in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet.\n\nKingdom of Iceland 1918–1944\n\nThe Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as a fully sovereign state in a personal union with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark handle Icelandic foreign policy. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland.\n\nDuring World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of foreign affairs and other matters previously handled by Denmark. A month later, British armed forces invaded and occupied the country, violating Icelandic neutrality. In 1941, the occupation was taken over by the United States so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere.\n\nIndependent republic 1944–present\n\nOn 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president.\n\nIn 1946, the Allied occupation force left Iceland. The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots. On 5 May 1951, a defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force, and remained throughout the Cold War. The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006.\n\nIceland had prospered during the war. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by industrialisation of the fishing industry and the US Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at USD 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at USD 109). \n\nThe 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars — several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to 200 miles offshore. Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps toward nuclear disarmament. A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed a foreign policy oriented toward humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq. \n\nIceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001, when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise massive amounts of external debt, contributing to a 32% increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007. \n\nEconomic boom and crisis\n\nIn the years 2003–2007, following the privatization of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson, Iceland moved toward having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services. It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world but was hit hard by a major financial crisis. The crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, and grew by 1.6% in 2012. Many Icelanders, however, have remained unhappy with the state of the economy and government austerity policies. The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 elections. \n\nGeography\n\nIceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63° and 68° N, and longitudes 25° and 13° W.\n\nIceland is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America; thus, the island is generally included in Europe for historical, political, cultural, and practical reasons. Geologically the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest body of land is Greenland (). The closest bodies of land in Europe are the Faroe Islands (); Jan Mayen Island (); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, both about ; and the Scottish mainland and Orkney, both about . The mainland of Norway is about away.\n\nIceland is the world's 18th largest island, and Europe's second largest island after Great Britain. The main island is , but the entire country is in size, of which 62.7% is tundra. There are thirty minor islands in Iceland, including the lightly populated Grímsey and the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: and Þingvallavatn: ; other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn. Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at . \n\nGeologically, Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new oceanic crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates, and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge. \n\nMany fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970-kilometre (3,088-mile) long coastline, which is also where most settlements are situated. The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains and lava fields. The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður and Garðabær, nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park. The country is considered a \"strong performer\" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University's Environmental Performance Index of 2012. \n\nIceland satellite.jpg \| Iceland, as seen from space on 29 January 2004\nIceland2008-Sudureyri.JPG \| Suðureyri\nNorðfjörður .JPG \| Norðfjörður\nEyjafjallajokull-April-17.JPG \| The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull\nISLANDIA.jpg \| South of Iceland, off the Ring Road, looking north, late afternoon in winter 2001\n\nGeology\n\nA geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the Iceland hotspot and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This location means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes, notably Hekla, Eldgjá, Herðubreið and Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population. In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterward, and affected climates in other areas. \n\nIceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur, which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often. \n\nWith the widespread availability of geothermal power, and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating and electricity. The island is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii. Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with approx. 30 volcanic systems active. \n\nSurtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island. \n\nOn 21 March 2010, a volcano in Eyjafjallajökull in the south of Iceland erupted for the first time since 1821, forcing 600 people to flee their homes. Additional eruptions on 14 April forced hundreds of people to abandon their homes. The resultant cloud of volcanic ash brought major disruption to air travel across Europe. \n\nAnother large eruption occurred on 21 May 2011. This time it was the Grímsvötn volcano, located under the thick ice of Europe's largest glacier, Vatnajökull. Grímsvötn is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes, and this eruption was much more powerful than the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull activity, with ash and lava hurled into the atmosphere creating a large cloud.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of Iceland's coast is subpolar oceanic. The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in the world with similar climates include the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and Tierra del Fuego, although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969. \n\nThe climate varies between different parts of the island. Generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter and windier than the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the most arid. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than the south.\n\nThe highest air temperature recorded was on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are on 30 July 2008, and on 21 January 1918.\n\nBiodiversity\n\nThere are around 1,300 known species of insects in Iceland, which is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox, which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to the island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there. Polar bears occasionally come over from Greenland, but they are just visitors, and no Icelandic populations exist. There are no native or free-living reptiles or amphibians on the island. \n\nPhytogeographically, Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. Approximately three quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch (Betula pubescens), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens (Populus tremula), rowans (Sorbus aucuparia), common junipers (Juniperus communis) and other smaller trees, mainly willows.\n\nWhen the island was first settled, it was extensively forested. In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as \"forested from mountain to sea shore\". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation, climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion. Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three quarters of Iceland's 100,000 square kilometres are affected by soil erosion, 18000 km2 so seriously as to be useless. Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include introduced species. The tallest tree in Iceland is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur; it was measured at in 2013. \n\nThe animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle, chickens, goats, the sturdy Icelandic horse, and the Icelandic Sheepdog, all descendants of animals imported by Europeans. Wild mammals include the Arctic fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer. Polar bears occasionally visit the island, travelling on icebergs from Greenland. In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month. Marine mammals include the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for approximately half of the country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life. Puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs. \n\nCommercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997. \n\nPolitics\n\nIceland has a left–right multi-party system. Following the 2013 parliamentary election, the biggest parties are the centre-right Independence Party (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn) and the Progressive Party (Framsóknarflokkurinn). Other political parties with seats in the Althing are the centre-left Social Democratic Alliance (Samfylkingin), Left-Green Movement (Vinstrihreyfingin – grænt framboð), Bright Future (Björt framtíð), and the Pirate Party of Iceland (Píratar). Many other parties exist on the municipal level, most of which run only locally in a single municipality.\n\nIceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women. Known as the Women's List or Women's Alliance (Kvennalistinn), it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social needs of women. After participating in its first parliamentary elections, the Women's List helped increase the proportion of female parliamentarians by 15%. Although it disbanded in 1999, merging with the Social Democratic Alliance, it left a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every major party has a 40% quota for women, and in 2009 nearly a third of members of parliament were female, compared to the global average of 16%. \n\nIn 2011 Iceland was ranked 2nd in the strength of its democratic institutions and 13th in government transparency. The country has a high level of civic participation, with 81.4% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%. However, only 50% of Icelanders say they trust their political institutions, slightly less than the OECD average of 56% (and most probably a consequence of the political scandals in the wake of the Icelandic financial crisis).[http://oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/iceland/ Iceland – OECD Better Life Index]. Oecdbetterlifeindex.org. Retrieved 28 April 2012.\n\nGovernment\n\nIceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, Alþingi (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799. Consequently, \"it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy.\" It currently has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years. The president is elected by popular vote for a term of four years, with no term limit. The elections for president, the Althing and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years. \n\nThe president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a diplomat, but may veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a national referendum. The current president is Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The head of government is the prime minister who, together with the cabinet, is responsible for executive government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after a general election to the Althing; however, the appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed, under the condition that it has a majority support in the Althing. Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves within a reasonable time span does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet personally. This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 regent Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941, appointed a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Sveinn would later become the country's first president in 1944.\n\nThe governments of Iceland have always been coalition governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout the republican period. The extent of the political power possessed by the office of the president is disputed by legal scholars, in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers, but other provisions and traditions suggest differently. In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state. She retired from office in 1996. In 2009, Iceland became the first country with an openly gay head of government when Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nIceland is divided into regions, constituencies and municipalities. There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division. Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:\n* Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South (city regions);\n* Southwest (four non-contiguous suburban areas around Reykjavík);\n* Northwest and Northeast (northern half of Iceland, split); and,\n* South (southern half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).\n\nThe redistricting change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since previously a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.\n\nThere are 74 municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transport and zoning. These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one.\n\nRegions of Iceland.png\|Regions of Iceland\nConstituencies Iceland.png\|Constituencies of Iceland\nSveitarfélög-landsvæði.png\|Municipalities of Iceland\n\nForeign relations\n\nIceland, which is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, Council of Europe and OECD, maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the United States, Canada and the other NATO nations are particularly close. Historically, due to cultural, economic and linguistic similarities, Iceland is a Nordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental cooperation through the Nordic Council.\n\nIceland is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the European Union (EU). It was not a member of the EU, but in July 2009 the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of application for EU membership and officially applied on 17 July 2009. However, in 2013, opinion polls showed that many Icelanders were now against joining the EU; following recent elections the two parties that formed the island's new government – the centrist Progressive Party and the right-wing Independence Party – announced they would hold a referendum on EU membership. \n\nMilitary\n\nIceland has no standing army. The U.S. Air Force maintained four to six interceptor aircraft at the Keflavík base, until they were withdrawn on 30 September 2006. Since May 2008, NATO nations have periodically deployed fighters to patrol Icelandic airspace under the Icelandic Air Policing mission. Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much domestic controversy, deploying a Coast Guard EOD team to Iraq which was replaced later by members of the Iceland Crisis Response Unit. Iceland has also participated in the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Despite the ongoing financial crisis the first new patrol ship in decades was launched on 29 April 2009.\n\nIcelanders remain especially proud of their role in hosting the historic 1986 Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over fishing rights. Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-called Cod Wars in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from , 1958–1961 following a further extension to , 1972–1973 with another extension to ; and in 1975–1976 another extension to .\n\nAccording to the Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of armed forces, low crime rate, and high level of socio-political stability. \n\nEconomy\n\nIn 2007, Iceland was the seventh most productive country in the world per capita (US$54,858), and the fifth most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity ($40,112). About 85 percent of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources. Utilization of abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power has made Iceland the world's largest electricity producer per capita. As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2014 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.\nHistorically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides 40% of export earnings and employs 7% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Whaling in Iceland has been historically significant. Iceland still relies heavily on fishing, but its importance is diminishing from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 40% in 2006. \n\nUntil the 20th century, Iceland was among the poorest countries in Western Europe. Currently, it remains one of the most developed countries in the world. Strong economic growth had led Iceland to be ranked first in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2007/2008, although in 2011 its HDI rating had fallen to 14th place as a result of the economic crisis. Nevertheless, according to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland has the 2nd highest quality of life in the world. Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world, and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking climbs to 5th place. Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed as of June 2012, compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010. \n\nMany political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural resources (particularly fisheries). The national currency of Iceland is the Icelandic króna (ISK). Nearly 70% of Icelanders have favoured the adoption of the Canadian dollar (CAD) - more than any other currency in the world. \n\nA poll released on 5 March 2010 by Capacent Gallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favour of adopting the euro and 69% opposed. Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 found that 67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum. \n\nIceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and finance; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%. Despite the decision to resume commercial whale hunting in 2006, the tourism sector is expanding, especially in ecotourism and whale-watching. On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 million visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population. Iceland's agriculture industry, accounting for 5.4% of GDP, consists mainly of potatoes, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton and dairy products. The financial centre is Borgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985. \n\nIceland is ranked 27th in the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, lower than in prior years but still among the freest in the world. , it ranks 29th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, one place lower than in 2015. According to INSEAD's Global Innovation Index, Iceland is the 11th most innovative country in the world. Unlike most Western European countries, Iceland has a flat tax system: the main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75%, and combined with municipal taxes, the total tax rate equals no more than 35.7%, not including the many deductions that are available. The corporate tax rate is a flat 18%, one of the lowest in the world. There is also a value added tax, whereas a net wealth tax was eliminated in 2006. Employment regulations are relatively flexible and the labour market is one of the freest in the world. Property rights are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are applied to fishery management. Like other welfare states, taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, but with spending being less than in most European countries.\n\nDespite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change. Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas. The OECD Economic Survey of Iceland 2008 had highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy. There was a currency crisis that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the economy. The latest assessment by the OECD determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the financial sector; however, challenges remain in making the fishing industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving monetary policy in order to address inflation. Iceland's public debt has decreased since the economic crisis, and is the 31th highest in the world by proportion of national GDP. \n\nEconomic contraction\n\nIceland had been hit especially hard by the Great Recession that began in December 2007, because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the country's three largest banks, Glitnir, Landsbanki and Kaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion). In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the Financial crisis. The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks. Icelandic officials, including central bank governor Davíð Oddsson, stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established to take on the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks will be run into bankruptcy.\n\nOn 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18% (as of August 2010, it was 7%), a move which was forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from International Monetary Fund (IMF). After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with valuation at around 250 ISK per Euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before. On 20 November 2008, the Nordic countries agreed to lend Iceland $2.5 billion. \n\nOn 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to the public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in law. Davíð was removed on 26 February 2009 in the wake of protests outside the Central Bank. \n\nThousands of Icelanders have moved from the country after the collapse, and many of those moved to Norway. In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625. In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament‘s Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation, revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis. By June 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of the Icesave debt. \n\nAccording to Bloomberg, Iceland is on the trajectory of 2% unemployment as a result of crisis-management decisions made back in 2008, including allowing the banks to fail. \n\nTransport\n\nIceland has a high level of car ownership per capita; with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants; it is the main form of transport. Iceland has of administered roads, of which are paved and are not. A great number of roads remain unpaved, mostly little-used rural roads. The road speed limits are in towns, on gravel country roads and on hard-surfaced roads. Iceland currently has no railways.\n\nRoute 1, or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur), was completed in 1974, and is a main road that runs around Iceland and connects all the inhabited parts of the island, with the interior of the island being uninhabited. This paved road is long with one lane in each direction, except near larger towns and cities and in the Hvalfjörður Tunnel (also the site of a toll) where it has more lanes. Many bridges on it, especially in the north and east, are single lane and made of timber and/or steel.\n\nThe main hub for international transport is Keflavík International Airport, which serves Reykjavík and the country in general. It is to the west of Reykjavík. Domestic flights, flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands, and business flights operate mostly out of Reykjavík Airport, which lies in the city centre. Most general aviation traffic is also in Reykjavík. There are 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas. The biggest airport in Iceland is Keflavík International Airport and the biggest airfield is Geitamelur, a four-runway field around east of Reykjavík, dedicated exclusively to gliding. There are a number of international airlines that fly to and from Iceland regularly. \n\nEnergy\n\nRenewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption, with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet. Iceland expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, while Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station. When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita. \n\nIcelanders emit 6.29 tonnes of CO2 in 2009 equivalent of greenhouse gases per capita. Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells. It is also one of a few countries currently capable of producing hydrogen in adequate quantities at a reasonable cost, because of Iceland's plentiful renewable sources of energy.\n\nOn 22 January 2009, Iceland announced its first round of offshore licences for companies wanting to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as the Dreki area. Two exploration licenses have been awarded. \n\n, the government of Iceland is in talks with the government of United Kingdom about the possibility of constructing a high-voltage direct-current connector for transmission of electricity between the two countries. Such a cable would give Iceland access to a market where electricity prices have generally been much higher than those in Iceland. Iceland has considerable renewable energy resources, especially geothermal energy and hydropower resources, and most of the potential has not been developed, partly because there is not enough demand for additional electricity generation capacity from the residents and industry of Iceland, but the United Kingdom is interested in importing inexpensive electricity from renewable sources of energy, and this could lead to further development of the energy resources.\n\nEducation and science\n\nThe Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, playschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities. The government does allow citizens to Home educate their children, however under a very strict set of demands. Students must adhere closely to the government mandated curriculum, and the parent teaching must acquire a government approved teaching certificate.\n\nNursery school, or leikskóli, is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years, and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.\n\nCompulsory education, or grunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, ending between 31 May and 10 June. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by the Minister of Education.\n\nUpper secondary education, or framhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia in English. Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed sex schools. The largest seat of higher education is the University of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík. Other schools offering university-level instruction include Reykjavík University, University of Akureyri, Agricultural University of Iceland and Bifröst University.\n\nAn OECD assessment found 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the OECD average of 73%. Among 25- to 34-year-olds, only 69% have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD average of 80%. Nevertheless, Iceland's education system is considered to be of excellent quality: the Programme for International Student Assessment currently ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average. Students were particularly proficient in reading and mathematics.\n\nAccording to a 2013 Eurostat report by the European Commission, Iceland spends around 3.11% of its GDP on scientific research and development (R&D), over 1 percentage point higher than the EU average of 2.03%, and has set a target of 4% to be reached by 2020. A 2010 UNESCO report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D (100 million US dollars or more), Iceland ranked 9th by proportion of GDP, tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the UK, and Canada. \n\nDemographics\n\nThe original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Gaelic origin. This is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analyses. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Gaelic origin, meaning many settlers of Iceland were indeed Norwegian Viking warriors who brought Gaelic slaves with them. \n\nIceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database which attempts to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It views the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.\n\nThe population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ash fall from volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times. There were 37 famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–1784, the population reached a low of about 40,000. Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century—from about 60,000 in 1850 to 320,000 in 2008. Iceland has a relatively young population for a developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years old or younger. With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few European countries with a birth rate sufficient for long-term population growth (see table on the left). \n\nIn December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship. Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin, and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce. About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Fjarðabyggð where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant. The recent increase in immigration has been credited to a labour shortage due to the booming economy at the time, as well as to the lifting of restrictions on the movement of people from the countries that were a part of the 2004 enlargement of the European Union. Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary. Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008 as a result of the Icelandic financial crisis. \n\nThe southwest corner of Iceland is the most densely populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost national capital in the world. The largest towns outside the Greater Reykjavík area are Akureyri and Reykjanesbær, although the latter is relatively close to the capital.\n\nSome 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red colonised Greenland among the existing paleo-Eskimo inhabitants in the late 10th century. The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000 and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500. People from Greenland attempted to set up a colony at Vinland in North America, but it was abandoned in the face of hostility from the indigenous residents. Emigration to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s. , Canada had over 88,000 people of Icelandic descent, while there are more than 40,000 Americans of Icelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census. \n\nUrbanisation\n\nIceland's 10 most populous urban areas:\n\nLanguage\n\nIceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse. In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from other languages. The puristic tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is to a large degree a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of isolation. Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of the runic letter Þ in Latin script. The closest living relative of the Icelandic language is Faroese.\n\nIcelandic Sign Language was officially recognised as a minority language in 2011. In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide.\n\nEnglish and Danish are compulsory subjects in the school curriculum. Both languages are widely understood and spoken. Other commonly spoken languages are Swedish, Norwegian, German and French. Polish is mostly spoken by the local Polish community (the biggest minority of Iceland), and Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to as skandinavíska (i. e. Scandinavian) in Iceland. \n\nRather than using family names, as is the usual custom in most western nations, Icelanders carry patronymic or matronymic surnames, patronyms being far more commonly practiced. Patronymic last names are based on the first name of the father, while matronymic names are based on the first name of the mother. These follow the person's given name, e.g. Elísabet Jónsdóttir (\"Elísabet, Jón's daughter\" (Jón, being the father)) or Ólafur Katrínarson (\"Ólafur, Katrín's son\" (Katrín being the mother)). Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and the Icelandic telephone directory is listed alphabetically by first name rather than by surname. All new names must be decided upon by the Icelandic Naming Committee.\n\nHealth\n\nIceland has a universal health care system that is administered by its Ministry of Welfare () and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service fees (15%). Unlike most countries, there are no private hospitals, and private insurance is practically nonexistent.\n\nA considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care, and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP and 14th in spending per capita. Over all, the country’s health care system is one of the best performing in the world, ranked 15th by the World Health Organization. According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialised nations. , Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of 3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with an OECD average of 8.4).[http://www.webcitation.org/67HObnj6m OECD Health Data 2011]. oecd.org\n\nIcelanders are among the world’s healthiest people, with 81% reporting to be in good health, according to an OECD survey. Although it is a growing problem, obesity is not as prevalent as in other developed countries, infant mortality is one of the lowest in the world, and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average. The average life expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the 4th highest in the world. \n\nAdditionally, Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population density, and a high level of environmental consciousness among citizens. According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic material in the atmosphere is far lower than any other industrialised country measured. \n\nReligion\n\nIcelanders have freedom of religion under the Constitution of Iceland, though the Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church. The Registers Iceland keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2015, Icelanders were divided into religious groups as follows:\n73.8% members of the Church of Iceland.\n11.7% members of some other Christian denomination.\n7.1% other and not specified\n5.6% unaffiliated\n1.5% members of non-Christian denomination.\n0.3% members of the Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association\n\nIceland is a very secular country: as with other Nordic nations, religious attendance is relatively low. The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief demographics of the population of Iceland. According to a study published in 2001, 23% of the inhabitants were either atheist or agnostic. A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 57% of Icelanders considered themselves \"a religious person\", 31% considered themselves \"a non religious person\", while 10% defined themselves as \"a convinced atheist\", placing Iceland among the ten countries with the highest proportions of atheists in the world.\n\nCulture\n\nIcelandic culture has its roots in North Germanic traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas that were written during the High and Late Middle Ages. Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic culture from external influence; a prominent example is the preservation of the Icelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse of all modern Scandinavian languages.\n\nIn contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a public opinion analysis conducted by the European Commission, over 85% of Icelanders found independence to be \"very important,\" compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for the EU25. Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialised nation. \n\nAccording to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives will be satisfying in the future. Similarly, 83% of people in Iceland reported having more positive experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD average of 72%, which makes Iceland one of the happiest countries in the OECD. A more recent 2012 survey found that around three quarters of respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a global average of about 53%. \n\nIceland is liberal with regard to LGBT rights issues. In 1996, the Icelandic parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples, conferring nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage. In 2006, parliament voted unanimously to grant same-sex couples the same rights as heterosexual couples in adoption, parenting and assisted insemination treatment. On 11 June 2010, the Icelandic parliament amended the marriage law, making it gender neutral and defining marriage as between two individuals, making Iceland one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage. The law took effect on 27 June 2010. The amendment to the law also means registered partnerships for same-sex couples are now no longer possible, and marriage is their only option—identical to the existing situation for opposite-sex couples.\n\nIcelanders are known for their deep sense of community: an OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, higher than in any other industrialised country. Similarly, only 6% reported \"rarely\" or \"never\" socializing with others. This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of unity and cooperation. \n\nEgalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world. The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks.Wilcox and Latif, pp. 60–61. Everyone is addressed by their first name. As in other Nordic countries, equality between the sexes is very high; Iceland is consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women to live in. \n\nLiterature\n\nIceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grænlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland). Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas.\n\nA translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions since the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century, rímur were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential, National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far). Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.\n\nIcelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation. Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines, and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes. \n\nArt\n\nThe distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement for home rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century.\n\nContemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several other Icelandic men and women artists studied at Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who by some is considered to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting. In the 1980s, many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in their work.\n\nIn the recent years artistic practice has multiplied, and the Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large scale projects and exhibitions. The artist run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank, has been a significant part of the trend of self-organised spaces, exhibitions and projects. The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum, Reykjavík Art Museum and the National Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals.\n\nThorarinn thingvellir.jpg\|Þingvellir by Þórarinn B. Þorláksson\nThorfinn Karlsefni 1918.jpg\|Statue of Thorfinn Karlsefni by Icelandic sculptor Einar Jónsson in Philadelphia\nLaxness portrett einar hakonarson 1984.jpg\|The writer Halldór Laxness by Einar Hákonarson, 1984\nGrassodenhäuser.jpg\|Traditional Icelandic turf houses. Until the 20th century, the vast majority of Icelanders lived in rural areas\nAkureyri Menntaskoli.jpg\|The old building (Gamli Skóli) of the Menntaskóli, i.e. High School precinct in Akureyri\n\nMusic\n\nMuch Icelandic music is related to Nordic music, and includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative and indie rock bands The Sugarcubes and Of Monsters and Men, jazz fusion band Mezzoforte, musicians Björk and Emilíana Torrini, and post-rock band Sigur Rós. The national anthem of Iceland is Lofsöngur, written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson. \n\nTraditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hymns, both religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music, due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland's history. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century. Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century, when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums. Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes. The best known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846). A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of Iðunn.\n\nIcelandic contemporary music consists of a big group of bands, ranging from pop-rock groups such as Bang Gang, Quarashi and Amiina to solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, Megas and Björgvin Halldórsson. Independent music is very strong in Iceland, with bands such as múm, The Sugarcubes, HAM, Of Monsters and Men, Sigur Rós, Sóley and Viking metal band Skálmöld, as well as solo artists Emilíana Torrini and Mugison.\n\nSome Icelandic jazz musicians and jazz bands have earned a reputation outside Iceland. Perhaps best known is the jazz fusion band Mezzoforte and Los Angeles-based jazz vocalist Anna Mjöll. Many Icelandic artists and bands have enjoyed international success, most notably Björk and Sigur Rós but also Quarashi, Hera, Ampop, Mínus and múm. The main music festival is arguably Iceland Airwaves, an annual event on the Icelandic music scene, where Icelandic bands along with foreign ones play in the clubs of Reykjavík for a week. Electronic musicians include ones such as Thor and GusGus.\n\nAmong Iceland's best-known classical composers are Daníel Bjarnason and Anna S. Þorvaldsdóttir (Anna Thorvaldsdottir), who in 2012 received the Nordic Council Music Prize and in 2015 was chosen as the New York Philharmonic's Kravis Emerging Composer, an honor that includes a $50,000 cash prize and a commission to write a composition for the orchestra; she is the second recipient. \n\nMedia\n\nIceland's largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2 and SkjárEinn. Smaller stations exist, many of them local. Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including some parts of the interior. The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2, X-ið 977, Bylgjan and FM957. The daily newspapers are Morgunblaðið and Fréttablaðið. The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is. \n\nIceland is home to LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's television programme created by Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is shown in over 100 countries, including the UK, the Americas and Sweden. The LazyTown studios are located in Garðabær. The 2015 television crime series Trapped aired in the UK on BBC4 in February and March 2016, to critical acclaim and according to the Guardian \"the unlikeliest TV hit of the year\". \n\nIn 1992 the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, when Friðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for his film, Children of Nature. Actress Guðrún S. Gísladóttir, who is Icelandic, played one of the major roles in Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's 1986 film, The Sacrifice. Anita Briem, known for her performance in Showtime's The Tudors, is also Icelandic. Briem starred in the 2008 film Journey to the Center of the Earth, which shot scenes in Iceland. The 2002 James Bond movie Die Another Day is set for a large-part in Iceland. Christopher Nolan's 2014 film, Interstellar was also filmed in Iceland for some of its scenes. \n\nOn 17 June 2010, the parliament passed the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative, a resolution proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of journalists and whistle-blowers, the strongest journalist protection law in the world. According to a 2011 report by Freedom House, Iceland is one of the highest ranked countries in press freedom. \n\nCCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimed EVE Online and Dust 514, is headquartered in Reykjavík. CCP Games hosts the third most populated MMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game.\n\nIceland has a highly developed internet culture, with around 95% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world. Iceland ranked 12th in the World Economic Forum's 2009–2010 Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks the country 3rd in its development of information and communications technology, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010. In February 2013 the country (ministry of the interior) was researching possible methods to protect children in regards to Internet pornography, claiming that pornography online is a threat to children as it supports child slavery and abuse. Strong voices within the community expressed concerns with this, stating that it is impossible to block access to child pornography without compromising the freedom of speech. \n\nCuisine\n\nMuch of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish, lamb, and dairy products, with little to no utilization of herbs or spices. Due to the island's climate, fruits and vegetables are not generally a component of traditional dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in contemporary food. Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes, and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January. Traditional dishes also include skyr, hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, and black pudding. Puffin is considered a local delicacy that is often prepared through broiling.\n\nBreakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of a smörgåsbord. The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually involves fish or lamb as the main course. Seafood is central to most Icelandic cooking, particularly cod and haddock but also salmon, herring, and halibut. It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled, boiled, or dried. Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to be either smoke-cured (known as hangikjöt) or salt-preserved (saltkjöt). Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep, such as slátur, which consists of offal (internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in sheep stomach. Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes.\n\nCoffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon. Coca-Cola is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world. Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage is Brennivín (literally \"burnt (i.e. distilled) wine\"), which is similar to Scandinavian akvavit. It is a type of vodka made from distilled potatoes and flavoured with either caraway seeds or angelica. Its potency has earned it the nickname svarti dauði (\"Black Death\").\n\nSport\n\nSport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active. The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling thought to have originated in medieval times.\n\nPopular sports include association football, track and field, handball and basketball. Handball is often referred to as the national sport,Wilcox and Latif, p. 110 and Iceland's men's national team is ranked among the top 12 in the world. The Icelandic national football team qualified for the UEFA European football championship for the first time in 2016 and advanced to the quarter-final to play against France. They defeated England 2–1 in the round of 16. The Icelandic women's team also excel at football relative to the size of the country, with the national team ranked 15th by FIFA. In 2014 the Icelandic men's national basketball team qualified into the EuroBasket 2015 for the first time in the country history.\n\nIceland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public. Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring and Telemark skiing, with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of activity. Although the country's environment is generally ill-suited for golf, there are nevertheless lots of golf courses throughout the island, and Iceland has a greater percentage of the population playing golf than Scotland with over 17,000 registered golfers out of a population of approximately 300,000. Iceland hosts an annual international golf tournament known as the Arctic Open played through the night during the summer solstice at Akureyri Golf Club. Wilcox and Latif, p. 111 Iceland has also won the most competitions for World's Strongest Man, with eight titles shared evenly between Magnús Ver Magnússon and Jón Páll Sigmarsson.\n\nSwimming is popular in Iceland. Geothermally heated outdoor pools are widespread, and swimming courses are a mandatory part of the national curriculum. Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, remains a common pursuit for many Icelanders.\n\nThe oldest sport association in Iceland is the Reykjavík Shooting Association, founded in 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and nationalists who were pushing for Icelandic independence. To this day, it remains a significant pastime. \n\nIceland has also produced many chess masters and hosted the historic World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík during the height of the Cold War. , there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number given the small size of the population. Bridge is also popular, with Iceland participating in a number of international tournaments. Iceland won the world bridge championship (the Bermuda Bowl) in Yokohama, Japan, in 1991 and took second place (with Sweden) in Hamilton, Bermuda, in 1950." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nightlife in Reykjavik", "Reykjavic, Iceland", "Raykjavík", "Reykjavík, Iceland", "Reykjavik City", "ReykjavÌk", "Reykjavíkurborg", "Nightlife in Reykjavík", "Reykjavik/Nightlife", "Reykjavík/Nightlife", "Bay of Smokes", "Rvik", "Districts of Reykjavík", "Reyjkavik", "Nightlive in Reykjavik", "UN/LOCODE:ISREY", "Capital of Iceland", "Kjósarsýsla", "Visitreykjavik.is", "Reykjavík City", "Reykjavik.is", "Nightlive in Reykjavík", "Rekyavik", "Rejkyavik", "ReykjavIk", "Reykjav%5CxC3%5CxADk", "Reykjávik", "Rejkjavik", "Rejavik", "Reykjavik, Iceland", "Reykjavik", "Reykavik", "Rejykavik", "Reykyavik", "Reykjavic", "Atlantic/Reykjavik", "Reykjavík", "Rvík", "Raykjavik", "Revkjavik", "Rekjavik" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "rekjavik", "kjósarsýsla", "reykjavik", "atlantic reykjavik", "nightlife in reykjavík", "rejkjavik", "un locode isrey", "reykjavíkurborg", "reykjavik iceland", "revkjavik", "rekyavik", "reykjavík city", "reykjavík nightlife", "reykjavík", "raykjavik", "districts of reykjavík", "rejavik", "reykjavik is", "bay of smokes", "reykjávik", "reykjavic iceland", "reykjavik nightlife", "reykjav 5cxc3 5cxadk", "reykavik", "nightlive in reykjavík", "rvik", "visitreykjavik is", "reykyavik", "raykjavík", "rvík", "nightlive in reykjavik", "reykjavík iceland", "reykjavìk", "capital of iceland", "nightlife in reykjavik", "rejykavik", "rejkyavik", "reykjavik city", "reyjkavik", "reykjavic" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "reykjavik", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Reykjavik" }
Which drink did the Coca Cola Company launch in 1982?	tc_1343	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Coca-Cola_Company.txt" ], "title": [ "The Coca-Cola Company" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Coca-Cola Company, which is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, is an American multinational beverage corporation, and manufacturer, retailer, and marketer of nonalcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups. The company is best known for its flagship product Coca-Cola, invented in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton in Columbus, Georgia. The Coca-Cola formula and brand were bought in 1889 by Asa Griggs Candler (December 30, 1851 – March 12, 1929), who incorporated The Coca-Cola Company in 1892. The company has operated a franchised distribution system since 1889, wherein The Coca-Cola Company only produces syrup concentrate, which is then sold to various bottlers throughout the world who hold exclusive territories. The Coca-Cola Company owns its anchor bottler in North America, Coca-Cola Refreshments.\n\nThe company's stock is listed on the NYSE (NYSE: KO) and is part of DJIA, the S&P 500 index, the Russell 1000 Index, and the Russell 1000 Growth Stock Index. As of 2015, its chairman and its CEO is Muhtar Kent.\n\nAcquisitions\n\nThe company has a long history of acquisitions. Coca-Cola acquired Minute Maid in 1960, the Indian cola brand Thums Up in 1993, and Barq's in 1995. In 2001, it acquired the Odwalla brand of fruit juices, smoothies, and bars for $181 million. In 2007, it acquired Fuze Beverage from founder Lance Collins and Castanea Partners for an estimated $250 million. The company's 2009 bid to buy a Chinese juice maker ended when China rejected its $2.4 billion bid for the Huiyuan Juice Group, on the grounds the resulting company would be a virtual monopoly. Nationalism was also thought to be a reason for aborting the deal. In 1982, Coca-Cola purchased Columbia Pictures for $692 million. It sold the movie studio to Sony, for $3 billion, in 1989. In 2013, Coca-Cola finalized its purchase of ZICO, a coconut water company. In 2015, the company took a minority stake ownership in the cold pressed juice manufacturer, Suja Life LLC. \n\nRevenue\n\nAccording to The Coca-Cola Company's 2005 Annual Report, the firm sells beverage products in more than 200 countries. The report further states that of the more than 50 billion beverage servings of all types consumed worldwide, daily, beverages bearing the trademarks owned by or licensed to Coca-Cola account for approximately 1.5 billion (the latest figure in 2010 shows that now they serve 1.6 billion drinks every day). Of these, beverages bearing the trademark \"Coca-Cola\" or \"Coke\" accounted for approximately 78% of the company's total gallon sales.\n\nAlso, according to the 2007 Annual Report, Coca-Cola had gallon sales distributed as follows:\n* 43% in the United States\n* 37% in Mexico, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Japan, and the People's Republic of China\n* 20% spread throughout the rest of the world\n\nIn 2010, it was announced that Coca-Cola had become the first brand to top £1 billion in annual UK grocery sales. \n\nStock\n\nSince 1920, Coca-Cola has been a publicly traded company. One share of stock purchased in 1919 for $40, with all dividends reinvested, would be worth $9.8 million in 2012, a 10.7% annual increase, adjusted for inflation. In 1987, Coca-Cola once again became one of the 30 stocks which makes up the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which is commonly referenced as a proxy for stock market performance; it had previously been a Dow stock from 1932 to 1935. Coca-Cola has paid a dividend, increasing each year for 49 years. Stock is available from a direct purchase program, through Computershare Trust Company, but unlike many programs, has investment fees. \n\nConsumer relations\n\nThroughout 2012, Coca-Cola contributed $1,700,500 to a $46 million political campaign known as \"The Coalition Against The Costly Food Labeling Proposition, sponsored by Farmers and Food Producers\". This organization was set up to oppose a citizen's initiative, known as Proposition 37, demanding mandatory labeling of foods containing genetically modified ingredients.\n\nBottlers\n\nIn general, The Coca-Cola Company and its subsidiaries only produce syrup concentrate, which is then sold to various bottlers throughout the world who hold a local Coca-Cola franchise. Coca-Cola bottlers, who hold territorially exclusive contracts with the company, produce the finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. The bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise the resulting Coca-Cola product to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and food service distributors. Outside the United States, the bottlers also control the fountain business.\n\nSince the early 1980s, the Company has actively encouraged the consolidation of bottlers, with the Company often owning a share of these \"anchor bottlers\".\n\nThe Company's largest bottlers outside North America are:\n\n* Coca-Cola Amatil, based in Australia (Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, South Pacific nations) (Company owns a share)\n* Coca-Cola European Partners PLC, based in the United Kingdom (western Europe) (Company owns share)\n* Coca-Cola Bottlers Philippines, Inc., based in the Philippines, a joint venture between the Company and Coca-Cola FEMSA\n* Coca-Cola FEMSA, based in Mexico (parts of Mexico and Latin America) (Company owns share)\n* Arca Continental, also based in Mexico (parts of Mexico and Latin America) (independent)\n* Embotelladora Andina S.A, based in Chile (southern South America) (independent)\n* Coca-Cola Beverages Africa, based in Port Elizabeth, South Africa (southern and eastern Africa) (company owns share)\n* Coca-Cola Korea, based in South Korea (independent)\n* Coca-Cola HBC AG, originally based in Greece but now located in Switzerland (Greece, Eastern Europe, Russia, and Nigeria) (Company owns share)\n* Coca-Cola Icecek, based in Turkey (Turkey, southwest Asia, Arabia) (Company owns share)\n* Swire Group, based in Hong Kong (China, Taiwan, Hong Kong) (independent)\n* Kirin Company, based in Japan (independent)\n\nIn the United States, the company bypasses bottlers and is responsible for the manufacture and sale of fountain syrups directly to authorized fountain wholesalers and some fountain retailers.\n\nAfter purchasing the North American assets of Coca-Cola Enterprises, as of 2014 the company directly owns 100% of Coca-Cola Refreshments, the anchor bottler of Coca-Cola products in North America, representing about 90% of Canada and 80% of the United States.\n\nOther major bottlers in the United States are:\n\n* Coca-Cola Bottling Co. Consolidated, based in Charlotte, North Carolina (company owns share)\n* Coca-Cola Bottling Company of Northern New England based in Bedford, New Hampshire and owned by Kirin Company\n* Coca-Cola Bottling Company United, based in Birmingham, Alabama (independent)\n* Swire Coca-Cola USA, based in Salt Lake City, Utah and owned by Swire Group\n\nIn September 2015, the company announced the sale of several production plants and territories to Swire, Consolidated, and United, and creation of the Coca-Cola National Product Supply System which controls 95% of the territory in the United States. \n\nCivil rights\n\nAfter Martin Luther King, Jr. won the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize, plans for an interracial celebratory dinner in still-segregated Atlanta were not initially well supported by the city's business elite until Coca-Cola intervened. \n\nCriticism\n\nAdvertising \n\nCoca Cola advertising has “been among the most prolific in marketing history”, with a notable and major impact on popular culture and society as a whole. \n\nThe logo, bottle design, and brand image are internationally recognisable. Their product is ranked the number one soft drink, repeatedly, internationally, and has notoriety as the first soft drink consumed by astronauts in space. They employ a diverse range of integrated marketing communications to advertise through direct marketing, web based media, social media and sales promotions (Stringer, 2015). \n\nThe company carefully considers all touch points a consumer (or prospective consumer) has with the brand as potential delivery channels for the brand's message, and makes use of all relevant communication systems. This well established, long standing, consistent approach has created a longing for the product that by far “superseded the desire for that typically associated with a drink to quench one’s thirst” (Dudovskiy, 2015). \n\n;Direct Marketing:\nThey have exclusive vendor company partnerships, which eliminates competition, e.g. cinemas and restaurants only serving Coca Cola over Pepsi. At sponsored sporting events they again eliminate competition by attaining sole sale rights as well as VIP sales opportunities to important clients, e.g., baseball fields. \n\n;Viral Marketing\nThe company also markets via mobile marketing in text messages, e.g.. viral marketing campaigns (Stringer, 2015).\n\n;Web & Social Media\nThey set the industry benchmark as the brand so universally recognized that audience building is unnecessary. Their fan engagement spans 86 million globally across social media channels. They deliver a consistently unified message whether it be through new products, online interaction, and social, cultural or sporting events (Stringer, 2015).\n\n;Sales & Promotions\nIn the retail setting, direct store beverage delivery trucks (mobile advertising) as well as point of sale coolers and vending machines have bright red logo blazoned branding. In terms of food service, Coca Cola is a food pairing suggestion that is now ingrained as a food match, e.g., for popcorn, burgers, fries, and hot dog combos (Stringer, 2015).\n\nProducts and brands\n\nThe Coca-Cola Company offers more than 350 brands in over 200 countries, aside from its namesake Coca-Cola beverage.\n\nBrands\n\nTab\n\nTab was Coca-Cola's first attempt to develop a diet soft drink, using saccharin as a sugar substitute. Introduced in 1963, the product is still sold today, although its sales have dwindled since the introduction of Diet Coke. The Tab soft drink is difficult to locate in recent times, due to its de facto replacement by Diet Coke.\n\nOther soft drinks\n\nThe Coca-Cola Company also produces a number of other soft drinks including Fanta (introduced circa 1941) and Sprite. Fanta's origins date back to World War II during a trade embargo against Germany on cola syrup, making it impossible to sell Coca-Cola in Germany. Max Keith, the head of Coca-Cola's German office during the war, decided to create a new product for the German market, made from products only available in Germany at the time, which they named Fanta. The drink proved to be a hit, and when Coke took over again after the war, it adopted the Fanta brand as well. Fanta was originally an orange flavored soft drink which can come in plastic bottles or cans. It has become available in many different flavors now such as grape, peach, grapefruit, apple, pineapple and strawberry.\n\nIn 1961, Coca-Cola introduced Sprite, a lemon-lime soft drink, and another of the company's bestsellers and its response to 7 Up.\n\nCoca-Cola South Africa also released Valpre Bottled \"still\" and \"sparkling\" water.\n\nColumbia Pictures\n\nCoca-Cola bought Columbia Pictures in 1981 owing to the low monetary value of the studio. The film company was the first and only studio ever owned by Coca-Cola. During its ownership of the studio, the studio released many popular films including Ghostbusters, Stripes, The Karate Kid, and some others. However, after the 1987 film Ishtar, Columbia was sold to Sony Pictures Entertainment.\n\nBreakMate\n\nNo longer manufactured, the Coca-Cola BreakMate was a three-flavour dispenser introduced by Coca-Cola and Siemens in 1988. Intended for use in offices with five to fifty people, its refrigerated compartment held three individual one-litre plastic containers of soda syrup and a CO2 tank. Like a soda fountain, it mixed syrup in a 1:5 ratio with carbonated water. In North America, Coca-Cola discontinued spare BreakMate parts in 2007 and stopped distributing the syrup in 2010. \n\nHealthy beverages\n\nDuring the 1990s, the company responded to the growing consumer interest in healthy beverages by introducing several new non-carbonated beverage brands. These included Minute Maid Juices to Go, Powerade sports beverage, flavored tea Nestea (in a joint venture with Nestle), Fruitopia fruit drink and Dasani water, among others. In 2001, Minute Maid division launched the Simply Orange brand of juices including orange juice. 2016, Coca-Cola India introduced Vio (flavoured milk) to enter into the value added dairy category, the product lays the foundation for Coca-Cola’s new segment after Carbonated beverages, Water and Juices. \n\nIn 2004, perhaps in response to the burgeoning popularity of low-carbohydrate diets such as the Atkins diet, Coca-Cola announced its intention to develop and sell a low-carbohydrate alternative to Coke Classic, dubbed C2 Cola. C2 contains a mix of high fructose corn syrup, aspartame, sucralose, and Acesulfame potassium. C2 is designed to more closely emulate the taste of Coca-Cola Classic. Even with less than half of the food energy and carbohydrates of standard soft drinks, C2 is not a replacement for zero-calorie soft drinks such as Diet Coke. C2 went on sale in the U.S. on June 11, 2004, and in Canada in August 2004. C2's future is uncertain due to disappointing sales.\n\nStarting in 2009, The Coca-Cola Company invested in Innocent Drinks, first with a minor stake, increasing to 90% in the first quarter of 2013.\n\nBest selling\n\nCoca-Cola is the best-selling soft drink in most countries, and was recognized as the number one global brand in 2010. While the Middle East is one of the only regions in the world where Coca-Cola is not the number one soda drink, Coca-Cola nonetheless holds almost 25% marketshare (to Pepsi's 75%) and had double-digit growth in 2003. Similarly, in Scotland, where the locally produced Irn-Bru was once more popular, 2005 figures show that both Coca-Cola and Diet Coke now outsell Irn-Bru. In Peru, the native Inca Kola has been more popular than Coca-Cola, which prompted Coca-Cola to enter in negotiations with the soft drink's company and buy 50% of its stakes. In Japan, the best selling soft drink is not cola, as (canned) tea and coffee are more popular. As such, The Coca-Cola Company's best selling brand there is not Coca-Cola, but Georgia. \nAs of May 2016, The Coca-Cola Company has temporally ceased production of its signature drink in Venezuela due to sugar shortages. \n\nInformation\n\nOn July 6, 2006, a Coca-Cola employee and two other people were arrested and charged with trying to sell trade secrets information to the soft drink maker's competitor, PepsiCo for $1.5 million. The recipe for Coca-Cola, perhaps the company's most closely guarded secret, was never in jeopardy. Instead, the information was related to a new beverage in development. Coca-Cola executives verified that the documents were valid and proprietary. At least one glass vial containing a sample of a new drink was offered for sale, court documents said. The conspiracy was revealed by PepsiCo, which notified the authorities when they were approached by the conspirators. \n\nGreen tea\n\nThe company announced a new \"negative calorie\" green tea drink, Enviga, in 2006, along with trying coffee retail concepts Far Coast and Chaqwa.\n\nGlaceau\n\nOn May 25, 2007, Coca-Cola announced it would purchase Glaceau, a maker of flavored vitamin-enhanced drinks (vitamin water), flavored waters, and Burn energy drinks, for $4.1 billion in cash.\n\nHuiyuan Juice\n\nOn September 3, 2008, Coca-Cola announced its intention to make cash offers to purchase China Huiyuan Juice Group Limited (which has a 42% share of the Chinese pure fruit juice market ) for US$2.4bn (HK$12.20 per share). China's ministry of commerce blocked the deal on March 18, 2009, arguing that the deal would hurt small local juice companies, could have pushed up juice market prices and limited consumers' choices. \n\nCoke Mini can\n\nIn October 2009, Coca-Cola revealed its new 90-calorie mini can that holds 7.5 fluid ounces. The mini can is often sold in 8 packs. Despite costing nearly 30 percent more per ounce, the mini cans have been met with positive sales figures. \n\nHoliday can\n\nIn November 2011, Coca-Cola revealed a seasonal design for their regular Coke cans as part of a partnership with the World Wildlife Fund. However it was withdrawn only a month after release due to consumer complaints about the similar look to the silver cans commonly used for Diet Coke. There were also complaints about deviating from traditional red as the color of Coca-Cola cans previously. \n\nWorld of Coca-Cola\n\nCoca-Cola operates a soft drink themed tourist attraction in downtown Atlanta, Ga; the \"World of Coca-Cola\" is a multi-storied exhibition of the many flavors sold by the company as well as a museum to the history of the company.\n\nStake in Monster Beverage\n\nIt was announced on August 14, 2014, that Coca-Cola Co is making a cash payment of $2.15 billion for a 16.7 percent stake in Monster Beverage Corp to expand its market for energy drinks. Coke's ownership in Full Throttle and Burn will be transferred to Monster. In return, Monster will transfer its ownership in Hansen's Natural Sodas and Peace Iced Tea to Coke. Muhtar Kent, Coke's Chief Executive Officer, stated that the company has the option to increase its stake to 25 percent but cannot exceed that percentage in the next four years.\n\nSponsorship\n\nCoca-Cola's advertising expenses accounted for US$3.256 billion in 2011. \n\nSports\n\nCoca-Cola sponsored the English Football League from the beginning of the 2004–05 season (beginning August 2004) to the start of 2010/11 season, when the Football League replaced it with NPower.\n\nAlong with this, Coca-Cola sponsored the Coca-Cola Football Camp, that took place in Pretoria, South Africa during the 2010 FIFA World Cup, during which hundreds of teenagers from around the world were able to come together and share their love of the game, partly due to Best Buy's efforts through their @15 program. \n\nOther major sponsorships include NHRA, NASCAR, the PGA Tour, NCAA Championships, the Olympic Games, the NRL, the FIFA World Cups and the UEFA European Championships.\n\nEach Fall, Coca-Cola is the sponsor of the TOUR Championship by Coca-Cola held at East Lake Golf Club in Atlanta, GA. The TOUR Championship is the season ending tournament of the PGA TOUR.\n\nIn the Philippines, it has a team in the Philippine Basketball Association, the Powerade Tigers.\n\nTelevision\n\nThe company sponsored the hit Fox singing-competition series American Idol. Coca-Cola is a sponsor of the nightly talk show on PBS, Charlie Rose in the US. \n\nTheme parks\n\nWhile not necessarily having naming rights to anything in all locations, the company does sponsor and provide beverages in many theme parks, usually in an exclusive capacity. This includes the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Merlin Entertainment, Universal Parks & Resorts, Six Flags, Cedar Fair, and SeaWorld Entertainment which are six of the nine largest theme park operators worldwide (it is unknown whether OCT Parks China, the Chimelong Group, or Fantawild, the fourth, seventh, and eighth largest theme park operators respectively, use Coca-Cola). \n\nThe company also directly sponsors, with naming rights, the Coca-Cola London Eye and the Coca-Cola Orlando Eye. \n\nThe company also operates \"Coca-Cola\" visitor centers in Israel and Turkey." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Diet Coke (Coca-Cola Light)", "Diet Coke Sweetened with Splenda", "Diet coke sweetened with splenda", "Coca cola light", "Coca-cola light", "Diet Coke with Lemon", "Diet Coca-Cola", "Diet Coke", "Caffeine Free Diet Coca-Cola", "Diet Coke with Splenda", "Diet Coke flavors", "Coca-Cola light", "Coke Light", "Coca Cola Light", "Coca-Cola Light", "Diet coke", "Light Coke", "Diet Coke With Lime", "Cola light", "Coke Lite", "Coca light", "DIET COKE", "Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "diet coke sweetened with splenda", "diet coke with lime", "coke lite", "diet coke with splenda", "coca cola light", "diet coke", "caffeine free diet coca cola", "diet coca cola", "cola light", "diet coke coca cola light", "diet coke with lemon", "coke light", "light coke", "coca light", "diet coke flavors" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "diet coke", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Diet Coke" }
Which telescope was launched into space on board a space shuttle in 1990?	tc_1344	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Telescope.txt", "Space_Shuttle.txt" ], "title": [ "Telescope", "Space Shuttle" ], "wiki_context": [ "A telescope is an optical instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light). The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 1600s, by using glass lenses. They found use in both terrestrial applications and astronomy.\n\nWithin a few decades, the reflecting telescope was invented, which used mirrors to collect and focus the light. In the 20th century many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared telescopes in the 1960s. The word telescope now refers to a wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors.\n\nThe word telescope (from the Ancient Greek τῆλε, tele \"far\" and σκοπεῖν, skopein \"to look or see\"; τηλεσκόπος, teleskopos \"far-seeing\") was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. In the Starry Messenger, Galileo had used the term perspicillum.\nHistory\n\nThe earliest recorded working telescopes were the refracting telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo heard about the Dutch telescope in June 1609, built his own within a month, and improved upon the design in the following year. In the same year, Galileo became the first person to point a telescope skyward in order to make telescopic observations of a celestial object. \n\nThe idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors—reduction of spherical aberration and no chromatic aberration—led to many proposed designs and several attempts to build reflecting telescopes. In 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the Newtonian reflector.\n\nThe invention of the achromatic lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter, more functional refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, though not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing speculum metal mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th century—a problem alleviated by the introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in 1857, and aluminized mirrors in 1932. The maximum physical size limit for refracting telescopes is about 1 meter (40 inches), dictating that the vast majority of large optical researching telescopes built since the turn of the 20th century have been reflectors. The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger than 10 m (33 feet), and work is underway on several 30-40m designs.\n\nThe 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The first purpose built radio telescope went into operation in 1937. Since then, a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed.\n\nTypes\n\nThe name \"telescope\" covers a wide range of instruments. Most detect electromagnetic radiation, but there are major differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light (electromagnetic radiation) in different frequency bands.\n\nTelescopes may be classified by the wavelengths of light they detect:\n\n* X-ray telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet light\n* Ultraviolet telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than visible light\n* Optical telescopes, using visible light\n* Infrared telescopes, using longer wavelengths than visible light\n* Submillimetre telescopes, using longer wavelengths than infrared light\n* Fresnel Imager, an optical lens technology\n* X-ray optics, optics for certain X-ray wavelengths\n\nAs wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to interact with electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny antenna). The near-infrared can be collected much like visible light, however in the far-infrared and submillimetre range, telescopes can operate more like a radio telescope. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 2000 μm (2 mm), but uses a parabolic aluminum antenna. On the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from about 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 180 μm (0.18 mm) uses a mirror (reflecting optics). Also using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the frequency range from about 0.2 μm (0.0002 mm) to 1.7 μm (0.0017 mm) (from ultra-violet to infrared light). \n\nAt the photon energy of shorter wavelengths (higher frequency), glancing-incident optics, rather than fully reflecting optics are used. Telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO use special mirrors to reflect Extreme ultraviolet, producing higher resolution and brighter images than are otherwise possible. A larger aperture does not just mean that more light is collected, it also enables a finer angular resolution.\n\nTelescopes may also be classified by location: ground telescope, space telescope, or flying telescope. They may also be classified by whether they are operated by professional astronomers or amateur astronomers. A vehicle or permanent campus containing one or more telescopes or other instruments is called an observatory.\n\nOptical telescopes\n\nAn optical telescope gathers and focuses light mainly from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum (although some work in the infrared and ultraviolet). Optical telescopes increase the apparent angular size of distant objects as well as their apparent brightness. In order for the image to be observed, photographed, studied, and sent to a computer, telescopes work by employing one or more curved optical elements, usually made from glass lenses and/or mirrors, to gather light and other electromagnetic radiation to bring that light or radiation to a focal point. Optical telescopes are used for astronomy and in many non-astronomical instruments, including: theodolites (including transits), spotting scopes, monoculars, binoculars, camera lenses, and spyglasses. There are three main optical types:\n* The refracting telescope which uses lenses to form an image. \n* The reflecting telescope which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image.\n* The catadioptric telescope which uses mirrors combined with lenses to form an image.\n\nBeyond these basic optical types there are many sub-types of varying optical design classified by the task they perform such as astrographs, comet seekers, solar telescope, etc.\n\nRadio telescopes\n\nRadio telescopes are directional radio antennas used for radio astronomy. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed. Multi-element Radio telescopes are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large 'virtual' apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes; this process is known as aperture synthesis. As of 2005, the current record array size is many times the width of the Earth—utilizing space-based Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) [http://www.vsop.isas.ac.jp/ VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite]. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which is used to collect radiation when any visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars. Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for extraterrestrial life.\n\nX-ray telescopes\n\nX-ray telescopes can use X-ray optics, such as a Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped 'glancing' mirrors made of heavy metals that are able to reflect the rays just a few degrees. The mirrors are usually a section of a rotated parabola and a hyperbola, or ellipse. In 1952, Hans Wolter outlined 3 ways a telescope could be built using only this kind of mirror. Examples of an observatory using this type of telescope are the Einstein Observatory, ROSAT, and the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. By 2010, Wolter focusing X-ray telescopes are possible up to 79 keV.[http://www.nustar.caltech.edu/about-nustar/instrumentation/optics NuStar: Instrumentation: Optics]\n\nGamma-ray telescopes\n\nHigher energy X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely and use coded aperture masks: the patterns of the shadow the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image.\n\nX-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or high-flying balloons since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, high energy X-rays and gamma-rays do not form an image in the same way as telescopes at visible wavelengths. An example of this type of telescope is the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope.\n\nThe detection of very high energy gamma rays, with shorter wavelength and higher frequency than regular gamma rays, requires further specialization. An example of this type of observatory is VERITAS. Very high energy gamma-rays are still photons, like visible light, whereas cosmic rays includes particles like electrons, protons, and heavier nuclei.\n\nA discovery in 2012 may allow focusing gamma-ray telescopes. At photon energies greater than 700 keV, the index of refraction starts to increase again.[http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2012/may/09/silicon-prism-bends-gamma-rays Tim Wogan – Silicon 'prism' bends gamma rays (May 2012) – PhysicsWorld.com]\n\nHigh-energy particle telescopes\n\nHigh-energy astronomy requires specialized telescopes to make observations since most of these particles go through most metals and glasses.\n\nIn other types of high energy particle telescopes there is no image-forming optical system. Cosmic-ray telescopes usually consist of an array of different detector types spread out over a large area. A Neutrino telescope consists of a large mass of water or ice, surrounded by an array of sensitive light detectors known as photomultiplier tubes. Originating direction of the neutrinos is determined by reconstructing the path of secondary particles scattered by neutrino impacts, from their interaction with multiple detectors. Energetic neutral atom observatories like Interstellar Boundary Explorer detect particles traveling at certain energies.\n\nOther types of telescopes\n\nAstronomy is not limited to using electromagnetic radiation. Additional information can be obtained using other media. The detectors used to observe the Universe are analogous to telescopes, these are:\n* Gravitational-wave detector, the equivalent of a gravitational wave telescope, used for gravitational-wave astronomy.\n* Neutrino detector, the equivalent of a neutrino telescope, used for neutrino astronomy.\n\nTypes of mount\n\nA telescope mount is a mechanical structure which supports a telescope. Telescope mounts are designed to support the mass of the telescope and allow for accurate pointing of the instrument. Many sorts of mounts have been developed over the years, with the majority of effort being put into systems that can track the motion of the stars as the Earth rotates. The two main types of tracking mount are:\n* Altazimuth mount\n* Equatorial mount\n\nAtmospheric electromagnetic opacity\n\nSince the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near-infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to astronomical seeing.\n\nTelescopic image from different telescope types\n\nDifferent types of telescope, operating in different wavelength bands, provide different information about the same object. Together they provide a more comprehensive understanding.\n\nBy spectrum\n\nTelescopes that operate in the electromagnetic spectrum:\n\nLinks to categories.\n\nLists of telescopes\n\n List of optical telescopes\n* List of largest optical reflecting telescopes\n* List of largest optical refracting telescopes\n* List of largest optical telescopes historically\n* List of radio telescopes\n* List of solar telescopes\n* List of space observatories\n* List of telescope parts and construction\n* List of telescope types\n* :Category:Telescopes\n* :Category:Cosmic-ray telescopes\n* :Category:Gamma-ray telescopes\n* :Category:Gravitational wave telescopes\n* :Category:High energy particle telescopes\n* :Category:Infrared telescopes\n* :Category:Submillimetre telescopes\n* :Category:Ultraviolet telescopes\n* :Category:X-ray telescopes", "The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development.[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/taskgrp.html Space Task Group Report, 1969] The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST); conducted science experiments in orbit; and participated in construction and servicing of the International Space Station. The Shuttle fleet's total mission time was 1322 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes and 23 seconds. \n\nShuttle components included the Orbiter Vehicle (OV), a pair of recoverable solid rocket boosters (SRBs), and the expendable external tank (ET) containing liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Shuttle was launched vertically, like a conventional rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the OV's three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, and the ET was jettisoned just before orbit insertion, which used the orbiter's two Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engines. At the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to de-orbit and re-enter the atmosphere. The orbiter then glided as a spaceplane to a runway landing, usually at the Shuttle Landing Facility of KSC or Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base, California. After landing at Edwards, the orbiter was flown back to the KSC on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a specially modified Boeing 747.\n\nA sixth orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976 for use in Approach and Landing Tests and had no orbital capability. Four fully operational orbiters were initially built: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in mission accidents: Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of fourteen astronauts killed. A fifth operational orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger. The Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantiss final flight on July 21, 2011.\n\nOverview\n\nThe Space Shuttle was a partially reusable human spaceflight vehicle capable of reaching low Earth orbit, commissioned and operated by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from 1981 to 2011. It resulted from shuttle design studies conducted by NASA and the US Air Force in the 1960s and was first proposed for development as part of an ambitious second-generation Space Transportation System (STS) of space vehicles to follow the Apollo program in a September 1969 report of a Space Task Group headed by Vice President Spiro Agnew to President Richard Nixon. Nixon's post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all system components except the Shuttle, to which NASA applied the STS name.\n\nThe vehicle consisted of a spaceplane for orbit and re-entry, fueled by expendable liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks, with reusable strap-on solid booster rockets. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982, all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135 missions, with Atlantis making the final launch of the three-decade Shuttle program on July 8, 2011. The program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. Major missions included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes, conducting space science experiments, and servicing and construction of space stations. The first orbiter vehicle, named Enterprise, was built for the initial Approach and Landing Tests phase and lacked engines, heat shielding, and other equipment necessary for orbital flight. A total of five operational orbiters were built, and of these, two were destroyed in accidents.\n\nIt was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the US Department of Defense, the European Space Agency, Japan, and Germany. The United States funded Shuttle development and operations except for the Spacelab modules used on D1 and D2sponsored by Germany.[http://www.google.com/search?tbs\nbks%3A1&tbo1&q\nGerman-funded+Spacelab+mission+made+use+of+the+ESA+Space+Sled&btnGSearch+Books#sclient\npsy&hlen&tbo\n1&tbsbks:1&source\nhp&qThe+D1+mission+has+been+financed+entirely+by+the+German+Ministry+of+Research+and+Technology&aq\n&aqi&aql\n&oq&gs_rfai\n&pbx1&fp\n44253eb2e797c355 Interavia (1985), Volume 40, p. 1170] Google Books Quote: \"This is the first time that control of a payload aboard a manned Shuttle has been in non-US hands. The D1 mission has been financed entirely by the German Ministry of Research and Technology. ..\" SL-J was partially funded by Japan.[http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis2/Chapter4_Programs/SL_J/SL_J_Intro.html Life into Space (1995/2000) – Volume 2, Chapter 4, Page: Spacelab-J (SL-J) Payload]. [http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/ NASA Life into Space].\n\nAt launch, it consisted of the \"stack\", including the dark orange external tank (ET) (for the first two launches the tank was painted white); two white, slender solid rocket boosters (SRBs); and the Orbiter Vehicle, which contained the crew and payload. Some payloads were launched into higher orbits with either of two different upper stages developed for the STS (single-stage Payload Assist Module or two-stage Inertial Upper Stage). The Space Shuttle was stacked in the Vehicle Assembly Building, and the stack mounted on a mobile launch platform held down by four frangible nuts on each SRB, which were detonated at launch. \n\nThe Shuttle stack launched vertically like a conventional rocket. It lifted off under the power of its two SRBs and three main engines, which were fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the ET. The Space Shuttle had a two-stage ascent. The SRBs provided additional thrust during liftoff and first-stage flight. About two minutes after liftoff, frangible nuts were fired, releasing the SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by ships for refurbishment and reuse. The orbiter and ET continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal flight path under power from its main engines. Upon reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for low Earth orbit, the main engines were shut down. The ET, attached by two frangible nuts was then jettisoned to burn up in the atmosphere. After jettisoning the external tank, the orbital maneuvering system (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit.\n\nThe orbiter carried astronauts and payloads such as satellites or space station parts into low Earth orbit, the Earth's upper atmosphere or thermosphere. Usually, five to seven crew members rode in the orbiter. Two crew members, the commander and pilot, were sufficient for a minimal flight, as in the first four \"test\" flights, STS-1 through STS-4. The typical payload capacity was about 50045 lb but could be increased depending on the choice of launch configuration. The orbiter carried its payload in a large cargo bay with doors that opened along the length of its top, a feature which made the Space Shuttle unique among spacecraft. This feature made possible the deployment of large satellites such as the Hubble Space Telescope and also the capture and return of large payloads back to Earth.\n\nWhen the orbiter's space mission was complete, it fired its OMS thrusters to drop out of orbit and re-enter the lower atmosphere. During descent, the orbiter passed through different layers of the atmosphere and decelerated from hypersonic speed primarily by aerobraking. In the lower atmosphere and landing phase, it was more like a glider but with reaction control system (RCS) thrusters and fly-by-wire-controlled hydraulically actuated flight surfaces controlling its descent. It landed on a long runway as a conventional aircraft. The aerodynamic shape was a compromise between the demands of radically different speeds and air pressures during re-entry, hypersonic flight, and subsonic atmospheric flight. As a result, the orbiter had a relatively high sink rate at low altitudes, and it transitioned during re-entry from using RCS thrusters at very high altitudes to flight surfaces in the lower atmosphere.\n\nEarly history\n\nThe formal design of what became the Space Shuttle began with the \"Phase A\" contract design studies issued in the late 1960s. Conceptualization had begun two decades earlier, before the Apollo program of the 1960s. One of the places the concept of a spacecraft returning from space to a horizontal landing originated was within NACA, in 1954, in the form of an aeronautics research experiment later named the X-15. The NACA proposal was submitted by Walter Dornberger.\n\nIn 1958, the X-15 concept further developed into proposal to launch an X-15 into space, and another X-series spaceplane proposal, named X-20 Dyna-Soar, as well as variety of aerospace plane concepts and studies. Neil Armstrong was selected to pilot both the X-15 and the X-20. Though the X-20 was not built, another spaceplane similar to the X-20 was built several years later and delivered to NASA in January 1966 called the HL-10 (\"HL\" indicated \"horizontal landing\").\n\nIn the mid-1960s, the US Air Force conducted classified studies on next-generation space transportation systems and concluded that semi-reusable designs were the cheapest choice. It proposed a development program with an immediate start on a \"Class I\" vehicle with expendable boosters, followed by slower development of a \"Class II\" semi-reusable design and possible \"Class III\" fully reusable design later. In 1967, George Mueller held a one-day symposium at NASA headquarters to study the options. Eighty people attended and presented a wide variety of designs, including earlier US Air Force designs such as the X-20 Dyna-Soar.\n\nIn 1968, NASA officially began work on what was then known as the Integrated Launch and Re-entry Vehicle (ILRV). At the same time, NASA held a separate Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) competition. NASA offices in Houston and Huntsville jointly issued a Request for Proposal (RFP) for ILRV studies to design a spacecraft that could deliver a payload to orbit but also re-enter the atmosphere and fly back to Earth. For example, one of the responses was for a two-stage design, featuring a large booster and a small orbiter, called the DC-3, one of several Phase A Shuttle designs. After the aforementioned \"Phase A\" studies, B, C, and D phases progressively evaluated in-depth designs up to 1972. In the final design, the bottom stage was recoverable solid rocket boosters, and the top stage used an expendable external tank.\n\nIn 1969, President Richard Nixon decided to support proceeding with Space Shuttle development. A series of development programs and analysis refined the basic design, prior to full development and testing. In August 1973, the X-24B proved that an unpowered spaceplane could re-enter Earth's atmosphere for a horizontal landing.\n\nAcross the Atlantic, European ministers met in Belgium in 1973 to authorize Western Europe's manned orbital project and its main contribution to Space Shuttlethe Spacelab program. Spacelab would provide a multidisciplinary orbital space laboratory and additional space equipment for the Shuttle.\n\nDescription\n\nThe Space Shuttle was the first operational orbital spacecraft designed for reuse. It carried different payloads to low Earth orbit, provided crew rotation and supplies for the International Space Station (ISS), and performed satellite servicing and repair. The orbiter could also recover satellites and other payloads from orbit and return them to Earth. Each Shuttle was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or ten years of operational life, although this was later extended. The person in charge of designing the STS was Maxime Faget, who had also overseen the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft designs. The crucial factor in the size and shape of the Shuttle orbiter was the requirement that it be able to accommodate the largest planned commercial and military satellites, and have over 1,000 mile cross-range recovery range to meet the requirement for classified USAF missions for a once-around abort from a launch to a polar orbit. The militarily specified cross range requirement was one of the primary reasons for the Shuttle's large wings, compared to modern commercial designs with very minimal control surfaces and glide capability. Factors involved in opting for solid rockets and an expendable fuel tank included the desire of the Pentagon to obtain a high-capacity payload vehicle for satellite deployment, and the desire of the Nixon administration to reduce the costs of space exploration by developing a spacecraft with reusable components.\n\nEach Space Shuttle was a reusable launch system composed of three main assemblies: the reusable OV, the expendable ET, and the two reusable SRBs. Only the OV entered orbit shortly after the tank and boosters are jettisoned. The vehicle was launched vertically like a conventional rocket, and the orbiter glided to a horizontal landing like an airplane, after which it was refurbished for reuse. The SRBs parachuted to splashdown in the ocean where they were towed back to shore and refurbished for later Shuttle missions.\n\nFive operational OVs were built: Columbia (OV-102), Challenger (OV-099), Discovery (OV-103), Atlantis (OV-104), and Endeavour (OV-105). A mock-up, Inspiration, currently stands at the entrance to the Astronaut Hall of Fame. An additional craft, Enterprise (OV-101), was built for atmospheric testing gliding and landing; it was originally intended to be outfitted for orbital operations after the test program, but it was found more economical to upgrade the structural test article STA-099 into orbiter Challenger (OV-099). Challenger disintegrated 73 seconds after launch in 1986, and Endeavour was built as a replacement from structural spare components. Building Endeavour cost about US$1.7 billion. Columbia broke apart over Texas during re-entry in 2003. A Space Shuttle launch cost around $450 million. \n\nRoger A. Pielke, Jr. has estimated that the Space Shuttle program cost about US$170 billion (2008 dollars) through early 2008; the average cost per flight was about US$1.5 billion.[http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/admin/publication_files/resource-2656-2008.18.pdf The Rise and Fall of the Space Shuttle], Book Review: Final Countdown: NASA and the End of the Space Shuttle Program by Pat Duggins, American Scientist, 2008, Vol. 96, No. 5, p. 32. Two missions were paid for by Germany, Spacelab D1 and D2 (D for Deutschland) with a payload control center in Oberpfaffenhofen. D1 was the first time that control of a manned STS mission payload was not in U.S. hands.\n\nAt times, the orbiter itself was referred to as the Space Shuttle. This was not technically correct as the Space Shuttle was the combination of the orbiter, the external tank, and the two solid rocket boosters. These components, once assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building originally built to assemble the Apollo Saturn V rocket, were commonly referred to as the \"stack\".[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/events/exhibits/html/s91-39574.html NASA - NASA - JSC Exhibits]\n\nResponsibility for the Shuttle components was spread among multiple NASA field centers. The Kennedy Space Center was responsible for launch, landing and turnaround operations for equatorial orbits (the only orbit profile actually used in the program), the US Air Force at the Vandenberg Air Force Base was responsible for launch, landing and turnaround operations for polar orbits (though this was never used), the Johnson Space Center served as the central point for all Shuttle operations, the Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for the main engines, external tank, and solid rocket boosters, the John C. Stennis Space Center handled main engine testing, and the Goddard Space Flight Center managed the global tracking network. \n\nOrbiter vehicle\n\nThe orbiter resembled a conventional aircraft, with double-delta wings swept 81° at the inner leading edge and 45° at the outer leading edge. Its vertical stabilizer's leading edge was swept back at a 50° angle. The four elevons, mounted at the trailing edge of the wings, and the rudder/speed brake, attached at the trailing edge of the stabilizer, with the body flap, controlled the orbiter during descent and landing.\n\nThe orbiter's 60 ft-long payload bay, comprising most of the fuselage, could accommodate cylindrical payloads up to 15 ft in diameter. Information declassified in 2011 showed that these measurements were chosen specifically to accommodate the KH-9 HEXAGON spy satellite operated by the National Reconnaissance Office. Two mostly-symmetrical lengthwise payload bay doors hinged on either side of the bay comprised its entire top. Payloads were generally loaded horizontally into the bay while the orbiter was standing upright on the launch pad and unloaded vertically in the near-weightless orbital environment by the orbiter's robotic remote manipulator arm (under astronaut control), EVA astronauts, or under the payloads' own power (as for satellites attached to a rocket \"upper stage\" for deployment.)\n\nThree Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) were mounted on the orbiter's aft fuselage in a triangular pattern. The engine nozzles could gimbal 10.5 degrees up and down, and 8.5 degrees from side to side during ascent to change the direction of their thrust to steer the Shuttle. The orbiter structure was made primarily from aluminum alloy, although the engine structure was made primarily from titanium alloy.\n\nThe operational orbiters built were OV-102 Columbia, OV-099 Challenger, OV-103 Discovery, OV-104 Atlantis, and OV-105 Endeavour. \n\nFile:Atlantis on Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.jpg\|Space Shuttle Atlantis transported by a Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA), 1998 (NASA)\nFile:Space Shuttle Transit.jpg\|Space Shuttle Endeavour being transported by a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft\nFile:STS-79 rollout.jpg\|An overhead view of Atlantis as it sits atop the Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP) before STS-79. Two Tail Service Masts (TSMs) to either side of the orbiter's tail provide umbilical connections for propellant loading and electrical power.\nFile:Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg\|Water is released onto the mobile launcher platform on Launch Pad 39A at the start of a sound suppression system test in 2004. During launch, 350000 USgal of water are poured onto the pad in 41 seconds. \n\nExternal tank\n\nThe main function of the Space Shuttle external tank was to supply the liquid oxygen and hydrogen fuel to the main engines. It was also the backbone of the launch vehicle, providing attachment points for the two solid rocket boosters and the orbiter. The external tank was the only part of the Shuttle system that was not reused. Although the external tanks were always discarded, it would have been possible to take them into orbit and re-use them (such as for incorporation into a space station).[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940004970_1994004970.pdf NASA-CR-195281, \"Utilization of the external tanks of the space transportation system\"]. NASA, August 23–27, 1982.[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/stsation.htm STS External Tank Station]. astronautix.com\n\nSolid rocket boosters\n\nTwo solid rocket boosters (SRBs) each provided 2800000 lbf of thrust at liftoff, which was 83% of the total thrust at liftoff. The SRBs were jettisoned two minutes after launch at a height of about 150000 ft, and then deployed parachutes and landed in the ocean to be recovered. The SRB cases were made of steel about ½ inch (13 mm) thick. The solid rocket boosters were re-used many times; the casing used in Ares I engine testing in 2009 consisted of motor cases that had been flown, collectively, on 48 Shuttle missions, including STS-1. \n\nAstronauts who have flown on multiple spacecraft report that Shuttle delivers a rougher ride than Apollo or Soyuz. The additional vibration is caused by the solid rocket boosters, as solid fuel does not burn as evenly as liquid fuel. The vibration dampens down after the solid rocket boosters have been jettisoned. \n\nOrbiter add-ons\n\nThe orbiter could be used in conjunction with a variety of add-ons depending on the mission. This included orbital laboratories (Spacelab, Spacehab), boosters for launching payloads farther into space (Inertial Upper Stage, Payload Assist Module), and other functions, such as provided by Extended Duration Orbiter, Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules, or Canadarm (RMS). An upper stage called Transfer Orbit Stage (Orbital Science Corp. TOS-21) was also used once with the orbiter. Other types of systems and racks were part of the modular Spacelab system pallets, igloo, IPS, etc., which also supported special missions such as SRTM.\n\nFile:Mplm in shuttle.jpg\|MPLM Leonardo\nFile:1989 s34 Galileo Deploy2.jpg\|IUS deploying with Galileo\nFile:SBS-3 with PAM-D stage.jpg\|PAM-D with satellite\nFile:EDO pallet.jpg\|EDO being installed\nFile:STS-9 Spacelab 1.jpg\|Spacelab in orbit\nFile:1996 s72 Scott EVA.jpg\|RMS (Canadarm)\nFile:Spacehab S107e05359.jpg\|Spacehab\n\nSpacelab\n\nA major component of the Space Shuttle Program was Spacelab, primarily contributed by a consortium of European countries, and operated in conjunction with the United States and international partners. Supported by a modular system of pressurized modules, pallets, and systems, Spacelab missions executed on multidisciplinary science, orbital logistics, and international cooperation. Over 29 missions flew on subjects ranging from astronomy, microgravity, radar, and life sciences, to name a few. Spacelab hardware also supported missions such as Hubble (HST) servicing and space station resupply. STS-2 and STS-3 provided testing, and the first full mission was Spacelab-1 (STS-9) launched on November 28, 1983.\n\nSpacelab formally began in 1973, after a meeting in Brussels, Belgium, by European heads of state. Within the decade, Spacelab went into orbit and provided Europe and the United States with an orbital workshop and hardware system. International cooperation, science, and exploration were realized on Spacelab.\n\nFlight systems\n\nThe Shuttle was one of the earliest craft to use a computerized fly-by-wire digital flight control system. This means no mechanical or hydraulic linkages connected the pilot's control stick to the control surfaces or reaction control system thrusters. The control algorithm, which used a classical Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) approach, was developed and maintained by Honeywell. The Shuttle's fly-by-wire digital flight control system was composed of 4 control systems each addressing a different mission phase: Ascent, Descent, On-Orbit and Aborts. Honeywell is also credited with the design and implementation of the Shuttle's Nose Wheel Steering Control Algorithm that allowed the Orbiter to safely land at Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Runway.\n\nA concern with using digital fly-by-wire systems on the Shuttle was reliability. Considerable research went into the Shuttle computer system. The Shuttle used five identical redundant IBM 32-bit general purpose computers (GPCs), model AP-101, constituting a type of embedded system. Four computers ran specialized software called the Primary Avionics Software System (PASS). A fifth backup computer ran separate software called the Backup Flight System (BFS). Collectively they were called the Data Processing System (DPS). \n\nThe design goal of the Shuttle's DPS was fail-operational/fail-safe reliability. After a single failure, the Shuttle could still continue the mission. After two failures, it could still land safely.\n\nThe four general-purpose computers operated essentially in lockstep, checking each other. If one computer provided a different result than the other three (i.e. the one computer failed), the three functioning computers \"voted\" it out of the system. This isolated it from vehicle control. If a second computer of the three remaining failed, the two functioning computers voted it out. A very unlikely failure mode would have been where two of the computers produced result A, and two produced result B (a two-two split). In this unlikely case, one group of two was to be picked at random.\n\nThe Backup Flight System (BFS) was separately developed software running on the fifth computer, used only if the entire four-computer primary system failed. The BFS was created because although the four primary computers were hardware redundant, they all ran the same software, so a generic software problem could crash all of them. Embedded system avionic software was developed under totally different conditions from public commercial software: the number of code lines was tiny compared to a public commercial software product, changes were only made infrequently and with extensive testing, and many programming and test personnel worked on the small amount of computer code. However, in theory it could have still failed, and the BFS existed for that contingency. While the BFS could run in parallel with PASS, the BFS never engaged to take over control from PASS during any Shuttle mission.\n\nThe software for the Shuttle computers was written in a high-level language called HAL/S, somewhat similar to PL/I. It is specifically designed for a real time embedded system environment.\n\nThe IBM AP-101 computers originally had about 424 kilobytes of magnetic core memory each. The CPU could process about 400,000 instructions per second. They had no hard disk drive, and loaded software from magnetic tape cartridges.\n\nIn 1990, the original computers were replaced with an upgraded model AP-101S, which had about 2.5 times the memory capacity (about 1 megabyte) and three times the processor speed (about 1.2 million instructions per second). The memory was changed from magnetic core to semiconductor with battery backup.\n\nEarly Shuttle missions, starting in November 1983, took along the Grid Compass, arguably one of the first laptop computers. The GRiD was given the name SPOC, for Shuttle Portable Onboard Computer. Use on the Shuttle required both hardware and software modifications which were incorporated into later versions of the commercial product. It was used to monitor and display the Shuttle's ground position, path of the next two orbits, show where the Shuttle had line of sight communications with ground stations, and determine points for location-specific observations of the Earth. The Compass sold poorly, as it cost at least US$8000, but it offered unmatched performance for its weight and size. NASA was one of its main customers. \n\nDuring its service life, the Shuttle's Control System never experienced a failure. Many of the lessons learned have been used to design today's high speed control algorithms.\n\nOrbiter markings and insignia\n\nThe prototype orbiter Enterprise originally had a flag of the United States on the upper surface of the left wing and the letters \"USA\" in black on the right wing. The name \"Enterprise\" was painted in black on the payload bay doors just above the hinge and behind the crew module; on the aft end of the payload bay doors was the NASA \"worm\" logotype in gray. Underneath the rear of the payload bay doors on the side of the fuselage just above the wing is the text \"United States\" in black with a flag of the United States ahead of it.\n\nThe first operational orbiter, Columbia, originally had the same markings as Enterprise, although the letters \"USA\" on the right wing were slightly larger and spaced farther apart. Columbia also had black markings which Enterprise lacked on its forward RCS module, around the cockpit windows, and on its vertical stabilizer, and had distinctive black \"chines\" on the forward part of its upper wing surfaces, which none of the other orbiters had.\n\nChallenger established a modified marking scheme for the shuttle fleet that was matched by Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour. The letters \"USA\" in black above an American flag were displayed on the left wing, with the NASA \"worm\" logotype in gray centered above the name of the orbiter in black on the right wing. The name of the orbiter was inscribed not on the payload bay doors, but on the forward fuselage just below and behind the cockpit windows. This would make the name visible when the shuttle was photographed in orbit with the doors open.\n\nIn 1983, Enterprise had its wing markings changed to match Challenger, and the NASA \"worm\" logotype on the aft end of the payload bay doors was changed from gray to black. Some black markings were added to the nose, cockpit windows and vertical tail to more closely resemble the flight vehicles, but the name \"Enterprise\" remained on the payload bay doors as there was never any need to open them. Columbia had its name moved to the forward fuselage to match the other flight vehicles after STS-61-C, during the 1986–88 hiatus when the shuttle fleet was grounded following the loss of Challenger, but retained its original wing markings until its last overhaul (after STS-93), and its unique black wing \"chines\" for the remainder of its operational life.\n\nBeginning in 1998, the flight vehicles' markings were modified to incorporate the NASA \"meatball\" insignia. The \"worm\" logotype, which the agency had phased out, was removed from the payload bay doors and the \"meatball\" insignia was added aft of the \"United States\" text on the lower aft fuselage. The \"meatball\" insignia was also displayed on the left wing, with the American flag above the orbiter's name, left-justified rather than centered, on the right wing. The three surviving flight vehicles, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour, still bear these markings as museum displays. Enterprise became the property of the Smithsonian Institution in 1985 and was no longer under NASA's control when these changes were made, hence the prototype orbiter still has its 1983 markings and still has its name on the payload bay doors.\n\nUpgrades\n\nThe Space Shuttle was initially developed in the 1970s, but received many upgrades and modifications afterward to improve performance, reliability and safety. Internally, the Shuttle remained largely similar to the original design, with the exception of the improved avionics computers. In addition to the computer upgrades, the original analog primary flight instruments were replaced with modern full-color, flat-panel display screens, called a glass cockpit, which is similar to those of contemporary airliners. To facilitate construction of ISS, the internal airlocks of each orbiter except Columbia were replaced with external docking systems to allow for a greater amount of cargo to be stored on the Shuttle's mid-deck during station resupply missions.\n\nThe Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) had several improvements to enhance reliability and power. This explains phrases such as \"Main engines throttling up to 104 percent.\" This did not mean the engines were being run over a safe limit. The 100 percent figure was the original specified power level. During the lengthy development program, Rocketdyne determined the engine was capable of safe reliable operation at 104 percent of the originally specified thrust. NASA could have rescaled the output number, saying in essence 104 percent is now 100 percent. To clarify this would have required revising much previous documentation and software, so the 104 percent number was retained. SSME upgrades were denoted as \"block numbers\", such as block I, block II, and block IIA. The upgrades improved engine reliability, maintainability and performance. The 109% thrust level was finally reached in flight hardware with the Block II engines in 2001. The normal maximum throttle was 104 percent, with 106 percent or 109 percent used for mission aborts.\n\nFor the first two missions, STS-1 and STS-2, the external tank was painted white to protect the insulation that covers much of the tank, but improvements and testing showed that it was not required. The weight saved by not painting the tank resulted in an increase in payload capability to orbit. Additional weight was saved by removing some of the internal \"stringers\" in the hydrogen tank that proved unnecessary. The resulting \"light-weight external tank\" was first flown on STS-6 and used on the majority of Shuttle missions. STS-91 saw the first flight of the \"super light-weight external tank\". This version of the tank was made of the 2195 aluminum-lithium alloy. It weighed 3.4 metric tons (7,500 lb) less than the last run of lightweight tanks, allowing the Shuttle to deliver heavy elements to ISS's high inclination orbit. As the Shuttle was always operated with a crew, each of these improvements was first flown on operational mission flights.\n\nThe solid rocket boosters underwent improvements as well. Design engineers added a third O-ring seal to the joints between the segments after the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.\n\nSeveral other SRB improvements were planned to improve performance and safety, but never came to be. These culminated in the considerably simpler, lower cost, probably safer and better-performing Advanced Solid Rocket Booster. These rockets entered production in the early to mid-1990s to support the Space Station, but were later canceled to save money after the expenditure of $2.2 billion. The loss of the ASRB program resulted in the development of the Super LightWeight external Tank (SLWT), which provided some of the increased payload capability, while not providing any of the safety improvements. In addition, the US Air Force developed their own much lighter single-piece SRB design using a filament-wound system, but this too was canceled.\n\nSTS-70 was delayed in 1995, when woodpeckers bored holes in the foam insulation of Discoverys external tank. Since then, NASA has installed commercial plastic owl decoys and inflatable owl balloons which had to be removed prior to launch. The delicate nature of the foam insulation had been the cause of damage to the Thermal Protection System, the tile heat shield and heat wrap of the orbiter. NASA remained confident that this damage, while it was the primary cause of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, would not jeopardize the completion of the International Space Station (ISS) in the projected time allotted.\n\nA cargo-only, unmanned variant of the Shuttle was variously proposed and rejected since the 1980s. It was called the Shuttle-C, and would have traded re-usability for cargo capability, with large potential savings from reusing technology developed for the Space Shuttle. Another proposal was to convert the payload bay into a passenger area, with versions ranging from 30 to 74 seats, three days in orbit, and cost US$1.5 million per seat.\n\nOn the first four Shuttle missions, astronauts wore modified US Air Force high-altitude full-pressure suits, which included a full-pressure helmet during ascent and descent. From the fifth flight, STS-5, until the loss of Challenger, one-piece light blue nomex flight suits and partial-pressure helmets were worn. A less-bulky, partial-pressure version of the high-altitude pressure suits with a helmet was reinstated when Shuttle flights resumed in 1988. The Launch-Entry Suit ended its service life in late 1995, and was replaced by the full-pressure Advanced Crew Escape Suit (ACES), which resembled the Gemini space suit in design, but retained the orange color of the Launch-Entry Suit.\n\nTo extend the duration that orbiters could stay docked at the ISS, the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS) was installed. The SSPTS allowed these orbiters to use power provided by the ISS to preserve their consumables. The SSPTS was first used successfully on STS-118.\n\nSpecifications\n\nOrbiter (for Endeavour, OV-105)\nLength: \nWingspan: \nHeight: \nEmpty weight: 172000 lb \nGross liftoff weight (Orbiter only): 240000 lb\nMaximum landing weight: 230000 lb\nPayload to Landing (Return Payload): 32,000 lb (14,400 kg)\nMaximum payload: 55250 lb\nPayload to LEO (204 km @ 28.5° inclination: 27500 kg\nPayload to LEO (407 km @ 51.6° to ISS): \nPayload to GTO: 8390 lb\nPayload to Polar Orbit: 28000 lb\nNote launch payloads modified by External Tank (ET) choice (ET, LWT, or SLWT)\nPayload bay dimensions: 15 by (diameter by length)\nOperational altitude: 100 to\nSpeed: 7743 m/s\nCrossrange: 1085 nmi\nMain Stage (SSME with external tank)\nEngines: Three Rocketdyne Block II SSMEs, each with a sea level thrust of 393800 lbf at 104% power \nThrust (at liftoff, sea level, 104% power, all 3 engines): 1181400 lbf\nSpecific impulse: 455 isp\nBurn time: 480 s\n*Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen\nOrbital Maneuvering System\nEngines: 2 OMS Engines\nThrust: combined total vacuum thrust\nSpecific impulse: 316 isp\nBurn time: 150–250 s typical burn; 1250 s deorbit burn\n*Fuel: MMH/N2O4\nCrew: Varies.\n:The earliest Shuttle flights had the minimum crew of two; many later missions a crew of five. By program end, typically seven people would fly: (commander, pilot, several mission specialists, one of whom (MS-2) acted as the flight engineer starting with STS-9 in 1983). On two occasions, eight astronauts have flown (STS-61-A, STS-71). Eleven people could be accommodated in an emergency mission (see STS-3xx).\n\nExternal tank (for SLWT)\nLength: \nDiameter: \nPropellant volume: 2025 m3\nEmpty weight: 26535 kg\nGross liftoff weight (for tank): 756000 kg\n\nSolid Rocket Boosters\nLength: \nDiameter: \nEmpty weight (each): 68000 kg\nGross liftoff weight (each): 571000 kg[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19910018886_1991018886.pdf Space Shuttle Propulsion Systems], p. 153. NASA, June 26, 1990.\nThrust (at liftoff, sea level, each): 12500 kN\nSpecific impulse: 269 isp\nBurn time: 124 s\n\nSystem Stack\nHeight: 56 m\nGross liftoff weight: 2000000 kg\nTotal liftoff thrust: 30160 kN\n\nMission profile\n\nLaunch preparation\n\nAll Space Shuttle missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The weather criteria used for launch included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by lightning. Aircraft are often struck by lightning with no adverse effects because the electricity of the strike is dissipated through its conductive structure and the aircraft is not electrically grounded. Like most jet airliners, the Shuttle was mainly constructed of conductive aluminum, which would normally shield and protect the internal systems. However, upon liftoff the Shuttle sent out a long exhaust plume as it ascended, and this plume could have triggered lightning by providing a current path to ground. The NASA Anvil Rule for a Shuttle launch stated that an anvil cloud could not appear within a distance of 10 nautical miles. The Shuttle Launch Weather Officer monitored conditions until the final decision to scrub a launch was announced. In addition, the weather conditions had to be acceptable at one of the Transatlantic Abort Landing sites (one of several Space Shuttle abort modes) to launch as well as the solid rocket booster recovery area. While the Shuttle might have safely endured a lightning strike, a similar strike caused problems on Apollo 12, so for safety NASA chose not to launch the Shuttle if lightning was possible (NPR8715.5).\n\nHistorically, the Shuttle was not launched if its flight would run from December to January (a year-end rollover or YERO). Its flight software, designed in the 1970s, was not designed for this, and would require the orbiter's computers be reset through a change of year, which could cause a glitch while in orbit. In 2007, NASA engineers devised a solution so Shuttle flights could cross the year-end boundary. \n\nLaunch\n\nAfter the final hold in the countdown at T-minus 9 minutes, the Shuttle went through its final preparations for launch, and the countdown was automatically controlled by the Ground Launch Sequencer (GLS), software at the Launch Control Center, which stopped the count if it sensed a critical problem with any of the Shuttle's onboard systems. The GLS handed off the count to the Shuttle's on-board computers at T minus 31 seconds, in a process called auto sequence start.\n\nAt T-minus 16 seconds, the massive sound suppression system (SPS) began to drench the Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP) and SRB trenches with 300000 USgal of water to protect the Orbiter from damage by acoustical energy and rocket exhaust reflected from the flame trench and MLP during lift off. \n\nAt T-minus 10 seconds, hydrogen igniters were activated under each engine bell to quell the stagnant gas inside the cones before ignition. Failure to burn these gases could trip the onboard sensors and create the possibility of an overpressure and explosion of the vehicle during the firing phase. The main engine turbopumps also began charging the combustion chambers with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen at this time. The computers reciprocated this action by allowing the redundant computer systems to begin the firing phase.\n\nThe three main engines (SSMEs) started at T-6.6 seconds. The main engines ignited sequentially via the Shuttle's general purpose computers (GPCs) at 120 millisecond intervals. All three SSMEs were required to reach 90% rated thrust within three seconds, otherwise the onboard computers would initiate an RSLS abort. If all three engines indicated nominal performance by T-3 seconds, they were commanded to gimbal to liftoff configuration and the command would be issued to arm the SRBs for ignition at T-0. Between T-6.6 seconds and T-3 seconds, while the SSMEs were firing but the SRBs were still bolted to the pad, the offset thrust caused the entire launch stack (boosters, tank and orbiter) to pitch down measured at the tip of the external tank. The three second delay after confirmation of SSME operation was to allow the stack to return to nearly vertical. At T-0 seconds, the 8 frangible nuts holding the SRBs to the pad were detonated, the SSMEs were commanded to 100% throttle, and the SRBs were ignited. By T+0.23 seconds, the SRBs built up enough thrust for liftoff to commence, and reached maximum chamber pressure by T+0.6 seconds. The Johnson Space Center's Mission Control Center assumed control of the flight once the SRBs had cleared the launch tower.\n\nShortly after liftoff, the Shuttle's main engines were throttled up to 104.5% and the vehicle began a combined roll, pitch and yaw maneuver that placed it onto the correct heading (azimuth) for the planned orbital inclination and in a heads down attitude with wings level. The Shuttle flew upside down during the ascent phase. This orientation allowed a trim angle of attack that was favorable for aerodynamic loads during the region of high dynamic pressure, resulting in a net positive load factor, as well as providing the flight crew with a view of the horizon as a visual reference. The vehicle climbed in a progressively flattening arc, accelerating as the mass of the SRBs and main tank decreased. To achieve low orbit requires much more horizontal than vertical acceleration. This was not visually obvious, since the vehicle rose vertically and was out of sight for most of the horizontal acceleration. The near circular orbital velocity at the 380 km altitude of the International Space Station is 27650 km/h, roughly equivalent to Mach 23 at sea level. As the International Space Station orbits at an inclination of 51.6 degrees, missions going there must set orbital inclination to the same value in order to rendezvous with the station.\n\nAround 30 seconds into ascent, the SSMEs were throttled down—usually to 72%, though this varied—to reduce the maximum aerodynamic forces acting on the Shuttle at a point called Max Q. Additionally, the propellant grain design of the SRBs caused their thrust to drop by about 30% by 50 seconds into ascent. Once the Orbiter's guidance verified that Max Q would be within Shuttle structural limits, the main engines were throttled back up to 104.5%; this throttling down and back up was called the \"thrust bucket\". To maximize performance, the throttle level and timing of the thrust bucket was shaped to bring the Shuttle as close to aerodynamic limits as possible. \n\nAt around T+126 seconds, pyrotechnic fasteners released the SRBs and small separation rockets pushed them laterally away from the vehicle. The SRBs parachuted back to the ocean to be reused. The Shuttle then began accelerating to orbit on the main engines. Acceleration at this point would typically fall to .9 g, and the vehicle would take on a somewhat nose-up angle to the horizon - it used the main engines to gain and then maintain altitude while it accelerated horizontally towards orbit. At about five and three-quarter minutes into ascent, the orbiter's direct communication links with the ground began to fade, at which point it rolled heads up to reroute its communication links to the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite system.\n\nAt about seven and a half minutes into ascent, the mass of the vehicle was low enough that the engines had to be throttled back to limit vehicle acceleration to 3 g (29.4 m/s² or 96.5 ft/s², equivalent to accelerating from zero to in a second). The Shuttle would maintain this acceleration for the next minute, and main engine cut-off (MECO) occurred at about eight and a half minutes after launch. The main engines were shut down before complete depletion of propellant, as running dry would have destroyed the engines. The oxygen supply was terminated before the hydrogen supply, as the SSMEs reacted unfavorably to other shutdown modes. (Liquid oxygen has a tendency to react violently, and supports combustion when it encounters hot engine metal.) A few seconds after MECO, the external tank was released by firing pyrotechnic fasteners.\n\nAt this point the Shuttle and external tank were on a slightly suborbital trajectory, coasting up towards apogee. Once at apogee, about half an hour after MECO, the Shuttle's Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engines were fired to raise its perigee and achieve orbit, while the external tank fell back into the atmosphere and burned up over the Indian Ocean or the Pacific Ocean depending on launch profile. The sealing action of the tank plumbing and lack of pressure relief systems on the external tank helped it break up in the lower atmosphere. After the foam burned away during re-entry, the heat caused a pressure buildup in the remaining liquid oxygen and hydrogen until the tank exploded. This ensured that any pieces that fell back to Earth were small.\n\nAscent tracking\n\nThe Shuttle was monitored throughout its ascent for short range tracking (10 seconds before liftoff through 57 seconds after), medium range (7 seconds before liftoff through 110 seconds after) and long range (7 seconds before liftoff through 165 seconds after). Short range cameras included 22 16mm cameras on the Mobile Launch Platform and 8 16mm on the Fixed Service Structure, 4 high speed fixed cameras located on the perimeter of the launch complex plus an additional 42 fixed cameras with 16mm motion picture film. Medium range cameras included remotely operated tracking cameras at the launch complex plus 6 sites along the immediate coast north and south of the launch pad, each with 800mm lens and high speed cameras running 100 frames per second. These cameras ran for only 4–10 seconds due to limitations in the amount of film available. Long range cameras included those mounted on the external tank, SRBs and orbiter itself which streamed live video back to the ground providing valuable information about any debris falling during ascent. Long range tracking cameras with 400-inch film and 200-inch video lenses were operated by a photographer at Playalinda Beach as well as 9 other sites from 38 miles north at the Ponce Inlet to 23 miles south to Patrick Air Force Base (PAFB) and additional mobile optical tracking camera was stationed on Merritt Island during launches. A total of 10 HD cameras were used both for ascent information for engineers and broadcast feeds to networks such as NASA TV and HDNet. The number of cameras significantly increased and numerous existing cameras were upgraded at the recommendation of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board to provide better information about the debris during launch. Debris was also tracked using a pair of Weibel Continuous Pulse Doppler X-band radars, one on board the SRB recovery ship MV Liberty Star positioned north east of the launch pad and on a ship positioned south of the launch pad. Additionally, during the first 2 flights following the loss of Columbia and her crew, a pair of NASA WB-57 reconnaissance aircraft equipped with HD Video and Infrared flew at 60000 ft to provide additional views of the launch ascent. Kennedy Space Center also invested nearly $3 million in improvements to the digital video analysis systems in support of debris tracking. \n\nIn orbit\n\nOnce in orbit, the Shuttle usually flew at an altitude of 320 kilometers (200 miles), and occasionally as high as 650 kilometers. In the 1980s and 1990s, many flights involved space science missions on the NASA/ESA Spacelab, or launching various types of satellites and science probes. By the 1990s and 2000s the focus shifted more to servicing the space station, with fewer satellite launches. Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the Extended Duration Orbiter add-on or when attached to a space station.\n\nRe-entry and landing\n\nAlmost the entire Space Shuttle re-entry procedure, except for lowering the landing gear and deploying the air data probes, was normally performed under computer control. However, the re-entry could be flown entirely manually if an emergency arose. The approach and landing phase could be controlled by the autopilot, but was usually hand flown.\n\nThe vehicle began re-entry by firing the Orbital maneuvering system engines, while flying upside down, backside first, in the opposite direction to orbital motion for approximately three minutes, which reduced the Shuttle's velocity by about 200 mph. The resultant slowing of the Shuttle lowered its orbital perigee down into the upper atmosphere. The Shuttle then flipped over, by pushing its nose down (which was actually \"up\" relative to the Earth, because it was flying upside down). This OMS firing was done roughly halfway around the globe from the landing site.\n\nThe vehicle started encountering more significant air density in the lower thermosphere at about 400000 ft, at around Mach 25, 8200 m/s. The vehicle was controlled by a combination of RCS thrusters and control surfaces, to fly at a 40-degree nose-up attitude, producing high drag, not only to slow it down to landing speed, but also to reduce reentry heating. As the vehicle encountered progressively denser air, it began a gradual transition from spacecraft to aircraft. In a straight line, its 40-degree nose-up attitude would cause the descent angle to flatten-out, or even rise. The vehicle therefore performed a series of four steep S-shaped banking turns, each lasting several minutes, at up to 70 degrees of bank, while still maintaining the 40-degree angle of attack. In this way it dissipated speed sideways rather than upwards. This occurred during the 'hottest' phase of re-entry, when the heat-shield glowed red and the G-forces were at their highest. By the end of the last turn, the transition to aircraft was almost complete. The vehicle leveled its wings, lowered its nose into a shallow dive and began its approach to the landing site.\n\nFile:Stsheat.jpg\|Simulation of the outside of the Shuttle as it heats up to over 1,500 °C during re-entry.\nFile:Nasa Shuttle Test Using Electron Beam full.jpg\|A Space Shuttle model undergoes a wind tunnel test in 1975. This test is simulating the ionized gasses that surround a Shuttle as it reenters the atmosphere.\nFile:CFD Shuttle.jpg\|A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during re-entry.\n\nThe orbiter's maximum glide ratio/lift-to-drag ratio varies considerably with speed, ranging from 1:1 at hypersonic speeds, 2:1 at supersonic speeds and reaching 4.5:1 at subsonic speeds during approach and landing. \n\nIn the lower atmosphere, the orbiter flies much like a conventional glider, except for a much higher descent rate, over 50 m/s or 9,800 fpm. At approximately Mach 3, two air data probes, located on the left and right sides of the orbiter's forward lower fuselage, are deployed to sense air pressure related to the vehicle's movement in the atmosphere.\n\nFinal approach and landing phase\n\nWhen the approach and landing phase began, the orbiter was at a 3000 m altitude, 12 km from the runway. The pilots applied aerodynamic braking to help slow down the vehicle. The orbiter's speed was reduced from 682 to, approximately, at touch-down (compared to 260 km/h for a jet airliner). The landing gear was deployed while the Orbiter was flying at 430 km/h. To assist the speed brakes, a 12 m drag chute was deployed either after main gear or nose gear touchdown (depending on selected chute deploy mode) at about 343 km/h. The chute was jettisoned once the orbiter slowed to 110 km/h.\n\nFile:Concluding the STS-133 mission, Space Shuttle Discovery touches down at the Shuttle Landing Facility.jpg\|Discovery touches down for the final time at the end of STS-133.\nFile:Space Shuttle Endeavour landing.jpg\|Endeavour brake chute deploys after touching down\n\nPost-landing processing\n\nAfter landing, the vehicle stayed on the runway for several hours for the orbiter to cool. Teams at the front and rear of the orbiter tested for presence of hydrogen, hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine, nitrogen tetroxide and ammonia (fuels and by-products of the reaction control system and the orbiter's three APUs). If hydrogen was detected, an emergency would be declared, the orbiter powered down and teams would evacuate the area. A convoy of 25 specially designed vehicles and 150 trained engineers and technicians approached the orbiter. Purge and vent lines were attached to remove toxic gases from fuel lines and the cargo bay about 45–60 minutes after landing. A flight surgeon boarded the orbiter for initial medical checks of the crew before disembarking. Once the crew left the orbiter, responsibility for the vehicle was handed from the Johnson Space Center back to the Kennedy Space Center.\n\nIf the mission ended at Edwards Air Force Base in California, White Sands Space Harbor in New Mexico, or any of the runways the orbiter might use in an emergency, the orbiter was loaded atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a modified 747, for transport back to the Kennedy Space Center, landing at the Shuttle Landing Facility. Once at the Shuttle Landing Facility, the orbiter was then towed 2 mi along a tow-way and access roads normally used by tour buses and KSC employees to the Orbiter Processing Facility where it began a months-long preparation process for the next mission.\n\nLanding sites\n\nNASA preferred Space Shuttle landings to be at Kennedy Space Center. If weather conditions made landing there unfavorable, the Shuttle could delay its landing until conditions are favorable, touch down at Edwards Air Force Base, California, or use one of the multiple alternate landing sites around the world. A landing at any site other than Kennedy Space Center meant that after touchdown the Shuttle must be mated to the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and returned to Cape Canaveral. Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-3) once landed at the White Sands Space Harbor, New Mexico; this was viewed as a last resort as NASA scientists believe that the sand could potentially damage the Shuttle's exterior.\n\nThere were many alternative landing sites that were never used. \n\nRisk contributors\n\nAn example of technical risk analysis for a STS mission is SPRA iteration 3.1 top risk contributors for STS-133: \n# Micro-Meteoroid Orbital Debris (MMOD) strikes\n# Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)-induced or SSME catastrophic failure\n# Ascent debris strikes to TPS leading to LOCV on orbit or entry\n# Crew error during entry\n# RSRM-induced RSRM catastrophic failure (RSRM are the rocket motors of the SRBs)\n# COPV failure (COPV are tanks inside the orbiter that hold gas at high pressure)\n\nAn internal NASA risk assessment study (conducted by the Shuttle Program Safety and Mission Assurance Office at Johnson Space Center) released in late 2010 or early 2011 concluded that the agency had seriously underestimated the level of risk involved in operating the Shuttle. The report assessed that there was a 1 in 9 chance of a catastrophic disaster during the first nine flights of the Shuttle but that safety improvements had later improved the risk ratio to 1 in 90. \n\nFleet history\n\nBelow is a list of major events in the Space Shuttle orbiter fleet.\n\nSources: NASA launch manifest, NASA Space Shuttle archive \n\nShuttle disasters\n\nOn January 28, 1986, Challenger disintegrated 73 seconds after launch due to the failure of the right SRB, killing all seven astronauts on board. The disaster was caused by low-temperature impairment of an O-ring, a mission critical seal used between segments of the SRB casing. The failure of a lower O-ring seal allowed hot combustion gases to escape from between the booster sections and burn through the adjacent external tank, causing it to explode. Repeated warnings from design engineers voicing concerns about the lack of evidence of the O-rings' safety when the temperature was below 53 °F (12 °C) had been ignored by NASA managers. \n\nOn February 1, 2003, Columbia disintegrated during re-entry, killing its crew of seven, because of damage to the carbon-carbon leading edge of the wing caused during launch. Ground control engineers had made three separate requests for high-resolution images taken by the Department of Defense that would have provided an understanding of the extent of the damage, while NASA's chief thermal protection system (TPS) engineer requested that astronauts on board Columbia be allowed to leave the vehicle to inspect the damage. NASA managers intervened to stop the Department of Defense's assistance and refused the request for the spacewalk, and thus the feasibility of scenarios for astronaut repair or rescue by Atlantis were not considered by NASA management at the time. \n\nRetirement\n\nNASA retired the Space Shuttle in 2011, after 30 years of service. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public as a \"Space Truck\", which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low earth orbit in the early 1990s. When the US space station evolved into the International Space Station project, which suffered from long delays and design changes before it could be completed, the service life of the Space Shuttle was extended several times until 2011, serving at least 15 years longer than it was originally designed to do. Discovery was the first of NASA's three remaining operational Space Shuttles to be retired. \n\nThe final Space Shuttle mission was originally scheduled for late 2010, but the program was later extended to July 2011 when Michael Suffredini of the ISS program said that one additional trip was needed in 2011 to deliver parts to the International Space Station. The Shuttle's final mission consisted of just four astronauts—Christopher Ferguson (Commander), Douglas Hurley (Pilot), Sandra Magnus (Mission Specialist 1), and Rex Walheim (Mission Specialist 2); they conducted the 135th and last space Shuttle mission on board Atlantis, which launched on July 8, 2011, and landed safely at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011, at 5:57 AM EDT (09:57 UTC). \n\nDistribution of orbiters and other hardware\n\nNASA announced it would transfer orbiters to education institutions or museums at the conclusion of the Space Shuttle program. Each museum or institution is responsible for covering the cost of preparing and transporting each vehicle for display. Twenty museums from across the country submitted proposals for receiving one of the retired orbiters. NASA also made Space Shuttle thermal protection system tiles available to schools and universities for less than US$25 each. About 7,000 tiles were available on a first-come, first-served basis, limited to one per institution.\n\nOn April 12, 2011, NASA announced selection of locations for the remaining Shuttle orbiters: \n\n Atlantis is on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, near Cape Canaveral, Florida. It was delivered to the Visitor Complex on November 2, 2012.\n* Discovery was delivered to the Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia, near Washington, D.C. on April 19, 2012. On April 17, 2012, Discovery was flown atop a 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft escorted by a NASA T-38 Talon chase aircraft in a final farewell flight. The 747 and Discovery flew over Washington, D.C. and the metropolitan area around 10 am and arrived at Dulles around 11 am. The flyover and landing were widely covered on national news media.\n\n* Endeavour was delivered to the California Science Center in Los Angeles, California on October 14, 2012. It arrived at Los Angeles International Airport on September 21, 2012, concluding a two-day, cross country journey atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft after stops at Ellington Field in Houston, Biggs Army Airfield in El Paso and the Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base, California.\n* Enterprise (atmospheric test orbiter) was on display at the National Air and Space Museum's Udvar-Hazy Center but was moved to New York City's Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum in mid-2012.\n\nFlight and mid-deck training hardware will be taken from the Johnson Space Center and will go to the National Air and Space Museum and the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force. The full fuselage mockup, which includes the payload bay and aft section but no wings, is to go to the Museum of Flight in Seattle. Mission Simulation and Training Facility's fixed simulator will go to the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, and the motion simulator will go to the Texas A&M Aerospace Engineering Department in College Station, Texas. Other simulators used in Shuttle astronaut training will go to the Wings of Dreams Aviation Museum in Starke, Florida and the Virginia Air and Space Center in Hampton, Virginia.\n\nIn August 2011, the NASA Office of Inspector General (OIG) published a \"Review of NASA's Selection of Display Locations for the Space Shuttle Orbiters\"; the review had four main findings: \n\"NASA's decisions regarding Orbiter placement were the result of an Agency-created process that emphasized above all other considerations locating the Orbiters in places where the most people would have the opportunity to view them\";\n\"the Team made several errors during its evaluation process, including one that would have resulted in a numerical 'tie' among the Intrepid, the Kennedy Visitor Complex, and the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force (Air Force Museum) in Dayton, Ohio\";\nthere is \"no evidence that the Team’s recommendation or the Administrator's decision were tainted by political influence or any other improper consideration\";\n\"some of the choices NASA made during the selection process – specifically, its decision to manage aspects of the selection as if it were a competitive procurement and to delay announcement of its placement decisions until April 2011 (more than 2 years after it first solicited information from interested entities)—may intensify challenges to the Agency and the selectees as they work to complete the process of placing the Orbiters in their new homes.\"\nThe NASA OIG had three recommendations, saying NASA should:\n\"expeditiously review recipients' financial, logistical, and curatorial display plans to ensure they are feasible and consistent with the Agency's educational goals and processing and delivery schedules\";\n\"ensure that recipient payments are closely coordinated with processing schedules, do not impede NASA's ability to efficiently prepare the Orbiters for museum display, and provide sufficient funds in advance of the work to be performed; and\"\n*\"work closely with the recipient organizations to minimize the possibility of delays in the delivery schedule that could increase the Agency's costs or impact other NASA missions and priorities.\"\n\nIn September 2011, the CEO and two board members of Seattle's Museum of Flight met with NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, pointing out \"significant errors in deciding where to put its four retiring Space Shuttles\"; the errors alleged include inaccurate information on Museum of Flight's attendance and international visitor statistics, as well as the readiness of the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum's exhibit site. \n\nSpace Shuttle successors and legacy\n\nUntil another US manned spacecraft is ready, crews will travel to and from the International Space Station (ISS) exclusively aboard the Russian Soyuz spacecraft.\n\nA planned successor to STS was the \"Shuttle II\", during the 1980s and 1990s, and later the Constellation program during the 2004–2010 period. CSTS was a proposal to continue to operate STS commercially, after NASA. In September 2011, NASA announced the selection of the design for the new Space Launch System that is planned to launch the Orion spacecraft and other hardware to missions beyond low earth-orbit. \n\nThe Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program began in 2006 with the purpose of creating commercially operated unmanned cargo vehicles to service the ISS. The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was started in 2010 to create commercially operated manned spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, to stay docked for 180 days, and then return them back to Earth. These spacecraft were to become operational in the 2010s. \n\nIn culture\n\nSpace Shuttles have been features of fiction and nonfiction, from children's movies to documentaries. Early examples include the 1979 James Bond film, Moonraker, the 1982 Activision videogame Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space (1982) and G. Harry Stine's 1981 novel Shuttle Down. In the 1986 film SpaceCamp, Atlantis accidentally launched into space with a group of U.S. Space Camp participants as its crew. The 1998 film Armageddon portrayed a combined crew of offshore oil rig workers and US military staff who pilot two modified Shuttles to avert the destruction of Earth by an asteroid. Retired American test pilots visited a Russian satellite in the 2000 Clint Eastwood adventure film Space Cowboys. In the 2003 film The Core, the Endeavours landing is disrupted by the earth's magnetic core, and its crew is selected to pilot the vehicle designed to restart the core. The 2004 Bollywood movie Swades, where a Space Shuttle was used to launch a special rainfall monitoring satellite, was filmed at Kennedy Space Center in the year following the Columbia disaster that had taken the life of Indian-American astronaut KC Chawla. On television, the 1996 drama The Cape portrayed the lives of a group of NASA astronauts as they prepared for and flew Shuttle missions. Odyssey 5 was a short lived sci-fi series that featured the crew of a Space Shuttle as the last survivors of a disaster that destroyed Earth. The 1997- 2007 Sci-fi series Stargate SG-1 had a shuttle rescue written into an episode. The 2013 film Gravity features the fictional space shuttle Explorer, whose crew are killed or left stranded after it is destroyed by a shower of high speed orbital debris.\n\nThe Space Shuttle has also been the subject of toys and models; for example, a large Lego Space Shuttle model was constructed by visitors at Kennedy Space Center, and smaller models have been sold commercially as a standard \"LegoLand\" set. A 1980 pinball machine Space Shuttle was produced by Zaccaria and a 1984 pinball machine Space Shuttle: Pinball Adventure was produced by Williams and features a plastic Space Shuttle model among other artwork of astronauts on the play field. The Space Shuttle also appears in a number of flight simulator and space flight simulator games such as Microsoft Space Simulator, Orbiter, FlightGear, X-Plane and Space Shuttle Mission 2007. Several Transformers toys were modeled after the Space Shuttle. \n\nUS postage commemorations\n\nThe U.S. Postal Service has released several postage issues that depict the Space Shuttle. The first such stamps were issued in 1981, and are on display at the National Postal Museum." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Hubble Space telescope", "Hubble Space Telescope", "Hubble", "Hubblecast", "Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 2", "Hubble telescope", "1990-037B", "The hubble", "Space Telescope Operations Control Center", "Hubble Space Telscope", "Telescópio Espacial Hubble", "Hubble Telescope", "Hubble space telescope", "Hubble Space Telescope (HST)", "Hubble (spacecraft)", "Starry-Eyed Hubble", "HST(telescope)", "Telescopio Espacial Hubble", "Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 1", "Hubbel Space Telescope", "The Hubble Telescope" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "hubble telescope", "telescopio espacial hubble", "hubbel space telescope", "hubble space telescope servicing mission 2", "starry eyed hubble", "hubble", "space telescope operations control center", "hubble space telscope", "telescópio espacial hubble", "hst telescope", "hubble space telescope servicing mission 1", "1990 037b", "hubble space telescope", "hubble spacecraft", "hubblecast", "hubble space telescope hst" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "hubble", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Hubble" }
Jonas Salk developed the Salk vaccine against which disease?	tc_1345	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jonas_Salk.txt" ], "title": [ "Jonas Salk" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jonas Edward Salk (; October 28, 1914 - June 23, 1995) was an American medical researcher and virologist. He discovered and developed the first successful polio vaccine. Born in New York City, he attended New York University School of Medicine, later choosing to do medical research instead of becoming a practicing physician. In 1939, after earning his medical degree, Salk began an internship as a scientist physician at Mount Sinai Hospital. Two years later he was granted a fellowship at the University of Michigan, where he would study flu viruses with his mentor Thomas Francis, Jr.. \n\nUntil 1955, when the Salk vaccine was introduced, polio was considered one of the most frightening public health problems in the world. In the postwar United States, annual epidemics were increasingly devastating. The 1952 U.S. epidemic was the worst outbreak in the nation's history. Of nearly 58,000 cases reported that year, 3,145 people died and 21,269 were left with mild to disabling paralysis,Zamula E (1991). \"A New Challenge for Former Polio Patients.\" FDA Consumer 25 (5): 21–5. [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00006.html FDA.gov], Cited in Poliomyelitis [Retrieved November 14, 2009]. with most of its victims being children. The \"public reaction was to a plague\", said historian Bill O'Neal. \"Citizens of urban areas were to be terrified every summer when this frightful visitor returned.\" According to a 2009 PBS documentary, \"Apart from the atomic bomb, America's greatest fear was polio.\" As a result, scientists were in a frantic race to find a way to prevent or cure the disease. In 1938, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the world's most recognized victim of the disease, had founded the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (known as March of Dimes Foundation since 2007), an organization that would fund the development of a vaccine.\n\nIn 1947, Salk accepted an appointment to the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. In 1948, he undertook a project funded by the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis to determine the number of different types of polio virus. Salk saw an opportunity to extend this project towards developing a vaccine against polio, and, together with the skilled research team he assembled, devoted himself to this work for the next seven years. The field trial set up to test the Salk vaccine was, according to O'Neill, \"the most elaborate program of its kind in history, involving 20,000 physicians and public health officers, 64,000 school personnel, and 220,000 volunteers.\" Over 1,800,000 school children took part in the trial.Rose DR (2004). \"Fact Sheet—Polio Vaccine Field Trial of 1954.\" March of Dimes Archives. 2004 02 11. When news of the vaccine's success was made public on April 12, 1955, Salk was hailed as a \"miracle worker\" and the day almost became a national holiday. Around the world, an immediate rush to vaccinate began, with countries including Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, West Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium planning to begin polio immunization campaigns using Salk's vaccine.\n\nSalk campaigned for mandatory vaccination, claiming that public health should be considered a \"moral commitment.\"Jacobs, Charlotte DeCroes. [http://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2015/08/04/vaccinations-controversial-america-polio-health/31052179/ \"Vaccinations have always been controversial in America: Column\"], USA Today, August 4, 2015 His sole focus had been to develop a safe and effective vaccine as rapidly as possible, with no interest in personal profit. When asked who owned the patent to it, Salk said, \"There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?\" In 1960, he founded the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, which is today a center for medical and scientific research. He continued to conduct research and publish books, including Man Unfolding (1972), The Survival of the Wisest (1973), World Population and Human Values: A New Reality (1981), and Anatomy of Reality: Merging of Intuition and Reason (1983). Salk's last years were spent searching for a vaccine against HIV. His personal papers are stored at the University of California, San Diego Library. \n\nEarly days\n\nJonas Edward Salk was born in New York City on October 28, 1914. His parents, Daniel and Dora (née Press) Salk, were Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants from Poland who had not received extensive formal education. He had two younger brothers, Herman and Lee, a child psychologist. The family moved from East Harlem to 853 Elsmere Place, the Bronx, with some time spent in Queens (439 Beach 69th Street, Arverne, New York). \n\nEducation\n\nHigh school\n\nWhen he was 13, Salk entered Townsend Harris High School, a public school for intellectually gifted students. Named after the founder of City College of New York (CCNY), it was, said Oshinsky, \"a launching pad for the talented sons of immigrant parents who lacked the money—and pedigree—to attend a top private school.\" In high school \"he was known as a perfectionist . . . who read everything he could lay his hands on,\" according to one of his fellow students. Students had to cram a four-year curriculum into just three years. As a result, most dropped out or flunked out, despite the school's motto \"study, study, study.\" Of the students who graduated, however, most would have the grades to enroll in CCNY, noted for being a highly competitive college.Oshinsky, David M. Polio: An American Story, Oxford Univ. Press (2006)\n\nCollege\n\nSalk enrolled in CCNY from which he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry in 1934.Sherrow, Victoria: Jonas Salk, Revised Edition (2009), p. 12 Oshinsky writes that \"for working-class immigrant families, City College represented the apex of public higher education. Getting in was tough, but tuition was free. Competition was intense, but the rules were fairly applied. No one got an advantage based on an accident of birth.\"\n\nAt his mother's urging, he put aside aspirations of becoming a lawyer, and instead concentrated on classes necessary for admission to medical school. However, according to Oshinsky, the facilities at City College were \"barely second rate.\" There were no research laboratories; the library was inadequate. The faculty contained few noted scholars. \"What made the place special,\" he writes, \"was the student body that had fought so hard to get there ... driven by their parents... From these ranks, of the 1930s and 1940s, emerged a wealth of intellectual talent, including more Nobel Prize winners—eight—and PhD recipients than any other public college except the University of California at Berkeley.\" Salk entered CCNY at the age of 15, a \"common age for a freshman who had skipped multiple grades along the way.\"\n\nAs a child, Salk did not show any interest in medicine or science in general. He said in an interview with the Academy of Achievement, \"As a child I was not interested in science. I was merely interested in things human, the human side of nature, if you like, and I continue to be interested in that.\"\n\nMedical school\n\nAfter City College, Salk enrolled in New York University to study medicine. According to Oshinsky, NYU based its modest reputation on famous alumni, such as Walter Reed, who helped conquer yellow fever. Tuition was \"comparatively low, better still, it did not discriminate against Jews,... while most of the surrounding medical schools—Cornell, Columbia, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale—had rigid quotas in place.\" Yale, for example, accepted 76 applicants, in 1935, out of a pool of 501. Although 200 of the applicants were Jewish, only five got in. During his years at New York University Medical School, Salk worked as a laboratory technician during the school year and as a camp counselor in the summer.\n\nDuring Salk's medical studies, he stood out from his peers, according to Bookchin, \"not just because of his continued academic prowess—he was Alpha Omega Alpha, the Phi Beta Kappa Society of medical education—but because he had decided he did not want to practice medicine.\" Instead, he became absorbed in research, even taking a year off to study biochemistry. He later focused more of his studies on bacteriology which had replaced medicine as his primary interest. He said his desire was to help humankind in general rather than single patients. \"It was the laboratory work, in particular, that gave new direction to his life.\"\n\nAccording to Salk: \"My intention was to go to medical school, and then become a medical scientist. I did not intend to practice medicine, although in medical school, and in my internship, I did all the things that were necessary to qualify me in that regard. I had opportunities along the way to drop the idea of medicine and go into science. At one point at the end of my first year of medical school, I received an opportunity to spend a year in research and teaching in biochemistry, which I did. And at the end of that year, I was told that I could, if I wished, switch and get a Ph.D. in biochemistry, but my preference was to stay with medicine. And, I believe that this is all linked to my original ambition, or desire, which was to be of some help to humankind, so to speak, in a larger sense than just on a one-to-one basis.\" \n\nConcerning his last year of medical school Salk says: \"I had an opportunity to spend time in elective periods in my last year in medical school, in a laboratory that was involved in studies on influenza. The influenza virus had just been discovered about a few years before that. And, I saw the opportunity at that time to test the question as to whether we could destroy the virus infectivity and still immunize. And so, by carefully designed experiments, we found it was possible to do so.\" \n\nPostgraduate research\n\nIn 1941, during his postgraduate work in virology, Salk chose a two-month elective to work in the laboratory of Dr. Thomas Francis at the University of Michigan. Francis had recently joined the faculty of the medical school after working for the Rockefeller Foundation, where he had discovered the type B influenza virus. According to Bookchin, \"the two-month stint in Francis's lab was Salk's first introduction to the world of virology—and he was hooked.\"\n\nAfter graduating from medical school, Salk began his residency at New York's Mount Sinai Hospital, where he again worked in Francis's laboratory. Few hospitals in Manhattan had the status of Mount Sinai, particularly among the city's Jews. Oshinsky interviewed a friend of Salk's, who said, \"to intern there was like playing ball for the New York Yankees ... only the top men from the nation's medical schools dared apply. Out of 250 who sought the opportunity, only a dozen were chosen.\"\n\nAccording to Oshinsky, \"Salk quickly made his mark.\" Although focused mainly on research, \"he showed tremendous skills as a clinician and a surgeon.\" But it was \"his leadership as president of the house staff of interns and residents at Mount Sinai that best defined him to his peers.\" The key issue for many of them in 1939, for example, was not the fate of the hospital, but rather the future of Europe after Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland. In one instance, \"several interns responded by wearing badges to signify support for the Allies,\" but the hospital's director told them to remove them lest they upset some of the patients. The interns then took the matter to Salk. Salk replied, \"everyone should wear the badge as an act of solidarity.\" One intern recalled, \"Jonas was a very staunch guy. He never took a backward step on that issue or any other issue of principle between us and the hospital.\" The hospital administrators backed off and there was no further interference from the director.\n\nResearch career\n\nAt the end of his residency, Salk began applying for permanent research positions, but he discovered that many of the jobs he desired were closed to him due to Jewish quotas, which, according to Bookchin, \"prevailed in so much of the medical research establishment.\" Nor could he apply at Mount Sinai, as its policy prevented it from hiring its own interns. As a last resort, he contacted Dr. Francis for help, but Francis had left New York University a year earlier after accepting an offer to direct the University of Michigan's School of Public Health.\n\nHowever, \"Francis did not let him down,\" writes Bookchin. \"He secured extra grant money and offered Salk a job\" working on an army-commissioned project in Michigan to develop an influenza vaccine. He and Francis eventually perfected a vaccine that was soon widely used at army bases, where \"Salk had been responsible for discovering and isolating one of the flu strains that was included in the final vaccine.\"\n\nBy 1947, Salk decided to find an institution where he could direct his own laboratory. After three institutions turned him down, he received from William McEllroy, the dean of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, an offer which included a promise that he would run his own lab. He accepted, and in the fall of that year, left Michigan and relocated to Pennsylvania. The promise, though, was not quite what he expected. After Salk arrived at Pittsburgh, \"he discovered that he had been relegated to cramped, unequipped quarters in the basement of the old Municipal Hospital,\" writes Bookchin. As time went on, however, Salk began securing grants from the Mellon family and was able to build a working virology laboratory, where he continued his research on flu vaccines.\n\nHe was later approached by the director of research at the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis and asked whether he would like to participate in the foundation's polio project which had earlier been established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the time thought to be a victim of polio himself. Salk quickly accepted the offer, saying he \"would be happy to work on this important project.\"\n\nIn 1956, Wisdom magazine ran a cover story about Salk, summarizing some of the reasoning behind his desire to do research:\n\nThere are two types of medical specialists. There are those who fight disease day and night, who assist mankind in times of despair and agony and who preside over the awesome events of life and death. Others work in the quiet detachment of the laboratory; their names are often unknown to the general public, but their research may have momentous consequences.Wisdom magazine, August 1956 pp. 6-15\n\nPolio research\n\nPostwar era\n\nPolio was a medical oddity that baffled researchers for years. It took a long time to learn that the virus was transmitted by fecal matter and secretions of the nose and throat. It entered the victim orally, established itself in the intestines, and then traveled to the brain or spinal cord.\n\nAt the start of the 20th century, during the 1914 and 1919 polio epidemics in the U.S., physicians and nurses made house-to-house searches to identify all infected persons. Children suspected of being infected were taken to hospitals and a child's family was quarantined until that child was no longer potentially infectious, even if it meant the family could not go to their child's funeral if the child died in the hospital.\n\nMany famous people were polio victims; most were able to overcome their disabilities, while others were less fortunate. Itzhak Perlman, one of the world's finest violinists, was permanently disabled at age four, and still plays sitting down. Actor Donald Sutherland, President Roosevelt, writer Arthur C. Clarke, writer Robert Anton Wilson, actress Mia Farrow, singer-musician Neil Young, Olympic dressage rider Lis Hartel, actor Alan Alda, musician David Sanborn, singer Dinah Shore, singer Joni Mitchell, former Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, director Francis Ford Coppola, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, actor Lionel Barrymore,[http://www.disabled-world.com/artman/publish/famous-polio.shtml \"Famous People who Had and Have Polio\"] Disabled World.com and Congressman James H. Scheuer were infected. \n\nAccording to American historian William O'Neill, \"Paralytic poliomyelitis (its formal name) was, if not the most serious, easily the most frightening public health problem of the postwar era.\" He noted that the epidemics kept getting worse and its victims were usually children. By 1952, it was killing more of them than was any other communicable disease. In the 20 states that reported the disease back in 1916, 27,363 cases were counted. New York alone had 9,023 cases, of which 2,448 (28%) resulted in death, and a larger number in paralysis. However, polio did not gain national attention until 1921, when Franklin D. Roosevelt, former vice presidential candidate and soon to be governor of New York, came down with a paralytic illness, diagnosed at the time as polio. At the age of 39, Roosevelt was left with severe paralysis and spent most of his presidency in a wheelchair.\n\nSubsequently, as more states began recording instances of the disease, the numbers of victims grew larger. Nearly 58,000 cases of polio were reported in 1952, with 3,145 people dying and 21,269 left with mild to disabling paralysis. In some parts of the country, concern assumed almost the dimensions of panic. According to Olson, \"parents kept children home from school, avoided parks and swimming pools, and played only in small groups with the closest of friends.\"\n\nCases usually increased during the summer when children were home from school. \"The public reaction was to a plague,\" noted O'Neill. \"Citizens of urban areas were to be terrified every summer when this frightful visitor returned.\" As a result, Olson points out, \"scientists were in a frantic race to find a cure.\" The famous U.S. artist Andrew Wyeth created a painting in 1948 depicting his neighbor, Christina Olson, who was crippled with polio. The painting, Christina's World, is considered his most famous work. \n\nInitial work\n\nSalk became ambitious for his own lab and was finally granted one at the University of Pittsburgh. However, he was disappointed. The lab given to him was much smaller than he had hoped and the university forced him to conform to many rules which stunted his research as a beginning virologist. \n\nIn 1948, Harry Weaver, the director of research at the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, which later became known as the March of Dimes, contacted Salk. He asked Salk to join the fight against polio and research/confirm how many polio types existed. At the time, scientists had discovered three and they wanted to know if there were more types. Although this type of polio research would be repetitious, boring, and time-consuming the foundation agreed to pay for additional space including equipment and researchers. Once the research was finished Salk would be able to keep the facilities and continue his previous work.\n\nBecause Salk desperately needed space he joined the fight. For the first year he gathered supplies and researchers including Dr. Julius Youngner, Byron Bennett, Dr. L. James Lewis, and secretary Lorraine Friedman joined Salk's team, as well. Youngner remembers this period:\n\nPreliminary results\n\nOshinsky writes that as \"headlines screamed, 'Polio Scourge,' 'Polio Panic', and 'Polio's Deadly Path',\" parents \"faced a dilemma\" and a feeling of personal helplessness in the midst of an \"apparently runaway epidemic.\" Their \"postwar culture was being turned upside down\" as polio became the \"crack in the fantasy\" of a suburban home \"bursting with children.\" Parents began to see that there would be an alternative, however: \"Since worry did no good and quarantine seemed fruitless, parents might best protect their children by helping others to discover a vaccine against polio, and, perhaps, even a cure.\" The public soon realized that this kind of research demanded \"big money\" and an \"army of devoted volunteers\", but Salk was determined to make it over this barrier.\n\nThe fight against polio did not really get under way until 1938 when the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis was born. The Foundation was headed by Basil O'Connor who was the former law partner of President Roosevelt, the U.S.'s most famous polio victim. That same year, the first March of Dimes fundraising program was set up, with radio networks offering free 30-second slots for promotion. Listeners were asked to send in a dime and the White House received 2,680,000 letters within days.\n\nAs the fear of polio increased each year funds to combat it increased from $1.8 million to $67 million by 1955. Research continued during those years, but, writes O'Neill, \"everything scientists believed about polio at first was wrong which lead them down many blind alleys . . . furthermore, most researchers were experimenting with highly dangerous 'live' vaccines. In one test, six children were killed and three left crippled.\"\n\n\"This was the situation when young Jonas Salk, a medical doctor in charge of a virology laboratory at the University of Pittsburgh, decided to use the safer 'killed' virus,\" writes O'Neill. Despite a general lack of enthusiasm for this approach, O'Connor backed Salk handsomely. After successful tests on laboratory animals, it next had to be tested on human beings. On July 2, 1952, assisted by the staff at the D.T. Watson Home for Crippled Children, Jonas Salk injected 43 children with his killed-virus vaccine. A few weeks after the Watson tests, Salk injected children at the Polk State School for the retarded and feeble-minded. \nIn November 1953, at a conference in New York's Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, he said, \"I will be personally responsible for the vaccine.\" He announced that his wife and three sons had been among the first volunteers to be inoculated with his vaccine. Jonas Salk tested the vaccine on about one million children, who were known as the polio pioneers. This testing started in 1954, and the vaccine was announced as safe on April 12, 1955.\n\nIt was critical that Salk develop the trust of the U.S. public for his experiments and the mass tests that would become necessary. An associate of his noted, \"That boy really suffers when he sees a paralytic case. You look at him and you see him thinking, 'My God, this can be prevented'.\" An article in Wisdom notes that at one point, \"he even thought of giving up virus research\":\n\n\"But as he was sitting in a park and watching children play, he realized how important his work was. He saw that there were thousands of children and adults who would never walk again and whose bodies would be paralyzed. He realized his awesome responsibility, and so he continued his task with renewed vigor.\"\n\nAs a result of Salk's preliminary results in 1954, \"when polio was destroying more American children than any other communicable disease, his vaccine was ready for field testing.\"\n\nField trials\n\nAccording to medical author Paul Offit, \"more Americans had participated in the funding, development, and testing of the polio vaccine than had participated in the nomination and election of the president.\" At least 100 million people had contributed to the March of Dimes, and seven million had donated their time and labor, as well. They included fund-raisers, committee workers, and volunteers at clinics and record centers.\n\nDoris Fleischer, a disability historian, noted that O'Connor was willing to take whatever risks necessary to serve the purposes of the foundation. She writes, \"When O'Connor realized that success seemed imminent, he allowed the foundation to go into debt to finance the final research required to develop the Salk vaccine. His 'passionate' devotion to this task became almost 'obsessive' when his daughter, a mother of five, told him that she had contracted the illness, saying, 'I've gotten some of your polio.'\" \n\nWith the hopes of the world upon him, \"Salk worked sixteen hours a day, seven days a week, for years . . .\", wrote Denenberg.Denenberg, Dennis, and Roscoe, Lorraine. 50 American Heroes Every Kid Should Meet Millbrook Press (2006) It had been, Salk later described, \"two and a half years of drudgery and hard work.\" The results of the tests were eventually deemed successful and, O'Neill wrote, \"Salk had justified Basil O'Connor's faith.\"\n\nDeveloping a vaccine\n\nJonas Salk tested his killed polio vaccine in many ways. Some of his first tests were done on monkeys. He successfully vaccinated thousands of monkeys, but also used them as hosts to grow the virus, so he could make his vaccine [Klein]. He first tested his vaccine by giving it to people who used to have polio, but recovered. Next, he gave it to volunteers who had never had polio before. They all began to produce antibodies, with previously infected people creating a high amount of them. Through all of the testing of the vaccine, no one got infected with polio.\n\nTest results announced\n\nOn April 12, 1955, Dr. Thomas Francis, Jr., of the University of Michigan, the monitor of the test results, \"declared the vaccine to be safe and effective.\" The announcement was made at the University of Michigan, exactly 10 years to the day after the death of President Roosevelt. Five hundred people, including 150 press, radio, and television reporters, filled the room; 16 television and newsreel cameras stood on a long platform at the back, and 54,000 physicians, sitting in movie theaters across the country, watched the broadcast on closed-circuit television. Eli Lilly and Company paid $250,000 to broadcast the event. Americans turned on their radios to hear the details, department stores set up loudspeakers, and judges suspended trials so everyone in the courtroom could hear. Europeans listened on the Voice of America. Paul Offit writes about the event:\n\n\"The presentation was numbing, but the results were clear: the vaccine worked. Inside the auditorium Americans tearfully and joyfully embraced the results. By the time Thomas Francis stepped down from the podium, church bells were ringing across the country, factories were observing moments of silence, synagogues and churches were holding prayer meetings, and parents and teachers were weeping. One shopkeeper painted a sign on his window: 'Thank you, Dr. Salk.' 'It was as if a war had ended', one observer recalled.\"\n\n\"The report\", wrote The New York Times, \"was a medical classic.\" Dr. Francis reported that the vaccinations had been 80 to 90% effective on the basis of results in 11 states. Overall, the vaccine was administered to over 440,000 children in 44 states, three Canadian provinces, and Helsinki, Finland, and the final report required the evaluation of 144,000,000 separate items of information. After the announcement, when asked whether the effectiveness of the vaccine could be improved, Salk said, \"Theoretically, the new 1955 vaccines and vaccination procedures may lead to 100 percent protection from paralysis of all those vaccinated.\" \n\n\"A victory for the whole nation\"\n\nSalk’s new vaccine was transformed by Alan John Beale’s team, based in England, into something which could be manufactured on the enormous scale which the widespread threat of poliomyelitis required. Within minutes of Francis's declaration that the vaccine was safe and effective, the news of the event was carried coast to coast by wire services and radio and television newscasts. According to Debbie Bookchin, \"across the nation there were spontaneous celebrations... business came to a halt as the news spread. The mayor of New York City interrupted a city council meeting to announce the news, adding, 'I think we are all quite proud that Dr. Salk is a graduate of City College.'\" \"By the next morning\", writes Bookchin, \"politicians around the country were falling over themselves trying to figure out ways they could congratulate Salk, with several suggesting special medals and honors be awarded.... In the Eisenhower White House, plans were already afoot to present Salk a special presidential medal designating him \"a benefactor of mankind\" in a Rose Garden ceremony.\n\nIt was also declared \"a victory for the whole nation\" as Jonas Salk became \"world famous overnight and was showered with awards\", wrote O'Neill. The governor of Pennsylvania had a medal struck, and the state legislature gave him a chaired professorship. However, New York City could not get him to accept a ticker tape parade. Instead, New York created eight \"Jonas Salk Scholarships\" for future medical students. He received a Presidential Citation, the nation's first Congressional Medal for Distinguished Civilian Service, and a large number of honorary degrees and related honors.\n\nAccording to O'Neill, \"April 12th had almost become a national holiday: people observed moments of silence, rang bells, honked horns, blew factory whistles, fired salutes, kept their red lights red in brief periods of tribute, took the rest of the day off, closed their schools or convoked fervid assemblies therein, drank toasts, hugged children, attended church, smiled at strangers, and forgave enemies.\"\n\nBy July, movie studios were already fighting for the motion-picture rights to his film biography. Twentieth Century-Fox began writing a screenplay and Warner Brothers filed a claim to the title The Triumph of Dr. Jonas Salk shortly after the formal announcement of the vaccine. \n\nGlobal acceptance and hope\n\nSix months before Salk's announcement, optimism and hope were so widespread, the Polio Fund in the U.S. had already contracted to purchase enough of the Salk vaccine to immunize 9,000,000 children and pregnant women the following year. And around the world, the official news prompted an immediate international rush to vaccinate. Medical historian Debbie Bookchin writes, \"Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, West Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium all announced plans to either immediately begin polio immunization campaigns using Salk's vaccine or to gear up to quickly do so. \"Overnight\", she adds, \"Salk had become an international hero and a household name. His vaccine was a modern medical miracle.\"Bookchin, Debbie, and Schumacher, Jim. The Virus and the Vaccine, Macmillan (2004) ISBN 0-312-34272-1 Because Salk was the first to prove that a 'killed'-virus could prevent polio, medical historian Paul Offit wrote in 2007 that \"for this observation alone, Salk should have been awarded the Nobel Prize. Virologist Isabel Morgan had earlier shown and published that a 'killed'-virus could prevent polio, although she did not test her vaccines on humans. Morgan's work, nonetheless, was a key link in the chain of progress toward the killed-virus polio vaccine for humans later developed and tested by Salk.\n\nBy the summer of 1957, over two years later, 100 million doses had been distributed throughout the United States and \"reported complications following their administration have been remarkably rare\", noted the scientists at the International Polio Conference in Geneva. Scientists from other nations reported similar experiences: Denmark, for example, \"reported only a few sporadic cases among the 2,500,000 ... who received the vaccine.\" Australia reported virtually no polio during her past summer season. \n\nOther countries where the vaccine was not yet in use suffered continued epidemics, however. In 1957, Hungary, for example, reported a severe epidemic requiring emergency international assistance. By the first half of the year, it had 713 reported cases and a death rate of 6.6%, and the peak infection months of summer were still ahead. Canada sent a shipment of vaccine to Hungary by a refrigerated plane, and Britain and Sweden sent iron lungs. A few years later, during a polio outbreak in Canada, \"masked bandits\" stole 75,000 Salk vaccine shots from a Montreal university research center. \n\nRemaining eradication efforts\n\nIn 1988, numerous international medical organizations launched a campaign to eradicate polio globally, as had been successfully done for smallpox. By 2003, polio had been eradicated in all but a few countries, among them Afghanistan, India, Nigeria, and PakistanBrown, Lester. World on the Edge, W.W. Norton (2011) p. 92 However, mullahs in northern Nigeria began to oppose the vaccination program, claiming that it was a plot to spread AIDS and sterility, and prevented any vaccination. Polio cases in Nigeria tripled over the next three years.\n\nEnvironmental scientist Lester Brown speculates that Nigerian Muslims may have spread the disease to Muslims of other polio-free countries during their annual pilgrimage to Mecca, in Saudi Arabia. With these same fears, Saudi Arabian officials imposed a polio vaccination requirement on certain visitors.\n\nIn Pakistan in 2007, opposition was violent to vaccinations in the Northwest Frontier Province, where a doctor and a health worker in the polio eradication program were killed. Since then, the Taliban has blocked all vaccinations in the Swat Valley of Pakistan. As a result, Pakistan was the only country in 2010 to record an increase in cases of polio, according to the WHO, along with having the highest incidence of polio in the world. Meanwhile, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which has spent $1.5 billion, plans to spend another $1.8 billion through 2018 to help eradicate the virus. \n\nNew medical research projects urged\n\nJust two weeks after the vaccine was announced, Senator Hubert H. Humphrey (Democrat, Minnesota) urged President Dwight D. Eisenhower \"to show the nation's gratitude to Dr. Jonas E. Salk for his new polio vaccine by 'loosening the purse-strings' on federal medical research.\" Salk knew it would take time to verify his theories and improve the vaccine. \"He still wants to find out a number of things about polio\", wrote The New York Times that summer. Questions remained: \"How long will the immunity last? Are there any children who cannot be immunized? What improvements can be made?\" Beyond that, \"he has far bigger goals—'more in the nature of dreams right now'—involving other diseases.\"\n\nOver the next few years, while trying to perfect the polio vaccine, Salk had begun working unannounced, on a cure for cancer. A 1958 article in The New York Times confirmed \"that he had been conducting experiments on cancer patients.\" The news was leaked after a Pittsburgh newspaper, the Sun-Telegraph, reported that he had been giving injections to children suffering from cancer. Salk stated afterwards, \"It is true that we have been conducting experiments in many persons with a variety of cancer and cancer-like conditions ... but we have no treatment for cancer. Our studies are of a strictly exploratory nature...\" In 1965, he also said \"a vaccine for the common cold is a matter of time and of solving some technical problems.\"\n\nFinal conquest of polio and the Sabin vaccine controversy\n\nYears before the Salk vaccine was officially announced as safe, Dr. Albert Sabin had joined in the search for a vaccine, using a 'live'-virus, as opposed to Salk's 'killed'-virus. Sabin, however, had been \"openly hostile to Salk.\" Debbie Bookchin writes that he had been \"perhaps accurately guessing that Salk was about to challenge him for ascendancy in the polio world.\" After one presentation that Salk made to a medical conference, \"Sabin mounted a full-scale offensive, engaging in a piecemeal demolition of his presentation.\" However, the National Foundation \"swiftly put its full weight behind Salk. Here, finally, was a polio researcher, they said, who had accomplished something.\"\n\nBy 1962, polio had become almost extinct, with only 910 cases reported that year—down from 37,476 in 1954. \"It's a matter of principle\", Salk said. \"It is not a Salk versus Sabin controversy, a competition between two people... I had worked with influenza viruses, helping to establish the efficacy of a 'killed'-virus vaccine... I demonstrated that it could be 100% effective if the quantity of virus in the vaccine was sufficient.\" That same year, the state of New York's Health Department recommended \"that the Salk vaccine be given preference over the Sabin oral vaccine...\" \n\nOn October 20, 1998, after 18 years of using the Sabin vaccine, however, the federal government recommended that children use the Salk vaccine exclusively. Sabin's polio vaccine is no longer available in the United States.\n\nWhile Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) is not recommended by the CDC, its website explained that Sabin's OPV is more suited to areas where polio is endemic, because of \"its advantages over IPV [Inactivated Polio Vaccine] in providing intestinal immunity and providing secondary spread of the vaccine to unprotected contacts.\" \n\nOn January 4, 2013, the World Health Organization called for the Sabin OPV, which contains the type 2 strain of poliovirus, to be phased out as soon as possible; although the type 2 strain has been eradicated in the wild, vaccine-derived strains still circulate in polio-endemic nations. A different OPV would continue to be administered, protecting against types 1 and 3, which are both still endemic in the wild in Nigeria, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. The WHO also called for the rapid introduction of the Salk IPV, which will be used along with OPV during a transition period. Once types 1 and 3 cease to be endemic, the OPV will be phased out, and the Salk vaccine will be used exclusively. \n\nLooking back—public confusion over which vaccine to use\n\nIn September 1962, public health officials in the U.S. and Canada faced a \"major dilemma\": whether to continue using the recently begun Sabin vaccine inoculations until further studies were conducted, due to reports of polio cases among persons who had received it. The U.S. Surgeon General, Luther Terry, recommended a temporary halt due to 16 cases of confirmed polio in adults. And \"the Canadian Federal Health Department recommended against mass use of the [Sabin] oral vaccine pending further study of its effects.\" One of the unfortunate results caused by the controversy was that \"many authorities have deplored the confusion that has been created in the public mind.\" \n\nDue to the American Medical Association's (AMA) \"obstructive tactics, however, which caused numerous delays\", writes O'Neill, the AMA had called for mass vaccinations in early 1962 employing Sabin's vaccine rather than Salk's. However, writes O'Neill, \"as 'live'-virus was more dangerous, it caused an unknown number of polio cases... [but] the medical establishment seemed not to mind, having gotten its own way at last.\" But, concludes O'Neill, \"polio was conquered all the same, even if not so quickly and safely as it might have been.\"\n\nIn 1980, Salk pointed out the renewed interest in his killed virus vaccine, particularly in developing countries. \"The 'live' virus vaccine is highly effective in developed countries ...\", he said, \"but in the developing countries, where polio is on the increase, the drawback is that the live virus fails to establish the infection that leads to immunity because of intestinal inhibitors in the population.\" Recent evidence of this was found in Iran, where a number of children receiving the oral vaccine became infected with polio, leading Iranian researchers to recommend using the killed virus in the future. \n\nBasil O'Connor enters the controversy\n\nTwo months after the Salk vaccine was announced to the world, in 1955, Basil O'Connor found it necessary to respond to critics of the vaccine, especially Dr. Sabin. As the President of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, he said, during a news conference before a congressional group in Washington, that \"criticism of the Salk vaccine program by Dr. Albert Sabin of the University of Cincinnati was 'old stuff'.\" According to The New York Times, \"Dr. Sabin recommended at a hearing before a House investigating subcommittee that Salk inoculations be suspended\" until a safer preparation could be perfected. O'Connor responded in a prepared statement:\n(excerpt)\n\"He's been using it [criticism] for years. He used it in an attempt to stop the field trials of the Salk vaccine... The Salk vaccine is safe and effective and will protect children from paralytic polio to the extent of 60 to 90 percent... In the United States, Canada and Denmark, 7,675,000 children have actually received the Salk vaccine with no untoward results. There could be no better proof of its safety than this. No vaccine in the history of the world has ever had such a test for safety. Anyone who would seek to prevent its use for other than unanswerable scientific reasons would be acting neither as a scientist nor as a humanitarian....\n\n\"Those who would prevent its use must be prepared to be haunted for life by the crippled bodies of little children who could have been saved from paralysis had they been permitted to receive the Salk vaccine.\"\n\nHowever, a year and a half after the Salk vaccine was introduced, a Sabin vaccine had still not yet been tested on humans. Sabin himself said, in October 1956, that \"the Salk vaccine is still the only protection against polio available to the public.\" He was hoping to be able to start tests on humans by the end of the year or by 1957. \n\nThe Cutter incident\n\nIn 1955, Cutter Laboratories was one of several companies licensed by the United States government to produce Salk's polio vaccine. In what came to be known as the Cutter incident, a production error caused some lots of the Cutter vaccine to be tainted with live polio virus. It was one of the worst pharmaceutical disasters in U.S. history and caused several thousand children to be exposed to live polio virus, causing 56 cases of paralytic polio and five deaths. \n\n10th-anniversary ceremonies\n\nOn April 12, 1965, leaders of the Senate and House presented Salk with a joint resolution expressing the nation's gratitude to him, his colleagues in the project, and the March of Dimes, which helped to finance the work. President Lyndon B. Johnson called him to the White House to congratulate him personally. Dr. Luther Terry, Surgeon General of the United States, said in a statement marking the anniversary that only 121 cases of polio were reported the previous year, as opposed to more than 28,000 ten years before. \"This represents an historic triumph of preventive medicine—unparalleled in history\", Dr. Terry said.Clark, Evert. [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\nF70B17FD345C147A93C1A8178FD85F418685F9&scp1&sq\nSalk+Receives+Thanks+of+nation&st=p \"Salk Receives Thanks of Nation For 'Triumph' of Polio Vaccine\"], The New York Times, April 13, 1965\n\n30th anniversary—\"Jonas Salk Day\"\n\nOn May 6, 1985, President Ronald Reagan proclaimed that day to be \"Jonas Salk Day\". His proclamation read, in part:\n\nOne of the greatest challenges to mankind always has been eradicating the presence of debilitating disease. Until just thirty years ago poliomyelitis occurred in the United States and throughout the world in epidemic proportions, striking tens of thousands and killing thousands in our own country each year. Dr. Jonas E. Salk changed all that. This year we observe the 30th anniversary of the licensing and manufacturing of the vaccine discovered by this great American. Even before another successful vaccine was discovered, Dr. Salk's discovery had reduced polio and its effects by 97 percent. Today, polio is not a familiar disease to younger Americans, and many have difficulty appreciating the magnitude of the disorder that the Salk vaccine virtually wiped from the face of the Earth. \n\nBecoming a public figure\n\nCelebrity versus privacy\n\nSalk preferred not to have his career as a scientist affected by too much personal attention, as he had always tried to remain independent and private in his research and life, but this proved to be impossible. \"Young man, a great tragedy has befallen you—you've lost your anonymity\", the television personality Ed Murrow said to Salk shortly after the onslaught of media attention. When Murrow asked him, \"Who owns this patent?\", Salk replied, \"No one. Could you patent the sun?\" The vaccine is calculated to be worth $7 billion had it been patented. However, lawyers from the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis did look into the possibility of a patent, but ultimately determined that the vaccine was not a patentable invention because of prior art. \n\nAuthor Jon Cohen noted, \"Jonas Salk made scientists and journalists alike go goofy. As one of the only living scientists whose face was known the world over, Salk, in the public's eye, had a superstar aura. Airplane pilots would announce that he was on board and passengers would burst into applause. Hotels routinely would upgrade him into their penthouse suites. A meal at a restaurant inevitably meant an interruption from an admirer, and scientists approached him with drop-jawed wonder as though some of the stardust might rub off.\"\n\nFor the most part, however, Salk was \"appalled at the demands on the public figure he has become and resentful of what he considers to be the invasion of his privacy\", wrote The New York Times, a few months after his vaccine announcement. The Times article noted, \"at 40, the once obscure scientist ... was lifted from his laboratory almost to the level of a folk hero.\" He received a presidential citation, a score of awards, four honorary degrees, half a dozen foreign decorations, and letters from thousands of fellow citizens. His alma mater, City College of New York, gave him an honorary degree as Doctor of Laws. But \"despite such very nice tributes\", The New York Times wrote, \"Salk is profoundly disturbed by the torrent of fame that has descended upon him.... He talks continually about getting out of the limelight and back to his laboratory... because of his genuine distaste for publicity, which he believes is inappropriate for a scientist.\"\n\nDuring a 1980 interview, 25 years later, he said, \"It's as if I've been a public property ever since, having to respond to external, as well as internal, impulses.... It's brought me enormous gratification, opened many opportunities, but at the same time placed many burdens on me. It altered my career, my relationships with colleagues; I am a public figure, no longer one of them.\"\n\nMaintaining his individuality\n\n\"If Salk the scientist sounds austere\", wrote The New York Times, \"Salk the man is a person of great warmth and tremendous enthusiasm. People who meet him generally like him.\" A Washington newspaper correspondent commented, \"He could sell me the Brooklyn Bridge, and I never bought anything before.\" Award-winning geneticist Walter Nelson-Rees called him \"a renaissance scientist: brilliant, sophisticated, driven... a fantastic creature.\" \n\nHe enjoys talking to people he likes, and \"he likes a lot of people\", wrote the Times. \"He talks quickly, articulately, and often in complete paragraphs.\" And \"He has very little perceptible interest in the things that interest most people—such as making money.\" That belongs \"in the category of mink coats and Cadillacs—unnecessary\", he said.\n\nEstablishing the Salk Institute\n\nIn the years after Salk's discovery, many supporters, in particular the National Foundation, \"helped him build his dream of a research complex for the investigation of biological phenomena 'from cell to society'.\" Called the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, it opened in 1963 in the San Diego neighborhood of La Jolla. Salk believed that the institution would help new and upcoming scientists along in their careers, as he said himself, \"I thought how nice it would be if a place like this existed and I was invited to work there.\" This was something that Salk was deprived of early in his life, but due to his achievements, was able to provide for future scientists.\n\nIn 1966, Salk described his \"ambitious plan for the creation of a kind of Socratic academy where the supposedly alienated two cultures of science and humanism will have a favorable atmosphere for cross-fertilization.\" Author and journalist Howard Taubman explained:\n\n\"Although he is distinctly future-oriented, Dr. Salk has not lost sight of the institute's immediate aim, which is the development and use of the new biology, called molecular and cellular biology, described as part physics, part chemistry and part biology. The broad-gauged purpose of this science is to understand man's life processes.\n\n\"There is talk here of the possibility, once the secret of how the cell is triggered to manufacture antibodies is discovered, that a single vaccine may be developed to protect a child against many common infectious diseases. There is speculation about the power to isolate and perhaps eliminate genetic errors that lead to birth defects.\n\n\"Dr. Salk, a creative man himself, hopes that the institute will do its share in probing the wisdom of nature and thus help enlarge the wisdom of man. For the ultimate purpose of science, humanism and the arts, in his judgment, is the freeing of each individual to cultivate his full creativity, in whichever direction it leads. . . As if to prepare for Socratic encounters such as these, the institute's architect, Louis Kahn, has installed blackboards in place of concrete facings on the walls along the walks.\"\n\nThe New York Times, in a 1980 article celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, described the current workings at the facility:\n\n\"At the institute, a magnificent complex of laboratories and study units set on a bluff overlooking the Pacific, Dr. Salk holds the titles of founding director and resident fellow. His own laboratory group is concerned with the immunologic aspects of cancer and the mechanisms of autoimmune disease, such as multiple sclerosis, in which the immune system attacks the body's own tissues.Glueck, Grace. [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\nF50D11F6395C12728DDDA10894DC405B8084F1D3&scp1&sq\nSalk+Studies+Man%27s+Future&st=p \"Salk Studies Man's Future\"] The New York Times, April 8, 1980\n\nIn an interview about his future hopes at the institute, he said, \"In the end, what may have more significance is my creation of the institute and what will come out of it, because of its example as a place for excellence, a creative environment for creative minds.\"\n\nFrancis Crick, codiscoverer of the structure of the DNA molecule, was a leading professor at the institute until his death in 2004.\n\nAIDS vaccine work\n\nBeginning in the mid-1980s, Salk also engaged in research to develop a vaccine for another, more recent plague, AIDS. To further this research, he cofounded the Immune Response Corporation with Kevin Kimberlin, to search for a vaccine, and patented Remune, an immune-based therapy. He was unable to secure product liability Insurance. The AIDS vaccine project was discontinued in 2007, 12 years after Jonas Salk's death in 1995.\n\nAlthough many advances have been made in treating AIDS, \"the world still waited for the miracle vaccine the conqueror of polio had sought\", wrote historian Alan Axelrod. \n\nSalk's \"biophilosophy\"\n\nIn 1966, The New York Times referred to him as the \"Father of Biophilosophy.\" According to Times journalist and author Howard Taubman, \"he never forgets... there is a vast amount of darkness for man to penetrate. As a biologist, he believes that his science is on the frontier of tremendous new discoveries; and as a philosopher, he is convinced that humanists and artists have joined the scientists to achieve an understanding of man in all his physical, mental and spiritual complexity. Such interchanges might lead, he would hope, to a new and important school of thinkers he would designate as biophilosophers.\"Taubman, Howard. [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\nFA0C12FD3854117B93C3A8178AD95F428685F9&scp1&sq\nFather+of+Biophilosophy&st=p \"Father of Biophilosophy\"] The New York Times, November 11, 1966\n\nSalk describes his \"biophilosophy\" as the application of a \"biological, evolutionary point of view to philosophical, cultural, social and psychological problems.\" He went into more detail in two of his books, Man's Unfolding, and The Survival of the Wisest. In an interview in 1980, he described his thoughts on the subject, including his feeling that a sharp rise and an expected leveling off in the human population would take place and eventually bring a change in human attitudes:\n\n\"I think of biological knowledge as providing useful analogies for understanding human nature.... People think of biology in terms of such practical matters as drugs, but its contribution to knowledge about living systems and ourselves will in the future be equally important.... In the past epoch, man was concerned with death, high mortality; his attitudes were antideath, antidisease\", he says. \"In the future, his attitudes will be expressed in terms of prolife and prohealth. The past was dominated by death control; in the future, birth control will be more important. These changes we're observing are part of a natural order and to be expected from our capacity to adapt. It's much more important to cooperate and collaborate. We are the co-authors with nature of our destiny.\"\n\nHis definition of a \"biophilosopher\" is \"Someone who draws upon the scriptures of nature, recognizing that we are the product of the process of evolution, and understands that we have become the process itself, through the emergence and evolution of our consciousness, our awareness, our capacity to imagine and anticipate the future, and to choose from among alternatives.\" \n\nPersonal life\n\nThe day after his graduation from medical school in 1939, Salk married Donna Lindsay, a master's candidate at the New York College of Social Work. David Oshinsky writes that her father, Elmer Lindsay, \"a wealthy Manhattan dentist, viewed Salk as a social inferior, several cuts below Donna's former suitors.\" Eventually, her father agreed to the marriage on two conditions: first, Salk must wait until he could be listed as an official M.D. on the wedding invitations, and second, he must improve his \"rather pedestrian status\" by giving himself a middle name.\"\n\nThey had three children: Peter, Darrell, and Jonathan Salk. In 1968, they divorced, and in 1970, Salk married Françoise Gilot, the former mistress of Pablo Picasso.\n\nJonas Salk died from heart failure at the age of 80 on June 23, 1995, in La Jolla, and was buried at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego. \n\nHonors and recognition\n\n* 1955, one month after the vaccine announcement, he was honored by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, where he was given their \"highest award for services\" by Governor George M. Leader, Meritorious Service Medal, where the governor added,\n:\"... in recognition of his 'historical medical' discovery... Dr. Salk's achievement is meritorious service of the highest magnitude and dimension for the commonwealth, the country and mankind.\" The governor, who had three children, said that \"as a parent he was 'humbly thankful to Dr. Salk,' and as Governor, 'proud to pay him tribute'.\" \n* 1955, City University of New York creates the Salk Scholarship fund which it awards to multiple outstanding pre-med students each year\n1956, awarded the Lasker Award\n1957, the Municipal Hospital building, where Salk conducted his polio research at the University of Pittsburgh, is renamed Jonas Salk Hall and is home to the University's School of Pharmacy and Dentistry. \n1958, awarded the James D. Bruce Memorial Award\n\n1958, elected to the Polio Hall of Fame, which was dedicated in Warm Springs, Georgia\n1975, awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award and the Congressional Gold Medal\n1976, awarded the Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award\n1976, named the Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association\n1977, awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Jimmy Carter, with the following statement accompanying the medal:\n:\"Because of Doctor Jonas E. Salk, our country is free from the cruel epidemics of poliomyelitis that once struck almost yearly. Because of his tireless work, untold hundreds of thousands who might have been crippled are sound in body today. These are Doctor Salk's true honors, and there is no way to add to them. This Medal of Freedom can only express our gratitude, and our deepest thanks.\"\n1996, the March of Dimes Foundation created an annual $250,000 cash \"Prize\" to outstanding biologists as a tribute to Salk. \n2006, the United States Postal Service issued a 63-cent Distinguished Americans series postage stamp in his honor.\n2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Salk into the California Hall of Fame. \n2009, BBYO boys chapter chartered in his honor in Scottsdale, Arizona, Named \"Jonas Salk AZA #2357\"\nSchools in Mesa, Arizona, Spokane, Washington, Tulsa, Oklahoma, Bolingbrook, Illinois, Levittown, New York, Old Bridge, New Jersey, Merrillville, Indiana, and Sacramento, California are named after him.\n2012, October 24, in honor of his birthday, has been named \"World Polio Day\", and was originated by Rotary International over a decade earlier. \n2014, On the 100th anniversary of Salk's birth, a Google Doodle was created to honor the physician and medical researcher. The doodle shows happy and healthy children and adults playing and going about their lives with two children hold up a sign saying, \"Thank you, Dr. Salk!\" \n\nDocumentary films\n\nIn early 2009, the American Public Broadcasting Service aired its new documentary film, American Experience: The Polio Crusade.[http://articles.latimes.com/2009/feb/02/entertainment/et-polio2 \"American Experience: The Polio Crusade\"] Los Angeles Times, Television Review, February 2, 2009 The documentary, available on DVD, can also be [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/polio/player/ viewed online].\nOn April 12, 2010, to help celebrate the 55th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, a new 66-minute documentary, The Shot Felt 'Round the World, had its world premiere. Directed by Tjardus Greidanus and produced by Laura Davis, the documentary was conceived by Hollywood screenwriter and producer Carl Kurlander to bring \"a fresh perspective on the era.\" \nIn 2014, actor and director Robert Redford, who was once struck with a mild case of polio when he was a child, directed a documentary about the Salk Institute in La Jolla. \n\nSalk's book publications\n\n* Man Unfolding (1972)\n* Survival of the Wisest (1973)\n* World Population and Human Values: A New Reality (1981)\n* Anatomy of Reality: Merging of Intuition and Reason (1983)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Acute poliomyelitis", "Abortive poliomyelitis", "Polio", "Heine-Medin's disease", "Poliomyelitis, bulbar", "Debility of the lower extremities", "Poliomyletis", "Acute anterior poliomyelitis", "Heine-Medin disease", "Bulbar poliomyelitis", "Infantile Paralysis", "Paralytic polio", "Poliomyelitiss", "Paralytic poliomyelitis", "Poliomyelitis", "Poliomyelitis, paralytic", "Bulbar polio", "Poliomylitis", "Infantile paralysis" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bulbar poliomyelitis", "poliomylitis", "abortive poliomyelitis", "debility of lower extremities", "paralytic poliomyelitis", "poliomyelitis", "heine medin s disease", "bulbar polio", "acute poliomyelitis", "poliomyelitiss", "heine medin disease", "poliomyelitis paralytic", "poliomyelitis bulbar", "polio", "acute anterior poliomyelitis", "paralytic polio", "infantile paralysis", "poliomyletis" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "polio", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Polio" }
Who constructed the world's first laser?	tc_1349	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Laser.txt" ], "title": [ "Laser" ], "wiki_context": [ "A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term \"laser\" originated as an acronym for \"light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation\". The first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently. Spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances (collimation), enabling applications such as laser pointers. Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i.e., they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond.\n\nAmong their many applications, lasers are used in optical disk drives, laser printers, and barcode scanners; DNA sequencing instruments, fiber-optic and free-space optical communication; laser surgery and skin treatments; cutting and welding materials; military and law enforcement devices for marking targets and measuring range and speed; and laser lighting displays in entertainment.\n\nFundamentals \n\nLasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, which is diffraction-limited. Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance.\n\nTemporal (or longitudinal) coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a relatively great distance (the coherence length) along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an instantaneous amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position, thus having a short coherence length.\n\nLasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum. Most \"single wavelength\" lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies (wavelengths), often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. There are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all such devices are classified as \"lasers\" based on their method of producing light, i.e., stimulated emission. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the required spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies.\n\nTerminology \n\nThe word laser started as an acronym for \"light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation\". In modern usage, the term \"light\" includes electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, not only visible light, hence the terms infrared laser, ultraviolet laser, X-ray laser, gamma-ray laser, and so on. Because the microwave predecessor of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices of this sort operating at microwave and radio frequencies are referred to as \"masers\" rather than \"microwave lasers\" or \"radio lasers\". In the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser; this term is now obsolete. \n\nA laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical oscillator rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been humorously noted that the acronym LOSER, for \"light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation\", would have been more correct. With the widespread use of the original acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as \"laser amplifiers\", notwithstanding the apparent redundancy in that designation.\n\nThe back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning \"to produce laser light,\" especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser; when a laser is operating it is said to be \"lasing.\" Further use of the words laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser and atom laser.\n\nDesign \n\nA laser consists of a gain medium, a mechanism to energize it, and something to provide optical feedback. The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to amplify light by way of stimulated emission. Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (increases in power).\n\nFor the gain medium to amplify light, it needs to be supplied with energy in a process called pumping. The energy is typically supplied as an electric current or as light at a different wavelength. Pump light may be provided by a flash lamp or by another laser.\n\nThe most common type of laser uses feedback from an optical cavity—a pair of mirrors on either end of the gain medium. Light bounces back and forth between the mirrors, passing through the gain medium and being amplified each time. Typically one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent. Some of the light escapes through this mirror. Depending on the design of the cavity (whether the mirrors are flat or curved), the light coming out of the laser may spread out or form a narrow beam. In analogy to electronic oscillators, this device is sometimes called a laser oscillator.\n\nMost practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties of the emitted light, such as the polarization, wavelength, and shape of the beam.\n\nLaser physics \n\nElectrons and how they interact with electromagnetic fields are important in our understanding of chemistry and physics.\n\nStimulated emission \n\nIn the classical view, the energy of an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is larger for orbits further from the nucleus of an atom. However, quantum mechanical effects force electrons to take on discrete positions in orbitals. Thus, electrons are found in specific energy levels of an atom, two of which are shown below:\n\nWhen an electron absorbs energy either from light (photons) or heat (phonons), it receives that incident quantum of energy. But transitions are only allowed in between discrete energy levels such as the two shown above.\nThis leads to emission lines and absorption lines.\n\nWhen an electron is excited from a lower to a higher energy level, it will not stay that way forever.\nAn electron in an excited state may decay to a lower energy state which is not occupied, according to a particular time constant characterizing that transition. When such an electron decays without external influence, emitting a photon, that is called \"spontaneous emission\". The phase associated with the photon that is emitted is random. A material with many atoms in such an excited state may thus result in radiation which is very spectrally limited (centered around one wavelength of light), but the individual photons would have no common phase relationship and would emanate in random directions. This is the mechanism of fluorescence and thermal emission.\n\nAn external electromagnetic field at a frequency associated with a transition can affect the quantum mechanical state of the atom. As the electron in the atom makes a transition between two stationary states (neither of which shows a dipole field), it enters a transition state which does have a dipole field, and which acts like a small electric dipole, and this dipole oscillates at a characteristic frequency. In response to the external electric field at this frequency, the probability of the atom entering this transition state is greatly increased. Thus, the rate of transitions between two stationary states is enhanced beyond that due to spontaneous emission. Such a transition to the higher state is called absorption, and it destroys an incident photon (the photon's energy goes into powering the increased energy of the higher state). A transition from the higher to a lower energy state, however, produces an additional photon; this is the process of stimulated emission.\n\nGain medium and cavity \n\nThe gain medium is excited by an external source of energy into an excited state. In most lasers this medium consists of a population of atoms which have been excited into such a state by means of an outside light source, or an electrical field which supplies energy for atoms to absorb and be transformed into their excited states.\n\nThe gain medium of a laser is normally a material of controlled purity, size, concentration, and shape, which amplifies the beam by the process of stimulated emission described above. This material can be of any state: gas, liquid, solid, or plasma. The gain medium absorbs pump energy, which raises some electrons into higher-energy (\"excited\") quantum states. Particles can interact with light by either absorbing or emitting photons. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated. In the latter case, the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light that is passing by. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in some lower-energy state, population inversion is achieved and the amount of stimulated emission due to light that passes through is larger than the amount of absorption. Hence, the light is amplified. By itself, this makes an optical amplifier. When an optical amplifier is placed inside a resonant optical cavity, one obtains a laser oscillator. \n\nIn a few situations it is possible to obtain lasing with only a single pass of EM radiation through the gain medium, and this produces a laser beam without any need for a resonant or reflective cavity (see for example nitrogen laser). Thus, reflection in a resonant cavity is usually required for a laser, but is not absolutely necessary.\n\nThe optical resonator is sometimes referred to as an \"optical cavity\", but this is a misnomer: lasers use open resonators as opposed to the literal cavity that would be employed at microwave frequencies in a maser.\nThe resonator typically consists of two mirrors between which a coherent beam of light travels in both directions, reflecting back on itself so that an average photon will pass through the gain medium repeatedly before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction or absorption.\nIf the gain (amplification) in the medium is larger than the resonator losses, then the power of the recirculating light can rise exponentially. But each stimulated emission event returns an atom from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the gain of the medium. With increasing beam power the net gain (gain minus loss) reduces to unity and the gain medium is said to be saturated. In a continuous wave (CW) laser, the balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the applied pump power is too small, the gain will never be sufficient to overcome the resonator losses, and laser light will not be produced. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the lasing threshold. The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons in a spatial mode supported by the resonator will pass more than once through the medium and receive substantial amplification.\n\nThe light emitted \n\nThe light generated by stimulated emission is very similar to the input signal in terms of wavelength, phase, and polarization. This gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and allows it to maintain the uniform polarization and often monochromaticity established by the optical cavity design.\n\nThe beam in the cavity and the output beam of the laser, when travelling in free space (or a homogeneous medium) rather than waveguides (as in an optical fiber laser), can be approximated as a Gaussian beam in most lasers; such beams exhibit the minimum divergence for a given diameter. However some high power lasers may be multimode, with the transverse modes often approximated using Hermite–Gaussian or Laguerre-Gaussian functions. It has been shown that unstable laser resonators (not used in most lasers) produce fractal shaped beams. Near the beam \"waist\" (or focal region) it is highly collimated: the wavefronts are planar, normal to the direction of propagation, with no beam divergence at that point. However, due to diffraction, that can only remain true well within the Rayleigh range. The beam of a single transverse mode (gaussian beam) laser eventually diverges at an angle which varies inversely with the beam diameter, as required by diffraction theory. Thus, the \"pencil beam\" directly generated by a common helium–neon laser would spread out to a size of perhaps 500 kilometers when shone on the Moon (from the distance of the earth). On the other hand, the light from a semiconductor laser typically exits the tiny crystal with a large divergence: up to 50°. However even such a divergent beam can be transformed into a similarly collimated beam by means of a lens system, as is always included, for instance, in a laser pointer whose light originates from a laser diode. That is possible due to the light being of a single spatial mode. This unique property of laser light, spatial coherence, cannot be replicated using standard light sources (except by discarding most of the light) as can be appreciated by comparing the beam from a flashlight (torch) or spotlight to that of almost any laser.\n\nQuantum vs. classical emission processes \n\nThe mechanism of producing radiation in a laser relies on stimulated emission, where energy is extracted from a transition in an atom or molecule. This is a quantum phenomenon discovered by Einstein who derived the relationship between the A coefficient describing spontaneous emission and the B coefficient which applies to absorption and stimulated emission. However, in the case of the free electron laser, atomic energy levels are not involved; it appears that the operation of this rather exotic device can be explained without reference to quantum mechanics.\n\nContinuous and pulsed modes of operation \n\nA laser can be classified as operating in either continuous or pulsed mode, depending on whether the power output is essentially continuous over time or whether its output takes the form of pulses of light on one or another time scale. Of course even a laser whose output is normally continuous can be intentionally turned on and off at some rate in order to create pulses of light. When the modulation rate is on time scales much slower than the cavity lifetime and the time period over which energy can be stored in the lasing medium or pumping mechanism, then it is still classified as a \"modulated\" or \"pulsed\" continuous wave laser. Most laser diodes used in communication systems fall in that category.\n\nContinuous wave operation \n\nSome applications of lasers depend on a beam whose output power is constant over time. Such a laser is known as continuous wave (CW). Many types of lasers can be made to operate in continuous wave mode to satisfy such an application. Many of these lasers actually lase in several longitudinal modes at the same time, and beats between the slightly different optical frequencies of those oscillations will in fact produce amplitude variations on time scales shorter than the round-trip time (the reciprocal of the frequency spacing between modes), typically a few nanoseconds or less. In most cases these lasers are still termed \"continuous wave\" as their output power is steady when averaged over any longer time periods, with the very high frequency power variations having little or no impact in the intended application. (However the term is not applied to mode-locked lasers, where the intention is to create very short pulses at the rate of the round-trip time).\n\nFor continuous wave operation it is required for the population inversion of the gain medium to be continually replenished by a steady pump source. In some lasing media this is impossible. In some other lasers it would require pumping the laser at a very high continuous power level which would be impractical or destroy the laser by producing excessive heat. Such lasers cannot be run in CW mode.\n\nPulsed operation \n\nPulsed operation of lasers refers to any laser not classified as continuous wave, so that the optical power appears in pulses of some duration at some repetition rate. This encompasses a wide range of technologies addressing a number of different motivations. Some lasers are pulsed simply because they cannot be run in continuous mode.\n\nIn other cases the application requires the production of pulses having as large an energy as possible. Since the pulse energy is equal to the average power divided by the repetition rate, this goal can sometimes be satisfied by lowering the rate of pulses so that more energy can be built up in between pulses. In laser ablation for example, a small volume of material at the surface of a work piece can be evaporated if it is heated in a very short time, whereas supplying the energy gradually would allow for the heat to be absorbed into the bulk of the piece, never attaining a sufficiently high temperature at a particular point.\n\nOther applications rely on the peak pulse power (rather than the energy in the pulse), especially in order to obtain nonlinear optical effects. For a given pulse energy, this requires creating pulses of the shortest possible duration utilizing techniques such as Q-switching.\n\nThe optical bandwidth of a pulse cannot be narrower than the reciprocal of the pulse width. In the case of extremely short pulses, that implies lasing over a considerable bandwidth, quite contrary to the very narrow bandwidths typical of CW lasers. The lasing medium in some dye lasers and vibronic solid-state lasers produces optical gain over a wide bandwidth, making a laser possible which can thus generate pulses of light as short as a few femtoseconds (10−15 s).\n\nQ-switching \n\nIn a Q-switched laser, the population inversion is allowed to build up by introducing loss inside the resonator which exceeds the gain of the medium; this can also be described as a reduction of the quality factor or 'Q' of the cavity. Then, after the pump energy stored in the laser medium has approached the maximum possible level, the introduced loss mechanism (often an electro- or acousto-optical element) is rapidly removed (or that occurs by itself in a passive device), allowing lasing to begin which rapidly obtains the stored energy in the gain medium. This results in a short pulse incorporating that energy, and thus a high peak power.\n\nMode-locking \n\nA mode-locked laser is capable of emitting extremely short pulses on the order of tens of picoseconds down to less than 10 femtoseconds. These pulses will repeat at the round trip time, that is, the time that it takes light to complete one round trip between the mirrors comprising the resonator. Due to the Fourier limit (also known as energy-time uncertainty), a pulse of such short temporal length has a spectrum spread over a considerable bandwidth. Thus such a gain medium must have a gain bandwidth sufficiently broad to amplify those frequencies. An example of a suitable material is titanium-doped, artificially grown sapphire (Ti:sapphire) which has a very wide gain bandwidth and can thus produce pulses of only a few femtoseconds duration.\n\nSuch mode-locked lasers are a most versatile tool for researching processes occurring on extremely short time scales (known as femtosecond physics, femtosecond chemistry and ultrafast science), for maximizing the effect of nonlinearity in optical materials (e.g. in second-harmonic generation, parametric down-conversion, optical parametric oscillators and the like) due to the large peak power, and in ablation applications. Again, because of the extremely short pulse duration, such a laser will produce pulses which achieve an extremely high peak power.\n\nPulsed pumping \n\nAnother method of achieving pulsed laser operation is to pump the laser material with a source that is itself pulsed, either through electronic charging in the case of flash lamps, or another laser which is already pulsed. Pulsed pumping was historically used with dye lasers where the inverted population lifetime of a dye molecule was so short that a high energy, fast pump was needed. The way to overcome this problem was to charge up large capacitors which are then switched to discharge through flashlamps, producing an intense flash. Pulsed pumping is also required for three-level lasers in which the lower energy level rapidly becomes highly populated preventing further lasing until those atoms relax to the ground state. These lasers, such as the excimer laser and the copper vapor laser, can never be operated in CW mode.\n\nHistory \n\nFoundations \n\nIn 1917, Albert Einstein established the theoretical foundations for the laser and the maser in the paper Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Theory of Radiation) via a re-derivation of Max Planck's law of radiation, conceptually based upon probability coefficients (Einstein coefficients) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. In 1928, Rudolf W. Ladenburg confirmed the existence of the phenomena of stimulated emission and negative absorption. In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify \"short\" waves. In 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission. In 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, experimentally confirmed, two years later, by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter. \n\nMaser \n\nIn 1951, Joseph Weber submitted a paper on using stimulated emissions to make a microwave amplifier to the June 1952 Institute of Radio Engineers Vacuum Tube Research Conference at Ottawa. After this presentation, RCA asked Weber to give a seminar on this idea, and Charles Hard Townes asked him for a copy of the paper. \n\nIn 1953, Charles Hard Townes and graduate students James P. Gordon and Herbert J. Zeiger produced the first microwave amplifier, a device operating on similar principles to the laser, but amplifying microwave radiation rather than infrared or visible radiation. Townes's maser was incapable of continuous output. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Nikolay Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov were independently working on the quantum oscillator and solved the problem of continuous-output systems by using more than two energy levels. These gain media could release stimulated emissions between an excited state and a lower excited state, not the ground state, facilitating the maintenance of a population inversion. In 1955, Prokhorov and Basov suggested optical pumping of a multi-level system as a method for obtaining the population inversion, later a main method of laser pumping.\n\nTownes reports that several eminent physicists—among them Niels Bohr, John von Neumann, and Llewellyn Thomas—argued the maser violated Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and hence could not work. Others such as Isidor Rabi and Polykarp Kusch expected that it would be impractical and not worth the effort. In 1964 Charles H. Townes, Nikolay Basov, and Aleksandr Prokhorov shared the Nobel Prize in Physics, \"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser–laser principle\".\n\nLaser \n\nIn 1957, Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, then at Bell Labs, began a serious study of the infrared laser. As ideas developed, they abandoned infrared radiation to instead concentrate upon visible light. The concept originally was called an \"optical maser\". In 1958, Bell Labs filed a patent application for their proposed optical maser; and Schawlow and Townes submitted a manuscript of their theoretical calculations to the Physical Review, published that year in Volume 112, Issue No. 6.\n\nSimultaneously, at Columbia University, graduate student Gordon Gould was working on a doctoral thesis about the energy levels of excited thallium. When Gould and Townes met, they spoke of radiation emission, as a general subject; afterwards, in November 1957, Gould noted his ideas for a \"laser\", including using an open resonator (later an essential laser-device component). Moreover, in 1958, Prokhorov independently proposed using an open resonator, the first published appearance (the USSR) of this idea. Elsewhere, in the U.S., Schawlow and Townes had agreed to an open-resonator laser design – apparently unaware of Prokhorov's publications and Gould's unpublished laser work.\n\nAt a conference in 1959, Gordon Gould published the term LASER in the paper The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Gould's linguistic intention was using the \"-aser\" word particle as a suffix – to accurately denote the spectrum of the light emitted by the LASER device; thus x-rays: xaser, ultraviolet: uvaser, et cetera; none established itself as a discrete term, although \"raser\" was briefly popular for denoting radio-frequency-emitting devices.\n\nGould's notes included possible applications for a laser, such as spectrometry, interferometry, radar, and nuclear fusion. He continued developing the idea, and filed a patent application in April 1959. The U.S. Patent Office denied his application, and awarded a patent to Bell Labs, in 1960. That provoked a twenty-eight-year lawsuit, featuring scientific prestige and money as the stakes. Gould won his first minor patent in 1977, yet it was not until 1987 that he won the first significant patent lawsuit victory, when a Federal judge ordered the U.S. Patent Office to issue patents to Gould for the optically pumped and the gas discharge laser devices. The question of just how to assign credit for inventing the laser remains unresolved by historians. \n\nOn May 16, 1960, Theodore H. Maiman operated the first functioning laser at Hughes Research Laboratories, Malibu, California, ahead of several research teams, including those of Townes, at Columbia University, Arthur Schawlow, at Bell Labs, and Gould, at the TRG (Technical Research Group) company. Maiman's functional laser used a solid-state flashlamp-pumped synthetic ruby crystal to produce red laser light, at 694 nanometers wavelength; however, the device only was capable of pulsed operation, because of its three-level pumping design scheme. Later that year, the Iranian physicist Ali Javan, and William R. Bennett, and Donald Herriott, constructed the first gas laser, using helium and neon that was capable of continuous operation in the infrared (U.S. Patent 3,149,290); later, Javan received the Albert Einstein Award in 1993. Basov and Javan proposed the semiconductor laser diode concept. In 1962, Robert N. Hall demonstrated the first laser diode device, made of gallium arsenide and emitted at 850 nm the near-infrared band of the spectrum. Later that year, Nick Holonyak, Jr. demonstrated the first semiconductor laser with a visible emission. This first semiconductor laser could only be used in pulsed-beam operation, and when cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K). In 1970, Zhores Alferov, in the USSR, and Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of Bell Telephone Laboratories also independently developed room-temperature, continual-operation diode lasers, using the heterojunction structure.\n\nRecent innovations \n\nSince the early period of laser history, laser research has produced a variety of improved and specialized laser types, optimized for different performance goals, including:\n* new wavelength bands\n* maximum average output power\n* maximum peak pulse energy\n* maximum peak pulse power\n* minimum output pulse duration\n* maximum power efficiency\n* minimum cost\nand this research continues to this day.\n\nLasing without maintaining the medium excited into a population inversion was discovered in 1992 in sodium gas and again in 1995 in rubidium gas by various international teams. This was accomplished by using an external maser to induce \"optical transparency\" in the medium by introducing and destructively interfering the ground electron transitions between two paths, so that the likelihood for the ground electrons to absorb any energy has been cancelled.\n\nTypes and operating principles \n\nFor a more complete list of laser types see this list of laser types.\n\nGas lasers \n\nFollowing the invention of the HeNe gas laser, many other gas discharges have been found to amplify light coherently.\nGas lasers using many different gases have been built and used for many purposes. The helium–neon laser (HeNe) is able to operate at a number of different wavelengths, however the vast majority are engineered to lase at 633 nm; these relatively low cost but highly coherent lasers are extremely common in optical research and educational laboratories. Commercial carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers can emit many hundreds of watts in a single spatial mode which can be concentrated into a tiny spot. This emission is in the thermal infrared at 10.6 µm; such lasers are regularly used in industry for cutting and welding. The efficiency of a CO2 laser is unusually high: over 30%. Argon-ion lasers can operate at a number of lasing transitions between 351 and 528.7 nm. Depending on the optical design one or more of these transitions can be lasing simultaneously; the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and 514.5 nm. A nitrogen transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure (TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser, often home-built by hobbyists, which produces rather incoherent UV light at 337.1 nm. Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate deep ultraviolet wavelengths. Helium-silver (HeAg) 224 nm and neon-copper (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples. Like all low-pressure gas lasers, the gain media of these lasers have quite narrow oscillation linewidths, less than 3 GHz (0.5 picometers), making them candidates for use in fluorescence suppressed Raman spectroscopy.\n\nChemical lasers \n\nChemical lasers are powered by a chemical reaction permitting a large amount of energy to be released quickly. Such very high power lasers are especially of interest to the military, however continuous wave chemical lasers at very high power levels, fed by streams of gasses, have been developed and have some industrial applications. As examples, in the hydrogen fluoride laser (2700–2900 nm) and the deuterium fluoride laser (3800 nm) the reaction is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with combustion products of ethylene in nitrogen trifluoride.\n\nExcimer lasers \n\nExcimer lasers are a special sort of gas laser powered by an electric discharge in which the lasing medium is an excimer, or more precisely an exciplex in existing designs. These are molecules which can only exist with one atom in an excited electronic state. Once the molecule transfers its excitation energy to a photon, therefore, its atoms are no longer bound to each other and the molecule disintegrates. This drastically reduces the population of the lower energy state thus greatly facilitating a population inversion. Excimers currently used are all noble gas compounds; noble gasses are chemically inert and can only form compounds while in an excited state. Excimer lasers typically operate at ultraviolet wavelengths with major applications including semiconductor photolithography and LASIK eye surgery. Commonly used excimer molecules include ArF (emission at 193 nm), KrCl (222 nm), KrF (248 nm), XeCl (308 nm), and XeF (351 nm). \nThe molecular fluorine laser, emitting at 157 nm in the vacuum ultraviolet is sometimes referred to as an excimer laser, however this appears to be a misnomer inasmuch as F2 is a stable compound.\n\nSolid-state lasers \n\nSolid-state lasers use a crystalline or glass rod which is \"doped\" with ions that provide the required energy states. For example, the first working laser was a ruby laser, made from ruby (chromium-doped corundum). The population inversion is actually maintained in the dopant. These materials are pumped optically using a shorter wavelength than the lasing wavelength, often from a flashtube or from another laser. The usage of the term \"solid-state\" in laser physics is narrower than in typical use. Semiconductor lasers (laser diodes) are typically not referred to as solid-state lasers.\n\nNeodymium is a common dopant in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) and yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG). All these lasers can produce high powers in the infrared spectrum at 1064 nm. They are used for cutting, welding and marking of metals and other materials, and also in spectroscopy and for pumping dye lasers. These lasers are also commonly frequency doubled, tripled or quadrupled to produce 532 nm (green, visible), 355 nm and 266 nm (UV) beams, respectively. Frequency-doubled diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) lasers are used to make bright green laser pointers.\n\nYtterbium, holmium, thulium, and erbium are other common \"dopants\" in solid-state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF2, typically operating around 1020–1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG. Holmium-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at infrared wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues. The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode, and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones.\n\nTitanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire) produces a highly tunable infrared laser, commonly used for spectroscopy. It is also notable for use as a mode-locked laser producing ultrashort pulses of extremely high peak power.\n\nThermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that heats the medium. This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (dn/dT) can cause thermal lensing and reduce the quantum efficiency. Diode-pumped thin disk lasers overcome these issues by having a gain medium that is much thinner than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more uniform temperature in the material. Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce beams of up to one kilowatt. \n\nFiber lasers \n\nSolid-state lasers or laser amplifiers where the light is guided due to the total internal reflection in a single mode optical fiber are instead called fiber lasers. Guiding of light allows extremely long gain regions providing good cooling conditions; fibers have high surface area to volume ratio which allows efficient cooling. In addition, the fiber's waveguiding properties tend to reduce thermal distortion of the beam. Erbium and ytterbium ions are common active species in such lasers.\n\nQuite often, the fiber laser is designed as a double-clad fiber. This type of fiber consists of a fiber core, an inner cladding and an outer cladding. The index of the three concentric layers is chosen so that the fiber core acts as a single-mode fiber for the laser emission while the outer cladding acts as a highly multimode core for the pump laser. This lets the pump propagate a large amount of power into and through the active inner core region, while still having a high numerical aperture (NA) to have easy launching conditions.\n\nPump light can be used more efficiently by creating a fiber disk laser, or a stack of such lasers.\n\nFiber lasers have a fundamental limit in that the intensity of the light in the fiber cannot be so high that optical nonlinearities induced by the local electric field strength can become dominant and prevent laser operation and/or lead to the material destruction of the fiber. This effect is called photodarkening. In bulk laser materials, the cooling is not so efficient, and it is difficult to separate the effects of photodarkening from the thermal effects, but the experiments in fibers show that the photodarkening can be attributed to the formation of long-living color centers.\n\nPhotonic crystal lasers \n\nPhotonic crystal lasers are lasers based on nano-structures that provide the mode confinement and the density of optical states (DOS) structure required for the feedback to take place. They are typical micrometer-sized and tunable on the bands of the photonic crystals. \n\nSemiconductor lasers \n\nSemiconductor lasers are diodes which are electrically pumped. Recombination of electrons and holes created by the applied current introduces optical gain. Reflection from the ends of the crystal form an optical resonator, although the resonator can be external to the semiconductor in some designs.\n\nCommercial laser diodes emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 3500 nm. Low to medium power laser diodes are used in laser pointers, laser printers and CD/DVD players. Laser diodes are also frequently used to optically pump other lasers with high efficiency. The highest power industrial laser diodes, with power up to 10 kW (70 dBm), are used in industry for cutting and welding. External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity. These devices can generate high power outputs with good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-linewidth radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses.\n\nIn 2012, Nichia and OSRAM developed and manufactured commercial high-power green laser diodes (515/520 nm), which compete with traditional diode-pumped solid-state lasers. \n\nVertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer. VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes. As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized, and 1550 nm devices an area of research. VECSELs are external-cavity VCSELs. Quantum cascade lasers are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy sub-bands of an electron in a structure containing several quantum wells.\n\nThe development of a silicon laser is important in the field of optical computing. Silicon is the material of choice for integrated circuits, and so electronic and silicon photonic components (such as optical interconnects) could be fabricated on the same chip. Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing. However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as indium(III) phosphide or gallium(III) arsenide, materials which allow coherent light to be produced from silicon. These are called hybrid silicon laser. Another type is a Raman laser, which takes advantage of Raman scattering to produce a laser from materials such as silicon.\n\nDye lasers \n\nDye lasers use an organic dye as the gain medium. The wide gain spectrum of available dyes, or mixtures of dyes, allows these lasers to be highly tunable, or to produce very short-duration pulses (on the order of a few femtoseconds). Although these tunable lasers are mainly known in their liquid form, researchers have also demonstrated narrow-linewidth tunable emission in dispersive oscillator configurations incorporating solid-state dye gain media. In their most prevalent form these solid state dye lasers use dye-doped polymers as laser media.\n\nFree-electron lasers \n\nFree-electron lasers, or FELs, generate coherent, high power radiation that is widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves through terahertz radiation and infrared to the visible spectrum, to soft X-rays. They have the widest frequency range of any laser type. While FEL beams share the same optical traits as other lasers, such as coherent radiation, FEL operation is quite different. Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers, which rely on bound atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, hence the term free-electron.\n\nExotic media \n\nThe pursuit of a high-quantum-energy laser using transitions between isomeric states of an atomic nucleus has been the subject of wide-ranging academic research since the early 1970s. Much of this is summarized in three review articles. This research has been international in scope, but mainly based in the former Soviet Union and the United States. While many scientists remain optimistic that a breakthrough is near, an operational gamma-ray laser is yet to be realized. \n\nSome of the early studies were directed toward short pulses of neutrons exciting the upper isomer state in a solid so the gamma-ray transition could benefit from the line-narrowing of Mössbauer effect. In conjunction, several advantages were expected from two-stage pumping of a three-level system. It was conjectured that the nucleus of an atom, embedded in the near field of a laser-driven coherently-oscillating electron cloud would experience a larger dipole field than that of the driving laser. Furthermore, nonlinearity of the oscillating cloud would produce both spatial and temporal harmonics, so nuclear transitions of higher multipolarity could also be driven at multiples of the laser frequency. \n\nIn September 2007, the BBC News reported that there was speculation about the possibility of using positronium annihilation to drive a very powerful gamma ray laser. Dr. David Cassidy of the University of California, Riverside proposed that a single such laser could be used to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction, replacing the banks of hundreds of lasers currently employed in inertial confinement fusion experiments.\n\nSpace-based X-ray lasers pumped by a nuclear explosion have also been proposed as antimissile weapons. Such devices would be one-shot weapons.\n\nLiving cells have been used to produce laser light. The cells were genetically engineered to produce green fluorescent protein (GFP). The GFP is used as the laser's \"gain medium\", where light amplification takes place. The cells were then placed between two tiny mirrors, just 20 millionths of a meter across, which acted as the \"laser cavity\" in which light could bounce many times through the cell. Upon bathing the cell with blue light, it could be seen to emit directed and intense green laser light.\n\nUses \n\nWhen lasers were invented in 1960, they were called \"a solution looking for a problem\". Since then, they have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications in every section of modern society, including consumer electronics, information technology, science, medicine, industry, law enforcement, entertainment, and the military. Fiber-optic communication using lasers is a key technology in modern communications, allowing services such as the Internet.\n\nThe first use of lasers in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in 1974. The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become common, beginning in 1982 followed shortly by laser printers.\n\nSome other uses are:\n* Medicine: Bloodless surgery, laser healing, surgical treatment, kidney stone treatment, eye treatment, dentistry.\n* Industry: Cutting, welding, material heat treatment, marking parts, non-contact measurement of parts.\n* Military: Marking targets, guiding munitions, missile defence, electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM), alternative to radar, blinding troops.\n* Law enforcement: used for latent fingerprint detection in the forensic identification field \n* Research: Spectroscopy, laser ablation, laser annealing, laser scattering, laser interferometry, lidar, laser capture microdissection, fluorescence microscopy, metrology.\n* Product development/commercial: laser printers, optical discs (e.g. CDs and the like), barcode scanners, thermometers, laser pointers, holograms, bubblegrams.\n* Laser lighting displays: Laser light shows.\n* Cosmetic skin treatments: acne treatment, cellulite and striae reduction, and hair removal.\n\nIn 2004, excluding diode lasers, approximately 131,000 lasers were sold with a value of US$2.19 billion. In the same year, approximately 733 million diode lasers, valued at $3.20 billion, were sold. \n\nExamples by power \n\nDifferent applications need lasers with different output powers. Lasers that produce a continuous beam or a series of short pulses can be compared on the basis of their average power. Lasers that produce pulses can also be characterized based on the peak power of each pulse. The peak power of a pulsed laser is many orders of magnitude greater than its average power. The average output power is always less than the power consumed.\n\nExamples of pulsed systems with high peak power:\n* 700 TW (700×1012 W) – National Ignition Facility, a 192-beam, 1.8-megajoule laser system adjoining a 10-meter-diameter target chamber. \n* 1.3 PW (1.3×1015 W) – world's most powerful laser as of 1998, located at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory \n\nHobby uses \n\nIn recent years, some hobbyists have taken interests in lasers. Lasers used by hobbyists are generally of class IIIa or IIIb (see Safety), although some have made their own class IV types.[http://www.powerlabs.org/laser.htm PowerLabs CO2 LASER!] Sam Barros June 21, 2006. Retrieved January 1, 2007. However, compared to other hobbyists, laser hobbyists are far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved. Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as salvaging laser diodes from broken DVD players (red), Blu-ray players (violet), or even higher power laser diodes from CD or DVD burners. \n\nHobbyists also have been taking surplus pulsed lasers from retired military applications and modifying them for pulsed holography. Pulsed Ruby and pulsed YAG lasers have been used.\n\nAs weapons \n\nLasers of all but the lowest powers can potentially be used as incapacitating weapons, through their ability to produce temporary or permanent vision loss in varying degrees when aimed at the eyes. The degree, character, and duration of vision impairment caused by eye exposure to laser light varies with the power of the laser, the wavelength(s), the collimation of the beam, the exact orientation of the beam, and the duration of exposure. Lasers of even a fraction of a watt in power can produce immediate, permanent vision loss under certain conditions, making such lasers potential non-lethal but incapacitating weapons. The extreme handicap that laser-induced blindness represents makes the use of lasers even as non-lethal weapons morally controversial, and weapons designed to cause blindness have been banned by the Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons. Incidents of pilots being exposed to lasers while flying have prompted aviation authorities to implement special procedures to deal with such hazards. \n\nLaser weapons capable of directly damaging or destroying a target in combat are still in the experimental stage. The general idea of laser-beam weaponry is to hit a target with a train of brief pulses of light. The rapid evaporation and expansion of the surface causes shockwaves that damage the target. The power needed to project a high-powered laser beam of this kind is beyond the limit of current mobile power technology, thus favoring chemically powered gas dynamic lasers. Example experimental systems include MIRACL and the Tactical High Energy Laser.\n\nThroughout the 2000s, the United States Air Force worked on the Boeing YAL-1, an airborne laser mounted in a Boeing 747. It was intended to be used to shoot down incoming ballistic missiles over enemy territory. In March 2009, Northrop Grumman claimed that its engineers in Redondo Beach had successfully built and tested an electrically powered solid state laser capable of producing a 100-kilowatt beam, powerful enough to destroy an airplane. According to Brian Strickland, manager for the United States Army's Joint High Power Solid State Laser program, an electrically powered laser is capable of being mounted in an aircraft, ship, or other vehicle because it requires much less space for its supporting equipment than a chemical laser. However, the source of such a large electrical power in a mobile application remained unclear. Ultimately, the project was deemed to be infeasible, and was cancelled in December 2011, with the Boeing YAL-1 prototype being stored and eventually dismantled.\n\nThe United States Navy is developing a laser weapon referred to as the Laser Weapon System or LaWS. \n\nTelecommunications in space\n\nRecent technology has allowed prototypes for laser communications and visible light communication in outer space. The communication range of free-space optical communication is currently of the order of several thousand kilometers, but has the potential to bridge interplanetary distances of millions of kilometers, using optical telescopes as beam expanders. \n\nSafety \n\nEven the first laser was recognized as being potentially dangerous. Theodore Maiman characterized the first laser as having a power of one \"Gillette\" as it could burn through one Gillette razor blade. Today, it is accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few milliwatts of output power can be hazardous to human eyesight when the beam hits the eye directly or after reflection from a shiny surface. At wavelengths which the cornea and the lens can focus well, the coherence and low divergence of laser light means that it can be focused by the eye into an extremely small spot on the retina, resulting in localized burning and permanent damage in seconds or even less time.\n\nLasers are usually labeled with a safety class number, which identifies how dangerous the laser is:\nClass 1 is inherently safe, usually because the light is contained in an enclosure, for example in CD players.\nClass 2 is safe during normal use; the blink reflex of the eye will prevent damage. Usually up to 1 mW power, for example laser pointers.\nClass 3R (formerly IIIa) lasers are usually up to 5 mW and involve a small risk of eye damage within the time of the blink reflex. Staring into such a beam for several seconds is likely to cause damage to a spot on the retina.\nClass 3B can cause immediate eye damage upon exposure.\n*Class 4 lasers can burn skin, and in some cases, even scattered light can cause eye and/or skin damage. Many industrial and scientific lasers are in this class.\nThe indicated powers are for visible-light, continuous-wave lasers. For pulsed lasers and invisible wavelengths, other power limits apply. People working with class 3B and class 4 lasers can protect their eyes with safety goggles which are designed to absorb light of a particular wavelength.\n\nInfrared lasers with wavelengths longer than about 1.4 micrometers are often referred to as \"eye-safe\", because the cornea tends to absorb light at these wavelengths, protecting the retina from damage. The label \"eye-safe\" can be misleading, however, as it applies only to relatively low power continuous wave beams; a high power or Q-switched laser at these wavelengths can burn the cornea, causing severe eye damage, and even moderate power lasers can injure the eye." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Ted Maiman", "Theodore Harold Maiman", "Theodore H. Maiman", "Theodore Maiman" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "theodore h maiman", "theodore harold maiman", "theodore maiman", "ted maiman" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "theodore maiman", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Theodore Maiman" }
Which Wisconsin salesman developed a safety razor in 1901?	tc_1350	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Safety_razor.txt" ], "title": [ "Safety razor" ], "wiki_context": [ "A safety razor is a shaving implement with a protective device positioned between the edge of the blade and the skin. The initial purpose of these protective devices was to reduce the level of skill needed for injury-free shaving, thereby reducing the reliance on professional barbers for that service and raising grooming standards.\n\nThe term was first used in a patent issued in 1880, for a razor in the basic contemporary configuration with a handle attached at right angles to a head in which a removable blade is placed (although this form predated the patent).\n\nPlastic disposable razors, and razors with replaceable blade attachments, are in common use today. Razors commonly include one to five cutting edges (but sometimes up to seven).\n\nHistory \n\nEarly designs \n\nThe basic form of a razor, \"the cutting blade of which is at right angles with the handle, and resembles somewhat the form of a common hoe\", was first described in a patent application in 1847 by William S. Henson. This also covered a \"comb tooth guard or protector\" which could be attached both to the hoe form and to a conventional straight razor.\n\nThe first attested use of the term \"safety razor\" is in a patent application for \"new and useful improvements in Safety-Razors\", filed in May 1880 by Fredrik and Otto Kampfe of Brooklyn, New York, and issued the following month. This differed from the Henson design in distancing the blade from the handle by interposing, \"a hollow metallic blade-holder having a preferably removable handle and a flat plate in front, to which the blade is attached by clips and a pivoted catch, said plate having bars or teeth at its lower edge, and the lower plate having an opening, for the purpose set forth\", which is, to \"insure a smooth bearing for the plate upon the skin, while the teeth or bars will yield sufficiently to allow the razor to sever the hair without danger of cutting the skin.\" The Kampfe Brothers produced razors under their own name following the 1880 patent and improved the design in a series of subsequent patents. These models were manufactured under the \"Star Safety Razor\" brand.\n\nA third pivotal innovation was a safety razor using a disposable double-edge blade that King Camp Gillette submitted a patent application for in 1901 and was granted in 1904. The success of Gillette's invention was largely a result of his having been awarded a contract to supply the American troops in World War I with double-edge safety razors as part of their standard field kits (delivering a total of 3.5 million razors and 32 million blades for them). The returning soldiers were permitted to keep that part of their equipment and therefore easily retained their new shaving habits. The subsequent consumer demand for replacement blades put the shaving industry on course toward its present form with Gillette as a dominant force. Prior to the introduction of the disposable blade, safety razor users still needed to strop and hone the edges of their blades. These are not trivial skills (honing frequently being left to a professional) and remained a barrier to the ubiquitous adopting of the be your own barber ideal. \n\nSingle-edge razors \n\nThe first safety razors used a single-edge blade that was essentially a 4 cm long segment of a straight razor. A flat blade that could be used alternately with this \"wedge\" was first illustrated in a patent issued in 1878, serving as a close prototype for the single-edge blade in its present form. New single-edge razors were developed and used side-by-side with double-edge razors for decades. The largest manufacturers were the American Safety Razor Company with its \"Ever-Ready\" series, and the Gem Cutlery Company with its \"Gem\" models. Although single-edge razors are no longer in production they are readily available. Blades for them are still being manufactured both for shaving and technical purposes.\n\nA second popular single-edge design is the \"Injector\" razor developed and placed on the market by Schick Razors in the 1920s. This uses narrow blades stored in an injector device with which they are inserted directly into the razor. The injector blade was the first to depart from the rectangular dimensions shared by the wedge, standard single-edge, and double-edge blades. The injector, itself, was also the first device intended to reduce the risk of injury from handling blades. The Gillette blade dispenser released in 1947 had the same purpose. The narrow injector blade, as well as the form of the injector razor, also strongly influenced the corresponding details of the subsequently developed cartridge razors.\n\nUntil the 1960s, razor blades were made of carbon steel. These were prone to rusting unless carefully dried and often left users to change blades frequently. In 1965, the British company Wilkinson Sword began to sell blades made of stainless steel, which did not rust and could be used until blunt. Wilkinson quickly captured U.S., British and European markets. As a result, American Safety Razor, Gillette and Schick were driven to produce stainless steel blades to compete. Today, almost all razor blades are stainless steel although carbon steel blades remain in limited production for lower income markets. Because Gillette held a patent on stainless blades but had not acted on it, the company was accused of exploiting customers by forcing them to buy the rust-prone blade. \n\nThe risk of injury from handling razor blades was further reduced in 1970 when Wilkinson released its \"Bonded Shaving System\", which embedded a single blade in a disposable polymer plastic cartridge. A flurry of competing models soon followed with everything from one to six blades, with many cartridge blade razors also having disposable handles. Cartridge blade razors are sometimes considered to be a generic category of their own and not a variety of safety razor. The similarities between single-edge cartridge blade razors and the classic injector razor do, however, provide equal justification for treating both categories contiguously.\n\nIn 1974 Bic introduced the disposable razor. Instead of being a razor with a disposable blade, the entire razor was manufactured to be disposable. Gillette's response was the Good News disposable razor which was launched on the US market in 1976 before the Bic disposable was made available on that market. Shortly thereafter, Gillette modified the Good News construction to add an aloe strip above the razor, resulting in the Good News Plus. The purported benefit of the aloe strip is to ease any discomfort felt on the face while shaving.\n\nIn direct response to Wilkinson's Bonded cartridge, during the following year Gillette introduced the twin-blade Trac II. They claimed that research showed the tandem action of the two blades to give a closer shave than a single blade, because of a hysteresis effect. In addition to the cutting action of the first blade, it also pulls the hair out of the follicle into which it does not fully retract before the second blade cuts it further. The extent to which this is of practical consequence has, however, been questioned. \n\nRecent changes \n\nGillette introduced the first triple-blade cartridge razor, the Mach3, in 1998, and later upgraded the Sensor cartridge to the Sensor3 by adding a third blade. Schick/Wilkinson responded to the Mach3 with the Quattro, the first four-blade cartridge razor. These innovations are marketed with the message that they help consumers achieve the best shave as easily as possible. Another impetus for the sale of multiple-blade cartridges is that they have high profit margins. With manufacturers frequently updating their shaving systems, consumers can become locked into buying their proprietary cartridges, for as long as the manufacturer continues to make them. Subsequent to introducing the higher-priced Mach3 in 1998, Gillette's blade sales realized a 50% increase, and profits increased in an otherwise mature market.\n\nThe marketing of increasing numbers of blades in a cartridge has been parodied since the 1970s. The debut episode of Saturday Night Live in 1975 included a parody advertisement for the Triple Trac Razor, shortly after the first two-blade cartridge for men's razors was advertised. MAD magazine announced the \"Trac 76\", arranged as a chain of cartridges with a handle on each end. In the early 1990s, the (Australian) Late Show skitted a \"Gillette 3000\" with 16 blades and 75 lubricating strips as arrived at by working in conjunction with the help of NASA scientists - \"The first blade distracts the hair...\". In 2004, a satirical article in The Onion entitled \"Fuck Everything, We're Doing Five Blades\" predicted the release of five-blade cartridges, two years before their commercial introduction. South Korean manufacturer Dorco released their own six-blade cartridge in 2012. \n\nGillette has also produced powered variants of the Mach3 (M3Power, M3Power Nitro) and Fusion (Fusion Power and Fusion Power Phantom) razors. These razors accept a single AAA battery which is used to produce vibration in the razor; this action was purported to raise hair up and away from the skin prior to being cut. These claims were ruled in an American court as \"unsubstantiated and inaccurate\". \n\nPreviously considered old fashioned, Double Edge razors have regained popularity in recent years due to long term cost savings, and for some, less irritating shaves. Specialty store chain, The Art of Shaving, has stated sales of safety (DE) razors have increased 1,000 percent from 2009 to 2014. \n\nDesign \n\nSafety razors originally had an edge protected by a comb patterned on various types of protective guards that had been affixed to open-blade straight razors during the preceding decades. Some safety razors in present-day production retain a comb but the more common protective device is now a solid safety bar.\n\nRazors are generally marketed in men's and women's versions; the exact difference between the two may vary from color only for most disposable razors to completely different design principles. By and large, men's and women's razor blades and disposable razors are interchangeable, but there is sometimes a difference in ergonomics: women's razors either have a longer handle for longer reach or a paddle-shaped handle to allow for a lengthwise grip. Specialized handle designs also exist, for shaving such areas as the underarms or the bikini line.\n\nVariants \n\nDouble-edged razors \n\nDouble-edge (DE) safety razors remain a popular alternative to proprietary cartridge razors, and usually offer a lower total cost of ownership since they are not marketed under the \"razor and blades business model\". DE razors are still designed and produced in many countries including Canada, China, Egypt, Germany, India, Japan, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the United States. Better known manufacturers include Above the Tie, Cadet, Edwin Jagger, Feather, iKon, Lord, Merkur, Mühle, Parker, Pils, \"Standard Razor\" brand razor, Van der Hagen, Weber, Weishi and Wilkinson Sword, with several of them producing razors that are marketed under other brands. Often different models of razors within a brand share the same razor-head designs, differing primarily in the color, length, texture, material(s), and weight of the handles. Three-piece razors generally have interchangeable handles, and some companies specialize in manufacturing custom or high-end replacement handles. Variations in razor head designs include straight safety bar (SB), open comb (OC)(toothed) bar, adjustable razors, and slant bar razors. The slant bar was a common design in Germany in which the blade is slightly angled and curved along its length to make for a slicing action and a more rigid cutting edge. \n\nA primary functional difference between Double-edge (DE) razors and modern cartridge razors is that DE razor heads come in a wide array of aggression levels (where aggression is commonly defined as being less protective from the blade). Due to the extra exposure of the blade, some “aggressive” double edge razors can require extra care to avoid nicks, but as a benefit they offer a wider range of cutting angles, providing many experienced shavers a more finely-tuned, closer shave, and yet often with less irritation than a milder DE or cartridge razor (depending upon many factors including the shaver's unique skin, beard, preparation, and skill). Adjustable razors are also available, allowing users to experiment with different amounts of blade exposure and cutting angles, by raising and lowering the safety guard through a twist-setting on the razor's handle. Mild DE razors are also available and serve well for learning DE shaving, as well as for many experienced shavers who find they prefer less aggressive shaves.\n\nDouble Edge blades are universally compatible across all DE razors, and free from patents and vendor lock-in, often cost a tenth of the price of replacement razor cartridges. DE blades continue to be manufactured worldwide, including in Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Czech Republic, Egypt, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, India, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Pakistan, Poland, Russia, Turkey and the United States. Many of these manufacturers produce different varieties of double edge blades made with varying alloys, density, coatings, thickness, as well as differences in blade bevel (or grind). Many manufacturers produce DE razor blades that are marketed under multiple brand names.\n\nDisposable razors \n\nInstead of being a razor with a disposable blade, a disposable razor can itself be disposed of once it is dull." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "King Gillette", "King C. Gillette", "King Camp Gillette", "Gillette's Razor", "King C Gillette", "King Gillette Ranch", "K. C. Gillette", "K.C. Gillette" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "king gillette", "king camp gillette", "king c gillette", "king gillette ranch", "k c gillette", "gillette s razor" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "king camp gillette", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "King Camp Gillette" }
In which country were Daewoo cars originally produced?	tc_1351	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Daewoo.txt" ], "title": [ "Daewoo" ], "wiki_context": [ "Daewoo (\"Dae\" Hangul: 대. Korean for \"Great\" and \"Woo\" Hangul: 우. Korean the first name of founder and chairman Kim Woo-jung) or the Daewoo Group was a major South Korean chaebol (conglomerate).\n\nIt was founded on 22 March 1967 as Daewoo Industrial and was dismantled by the Korean government in 1999. Prior to the Asian financial crisis, Daewoo was the second largest conglomerate in Korea after Hyundai Group, followed by LG Group and Samsung. There were about 20 divisions under the Daewoo Group, some of which survive today as independent companies.\n\nCorporations\n\nThere were about 20 divisions in the Daewoo Group.\n\nDaewoo Group had under its umbrella several major corporations:\nDaewoo Bus, is a manufacturer of buses. headquartered in Busan, South Korea, established in 2002. These buses are primarily used for public transportation\nDaewoo Motors, the motor vehicles division (sub-branch Daewoo Automotive Components Co. Ltd., Daewoo Bus Co., Ltd., Daewoo Commercial Vehicle Co. Ltd.)\nDaewoo Motor Sales, an auto sales company sold Daewoo but also GM cars and others in Korea (Sub-branch: Architectural Iaan Div., SAA-Seoul Auto Auction)\nDaewoo Electronics, a strong force both internationally and in Korea (sub-branch Daewoo Electronic Components Co. Ltd, Daewoo Electric Motor Industries Ltd., Orion Electric Co. Ltd.)\nDaewoo Precision Industries produced small calibre firearms and auto parts. It was spun off in February 2002 and relisted on the Korean stock-market in March 2002. It was renamed S&T Daewoo Co., Ltd in September 2006, and then S&T Motiv Co., LTD in March 2012. \nDaewoo Textile Co. Ltd.\nDaewoo Heavy Industries (DHI), which created heavy duty machinery \n\nDaewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering produced container ships, oil tankers and planes. It spun off in 2000 and became an independent company, DSME, re-listing on the Korean stockmarket in 2001\nDaewoo Securities, a financial securities company \nDaewoo Telecom Ltd., which concentrated on the telecommunications (sub-branch Daewoo Informations Systems Co. Ltd.)\nDaewoo Corporation, (sub-branch Daewoo Construction, Keangnam Enterprises) which built highways, dams and skyscrapers, especially in the Middle East and Africa\nDaewoo International, a trading organization\nDaewoo Development Co. Ltd., managing Daewoo hotels around the world and had the Hilton Hotels franchise in South Korea\nIAE (Institute for Advanced Engineering): research and development integrated center\n\nA further subsidiary was the Daewoo Development Company, funded by cash from the Group, and set up to develop hotels. Seven were built in Korea, China, Vietnam, and Africa. They were personally designed and furnished by Kim Woojoong's socialite wife Heeja who was Chairwoman of the company. The most lavish is the 5-star Hanoi Daewoo Hotel, which cost US$163 million to build in 1996 and was decorated by Heeja with fine art, porcelain, sculptures, and marble. She invited 3000 guests to the opening, including Russian President Vladimir Putin. There is an 18-hole golf course on the grounds and a swimming pool which is thought to be the largest in Asia. Kim is believed to have spent time there while \"on the run\". \n\nDaewoo Motor Co., Ltd.\n\nDaewoo Motor Co., Ltd. was founded when the Daewoo Group purchased Saehan Motor in 1978, but the Daewoo Motor name did not appear until 1983.\n\nThe Daewoo Motor brand appeared in the UK in 1995. At the time, it was the only manufacturer not using traditional dealerships – it owned and operated its own retail network. It was once considered to be among the top 10 motor companies in terms of production.\n\nDue to financial trouble, Daewoo was forced to sell off its automotive arm, Daewoo Motor, to General Motors (Korean) in 2001. Since then, Daewoo-manufactured cars have been rebadged as models of many GM (and associated) brands, including Chevrolet, Buick, Pontiac, Holden, and Suzuki. The Daewoo nameplate was kept only for South Korea and Vietnam until 2011.\n\nDaewoo Commercial Vehicles Division was sold to Tata Motors. \n\nHistory\n\nThe Daewoo Group was founded by Kim Woo-jung in March 1967. He was the son of the Provincial Governor of Daegu. He graduated from the Kyonggi High School, then finished with an Economics Degree at Yonsei University in Seoul.\n\nDuring the 1960s, after the end of the Syngman Rhee government, the new government of Park Chung Hee intervened to promote growth and development in the country. It increased access to resources, promoted exports, financed industrialization, and provided protection from competition to the chaebol in exchange for a company's political support. In the beginning, the Korean government instigated a series of five-year plans under which the chaebol were required to achieve a number of basic objectives.\n\nDaewoo did not become a major player until the second five-year plan. Daewoo benefited from government-sponsored cheap loans based on potential export profits. The company initially concentrated on labor-intensive clothing and textile industries that provided high profit margins because of South Korea's large and relatively inexpensive workforce.\n\nThe third and fourth of the five-year plans occurred from 1973 to 1981. During this period, the country's labor force was in high demand. Competition from other countries began eroding Korea's competitive edge. The government responded to this change by concentrating its efforts on mechanical and electrical engineering, shipbuilding, petrochemicals, construction, and military initiatives. At the end of this period, the government forced Daewoo into shipbuilding. Kim was reluctant to enter this industry, but Daewoo soon earned a reputation for producing competitively priced ships and oil rigs.\n\nDuring the next decade, the Korean government became more liberal in its economic policies. Small private companies were encouraged, protectionist import restrictions were loosened, and the government reduced positive discrimination (affirmative action), to encourage free market trade and to force the chaebol to be more aggressive abroad. Daewoo responded by establishing a number of joint ventures with U.S. and European companies. It expanded exports of machine tools, defense products (under the S&T Daewoo company), aerospace interests, and semiconductor design and manufacturing. Eventually, it began to build civilian helicopters and airplanes, priced considerably cheaper than those produced by its U.S. counterparts. It also expanded efforts in the automotive industry and was ranked as the seventh largest car exporter and the sixth largest car manufacturer in the world. Throughout this period, Daewoo experienced great success at turning around faltering companies in Korea.\n\nIn the 1980s and early 1990s, the Daewoo Group also produced consumer electronics, computers, telecommunication products, construction equipment, buildings, and musical instruments (Daewoo Piano).\n\nCrisis and collapse\n\nDaewoo Group ran into deep financial trouble in 1998 due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, increasingly thin relationships with the Korean government under President Kim Dae Jung, and its own poor financial management. With the Korean government in deficit, access to cheap and nearly unlimited credit was severely restricted.\n\nIn 1998, when the economic crisis forced most of the chaebol to cut back, Daewoo added 14 new firms to its existing 275 subsidiaries, in a year where the group lost a total of 550 billion won (US$458 million) on sales of 62 trillion won (US$51 billion). At the end of 1997, South Korea’s four biggest chaebol had a debt of nearly five times their equity. While Samsung and LG cut back in the midst of the economic crisis, Daewoo took on 40% more debt.\" \n\nBy 1999, Daewoo, the second largest conglomerate in South Korea with interests in about 100 countries, went bankrupt, with debts of about 80 trillion won (US$84.3 billion).\n\nSoon after the demise, Chairman Kim Woo-Jung fled to North Korea, and former Daewoo factory workers put up \"Wanted\" posters with his picture. Kim returned to Korea in June 2005 and was promptly arrested. He was charged with masterminding accounting fraud of 41 trillion won (US$43.4 billion), illegally borrowing 9.8 trillion won (US$10.3 billion), and smuggling US$3.2 billion out of the country, according to South Korea's Yonhap News Agency. On 30 May 2006, Kim was sentenced to 10 years in prison after being convicted of fraud and embezzlement. On the last day of the trial, Kim tearfully addressed the court, \"I cannot dodge my responsibility of wrongly buttoning up the final button of fate.\" \n\nAnalysis\n\nAccording to an article in The Economist, dated 19 August 1999 (not long after Daewoo's bankruptcy), \"Its failure was a long time coming.\"\n\nThe downfall of Daewoo was and still remains highly controversial because of the sheer importance of chaebols in the national economy. The collapse caused billions of dollars in losses for both South Korean banks and the government, who were forced to stage-manage Daewoo's dissolution to soften the blow. The bankruptcy was not only a financial crisis, but also a political one, and it came as a shock to much of the nation.\n\nMichael Schuman of Time stated that while Daewoo's demise had significant consequences, it would have nonetheless been better than propping it up with fresh funds. There was a persistence of the belief that Daewoo and other Korean conglomerates were \"too big to fail\". Such belief led many bankers and investors to continually waste money on bailouts, despite the sign that Daewoo was unable to engineer a turnaround and repay these bad loans. Once the too-big-to-fail perception was dispelled, with large conglomerates no longer considered the safest investments, bankers and investors began financing new opportunities in areas which had been starved of capital, such as small firms, entrepreneurs and consumers. Korea's GDP actually rose after Daewoo's unwinding.\n\nSchuman also noted a similar analogy with Japan during its lost decade of the 1990s, where banks kept injecting new funds into unprofitable \"zombie firms\", on the belief that the firms were too big to fail. However, most of these companies were too debt-ridden to do much more than survive on further bailouts, which led to an economist describing Japan as a \"loser's paradise.\" Schuman states that Japan's economy did not begin to recover until this practice had ended. \n\nBreakup and present status\n\nThe group was reorganized into three separate parts: Daewoo Corporation, Daewoo Engineering & Construction and Daewoo International Corporation. They are active in many markets, most significantly in steel processing, ship building and financial services. The corporate entity known as \"Daewoo Corporation\" is now known as \"Daewoo Electronics\" and is focused solely on manufacturing electronics.\n\nDaewoo Electronics survives to this day, despite bankruptcy, with a new brand logo \"DE\", but many of the other subsidiaries and divisions have become independent or simply perished under the \"reorganization\" by the Korean government under Kim Dae Jung. In North America, Target stores market Daewoo Electronics products under their \"Trutech\" brand on an ODM basis.\n\nIn 2004, General Motors pulled the Daewoo brand of vehicles out of Australia and New Zealand, citing irreparable brand damage. Later that same year, GM announced that Daewoo Motors in Europe would change its name to Chevrolet on 1 January 2005. In 2005, it was announced that Daewoo cars would have a Holden badge in Australia and New Zealand. In South Africa, Thailand, and the Middle East, Daewoo models were already branded Chevrolet. In South Korea, Daewoo was renamed GM Korea.\n\nAs part of the company reorganization, the content and the structure of its brand portfolio (its brand architecture) was reorganized. In 2011, GM discontinued the Daewoo brand name in South Korea and replaced it with the Chevrolet brand. \n\nThe Daewoo commercial vehicle manufacturer was taken over by Tata Motors.\n\nInvolvement in Myanmar\n\nDaewoo is also moving into the oil and gas industry. While Western oil and gas companies were unwilling to conduct business in Myanmar on account of the abysmal human rights record of the ruling military junta, Daewoo is one of three oil companies, along with the French company Total and the American company Unocal, which is already, or is close to, starting gas production in the country(at the Yadana Field). During explorations, Daewoo found one of the largest gas fields in southeast Asia. The field is located at blocks A-1 and A-3 at the Shwe field, about 100 km off Sittwe in Rakhine State. The field will go into production in five years, providing a lucrative (and probably the largest) source of hard currency for the ruling junta. Daewoo has long been one of the largest foreign investors in the country. Daewoo International was investigated by South Korean prosecutors for allegedly selling machinery with potential military applications to the junta.\n\nThe Daewoo brand today\n\nToday five companies with the Daewoo brand name remain:\n\n* Daewoo Electronics (DE) - Specializing in electronics\n* Daewoo Engineering & Construction - Specializing in construction\n* Daewoo International - Specializing in trading and investment\n* Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering (DSME) - Specializing in shipbuilding\n* Tata Daewoo - Specializing in commercial vehicles, wholly owned by Tata" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Coreanic", "Hangug", "Koreas", "Hanguk", "Han-guk", "Han'guk", "Korea", "Korean population", "Coreanist", "Languages of Korea", "Daehan", "Korea's", "Geumsu Gangsan", "Hangook", "KOREA", "Corée", "Hankuk", "Korean civilization", "Greater Corea", "Kumsu Kangsan", "Languages of Corea", "ISO 3166-2:KR/KP", "Etymology of Korea" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "korean civilization", "daehan", "korea s", "hankuk", "kumsu kangsan", "coreanist", "languages of corea", "etymology of korea", "iso 3166 2 kr kp", "han guk", "coreanic", "koreas", "hanguk", "languages of korea", "geumsu gangsan", "hangook", "korean population", "corée", "greater corea", "korea", "hangug" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "korea", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Korea" }
Which toy company did Ruth and Elliot Handler found?	tc_1352	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ruth_Handler.txt", "Elliot_Handler.txt" ], "title": [ "Ruth Handler", "Elliot Handler" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ruth Marianna Handler (née Mosko; November 4, 1916 – April 27, 2002) was an American businesswoman and inventor. She served as the president of the toy manufacturer Mattel Inc., and is best remembered for inventing the Barbie doll.\n\nEarly life\n\nHandler was born as Ruth Marianna Mosko in Denver, Colorado to Polish Jewish immigrants Ida Mosko (née Rubenstein) and Jacob Mosko. She married her high school boyfriend, Elliot Handler and moved to Los Angeles in 1938. Her husband decided to make their furniture out of two newfound types of plastics, Lucite and Plexiglas. Ruth Handler suggested that he start doing this commercially and they began a furniture business. Ruth Handler worked as the sales force for the new business, landing contracts with Douglas Aircraft Company and others.\n\nFormation of Mattel\n\nHer husband Elliot Handler and his business partner Harold \"Matt\" Matson formed a small company to manufacture picture frames, calling it \"Mattel\" by combining part of their names (\"Matt\" and \"Elliot\"). Later, they began using scraps from the manufacturing process to make dollhouse furniture. The furniture was more profitable than the picture frames and it was decided to concentrate on toy manufacturing. The company's first big-seller was the \"Uke-a-doodle\", a toy ukulele.\n\nBarbie\n\nRuth Handler claimed her daughter Barbara, who was becoming a pre-teen, played with paper dolls by pretending they were adults. Handler noticed that in such play, children would act out future events, rather than the present. Handler noted the limitations of the paper dolls, including how the paper clothing failed to attach well. She wanted to produce a three-dimensional plastic \"paper doll\" with an adult body and a wardrobe of fabric clothing, but her husband and Mr. Matson thought parents would not buy their children a doll with a voluptuous figure. While the Handler family was vacationing in Europe, Ruth Handler saw the German Bild Lilli doll (which was not a children's toy, but rather an adult gag gift) in a Swiss shop and brought it home. The Lilli doll was a representation of the same concept Ruth had been trying to sell to other Mattel executives.\n\nOnce home, she reworked the design of the doll and named her Barbie after the Handlers' daughter, Barbara. Barbie debuted at the New York toy fair on March 9, 1959 but was not an immediate success. When Disney introduced The Mickey Mouse Club children's television show, Mattel invested heavily in television advertising. The TV commercials for the Barbie doll paid off and Barbie rocketed Mattel and the Handlers to fame and fortune. Subsequently, they would add a boyfriend for Barbie named Ken, after the Handlers' son, and many other \"friends and family\" to Barbie's world.\n\nLater years\n\nHandler was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1970. She had a modified radical mastectomy, which was often used at the time to combat the disease, and because of difficulties in finding a good breast prosthesis, she decided to make her own. Handler went on to found a company, Ruthton Corp., formed by her and Peyton Massey, which manufactured a more realistic version of a woman's breast, called \"Nearly Me\".\n\nThough the Handlers took a more hands-off approach to their company's business practice after resigning, they continued to create new ideas. One project Handler took on in the 1980s was Barbie and the Rockers. She was credited as a writer of the 1987 film Barbie and the Rockers: Out of this World. Handler was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1997.\n\nShe died in California from complications of surgery for colon cancer on April 27, 2002, aged 85. Her husband Elliot died nine years later at the age of 95.", "Elliot Handler (April 9, 1916 – July 21, 2011) was an American inventor, businessman, and co-founder of Mattel. With his wife, he developed some of the biggest-selling toys in American history, including Barbie, Chatty Cathy, Creepy Crawlers, and Hot Wheels. \n\nEarly life\n\nHandler was born to a Jewish family[http://www.jta.org/2011/08/09/life-religion/the-eulogizer-elliot-handler-barbies-dad-and-more-on-alleged-mobster-francois-abutbul Jewish Telegraph: \"The Eulogizer: Elliot Handler, Barbie’s ‘dad,’ and more on alleged mobster Francois Abutbul\" By Alan D. Abbey] August 9, 2011 in Chicago, Illinois, on April 9, 1916, and grew up in Denver, Colorado. He studied industrial design at the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. In 1929, he met his future wife Ruth Mosko at a B'nai B'rith dance for teenagers. They later married and had two children: a daughter, Barbara who is the namesake of Barbie dolls; and a son, Ken (who died of a brain tumor in 1994) who was the namesake of Ken dolls. While a struggling art student and designer of light fixtures, Handler partnered with Harold Matson, to design a realistic-looking miniature piano that earned roughly 300,000 orders, however, they mispriced the product and lost a dime on each one produced.\n\nMattel\n\nMattel was named after business partners Harold Matson and Elliot Handler. Elliot's wife, Ruth, took over Matson's role when the Handlers bought out his share in the late 1940s. Ruth Handler is credited with the creation of the Barbie doll that debuted in 1959 and which Ruth named after their daughter Barbara Handler. The Barbie doll is still one of the top-selling dolls. Mattel introduced the talking Chatty Cathy doll in 1960. The Handlers had made a tradition of naming their toys after family members and when Barbara Handler married Allan Segal, they came out with Allan, Ken's buddy. The 1965 talking doll Baby Cheryl was named after the Handler's first grandchild, and the Todd doll in the Barbie line was named for their grandson. \n\nElliot Handler is credited with developing the first talking doll, Chatty Cathy, using a pull string talking mechanism which revolutionized the toy industry. Mattel thereafter went on to develop a number of talking toys including Chatty Baby, Tiny Chatty Baby, and Charmin' Chatty. Toys made for cartoon favorites such as Bugs Bunny and Porky Pig; and toys made for television characters such as Herman Munster and Mr. Ed. Elliot Handler was primarily responsible for two additional Mattel product lines. In 1966, Mattel introduced smaller dolls called Liddle Kiddles. Handler claimed he wanted them to resemble little children in neighborhoods across America. They were sculpted by doll artist Martha Armstrong-Hand. Kiddles were a great success and continued to be produced in different versions until the early 1970s. Another product line was Hot Wheels, introduced in 1968, which gave rise to 10,000 different models.\n\nOriginally called Mattel Creations, it has gone on to become the largest toy maker in the world. In April 2008, Handler was honored by Mattel with a 90th birthday party at its headquarters in El Segundo, California. Guests included his daughter Barbara Segal, after whom the Barbie doll was named.\n\nPersonal\n\nHandler died of heart failure at home in Century City, a district of Los Angeles, California, at age 95 on July 21, 2011. Ruth Handler died in 2002. He was survived by his 70-year-old daughter Barbara.\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mattel Toy Company", "Mattel Entertainment", "Harold Matson (businessman)", "Mattel Incorporated", "Mattel, Inc.", "Mattel Productions", "Mattel.com", "Mattel Entertainment Productions", "Mattel (Entertainment)", "Mattel", "Mattell", "Matell", "Mattel Electronics", "Mattel Toys", "Mattel Inc.", "Matt and Elliot", "Mattel Playground", "Mattel Inc", "Mattel Playground Productions", "Rhino Rampage", "Rob Hudnut" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "matell", "mattel toy company", "mattel productions", "rhino rampage", "mattel playground productions", "mattel toys", "harold matson businessman", "mattel playground", "mattel", "mattell", "mattel incorporated", "mattel entertainment productions", "mattel inc", "mattel electronics", "matt and elliot", "mattel entertainment", "mattel com", "rob hudnut" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mattel", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mattel" }
Which Andre built the first factory to mass-produce rubber tires?	tc_1357	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Tire.txt" ], "title": [ "Tire" ], "wiki_context": [ "A tire (American English) or tyre (British English) is a ring-shaped vehicle component that covers the wheel's rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, provide traction between the vehicle and the road while providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock.\n\nThe materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along with carbon black and other chemical compounds. They consist of a tread and a body. The tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic). Today, the majority of tires are pneumatic inflatable structures, comprising a doughnut-shaped body of cords and wires encased in rubber and generally filled with compressed air to form an inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and aircraft. Metal tires are still used on locomotives and railcars, and solid rubber (or other polymer) tires are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers, and wheelbarrows.\n\nEtymology and spelling\n\nHistorically, the spelling was \"tire\" and is of French origin, which comes from the word tirer, to pull. The reason for this naming is that originally \"tire\" referred to iron hoops or thick wires bound to carriage wheels. In French blacksmithing the word for a drawn iron rod is a tirer, or pull. The same word was often used for any metal drawing or rolling process. In an article in the London Magazine/Intelligencer of 1853 \"The Utility of Broad Wheels,\" the author explains that the common practice was to bend two rods, called \"tires\", into hoops and bind them to the wheel, but it is preferable to use an iron band, called a \"broad wheel\" rather than the rods, because as the rods wear they bite into the wheel. Another early mention of a tire in English is in The Scots Magazine, Volume 15 By James Boswell (1753).\n\nAnother etymology of \"tire\" is provided by Online Etymology Dictionary, essentially that the word is a short form of \"attire,\" and that a wheel with a tire is a dressed wheel. Some other etymologists may share this view.\n\nThe spelling tyre does not appear until the 1840s when the English began shrink fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron. Nevertheless, traditional publishers continued using tire. The Times newspaper in Britain was still using tire as late as 1905. The spelling tyre, however, began to be commonly used in the 19th century for pneumatic tires in the UK. The 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states that \"[t]he spelling 'tyre' is not now accepted by the best English authorities, and is unrecognized in the US\", while Fowler's Modern English Usage of 1926 says that \"there is nothing to be said for 'tyre', which is etymologically wrong, as well as needlessly divergent from our own [sc. British] older & the present American usage\". However, over the course of the 20th century tyre became established as the standard British spelling.\n\nHistory\n\nThe earliest tires were bands of leather, then iron, (later steel), placed on wooden wheels, used on carts and wagons. The tire would be heated in a forge fire, placed over the wheel and quenched, causing the metal to contract and fit tightly on the wheel. A skilled worker, known as a wheelwright, carried out this work. The outer ring served to \"tie\" the wheel segments together for use, providing also a wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word \"tire\" thus emerged as a variant spelling to refer to the metal bands used to tie wheels.\n\nThe first patent for what appears to be a standard pneumatic tire appeared in 1847 lodged by the Scots inventor Robert William Thomson. However, this never went into production. The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888Dunlop believed he first thought of the pneumatic tire about October 1887 for his son Johnnie's tricycle, in May Street, Belfast by Scots-born John Boyd Dunlop, proprietor of one of Ireland's most prosperous veterinary practices. It was an effort to prevent the headaches his 10-year-old son was given by jarring while riding on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an exercise for the boy and, a regular visitor, Fagan participated in the development of the first pneumatic schemes. In Dunlop's tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888 his interest is only in its use in cycles and light vehicles. In September 1890 he was made aware of an earlier development but the company kept the information to itself.Sir Arthur Du Cros, Bt, Wheels of Fortune, a salute to pioneers, Chapman & Hall, London 1938\n\nIn 1892 Dunlop's patent was declared invalid because of prior art by forgotten fellow Scot Robert William Thomson of London (patents London 1845, France 1846, USA 1847), although Dunlop is credited with \"realizing rubber could withstand the wear and tear of being a tire while retaining its resilience\". John Boyd Dunlop and Harvey du Cros together worked through the ensuing considerable difficulties. They employed inventor Charles Kingston Welch and also acquired other rights and patents which allowed them some limited protection of their Pneumatic Tyre business's position. Pneumatic Tyre would become Dunlop Rubber and Dunlop Tyres. The development of this technology hinged on myriad engineering advances.\n\nThe vulcanization of natural rubber which he patented in 1844 is credited to Charles Goodyear and Robert William Thomson.\n\nSynthetic rubbers were invented in the laboratories of Bayer in the 1920s.\n\nIn 1946, Michelin developed the radial tire method of construction. Michelin had bought the bankrupt Citroën automobile company in 1934, so it was able to fit this new technology immediately. Because of its superiority in handling and fuel economy, use of this technology quickly spread throughout Europe and Asia. In the U.S., the outdated bias-ply tire construction persisted, with market share of 87% as late as 1967. Delay was caused by tire and automobile manufacturers in America \"concerned about transition costs.\" In 1968, Consumer Reports, an influential American magazine, acknowledged the superiority of radial construction, setting off a rapid decline in Michelin's competitor technology. Even in the U.S., the radial tire now has a market share of 100%.\n\nToday, over 1 billion tires are produced annually in over 400 tire factories, see List of tire companies.\n\nWheel support\n\nThere are two aspects to how pneumatic tires support the rim of the wheel on which they are mounted. First, tension in the cords pull on the bead uniformly around the wheel, except where it is reduced above the contact patch. Second, the bead transfers that net force to the rim.\n\nAir pressure, via the ply cords, exerts tensile force on the entire bead surrounding the wheel rim on which the tire is mounted, pulling outward in a 360 degree pattern. Thus the bead must have high tensile strength. With no force applied to the outer tread, the bead is pulled equally in all directions, thus no additional net force is applied to the tire bead and wheel rim. However, when the tread is pushed inward on one side, this releases some pressure on the corresponding sidewall ply pulling on the bead. Yet the sidewall ply on the other side continues to pull the bead in the opposite direction. Thus the still fully tensioned sidewall ply pulls the tire bead and wheel rim in the direction opposite to the tread displacement and matching the total force applied to push the tread inward.\n\nThis sidewall ply to bead tension support was a big reason for older cross-ply cord tire construction using the materials available in the early 19th century. The cross-ply cord arrangement orients the cords to more directly support the bead & wheel rim (like a sling: bead to cord and around below the tread back to the opposite bead, both ways, thus crossing plies of cords). \nHowever, with improved combinations of cord, bead, rim materials and manufacturing techniques, combined with ongoing focus and research on tire efficiency and durability, it became both feasible and desirable to manufacture radial-ply cord tires, which, for many applications (despite higher costs), outperform and more than outlast (reliable-usual-service-life/cost ratio) similar cross-ply cord tire designs by (a) facilitating a flatter contact pattern with more evenly distributed pressure on the momentarily stationary area of contact between tread & ground and (b) lower operating costs over time: due to reduced tire temperature, decreased rolling resistance, lower puncture rates, greater longevity, etc. \n\nManufacturing\n\nPneumatic tires are manufactured in about 450 tire factories around the world. Over one billion tires are manufactured annually, making the tire industry a major consumer of natural rubber. It is estimated that by 2015, 1.72 billion tires are expected to be sold globally.[http://www.prweb.com/releases/tires_OEM/replacement_tire/prweb4545704.htm Global Tire Shipments to Reach 1.7 Billion Units by 2015, According to a New Report by Global Industry Analysts, Inc] Tire production starts with bulk raw materials such as rubber, carbon black, and chemicals and produces numerous specialized components that are assembled and cured. Many kinds of rubber are used, the most common being styrene-butadiene copolymer. The article Tire manufacturing describes the components assembled to make a tire, the various materials used, the manufacturing processes and machinery, and the overall business model.\n\nIn 2004, $80 billion of tires were sold worldwide,[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-295707/Global-tire-industry-hits-80.html Global tire industry hits $80 billion. \| Goliath Business News] in 2010 it was $140 billion (approximately 34% growth adjusting for inflation).\n\nThe top five tire manufacturing companies by revenue are Bridgestone, Michelin, Goodyear, Continental, and Pirelli.[http://www.companiesandmarkets.com/Market-Report/research-report-on-worlds-top-50-tire-enterprises,-2010-2011-454329.asp Research Report on World's Top 50 Tire Enterprises, 2010-2011 Market Research Report - 02 December 2010]\n\nMaterials\n\nThe materials of modern pneumatic tires can be divided into two groups, the cords that make up the ply and the elastomer which encases them.\n\nCords\n\nThe cords, which form the ply and bead and provide the tensile strength necessary to contain the inflation pressure, can be composed of steel, natural fibers such as cotton or silk, or synthetic fibers such as nylon or kevlar.\n\nElastomer\n\nThe elastomer, which forms the tread and encases the cords to protect them from abrasion and hold them in place, is\na key component of pneumatic tire design. It can be composed of various\ncomposites of rubber material – the most common being styrene-butadiene\ncopolymer - with other chemical compound such as silica and carbon black.\n\nRolling Resistance \n\nOptimizing rolling resistance in the elastomer material is a key challenge for reducing fuel consumption in the transportation sector. It is estimated that passenger vehicles consume approximately 5~15% of its fuel to overcome rolling resistance, while the estimate is understood to be higher for heavy trucks. However, there is a trade-off between rolling resistance and wet traction and grip: while low rolling resistance can be achieved by reducing the viscoelastic properties of the rubber compound (low tangent (δ)), it comes at the cost of wet traction and grip, which requires hysteresis and energy dissipation (high tangent (δ)). A low tangent (δ) value at 60 °C is used as an indicator of low rolling resistance, while a high tangent (δ) value at 0 °C is used as an indicator of high wet traction. Designing an elastomer material that can achieve both high wet traction and low rolling resistance is key in achieving safety and fuel efficiency in the transportation sector.\n\nThe most common elastomer material used today is a styrene-butadiene copolymer. It combines butadiene, which is a highly rubbery polymer (Tg -100 °C) that has low hysteresis and thus offers good rolling resistance, with styrene, which is a highly glass polymer (Tg \n 100 °C) that has high hysteresis and thus offers good wet grip properties in addition to wear resistance. Therefore, the ratio the two polymers in the styrene-butadiene\ncopolymer is considered key in determining the glass transition temperature of the material, which is correlated to its grip and resistance properties. \n\nMaterials science research efforts are underway to improve such properties of elastomers. For instance, this involves modifying the microstructure of the copolymer (for instance, using solution styrene butadiene rubber (S-SBR) to control the addition of vinyl butadiene units) as well as the macrostructure of the polymer (such as the width of molecular weight distribution (MWD)). Current investigation also involves looking at the functionalization of the elastomer through the addition of filler materials such as silica and carbon black, as well as testing other nano-fillers such as nanocellulose crystals, carbon nanotubes, and graphene. \n\nTrialkoxymercaptoalkyl-silanes are a particularly interesting class of silane bonding agents because of the advantages they afford in reducing both rolling resistance and the emission of volatile substances. \n\nComponents\n\nA tire carcass is composed of several parts: the tread, bead, sidewall, shoulder, and ply.\n\nTread\n\nThe tread is the part of the tire that comes in contact with the road surface. The portion that is in contact with the road at a given instant in time is the contact patch. The tread is a thick rubber, or rubber/composite compound formulated to provide an appropriate level of traction that does not wear away too quickly. The tread pattern is characterized by the geometrical shape of the grooves, lugs, voids and sipes. Grooves run circumferentially around the tire, and are needed to channel away water. Lugs are that portion of the tread design that contacts the road surface. Voids are spaces between lugs that allow the lugs to flex and evacuate water. Tread patterns feature non-symmetrical (or non-uniform) lug sizes circumferentially to minimize noise levels at discrete frequencies. Sipes are valleys cut across the tire, usually perpendicular to the grooves, which allow the water from the grooves to escape to the sides in an effort to prevent hydroplaning.\n\nTreads are often designed to meet specific product marketing positions. High performance tires have small void ratios to provide more rubber in contact with the road for higher traction, but may be compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction, but wears quickly. Mud and snow (M&S) tires are designed with higher void ratios to channel away rain and mud, while providing better gripping performance.\n\nTread lug\n\nTread lugs provide the contact surface necessary to provide traction. As the tread lug enters the road contact area, or footprint, it is compressed. As it rotates through the footprint it is deformed circumferentially. As it exits the footprint, it recovers to its original shape. During the deformation and recovery cycle the tire exerts variable forces into the vehicle. These forces are described as Force Variation. \n\nTread void\n\nTread voids provide space for the lug to flex and deform as it enters and exits the footprint. Voids also provide channels for rainwater, mud, and snow to be channeled away from the footprint. The void ratio is the void area of the tire divided by the entire tread area. Low void areas have high contact area and therefore higher traction on clean, dry pavement.\n\nRain groove\n\nThe rain groove is a design element of the tread pattern specifically arranged to channel water away from the footprint. Rain grooves are circumferential in most truck tires. Many high performance passenger tires feature rain grooves that are angled from the center toward the sides of the tire. Some tire manufacturers claim that their tread pattern is designed to actively pump water out from under the tire by the action of the tread flexing. This results in a smoother ride in different types of weather.\n\nSipe\n\nTread lugs often feature small narrow voids, or sipes, that improve the flexibility of the lug to deform as it traverses the footprint area. This reduces shear stress in the lug and reduces heat build up. Testing of identical siped and unsiped tires showed measurable improvements in snow traction and ice braking performance, however diminishing and extending braking distances on wet and dry pavement by a few feet on siped tires. Off-road tire enthusiasts have been siping tires for years for greater traction, as many manufacturers now offer already siped off-road-tires.\n\nWear bar\n\nWear bars (or wear indicators) are raised features located at the bottom of the tread grooves that indicate the tire has reached its wear limit. When the tread lugs are worn to the point that the wear bars connect across the lugs, the tires are fully worn and should be taken out of service. Most wear bars indicate a remaining tread depth of and are deemed \"worn out\" at that point. \n\nBead\n\nThe bead is the part of the tire that contacts the rim on the wheel. The bead is typically reinforced with steel wire and compounded of high strength, low flexibility rubber. The bead seats tightly against the two rims on the wheel to ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without leakage. The bead fit is tight to ensure the tire does not shift circumferentially as the wheel rotates. The width of the rim in relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling characteristics of an automobile, because the rim supports the tire's profile.\n\nSidewall\n\nThe sidewall is that part of the tire that bridges between the tread and bead. The sidewall is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords that provide for tensile strength and flexibility. The sidewall contains air pressure and transmits the torque applied by the drive axle to the tread to create traction but supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is clear from the total collapse of the tire when punctured. Sidewalls are molded with manufacturer-specific detail, government mandated warning labels, and other consumer information, and sometimes decorative ornamentation, like whitewalls.\n\nShoulder\n\nThe shoulder is that part of the tire at the edge of the tread as it makes transition to the sidewall.\n\nPly\n\nPlies are layers of relatively inextensible cords embedded in the rubber to hold its shape by preventing the rubber from stretching in response to the internal pressure. The orientations of the plies play a large role in the performance of the tire and is one of the main ways that tires are categorized.\n\nAssociated components\n\nSeveral additional components may be required in addition to just the tire to form a functional wheel.\n\nWheel\n\nTires are mounted onto wheels that most often have integral rims on their outer edges to hold the tire. Automotive wheels are typically made from pressed and welded steel, or a composite of lightweight metal alloys, such as aluminum or magnesium. These alloy wheels may be either cast or forged. The mounted tire and wheel assembly is then bolted to the vehicle's hub. A decorative hubcap and trim ring may be placed over the wheel.\n\nRim\n\nThe beads of the tire are held on the rim, or the \"outer edge\" of a wheel. These outer edges are shaped to obtain a proper shape on each side, having a radially cylindrical inclined inner wall on which the tire can be mounted. The wheel's rim must be of the proper design and type to hold the bead of the appropriately sized tire. Tires are mounted on the wheel by forcing its beads into the channel formed by the wheel's inner and outer rims. \n\nInner tube\n\nMost bicycle tires, many motorcycle tires, and many tires for large vehicles such as buses, heavy trucks, and tractors are designed for use with inner tubes. Inner tubes are torus-shaped balloons made from an impermeable material, such as soft, elastic synthetic rubber, to prevent air leakage. The inner tubes are inserted into the tire and inflated to retain air pressure.\n\nLarge inner tubes, which are large inflatable toruses, can be re-used for other purposes, such as swimming and rafting (see swim ring), tubing (recreation), sledding, and skitching. Purpose-built inflatable toruses are also manufactured for these uses, offering choice of colors, fabric covering, handles, decks, and other accessories, and eliminating the protruding valve stem.\n\nValve stem\n\nThe valve stem is a tube made of metal or rubber, through which the tire is inflated, with a check valve, typically a Schrader valve on automobiles and most bicycle tires, or a Presta valve on high-performance bicycles. Valve stems usually protrude through the wheel for easy access. They mount directly to the rim, in the case of tubeless tires, or are an integral part of the inner tube. The rubber in valve stems eventually degrades, and, in the case of tubeless tires, replacement of the valve stem at regular intervals or with tire replacement reduces the chance of failure. Some may notice that their valve stem is all metal with a nut retaining it (as opposed to the typical rubber stem with brass threads). Most modern passenger vehicles are now required to have a tire pressure monitoring system which usually consists of a valve stem attached to an electronic module. The module is hidden inside and is only visible when the tire has been removed from the wheel.\n\nConstruction types\n\nBias\n\nBias tire (or cross ply) construction utilizes body ply cords that extend diagonally from bead to bead, usually at angles in the range of 30 to 40 degrees, with successive plies laid at opposing angles forming a crisscross pattern to which the tread is applied. The design allows the entire tire body to flex easily, providing the main advantage of this construction, a smooth ride on rough surfaces. This cushioning characteristic also causes the major disadvantages of a bias tire: increased rolling resistance and less control and traction at higher speeds. This outdated technology is still made in limited quantities to supply collector vehicles. It is possible to fit older cars with modern tires, if historical authenticity is not paramount.\n\nBelted bias\n\nA belted bias tire starts with two or more bias-plies to which stabilizer belts are bonded directly beneath the tread. This construction provides smoother ride that is similar to the bias tire, while lessening rolling resistance because the belts increase tread stiffness. The design was introduced by Armstrong, while Goodyear made it popular with the \"Polyglas\" trademark tire featuring a polyester carcass with belts of fiberglass. The \"belted\" tire starts two main plies of polyester, rayon, or nylon annealed as in conventional tires, and then placed on top are circumferential belts at different angles that improve performance compared to non-belted bias tires. The belts may be fiberglass or steel. \nThis technology was a temporary, not invented here stop-gap, introduced by U.S. manufacturers to forestall the radial tire.\n\nRadial\n\nRadial tire construction utilizes body ply cords extending from the beads and across the tread so that the cords are laid at approximately right angles to the centerline of the tread, and parallel to each other, as well as stabilizer belts directly beneath the tread. The belts may be cord or steel. The advantages of this construction include longer tread life, better steering control, and lower rolling resistance. Disadvantages of the radial tire include a harder ride at low speeds on rough roads and in the context of off-roading, decreased \"self-cleaning\" ability and lower grip ability at low speeds. Following the 1968 Consumer Reports announcement of their superiority, radials began an inexorable climb in new car market share, reaching 100% in the 1980s.\n\nSolid\n\nMany tires used in industrial and commercial applications are non-pneumatic, and are manufactured from solid rubber and plastic compounds via molding operations. Solid tires include those used for lawn mowers, skateboards, golf carts, scooters, and many types of light industrial vehicles, carts, and trailers. One of the most common applications for solid tires is for material handling equipment (forklifts). Such tires are installed by means of a hydraulic tire press.\n\nMetal\n\nSemi-pneumatic\n\nSemi-pneumatic tires have a hollow center, but they are not pressurized. They are light-weight, low-cost, puncture proof, and provide cushioning. These tires often come as a complete assembly with the wheel and even integral ball bearings. They are used on lawn mowers, wheelchairs, and wheelbarrows. They can also be rugged, typically used in industrial applications, and are designed to not pull off their rim under use.\n\nTires that are hollow but are not pressurized have also been designed for automotive use, such as the Tweel (a portmanteau of tire and wheel), which is an experimental tire design being developed at Michelin. The outer casing is rubber as in ordinary radial tires, but the interior has special compressible polyurethane springs to contribute to a comfortable ride. Besides the impossibility of going flat, the tires are intended to combine the comfort offered by higher-profile tires (with tall sidewalls) with the resistance to cornering forces offered by low profile tires. They have not yet been delivered for broad market use.\n\nAirless\n\nSpecifications\n\nTire pressure monitoring system\n\nTire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) are electronic systems that monitor the tire pressures on individual wheels on a vehicle, and alert the driver when the pressure goes below a warning limit. There are several types of designs to monitor tire pressure. Some actually measure the air pressure, and some make indirect measurements, such as gauging when the relative size of the tire changes due to lower air pressure.\n\nInflation pressure\n\nTires are specified by the vehicle manufacturer with a recommended inflation pressure, which permits safe operation within the specified load rating and vehicle loading. Most tires are stamped with a maximum pressure rating. For passenger vehicles and light trucks, the tires should be inflated to what the vehicle manufacturer recommends, which is usually located on a decal just inside the driver's door or in the vehicle owners handbook. Tires should not generally be inflated to the pressure on the sidewall; this is the maximum pressure, rather than the recommended pressure. \n\nInflated tires naturally lose pressure over time. Not all tire-to-rim seals, valve-stem-to-rim seals, and valve seals themselves are perfect. Furthermore, tires are not completely impermeable to air, and so lose pressure over time naturally due to diffusion of molecules through the rubber. Some drivers and stores inflate tires with nitrogen (typically at 95% purity), instead of atmospheric air, which is already 78% nitrogen, in an attempt to keep the tires at the proper inflation pressure longer. The effectiveness of the use of nitrogen vs. air as a means to reduce the rate of pressure loss is baseless, and has been shown to be a bogus marketing gimmick. One study noted a difference (from an initial pressure of 30 psi) for air-filled vs. nitrogen-filled tires. The test showed an average loss of 2.2 for the nitrogen filled tires compared to 3.5 for the air filled tires. However, the statistical significance of the test was not given as no t-test nor p values were reported. And they do note that the loss in both the nitrogen filled tires and the air filled tires mean that tire pressures should be checked regularly.\n\nThe tire contact patch is readily changed by both over-and-under inflation. Over-inflation may increase the wear on the center contact patch, and under-inflation will cause a concave tread, resulting in less center contact, though the overall contact patch will still be larger. Most modern tires will wear evenly at high tire pressures, but will degrade prematurely if underinflated. An increased tire pressure may decrease rolling resistance, and may also result in shorter stopping distances If tire pressure is too low, the tire contact patch is greatly increased. This increases rolling resistance, tire flexing, and friction between the road and tire. Under-inflation can lead to tire overheating, premature tread wear, and tread separation in severe cases. \n\nLoad rating\n\nTires are specified by the manufacturer with a maximum load rating. Loads exceeding the rating can result in unsafe conditions that can lead to steering instability and even rupture. For a table of load ratings, see tire code.\n\nSpeed rating\n\nThe speed rating denotes the maximum speed at which a tire is designed to be operated. For passenger vehicles these ratings range from 160 to. For a table of speed ratings, see tire code.\n\nService rating\n\nTires (especially in the U.S.) are often given service ratings, mainly used on bus and truck tires. Some ratings are for long haul, and some for stop-start multi-drop type work. Tires designed to run 500 mi or more per day carrying heavy loads require special specifications.\n\nTreadwear rating\n\nThe treadwear rating or treadwear grade is how long the tire manufacturers expect the tire to last. A Course Monitoring Tire (the standard tire that a test tire will be compared to) has a rating of \"100\". If a manufacturer assigns a treadwear rating of 200 to a new tire, they are indicating that they expect the new tire to have a useful lifespan that is 200% of the life of a Course Monitoring Tire. The \"test tires\" are all manufacturer-dependent. Brand A's rating of 500 is not necessarily going to offer drivers the same mileage rating as Brand B's tire of the same rating. The testing is non-regulated and can vary greatly. Treadwear ratings are only useful for comparing Brand A's entire lineup against itself.\nTread wear, also known as tire wear, is caused by friction between the tire and the road surface. Government legal standards prescribe the minimum allowable tread depth for safe operation.\n\nRotation\n\nTires may exhibit irregular wear patterns once installed on a vehicle and partially worn. Front-wheel drive vehicles tend to wear the front tires at a greater rate compared to the rear tires. Tire rotation is moving the tires to different car positions, such as front-to-rear, in order to even out the wear, with the objective of extending the life of the tire.\n\nWheel alignment\n\nWhen mounted on the vehicle, the wheel and tire may not be perfectly aligned to the direction of travel, and therefore may exhibit irregular wear. If the discrepancy in alignment is large, then the irregular wear will become substantial if left uncorrected.\n\nWheel alignment is the procedure for checking and correcting this condition through adjustment of camber, caster and toe angles. The adjustment of the angles should be done as per the OEM specifications.\n\nRetread\n\nTires that are fully worn can be re-manufactured to replace the worn tread. This is known as retreading or recapping, a process of buffing away the worn tread and applying a new tread. Retreading is economical for truck tires because the cost of replacing the tread is less than the price of a new tire. Retreading passenger tires is less economical because the cost of retreading is high compared to the price of new cheap tires, but favorable compared to high-end brands.\n\nWorn tires can be retreaded by two methods, the mold or hot cure method and the pre-cure or cold one. The mold cure method involves the application of raw rubber on the previously buffed and prepared casing, which is later cured in matrices. During the curing period, vulcanization takes place and the raw rubber bonds to the casing, taking the tread shape of the matrix. On the other hand, the pre-cure method involves the application of a ready-made tread band on the buffed and prepared casing, which later is cured in an autoclave so that vulcanization can occur.\n\nDuring the retreading process, retread technicians must ensure the casing is in the best condition possible to minimize the possibility of a casing failure. Casings with problems such as capped tread, tread separation, irreparable cuts, corroded belts or sidewall damage, or any run-flat or skidded tires, will be rejected.\n\nIn most situations, retread tires can be driven under the same conditions and at the same speeds as new tires with no loss in safety or comfort. The percentage of retread failures should be about the same as for new tire failures, but many drivers, including truckers, are guilty of not maintaining proper air pressure on a regular basis, and, if a tire is abused (overloaded, under inflated, or mismatched to the other tire on a set of duals), then that tire (new or recapped) will fail. \n\nMany commercial trucking companies put retreads only on trailers, using only new tires on their steering and drive wheels. This procedure increases the driver's chance of maintaining control in case of problems with a retreaded tire.\n\nPerformance characteristics\n\nThe interaction of a tire with the pavement is a very complex phenomenon. Many of the details are modeled in Pacejka's Magic Formula. Some are explained below.\n\nBalance\n\nWhen a wheel and tire rotate, they exert a centrifugal force on the axle that depends on the location of their center of mass and the orientation of their moment of inertia. This is referred to as balance, imbalance, or unbalance. Tires are checked at the point of manufacture for excessive static imbalance and dynamic imbalance using automatic tire balance machines. Tires are checked again in the auto assembly plant or tire retail shop after mounting the tire to the wheel. Assemblies that exhibit excessive imbalance are corrected by applying balance weights to the wheels to counteract the tire/wheel imbalance.\n\nTo facilitate proper balancing, most high performance tire manufacturers place red and yellow marks on the sidewalls to enable the best possible match-mounting of the tire/wheel assembly. There are two methods of match-mounting high performance tire to wheel assemblies using these red (uniformity) or yellow (weight) marks.[http://www.yokohamatire.com/utmatch.asp Yokohama]\n\nCamber thrust\n\nCamber thrust and camber force are the force generated perpendicular to the direction of travel of a rolling tire due to its camber angle and finite contact patch.\n\nCentrifugal growth\n\nA tire rotating at higher speeds tends to develop a larger diameter, due to centrifugal forces that force the tread rubber away from the axis of rotation. This may cause speedometer error. As the tire diameter grows, the tire width decreases. This centrifugal growth can cause rubbing of the tire against the vehicle at high speeds. Motorcycle tires are often designed with reinforcements aimed at minimizing centrifugal growth.\n\nCircle of forces\n\nThe circle of forces, traction circle, friction circle, or friction ellipse is a useful way to think about the dynamic interaction between a vehicle's tire and the road surface.\n\nContact patch\n\nThe contact patch, or footprint, of the tire, is the area of the tread that is in contact with the road surface. This area transmits forces between the tire and the road via friction. The length-to-width ratio of the contact patch affects steering and cornering behavior.\n\nCornering force\n\nCornering force or side force is the lateral (i.e. parallel to the road surface) force produced by a vehicle tire during cornering.\n\nDry traction\n\nDry traction is measure of the tire's ability to deliver traction, or grip, under dry conditions. Dry traction is a function of the tackiness of the rubber compound.\n\nForce variation\n\nThe tire tread and sidewall elements undergo deformation and recovery as they enter and exit the footprint. Since the rubber is elastomeric, it is deformed during this cycle. As the rubber deforms and recovers, it imparts cyclical forces into the vehicle. These variations are collectively referred to as tire uniformity. Tire uniformity is characterized by radial force variation (RFV), lateral force variation (LFV) and tangential force variation. Radial and lateral force variation is measured on a force variation machine at the end of the manufacturing process. Tires outside the specified limits for RFV and LFV are rejected. Geometric parameters, including radial runout, lateral runout, and sidewall bulge, are measured using a tire uniformity machine at the tire factory at the end of the manufacturing process as a quality check. In the late 1990s, Hunter Engineering introduced the GSP9700 Road Force balancer, which is equipped with a load roller similar to the force variation machine used at the factory to grade tire uniformity. This machine can find the best position for the tire on a given wheel so that the over-all assembly is as round as possible.\n\nLoad sensitivity\n\nLoad sensitivity is the behaviour of tires under load. Conventional pneumatic tires do not behave as classical friction theory would suggest. Namely, the load sensitivity of most real tires in their typical operating range is such that the coefficient of friction decreases as the vertical load, Fz, increases.\n\nPneumatic trail\n\nPneumatic trail of a tire is the trail-like effect generated by compliant tires rolling on a hard surface and subject to side loads, as in a turn. More technically, it is the distance that the resultant force of side-slip occurs behind the geometric center of the contact patch.\n\nRelaxation length\n\nRelaxation length is the delay between when a slip angle is introduced and when the cornering force reaches its steady-state value.\n\nRolling resistance\n\nRolling resistance is the resistance to rolling caused by deformation of the tire in contact with the road surface. As the tire rolls, tread enters the contact area and is deformed flat to conform to the roadway. The energy required to make the deformation depends on the inflation pressure, rotating speed, and numerous physical properties of the tire structure, such as spring force and stiffness. Tire makers seek lower rolling resistance tire constructions to improve fuel economy in cars and especially trucks, where rolling resistance accounts for a high proportion of fuel consumption.\n\nPneumatic tires also have a much lower rolling resistance than solid tires. Because the internal air pressure acts in all directions, a pneumatic tire is able to \"absorb\" bumps in the road as it rolls over them without experiencing a reaction force opposite to the direction of travel, as is the case with a solid (or foam-filled) tire. The difference between the rolling resistance of a pneumatic and solid tire is easily felt when propelling wheelchairs or baby buggies fitted with either type so long as the terrain has a significant roughness in relation to the wheel diameter.\n\nSelf aligning torque\n\nSelf-aligning torque, also known as the aligning torque, SAT or Mz, is the torque that a tire creates as it rolls along that tends to steer it, i.e. rotate it around its vertical axis.\n\nSlip angle\n\nSlip angle or sideslip angle is the angle between a rolling wheel's actual direction of travel and the direction towards which it is pointing (i.e., the angle of the vector sum of wheel translational velocity v_x and sideslip velocity v_y).\n\nSpring rate\n\nVertical stiffness, or spring rate, is the ratio of vertical force to vertical deflection of the tire, and it contributes to the overall suspension performance of the vehicle. In general, spring rate increases with inflation pressure. \n\nStopping distance\n\nPerformance-oriented tires have a tread pattern and rubber compounds designed to grip the road surface, and so usually have a slightly shorter stopping distance. However, specific braking tests are necessary for data beyond generalizations.\n\nWork load\n\nThe work load of a tire is monitored so that it is not put under undue stress, which may lead to its premature failure. Work load is measured in Ton Kilometer Per Hour (TKPH). The measurement's appellation and units are the same. The recent shortage and increasing cost of tires for heavy equipment has made TKPH an important parameter in tire selection and equipment maintenance for the mining industry. For this reason, manufacturers of tires for large earth-moving and mining vehicles assign TKPH ratings to their tires based on their size, construction, tread type, and rubber compound. The rating is based on the weight and speed that the tire can handle without overheating and causing it to deteriorate prematurely. The equivalent measure used in the United States is Ton Mile Per Hour (TMPH).\n\nTread wear\n\nThere are several types of abnormal tread wear. Poor wheel alignment can cause excessive wear of the innermost or outermost ribs. Gravel roads, rocky terrain, and other rough terrain causes accelerated wear. Over-inflation above the sidewall maximum can cause excessive wear to the center of the tread. Modern tires have steel belts built in to prevent this. Under-inflation causes excessive wear to the outer ribs. Unbalanced wheels can cause uneven tire wear, as the rotation may not be perfectly circular. Tire manufacturers and car companies have mutually established standards for tread wear testing that include measurement parameters for tread loss profile, lug count, and heel-toe wear. See also Work load above.\n\nWet traction\n\nWet traction is the tire's traction, or grip, under wet conditions. Wet traction is improved by the tread design's ability to channel water out of the tire footprint and reduce hydroplaning. However, tires with a circular cross-section, such as those found on racing bicycles, when properly inflated have a sufficiently small footprint to not be susceptible to hydroplaning. For such tires, it is observed that fully slick tires will give superior traction on both wet and dry pavement. \n\nMarkings\n\nDOT code\n\nIn the United States, the DOT Code is an alphanumeric character sequence molded into the sidewall of the tire for purposes of tire identification. The DOT Code is mandated by the U.S. Department of Transportation. \nThe DOT Code is useful in identifying tires in a product recall.\n\nThe DOT Code begins with the letters \"DOT\" followed by a plant code (two numbers or letters) that identifies where it was manufactured. The last four numbers represent the week and year the tire was built. A three-digit code was used for tires manufactured before 2000. For example, 178 means it was manufactured in the 17th week of 8th year of the decade. In this case it means 1988. For tires manufactured in the 1990s, the same code holds true, but there is a little triangle (Δ) after the DOT code. Thus, a tire manufactured in the 17th week of 1998 would have the code 178Δ. In 2000, the code was switched to a 4-digit code. Same rules apply, so for example, 3003 means the tire was manufactured in the 30th week of 2003.\n\nOther numbers are marketing codes used at the manufacturer's discretion.\n\nE-mark\n\nAll tires sold for road use in Europe after July 1997 must carry an E-mark. The mark itself is either an upper case \"E\" or lower case \"e\" – followed by a number in a circle or rectangle, followed by a further number. An (upper case) \"E\" indicates that the tire is certified to comply with the dimensional, performance and marking requirements of ECE regulation 30. A (lower case) \"e\" indicates that the tire is certified to comply with the dimensional, performance and marking requirements of Directive 92/23/EEC. The number in the circle or rectangle denotes the country code of the government that granted the type approval. The last number outside the circle or rectangle is the number of the type approval certificate issued for that particular tire size and type.\n\nMold serial number\n\nTire manufacturers usually embed a mold serial number into the sidewall area of the mold, so that the tire, once molded, can be traced back to the mold of original manufacturer.\n\nSize Codes\n\nAutomobile tires are described by an alphanumeric code, which is generally molded into the sidewall of the tire. This code specifies the dimensions of the tire, and some of its key limitations, such as load-bearing ability, and maximum speed. Sometimes the inner sidewall contains information not included on the outer sidewall, and vice versa.\n\nThe code has grown in complexity over the years, as is evident from the mix of metric and English units, and ad-hoc extensions to lettering and numbering schemes. New automotive tires frequently have ratings for traction, treadwear, and temperature resistance (collectively known as The Uniform Tire Quality Grade (UTQG) ratings).\n\nMost tires sizes are given using the ISO Metric sizing system. However, some pickup trucks and SUVs use the Light Truck Numeric or Light Truck High Flotation system.\n\nVehicle applications\n\nTires are classified into several standard types, based on the type of vehicle they serve. Since the manufacturing process, raw materials, and equipment vary according to the tire type, it is common for tire factories to specialize in one or more tire types. In most markets, factories that manufacture passenger and light truck radial tires are separate and distinct from those that make aircraft or off-the-road (OTR) tires.\n\nPassenger vehicles and light truck\n\nHigh performance\n\nHigh performance tires are designed for use at higher speeds, and more often, a more \"sporty\" driving style. They feature a softer rubber compound for improved traction, especially on high speed cornering. The trade off of this softer rubber is shorter tread life.\n\nHigh performance street tires sometimes sacrifice wet weather handling by having shallower water channels to provide more actual rubber tread surface area for dry weather performance. The ability to provide a high level of performance on both wet and dry pavement varies widely among manufacturers, and even among tire models of the same manufacturer. This is an area of active research and development, as well as marketing.\n\nMud and snow\n\nMud and Snow, (or M+S, or M&S), is a designation applied rather arbitrarily by manufacturers for all-season and winter tires designed to provide improved performance under low temperature conditions, compared to summer tires. The tread compound is usually softer than that used in tires for summer conditions, thus providing better grip on ice and snow, but wears more quickly at higher temperatures. Tires may have well above average numbers of sipes in the tread pattern to grip the ice. There are no traction performance requirements which such a tire has to meet; M&S relates to the percentage of tread void area.\n\nDedicated winter tires will bear the \"Mountain/Snowflake Pictograph\" if designated as a winter/snow tire by the American Society for Testing & Materials. Winter tires will typically also carry the designation MS, M&S, or the words MUD AND SNOW (but see All-season tires, below).\n\nSome winter tires are fabricated to allow the optional insertion of metal studs (consisting of a tungsten carbide or other hard material pin embedded in a base of a softer metal) for additional traction on icy roads. \n\nThe use of studs is restricted in some countries due to the increased road wear that they cause, with the notable exception of most Nordic and North American jurisdictions, where they are commonly used in colder areas during the winter season. Norway has implemented fees for using studded tires in some urban areas, and there are a few streets in some of the major cities in Sweden where studs are not allowed. In America, studs are typically never used on heavier vehicles (except for some emergency vehicles like ambulances and fire trucks.), but stud tires for heavy vehicles are commonplace in Scandinavia. \nIce resurfacers also use studded tires.\nThe upper tier classes of ice racing and rallying mandates the vehicles be equipped with studded tires.\n\nOther winter tires rely on factors other than studding for traction on ice, e.g. highly porous or hydrophilic rubber that adheres to the wet film on the ice surface. The best stud-less winter tires offer grip close to that of studded tires during most winter conditions, with the notable exception of blank or polished ice, where they cannot match the performance of studded tires. The reason for this is that stud-less winter tires rely on unevenness in the ice surface for their sipes to grab, while studs cut into even the most polished ice surface (and in the process also make it uneven).\n\nStudded tires are also used on bicycles, and the grip advantage on ice is similar to that from using traction sand, with the difference that there is no risk of blank spots when using studded tires. Quality tire manufacturers use studs with hard center pins also for bicycle tires, and just like their automobile counterparts, those studs will continue to protrude from the tire even after many years of usage on bare pavement. There are also low-quality studded bicycle tires being sold that have studs that lack the hard-metal center pin (there is still a center pin, but it is not made of hard metal). Such studs can wear out within a few weeks of cycling on dry pavement.\n\nSome jurisdictions may require snow tires or tire chains on vehicles driven in certain areas during extreme weather conditions.\n\nMud tires are specialty tires with large, chunky tread patterns designed to bite into muddy surfaces. The large, open design also allows mud to clear quickly from between the lugs. Mud terrain tires also tend to be wider than other tires, to spread the weight of the vehicle over a greater area to prevent the vehicle from sinking too deeply into the mud. However, in reasonable amounts of mud and snow, tires should be thinner. Being thinner, the tire will have more pressure on the road surface, thus allowing the tires to penetrate the snow layer and grip harder snow or road surface beneath. This does not compensate when the snow is too deep for such penetration, where the vehicle will sink into the snow and plough the snow in front and eventually pack it beneath it until the wheels no longer have traction. In this case, wider tires are preferred, as they have a larger contact patch and are better able to 'float' on top of the mud or snow.\n\nAll season\n\nThe All Season tire classification is a compromise between one developed for use on dry and wet roads during summer and one developed for use under winter conditions. The type of rubber and the tread pattern best suited for use under summer conditions cannot, for technical reasons, give good performance on snow and ice. The all-season tire is a compromise, and is neither an excellent summer tire nor an excellent winter tire. They have, however, become ubiquitous as original and replacement equipment on automobiles marketed in the United States, due to their convenience and their adequate performance in most situations. Even so, in other parts of the world, like Germany, it is common to have a designated tire set for winter and summer. All-Season tires are also marked for mud and snow the same as winter tires but rarely with a snowflake. Owing to the compromise with performance during summer, winter performance is usually poorer than a winter tire.\n\nAll-terrain\n\nAll-terrain tires are typically used on SUVs and light trucks. These tires often have stiffer sidewalls for greater resistance against puncture when traveling off-road, the tread pattern offers wider spacing than all-season tires to remove mud from the tread. Many tires in the all-terrain category are designed primarily for on-road use, particularly all-terrain tires that are originally sold with the vehicle.\n\nSpare\n\nSome vehicles carry a spare tire, already mounted on a wheel, to be used in the event of flat tire or blowout. Minispare, or \"space-saver spare\" tires are smaller than normal tires to save on trunk/boot space, gas mileage, weight, and cost. Minispares have a short life expectancy and a low speed rating, often below 60 mph.\n\nLight trailer\n\nDomestic Trailers (including camping trailers) for use on public highways often have different tires than those seen on cars. Often they are bias ply rather than radial tires, and they often don't have as aggressive a tread pattern as standard road tires. They are not built for high traction in most cases, because in most cases it is not vital that trailer tires have as good a traction as that of the vehicle towing the trailer.\n\nRun-flat\n\nSeveral innovative designs have been introduced that permit tires to run safely with no air for a limited range at a limited speed. These tires typically feature strong, load-supporting sidewalls. An infamous example of an alternate run-flat technology has plastic load-bearing inserts attached to the rim instead of the reinforced sidewalls.\n\nA disadvantage is that many run-flat tires cannot be repaired if a puncture occurs. This is due to manufacturer's informing the automotive industry that the state in which the sidewall is in cannot be determined due to the compacted sidewall of rubber. Some brands may permit one repair to a run flat tire, while others do not allow any.\n\nHeavy duty truck\n\nHeavy duty tires are also referred to as Truck/Bus tires. These are the tire sizes used on vehicles such as commercial freight trucks, dump trucks, and passenger buses. Truck tires are sub-categorized into specialties according to vehicle position such as steering, drive axle, and trailer. Each type is designed with the reinforcements, material compounds, and tread patterns that best optimize the tire performance. A relatively new concept is the use of \"Super Singles\" or Wide Singles. Generally in a dual configuration, there are 2 tires per position, each between 275 mm-295 mm wide. The Super Single replaces these with a single tire, usually 455 mm wide. This allows for less tread to be contacting the ground and also eliminates 2 sidewalls per position. Along with the weight savings of about 200 lb per axle, this enables vehicles using these to improve fuel economy.\n\nOff-the-road\n\nOff-the-road (OTR) tires include all tires not running on the common roads, such as fitted on construction vehicles(wheel loaders, backhoes, graders, trenchers), on airplanes, on mining vehicles, on forestry machinery. OTR tires can be of either bias or radial construction although the industry is trending toward increasing use of radial. Bias OTR tires are built with a large number of reinforcing plies to withstand severe service conditions and high loads.\n\nDramatically increasing commodity prices has led to shortages of new tires. As a consequence, multimillion-dollar trucks can be idled for lack of tires, costing mines millions of dollars in lost productivity. This has led to a stronger effort to recycle old OTR tires. As of 2008, a new OTR tire can cost up to $50,000; retread tires are sold at half the price of new tires, and last 80% as long. Retreading an OTR tire is labor-intensive. First, the retreading technician must place the old tire in a buffing machine to remove what remains of the old tread; \"skiving\" follows this, which is the removal, by hand, of material the buffing misses. Next, the technician must inspect the tire, repairing defects. Lastly, the technician fills holes in the tire with rubber, applies a cement gum adhesive, and places the tire on a machine that will apply a new tread. \n\nAgricultural and off-road flotation tires\n\nThe agricultural tire classification includes tires used on farm vehicles, typically tractors and specialty vehicles like harvesters. Driven wheels have very deep, widely spaced lugs to allow the tire to grip soil easily.\n\nFor off-road driving in a passenger vehicle, such as in mud, sand, or deep snow, high flotation tires are typically used. Flotation tires are not the same as M+S tires, as they are designed for low speeds and full-time off road use rather than muddy and snow-covered roads. Flotation tires also help traction in swampy environments and where soil compaction is a concern, featuring large footprints at low inflation pressures to spread out the area where the rubber meets the ground. Knobby tires are particularly useful where the ground consists of loose particles that can be displaced by the knobs. Although the low pressure improves traction in many types of terrain, adjustments may need to be made for hard surfaces like paved and unpaved roads. Vehicles that use flotation tires for rock climbing are susceptible to flat tires in which the tire pops off the rim, breaking the \"bead.\"\n\nRacing\n\nRacing tires are highly specialized according to vehicle and race track conditions. This classification includes tires for drag racing, Auto-x, drifting, Time Attack, Road Racing – as well as the large-market race tires for Formula One, IndyCar, NASCAR, V8 Supercars, WRC, MotoGP and the like. Tires are specially engineered for specific race tracks according to surface conditions, cornering loads, and track temperature. Racing tires often are engineered to minimum weight targets, so tires for a 500 mi race may run only 100 mi before a tire change. Some tire makers invest heavily in race tire development as part of the company's marketing strategy and a means of advertising to attract customers.\nRacing tires used on tarmac stages are called slick. When the road is wet a driver will use intermediary slicks and when the road is dry the soft slicks are used. \nRacing tires often are not legal for normal highway use.\n\nIndustrial\n\nThe Industrial tire classification is a bit of a catch-all category and includes pneumatic and non-pneumatic tires for specialty industrial and construction equipment such as skid loaders and fork lift trucks.\n\nBicycle\n\nThis classification includes all forms of bicycle tires, including road racing tires, mountain bike tires, snow tires, and tubular tires, used also with other human-powered vehicles (see :Category:Human-powered vehicles).\n\nAircraft\n\nAircraft tires are designed to withstand extremely heavy loads for short durations. The number of tires required for aircraft increases with the weight of the plane (because the weight of the airplane has to be distributed better). Aircraft tire tread patterns are designed to facilitate stability in high crosswind conditions, to channel water away to prevent hydroplaning, and for braking effect.\n\nAircraft tires are usually inflated with nitrogen to minimize expansion and contraction from extreme changes in ambient temperature and pressure experienced during flight. Dry nitrogen expands at the same rate as other dry atmospheric gases (normal air is about 80% nitrogen), but common compressed air sources may contain moisture, which increases the expansion rate with temperature. Aircraft tires generally operate at high pressures, up to 200 psi for airliners, and even higher for business jets. Tests of airline aircraft tires have shown that they are able to sustain pressures of maximum 800 psi before bursting. During the test the tires have to be filled with water, instead of helium or nitrogen, which is the common content of aircraft tires, to prevent the test room being blown apart by the energy when the tire bursts.\n\nAircraft tires also include fusible plugs (which are assembled on the inside of the wheels), designed to melt at a certain temperature. Tires often overheat if maximum braking is applied during an aborted takeoff or an emergency landing. The fuses provide a safer failure mode that prevents tire explosions by deflating in a controlled manner, thus minimizing damage to aircraft and objects in the surrounding environment.\n\nThe requirement that an inert gas, such as nitrogen, be used instead of air for inflation of tires on certain transport category airplanes was prompted by at least three cases in which the oxygen in air-filled tires combined with volatile gases given off by a severely overheated tire and exploded upon reaching autoignition temperature. The use of an inert gas for tire inflation will eliminate the possibility of a tire explosion. \n\nMotorcycle\n\nThere are many different types of motorcycle tires:\nSport Touring – these tires are generally not used for high cornering loads, but for long straights, good for riding across the country.\n\nSport Street – these tires are for aggressive street riders that spend most of their time carving corners on public roadways. These tires do not have a long life, but in turn have better traction in high speed cornering. Street and sport street tires have good traction even when cold, but when warmed too much, can actually lose traction as their internal temperature increases.\n\nTrack or Slick – these tires are for track days or races. They have more of a triangular form, which in turn gives a larger contact patch while leaned over. These tires are not recommended for the street by manufacturers, and are known to have a shorter life on the street. Due to the triangulation of the tire, there will be less contact patch in the center, causing the tire to develop a flat spot quicker when used to ride on straightaways for long periods of time and have no tread so they lose almost all grip in wet conditions. Racing slicks are also made of a harder rubber compound and do not provide as much traction as street tires until warmed to a higher internal temperature than street tires normally operate at. Most street riding will not put a sufficient amount of friction on the tire to maintain the optimal tire temperature, especially in colder climates and in spring and fall.\n\nSound and vibration characteristics\n\nThe design of treads and the interaction of specific tire types with the roadway surface type produces considerable effect upon sound levels or noise pollution emanating from moving vehicles. These sound intensities increase with higher vehicle speeds. The acoustic intensity produced varies considerably depending on the tire tread design and the road surface type. There is a study \"under development\" that aims predict the interior noise due to the vibrations of a rolling tire structurally transmitted to the hub of a vehicle\". \n\nRegulatory bodies\n\nDOT\n\nThe United States Department of Transportation (DOT) is the U.S. governmental body authorized by the U.S. Congress to establish and regulate transportation safety in the United States of America.\n\nNHTSA\n\nThe National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is a U.S. government body within the Department of Transportation tasked with regulating automotive safety in the United States.\n\nUTQG\n\nThe Uniform Tire Quality Grading System (UTQG), is a system for comparing the performance of tires, established by the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration according to the Code of Federal Regulations 49 CFR 575.104. The UTQG regulation requires labeling of tires for tread wear, traction, and temperature.\n\nT&RA\n\nThe Tire and Rim Association (T&RA) is a voluntary U.S. standards organization to promote the interchangeability of tires and rim and allied parts. Of particular interest, they published key tire dimension standards, key rim contour dimension standards, key tire valve dimension standards, and load / inflation standards.\n\nETRTO\n\nThe European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation (ETRTO) is the European standards organisation \"to establish engineering dimensions, load/pressure characteristics and operating guidelines\" . \nfor tires, rims and valves. It is analogous to T&RA.\n\nJATMA\n\nThe Japanese Automobile Tire Manufacturers Association (JATMA) is the Japanese standards organization for tires, rims and valves. It is analogous to T&RA and ETRTO.\n\nTREAD Act\n\nThe Transportation Recall Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation Act (TREAD Act) is a United States federal law that sets standards for testing and the reporting of information related to products involved with transportation such as cars and tires.\n\nRFID tags\n\nRadio Frequency IDentification tags (RFID) are passive transponders affixed to the inside of the tire for purposes of automatic identification. Tags are encoded with various types of manufacturing data, including the manufacturer's name, location of manufacture, tire type, manufacturing date, and in some cases test data. RFID transponders can remotely read this data automatically. RFID tags are used by auto assemblers to identify tires at the point of assembly to the vehicle. Fleet operators utilize RFID as part of tire maintenance operations.\n\nCCC (China Compulsory Certification) is a mandatory certification system concerning product safety in China that went into effect in August 2002. Before CCC, there were two certification systems in China: CCIB and CCEE. With China's entrance into the WTO, these two systems were unified into the CCC certification system. After the termination of a one-year grace period in August 2003, the system became compulsory.The CCC certification system is operated by the State General Administration for Quality Supervision and Inspection and Quarantine of the People's Republic of China (AQSIQ) and the Certification and Accreditation Administration of the People's Republic of China (CNCA).\n\nSafety\n\nProper vehicle safety requires specific attention to inflation pressure, tread depth, and general condition of the tires. Over-inflated tires run the risk of explosive decompression (they may pop). On the other hand, under-inflated tires have a higher rolling resistance and suffer from overheating and rapid tread wear particularly on the edges of the tread. As tire tread decreases, there is more traction between the tire and the road resulting in better grip. However, there is an increased risk of hydroplaning, so as the tire wears the performance in the dry generally improves, but gets worse in the wet. Tires worn down past their safety margins and into the casing run the very real risk of rupturing. Also, certain combinations of cross ply and radial tires on different wheels of the same vehicle can lead to vehicle instability, and may also be illegal. Vehicle and tire manufacturers provide owners' manuals with instructions on how to check and maintain tires.\n\nA controversy began in 2000 regarding unusually high tire failures on some Ford vehicles. This resulted in the recall of the tires in question.\n\nFlat\n\nA flat tire occurs when a tire deflates. This can occur as a result of normal wear-and-tear, a leak, or more serious damage. A tire that has lost sufficient pressure will impair the stability of the vehicle and may damage the tire further if it is driven in this condition. The tire should be changed and/or repaired before it becomes completely flat. Continuing to drive a vehicle with a flat tire will damage the tire beyond repair, possibly damage the rim and vehicle, and put the occupants and other vehicles in danger. A flat tire or low-pressure tire should be considered an emergency situation, requiring immediate attention. Some tires, known as \"run-flat tires\", have either extremely stiff sidewalls or a resilient filler to allow driving a limited distance while flat, usually at reduced speed, without permanent damage or hazard.\n\nA modern radial tire may not be visibly distorted even with dangerously low inflation pressure. (This is especially true of tires with a low aspect ratio, sometimes known as \"low profile\" tires.) Thus maintenance of adequate tire pressure can have important safety implications despite the fact that most car owners neglect it. Tire designers have tried to make new tires fail-safe so that the failure of the operator to maintain the tire pressure won't cause a major safety concern, but there are limitations on this.\n\nBubble\n\nTire bubbles, also referred to as bulges / bumps / protrusions / carbuncles, occur when the sidewall of the tire has failed, resulting in a protrusion. Causes of bubbles include having an impact at high speed, over inflation, or poor tire construction/manufacturing. It is generally recommended to replace the tire since the probability of tire failure has increased. They can occur on the inner or outer sidewall.\n\nHydroplaning (or aquaplaning)\n\nHydroplaning, also known as aquaplaning, is the condition where a layer of water builds up between the tire and road surface. Hydroplaning occurs when the tread pattern cannot channel away enough water at an adequate rate to ensure a semi-dry footprint area. When hydroplaning occurs, the tire effectively \"floats\" above the road surface on a cushion of water – and loses traction, braking and steering, creating a very unsafe driving condition. When hydroplaning occurs, there is considerably less responsiveness of the steering wheel. The correction of this unsafe condition is to gradually reduce speed, by merely lifting off the accelerator/gas pedal.\n\nHydroplaning becomes more prevalent with wider tires (because of the lower weight per contact area) and especially at higher speeds; it is of virtually no concern to bicycle tires under normal riding conditions largely because of the lower speeds. The chance of car hydroplaning is also minimal at bicycle speeds as the weight per contact area of car tires is not much lower if any than bicycle tires.\n\nDangers of aged tires\n\nResearch and tests show that as tires age, they begin to dry out and become potentially dangerous, even if unused. Aged tires may appear to have similar properties to newly manufactured tires, but rubber degrades over time, and once the vehicle is traveling at high speeds (i.e. on a freeway) the tread could peel off, leading to severe loss of control. In tropical climates, tires degrade sooner than in temperate climates, and more care should be taken in these climates to ensure that tires do not fail. Also, tires on seldom-used trailers are at the greatest risk of age-failure, but some tires are built to withstand idleness, usually with nylon reinforcement.\n\nMany automakers recommend replacing tires after six years, and several tire manufacturers (Bridgestone, Michelin) have called for tires to be removed from service 10 years after the date of manufacture. However, an investigative report by Brian Ross on ABC's 20/20 news magazine found that many major retailers such as Goodyear, Wal-Mart, and Sears were selling tires that had been produced six or more years ago. Currently, no law for aged tires exists in the United States. \n\nScrap tires and environmental issues\n\nOnce tires are discarded, they are considered scrap tires. Scrap tires are often re-used for things from bumper car barriers to weights to hold down tarps. Some facilities are permitted to recycle scrap tires through chipping, and processing into new products, or selling the material to licensed power plants for fuel. Some tires may also be retreaded for re-use. One group did \"a study to evaluate the possibility of using scrap tires as a crash cushion system. The objective of this study was to evaluate the material properties of used tires and recycled tire-derived materials for use in low-cost, reusable crash cushions\". \n\nAn interesting use, developed over 30 years back but not yet universally used, is to process scrap tires as raw material for roads. The process is removing the metal, granulating the rubber and then a chemical process where it is mixed with other usual materials for macadamised roads. The resulting roads have proved to have better waterproofing, more resilent resulting in a smoother ride and also longer tire life. Several countries (for example, South Korea) have regulations requiring its use, but most do not.\n\nAmericans generate about 285 million scrap tires per year. Many states have regulations as to the number of scrap tires that can be held on site, due to concerns with dumping, fire hazards, and mosquitoes. In the past, millions of tires have been discarded into open fields. This creates a breeding ground for mosquitoes, since the tires often hold water inside and remain warm enough for mosquito breeding. Mosquitoes create a nuisance and may increase the likelihood of spreading disease. It also creates a fire danger, since such a large tire pile is a lot of fuel. Some tire fires have burned for months, since water does not adequately penetrate or cool the burning tires. Tires have been known to liquefy, releasing hydrocarbons and other contaminants to the ground and even ground water, under extreme heat and temperatures from a fire. The black smoke from a tire fire causes air pollution and is a hazard to down wind properties.\n\nThe use of scrap tire chips for landscaping has become controversial, due to the leaching of metals and other contaminants from the tire pieces. Zinc is concentrated (up to 2% by weight) to levels high enough to be highly toxic to aquatic life and plants. Of particular concern is evidence that some of the compounds that leach from tires into water, contain hormone disruptors and cause liver lesions. \n\nAsymmetric tire\n\nAn asymmetric tire is a kind of specific stabilization method used in cars.\n\nTire tread\n\nAn asymmetric tire may refer to a tire whose tread pattern does not form in line symmetry or point symmetry vis-à-vis its central line, thus having a distinct inside and outside edge. They may be mounted on either side of the vehicle. Since the tread pattern of many ordinary tires do not form symmetry in relation to design or pattern noise, the method of mounting tires is specially prescribed. This type of tires is used in many cases to promote tire performance, braking performance, and turning performance, since tread contact changes according to the change in alignment during travel.\n\nTires may also be directional, where the tread pattern favors operation in one direction. This usually takes the form of v-shaped grooves that help to disperse water from the center to the edge of the tread. Symmetric directional tires can be used on both sides, but once mounted on a rim cannot be moved to the other side, since the tread pattern will be in the wrong direction. This restricts tire rotation. Some directional tires are also asymmetric, in which case there will be specific left and right-handed versions.\n\nStabilizing belts\n\nAn asymmetric tire may refer to a passenger car radial tire in which asymmetric structure stabilizing belts are built. Generally the stabilizing belts give a self-aligning torque when a motor vehicle is running straight ahead as well as when it is cornering. However, the sidewalls of the radial tire are so flexible that there will be a delay in the lateral reaction between the tread of the tire and the rim of its wheel as the vehicle is being steered positively. The lateral force will be transmitted from the front wheel to the rear of the vehicle, which will tend to be steered off course. Whereas the asymmetric belts bring a gradual change in the lateral displacement of the tire tread corresponding to the rim while the cornering load grows. The progressive change will harden the sidewalls to produce an immediate response to steering, which results in safer driving.\n\nOther uses\n\nTires are not desired at landfills, due to their large volumes and 75% void space, which quickly consumes valuable space. Because of this, people have found other uses for old tires.\n\nRubber tires are likely to contain some traces of heavy metals or other serious pollutants, but these are tightly bonded within the actual rubber compound they are unlikely to be hazardous unless the tire structure is seriously damaged by fire or strong chemicals.\n\nBuilding elements\n\nTires filled with earth have been used as garden containers house foundations, bullet-proof walls and to prevent soil erosion in flood plains \n\nTire swing\n\nOld tires are sometimes converted into a swing for play. The innovative use allows for an easy way to find a purpose for an existing old tire not suitable for road use. \n\nExercise equipment\n\nUsed tires are employed as exercise equipment for athletic programs such as American football. One classic conditioning drill that hones players' speed and agility is the \"Tire Run\" where tires are laid out side by side, with each tire on the left a few inches ahead of the tire on the right in a zigzag pattern. Athletes then run through the tire pattern by stepping in the center of each tire. The drill forces athletes to lift their feet above the ground higher than normal to avoid tripping. \n\nRecycling\n\nTires can be recycled into, among other things, the hot melt asphalt, typically as crumb rubber modifier—recycled asphalt pavement (CRM—RAP), and as an aggregate in portland cement concrete Tires can also be recycled into other tires. Tires have also been cut up and used in garden beds as rubber mulch to hold in the water and to prevent weeds from growing. There are some \"green\" buildings that are being made both private and public buildings that are made from old tires.\n\nTire Pyrolysis\n\nThe tire pyrolysis method for recycling used tires is a technique which heats whole or shredded tires in a reactor vessel containing an oxygen-free atmosphere and a heat source. In the reactor the rubber is softened after which the rubber polymers continuously break down into smaller molecules." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Michelin Tire Company", "Compagnie Générale des Établissements Michelin", "Michelin", "Kleber (tire)", "Michelin Group", "Michelin CGDE B Brown", "Michelin Tires", "Compagnie Generale des Etablissements Michelin", "Michelin et Cie", "Michilen" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "michelin tire company", "michelin cgde b brown", "compagnie générale des établissements michelin", "michelin group", "kleber tire", "michelin tires", "michelin", "michelin et cie", "compagnie generale des etablissements michelin", "michilen" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "michelin", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Michelin" }
Which film actor became mayor of Carmel, California in 1986?	tc_1358	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Carmel-by-the-Sea,_California.txt", "Clint_Eastwood.txt" ], "title": [ "Carmel-by-the-Sea, California", "Clint Eastwood" ], "wiki_context": [ "Carmel-by-the-Sea, often simply referred to as Carmel, is a city in Monterey County, California, United States, founded in 1902 and incorporated on October 31, 1916. Situated on the Monterey Peninsula, Carmel is known for its natural scenery and rich artistic history. In 1906, the San Francisco Call devoted a full page to the \"artists, poets and writers of Carmel-by-the-Sea\", and in 1910 it reported that 60 percent of Carmel's houses were built by citizens who were \"devoting their lives to work connected to the aesthetic arts.\" Early City Councils were dominated by artists, and the city has had several mayors who were poets or actors, including Herbert Heron, founder of the Forest Theater, bohemian writer and actor Perry Newberry, and actor-director Clint Eastwood.\n\nThe city is known for being dog-friendly, with numerous hotels, restaurants and retail establishments admitting guests with dogs. Carmel is also known for several unusual laws, including a prohibition on wearing high-heel shoes without a permit, enacted to prevent lawsuits arising from tripping accidents caused by irregular pavement. \n\nCarmel-by-the-Sea is located on the Pacific coast, about 330 mi north of Los Angeles and 120 mi south of San Francisco. Communities nearby Carmel-by-the-Sea include Carmel Valley and Carmel Highlands.\n\nAs of the 2010 census, the town had a total population of 3,722, down from 4,081 at the 2000 census.\n\nHistory\n\nThe Carmel-by-the-Sea area is permeated by Native American, early Spanish and American history. Most scholars believe that the Esselen-speaking people were the first Native Americans to inhabit the area of Carmel, but the Ohlone people pushed them south into the mountains of Big Sur around the 6th century.\n\nSpanish Mission settlement \n\nThe first Europeans to see this land were Spanish mariners led by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542, who sailed up the California coast without landing. Another sixty years passed before another Spanish explorer and Carmelite friar Sebastián Vizcaíno discovered for Spain what is now known as Carmel Valley in 1602, which he named for his patron saint, Our Lady of Mount Carmel.\n\nThe Spanish did not attempt to colonize the area until 1770, when Gaspar de Portolà, along with Franciscan priests, Junípero Serra and Juan Crespí visited the area in search of a mission site. Portolà and Crespí traveled by land while Serra traveled with the Mission supplies aboard ship, arriving eight days later. The colony of Monterey was established at the same time as the second mission in Alta California and soon became the capital of California until 1849. From the late 18th through the early 19th century most of the Ohlone population died out from European diseases (against which they had no immunity), as well as overwork and malnutrition at the missions where the Spanish forced them to live. When Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 Carmel became Mexican territory.\n\nMission San Carlos and Junípero Serra\n\nThe Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo was founded on June 3, 1770 in the nearby settlement of Monterey, but was relocated to Carmel by Junípero Serra due to the interaction between soldiers stationed at the nearby Presidio and the native Indians. \n\nIn December 1771, the transfer was complete as the new stockade of approximately 130x200 became the new Mission Carmel. Simple buildings of plastered mud were the first church and dwellings until a more sturdy structure was built of wood from nearby pine and cypress trees to last through the seasonal rains. This too was only a temporary church until a permanent stone edifice was built.\n\nIn 1784, Serra, after one last tour of all the California missions, died and was buried at his request at the Mission in the Sanctuary of the San Carlos Church, next to Crespí who had passed the previous year. He was buried with full military honors.\n\nThe Mission at Carmel has significance beyond the history of Serra, who is sometimes called the \"Father of California\". It also contains the state's first library.\n\nTownship \n\nA welder, John Martin, acquired lands surrounding the Carmel mission in 1833, which he named Mission Ranch. Carmel became part of the United States in 1848, when Mexico ceded California as a result of the Mexican-American War. \n\nKnown as \"Rancho Las Manzanitas\", the area that was to become Carmel-by-the Sea was purchased by French businessman Honore Escolle in the 1850s. Escolle was well known and prosperous in the City of Monterey, owning the first commercial bakery, pottery kiln, and brickworks in Central California. His descendants, the Tomlinson-Del Piero Family, still live throughout the area.\n\nIn 1888, Escolle and Santiago Duckworth, a young developer from Monterey with dreams of establishing a Catholic retreat near the Carmel Mission, filed a subdivision map with the County Recorder of Monterey County. By 1889, 200 lots had been sold. The name \"Carmel\" was earlier applied to another place on the north bank of the Carmel River 13 mi east-southeast of the present-day Carmel. A post office called Carmel opened in 1889, closed in 1890, re-opened in 1893, moved in 1902, and closed for good in 1903. Abbie Jane Hunter, founder of the San Francisco-based Women's Real Estate Investment Company, first used the name \"Carmel-by-the-Sea\" on a promotional postcard. \n\nIn 1902 James Frank Devendorf and Frank Powers, on behalf of the Carmel Development Company, filed a new subdivision map of the core village that became Carmel. The Carmel post office opened the same year. In 1910, the Carnegie Institution established the Coastal Laboratory, and a number of scientists moved to the area. Carmel incorporated in 1916.\n\nArts colony\n\nIn 1905, the Carmel Arts and Crafts Club was formed to support and produce artistic works. After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake the village was inundated with musicians, writers, painters and other artists turning to the establishing artist colony after the bay city was destroyed. The new residents were offered home lots – ten dollars down, little or no interest, and whatever they could pay on a monthly basis. \n\nJack London describes the artists' colony in his novel The Valley of the Moon. Among the noted writers who lived in or frequented the village were Mary Austin, Nora May French, Robinson Jeffers, Sinclair Lewis, George Sterling and his protege Clark Ashton Smith, and Upton Sinclair. Visual artists of Carmel in the early twentieth century included Anne Bremer, Ferdinand Burgdorff, E. Charlton Fortune, Arnold Genthe, Percy Gray, Armin Hansen, Alice MacGowan, Charles Rollo Peters, William Frederic Ritschel, and Sydney Yard.\n\nThe Arts and Crafts Club held exhibitions, lectures, dances, and produced plays and recitals at numerous locations in Carmel, including the Pine Inn Hotel, the Old Bath House on Ocean Ave, the Forest Theater, and a small building in the downtown area donated by the Carmel Development Company.\n\nIn 1911, the town's rich Shakespearean tradition began with a production of Twelfth Night, directed by Garnet Holme of UC Berkeley and featuring future mayors Perry Newberry and Herbert Heron, with settings designed by artist Mary DeNeale Morgan. Twelfth Night was again presented in 1940 at Heron's inaugural Carmel Shakespeare Festival, and was repeated in 1942 and 1956. \n\nBy 1914, the club had achieved national recognition, with an article in The Mercury Herald commenting that \"a fever of activity seems to have seized the community and each newcomer is immediately inoculated and begins with great enthusiasm to do something ... with plays, studios and studies\". \n\nArts and culture\n\nTheatre arts \n\nIn 1907 the town's first cultural center and theatre, the Carmel Arts and Crafts Clubhouse, was built. Poets Austin and Sterling performed their \"private theatricals\" there.\n\nBy 1913, The Arts and Crafts Club had begun organizing lessons for aspiring painters, actors & craftsmen. Some of the most prominent painters in the United States offered instruction for beginners and advanced students, including William Merritt Chase, Xavier Martinez, Mary DeNeale Morgan, C. P. Townsley, Matteo Sandona, C. Chapel Judson, and James Blanding Sloan. It was Sloan and his wife who organized Carmel's first international film festival. \n\nIn 1924, the Arts and Crafts Hall was built on an adjacent site. This new facility was renamed numerous times including the Abalone Theatre, the Filmarte, the Carmel Playhouse and, finally, the Studio Theatre of the Golden Bough. The original clubhouse, along with the adjoining theatre, burned down in 1949.\n\nThe facilities were rebuilt as a two-theatre complex; the theater opened in 1952 as the Golden Bough Playhouse. A photo of the fire from 1949 was still on file 60 years later at the rebuilt theatre illustrating the loss to the city's culture and history.\n\nThe dramas enacted by the Arts & Crafts Club attracted considerable attention, with an article in The Clubwoman noting;\n\nIn 1910, the Forest Theater, one of the first outdoor theaters west of the Rockies, was built, with poet Mary Austin and actor/director Herbert Heron leading the endeavor. Numerous groups including the Carmel Arts & Crafts Club, Forest Theater Society (1910) and the Western Drama Society (1911) presented plays and pageants. Original works and the plays of Shakespeare were the primary focus. The property was deeded to the City of Carmel-by-the-Sea in order to qualify for federal funding and, in 1939, the site became a Works Progress Administration (WPA) reconstruction project. After several years, the site re-opened as The Carmel Shakespeare Festival, with Herbert Heron as its director and, with the exception of the World War II years of 1943–44, the festival continued through the 1940s.\n\nTheatrical activities in the town grew to such a proportion that between 1922 and 1924, two competing indoor theatres were built – the Arts & Crafts Hall and the Theatre of the Golden Bough, designed and built by Edward G. Kuster and originally located on Ocean Avenue. Kuster was a musician and lawyer from Los Angeles who relocated to Carmel to establish his own theatre and school.\n\nIn 1935, after a production of By Candlelight, the Golden Bough was destroyed by fire. Kuster, who had previously bought out the Arts and Crafts Theatre, moved his operation to the older facility and renamed it the Golden Bough Playhouse. In 1949, after remounting By Candlelight, the playhouse again burned to the ground. It was rebuilt and reopened in 1952.\n\nIn 1931, the Carmel Sunset School constructed a new auditorium, complete with Gothic-inspired architecture, with seating for 700. Often doubling as a performing arts venue for the community, the facility was bought by the City of Carmel-by-the-Sea in 1964, renaming the venue the Sunset Theatre. In 2003, following a $22 million renovation, the building re-opened with the 66th annual Carmel Bach Festival, hosting such renowned artists as Lyle Lovett, k.d.lang, Wynston Marsalis, and the Vienna Boys' Choir. \n\nIn 1949 the first Forest Theater Guild was organized. For most of the 1960s, the outdoor theater lay unused and neglected, with the original Forest Theater Guild having ceased operations in 1961. In 1968, Marcia Hovick's Children's Experimental Theater leased the indoor theater and continued until 2010. In 1972, a new Forest Theater Guild was incorporated and continues to produce musicals, adding a film series in 1997.\n\nIn 1984, Pacific Repertory Theatre initiated productions on the outdoor Forest Theater stage, reactivating Herbert Heron's Carmel Shake-speare Festival in 1990 which, in 1994, expanded to include productions at the Golden Bough Playhouse. \nPacific Repertory Theatre (PacRep), a regional theatre company, is the only professional (Equity) company in Carmel and the Monterey Peninsula. One of the eight major arts institutions in Monterey County, it was founded in 1982 by Carmel resident Stephen Moorer as the GroveMont Theatre. Its name changed to Pacific Repertory Theatre in 1994 when the company acquired the Golden Bough Playhouse, a two-theatre complex housing both the Golden Bough and the Circle Theatres. PacRep presents a year-round season of 10–12 plays and musicals in three Carmel theatres: The 330-seat Golden Bough Theatre, the 120-seat Circle Theatre and the 540-seat outdoor Forest Theater. Annual outreach programs include PacRep's School of Dramatic Arts (SoDA) and the Tix4Kids program that distributes subsidized theatre tickets to underserved youth. \n\nLiterary arts \n\nIn 1905, poet George Sterling came to Carmel and helped to establish the town's literary base. He was associated with Mary Austin, as well as Jack London, who also spent considerable time in the Carmel and Monterey area. In San Francisco, Sterling was known as the \"uncrowned King of Bohemia\" and, following the great San Francisco earthquake of 1906 many of his literary associates followed him in his move. He is often credited with making Carmel world-famous. His aunt Missus Havens purchased a home for him in Carmel Pines where he lived for six years.\n\nSterling wrote to his long-time literary mentor, Ambrose Bierce;\n\n\"Well, you can see why I must raise vegetables. Belgian hares, hens and the fruit of their wombs, squabs and goldfish, 'keep a bee,' raid mussel reefs, and cultivate a taste for rice – not to mention cold water and 'just one girl.' I'm determined to get into black and white unnumbered multitudes of lines that romp up and down in my innards, eight a-breast.\"\n\nSterling's visitors included poet Joaquin Miller, writer Charles W. Stoddard and photographer Arnold Genthe, known for his documentary shots of the San Francisco fire that followed the great earthquake, after which Genthe followed Sterling to Carmel to make his residence.\n\nIn 1905, novelist Mary Austin moved to Carmel. She is best known for her tribute to the deserts of the American Southwest, The Land of Little Rain. Her play, Fire, which she also directed, had its world premiere at the Forest Theater in 1913. Austin is often credited as suggesting the idea for the outdoor stage.\n\nIn 1914, poet Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962), and his wife, Una (1884–1950), found their \"inevitable place\" when they first saw the Carmel-Big Sur coast south of California's Monterey Peninsula. Among the many contributors to the lore of Mary Austin and Robinson Jeffers was the Carmel landscape photographer Morley Baer, whose photographs, published in two books, complemented their writings.\n\nOver the next decade, on a windswept, barren promontory, using granite boulders gathered from the rocky shore of Carmel Bay, Jeffers built Tor House as a home and refuge for himself and his family. It was in Tor House that Jeffers wrote all of his major poetical works: the long narratives of \"this coast crying out for tragedy,\" the shorter meditative lyrics and dramas on classical themes, culminating in 1947 with the critically acclaimed adaptation of Medea for the Broadway stage, which featured Dame Judith Anderson in the title role. He called his home Tor House, naming it for the craggy knoll, the \"tor\" on which it was built. Carmel Point, then, was a treeless headland, almost devoid of buildings. Construction began in 1918. The granite stones were drawn by horses from the little cove below the house. Jeffers apprenticed himself to the building contractor, thus learning the art of making \"stone love stone.\" Construction was completed in mid-1919.\n\nIn 1920, the poet-builder began his work on Hawk Tower. Meant as a retreat for his wife and sons, it was completed in less than four years. Jeffers built the tower entirely by himself. He used wooden planks and a block and tackle system to move the stones and to set them in place. Many influential literary and cultural celebrities were guests of the Jeffers family. Among them were Sinclair Lewis, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Langston Hughes, Charles Lindbergh, George Gershwin and Charlie Chaplin. Later visitors have included William Everson, Robert Bly, Czesław Miłosz and Edward Abbey.\n\nVisual arts\n\nIn 1906, San Francisco photographer Arnold Genthe joined the Carmel arts colony, where he was able to pursue his pioneering work in color photography. His first attempts were taken in his garden, primarily portraits of his friends, including the leading Shakespearean actor and actress of the period, Edward Sothern and Julia Marlowe, who were costumed as Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Of his new residence, he wrote, \"\"My first trials with this medium were made at Carmel where the cypresses and rocks of Point Lobos, the always varying sunsets and the intriguing shadows of the sand dunes offered a rich field for color experiments.\"\" According to the Library of Congress, where over 18,000 of his negatives and prints are on file, Genthe \"became famous for his impressionistic portrayals of society women, artists, dancers, and theater personalities.\" \n\nRenowned photographer Edward Weston moved to Carmel in 1929 and shot the first of numerous nature photographs, many set at Point Lobos, on the south side of Carmel Bay. In 1936, Weston became the first photographer to receive a Guggenheim Fellowship for his work in experimental photography. In 1948, after the onset of Parkinson's disease, he took his last photograph, an image of Point Lobos. Weston had traveled extensively with legendary photographer Ansel Adams, who moved to the Carmel Highlands in 1962, a few miles south of town. \n\nGray Gables, at Lincoln and Seventh was the birthplace of the Carmel Art Association, founded by artists Josephine Culbertson and Jennie V. Cannon. This small group supported art, primarily through the auspices of the Carmel Arts & Crafts Club until 1927, when a meeting took place, and the group elected Pedro Joseph de Lemos as president and committed to building an exhibition gallery to display their works. Their first show with 41 artists took place in October of the same year in the Seven Arts building of Herbert Heron. The permanent gallery was completed in 1933 at its present location on Dolores Street. In the early 1930s the tiny group claimed four members who had attained membership in the National Academy of Design.\n\nG. H. Rothe, the Mezzotint painter, lived for a time in Carmel and built two studios there in 1979. \n\nMusic \n\nThe Carmel Bach Festival began in 1935 as a three-day festival of concerts, expanding to 3 weeks until the 2009 Season which, due to economic concerns, was reduced to 2 weeks. The Festival is a celebration of music and ideas inspired by the historical and ongoing influence of J.S. Bach in the world. For nearly 80 the Festival has brought the music of the Baroque and beyond to communities of the Monterey Peninsula and to music lovers from both the United States and abroad. Composed of nationally and internationally renowned performing artists, the Festival orchestra and chorale, along with a local chorus, perform in a variety of venues within Carmel including the Sunset Cultural Center and the Carmel Mission Basilica, and other venues throughout the Monterey Peninsula. The Festival schedule features full orchestral and choral works, individual vocal and chamber ensemble concerts, recitals, master classes, films, lectures and informal talks, in addition to interactive social and family events. Since 2011, artistic leadership has been provided by Paul Goodwin, Festival Music Director And Conductor. \n\nThe Monterey Symphony provides triple performances of a seven concert series as well as an extensive education program and special performances. It was founded in December 1946 in the Carmel home of its first president Grace Howden. It is currently led by Spanish conductor Max Bragado Darman who joined the orchestra in 2004. The music directors of the Monterey Symphony are Lorell McCann (1947–1953) and Clifford Anderson (1947–1954), Gregory Millar (1954–1959), Earl Bernard Murray (1959–1960), Ronald Ondrejka (1960–1961), John Gosling (1961–1967), Jan De Jong (1967–1968), Haymo Taeuber (1968–1985), Clark Suttle (1985–1998), Kate Tamarkin (1998–2004), and Max Bragado Darman (2004 to present).\n\nGovernment \n\nCarmel is a general law city, governed by a mayor and four city council members. The current mayor is Steve Dallas. Elected councilmembers are Carrie Theis, Bobby Richards and Jan Reimers. Resident Carolyn Hardy was appointed to the Council in June of 2016 to fill the seat vacated by Dallas. Chip Rerig is the newest City Administrator. \n\nCounty, state, and federal representation\n\nOn the Monterey County Board of Supervisors, Carmel is represented by Supervisor Dave Potter. \n\nIn the California State Assembly, Carmel is in . In the California State Senate, Carmel in .\n\nIn the United States House of Representatives, Carmel is in .\n\nEducation \n\nCarmel is served by the Carmel Unified School District which operates nearby schools including Carmel High School, [http://www.carmelmiddle.org/ Carmel Middle School], Tularcitos Elementary School and Carmel River School.\n\nDogs\n\nCarmel-by-the-Sea is an exceptionally dog-friendly city. Most hotels allow dogs to stay with guests. Almost all restaurants that offer outside dining allow dogs in those areas, with most of them also offering water. A few have special \"doggie menus.\" Many retailers allow dogs to accompany their owners in their stores and many have treats available. Water bowls and dog biscuits can also be found in front of many stores. Dogs are not permitted, however in Devendorf Park (on Ocean Ave. between Junipero and Mission Streets). Dogs must be leashed, except on Carmel City Beach, where they are allowed unleashed if they are under voice command from their owners. The police department takes animal welfare seriously and officers will open cars that contain pets without adequate ventilation or water and will remove the pets and cite the owner. \n\nUnusual laws\n\nThough often mistakenly thought of as an urban myth, the municipal code prohibits wearing shoes having heels more than 2 inches in height or with a base of less than one square inch unless the wearer has obtained a permit for them. While the local police do not cite those in violation of the ordinance, this seemingly peculiar law was authored by the city attorney in the 1920s to defend the city from lawsuits resulting from wearers of high-heeled shoes tripping over irregular pavement distorted by tree roots. Permits are available without charge at City Hall. \n\nMedia\n\nCarmel Pine Cone\n\nThe Carmel Pine Cone is the town's weekly newspaper and has been published since 1915, covering local news, politics, arts, entertainment, opinions and real estate. The newspaper also has a section called The Police Log that contains almost every report of a crime in the Carmel area, often read with a quaint twist of humor by readers since the contents of the log are fairly innocuous. Veteran CBS and NBC network news producer Paul Miller became publisher in 1997. In 2005, after failing to convince city officials to rezone a potential site for the Pine Cone's operation, he moved the paper's production offices to Pacific Grove, while maintaining a reduced news staff in downtown Carmel. In 2007, the paper began offering an Adobe Acrobat (*.PDF) version of its complete newspaper on the Internet, which has attracted more than 9,000 subscribers, in addition to the newspaper's weekly print circulation of approximately 19,000.\n\nGeography\n\nClimate\n\nCarmel-by-the-Sea experiences a cool summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csb) normal in coastal areas of California. The wet season is from October to May, and summers are often overcast, the sun blocked by marine layer clouds which can produce drizzle. September and October (Indian Summer) offer the best weather of the year, with an average high of 72 °F. The average annual rainfall in Carmel-by-the-Sea is 20 inches per year and the average temperature is 57 °F.\n\nDemographics \n\n2010\n\nThe 2010 United States Census reported that Carmel-by-the-Sea had a population of 3,722. The population density was 3,445.5 people per square mile (1,330.3/km²). The racial makeup of Carmel-by-the-Sea was 3,464 (93.1%) White, 11 (0.3%) African American, 8 (0.2%) Native American, 111 (3.0%) Asian, 6 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 45 (1.2%) from other races, and 77 (2.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 174 persons (4.7%).\n\nThe Census reported that 3,722 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.\n\nThere were 2,095 households, out of which 254 (12.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 831 (39.7%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 138 (6.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 50 (2.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 81 (3.9%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 20 (1.0%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 934 households (44.6%) were made up of individuals and 471 (22.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.78. There were 1,019 families (48.6% of all households); the average family size was 2.39.\n\nThe population was spread out with 381 people (10.2%) under the age of 18, 114 people (3.1%) aged 18 to 24, 544 people (14.6%) aged 25 to 44, 1,355 people (36.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,328 people (35.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 59.2 years. For every 100 females there were 77.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.9 males.\n\nThere were 3,417 housing units at an average density of 3,163.1 per square mile (1,221.3/km²), of which 1,182 (56.4%) were owner-occupied, and 913 (43.6%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 5.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 8.8%. 2,198 people (59.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 1,524 people (40.9%) lived in rental housing units.\n\nPlanning and environmental factors \n\nThe town has historically pursued a vigorous strategy of planned development to enhance its natural coastal beauty and to retain its character, which the city's general plan describes as \"a village in a forest overlooking a white sand beach\". Carmel-by-the-Sea was incorporated in the year 1916 and as early as 1925 the town adopted a clear vision of its future as \"primarily, essentially and predominantly a residential community\" (Carmel-by-the-Sea City Council, 1929). The city regularly hosts delegations from cities and towns around the world seeking to understand how the village retains its authenticity in today's increasingly homogeneous world.\n\nNew buildings must be built around existing trees and new trees are required on lots that are deemed to have an inadequate number.\n\nThe one-square-mile village has no street lights or parking meters. In addition, the businesses, cottages and houses have no street numbers. (Originally, the early artists who were the first builders of the homes in the town, named their houses, rather than having numerical addresses.) Due to this situation, the Postal Service provides no delivery of mail to individual addresses. Instead, residents go to the centrally located post office to receive their mail. Overnight delivery services do deliver to what are called geographical addresses, such as \"NE Ocean and Lincoln\" (Harrison Memorial Library) or \"Monte Verde 4SW of 8th\" (Golden Bough Playhouse). The format used for geographical addressing lists the street, cross street, and the number of houses from the intersection. For example, in the case of \"Monte Verde 4SW of 8th\", the address translates to a building on the West side Monte Verde Street four properties south of the 8th Ave intersection.\n\nPlanning has consistently recognized the importance of preserving the character of these major sociocultural and public facilities: Sunset Community and Cultural Center, Golden Bough Playhouse, Forest Theater, Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo, Tor House and Hawk Tower, Harrison Memorial Library, and City Hall.\n\nCarmel-by-the-Sea is situated in a moderate seismic risk zone, the principal threats being the San Andreas Fault, which is approximately thirty miles northeast, and the Palo Colorado Fault which traces offshore through the Pacific Ocean several miles away. More minor potentially active faults nearby are the Church Creek Fault and the San Francisquito Fault. \n\nCity's sphere of influence\n\nThe City of Carmel-by-the-Sea has established a 'sphere of influence' that includes the communities of Carmel Woods, Hatton Fields, Mission Fields, Mission Tract, Carmel Point and Carmel Hills. These neighborhoods are officially located in the unincorporated area of Monterey County, which provides most primary services, including law enforcement, street repairs and public transit. With the exception of several planned shopping areas at the mouth of Carmel Valley, these areas contain few, if any, ongoing businesses, and serve primarily as bedroom communities to Carmel-by-the-Sea and the greater Monterey Peninsula.\n\nMarine protected areas\n\nCarmel Pinnacles State Marine Reserve, Carmel Bay State Marine Conservation Area, Point Lobos State Marine Reserve and Point Lobos State Marine Conservation Area are marine protected areas in the waters around Carmel. Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.\n\nNotable people", "Clinton \"Clint\" Eastwood Jr. (born May 31, 1930) is an American actor, film director, producer, musician, and political figure. He rose to international fame with his role as the Man with No Name in Sergio Leone's Dollars trilogy of spaghetti Westerns during the 1960s, and as antihero cop Harry Callahan in the five Dirty Harry films throughout the 1970s and 1980s. These roles, among others, have made Eastwood an enduring cultural icon of masculinity. \n\nFor his work in the Western film Unforgiven (1992) and the sports drama Million Dollar Baby (2004), Eastwood won Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture, as well as receiving nominations for Best Actor. Eastwood's greatest commercial successes have been the adventure comedy Every Which Way But Loose (1978) and its sequel, the action comedy Any Which Way You Can (1980), after adjustment for inflation. Other popular films include the Western Hang 'Em High (1968), the psychological thriller Play Misty for Me (1971), the crime film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot (1974), the Western The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), the prison film Escape from Alcatraz (1979), the action film Firefox (1982), the suspense thriller Tightrope (1984), the Western Pale Rider (1985), the war film Heartbreak Ridge (1986), the action thriller In the Line of Fire (1993), the romantic drama The Bridges of Madison County (1995), and the drama Gran Torino (2008).\n\nIn addition to directing many of his own star vehicles, Eastwood has also directed films in which he did not appear, such as the mystery drama Mystic River (2003) and the war film Letters from Iwo Jima (2006), for which he received Academy Award nominations, and the drama Changeling (2008). The war drama biopic American Sniper (2014) set box office records for the largest January release ever and was also the largest opening ever for an Eastwood film.\n\nEastwood received considerable critical praise in France for several films, including some that were not well received in the United States. Eastwood has been awarded two of France's highest honors: in 1994 he became a recipient of the Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, and in 2007 he was awarded the Legion of Honour medal. In 2000, Eastwood was awarded the Italian Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for lifetime achievement.\n\nSince 1967, Eastwood has run his own production company, Malpaso, which has produced all except four of his American films. From 1986–88, Eastwood served as Mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California, a non-partisan office.\n\nEarly life\n\nEastwood was born in San Francisco, California, the son of Clinton Eastwood Sr. (19061970) and his wife, Margaret Ruth (née Runner) Eastwood (19092006). He was nicknamed \"Samson\" by the hospital nurses because he weighed 11 lb at birth. He has a younger sister, Jeanne (born 1934). Eastwood's widowed mother later married a retired lumber executive, John Belden Wood (19132004), who became stepfather to Clint and Jeanne. \n\nEastwood is of English, Irish, Scottish, and Dutch ancestry and was raised in a working class environment. Eastwood is descended from Mayflower passenger William Bradford and through this line is the 12th generation of his family born in North America and the 13th generation to live in North America. \n\nHis family moved often as his father worked at jobs along the West Coast. They finally settled in Piedmont, California, where Eastwood attended Piedmont Junior High School. Shortly before he was to enter Piedmont High School, he rode his bike on the school's sports field and tore up the wet turf; this resulted in his being asked not to enroll. Instead, he attended Oakland Technical High School, where the drama teachers encouraged him to take part in school plays. However, Eastwood was not interested. He worked at a number of jobs, including lifeguard, paper carrier, grocery clerk, forest firefighter, and golf caddy. \n\nIn 1951, Eastwood enrolled at Seattle University but was then drafted into the United States Army and assigned to Fort Ord in California, where he was appointed as a lifeguard and swimming instructor. While returning from a weekend visit to his parents in Seattle, Washington, he was a passenger on a Douglas AD bomber that ran out of fuel and crashed into the ocean near Point Reyes. Escaping from the sinking aircraft, he and the pilot swam 3 mi to safety. \n\nCareer \n\n1950s: Early career struggles \n\nAccording to the CBS press release for Rawhide, the Universal (known then as Universal-International) film company was shooting in Fort Ord when an enterprising assistant spotted Eastwood and invited him to meet the director. According to Eastwood's official biography, the key figure was a man named Chuck Hill, who was stationed in Fort Ord and had contacts in Hollywood. While in Los Angeles, Hill became reacquainted with Eastwood and managed to sneak Eastwood into a Universal studio, where he showed him to cameraman Irving Glassberg. Glassberg arranged for an audition under Arthur Lubin, who, although very impressed with Clint's appearance and stature at 6'4\" (193 cm), disapproved initially of his acting skills, remarking, \"He was quite amateurish. He didn't know which way to turn or which way to go or do anything\". Lubin suggested that he attend drama classes and arranged for Eastwood's initial contract in April 1954, at $100 per week. After signing, Eastwood was initially criticized for his stiff manner and delivering his lines through his teeth, a lifelong trademark. \n\nIn May 1954, Eastwood made his first real audition for Six Bridges to Cross but was rejected by Joseph Pevney. After many unsuccessful auditions, he was eventually given a minor role by director Jack Arnold in Revenge of the Creature, a sequel to the recently released The Creature from the Black Lagoon. In September 1954, Eastwood worked for three weeks on Arthur Lubin's Lady Godiva of Coventry, won a role in February 1955, playing \"Jonesy\", a sailor in Francis in the Navy and appeared uncredited in another Jack Arnold film, Tarantula, where he played a squadron pilot. In May 1955, Eastwood put four hours' work into the film Never Say Goodbye and had a minor uncredited role as a ranch hand (his first western film) in August 1955 with Law Man, also known as Stars in the Dust. Universal presented him with his first television role on July 2, 1955, on NBC's Allen in Movieland, which starred Tony Curtis and Benny Goodman. Although he continued to develop as an actor, Universal terminated his contract on October 23, 1955. \n\nEastwood joined the Marsh Agency, and although Lubin landed him his biggest role to date in The First Traveling Saleslady (1956) and later hired him for Escapade in Japan, without a formal contract Eastwood was struggling. Upon the advice of Irving Leonard, his financial advisor, he changed talent agencies to the Kumin-Olenick Agency in 1956 and Mitchell Gertz in 1957. He landed several small roles in 1956 as a temperamental army officer for a segment of ABC's Reader's Digest series, and as a motorcycle gang member on a Highway Patrol episode. In 1957, Eastwood played a cadet in West Point series, played a suicidal gold prospector in Death Valley Days. In 1958, he played a Navy lieutenant in a segment of Navy Log and in early 1959 made a notable guest appearance on Maverick opposite James Garner as a cowardly villain intent on marrying a rich girl for money. Eastwood had a small part as an aviator in the French picture Lafayette Escadrille and played a major role as an ex-renegade of the Confederacy in Ambush at Cimarron Pass, a film which Eastwood viewed disastrously and professes to be the lowest point of his career. \n\nIn 1958, Eastwood was cast as Rowdy Yates for the CBS hour-long western series Rawhide, the breakthrough in his career he had long been searching for. However, Eastwood was not especially happy with his character; Eastwood was almost 30, and Rowdy was too young and too cloddish for Clint to feel comfortable with the part. Filming began in Arizona in the summer of 1958. It took just three weeks for Rawhide to reach the top 20 in TV ratings and although it never won an Emmy, it was a major success for several years, and reached its peak at number six in the ratings between October 1960 and April 1961. The Rawhide years (1959–65) were some of the most grueling of Eastwood's career, often filming six days a week for an average of twelve hours a day, yet he still received criticism by some directors for not working hard enough. By late 1963 Rawhide was beginning to decline in popularity and lacked freshness in the script; it was canceled in the middle of the 1965–66 television season. Eastwood made his first attempt at directing when he filmed several trailers for the show, although he was unable to convince producers to let him direct an episode. In the show's first season Eastwood earned $750 an episode. At the time of Rawhides cancellation, he received $119,000 an episode as severance pay. \n\n1960s \n\nIn late 1963, Eastwood's co-star on Rawhide, Eric Fleming, rejected an offer to star in an Italian-made western called A Fistful of Dollars, to be directed in a remote region of Spain by the then relatively unknown Sergio Leone. Richard Harrison suggested Eastwood to Leone because Harrison knew Eastwood could play a cowboy convincingly. Eastwood thought the film would be an opportunity to escape from his Rawhide image. Eastwood signed a contract for $15,000 in wages for eleven weeks' work, with a bonus of a Mercedes automobile upon completion. Eastwood later spoke of the transition from a television western to A Fistful of Dollars: \"In Rawhide I did get awfully tired of playing the conventional white hat. The hero who kisses old ladies and dogs and was kind to everybody. I decided it was time to be an anti-hero.\" Eastwood was instrumental in creating the Man with No Name character's distinctive visual style and, although a non-smoker, Leone insisted Eastwood smoke cigars as an essential ingredient of the \"mask\" he was attempting to create for the loner character. \n\nA Fistful of Dollars proved a landmark in the development of spaghetti Westerns, with Leone depicting a more lawless and desolate world than traditional westerns, and challenging American stereotypes of a western hero with a morally ambiguous antihero. The film's success made Eastwood a major star in Italy and he was re-hired to star in For a Few Dollars More (1965), the second of the trilogy. Through the efforts of screenwriter Luciano Vincenzoni, the rights to For a Few Dollars More and the final film of the trilogy (The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) were sold to United Artists for about $900,000. \n\nIn January 1966, Eastwood met producer Dino De Laurentiis in New York City and agreed to star in a non-Western five-part anthology production named Le Streghe (\"The Witches\") opposite De Laurentiis' wife, actress Silvana Mangano. Eastwood's nineteen-minute installment took only a few days to shoot, but his performance did not please the critics, one writing that \"no other performance of his is quite so 'un-Clintlike'.\" Two months later Eastwood began work on the third Dollars film, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, again playing the mysterious Man with No Name. Lee Van Cleef returned as a ruthless fortune seeker, with Eli Wallach portraying the cunning Mexican bandit Tuco Ramirez. The storyline involved the search for a cache of Confederate gold buried in a cemetery. During the filming of a scene in which a bridge was blown up, Eastwood urged Wallach to retreat to a hilltop. \"I know about these things,\" he said. \"Stay as far away from special effects and explosives as you can.\" Minutes later confusion among the crew over the word \"Vaya!\" resulted in a premature explosion that could have killed Wallach.\n\nThe Dollars trilogy was not released in the United States until 1967, when A Fistful of Dollars opened in January, followed by For a Few Dollars More in May, and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly on December 29, 1967. All the films were commercially successful, particularly The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, which eventually earned $8 million in rental earnings and turned Eastwood into a major film star. All three films received bad reviews, and marked the beginning of a battle for Eastwood to win American film critics' respect. Judith Crist described A Fistful of Dollars as \"cheapjack,\" while Newsweek considered For a Few Dollars More as \"excruciatingly dopey.\" Renata Adler of The New York Times said The Good, the Bad and the Ugly was \"...the most expensive, pious and repellent movie in the history of its peculiar genre.\" Time magazine drew attention to the film's wooden acting, especially on the part of Eastwood, though a few critics such as Vincent Canby and Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised Eastwood's coolness in playing the tall, lone stranger. Leone's cinematography was widely acclaimed, even by critics who disparaged the acting in the film.\n\nStardom brought more roles for Eastwood. He signed to star in the American revisionist western Hang 'Em High (1968), featured alongside Inger Stevens, Pat Hingle, Dennis Hopper, Ed Begley, Alan Hale, Ben Johnson, Bruce Dern, and James MacArthur, playing a man who takes up a Marshal's badge and seeks revenge as a lawman after being lynched by vigilantes and left for dead. The film earned Eastwood a fee of $400,000 and 25 percent of its net box-office takings. Using money earned from the Dollars trilogy, accountant and Eastwood advisor Irving Leonard helped establish Eastwood's own production company, Malpaso Productions, named after Malpaso Creek on Eastwood's property in Monterey County, California. Leonard arranged for Hang 'Em High to be a joint production with United Artists; when it opened in July 1968, it had the largest opening weekend in United Artists' history. Hang 'Em High was widely praised by critics, including Archer Winsten of the New York Post, who described it as, \"a western of quality, courage, danger and excitement.\"\n\nBefore the release of Hang 'Em High, Eastwood had already begun working on Coogan's Bluff, about an Arizona deputy sheriff tracking a wanted psychopathic criminal (Don Stroud) through the streets of New York City. He was reunited with Universal Studios for it after receiving an offer of $1 million—more than double his previous salary. Jennings Lang arranged for Eastwood to meet Don Siegel, a Universal contract director who later became Eastwood's close friend, forming a partnership that would last more than ten years and produce five films. Shooting began in November 1967, before the script had been finalized. The film was controversial for its portrayal of violence. Coogan's Bluff also became the first collaboration with Argentine composer Lalo Schifrin, who would later compose the jazzy score to several Eastwood films in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Dirty Harry films.\n\nEastwood was paid $750,000 in 1968 for the war epic Where Eagles Dare, about a World War II squad parachuting into a Gestapo stronghold in the alpine mountains. Richard Burton played the squad's commander, with Eastwood as his right-hand man. Eastwood was also cast as Two-Face in the Batman television show, but the series was canceled before filming began. \n\nEastwood then branched out to star in the only musical of his career, Paint Your Wagon (1969). Eastwood and Lee Marvin play gold miners who buy a Mormon settler's less favored wife (Jean Seberg) at an auction. Bad weather and delays plagued the production, while the film's budget eventually exceeded $20 million, which was extremely expensive for the time. The film was not a critical or commercial success, although it was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. \n\n1970s \n\nIn 1970, Eastwood starred with Shirley MacLaine in the western Two Mules for Sister Sara, directed by Don Siegel. The film follows an American mercenary, who gets mixed up with a prostitute disguised as a nun, and ends up helping a group of Juarista rebels during the reign of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. Eastwood once again played a mysterious stranger—unshaven, wearing a serape-like vest, and smoking a cigar. Although it received moderate reviews, the film is listed in The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made. Later the same year, Eastwood starred as one of a group of Americans who steal a fortune in gold from the Nazis, in the World War II film Kelly's Heroes, with Donald Sutherland and Telly Savalas. Kelly's Heroes was the last film Eastwood appeared in that was not produced by his own Malpaso Productions. Filming commenced in July 1969 on location in Yugoslavia and in London. The film received mostly a positive reception and its anti-war sentiments were recognized. In the winter of 1969–70, Eastwood and Siegel began planning his next film, The Beguiled, a tale of a wounded Union soldier, held captive by the sexually repressed matron (played by Geraldine Page) of a Southern girl's school. Upon release the film received major recognition in France and is considered one of Eastwood's finest works by the French. However, it grossed less than $1 million and, according to Eastwood and Lang, flopped due to poor publicity and the \"emasculated\" role of Eastwood. \n\nEastwood's career reached a turning point in 1971. Before Irving Leonard died, he and Eastwood had discussed the idea of Malpaso producing Play Misty for Me, a film that was to give Eastwood the artistic control he desired, and his debut as a director. The script was about a jazz disc jockey named Dave (Eastwood), who has a casual affair with Evelyn (Jessica Walter), a listener who had been calling the radio station repeatedly at night, asking him to play her favorite song – Erroll Garner's Misty. When Dave ends their relationship, the unhinged Evelyn becomes a murderous stalker. Filming commenced in Monterey in September 1970 and included footage of that year's Monterey Jazz Festival. The film was highly acclaimed with critics, such as Jay Cocks in Time magazine, Andrew Sarris in the Village Voice, and Archer Winsten in the New York Post all praising the film, as well as Eastwood's directorial skills and performance. Walter was nominated for a Golden Globe Best Actress Award (Drama), for her performance in the film.\n\nDirty Harry (1971), written by Harry and Rita Fink, centers on a hard-edged New York City (later changed to San Francisco) police inspector named Harry Callahan who is determined to stop a psychotic killer by any means. Dirty Harry has been described as being arguably Eastwood's most memorable character, and the film has been credited with inventing the \"loose-cannon cop\" genre. Author Eric Lichtenfeld argues that Eastwood's role as Dirty Harry established the \"first true archetype\" of the action film genre. His lines (quoted right) are regarded by firearms historians, such as Garry James and Richard Venola, as the force that catapulted the ownership of .44 Magnum revolvers to new heights in the United States; specifically the Smith & Wesson Model 29 carried by Harry Callahan. Dirty Harry achieved huge success after its release in December 1971, earning $22 million in the United States and Canada alone. It was Siegel's highest-grossing film and the start of a series of films featuring the character Harry Callahan. Although a number of critics praised Eastwood's performance as Dirty Harry, such as Jay Cocks of Time magazine who described him as \"...giving his best performance so far, tense, tough, full of implicit identification with his character,\" the film was also widely criticized as being fascistic. \n\nFollowing Sean Connery's announcement that he would not play James Bond again, Eastwood was offered the role but turned it down because he believed the character should be played by an English actor. He next starred in the loner Western Joe Kidd (1972), based on a character inspired by Reies Lopez Tijerina, who stormed a courthouse in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico in June 1967. During filming, Eastwood suffered symptoms of a bronchial infection and several panic attacks. Joe Kidd received a mixed reception, with Roger Greenspun of The New York Times writing that it was unremarkable, with foolish symbolism and sloppy editing, although he praised Eastwood's performance. \n\nIn 1973, Eastwood directed his first western, High Plains Drifter, in which he also starred. The film had a moral and supernatural theme, later emulated in Pale Rider. The plot follows a mysterious stranger (Eastwood) who arrives in a brooding Western town where the people hire him to protect them against three soon-to-be-released felons. There remains confusion during the film as to whether the stranger is the brother of the deputy, whom the felons lynched and murdered, or his ghost. Holes in the plot were filled with black humor and allegory, influenced by Leone. The revisionist film received a mixed reception, but was a major box office success. A number of critics thought Eastwood's directing was \"as derivative as it was expressive,\" with Arthur Knight of the Saturday Review remarking that Eastwood had \"...absorbed the approaches of Siegel and Leone and fused them with his own paranoid vision of society.\" John Wayne, who had declined a role in the film, sent a letter to Eastwood soon after the film's release in which he complained that, \"The townspeople did not represent the true spirit of the American pioneer, the spirit that made America great.\" \n\nEastwood next turned his attention towards Breezy (1973), a film about love blossoming between a middle-aged man and a teenage girl. During casting for the film Eastwood met Sondra Locke for the first time, an actress who would play major roles in six of his films over the next ten years and would become an important figure in his life. Kay Lenz got the part of Breezy because Locke, at age 29, was considered too old. The film, shot very quickly and efficiently by Eastwood and Frank Stanley, came in $1 million under budget and was finished three days ahead of schedule. Breezy was not a major critical or commercial success and it was only made available on video in 1998. \n\nOnce filming of Breezy had finished, Warners announced that Eastwood had agreed to reprise his role as Callahan in Magnum Force (1973), a sequel to Dirty Harry, about a group of rogue young officers (among them David Soul, Robert Urich and Tim Matheson) in the San Francisco Police Department who systematically exterminate the city's worst criminals. Although the film was a major success after release, grossing $58.1 million in the United States (a record for Eastwood), it was not a critical success. The New York Times critic Nora Sayre panned the often contradictory moral themes of the film, while the paper's Frank Rich called it \"the same old stuff\".\n\nIn 1974, Eastwood teamed up with Jeff Bridges and George Kennedy in the buddy action caper Thunderbolt and Lightfoot, a road movie about a veteran bank robber Thunderbolt (Eastwood) and a young con man drifter, Lightfoot (Bridges). On its release, in spring 1974, the film was praised for its offbeat comedy mixed with high suspense and tragedy but was only a modest success at the box office, earning $32.4 million. Eastwood's acting was noted by critics, but was overshadowed by Bridges who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Eastwood reportedly fumed at the lack of Academy Award recognition for him and swore that he would never work for United Artists again. \n\nEastwood's next film The Eiger Sanction (1975) was based on Trevanian's critically acclaimed spy novel of the same name. Eastwood plays Jonathan Hemlock in a role originally intended for Paul Newman, an assassin turned college art professor who decides to return to his former profession for one last \"sanction\" in return for a rare Pissarro painting. In the process he must climb the north face of the Eiger in Switzerland under perilous conditions. Mike Hoover taught Eastwood how to climb during several weeks of preparation at Yosemite in the summer of 1974 before filming commenced in Grindelwald, Switzerland on August 12, 1974. Despite prior warnings about the perils of the Eiger the film crew suffered a number of accidents, including one fatality. Despite the danger, Eastwood insisted on doing all his own climbing and stunts. Upon release in May 1975 The Eiger Sanction was a commercial failure, receiving only $23.8 million at the box office, and was poorly received by most critics. Joy Gould Boyum of the Wall Street Journal dismissed the film as \"brutal fantasy\". Eastwood blamed Universal Studios for the film's poor promotion and turned his back on them to make an agreement with Warner Brothers, through Frank Wells, that has lasted to the present day. \n\nThe Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), a western inspired by Asa Carter's 1972 novel of the same name, has lead character Josey Wales (Eastwood) as a pro-Confederate guerilla who refuses to surrender his arms after the American Civil War and is chased across the old southwest by a group of enforcers. Eastwood's costars were Locke (for the first time) and Chief Dan George. Director Philip Kaufman was fired by producer Bob Daley under Eastwood's command, resulting in a fine reported to be around $60,000 from the Directors Guild of America—who subsequently passed new legislation reserving the right to impose a major fine on a producer for discharging and replacing a director. The film was pre-screened at the Sun Valley Center for the Arts and Humanities in Idaho during a six-day conference entitled Western Movies: Myths and Images. Invited to the screening were a number of esteemed film critics, including Jay Cocks and Arthur Knight; directors such as King Vidor, William Wyler, and Howard Hawks; and a number of academics. Upon release in the summer of 1976 The Outlaw Josey Wales was widely acclaimed, with many critics and viewers seeing Eastwood's role as an iconic one that related to America's ancestral past and the destiny of the nation after the American Civil War. Roger Ebert compared the nature and vulnerability of Eastwood's portrayal of Josey Wales with his Man with No Name character in the Dollars westerns and praised the film's atmosphere. The film would later appear in Time \"Top 10 Films of the Year\". \n\nEastwood was then offered the role of Benjamin L. Willard in Francis Coppola's Apocalypse Now, but declined as he did not want to spend weeks on location in the Philippines. He also refused the part of a platoon leader in Ted Post's Vietnam War film, Go Tell the Spartans and instead decided to make a third Dirty Harry film, The Enforcer. The film had Callahan partnered with a new female officer (Tyne Daly) to face a San Francisco Bay area group resembling the Symbionese Liberation Army. The film, culminating in a shootout on Alcatraz island, was considerably shorter than the previous Dirty Harry films at 95minutes, but was a major commercial success grossing $100 million worldwide to become Eastwood's highest-grossing film to date. \n\nIn 1977, he directed and starred in The Gauntlet opposite Locke, Pat Hingle, William Prince, Bill McKinney, and Mara Corday. Eastwood portrays a down-and-out cop assigned to escort a prostitute from Las Vegas to Phoenix to testify against the mafia. Although a moderate hit with the viewing public, critics had mixed feelings about the film, with many believing it was overly violent. Ebert, in contrast, gave the film three stars and called it \"... classic Clint Eastwood: fast, furious, and funny.\" The following year, he starred in Every Which Way But Loose in an uncharacteristic offbeat comedy role. He played Philo Beddoe, a trucker and brawler who roams the American West searching for a lost love (Locke) accompanied by his brother (played by Geoffrey Lewis) and an orangutan called Clyde. The film proved surprisingly successful upon its release and became Eastwood's most commercially successful film up to that time. Panned by critics, it ranked high among the box office successes of his career and was the second-highest-grossing film of 1978. \n\nEastwood starred in Escape from Alcatraz in 1979, the last of his films directed by Siegel. It was based on the true story of Frank Lee Morris who, along with John and Clarence Anglin, escaped from the notorious Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in 1962. The film was a major success; Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic praised it as \"crystalline cinema\" and Frank Rich of Time described it as \"cool, cinematic grace\". \n\n1980s \n\nIn 1980, Eastwood directed and played the title role in Bronco Billy alongside Locke, Scatman Crothers, and Sam Bottoms. Eastwood has cited Bronco Billy as being one of the most relaxed shoots of his career and biographer Richard Schickel has argued that Bronco Billy is Eastwood's most self-referential character. The film was a rare commercial disappointment in Eastwood's career, but was liked by critics. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that film was \"...the best and funniest Clint Eastwood movie in quite a while\", and praised Eastwood's directing, intricately juxtaposing the old West and the new West. Later that year, Eastwood starred in Any Which Way You Can, the sequel to Every Which Way But Loose. The film received a number of bad reviews from critics, although Maslin described it as \"funnier and even better than its predecessor\". Released over the Christmas season of 1980, Any Which Way You Can was a major box office success and ranked among the top five highest-grossing films of the year. \n\nIn 1982, Eastwood directed and starred in Honkytonk Man, based on the eponymous Clancy Carlile's depression-era novel. Eastwood portrays a struggling western singer Red Stovall who suffers from tuberculosis, but has finally been given an opportunity to make it big at the Grand Ole Opry. He is accompanied by his young nephew (played by real-life son Kyle) to Nashville, Tennessee, where he is supposed to record a song. Only Time gave the film a good review in the United States, with most reviewers criticizing its blend of muted humor and tragedy. Nevertheless, the film received critical acclaim in France, where it was compared to John Ford's The Grapes of Wrath, and it has since acquired the very high rating of 93percent on Rotten Tomatoes. In the same year Eastwood directed, produced, and starred in the Cold War-themed Firefox. Based on a 1977 novel with the same name written by Craig Thomas, the film was shot before but released after Honkeytonk Man. Russian filming locations were not possible due to the Cold War, and the film had to be shot in Vienna and other locations in Austria to simulate many of the Eurasian story locations. With a production cost of $20 million, it was Eastwood's highest budget film to date. People magazine likened Eastwood's performance to \"Luke Skywalker trapped in Dirty Harry's Soul\".\n\nEastwood directed and starred in the fourth Dirty Harry film, Sudden Impact, which was shot in the spring and summer of 1983 and is considered the darkest and most violent of the series. By this time Eastwood received 60 percent of all profits from films he starred in and directed, with the rest going to the studio. Sudden Impact was his final on-screen collaboration with Locke. She plays an artist who, along with her sister, was gang-raped a decade before the story takes place and seeks revenge for her sister's now-vegetative state by systematically murdering the rapists. The line \"Go ahead, make my day\" (uttered by Eastwood during an early scene in a coffee shop) has been cited as one of cinema's immortal lines. It was quoted by President Ronald Reagan in a speech to Congress, and used during the 1984 presidential elections. The film was the second most commercially successful of the Dirty Harry films, after The Enforcer, earning $70 million. It received very positive reviews, with many critics praising the feminist aspects of the film through its explorations of the physical and psychological consequences of rape. \n\nTightrope (1984) had Eastwood starring opposite Geneviève Bujold in a provocative thriller, inspired by newspaper articles about an elusive Bay Area rapist. Set in New Orleans to avoid confusion with the Dirty Harry films, Eastwood played a divorced cop drawn into his target's tortured psychology and fascination for sadomasochism. Tightrope was a critical and commercial hit and became the fourth highest-grossing R-rated film of 1984. Eastwood next starred in the crime comedy City Heat (1984) alongside Burt Reynolds, a film about a private eye and his partner who get mixed up with gangsters in the prohibition era of the 1930s. The film grossed around $50 million domestically, but was overshadowed by Eddie Murphy's Beverly Hills Cop. \n\nEastwood made his only foray into TV direction with the 1985 Amazing Stories episode Vanessa in the Garden, which starred Harvey Keitel and Locke. This was his first collaboration with Steven Spielberg, who later co-produced Flags of Our Fathers and Letters from Iwo Jima. He would revisit the Western genre when he directed and starred in Pale Rider (1985), a film based on the classic 1953 western Shane and follows a preacher descending from the mists of the Sierras to side with the miners during the California Gold Rush of 1850. The title is a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, as the rider of the pale horse is Death, and shows similarities to Eastwood's 1973 western High Plains Drifter in its themes of morality and justice as well as its exploration of the supernatural. Pale Rider became one of Eastwood's most successful films to date. It was hailed as one of the best films of 1985 and the best western to appear for a considerable period, with Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune remarking, \"This year (1985) will go down in film history as the moment Clint Eastwood finally earned respect as an artist\". \n\nIn 1986, Eastwood co-starred with Marsha Mason in the military drama Heartbreak Ridge, about the 1983 United States invasion of Grenada. He portrays an aging United States Marine Gunnery Sergeant and Korean War veteran. Production and filming were marred by internal disagreements between Eastwood and long-time friend and producer Fritz Manes, as well as between Eastwood and the United States Department of Defense who expressed contempt for the film. At the time, the film was a commercial rather than a critical success, and has only come to be viewed more favorably in recent times. The film grossed $70 million domestically. \n\nEastwood starred in The Dead Pool (1988), the fifth and final film in the Dirty Harry series. It co-starred Patricia Clarkson, Liam Neeson, and a young Jim Carrey who plays Johnny Squares, a drug-addled rock star and the first of the victims on a list of celebrities drawn up by horror film director Peter Swan (Neeson) who are deemed most likely to die, the so-called \"Dead Pool\". The list is stolen by an obsessed fan who, in mimicking his favorite director, makes his way through the list killing off celebrities, of which Dirty Harry is also included. The Dead Pool grossed nearly $38 million, relatively low receipts for a Dirty Harry film. It is generally viewed as the weakest film of the series, though Roger Ebert thought it was as good as the original. \n\nEastwood began working on smaller, more personal projects and experienced a lull in his career between 1988 and 1992. Always interested in jazz, he directed Bird (1988), a biopic starring Forest Whitaker as jazz musician Charlie \"Bird\" Parker. Alto saxophonist Jackie McLean and Spike Lee, son of jazz bassist Bill Lee and a long time critic of Eastwood, criticized the characterization of Charlie Parker remarking that it did not capture his true essence and sense of humor. Eastwood received two Golden Globes for the film, the Cecil B. DeMille Award for his lifelong contribution, and the Best Director award. However, Bird was a commercial failure, earning just $11 million, which Eastwood attributed to the declining interest in jazz among black people. Carrey would appear with Eastwood again in the poorly received comedy Pink Cadillac (1989). The film is about a bounty hunter and a group of white supremacists chasing an innocent woman (Bernadette Peters) who tries to outrun everyone in her husband's prized pink Cadillac. The film failed both critically and commercially, earning barely more than Bird and marking a low point in Eastwood's career. \n\n1990s \n\nEastwood directed and starred in White Hunter Black Heart (1990), an adaptation of Peter Viertel's roman à clef, about John Huston and the making of the classic film The African Queen. Shot on location in Zimbabwe in the summer of 1989, the film received some critical attention but with only a limited release earned just $8.4 million. Later in 1990, Eastwood directed and co-starred with Charlie Sheen in The Rookie, a buddy cop action film. Critics found the film's plot and characterization unconvincing, but praised its action sequences. An ongoing lawsuit, in response to Eastwood allegedly ramming a woman's car, resulted in no Eastwood films being shown in cinemas in 1991. Eastwood won the suit and agreed to pay the complainant's legal fees if she did not appeal.\n\nIn 1992, Eastwood revisited the western genre in his film Unforgiven, which he directed and in which he starred as an aging ex-gunfighter long past his prime. Scripts existed for the film as early as 1976 under titles such as The Cut-Whore Killings and The William Munny Killings but Eastwood delayed the project because he wanted to wait until he was old enough to play his character and to savor it as the last of his western films. Unforgiven was a major commercial and critical success; Jack Methews of the Los Angeles Times described it as \"the finest classical western to come along since perhaps John Ford's 1956 The Searchers. The film was nominated for nine Academy Awards, (including Best Actor for Eastwood and Best Original Screenplay for David Webb Peoples) and won four, including Best Picture and Best Director for Eastwood. In June 2008 Unforgiven was ranked as the fourth-best American western, behind Shane, High Noon, and The Searchers, in the American Film Institute's \"AFI's 10 Top 10\" list. \n\nEastwood played Frank Horrigan in the Secret Service thriller In the Line of Fire (1993), directed by Wolfgang Petersen and co-starring John Malkovich and Rene Russo. Horrigan is a guilt-ridden Secret Service agent haunted by his failure to save John F. Kennedy's life. The film was among the top 10 box office performers in that year, earning $102 million in the United States alone. Later in 1993, he directed and co-starred alongside Kevin Costner in A Perfect World. Set in the 1960s, Eastwood plays a Texas Ranger in pursuit of an escaped convict (Costner) who hits the road with a young boy (T.J. Lowther). Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film marked the highest point of Eastwood's directing career, and the film has since been cited as one of his most underrated directorial achievements. \n\nAt the May1994 Cannes Film Festival Eastwood received France's Ordre des Arts et des Lettres medal, and on March 27, 1995, he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the 67th Academy Awards. His next film appearance was in a cameo role as himself in the 1995 children's film Casper. Later that same year he expanded his repertoire by playing opposite Meryl Streep in The Bridges of Madison County. Based on the novel by Robert James Waller, the film relates the story of Robert Kincaid (Eastwood), a photographer working for National Geographic, who has an affair with a middle-aged Italian farm wife, Francesca (Streep). Despite the novel receiving unfavorable reviews and a subject deemed potentially unsuitable for film, The Bridges of Madison County was a commercial and critical success. Roger Ebert wrote, \"Streep and Eastwood weave a spell, and it is based on that particular knowledge of love and self that comes with middle age.\" The film was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Picture and won a César Award in France for Best Foreign Film. Streep was also nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe.\n\nIn 1997, Eastwood directed and starred in the political thriller Absolute Power, alongside Gene Hackman (with whom he had appeared in Unforgiven). Eastwood played the role of a veteran thief who witnesses the Secret Service cover up of a murder. The film received a mixed reception from critics. \nLater in 1997, Eastwood directed Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, based on the novel by John Berendt and starring John Cusack, Kevin Spacey, and Jude Law. The film met with a mixed critical response. \n\nEastwood directed and starred in True Crime (1999). He plays Steve Everett, a journalist and recovering alcoholic, who has to cover the execution of murderer Frank Beechum (played by Isaiah Washington). True Crime received a mixed reception, with Janet Maslin of The New York Times writing, \"his direction is galvanized by a sense of second chances and tragic misunderstandings, and by contrasting a larger sense of justice with the peculiar minutiae of crime. Perhaps he goes a shade too far in the latter direction, though.\" The film was a box office failure, earning less than half its $55 million budget and was Eastwood's worst-performing film of the 1990s aside from White Hunter Black Heart, which had a limited release. \n\n2000s \n\nIn 2000, Eastwood directed and starred in Space Cowboys alongside Tommy Lee Jones, Donald Sutherland and James Garner. Eastwood played one of a group of veteran ex-test pilots sent into space to repair an old Soviet satellite. The original music score was composed by Eastwood and Lennie Niehaus. Space Cowboys was critically well received and holds a 79 percent rating at Rotten Tomatoes, although Roger Ebert wrote that the film was, \"too secure within its traditional story structure to make much seem at risk.\" The film grossed more than $90 million in its United States release, more than Eastwood's two previous films combined. In 2002, Eastwood played an ex-FBI agent chasing a sadistic killer (Jeff Daniels) in the thriller Blood Work, loosely based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Michael Connelly. The film was a commercial failure, grossing just $26.2 million on an estimated budget of $50 million and received mixed reviews, with Rotten Tomatoes describing it as, \"well-made but marred by lethargic pacing\". Eastwood did, however, win the Future Film Festival Digital Award at the Venice Film Festival for the film.\n\nEastwood directed and scored the crime drama Mystic River (2003), a film dealing with themes of murder, vigilantism and sexual abuse and starring Sean Penn, Kevin Bacon and Tim Robbins. The film was praised by critics and won two Academy Awards – Best Actor for Penn and Best Supporting Actor for Robbins – with Eastwood garnering nominations for Best Director and Best Picture. The film grossed $90million domestically on a budget of $30million. In 2003 Eastwood was named Best Director of the Year by the National Society of Film Critics. \n\nThe following year Eastwood found further critical and commercial success when he directed, produced, scored and starred in the boxing drama Million Dollar Baby, playing a cantankerous trainer who forms a bond with a female boxer (Hilary Swank), whom he is persuaded to train by his longtime friend and employee (Morgan Freeman). The film won four Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress (Swank) and Best Supporting Actor (Freeman). At age 74 Eastwood became the oldest of eighteen directors to have directed two or more Best Picture winners. He also received a nomination for Best Actor, as well as a Grammy nomination for his score, and won a Golden Globe for Best Director, which was presented to him by daughter Kathryn, who was Miss Golden Globe at the 2005 ceremony. A. O. Scott of The New York Times lauded the film as a \"masterpiece\" and the best film of the year. \n\nIn 2006, Eastwood directed two films about World War II's Battle of Iwo Jima. The first, Flags of Our Fathers, focused on the men who raised the American flag on top of Mount Suribachi and featured the film debut of Eastwood's son Scott. This was followed by Letters from Iwo Jima, which dealt with the tactics of the Japanese soldiers on the island and the letters they wrote home to family members. Letters from Iwo Jima was the first American film to depict a war issue completely from the view of an American enemy. Both films received praise from critics and garnered several nominations at the 79th Academy Awards, including Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Original Screenplay for Letters from Iwo Jima. At the 64th Golden Globe Awards Eastwood received nominations for Best Director in both films. Letters from Iwo Jima won the award for Best Foreign Language Film.\n\nEastwood next directed Changeling (2008), based on a true story set in the late 1920s. Angelina Jolie stars as a woman reunited with her missing son only to realize he is an impostor. After its release at several film festivals the film grossed over $110 million, the majority of which came from foreign markets. The film was highly acclaimed, with Damon Wise of Empire describing Changeling as \"flawless\". Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine described it as \"emotionally powerful and stylistically sure-handed\" and that the film's characters and social commentary were brought into the story with an \"almost breathtaking deliberation\". For the film Eastwood received nominations for Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards, Best Direction at the 62nd British Academy Film Awards and director of the year from the London Film Critics' Circle.\n\nEastwood ended a four-year \"self-imposed acting hiatus\" by appearing in Gran Torino, which he also directed, produced and partly scored with his son Kyle and Jamie Cullum. Biographer Marc Eliot called Eastwood's role \"an amalgam of the Man with No Name, Dirty Harry, and William Munny, here aged and cynical but willing and able to fight on whenever the need arose\". Gran Torino grossed almost $30 million during its opening weekend release in January 2009, the highest of his career as an actor or director. Gran Torino eventually grossed over $268 million in theaters worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of Eastwood's career so far (without adjustment for inflation).\n\nEastwood's 30th directorial outing came with Invictus, a film based on the story of the South African team at the 1995 Rugby World Cup, with Morgan Freeman as Nelson Mandela, Matt Damon as rugby team captain François Pienaar and Grant L. Roberts as Ruben Kruger. The film met with generally positive reviews; Roger Ebert gave it three and a half stars and described it as a \"...very good film... with moments evoking great emotion,\" while Variety Todd McCarthy wrote, \"Inspirational on the face of it, Clint Eastwood's film has a predictable trajectory, but every scene brims with surprising details that accumulate into a rich fabric of history, cultural impressions and emotion.\" For the film Eastwood was nominated for Best Director at the 67th Golden Globe Awards.\n\n2010s \n\nIn 2010, Eastwood directed Hereafter, again working with Matt Damon, who portrayed a psychic. The film had its world premiere on September 12, 2010 at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and had a limited release later in October. Hereafter received mixed reviews from critics, with the consensus at Rotten Tomatoes being, \"Despite a thought-provoking premise and Clint Eastwood's typical flair as director, Hereafter fails to generate much compelling drama, straddling the line between poignant sentimentality and hokey tedium.\" In the same year, Eastwood served as executive producer for a Turner Classic Movies (TCM) documentary about jazz pianist Dave Brubeck, Dave Brubeck: In His Own Sweet Way, to commemorate Brubeck's 90th birthday. \n\nIn 2011, Eastwood directed J. Edgar, a biopic of FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, with Leonardo DiCaprio in the title role. The film received mixed reviews, although DiCaprio's performance as Hoover was widely praised. The Rotten Tomatoes consensus was, \"Leonardo DiCaprio gives a predictably powerhouse performance, but J. Edgar stumbles in all other departments\". Roger Ebert wrote that the film is \"fascinating,\" \"masterful,\" and praised DiCaprio's performance. David Edelstein of New York Magazine, while also praising DiCaprio, wrote, \"It's too bad J. Edgar is so shapeless and turgid and ham-handed, so rich in bad lines and worse readings\". In January 2011, it was announced that Eastwood was in talks to direct Beyoncé Knowles in a third remake of the 1937 film A Star Is Born; however, the project was delayed due to Beyoncé's pregnancy. Eastwood then starred in the baseball drama Trouble with the Curve (2012), as a veteran baseball scout who travels with his daughter for a final scouting trip. Robert Lorenz, who worked with Eastwood as an assistant director on several films, directed the film. \n\nDuring Super Bowl XLVI, Eastwood narrated a halftime advertisement for Chrysler titled \"It's Halftime in America\". The advertisement was criticized by several U.S. Republicans, who claimed it implied that President Barack Obama deserved a second term. In response to the criticism, Eastwood stated, \"I am certainly not politically affiliated with Mr. Obama. It was meant to be a message about job growth and the spirit of America.\" \n\nEastwood next directed Jersey Boys, a musical biography based on the Tony Award-winning musical Jersey Boys. The film told the story of the musical group The Four Seasons, and was released on June 20, 2014. \n\nEastwood directed American Sniper, a film adaptation of Chris Kyle's eponymous memoir, following Steven Spielberg's departure from the project. The film was released on December 25, 2014. American Sniper has grossed more than $350 million domestically and over $547 million globally, making it one of Eastwood's biggest movies commercially. \n\nDirecting \n\nBeginning with the thriller Play Misty for Me, Eastwood has directed over 30 films, including Westerns, action films, and dramas. He is one of few top Hollywood actors to have also become a critically and commercially successful director. The New Yorker wrote that, unlike Eastwood, \n\nFrom the very early days of his career Eastwood was frustrated by directors' insistence that scenes be re-shot multiple times and perfected, and when he began directing in 1970, he made a conscious attempt to avoid any aspects of directing he had been indifferent to as an actor. As a result, Eastwood is renowned for his efficient film directing and ability to reduce filming time and control budgets. He usually avoids actors' rehearsing and prefers to complete most scenes on the first take. Eastwood's rapid filmmaking practices have been compared to those of Woody Allen, Ingmar Bergman, Jean-Luc Godard, and the Coen brothers. When acting in others' films he sometimes takes over directing, such as for The Outlaw Josey Wales, if he believes production is too slow. In preparation for filming Eastwood rarely uses storyboards for developing the layout of a shooting schedule. He also attempts to reduce script background details on characters to allow the audience to become more involved in the film, considering their imagination a requirement for a film that connects with viewers. Eastwood has indicated that he lays out a film's plot to provide the audience with necessary details, but not \"so much that it insults their intelligence.\" \n\nAccording to Life magazine, \"Eastwood's style is to shoot first and act afterward. He etches his characters virtually without words. He has developed the art of underplaying to the point that anyone around him who so much as flinches looks hammily histrionic.\" Interviewers Richard Thompson and Tim Hunter note that Eastwood's films are \"superbly paced: unhurried; cool; and [give] a strong sense of real time, regardless of the speed of the narrative\" while Ric Gentry considers Eastwood's pacing \"unrushed and relaxed.\" Eastwood is fond of low-key lighting and back-lighting to give his movies a \"noir-ish\" feel. \n\nEastwood's frequent exploration of ethical values has drawn the attention of scholars, who have explored Eastwood's work from ethical and theological perspectives, including his portrayal of justice, mercy, suicide and the angel of death.Sara Anson Vaux, The Ethical Vision of Clint Eastwood (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011)\n\nPersonal life \n\nRelationships \n\nEastwood married Margaret Neville \"Maggie\" Johnson (then working for an auto parts suppliers company ) on December 19, 1953 in Pasadena. They had met six months earlier on a blind date in Los Angeles, although Eastwood subsequently had a serious relationship with a young woman in Seattle that summer, before Johnson announced her engagement to him in October. The marriage would not prove altogether smooth, Eastwood telling biographer Richard Schickel in the only authorized book ever written about him that he was \"too young, not well enough established.\" A decade later, an ongoing affair Eastwood was involved in (said to have lasted 14 years ) with dancer and Rawhide stuntwoman Roxanne Tunis (who was also married yet separated) produced his earliest confirmed child, daughter Kimber Eastwood (born Kimber Tunis; June 17, 1964), whose existence was kept secret from the public until July 1989, when the National Enquirer revealed her identity. Biographer Marc Eliot wrote of Johnson, \"It is difficult to say for sure that she actually knew about the baby, although it would have been nearly impossible for her not to. Everyone on the set knew ... and it is simply too difficult to keep a secret like that when the mother and the illegitimate child live in the same small town, especially when that small town is Hollywood.\" Actress Barbara Eden, a onetime Rawhide guest star and witness to the affair with Tunis, said of Eastwood's relationship with Johnson: \"They conducted a somewhat open marriage.\" \n\nAccording to biographer Patrick McGilligan, Eastwood had many other affairs, including with co-stars Inger Stevens (Hang 'Em High), Jean Seberg (Paint Your Wagon) and Jo Ann Harris (The Beguiled), as well as actresses Jill Banner, Catherine Deneuve, and Susan St. James, columnist Bridget Byrne, competitive swimmer Anita Lhoest, and singer Keely Smith during his marriage to Johnson, who, after a trial separation and lingering bout of hepatitis in the mid-1960s, expressed her desire to reconcile and start a family. They had two children together: Kyle Eastwood (born May 19, 1968) and Alison Eastwood (born May 22, 1972). At some point in 1972, Eastwood met married actress (later director) Sondra Locke. The two began living together while filming The Outlaw Josey Wales in the autumn of 1975, by which time, according to Locke, \"He had told me that there was no real relationship left between him and Maggie.\" Locke wrote in her autobiography, \"Clint seemed astonished at his need for me, even admitting that he'd never been faithful to one woman — because he'd \"never been in love before,\" he confided. He even made up a song about it: \"She made me monogamous.\" That flattered and delighted me. I would never doubt his faithfulness and his love for me.\" Locke moved into the Sherman Oaks house Eastwood had once shared with Johnson (who by then lived full-time in Pebble Beach ), but felt uncomfortable there because \"psychologically, it would always be Maggie's.\" \"Finally I told Clint that I couldn't live there any longer,\" writes Locke. The couple moved to Bel-Air in a fixer-upper Locke spent three years renovating. She underwent two abortions and a tubal ligation in the late 1970s and was most reluctant about the second abortion, noting \"I couldn't help but think that that baby, with both Clint's and my best qualities, would be extraordinary.\" Johnson made no secret of her dislike for Locke, even though the two women never met. \"Maggie placed severe rules on my relationship with the kids. Apparently, she never forgave me ... After she learned that Clint had taken me onto her property to show me a baby deer that had just been born there, she laid down a rule that I was never to be allowed there again. I was not even allowed to phone the Pebble Beach house.\" In 1978 Johnson filed for legal separation from Eastwood, but did not officially divorce him until May 1984, receiving a reported cash settlement of $25 million. \nLocke never divorced her legal husband, homosexual sculptor Gordon Anderson, who resided with his male companion in a West Hollywood home purchased by Eastwood.\n\nEastwood and Locke went on to star in The Gauntlet, Every Which Way But Loose, Bronco Billy, Any Which Way You Can and Sudden Impact. According to former longtime associate Fritz Manes, as quoted by author McGilligan, Eastwood was devoted to her between 1976 and 1980 at the least, but discreetly kept up several \"maintenance relationships\" (such as with Tunis ) during that period. McGilligan claims Eastwood returned to his \"habitual womanizing\" in the early 1980s, becoming involved with story analyst Megan Rose, actress Jamie Rose (who played a bit part in Tightrope), animal rights activist Jane Brolin (who had intermittent liaisons with Eastwood between the early 1960s and late 1980s ) and Jacelyn Reeves, a stewardess he met at the Hog's Breath Inn, among others. He was still living with Locke when he conceived two children with Reeves: a son Scott Eastwood (born Scott Reeves; March 21, 1986) and daughter Kathryn Eastwood (born Kathryn Reeves; February 2, 1988), whose birth certificates both said \"Father declined.\" The affair with Reeves was not reported anywhere until an exposé article was published in the Star tabloid in 1990, though the children still went unmentioned by mainstream news sources for more than a decade thereafter. Eastwood's relationship with Locke (at the time unaware of his infidelities) ended acrimoniously in April 1989, and the post-breakup litigation dragged on for years. Locke filed a palimony lawsuit against him after he changed the locks on their home and moved her possessions into storage when she was away filming her second directorial effort Impulse. In court, Eastwood downplayed the intensity of their relationship. He described Locke as a \"roommate\" before quickly redescribing her as a \"part-time roommate.\" Locke's estranged brother told The Tennessean that Eastwood still truly loved her, but could no longer take her \"addiction\" to husband Gordon Anderson. Anticipating that Eastwood was going to misrepresent the marriage, Locke asked Anderson to surrender all claims on any of her assets that as her legal spouse he was entitled to. \"In an extraordinary gesture of love and faith in me, Gordon signed away everything without hesitation.\" During the trial, an investigative journalist contacted Locke and informed her of Eastwood's other family. \"I spoke with the nurse in the delivery room, and she confirmed that they are Clint's children. I'll send copies of the birth certificates to you and a photo of Jacelyn, if you want them,\" Locke quotes the informant. \"My mind was still searching to get all his actions lined up. For at least the last four years of our relationship, Clint had been living this double life, going between me and this other woman, and having children with her. Two babies had been born during the last three years of our relationship, and they weren't mine.\" Locke dropped the suit in 1990 in exchange for a directing deal at Warner Bros., but sued Eastwood again for fraud in 1994 when she became convinced the deal was a sham, finally settling out of court in September 1996. Since then, Locke has made discrediting comments about Eastwood. \n\nIn 1990, actress Frances Fisher, whom Eastwood had met on the set of Pink Cadillac in late 1988, moved in with him. Fisher said of dating Eastwood, \"I simply felt that this was it, the big one. I had no idea that every woman he meets probably feels as I did.\" \nThey co-starred in Unforgiven, and had a daughter, Francesca Eastwood (born Francesca Fisher-Eastwood; August 7, 1993). The birth of Francesca marked the first time Eastwood was present for one of his children being born. Eastwood and Fisher ended their relationship in early 1995, after which Fisher said it took two years to complete what she called the grieving process for her shattered dreams. Before she had moved out of Eastwood's home, he was said to already be dating Dina Ruiz, a television news anchor 35 years his junior whom he had first met when she interviewed him in 1993. They married on March 31, 1996, when Eastwood surprised her with a private ceremony at a home on the Shadow Creek Golf Course in Las Vegas. The marriage was noted for the fact that it was only Eastwood's second legal union in spite of his many long-term romances over the decades. Eastwood said of his bride, \"I'm proud to make this lady my wife. She's the one I've been waiting for.\" Ruiz commented, \"The fact that I'm only the second woman he has married really touches me.\" The couple has one daughter, Morgan Eastwood (born December 12, 1996). Ruiz made cameos in two of Eastwood's films, Blood Work and True Crime (in which Fisher even appeared). In the summer of 2012, Dina, Morgan and Francesca starred with the band Overtone in a reality show for the E! network titled Mrs. Eastwood & Company, on which Eastwood appeared only occasionally.\n\nIn August 2013, Dina Eastwood announced that she and her husband had been living separately for an undisclosed length of time. On October 23, 2013, Dina filed for divorce after she withdrew her request for legal separation, citing irreconcilable differences. She asked for full custody of their 16-year-old daughter, Morgan, as well as spousal support. The divorce was finalized in December 2014. Eastwood has since been publicly linked with photographer Erica Tomlinson-Fisher (no relation to Frances), 41 years his junior, and restaurant hostess Christina Sandera, 33 years his junior. He and Sandera went public with their relationship at the 87th Academy Awards in February 2015. \n\nLeisure \n\nDespite smoking in some of his films, Eastwood is a lifelong non-smoker, has been conscious of his health and fitness since he was a teenager, and practices healthful eating and daily Transcendental Meditation. \n\nHe opened an old English-inspired pub called the Hog's Breath Inn in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California in 1971. Eastwood sold the pub and now owns the Mission Ranch Hotel and Restaurant in Carmel-by-the-Sea. \n\nHe is an avid golfer and owns the Tehàma Golf Club. He is an investor in the world-renowned Pebble Beach Golf Links west of Carmel and donates his time to charitable causes at major tournaments. Eastwood is a certified pilot and often flies his helicopter to the studios to avoid traffic. \n\nPolitics \n\nEastwood registered as a Republican to vote for Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and endorsed Richard Nixon's 1968 and 1972 presidential campaigns. However, during the subsequent Watergate scandal, Eastwood criticized Nixon's morality and later his handling of the Vietnam War, calling it \"immoral\". \n\nEastwood has disapproved of America's wars in Korea (1950–1953), Vietnam (1964–1975), Afghanistan (2001–present), and Iraq (2003–2011), believing that the United States should not be overly militaristic or play the role of global policeman. He has referred to himself as \"...too individualistic to be either right-wing or left-wing,\" describing himself in 1974 as \"a political nothing\" and \"a moderate\" and in 1997 as a libertarian. \"I don't see myself as conservative,\" Eastwood has stated, while noting in the same breath that he isn't \"ultra-leftist,\" either. At times, he has supported Democrats in California, including Senator Dianne Feinstein in 1994, liberal United States House of Representatives member Sam Farr in 2002, and Governor Gray Davis, whom he voted for in 1998 and 2002 and hosted pricey fundraisers for in 2002 and 2003. \n\nA self-professed \"liberal on civil rights,\" Eastwood has stated that he is pro-choice on abortion. He has endorsed same-sex marriage and contributed to groups supporting the Equal Rights Amendment for women, which failed to receive ratification in 1982. \n\nIn 1992, Eastwood acknowledged to writer David Breskin that his political views represented a fusion of Milton Friedman and Noam Chomsky and suggested that they would make for a worthwhile presidential ticket. In 1999, Eastwood stated, \"I guess I was a social liberal and fiscal conservative before it became fashionable.\" Ten years later, in 2009, Eastwood said that he was now a registered Libertarian. \n\nDespite being heavily associated with firearms in his Westerns and cop movies, Eastwood has publicly endorsed gun control since at least 1973. In the April 24, 1973, edition of The Washington Post, the star said \"I'm for gun legislation myself. I don't hunt.\" Two years later, in 1975, Eastwood told People magazine that he favors \"gun control to some degree\". About a year later, Eastwood remarked that \"All guns should be registered. I don't think legitimate gun owners would mind that kind of legislation. Right now the furor against a gun law is by gun owners who are overreacting. They're worried that all guns are going to be recalled. It's impossible to take guns out of circulation, and that's why firearms should be registered and mail-order delivery of guns halted.\" In 1993, he noted that he \"...was always a backer\" of the Brady Bill, with its federally mandated waiting period. In 1995, Eastwood questioned the purpose of assault weapons. Larry King, the television host and newspaper columnist, wrote in the May 22, 1995, edition of USA Today that \"My interview with Eastwood will air on 'Larry King Weekend' ... I asked him his thoughts on the NRA and gun control and he said that while people think of him as pro-gun, he has always been in favor of controls. 'Why would anyone need or want an assault weapon?' he said.\" \n\nAs a politician, Eastwood has made successful forays into both local and state government. In April 1986, he won election as mayor (a nonpartisan position) of his adopted hometown, Carmel-by-the-Sea, California – a small, wealthy village and artists' community on the Monterey Peninsula. During his two-year term, Eastwood supported small business interests while advocating environmental protection and constructing a library annex, along with public restrooms, beach walkways, and a tourists' parking lot. In 2001 Eastwood was appointed to the California State Park and Recreation Commission by Governor Davis, then reappointed in 2004 by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. As the vice chairman of the commission, in 2005 along with chairman Bobby Shriver, he led the movement opposed to a six-lane 16 mi extension of California State Route 241, a toll road that would cut through San Onofre State Beach. Eastwood and Shriver supported a 2006 lawsuit to block the toll road and urged the California Coastal Commission to reject the project, which it did in February 2008. In March 2008 Eastwood and Shriver's non-reappointment to the commission on the expiry of their terms prompted the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) to request a legislative investigation into the decision. Governor Schwarzenegger appointed Eastwood to the California Film Commission in April 2004. He was a spokesman for Take Pride in America, an agency of the United States Department of the Interior which advocates taking responsibility for natural, cultural, and historic resources.\n\nDuring the 2008 United States presidential election, Eastwood stated that he would be voting for John McCain, citing the fact that he had known McCain since he returned to the US in 1973 as a recently released POW. Eastwood said of McCain: \"I met him years ago when he first came back from Vietnam. This was back when (Ronald) Reagan was the governor of California and he had a big function for all of the prisoners of war who were released. I thought he was a terrific guy, a real American hero.\" Nevertheless, Eastwood wished Barack Obama well upon his subsequent victory saying, \"Obama is my president now and I am going to be wishing him the very best because it is what is best for all of us.\" Eastwood stated in 2010 of President Obama: \"I think he's a nice fella and I enjoyed watching him come along and I enjoyed watching him campaign and win the job. But I'm not a fan of what he's doing at the moment. ... I just don't think he's governing. I don't think he's surrounded himself with the people he could have surrounded himself with.\" \n\nIn August 2010, Eastwood wrote to the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, to protest the decision to close the UK Film Council, warning the closure could result in fewer foreign production companies choosing to work in Great Britain. \n\nIn January 2011, Eastwood told the UK's Daily Mail that \"I loved the fact that Obama is multi-racial. I thought that was terrific, as my wife is the same racial make-up. But I felt he was a greenhorn, and it turned out he didn't have experience in decision-making.\" As for McCain, Eastwood reflected, \"I voted for McCain, not because he was a Republican, but because he had been through war (in Vietnam) and I thought he might understand the war in Iraq better than somebody who hadn't. I didn't agree with him on a lot of stuff.\" On August 3, 2012, he attended a fundraiser for Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney, suggesting that Romney would boost the country and \"restore a decent tax system ... so that there's a fairness and people are not pitted against one another as [to] who's paying taxes and who isn't.\" During a speech at the 2012 Republican National Convention, Eastwood talked to an empty chair as if President Barack Obama were sitting in it. The speech was met with a huge response by the media with both praise and criticism. Eastwood, who said he came up with the speech 5 seconds before he gave it, said that if he could do it again he would say something different. \"My only message was [that] I wanted people to take the idolizing factor out of every contestant out there. Just look at the work, look at the background, and then make a judgment on that. I was just trying to say that, and did it in kind of a roundabout way which took a lot more time, I suppose, than they would have liked. I'd probably say something else but I'd try to get the same message across so that people don't have to kiss up to politicians. No matter what party they're in, you should evaluate their work and make your judgments accordingly. That's the way to do it in life and every other subject, but sometimes in America we get gaga, we look at the wrong values.\" \n\nBased on his appearance and comments at the 2012 Republican National Convention, some see him as a right-wing poster boy. However, Eastwood said he has always opposed war, and is a pragmatic Libertarian rather than a red-meat Republican. Eastwood further explained his anti-war stance by saying \"I was a child growing up during World War II. That was supposed to be the one to end all wars. And four years later, I was standing at the draft board being drafted during the Korean conflict, and then after that there was Vietnam, and it goes on and on forever … I just wonder … does this ever stop? And no, it doesn't. So each time we get in these conflicts, it deserves a lot of thought before we go wading in or wading out. Going in or coming out. It needs a better thought process, I think.\" Furthermore, Eastwood's 2014 movie American Sniper was met with strong critical praise, especially from many Republicans who called it a Pro-War on Terror, Pro-Republican and a patriotic film; Eastwood responded by saying it was a \"stupid analysis\" and that the movie had nothing to do with political parties. Eastwood responded to critics of American Sniper by saying his film was \"the biggest anti-war statement any film can make\" and that \"the fact of what [war] does to the family and the people who have to go back into civilian life like Chris Kyle did\"\nand \"what it (war) does to the people left behind.\" \n\nMusic \n\nEastwood favors jazz (especially bebop), blues, classic rhythm and blues, classical, and country-and-western music; his favorite musicians include saxophonists Charlie Parker and Lester Young, pianists Thelonious Monk, Oscar Peterson, Dave Brubeck, and Fats Waller, and Delta bluesman Robert Johnson. He is also a pianist and composer. Jazz has played an important role in Eastwood's life from a young age and, although he never made it as a professional musician, he passed on the influence to his son Kyle Eastwood, a successful jazz bassist and composer. Eastwood developed as a boogie-woogie pianist early on and had originally intended to pursue a career in music by studying for a music theory degree after graduating from high school. In late 1959 he produced the album Cowboy Favorites, released on the Cameo label.\n\nEastwood has his own Warner Bros. Records-distributed imprint Malpaso Records, as part of his deal with Warner Brothers, which has released all of the scores of Eastwood's films from The Bridges of Madison County onward. Eastwood co-wrote \"Why Should I Care\" with Linda Thompson and Carole Bayer Sager, which was recorded by Diana Krall. \n\nEastwood composed the film scores of Mystic River, Million Dollar Baby, Flags of Our Fathers, Grace Is Gone, Changeling, Hereafter, J. Edgar, and the original piano compositions for In the Line of Fire. He wrote and performed the song heard over the credits of Gran Torino. \n\nThe music in Grace Is Gone received two Golden Globe nominations by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for the 65th Golden Globe Awards. Eastwood was nominated for Best Original Score, while the song \"Grace is Gone\" with music by Eastwood and lyrics by Carole Bayer Sager was nominated for Best Original Song. It won the Satellite Award for Best Song at the 12th Satellite Awards. Changeling was nominated for Best Score at the 14th Critics' Choice Awards, Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards, and Best Music at the 35th Saturn Awards. On September 22, 2007, Eastwood was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival, on which he serves as an active board member. Upon receiving the award he gave a speech claiming, \"It's one of the great honors I'll cherish in this lifetime.\" \n\nAwards and honors \n\nEastwood has been recognized with multiple awards and nominations for his work in film, television, and music. His widest reception has been in film work, for which he has received Academy Awards, Directors Guild of America Awards, Golden Globe Awards, and People's Choice Awards, among others. Eastwood is one of only two people to have been twice nominated for Best Actor and Best Director for the same film (Unforgiven and Million Dollar Baby) the other being Warren Beatty (Heaven Can Wait and Reds). Along with Beatty, Robert Redford, Richard Attenborough, Kevin Costner, and Mel Gibson, he is one of the few directors best known as an actor to win an Academy Award for directing. On February 27, 2005, he became one of only three living directors (along with Miloš Forman and Francis Ford Coppola) to have directed two Best Picture winners. Aged 74, he was the oldest to date recipient of the Academy Award for Best Director. Eastwood has directed five actors in Academy Award–winning performances: Gene Hackman in Unforgiven, Tim Robbins and Sean Penn in Mystic River, and Morgan Freeman and Hilary Swank in Million Dollar Baby.\n\nOn August 22, 1984, Eastwood was honored at a ceremony at Grauman's Chinese theater to record his hand and footprints in cement. Eastwood received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1996, and received an honorary degree from AFI in 2009. On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Eastwood into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts. \n\nIn early 2007, Eastwood was presented with the highest civilian distinction in France, Légion d'honneur, at a ceremony in Paris. French President Jacques Chirac told Eastwood that he embodied \"the best of Hollywood.\" In October 2009, he was honored by the Lumière Award (in honor of the Lumière Brothers, inventors of the Cinematograph) during the first edition of the Lumière Film Festival in Lyon, France. This award honors his entire career and his major contribution to the 7th Art. In February 2010, Eastwood was recognized by President Barack Obama with an arts and humanities award. Obama described Eastwood's films as \"essays in individuality, hard truths and the essence of what it means to be American.\" \n\nEastwood has also been awarded at least three honorary degrees from universities and colleges, including an honorary degree from the University of the Pacific in 2006, an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California on May 27, 2007, and an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival on September 22, 2007. \n\nOn July 22, 2009, Eastwood was bestowed by Emperor Akihito of Japan with the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon for his contributions to the enhancement of Japan–United States relations. \n\nEastwood won the Golden Pine lifetime achievement award at the 2013 International Samobor Film Music Festival, along with Ryuichi Sakamoto and Gerald Fried. \n\nFilmography \n\nEastwood has contributed to over 50films over his career as actor, director, producer, and composer. He has acted in several television series, including his starring role in Rawhide. He started directing in 1971, and made his debut as a producer in 1982, with Firefox, though he had been functioning as uncredited producer on all of his Malpaso Company films since Hang 'Em High in 1968. Eastwood also has contributed music to his films, either through performing, writing, or composing. He has mainly starred in western, action, and drama films. According to the box office–revenue tracking website Box Office Mojo, films featuring Eastwood have grossed a total of more than $1.68 billion domestically, with an average of $37 million per film." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Crint Eastwood", "Eastwood, Clinton Jr.", "Clinton Eastwood Jr.", "Clinton %22Clint%22 Eastwood, Jr.", "Clinton Eastwood, Jr.", "Francesca Ruth Eastwood", "Clint Eastwood characters", "Clint Eastwood", "Don Runner", "Clint eastwood", "Clinton Eastwood" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "crint eastwood", "clinton eastwood jr", "clinton eastwood", "eastwood clinton jr", "clint eastwood characters", "clinton 22clint 22 eastwood jr", "francesca ruth eastwood", "clint eastwood", "don runner" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "clint eastwood", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Clint Eastwood" }
How did James F Fixx, promoter of jogging for good health, die in 1984?	tc_1360	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jim_Fixx.txt" ], "title": [ "Jim Fixx" ], "wiki_context": [ "James Fuller \"Jim\" Fixx (April 23, 1932 – July 20, 1984) was an American who authored the 1977 best-selling book The Complete Book of Running. He is credited with helping start America's fitness revolution, popularizing the sport of running and demonstrating the health benefits of regular jogging. He died of a heart attack while jogging at 52 years of age. His genetic predisposition for heart problems and other previous lifestyle factors may have caused his heart attack.\n\nLife and work \n\nBorn in New York City, Fixx was a graduate of Trinity School in New York and Oberlin College in Ohio. His father, Calvin Fixx, was an editor at Time who worked with Whittaker Chambers. \n\nFixx was a member of the high-IQ club, Mensa, and published three collections of puzzles: Games for the Super-Intelligent, More Games for the Super-Intelligent, and Solve It! The back flap of his first book says: \"... He spent his time running on the roads and trails near his home, training for the Boston Marathon.\"\n\nFixx started running in 1967 at age 35. He weighed 214 pounds (97 kg) and smoked two packs of cigarettes per day. Ten years later, when his book, The Complete Book of Running (which spent 11 weeks at No. 1 on the best-seller list) was published, he was 60 pounds (27 kg) lighter and smoke-free. In his books and on television talk shows, he extolled the benefits of physical exercise and how it considerably increased the average life expectancy.\n\nThe cover of his book The Complete Book of Running featured Fixx's muscular legs against a red cover. The book sold over a million copies.\n\nIn 1980 Fixx wrote a follow up book titled Jim Fixx's Second Book of Running: The Companion Volume to The Complete Book of Running.\n\nIn 1982 Fixx published Jackpot!, the story of what happened after the publication of The Complete Book of Running when he experienced the \"Great American Fame Machine\", becoming richer and more celebrated than he could have imagined.\n\nMaximum Sports Performance, published posthumously, discusses the physical and psychological benefits of running and other sports, including increased self-esteem, acquiring a \"high\" from running, and being able to cope better with pressure and tension.\n\nDeath\n\nFixx died on July 20, 1984 at age 52 of a fulminant heart attack, after his daily run on Vermont Route 15 in Hardwick. The autopsy revealed that atherosclerosis had blocked one coronary artery 95%, a second 85%, and a third 70%. Still, medical opinion continued to uphold the link between exercise and longevity.\n\nIn 1986 exercise physiologist Kenneth Cooper published an inventory of the risk factors that might have contributed to Fixx's death. Granted access to his medical records and autopsy, and after interviewing his friends and family, Cooper concluded that Fixx was genetically predisposed - his father died of a heart attack at 43 after a previous one at 35, and Fixx himself had a congenitally enlarged heart - and had an unhealthy life: Fixx was a heavy smoker before beginning running at age 36, had a stressful occupation, had undergone a second divorce, and his weight before he took up running had ballooned to 214 pounds (97 kg). \n\nA carved granite monument — a book with an inscription to Jim Fixx from the people of Northeast Scotland — now stands in Hardwick Memorial Park in Hardwick, Vermont. \n\nWorks\n\nFixx, James, Games for the Super-Intelligent (1972) Doubleday\nFixx, James, More Games for the Super-Intelligent (1976) Doubleday\nFixx, James, The Long Distance Runner: A Definitive Study — preface by James Fixx, edited by Paul Milvy (1977) ISBN 0-89396-000-4\nFixx, James, The Complete Book of Running (Hardcover) Random House; first edition (1977) ISBN 0-394-41159-5\nFixx, James, Solve It! by James F. Fixx (1978) Doubleday\nFixx, James, Jim Fixx's Second Book of Running (Hardcover) Random House; first edition (1980) ISBN 0-394-50898-X\nFixx, James, Jackpot! (1982) Random House; ISBN 0-394-50899-8\nFixx, James, (with Nike Sports Research Laboratory) Maximum Sports Performance: How to Achieve Your Full Potential in Speed, Endurance, Strength and Coordination (1985) ISBN 0-394-53682-7\n\nVideos\n\n*Fixx, Jim, Jim Fixx On Running (Laserdisc), MCA Videodisc, Inc.; (1980) Color, 53 minutes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Heart attack while jogging" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "heart attack while jogging" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "heart attack while jogging", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Heart attack while jogging" }
How was Jean Claude Duvalier known before he ws exiled in 1986?	tc_1361	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jean-Claude_Duvalier.txt" ], "title": [ "Jean-Claude Duvalier" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jean-Claude Duvalier, nicknamed “Baby Doc” () (3 July 19514 October 2014), was the President of Haiti from 1971 until his overthrow by a popular uprising in 1986. He succeeded his father François \"Papa Doc\" Duvalier as the ruler of Haiti after the latter's death in 1971. After assuming power, he introduced cosmetic changes to his father's regime and delegated much authority to his advisors. Thousands of Haitians were killed or tortured, and hundreds of thousands fled the country during his presidency. He maintained a notoriously lavish lifestyle (including a state-sponsored US$2million wedding in 1980), and made millions from involvement in the drug trade and from selling body parts from dead Haitians while poverty among his people remained the most widespread of any country in the Western Hemisphere. \n\nRelations with the United States improved after Duvalier's ascension to the presidency, and later deteriorated under the Carter administration, only to again improve under Ronald Reagan due to the strong anti-communist stance of the Duvaliers. Rebellion against the Duvalier regime broke out in 1985 and Baby Doc fled to France in 1986 on a U.S. Air Force craft.\n\nDuvalier unexpectedly returned to Haiti on 16 January 2011, after two decades in self-imposed exile in France. The following day, he was arrested by Haitian police, facing possible charges for embezzlement. On 18 January, Duvalier was charged with corruption. On 28 February 2013, Duvalier pleaded not guilty to charges of corruption and human rights abuse. He died of a heart attack on 4 October 2014, at the age of 63.\n\nEarly life\n\nDuvalier was born in Port-au-Prince and was brought up in an isolated environment. He attended Nouveau College Bird and Saint-Louis de Gonzague. Later, he studied law at the University of Haiti under the direction of several professors, including Maître Gérard Gourgue.\n\nPresident of Haiti\n\nIn April 1971, he assumed the presidency of Haiti at the age of 19 upon the death of his father, François Duvalier (nicknamed \"Papa Doc\"), becoming the world's youngest president. Initially, Jean-Claude Duvalier resisted the dynastic arrangement that had made him Haiti's leader, having preferred that the presidency go to his older sister Marie-Denise Duvalier, and was content to leave substantive and administrative matters in the hands of his mother, Simone Ovide Duvalier, and a committee led by Luckner Cambronne, his father's Interior Minister, while he attended ceremonial functions and lived as a playboy.\n\nPolitical and economic factors\n\nDuvalier was invested with near-absolute power by the constitution. He took some steps to reform the regime, by releasing some political prisoners and easing press censorship. However, there were no substantive changes to the regime's basic character. Opposition was not tolerated, and the legislature remained a rubber stamp.\n\nMuch of the Duvaliers' wealth came from the Régie du Tabac (Tobacco Administration). Duvalier used this \"non-fiscal account\", established decades earlier, as a tobacco monopoly, but he later expanded it to include the proceeds from other government enterprises and used it as a slush fund for which no balance sheets were ever kept.\n\nBy neglecting his role in government, Duvalier squandered considerable domestic and foreign goodwill and facilitated the dominance of Haitian affairs by a clique of hardline Duvalierist cronies, the so-called \"dinosaurs\". Foreign officials and observers also seemed tolerant toward \"Baby Doc\" in areas such as human rights monitoring and foreign countries were more generous to him with economic assistance. The Nixon administration restored the United States aid program for Haiti in 1971.Metz, Helen Chapin, Dominican Republic and Haiti : Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., December 1989, ISBN 0-8444-1044-6.\n\nMarriage\n\nOn 27 May 1980, Duvalier married Michèle Bennett Pasquet in a wedding that cost US$2million. The extravagance of the couple's wedding did not lack local critics, though The Christian Science Monitor reported that \"the event... was enthusiastically received by a majority of Haitians\". Discontent among the business community and elite intensified in response to increased corruption among the Duvaliers and the Bennett family's dealings, which included selling Haitian cadavers to foreign medical schools and trafficking in narcotics. Increased political repression added to the volatility of the situation.\n\nThe marriage also estranged the old-line Duvalierists in the government from the younger technocrats whom Duvalier had appointed, including Jean-Marie Chanoine, Frantz Merceron, Frantz-Robert Estime and Theo Achille. The Duvalierists' spiritual leader, Duvalier's mother, Simone Ovide Duvalier, was eventually expelled from Haiti, reportedly at the request of Michèle Duvalier. With his wife Duvalier had two children, François Nicolas and Anya. \n\nDestabilisation\n\nIn response to an outbreak of African swine fever virus on the island in 1978, U.S. agricultural authorities insisted upon total eradication of Haiti's pig population. The Program for the Eradication of Porcine Swine Fever and for the Development of Pig Raising (PEPPADEP) caused widespread hardship among the peasant population, who bred pigs as an investment. \n\nIn addition, reports that HIV/AIDS was becoming a major problem in Haiti caused tourism to decline dramatically in the early 1980s. By the mid-1980s, most Haitians expressed hopelessness and helplessness, as economic conditions worsened and hunger and malnutrition spread.\n\nWidespread discontent began in March 1983, when Pope John Paul II visited Haiti. The pontiff declared that “things must change in Haiti”, and he called on “all those who have power, riches and culture so that they can understand the serious and urgent responsibility to help their brothers and sisters”. He called for a more equitable distribution of income, a more egalitarian social structure, and increased popular participation in public life. This message revitalized both laymen and clergy, contributed to increased popular mobilization and expanded political and social activism.\n\nA revolt began in the provinces in 1985. The city of Gonaïves was the first to have street demonstrations and raids on food-distribution warehouses. From October 1985 to January 1986, the protests spread to six other cities, including Cap-Haïtien. By the end of that month, Haitians in the south had revolted. The most significant rioting there broke out in Les Cayes.\n\nDuvalier responded with a 10 percent cut in staple food prices, the closing of independent radio stations, a cabinet reshuffle, and a crackdown by police and army units, but these moves failed to dampen the momentum of the popular uprising against the dynastic dictatorship. Duvalier's wife and advisers, intent on maintaining their grip on power, urged him to put down the rebellion and remain in office.\n\nDeparture\n\nIn January 1986, the Reagan administration began to pressure Duvalier to renounce his rule and to leave Haiti. Representatives appointed by Jamaican Prime Minister Edward Seaga served as intermediaries who carried out the negotiations. At this point a number of Duvalierists, and business leaders, met with the Duvaliers and pressed for their departure. The United States rejected a request to provide asylum for Duvalier, but offered to assist with their departure. On 30 January 1986, Duvalier had initially accepted, and President Reagan actually announced his departure based on a report from the Haitian CIA Station Chief who saw Duvalier's car head for the airport. En route, there was gunfire and Duvalier's party returned to the palace unnoticed by the U.S. intelligence team. Duvalier declared \"we are as firm as a monkey tail.\" He departed on 7 February 1986, flying to France in a U.S. Air Force aircraft.\n\nExile\n\nThe Duvaliers settled in France. For a time they lived a luxurious life, but eventually separated on 19 June 1990. Although he formally applied for political asylum, his request was denied by French authorities. Duvalier lost most of his wealth with his 1993 divorce from his wife. While apparently living modestly in exile, Duvalier did have supporters, who founded the François Duvalier Foundation in 2006 to promote positive aspects of the Duvalier presidency, including the creation of most of Haiti's state institutions and improved access to education for the country's black majority. \n\nA private citizen, named Jacques Samyn, unsuccessfully sued to expel Duvalier as an illegal immigrant (the Duvaliers were never officially granted asylum in France). In 1998, a Haitian-born photographer, Gérald Bloncourt, formed a committee in Paris to bring Duvalier to trial. At the time, the French Ministry of the Interior said that it could not verify whether Duvalier still remained in the country due to the recently enacted Schengen Agreement which had abolished systematic border controls between the participating countries.[http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/haiti/baby-doc.htm Haitian exiles want to take “Baby Doc” to court] However, Duvalier's lawyer Sauveur Vaisse said that his client was still in France and denied that the exiled leader had fallen on hard times. \n\nThe 2004 Global Transparency Report listed Duvalier as the sixth most corrupt world leaderbetween Slobodan Milošević and Alberto Fujimorihaving amassed between US$300million and US$800million. \n\nFollowing the ousting of president Jean-Bertrand Aristide in February 2004, Duvalier announced his intention to return to Haiti to run for president in the 2006 elections for the National Unity Party; however, he did not become a candidate.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4253674.stm \"Haiti vote attracts 30 candidates\"], BBC News, 16 September 2005.\n\nOn 22–23 September 2007, an address by Duvalier to Haitians was broadcast by radio. Although he said exile had \"broken\" him, he also said that what he described as the improving fortunes of the National Unity Party had \"reinvigorated\" him, and he urged readiness among his supporters, without saying whether he intended to return to Haiti. President René Préval rejected Duvalier's apology and, on 28 September, he said that, while Duvalier was constitutionally free to return to Haiti, he would face trial if he did so. Duvalier's radio broadcast address was given in French and not Haitian Creole, the language spoken by the majority of Haitians. \n\nIn February 2010, a Swiss court agreed to release more than US$4million to Jean-Claude Duvalier, although the Swiss Foreign Ministry said it would continue to block the release of the money. \n\nDuvalier lived in Paris with Véronique Roy, his longtime companion, until his return to Haiti in late January 2011.\n\nReturn\n\nOn 16 January 2011, during the presidential election campaign, Duvalier returned to Haiti after 25 years. Accompanied by Véronique Roy, he flew in from Paris, indicating that he wanted to help: \"I'm not here for politics. I'm here for the reconstruction of Haiti\", he said. However, many argued that Duvalier returned to Haiti to gain access to the US$4million frozen in the Swiss bank account. Haiti also claimed this money, arguing that the assets were of \"criminal origin\" and should not be returned to Duvalier. By virtue of Swiss law, however, states claiming money in Switzerland have to demonstrate that they have started criminal investigations against offenders holding money in the country. According to an article by Ginger Thompson in The New York Times, \"if Mr. Duvalier had been able to slip into the country and then quietly leave without incident... he may have been able to argue that Haiti was no longer interested in prosecuting him—and that the money should be his.\" According to Mac McClelland of Mother Jones magazine:\n\nThe former dictator was greeted at the Port-au-Prince airport with cheering and celebratory chanting ... The word from Duvalier is that he's come to help his country. According to everyone on the street and on the radio, the Americans and the French conspired to bring him here to upset current president René Préval, who's been accused of fixing his country's recent elections. \n\nOn 18 January 2011, he was taken into custody at his hotel by Haitian authorities. He was charged with corruption, theft, and misappropriation of funds committed during his 15-year presidency. He was released but was subject to recall by the court.\n\nBy 22 September 2011, legal procedures against him appeared to have stalled. He was reported to be living under a loosely enforced house arrest, enjoying a life of luxury in a suburb of Port-au-Prince. By 30 January 2012, it was announced that the former president would face charges of corruption, but not of human right abuses. \n\nAfter the former president failed to appear for three previously scheduled court hearings, a Haitian judge issued a warrant ordering him to appear before the court 28 February 2013. Duvalier did so and for the first time pleaded not guilty to charges of corruption and human rights abuse.\n\nDeath\n\nOn 4 October 2014, Duvalier died of a heart attack at the age of 63." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Jean-Claude Duvalier", "Bébé Doc", "Bebe Doc", "Baby Doc Duvalier", "Jean Claude Duvalier", "Jean-Claude %22Baby Doc%22 Duvalier", "Baby Doc" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "jean claude duvalier", "bebe doc", "baby doc duvalier", "bébé doc", "jean claude 22baby doc 22 duvalier", "baby doc" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "baby doc", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Baby Doc" }
From which UK airport did Virgin Atlantic flights first depart for New York-Newark?	tc_1363	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Airport.txt", "Virgin_Atlantic.txt" ], "title": [ "Airport", "Virgin Atlantic" ], "wiki_context": [ "An airport is an aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals. Larger airports may have fixed-base operator services, airport aprons, taxiway bridges, air traffic control centres, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services.\n\nAn airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called a heliport. An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings, and seaplane docks for tying-up.\n\nAn international airport has additional facilities for customs and passport control.\n\nIn warfare, airports can become the focus of intense fighting, for example the Battle of Tripoli Airport or the Battle for Donetsk Airport, both taking place in 2014. An airport primarily for military use is called an airbase or air station.\n\nMost of the world's airports are owned by local, regional, or national government bodies.\n\nLandside and airside areas\n\nAirports are divided into landside and airside. Landside includes parking lots, public transport railway stations and access roads. Airside includes all areas accessible to aircraft, including runways, taxiways and ramps. Passage between landside and airside is tightly controlled at all airports. To access airside, one must go through Passport Control and Security, this applies to everyone, including staff.\n\nMost major airports provide commercial outlets for products and services. Airports may also contain premium and VIP services. The premium and VIP services may include express check-in and dedicated check-in counters. In addition to people, airports move cargo around the clock. Many large airports are located near railway trunk routes.\n\nAir traffic control presence\n\nThe majority of the world's airports are non-towered, with no air traffic control presence. Busy airports have air traffic control (ATC) system. All airports use a traffic pattern to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft. There are a number of aids available to pilots, though not all airports are equipped with them. Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain, snow, or fog. In the U.S. and Canada, the vast majority of airports, large and small, will either have some form of automated airport weather station, a human observer or a combination of the two. Air safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and airports often have their own safety services.\n\nTerminology \n\nThe terms aerodrome, airfield, and airstrip may also be used to refer to airports, and the terms heliport, seaplane base, and STOLport refer to airports dedicated exclusively to helicopters, seaplanes, or short take-off and landing aircraft.\n\nIn colloquial use, the terms airport and aerodrome are often interchanged. However, in general, the term airport may imply or confer a certain stature upon the aviation facility that an aerodrome may not have achieved. In some jurisdictions, airport is a legal term of art reserved exclusively for those aerodromes certified or licensed as airports by the relevant national aviation authority after meeting specified certification criteria or regulatory requirements. \n\nThat is to say, all airports are aerodromes, but not all aerodromes are airports. In jurisdictions where there is no legal distinction between aerodrome and airport, which term to use in the name of an aerodrome may be a commercial decision. Aerodrome is uncommon in the United States.\n\nInfrastructure \n\nSmaller or less-developed airports, which represent the vast majority, often have a single runway shorter than . Larger airports for airline flights generally have paved runways or longer. Many small airports have dirt, grass, or gravel runways, rather than asphalt or concrete.\n\nIn the United States, the minimum dimensions for dry, hard landing fields are defined by the FAR Landing And Takeoff Field Lengths. These include considerations for safety margins during landing and takeoff. Heavier aircraft require longer runways.\n\nThe longest public-use runway in the world is at Qamdo Bangda Airport in China. It has a length of 5500 m. The world's widest paved runway is at Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport in Russia and is 105 m wide.\n\n, the CIA stated that there were approximately 44,000 \"... airports or airfields recognizable from the air\" around the world, including 15,095 in the US, the US having the most in the world. \n\nAirport ownership and operation \n\nMost of the world's airports are owned by local, regional, or national government bodies who then lease the airport to private corporations who oversee the airport's operation. For example, in the United Kingdom the state-owned British Airports Authority originally operated eight of the nation's major commercial airports - it was subsequently privatized in the late 1980s, and following its takeover by the Spanish Ferrovial consortium in 2006, has been further divested and downsized to operating just five. Germany's Frankfurt Airport is managed by the quasi-private firm Fraport. While in India GMR Group operates, through joint ventures, Indira Gandhi International Airport and Rajiv Gandhi International Airport. Bengaluru International Airport and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport are controlled by GVK Group. The rest of India's airports are managed by the Airports Authority of India.\n\nIn the United States commercial airports are generally operated directly by government entities or government-created airport authorities (also known as port authorities), such as the Los Angeles World Airports authority that oversees several airports in the Greater Los Angeles area, including Los Angeles International Airport.\n\nIn Canada, the federal authority, Transport Canada, divested itself of all but the remotest airports in 1999/2000. Now most airports in Canada are owned and operated by individual legal authorities or are municipally owned.\n\nMany U.S. airports still lease part or all of their facilities to outside firms, who operate functions such as retail management and parking. In the U.S., all commercial airport runways are certified by the FAA under the Code of Federal Regulations Title 14 Part 139, \"Certification of Commercial Service Airports\" but maintained by the local airport under the regulatory authority of the FAA.\n\nDespite the reluctance to privatize airports in the US (despite the FAA sponsoring a privatization program since 1996), the government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO) arrangement is the standard for the operation of commercial airports in the rest of the world.\n\nAirport structures \n\nAirports are divided into landside and airside areas. Landside areas include parking lots, public transportation train stations and access roads. Airside areas include all areas accessible to aircraft, including runways, taxiways and aprons. Access from landside areas to airside areas is tightly controlled at most airports. Passengers on commercial flights access airside areas through terminals, where they can purchase tickets, clear security check, or claim luggage and board aircraft through gates. The waiting areas which provide passenger access to aircraft are typically called concourses, although this term is often used interchangeably with terminal.\n\nThe area where aircraft park next to a terminal to load passengers and baggage is known as a ramp (or incorrectly, \"the tarmac\"). Parking areas for aircraft away from terminals are called aprons.\n\nAirports can be towered or non-towered, depending on air traffic density and available funds. Due to their high capacity and busy airspace, many international airports have air traffic control located on site.\n\nAirports with international flights have customs and immigration facilities. However, as some countries have agreements that allow travel between them without customs and immigrations, such facilities are not a definitive need for an international airport. International flights often require a higher level of physical security, although in recent years, many countries have adopted the same level of security for international and domestic travel.\n\nSome airport structures include on-site hotels built within or attached to a terminal building. Airport hotels have grown popular due to their convenience for transient passengers and easy accessibility to the airport terminal. Many airport hotels also have agreements with airlines to provide overnight lodging for displaced passengers.\n\n\"Floating airports\" are being designed which could be located out at sea and which would use designs such as pneumatic stabilized platform technology.\n\nProducts and services\n\nMost major airports provide commercial outlets for products and services. Most of these companies, many of which are internationally known brands, are located within the departure areas. These include clothing boutiques and restaurants. Prices charged for items sold at these outlets are generally higher than those outside the airport. However, some airports now regulate costs to keep them comparable to \"street prices\". This term is misleading as prices often match the manufacturers' suggested retail price (MSRP) but are almost never discounted.\n\nApart from major fast food chains, some airport restaurants offer regional cuisine specialties for those in transit so that they may sample local food or culture without leaving the airport. \n\nMajor airports in such countries as Russia and Japan offer miniature sleeping units within the airport that are available for rent by the hour. The smallest type is the capsule hotel popular in Japan. A slightly larger variety is known as a sleep box. An even larger type is provided by the company YOTEL.\n\nPremium and VIP services \n\nAirports may also contain premium and VIP services. The premium and VIP services may include express check-in and dedicated check-in counters.\nThese services are usually reserved for First and Business class passengers, premium frequent flyers, and members of the airline's clubs. Premium services may sometimes be open to passengers who are members of a different airline's frequent flyer program. This can sometimes be part of a reciprocal deal, as when multiple airlines are part of the same alliance, or as a ploy to attract premium customers away from rival airlines.\n\nSometimes these premium services will be offered to a non-premium passenger if the airline has made a mistake in handling of the passenger, such as unreasonable delays or mishandling of checked baggage.\n\nAirline lounges frequently offer free or reduced cost food, as well as alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Lounges themselves typically have seating, showers, quiet areas, televisions, computer, Wi-Fi and Internet access, and power outlets that passengers may use for their electronic equipment. Some airline lounges employ baristas, bartenders and gourmet chefs.\n\nAirlines sometimes operate multiple lounges within the one airport terminal allowing ultra-premium customers, such as first class customers, additional services, which are not available to other premium customers. Multiple lounges may also prevent overcrowding of the lounge facilities.\n\nCargo and freight services \n\nIn addition to people, airports move cargo around the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to transfer parcels between ground and air.\n\nCargo Terminal Facilities are areas where international airports export cargo has to be stored after customs clearance and prior to loading on the aircraft. Similarly import cargo that is offloaded needs to be in bond before the consignee decides to take delivery. Areas have to be kept aside for examination of export and import cargo by the airport authorities. Designated areas or sheds may be given to airlines or freight forward ring agencies.\n\nEvery cargo terminal has a landside and an airside. The landside is where the exporters and importers through either their agents or by themselves deliver or collect shipments while the airside is where loads are moved to or from the aircraft. In addition cargo terminals are divided into distinct areas – export, import and interline or transhipment\n\nSupport services \n\nAircraft and Passenger Boarding Bridges Maintenance, Pilot Operations, Commissioning, Training Services, aircraft rental, and hangar rental are most often performed by a fixed-base operator (FBO). At major airports, particularly those used as hubs, airlines may operate their own support facilities.\n\nSome airports, typically military airbases, have long runways used as emergency landing sites. Many airbases have arresting equipment for fast aircraft, known as arresting gear – a strong cable suspended just above the runway and attached to a hydraulic reduction gear mechanism. Together with the landing aircraft's arresting hook, it is used in situations where the aircraft's brakes would be insufficient by themselves.\n\nIn the United States, many larger civilian airports also host an Air National Guard base.\n\nAirport access \n\nMany large airports are located near railway trunk routes for seamless connection of multimodal transport, for instance Frankfurt Airport, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, London Heathrow Airport, London Gatwick Airport and London Stansted Airport. It is also common to connect an airport and a city with rapid transit, light rail lines or other non-road public transport systems. Some examples of this would include the AirTrain JFK at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, Link Light Rail that runs from the heart of downtown Seattle to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, and the Silver Line T at Boston's Logan International Airport by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). Such a connection lowers risk of missed flights due to traffic congestion. Large airports usually have access also through controlled-access highways ('freeways' or 'motorways') from which motor vehicles enter either the departure loop or the arrival loop.\n\nInternal transport \n\nThe distances passengers need to move within a large airport can be substantial. It is common for airports to provide moving walkways and buses. The Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport has a tram that takes people through the concourses and baggage claim. Major airports with more than one terminal offer inter-terminal transportation, such as Mexico City International Airport, where the domestic building of Terminal 1 is connected by Aerotrén to Terminal 2, on the other side of the airport.\n\nHistory and development \n\nThe earliest aircraft takeoff and landing sites were grassy fields. The plane could approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. A slight improvement was the dirt-only field, which eliminated the drag from grass. However, these only functioned well in dry conditions. Later, concrete surfaces would allow landings, rain or shine, day or night.\n\nThe title of \"world's oldest airport\" is disputed, but College Park Airport in Maryland, US, established in 1909 by Wilbur Wright, is generally agreed to be the world's oldest continually operating airfield, although it serves only general aviation traffic. Bisbee-Douglas International Airport in Arizona was declared \"the first international airport of the Americas\" by US president Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1943.\nPearson Field Airport in Vancouver, Washington had a dirigible land in 1905 and planes in 1911 and is still in use. Bremen Airport opened in 1913 and remains in use, although it served as an American military field between 1945 and 1949. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol opened on September 16, 1916 as a military airfield, but only accepted civil aircraft from December 17, 1920, allowing Sydney Airport in Sydney, Australia—which started operations in January 1920—to claim to be one of the world's oldest continually operating commercial airports. Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport in Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Minnesota, opened in 1920 and has been in continuous commercial service since. It serves about 35,000,000 passengers each year and continues to expand, recently opening a new 11,000 foot (3,355 meter) runway. Of the airports constructed during this early period in aviation, it is one of the largest and busiest that is still currently operating. Rome Ciampino Airport, opened 1916, is also a contender, as well as the Don Mueang International Airport near Bangkok, Thailand, which opened in 1914. \nIncreased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the construction of landing fields. Aircraft had to approach these from certain directions and this led to the development of aids for directing the approach and landing slope.\n\nFollowing the war, some of these military airfields added civil facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Paris – Le Bourget Airport at Le Bourget, near Paris. The first airport to operate scheduled international commercial services was Hounslow Heath Aerodrome in August 1919, but it was closed and supplanted by Croydon Airport in March 1920. In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation was opened at Flughafen Devau near what was then Königsberg, East Prussia. The airports of this era used a paved \"apron\", which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier aircraft.\n\nThe first lighting used on an airport was during the latter part of the 1920s; in the 1930s approach lighting came into use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. The colours and flash intervals of these lights became standardized under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was introduced. This consisted of two rows of lights that formed a funnel indicating an aircraft's position on the glideslope. Additional lights indicated incorrect altitude and direction.\n\nAfter World War II, airport design became more sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities. But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.\n\nAn improvement in the landing field was the introduction of grooves in the concrete surface. These run perpendicular to the direction of the landing aircraft and serve to draw off excess water in rainy conditions that could build up in front of the plane's wheels.\n\nAirport construction boomed during the 1960s with the increase in jet aircraft traffic. Runways were extended out to 3000 m. The fields were constructed out of reinforced concrete using a slip-form machine that produces a continual slab with no disruptions along the length. The early 1960s also saw the introduction of jet bridge systems to modern airport terminals, an innovation which eliminated outdoor passenger boarding. These systems became commonplace in the United States by the 1970s.\n\nAirport designation and naming \n\nAirports are uniquely represented by their IATA airport code and ICAO airport code.\n\nMost airport names include the location. Many airport names honour a public figure, commonly a politician (e.g. Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport), a celebrity such as in Liverpool John Lennon Airport or a prominent figure in aviation history of the region (e.g. Will Rogers World Airport).\n\nSome airports have unofficial names, possibly so widely circulated that its official name is little used or even known.\n\nSome airport names include the word \"International\" to indicate their ability to handle international air traffic. This includes some airports that do not have scheduled airline services (e.g. Texel International Airport).\n\nAirport security \n\nAirport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, airport security has dramatically increased.\n\nAirport operations \n\nAir traffic control \n\nThe majority of the world's airports are non-towered, with no air traffic control presence. However, at particularly busy airports, or airports with other special requirements, there is an air traffic control (ATC) system whereby controllers (usually ground-based) direct aircraft movements via radio or other communications links. This coordinated oversight facilitates safety and speed in complex operations where traffic moves in all three dimensions. Air traffic control responsibilities at airports are usually divided into at least two main areas: ground and tower, though a single controller may work both stations. The busiest airports also have clearance delivery, apron control, and other specialized ATC stations.\n\nGround Control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated \"movement areas\", except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks, stair trucks, airline food trucks, conveyor belt vehicles and other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use, which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to takeoff it will stop short of the runway, at which point it will be turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has landed, it will depart the runway and be returned to Ground Control.\n\nTower Control controls aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately surrounding the airport. Tower controllers may use radar to locate an aircraft's position in three-dimensional space, or they may rely on pilot position reports and visual observation. They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the airspace must also contact Tower Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of other traffic.\n\nTraffic pattern \n\nAt all airports the use of a traffic pattern (often called a traffic circuit outside the U.S.) is possible. They may help to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft. There is no technical need within modern aviation for performing this pattern, provided there is no queue. And due to the so-called SLOT-times, the overall traffic planning tend to assure landing queues are avoided. If for instance an aircraft approaches runway 17 (which has a heading of approx. 170 degrees) from the north (coming from 360/0 degrees heading towards 180 degrees), the aircraft will land as fast as possible by just turning 10 degrees and follow the glidepath, without orbit the runway for visual reasons, whenever this is possible. For smaller piston engined airplanes at smaller airfields without ILS equipment, things are very different though.\n\nGenerally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five \"legs\" that form a rectangle (two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs forming three more sides). Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to join and leave the circuit. Traffic patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually 800 or above ground level (AGL). Standard traffic patterns are left-handed, meaning all turns are made to the left. One of the main reason for this is that pilots sit on the left side of the airplane, and a Left-hand patterns improves their visibility of the airport and pattern. Right-handed patterns do exist, usually because of obstacles such as a mountain, or to reduce noise for local residents. The predetermined circuit helps traffic flow smoothly because all pilots know what to expect, and helps reduce the chance of a mid-air collision.\n\nAt extremely large airports, a circuit is in place but not usually used. Rather, aircraft (usually only commercial with long routes) request approach clearance while they are still hours away from the airport, often before they even take off from their departure point. Large airports have a frequency called Clearance Delivery which is used by departing aircraft specifically for this purpose. This then allows aircraft to take the most direct approach path to the runway and land without worrying about interference from other aircraft. While this system keeps the airspace free and is simpler for pilots, it requires detailed knowledge of how aircraft are planning to use the airport ahead of time and is therefore only possible with large commercial airliners on pre-scheduled flights. The system has recently become so advanced that controllers can predict whether an aircraft will be delayed on landing before it even takes off; that aircraft can then be delayed on the ground, rather than wasting expensive fuel waiting in the air.\n\nNavigational aids \n\nThere are a number of aids available to pilots, though not all airports are equipped with them. A visual approach slope indicator (VASI) helps pilots fly the approach for landing. Some airports are equipped with a VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) to help pilots find the direction to the airport. VORs are often accompanied by a distance measuring equipment (DME) to determine the distance to the VOR. VORs are also located off airports, where they serve to provide airways for aircraft to navigate upon. In poor weather, pilots will use an instrument landing system (ILS) to find the runway and fly the correct approach, even if they cannot see the ground. The number of instrument approaches based on the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) is rapidly increasing and may eventually be the primary means for instrument landings.\n\nLarger airports sometimes offer precision approach radar (PAR), but these systems are more common at military air bases than civilian airports. The aircraft's horizontal and vertical movement is tracked via radar, and the controller tells the pilot his position relative to the approach slope. Once the pilots can see the runway lights, they may continue with a visual landing.\n\nTaxiway signs \n\nAirport guidance signs provide direction and information to taxiing aircraft and airport vehicles. Smaller aerodromes may have few or no signs, relying instead on diagrams and charts.\n\nLighting \n\nMany airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain or fog.\n\nOn runways, green lights indicate the beginning of the runway for landing, while red lights indicate the end of the runway. Runway edge lighting consists of white lights spaced out on both sides of the runway, indicating the edge. Some airports have more complicated lighting on the runways including lights that run down the centerline of the runway and lights that help indicate the approach (an approach lighting system, or ALS). Low-traffic airports may use pilot controlled lighting to save electricity and staffing costs.\n\nAlong taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's edge, and some airports have embedded green lights that indicate the centerline.\n\nWeather observations \n\nWeather observations at the airport are crucial to safe takeoffs and landings. In the US and Canada, the vast majority of airports, large and small, will either have some form of automated airport weather station, whether an AWOS, ASOS, or AWSS, a human observer or a combination of the two. These weather observations, predominantly in the METAR format, are available over the radio, through Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), via the ATC or the Flight Service Station.\n\nPlanes take-off and land into the wind in order to achieve maximum performance. Because pilots need instantaneous information during landing, a windsock is also kept in view of the runway.\n\nSafety management \n\nAir safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and almost every airfield includes equipment and procedures for handling emergency situations. Airport crash tender crews are equipped for dealing with airfield accidents, crew and passenger extractions, and the hazards of highly flammable aviation fuel. The crews are also trained to deal with situations such as bomb threats, hijacking, and terrorist activities.\n\nHazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and reduced friction levels due to environmental conditions such as ice, snow, or rain. Part of runway maintenance is airfield rubber removal which helps maintain friction levels. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material does not become a projectile and enter an engine duct (see foreign object damage). In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings.\n\nMany airports are built near open fields or wetlands. These tend to attract bird populations, which can pose a hazard to aircraft in the form of bird strikes. Airport crews often need to discourage birds from taking up residence.\n\nSome airports are located next to parks, golf courses, or other low-density uses of land. Other airports are located near densely populated urban or suburban areas.\n\nAn airport can have areas where collisions between aircraft on the ground tend to occur. Records are kept of any incursions where aircraft or vehicles are in an inappropriate location, allowing these \"hot spots\" to be identified. These locations then undergo special attention by transportation authorities (such as the FAA in the US) and airport administrators.\n\nDuring the 1980s, a phenomenon known as microburst became a growing concern due to aircraft accidents caused by microburst wind shear, such as Delta Air Lines Flight 191. Microburst radar was developed as an aid to safety during landing, giving two to five minutes warning to aircraft in the vicinity of the field of a microburst event.\n\nSome airfields now have a special surface known as soft concrete at the end of the runway (stopway or blastpad) that behaves somewhat like styrofoam, bringing the plane to a relatively rapid halt as the material disintegrates. These surfaces are useful when the runway is located next to a body of water or other hazard, and prevent the planes from overrunning the end of the field.\n\nAirport ground crew \n\nMost airports have groundcrew handling the loading and unloading of passengers, crew, baggage and other services. Some groundcrew are linked to specific airlines operating at the airport.\n\nMany ground crew at the airport work at the aircraft. A tow tractor pulls the aircraft to one of the airbridges, The ground power unit is plugged in. It keeps the electricity running in the plane when it stands at the terminal. The engines are not working, therefore they do not generate the electricity, as they do in flight. The passengers disembark using the airbridge. Mobile stairs can give the ground crew more access to the aircraft's cabin. There is a cleaning service to clean the aircraft after the aircraft lands. Flight catering provides the food and drinks on flights. A toilet waste truck removes the human waste from the tank which holds the waste from the toilets in the aircraft. A water truck fills the water tanks of the aircraft. A fuel transfer vehicle transfers aviation fuel from fuel tanks underground, to the aircraft tanks. A tractor and its dollies bring in luggage from the terminal to the aircraft. They also carry luggage to the terminal if the aircraft has landed, and is being unloaded. Hi-loaders lift the heavy luggage containers to the gate of the cargo hold. The ground crew push the luggage containers into the hold. If it has landed, they rise, the ground crew push the luggage container on the hi-loader, which carries it down. The luggage container is then pushed on one of the tractors dollies. The conveyor, which is a conveyor belt on a truck, brings in the awkwardly shaped, or late luggage. The airbridge is used again by the new passengers to embark the aircraft. The tow tractor pushes the aircraft away from the terminal to a taxi area. The length of time an aircraft remains on the ground in between consecutive flights is known as \"turnaround time\". Airlines pay great attention to minimizing turnaround times in an effort to keep aircraft utilization (flying time) high, with times scheduled as low as 25 minutes for jet aircraft operated by low-cost carriers on narrow-body aircraft.\n\nEnvironmental concerns and sustainability \n\nAircraft noise is a major cause of noise disturbance to residents living near airports. Sleep can be affected if the airports operate night and early morning flights. Aircraft noise not only occurs from take-off and landings, but also ground operations including maintenance and testing of aircraft. Noise can have other noise health effects. Other noise and environmental concerns are vehicle traffic causing noise and pollution on roads leading the airport.\n\nThe construction of new airports or addition of runways to existing airports, is often resisted by local residents because of the effect on countryside, historical sites, local flora and fauna. Due to the risk of collision between birds and aircraft, large airports undertake population control programs where they frighten or shoot birds.\n\nThe construction of airports has been known to change local weather patterns. For example, because they often flatten out large areas, they can be susceptible to fog in areas where fog rarely forms. In addition, they generally replace trees and grass with pavement, they often change drainage patterns in agricultural areas, leading to more flooding, run-off and erosion in the surrounding land.\n\nSome of the airport administrations prepare and publish annual environmental reports in order to show how they consider these environmental concerns in airport management issues and how they protect environment from airport operations. These reports contain all environmental protection measures performed by airport administration in terms of water, air, soil and noise pollution, resource conservation and protection of natural life around the airport.\n\nThe world's first airport to be fully powered by solar energy is located at Kochi, India. Another airport known for considering environmental parameters is the Seymour Airport at Galapagos Islands.\n\nMilitary airbase \n\nAn airbase, sometimes referred to as an air station or airfield, provides basing and support of military aircraft. Some airbases, known as military airports, provide facilities similar to their civilian counterparts. For example, RAF Brize Norton in the UK has a terminal which caters to passengers for the Royal Air Force's scheduled TriStar flights to the Falkland Islands. Some airbases are co-located with civilian airports, sharing the same ATC facilities, runways, taxiways and emergency services, but with separate terminals, parking areas and hangars. Bardufoss Airport , Bardufoss Air Station in Norway and Pune Airport in India are examples of this.\n\nAn aircraft carrier is a warship that functions as a mobile airbase. Aircraft carriers allow a naval force to project air power without having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft. After their development in World War I, aircraft carriers replaced the battleship as the centrepiece of a modern fleet during World War II.\n\nAirports in entertainment \n\nAirports have played major roles in films and television programs due to their very nature as a transport and international hub, and sometimes because of distinctive architectural features of particular airports. One such example of this is The Terminal, a film about a man who becomes permanently grounded in an airport terminal and must survive only on the food and shelter provided by the airport. They are also one of the major elements in movies such as The V.I.P.s, Airplane!, Airport (1970), Die Hard 2, Soul Plane, Jackie Brown, Get Shorty, Home Alone, Liar Liar, Passenger 57, Final Destination (2000), Unaccompanied Minors, Catch Me If You Can, Rendition and The Langoliers. They have also played important parts in television series like Lost, The Amazing Race, America's Next Top Model, Cycle 10 which have significant parts of their story set within airports. In other programmes and films, airports are merely indicative of journeys, e.g. Good Will Hunting.\n\nSeveral computer simulation games put the player in charge of an airport. These include the Airport Tycoon series.\n\nFilming at airports \n\nMost airports welcome filming on site, although it must be agreed in advance and may be subject to a fee. Landside, filming can take place in all public areas. However airside, filming is sometimes heavily restricted. To film in an airside location, all visitors must go through security, the same as passengers, and be accompanied by a full airside pass holder and have photographic identification with them at all times. Filming is sometimes restricted in Security, Immigration/Customs or Baggage Reclaim areas.\n\nAirport directories \n\nEach national aviation authority has a source of information about airports in their country. This will contain information on airport elevation, airport lighting, runway information, communications facilities and frequencies, hours of operation, nearby NAVAIDs and contact information where prior arrangement for landing is necessary.\n* Australia\nInformation can be found on-line in the En route Supplement Australia (ERSA) which is published by Airservices Australia, a government owned corporation charged with managing Australian ATC.\n\n* Brazil\nInfraero is responsible for the airports in Brazil\n\n* Canada\nTwo publications, the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) and the Water Aerodrome Supplement, published by NAV CANADA under the authority of Transport Canada provides equivalent information.\n\n* Europe\nThe European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL) provides an Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP), aeronautical charts and NOTAM services for multiple European countries.\n\n* Germany\nProvided by the Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (Federal Office for Civil Aviation of Germany).\n\n* France\nAviation Generale Delage edited by Delville and published by Breitling.\n\n* The United Kingdom and Ireland\nThe information is found in Pooley's Flight Guide, a publication compiled with the assistance of the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Pooley's also contains information on some continental European airports that are close to Great Britain. National Air Traffic Services, the UK's Air Navigation Service Provider, a public–private partnership also publishes an online AIP for the UK.\n\n* The United States\nThe U.S. uses the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), published in seven volumes. DAFIF also includes extensive airport data.\n\n* Japan\nAeronautical Information Publication (AIP) is provided by Japan Aeronautical Information Service Center, under the authority of Japan Civil Aviation Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan.\n* A comprehensive, consumer/business directory of commercial airports in the world (primarily for airports as businesses, rather than for pilots) is organized by the trade group Airports Council International.", "Virgin Atlantic, a trade name of Virgin Atlantic Airways Limited, is a British airline with its head office in Crawley, United Kingdom. The airline was established in 1984 as British Atlantic Airways, and was originally planned by its co-founders Randolph Fields and Alan Hellary to fly between London and the Falkland Islands. Soon after changing the name to Virgin Atlantic Airways, Fields sold his shares in the company after disagreements with Sir Richard Branson over the management of the company. The maiden flight from London Gatwick to Newark Liberty International Airport took place on 22 June 1984. The airline along with Virgin Holidays is controlled by a holding company, Virgin Atlantic Limited, which is 51% owned by the Virgin Group and 49% by Delta Air Lines. It is administratively separate from other Virgin-branded airlines.\n\nVirgin Atlantic uses a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing wide-body aircraft and operates to destinations in North America, the Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East and Asia from its main bases at London Heathrow and London Gatwick and its secondary base at Manchester. The airline also operates flights from Glasgow and seasonal flights from Belfast.\n\nIn 2012, Virgin Atlantic carried 5.4 million passengers, making it the seventh-largest UK airline in terms of passenger volume. In the year to 31 December 2013, it reported a £51 million group pre-tax loss (approximately US$87 million), however, in the year to 31 December 2014 the airline reported a return to pre-tax profit of £14.4 million. Virgin Atlantic holds a Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) Type A Operating Licence, which permits it to carry passengers, cargo, and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats. \n\nHistory\n\nOrigins\n\nRandolph Fields, an American-born lawyer, and Alan Hellary, a former chief pilot for Laker Airways, set up British Atlantic Airways as a successor to Laker Airways. Fields had the idea for an airline that operates between London and the Falkland Islands in June 1982, when the Falklands War had just finished. Fields needed expertise, and contacted Alan Hellary, who had also been thinking about establishing a regular commercial service to the Falklands. Hellary was in contact with colleagues out of work following the collapse of Laker Airways, and they developed the idea.\n\nHowever, the short runway at Port Stanley Airport and the time it would take to improve it made the scheme unviable, so the idea of the Falklands service was dropped. Instead, Hellary and Fields tried to secure a licence from Gatwick Airport to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City. A three-day inquiry in May 1983 rejected the application after British Airways, British Caledonian, and BAA objected.\n\nHellary and Fields then applied for a licence between Gatwick and Newark, using a 380-seat McDonnell Douglas DC-10. However, faced with the prospect of direct competition from People Express, a post-deregulation \"no frills\" discount airline at Newark, they decided to secure more funding before proceeding.\n\nFields met Richard Branson at a party in London during which he proposed a business partnership. After protracted and testy negotiations, Fields agreed to a reduced stake of 25% in the airline (renamed Virgin Atlantic) and became its first chairman. Following disagreements over operations, Fields agreed to be bought out for an initial sum of £1 million with further payment on Virgin's first dividend. As a result of a High Court action, this additional payment was received shortly before Fields' death in 1997.\n\nFormative years\n\nOn 22 June 1984, Virgin Atlantic operated its inaugural scheduled service between Gatwick and Newark using a leased Boeing 747-200 (registration ), christened Maiden Voyager, formerly operated by Aerolíneas Argentinas. Part of Richard Branson's approach to business is to succeed within the first year or exit the market. This includes a one-year limit on everything associated with starting up. Virgin Atlantic became profitable within the first 12 months, aided by sister company Virgin Records' ability to finance the lease of a secondhand Boeing 747. The firm timed operations to take advantage of a full summer, from June to September, the most profitable period of the year.\n\nIn November 1984 the airline started a service between Gatwick Airport and Maastricht Aachen Airport in the Netherlands using a chartered BAC One-Eleven/ \n\nIn 1986, the airline added another Boeing 747 and started a scheduled route from Gatwick to Miami. Additional aircraft were acquired and routes launched from Gatwick to New York JFK (1988), Tokyo (1989), Los Angeles (1990), Boston (1991), and Orlando (1992). In 1987, a service was launched between Luton and Dublin using Viscount turboprop aircraft, but this was withdrawn around 1990. In 1988, Club Air operated two Boeing 727 jet aircraft on behalf of Virgin. These served the Luton to Dublin route until about 1990.\n\nCompetition\n\nBefore its inception, British Airways had been the only airline from the United Kingdom serving long-haul routes to destinations in North America, the Caribbean, and the Far East since the BA-BCal merger in the late 1980s. In 1991, Virgin was given permission to operate from Heathrow following the abolition of the London Air Traffic Distribution Rules (TDRs) which had governed the distribution of traffic between Heathrow and Gatwick airports since 1978, primarily to bolster the profitability of Gatwick. Airlines without an international scheduled service from Heathrow prior to 1 April 1977 were obliged to operate from Gatwick. However, airlines that did not already operate at Heathrow were still able to begin domestic scheduled services there provided BAA, which ran both Heathrow and Gatwick on behalf of the UK Government, and the Secretary of State for Transport granted permission.\n\nThe Civil Aviation Authority also transferred two pairs of unused landing slots that British Airways held at Tokyo's Narita Airport to Virgin to let it increase its frequency between Heathrow and Tokyo from four to six weekly round trips, making it easier for Virgin to compete against British Airways. The then-Chairman of BA Lord King called the CAA's decision, which the Government had endorsed, \"a confiscation of his company's property\". \n\nIn the year to October 1993, Virgin Atlantic declared a loss of £9.3m. The decision to abolish the London TDRs and to let Virgin Atlantic operate at Heathrow in competition with British Airways became the trigger for BA's so-called \"dirty tricks\" campaign against Virgin. In 1993, BA's public relations director, David Burnside, published an article in BA News, British Airways' internal magazine, which argued that Branson's protests against British Airways were a publicity stunt. Branson sued British Airways for libel, using the services of George Carman QC. BA settled out of court when its lawyers discovered the lengths to which the company had gone in trying to kill off Virgin. British Airways had to pay a legal bill of up to £3 million, damages to Branson of £500,000 and a further £110,000 to his airline. Branson reportedly donated the proceeds from the case to Virgin Atlantic staff. \n\nIn the 1990s, Virgin Atlantic jets were painted with \"No Way BA/AA\" in opposition to the attempted merger between British Airways and American Airlines. In 1997, following British Airways' announcement that it was to remove the Union Flag from its tailfins in favour of world images, Virgin introduced a Union Flag design on the winglets of its aircraft and changed the red dress on the Scarlet Lady on the nose of aircraft to the union flag with the tag line \"Britain's Flag Carrier\". This was a tongue-in-cheek challenge to BA's traditional role as the UK's flag carrier. \n\nIn June 2006, US and UK competition authorities investigated alleged price fixing between Virgin Atlantic and British Airways over passenger fuel surcharges. In August 2007, BA was fined £271 million by the UK Office of Fair Trading (OFT) and the US Department of Justice. However, the Chief Executive of Virgin Atlantic, Steve Ridgway, was forced to admit that the company had been a party to the agreement, had been aware of the price fixing and had taken no steps whatsoever to stop the price fixing. The company escaped a similar fine to that levied on British Airways only by virtue of the immunity it had earlier negotiated with the regulators.\n\nRecent years\n\nIn April 2010, a tip-off from Cathay Pacific led to the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) investigating alleged price fixing between Virgin Atlantic and Cathay Pacific on flights to Hong Kong between 2002 and 2006. Cathay Pacific received immunity from prosecution for reporting the alleged offence. A maximum fine, if found guilty, was 10% of turnover which based on the £2.5 billion in sales for the year to February 2009 would have been £250 million. At the time, the OFT stressed that it should not be assumed that the parties involved had broken the law. The OFT cleared both airlines in December 2012, concluding there were \"no grounds for action\". \n\nIn May 2014, Virgin Atlantic ended flights to Sydney. In September 2014, Virgin Atlantic announced plans to scrap flights to Tokyo, Mumbai, Vancouver and Cape Town and to codeshare transatlantic flights with Delta Air Lines. The company was also reported to be considering axing its new 'Little Red' domestic airline after suffering heavy losses. On 6 October 2014, Virgin Atlantic confirmed that Little Red services between London and Manchester would end in March 2015, with the Scottish routes closing in September 2015. Passengers used the routes from point to point as opposed to using it as a connection for longer haul Virgin Atlantic flights. The former BMI routes will continue with rival airline British Airways.\n\nIn June 2015, Richard Branson admitted that Virgin Atlantic would be in \"real trouble\" without strategic support from Delta Air Lines. With cumulative losses between 2010 and 2013 amounting to £233 million, the future of the 30-year-old airline was in doubt. In the same month, the airline announced it would cut 500 jobs to establish a more efficient management structure. \n\nCorporate affairs\n\nOffices\n\nVirgin Atlantic's head office, known as The Office, is located on a business park in Crawley, England, near Gatwick Airport and also houses the corporate offices of Virgin Holidays. The company operates several offices and call centres around the world, with a large office in Swansea, Wales, which is a base for reservations and sales; baggage claims and tracing; 'live chat' web support, and a customer relations department.\n\nInternational offices are located at Norwalk, Johannesburg, Barbados, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Greater Delhi, Lagos and Dubai. \n\nOwnership\n\nVirgin Group sold a 49% stake in the airline to Singapore Airlines in 1999 for £600 million. On 14 May 2008, Singapore Airlines formally announced an invitation for offers for its Virgin Atlantic stake, and publicly acknowledged that its stake in the airline had \"underperformed\". \n\nIn November 2010 it was reported that Virgin Atlantic had appointed Deutsche Bank to begin a strategic review of options for the airline following the tie-up between British Airways and American Airlines. By February 2011 it was confirmed that SkyTeam members Air France-KLM and Delta Air Lines had appointed Goldman Sachs to advise them on a joint potential approach for Virgin Atlantic. Etihad Airways was also reported to be considering a deal, and Willie Walsh, chief executive of International Airlines Group, stated that they would be interested in the airline, but only for the lucrative take-off and landing slots it holds at Heathrow Airport. \n\nOn 11 December 2012, Delta Air Lines confirmed the purchase of Singapore Airlines' 49% stake in Virgin Atlantic for £224 million, with future plans to develop a transatlantic joint venture. Regulatory approval from the United States and European Union was granted on 20 June 2013, and the purchase was completed on 24 June. In December 2012, International Airlines Group CEO, Willie Walsh, suggested that the loss-making company would be history within five years. \"I can't see Delta wanting to operate the Virgin brand because if they do what does that say about the Delta brand? I just don't see that the guy [Branson] has anything that stands out in terms of what he has achieved in the industry.\" \n\nBusiness trends\n\nThe key trends for Virgin Atlantic are shown below (from 2014 onwards, figures are for year ending December; earlier figures are for year ending February, and exclude Virgin Nigeria operations 2005–2008):\n\nService concept\n\nVirgin Atlantic aircraft operate with a three-class cabin configuration: Economy, Premium Economy, and Upper Class - the business class product. Premium Economy has a separate check-in area, priority boarding and a wider seat with more legroom. Upper Class features a seat that converts into a fully flat bed and access to chauffeur drive. Virgin Atlantic was the first airline to offer personal entertainment for all passengers in all classes.\n\nThe airline's frequent-flyer program is styled 'the Flying Club'.\n\nVirgin Atlantic also maintains ten lounges called 'the Clubhouse' located in London (Heathrow and Gatwick), New York-JFK, Newark, Boston, Washington D. C., San Francisco, Los Angeles, Johannesburg and Hong Kong. They are accessible for passengers travelling in Upper Class and Flying Club Gold Tier members.\n\nLittle Red\n\nBritish Midland International provided domestic and European feeder traffic into Heathrow Airport in partnership with Virgin until it was purchased by British Airways' parent company International Airlines Group in 2011. The Lufthansa-owned airline had faced heavy annual losses of more than £100 million. Under the terms of the takeover, IAG had to relinquish some former BMI domestic slots at Heathrow. Virgin Atlantic purchased enough slots in 2012 to enable it to launch a domestic service on 31 March 2013, under the \"Little Red\" brand, operating a total of 12 daily services from London to Aberdeen (3), Edinburgh (6), and Manchester (3). The airline wet-leased four Airbus Airbus A320-200s from Aer Lingus, operating with Virgin Atlantic livery, under a three-year contract. \n\nIn September 2014, it was reported that Virgin was considering closing its domestic brand after suffering heavy losses, with Civil Aviation Authority figures confirming an average seat occupancy level of just 37.6% in 2013. The 12 daily pairs of take-off and landing slots at Heathrow cannot be sold to be used for long-haul routes. \n\nOn 6 October 2014, Virgin confirmed that the Little Red service would cease; flights to Manchester ended on 28 March 2015 and flights to Edinburgh and Aberdeen ended on 26 September 2015. \n\nDestinations\n\nCodeshare agreements\n\nVirgin Atlantic has codeshare agreements with the following airlines: \n\nFleet\n\nVirgin Atlantic uses a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing aircraft. Boeing 747-400s and Airbus A330-300s are used on selected routes from Gatwick, Glasgow, and Manchester, with the A330 being used on other flights as well. Boeing 747s, Airbus A340s and Airbus A330s are used interchangeably on all routes from Heathrow. In August 2002, Virgin became the first airline to operate the Airbus A340-600. \n\nOn 27 September 2006, Branson announced plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by cutting aircraft weight and fuel consumption. There was also an experiment in 2007 in partnership with Boeing to have aircraft towed to the runway to save fuel, as a potential change to future operational procedures. Virgin also volunteered a Boeing 747 for a test of biofuels in February 2008. The aircraft flew without passengers from Heathrow to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, with 20% of the power for one engine provided by plant-based biofuel. Virgin said that it expected to use algae-based biofuels in the future. \n\nVirgin Atlantic took delivery of its first Boeing 787-9 in October 2014, becoming the first European airline to fly the variant. Virgin's order was first announced on 24 April 2007, and is for a total of 17 aircraft, with options on 5 more. The exercised options will replace the Heathrow-based 747 fleet during 2015 and 2016. Virgin Atlantic also has an order for the Airbus A380-800, with delivery due in 2018. The type was originally projected to enter service in 2006, but a combination of delays in production and Virgin deferring its order has pushed that date back. \n\nThe ageing Airbus A340-300 aircraft were withdrawn from service in April 2015, as rising costs had made it less economical to run the type. Virgin had begun to replace the A340-300 on routes with the two-engine A330-300 and 787-9. The final Virgin Atlantic A340-300 flight was made on 9 April, landing at Heathrow early on 10 April. The A330s, in three-class layout, have been stationed at Heathrow Airport since April 2012. \n\nSir Richard Branson announced in March 2016 that The Spaceship Company would partner with Boom Technology to develop supersonic jets capable of travelling between London and New York in three and a half hours. He confirmed that Virgin Atlantic had options on 10 of the aircraft. \n\nCurrent fleet\n\nVirgin Atlantic's fleet consists of the following registered aircraft as of July 2016: \n\nHistorical fleet\n\nLivery\n\nVirgin's first aircraft were painted with a \"Eurowhite\" design with a red stripe through the centre of the main deck windows. The engines were metallic silver and the tail red with the Virgin logo in white. In the 1990s, the refreshed design was introduced, removing the centre red stripe through the windows, engines were painted red, the Virgin Atlantic titles in grey were added along the main fuselage, and the 'Flying Lady' was introduced to the nose area. In October 2006, with the delivery of G-VRED, Virgin introduced a new design, with the fuselage painted in metallic silver and a revised tail fin, with red and purple features and the Virgin logo. Near the nose of each aircraft is a pin-up girl, the \"Scarlet Lady\", carrying a Union flag, which was designed by British artist Ken White, who modelled the motif on the World War II pin-ups of Alberto Vargas – hence the naming one of the fleet Varga Girl (in this case, an A340-600 registered G-VGAS).\n\nEach aircraft has a name, usually feminine, such as Ladybird, Island Lady, and Ruby Tuesday, but some are linked to registrations (e.g. G-VFIZ became Bubbles). There are a couple of commemorative names (e.g. G-VEIL—Queen of the Skies—which was named by Queen Elizabeth II on 7 April 2004, in celebration of the centenary of the Entente Cordiale; this frame exited the fleet in April 2016). An exception is Spirit of Sir Freddie. An early Boeing 747, it was named in honour of Freddie Laker of Laker Airways, who helped Virgin Atlantic following the demise of his own airline. G-VFAB—Lady Penelope—gained a special livery to celebrate Virgin Atlantic's 21st birthday. G-VFAB, Lady Penelope, exited the fleet in September 2016 after 21 years of service and was subsequently parted out. \n\nThe current livery dates from 2010 and returns to the \"Eurowhite\" design featuring purple billboard titles on the fuselage, slight changes to the Scarlet Lady, and new red metallic paint for the aircraft's tail and engines. On aircraft that have winglets, the wingtips are red, with the Virgin logo on the inside facing passengers on board. The Virgin Atlantic logo was also added in purple billboard titles to the underside of the aircraft. \n\nIncidents and accidents\n\n* On 5 November 1997, after numerous attempts to shake free the jammed main landing gear of an Airbus A340-300 (G-VSKY) failed, the aircraft en route from Los Angeles to Heathrow, made an emergency landing at Heathrow Airport. The aircraft sustained major damage to the undersides of engines 1, 2, and 4, which made contact with the runway surface during landing. The runway surface was also damaged and several runway lights were broken as the right main landing gear wheels broke up during the deceleration. The aircraft was evacuated safely. Two crew members and five passengers sustained minor injuries during the evacuation. The damaged aircraft has been repaired after the incident and was retired from the Virgin Atlantic fleet in 2003. \n* On 8 February 2005, on board an Airbus A340-600 aircraft (G-VATL) en route from Hong Kong to Heathrow, the fuel control computer system caused a loss of automatic fuel transfer between tanks. The left outboard engine lost power, and shortly afterwards the right outboard engine also began to falter until the crew began to crossfeed fuel manually. The crew diverted to Amsterdam and landed safely. The interim accident report made four safety recommendations addressed to the primary certification bodies for large transport category aircraft (EASA and the FAA), advising on the need for a low-fuel warning system for large aircraft." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "London Gatwick North", "Gatwick International Airport", "Gatwick airport shuttle", "Gat- wick", "London Gatwick Airport", "London–Gatwick", "Airport Gatwick", "London Gatwick", "RAF Gatwick", "London-Gatwick", "Gatwick Airport", "London/Gatwick", "London-Gatwick Airport", "Gatwick, England", "EGKK", "Gatwick", "Gatwick Airport monorail", "London gatwick airport", "Gatwick airport transit", "Egkk", "Gat-wick", "London gatwick Airport", "LGW Airport", "London Gatwick International Airport", "Gatwick airport", "London Gatwick airport", "Gatwick Airport transit", "LGW" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "london gatwick", "lgw airport", "gat wick", "gatwick international airport", "london–gatwick", "gatwick airport shuttle", "raf gatwick", "egkk", "lgw", "london gatwick international airport", "gatwick airport transit", "gatwick airport monorail", "airport gatwick", "gatwick england", "gatwick", "gatwick airport", "london gatwick north", "london gatwick airport" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "london gatwick", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "London Gatwick" }
Great Briton fought which country over the Falkland Islands?	tc_1364	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Falkland_Islands.txt" ], "title": [ "Falkland Islands" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Falkland Islands (; ) are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 mi east of South America's southern Patagonian coast, at a latitude of about 52°S. The archipelago, with an area of 4700 sqmi, comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, and the United Kingdom takes responsibility for their defence and foreign affairs. The islands' capital is Stanley on East Falkland.\n\nControversy exists over the Falklands' discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans. At various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, although Argentina maintains its claim to the islands. In April 1982, Argentine forces temporarily occupied the islands. British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War. Most Falklanders favour that the archipelago remain a UK overseas territory, but its sovereignty status is part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom.\n\nThe population (2,932 inhabitants in 2012) primarily consists of native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent. Other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, and Chile has reversed a population decline. The predominant (and official) language is English. Under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens.\n\nThe islands lie on the boundary of the subantarctic oceanic and tundra climate zones, and both major islands have mountain ranges reaching 700 m. They are home to large bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports. Oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe Falkland Islands take their name from the Falkland Sound, a strait separating the archipelago's two main islands. The name \"Falkland\" was applied to the channel by John Strong, captain of an English expedition which landed on the islands in 1690. Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored their journey. The Viscount's title originates from the town of Falkland, Scotland, whose name comes from \"folkland\" (land held by folk-right). The name was not applied to the islands until 1765, when British captain John Byron of the Royal Navy, claimed them for King George III as \"Falkland's Islands\". The term \"Falklands\" is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands.\n\nThe Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from the French Îles Malouines — the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764. Bougainville, who founded the islands' first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo (the point of departure for his ships and colonists). The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was in turn named after St. Malo (or Maclou), the Christian evangelist who founded the city.\n\nAt the twentieth session of the United Nations General Assembly, the Fourth Committee determined that, in all languages other than Spanish, all UN documentation would designate the territory as Falkland Islands (Malvinas). In Spanish, the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas (Falkland Islands). The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands (Malvinas). \n\nHistory \n\nAlthough Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times, the islands were uninhabited at the time of their discovery by Europeans. Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century, but no consensus exists on whether these early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic. The first recorded landing on the islands is attributed to English captain John Strong, who, en route to Peru's and Chile's littoral in 1690, discovered the Falkland Sound and noted the islands' water and game. \n\nThe Falklands remained uninhabited until the 1764 establishment of Port Louis on East Falkland by French captain Louis Antoine de Bougainville, and the 1766 foundation of Port Egmont on Saunders Island by British captain John MacBride. Whether or not the settlements were aware of each other's existence is debated by historians. In 1766, France surrendered its claim on the Falklands to Spain, which renamed the French colony Puerto Soledad the following year. Problems began when Spain discovered and captured Port Egmont in 1770. War was narrowly avoided by its restitution to Britain in 1771.\n\nBoth the British and Spanish settlements coexisted in the archipelago until 1774, when Britain's new economic and strategic considerations led it to voluntarily withdraw from the islands, leaving a plaque claiming the Falklands for King George III. Spain's Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata became the only governmental presence in the territory. West Falkland was left abandoned, and Puerto Soledad became mostly a prison camp. Amid the British invasions of the Río de la Plata during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the islands' governor evacuated the archipelago in 1806; Spain's remaining colonial garrison followed suit in 1811, except for gauchos and fishermen who remained voluntarily.\n\nThereafter, the archipelago was visited only by fishing ships; its political status was undisputed until 1820, when Colonel David Jewett, an American privateer working for the United Provinces of the River Plate, informed anchored ships about Buenos Aires' 1816 claim to Spain's territories in the South Atlantic. Since the islands had no permanent inhabitants, in 1823 Buenos Aires granted German-born merchant Luis Vernet permission to conduct fishing activities and exploit feral cattle in the archipelago. Vernet settled at the ruins of Puerto Soledad in 1826, and accumulated resources on the islands until the venture was secure enough to bring settlers and form a permanent colony. Buenos Aires named Vernet military and civil commander of the islands in 1829, and he attempted to regulate sealing to stop the activities of foreign whalers and sealers. Vernet's venture lasted until a dispute over fishing and hunting rights led to a raid by the American warship USS Lexington in 1831, when United States Navy commander Silas Duncan declared the dissolution of the island's government.\n\nBuenos Aires attempted to retain influence over the settlement by installing a garrison, but a mutiny in 1832 was followed the next year by the arrival of British forces who reasserted Britain's rule. The Argentine Confederation (headed by Buenos Aires Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas) protested Britain's actions, and Argentine governments have continued since then to register official protests against Britain. The British troops departed after completing their mission, leaving the area without formal government. Vernet's deputy, the Scotsman Matthew Brisbane, returned to the islands that year to restore the business, but his efforts ended after, amid unrest at Port Louis, gaucho Antonio Rivero led a group of dissatisfied individuals to murder Brisbane and the settlement's senior leaders; survivors hid in a cave on a nearby island until the British returned and restored order. In 1840, the Falklands became a Crown colony, and Scottish settlers subsequently established an official pastoral community. Four years later, nearly everyone relocated to Port Jackson, considered a better location for government, and merchant Samuel Lafone began a venture to encourage British colonisation. \n\nStanley, as Port Jackson was soon renamed, officially became the seat of government in 1845. Early in its history, Stanley had a negative reputation due to cargo-shipping losses; only in emergencies would ships rounding Cape Horn stop at the port. Nevertheless, the Falklands' geographic location proved ideal for ship repairs and the \"Wrecking Trade\", the business of selling and buying shipwrecks and their cargoes. Aside from this trade, commercial interest in the archipelago was minimal due to the low-value hides of the feral cattle roaming the pastures. Economic growth began only after the Falkland Islands Company, which bought out Lafone's failing enterprise in 1851, successfully introduced Cheviot sheep for wool farming, spurring other farms to follow suit. The high cost of importing materials, combined with the shortage of labour and consequent high wages, meant the ship repair trade became uncompetitive. After 1870, it declined as the replacement of sail ships by steamships was accelerated by the low cost of coal in South America; by 1914, with the opening of the Panama Canal, the trade effectively ended. In 1881, the Falkland Islands became financially independent of Britain. For more than a century, the Falkland Islands Company dominated the trade and employment of the archipelago; in addition, it owned most housing in Stanley, which greatly benefited from the wool trade with the UK.\n\nIn the first half of the 20th century, the Falklands served an important role in Britain's territorial claims to subantarctic islands and a section of Antarctica. The Falklands governed these territories as the Falkland Islands Dependencies starting in 1908, and retained them until their dissolution in 1985. The Falklands also played a minor role in the two world wars as a military base aiding control of the South Atlantic. In the First World War Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, a Royal Navy fleet defeated an Imperial German squadron. In the Second World War, following the December 1939 Battle of the River Plate, the battle-damaged HMS Exeter steamed to the Falklands for repairs. In 1942, a battalion en route to India was redeployed to the Falklands as a garrison amid fears of a Japanese seizure of the archipelago. After the war ended, the Falklands economy was affected by declining wool prices and the political uncertainty resulting from the revived sovereignty dispute between the United Kingdom and Argentina.\n\nSimmering tensions between the UK and Argentina increased during the second half of the century, when Argentine President Juan Perón asserted sovereignty over the archipelago. The sovereignty dispute intensified during the 1960s, shortly after the United Nations passed a resolution on decolonisation which Argentina interpreted as favourable to its position. In 1965, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2065, calling for both states to conduct bilateral negotiations to reach a peaceful settlement of the dispute. From 1966 until 1968, the UK confidentially discussed with Argentina the transfer of the Falklands, assuming its judgement would be accepted by the islanders. An agreement on trade ties between the archipelago and the mainland was reached in 1971 and, consequently, Argentina built a temporary airfield at Stanley in 1972. Nonetheless, Falklander dissent, as expressed by their strong lobby in the UK Parliament, and tensions between the UK and Argentina effectively limited sovereignty negotiations until 1977.\n\nConcerned at the expense of maintaining the Falkland Islands in an era of budget cuts, the UK again considered transferring sovereignty to Argentina in the early Thatcher government. Substantive sovereignty talks again ended by 1981, and the dispute escalated with passing time. In April 1982, the disagreement became an armed conflict when Argentina invaded the Falklands and other British territories in the South Atlantic, briefly occupying them until a UK expeditionary force retook the territories in June. After the war, the United Kingdom expanded its military presence, building RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the size of its garrison. The war also left some 117 minefields containing nearly 20,000 mines of various types, including anti-vehicle and anti-personnel mines. Due to the large number of deminer casualties, initial attempts to clear the mines ceased in 1983.\n\nBased on Lord Shackleton's recommendations, the Falklands diversified from a sheep-based monoculture into an economy of tourism and, with the establishment of the Falklands Exclusive Economic Zone, fisheries. The road network was also made more extensive, and the construction of RAF Mount Pleasant allowed access to long haul flights. Oil exploration has also begun, with indications of possible commercially exploitable deposits in the Falklands basin. Landmine clearance work restarted in 2009, in accordance with the UK's obligations under the Ottawa Treaty, and Sapper Hill Corral was cleared of mines in 2012, allowing access to an important historical landmark for the first time in 30 years. Argentina and the UK re-established diplomatic relations in 1990; relations have since deteriorated as neither has agreed on the terms of future sovereignty discussions. Disputes between the governments have led \"some analysts [to] predict a growing conflict of interest between Argentina and Great Britain ... because of the recent expansion of the fishing industry in the waters surrounding the Falklands\".\n\nGovernment \n\nThe Falkland Islands are a self-governing British Overseas Territory. Under the 2009 Constitution, the islands have full internal self-government; the UK is responsible for foreign affairs, retaining the power \"to protect UK interests and to ensure the overall good governance of the territory\". The Monarch of the United Kingdom is the head of state, and executive authority is exercised on the monarch's behalf by the Governor, who in turn appoints the islands' Chief Executive on the advice of members of the Legislative Assembly. Both the Governor and Chief Executive serve as the head of government. Governor Colin Roberts was appointed in April 2014; Chief Executive Keith Padgett was appointed in March 2012. The UK minister responsible for the Falkland Islands since 2012, Hugo Swire, administers British foreign policy regarding the islands. \n\nThe Governor acts on the advice of the islands' Executive Council, composed of the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance and three elected members of the Legislative Assembly (with the Governor as chairman). The Legislative Assembly, a unicameral legislature, consists of the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance and eight members (five from Stanley and three from Camp) elected to four-year terms by universal suffrage. All politicians in the Falkland Islands are independent; no political parties exist on the islands. Since the 2013 general election, members of the Legislative Assembly have received a salary and are expected to work full-time and give up all previously held jobs or business interests. \n\nDue to its link to the UK, the Falklands are part of the overseas countries and territories of the European Union. The islands' judicial system, overseen by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, is largely based on English law, and the constitution binds the territory to the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights. Residents have the right of appeal to the European Court of Human Rights and the Privy Council. Law enforcement is the responsibility of the Royal Falkland Islands Police (RFIP), and military defence of the islands is provided by the United Kingdom. A British military garrison is stationed on the islands, and the Falkland Islands government funds an additional company-sized light infantry Falkland Islands Defence Force. The territorial waters of the Falklands extend to 200 nmi from its coastal baselines, based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; this border overlaps with the maritime boundary of Argentina. \n\nSovereignty dispute \n\nThe United Kingdom and Argentina both claim the Falkland Islands. The UK's position is that the Falklanders have not indicated a desire for change, and that there are no pending issues to resolve concerning the islands. The UK bases its position on its continuous administration of the islands since 1833 (except for 1982) and the islanders' \"right to self-determination as set out in the UN Charter\". Argentine policy maintains that Falkland Islanders do not have a right to self-determination, claiming that in 1833 the UK expelled Argentine authorities (and settlers) from the Falklands with a threat of \"greater force\" and, afterwards, barred Argentines from resettling the islands. Argentina posits that it acquired the Falklands from Spain when it achieved independence in 1816, and that the UK illegally occupied them in 1833. \n\nIn 2009, British prime minister Gordon Brown had a meeting with Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, and said that there would be no further talks over the sovereignty of the Falklands. In March 2013, the Falkland Islands held a referendum on its political status, with 99.8 percent of voters favoured remaining under British rule. Argentina does not recognise the Falkland Islands as a partner in negotiations; consequently, it dismissed the Falkland Islands' sovereignty referendum. \n\nGeography \n\nThe Falkland Islands have a land area of and a coastline estimated at 800 mi. Two main islands, West Falkland and East Falkland, and about 776 smaller islands constitute the archipelago. The islands are predominantly mountainous and hilly, with the major exception the depressed plains of Lafonia (a peninsula forming the southern part of East Falkland). The Falklands are continental crust fragments resulting from the break-up of Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic that began 130 million years ago. The islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean, on the Patagonian Shelf, about 300 mi east of Patagonia in southern Argentina.\n\nThe Falklands are situated approximately at latitude – and longitude – . The archipelago's two main islands are separated by the Falkland Sound, and its deep coastal indentations form natural harbours. East Falkland houses Stanley (the capital and largest settlement), the UK military base at RAF Mount Pleasant, and the archipelago's highest point: Mount Usborne, at 705 m. Outside of these significant settlements is the area colloquially known as \"Camp\", which is derived from the Spanish term for countryside (Campo).\n\nThe climate of the islands is cold, windy and humid maritime. Variability of daily weather is typical throughout the archipelago. Rainfall is common over half of the year, averaging 610 mm in Stanley, and sporadic light snowfall occurs nearly all year. The temperature is generally between in Stanley, but can vary to 9 C early in the year and in July. Strong westerly winds and cloudy skies are common. Although numerous storms are recorded each month, conditions are normally calm.\n\nBiodiversity \n\nThe Falkland Islands are a biogeographical part of the mild Antarctic zone, with strong connections to the flora and fauna of Patagonia in mainland South America. Land birds make up most of the Falklands' avifauna; 63 species breed on the islands, including 16 endemic species. There is also abundant arthropod diversity on the islands. The Falklands' flora consists of 163 native vascular species. The islands' only native terrestrial mammal, the warrah, was hunted to extinction by European settlers.\n\nThe islands are frequented by marine mammals, such as the southern elephant seal and the South American fur seal, and various types of cetaceans; offshore islands house the rare striated caracara. The Falklands are also home to five different penguin species and a few of the largest albatross colonies on the planet. Endemic fish around the islands are primarily from the genus Galaxias. The Falklands are treeless and have a wind-resistant vegetation predominantly composed of a variety of dwarf shrubs.\n\nVirtually the entire land area of the islands is used as pasture for sheep. Introduced species include reindeer, hares, rabbits, Patagonian foxes, brown rats and cats. The detrimental impact several of these species have caused to native flora and fauna has led authorities to attempt to contain, remove or exterminate invasive species such as foxes, rabbits and rats. Endemic land animals have been the most affected by introduced species. The extent of human impact on the Falklands is unclear, since there is little long-term data on habitat change.\n\nEconomy \n\nThe economy of the Falkland Islands is ranked the largest out of 229 in the world by GDP (PPP), but ranks worldwide by GDP (PPP) per capita. The unemployment rate was 4.1 percent in 2010, and inflation was last calculated at 1.2 percent rate in 2003. Based on 2010 data, the islands have a high Human Development Index of 0.874 and a moderate Gini coefficient for income inequality of 34.17. The local currency is the Falkland Islands pound, which is pegged to the British pound sterling. \n\nEconomic development was advanced by ship resupplying and sheep farming for high-quality wool. The main sheep breeds in the Falkland Islands are Polwarth and Corriedale. During the 1980s, although synthetic fibres and ranch underinvestment hurt the sheep-farming sector, the government established a major revenue stream with the establishment of an exclusive economic zone and the sale of fishing licenses to \"anybody wishing to fish within this zone\". Since the end of the Falklands War in 1982, the islands' economic activity has increasingly focused on oil field exploration and tourism.\n\nThe port city of Stanley has regained the islands' economic focus, with an increase in population as workers migrate from Camp. Fear of dependence on fishing licences and threats from overfishing, illegal fishing and fish market price fluctuations have increased interest on oil drilling as an alternative source of revenue; exploration efforts have yet to find \"exploitable reserves\". Development projects in education and sports have been funded by the Falklands government, without aid from the United Kingdom.\n\nThe primary sector of the economy accounts for most of the Falkland Islands' gross domestic product, with the fishing industry alone contributing between 50% and 60% of annual GDP; agriculture also contributes significantly to GDP and employs about a tenth of the population. A little over a quarter of the workforce serves the Falkland Islands government, making it the archipelago's largest employer. Tourism, part of the service economy, has been spurred by increased interest in Antarctic exploration and the creation of direct air links with the United Kingdom and South America. Tourists, mostly cruise ship passengers, are attracted by the archipelago's wildlife and environment, as well as activities such as fishing and wreck diving; the majority are based in accommodation found in Stanley. The islands' major exports include wool, hides, venison, fish and squid; its main imports include fuel, building materials and clothing.\n\nDemographics \n\nThe Falkland Islands are a homogeneous society, with the majority of inhabitants descended from Scottish and Welsh immigrants who settled the territory in 1833. The 2006 census listed some Falklands residents as descendants of French, Gibraltarians and Scandinavians. That census indicated that one-third of residents were born on the archipelago, with foreign-born residents assimilated into local culture. The legal term for the right of residence is \"belonging to the islands\". The British Nationality Act of 1983 gave British citizenship to Falkland Islanders.\n\nA significant population decline affected the archipelago in the twentieth century, with many young islanders moving overseas in search of education, a modern lifestyle, and better job opportunities, particularly to the British city of Southampton, which came to be nicknamed \"Stanley north\". In recent years, the island's population decline has steadied, thanks to immigrants from the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, and Chile. In the 2012 census, a majority of residents listed their nationality as Falkland Islander (59 percent), followed by British (29 percent), Saint Helenian (9.8 percent), and Chilean (5.4 percent). A small number of Argentines also live on the islands. \n\nThe Falkland Islands have a low population density. According to the 2012 census, the average daily population of the Falklands was 2,932, excluding military personnel serving in the archipelago and their dependents. A 2012 report counted 1,300 uniformed personnel and 50 British Ministry of Defence civil servants present in the Falklands. Stanley (with 2,121 residents) is the most-populous location on the archipelago, followed by Mount Pleasant (369 residents, primarily air-base contractors) and Camp (351 residents). The islands' age distribution is skewed towards working age . Males outnumber females (53 to 47 percent), and this discrepancy is most prominent in the age group. In the 2006 census most islanders identified themselves as Christian (67.2 percent), followed by those who refused to answer or had no religious affiliation (31.5 percent). The remaining 1.3 percent (39 people) were adherents of other faiths.\n\nEducation in the Falkland Islands, which follows England's system, is free and compulsory for residents aged between 5 and 16 years. Primary education is available at Stanley, RAF Mount Pleasant (for children of service personnel) and a number of rural settlements. Secondary education is only available in Stanley, which offers boarding facilities and 12 subjects to General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level. Students aged 16 or older may study at colleges in England for their GCE Advanced Level or vocational qualifications. The Falkland Islands government pays for older students to attend institutions of higher education, usually in the United Kingdom.\n\nCulture \n\nFalklands culture is \"based on the British culture brought with the settlers from the British Isles\", although it has been influenced by the cultures of Hispanic South America. Some terms and place names used by the islands' former Gaucho inhabitants are still applied in local speech. The Falklands' predominant and official language is English, with the foremost dialect being British English; nonetheless, inhabitants also speak Spanish and other languages. According to naturalist Will Wagstaff, \"the Falkland Islands are a very social place, and stopping for a chat is a way of life\".\n\nThe islands have two weekly newspapers: Teaberry Express and The Penguin News, and television and radio broadcasts generally feature programming from the United Kingdom. Wagstaff describes local cuisine as \"very British in character with much use made of the homegrown vegetables, local lamb, mutton, beef, and fish\". Common between meals are \"home made cakes and biscuits with tea or coffee\". Social activities are, according to Wagstaff, \"typical of that of a small British town with a variety of clubs and organisations covering many aspects of community life\"." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Arxintina", "Argintina", "Argentyna", "آرژانتین", "República Argentina", "Land of silver", "Argentina", "ארגנטינה", "Arghantina", "Republica Argentina", "Argentine republic", "Аргентына", "Nación Argentina", "Argentinien", "Nacion Argentina", "Argie", "アルゼンチン", "Airgintín", "Аржентина", "Argentína", "Argentine Republic", "Argentīna", "Argentinean", "Argentiina", "The Argentine Republic", "Arxentina", "Արգենտինա", "Arc'hantina", "Argies", "Antonia Merce Y Luque", "People of Argintina", "ISO 3166-1:AR", "Argentinië", "אַרגענטינע", "Arjantin", "अर्जेन्टीना", "الأرجنتين", "Argentina Information", "Republic of Argentina", "Ariannin", "Argentina Republic", "Argentinie", "Argentinia", "Airgintin", "Argjentina" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "arxentina", "argentina information", "argentinie", "nacion argentina", "argentyna", "people of argintina", "argjentina", "republica argentina", "antonia merce y luque", "argentína", "arc hantina", "ariannin", "argies", "argentinean", "airgintín", "argentīna", "iso 3166 1 ar", "arjantin", "república argentina", "argentinien", "արգենտինա", "airgintin", "nación argentina", "argentinia", "argentina", "arxintina", "アルゼンチン", "republic of argentina", "argentina republic", "אַרגענטינע", "argintina", "अर्जेन्टीना", "argentine republic", "argentiina", "آرژانتین", "аргентына", "arghantina", "argie", "аржентина", "argentinië", "ארגנטינה", "الأرجنتين", "land of silver" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "argentina", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Argentina" }
Which oil tanker disastrously ran aground off 'Brittany in 1987?	tc_1367	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Brittany.txt", "March_16.txt" ], "title": [ "Brittany", "March 16" ], "wiki_context": [ "Brittany (; ; , pronounced or; Gallo: Bertaèyn, pronounced) is a cultural region in the north-west of France. Covering the western part of Armorica, as it was known during the period of Roman occupation, Brittany subsequently became an independent kingdom and then a duchy before being united with the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province governed as if it were a separate nation under the crown. Brittany has also been referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain (as opposed to Great Britain). It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Bay of Biscay to the south. Its land area is 34,023 km² .\n\nThe historical province of Brittany is now split among five French departments: Finistère in the west, Côtes-d'Armor in the north, Ille-et-Vilaine in the north east, Loire-Atlantique in the south east and Morbihan in the south on the Bay of Biscay. Since reorganisation in 1956, the modern administrative region of Brittany comprises only four of the five Breton departments, or 80% of historical Brittany. The remaining area of old Brittany, the Loire-Atlantique department around Nantes, now forms part of the Pays de la Loire region.\n\nAt the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. Of these, 71% lived in the region of Brittany, while 29% lived in the Loire-Atlantique department. In 2012, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes (897,713 inhabitants), Rennes (690,467 inhabitants), and Brest (314,844 inhabitants). Brittany is the traditional homeland of the Breton people and is recognised by the Celtic League as one of the six Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic. \n\nEtymology\n\nThe word \"Brittany\", along with its French, Breton and Gallo equivalents \"Bretagne\", \"Breizh\" and \"Bertaèyn\", derive from the Latin Britannia, which means \"Britons' land\". This word has been used by the Romans since the 1st century to name Great Britain, and more specifically the Roman province of Britain. This word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανικη (Prettanike) or Βρεττανίαι (Brettaniai), used by Pytheas, an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Islands around 320 BC.\n\nThe Romans called Brittany Armorica, together with a quite indefinite region that extended along the Channel coast from the Seine estuary to the Loire estuary, and according to several sources, maybe along the Atlantic coast to the Garonne estuary. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, aremorica, which means \"close to the sea\". Another name, Letauia (in English \"Litavis\"), was used until the 12th century. It possibly means \"wide and flat\" or \"to expand\" and it gave the Welsh name for Brittany: Llydaw. \n\nAfter the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many Britons settled in the Western part of Armorica, and the region started to be called Britannia, although this name only replaced Armorica in the sixth century or perhaps by the end of the fifth. Later, authors like Geoffrey of Monmouth used the terms Britannia minor and Britannia major to distinguish Brittany from Britain.\n\nBreton speaking people may pronounce the word \"Breizh\" in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two main dialects: the KLT (Kerne-Leon-Tregor) and the dialect of Vannes. KLT speakers pronounce it and would write it \"Breiz\", while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it and would write it \"Breih\". The official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a z and an h together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called \"Breton zh\", a standard which has never been widely accepted. On its side, Gallo language has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written \"Bertaèyn\" in ELG script, or \"Bertègn\" in MOGA, and a couple of other scripts also exist. \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistoric origins\n\nBrittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic. The first settlers were Neanderthals. This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe. Their only original feature was a distinct culture, called \"Colombanian\". One of the oldest hearths in the world has been found in Plouhinec, Finistère. It is 450,000 years old.\n\nHomo sapiens settled in Brittany around 35,000 years ago. They replaced or absorbed the Neanderthals and developed local industries, similar to the Châtelperronian or to the Magdalenian. After the last glacial period, the warmer climate allowed the area to become heavily wooded. At that time, Brittany was populated by relatively large communities who started to change their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farmers. Agriculture was introduced during the 5th millennium BC by migrants who came from the South and the East. However, the Neolithic Revolution in Brittany did not happen due to a radical change of population, but by slow immigration and exchange of skills.\n\nNeolithic Brittany is characterised by an important megalithic production, and it is sometimes designated as the \"core area\" of megalithic culture. The oldest monuments, cairns, were followed by princely tombs and stone rows. The Morbihan département, on the southern coast, comprises a large share of these structures, including the Carnac stones and the Broken Menhir of Er Grah in Locmariaquer, the largest single stone erected by Neolithic people.\n\nGallic era\n\nDuring the protohistorical period, Brittany was inhabited by five Celtic tribes: \n* The Curiosolitae, who lived around the present town of Corseul. Their territory encompassed parts of Côtes-d'Armor, Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan départements.\n* The Namnetes, who lived in the current Loire-Atlantique département (in today's administrative région of Pays de la Loire), north of the Loire. They gave their name to the city of Nantes. The south bank of the river was occupied by an allied tribe, the Ambilatres, whose existence and territory remain unsure.\n* The Osismii, who lived in the western part of Brittany. Their territory comprised the Finistère département and the western extremity of Côtes-d'Armor and Morbihan.\n* The Redones (or Rhedones), who lived in the eastern part of the Ille-et-Vilaine département. They gave their name to the city of Rennes (Roazhon in Breton language, in the center of the département) and to the town of Redon (in the south of the département, bordering the département of Loire-Atlantique in the administrative région of Pays de la Loire, where its suburb town of Saint-Nicolas-de-Redon is located; however the city of Redon was founded around AD 832 under the initial name of Riedones, long after the Redones people were assimilated to Bretons ; the cultural link between Riedones and the former Redones people is highly probable but difficult to recover and the name of Riedones may have been written from a local usage preserving the name of the former people in the vernacular oral language from a reading of an ancient Greek othography).\n* The Veneti, who lived in the present Morbihan département and gave their name to the city of Vannes. Despite confusion by the classical scholar Strabo, they were unrelated to the Adriatic Veneti.\n\nThose people had strong economic ties to the Insular Celts, especially for the tin trade. Several tribes also belonged to an \"Armorican confederation\" which, according to Julius Caesar, gathered the Curiosolitae, the Redones, the Osismii, the Unelli, the Caletes, the Lemovices and the Ambibarii. The last four peoples mentioned by J. Caesar were respectively located in Cotentin (Lower-Normandy), pays de Caux (Upper-Normandy), Limousin (Aquitany) and the location of the Ambibarii is unknown. The Caletes are sometimes also considered as Belgians and ″Lemovices″ is probably a mistake for ″Lexovii″ (Lower-Normandy).\n\nGallo-Roman era\n\nThe region became part of the Roman Republic in 51 BC. It was included in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis in 13 BC. Gallic towns and villages were redeveloped according to Roman standards, and several cities were created. These cities are Condate (Rennes), Vorgium (Carhaix), Darioritum (Vannes) and Condevincum or Condevicnum (Nantes). Together with Fanum Martis (Corseul), they were the capitals of the local civitates. They all had a grid plan and a forum, and sometimes a temple, a basilica, thermae or an aqueduct, like Carhaix. The Romans also built three major roads through the region. However, most of the population remained rural. The free peasants lived in small huts, whereas the landowners and their employees lived in proper villae rusticae. The Gallic deities continued to be worshiped, and were often assimilated to the Roman gods. Only a small number of statues depicting Roman gods were found in Brittany, and most of the time they combine Celtic elements. \n\nDuring the 3rd century AD, the region was attacked several times by Franks, Alamanni and pirates. At the same time, the local economy collapsed and many rural exploitations were abandoned. To face the invasions, many towns and cities were fortified, like Nantes, Rennes and Vannes.\n\nImmigration of Britons\n\nToward the end of the 4th century, the Britons of what is now Wales and the South-Western peninsula of England began to emigrate to Armorica. The history behind such an establishment is unclear, but medieval Breton, Angevin and Welsh sources connect it to a figure known as Conan Meriadoc. Welsh literary sources assert that Conan came to Armorica on the orders of the Roman usurper Magnus Maximus, who sent some of his British troops to Gaul to enforce his claims and settled them in Armorica. This account was supported by the Counts of Anjou, who claimed descent from a Roman soldier expelled from Lower Brittany by Conan on Magnus's orders. Regardless of the truth of this story, Brythonic (British Celtic) settlement probably increased during the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. Scholars such as Léon Fleuriot have suggested a two-wave model of migration from Britain which saw the emergence of an independent Breton people and established the dominance of the Brythonic Breton language in Armorica. Their petty kingdoms are now known by the names of the French counties that succeeded them—Domnonée (Devon), Cornouaille (Cornwall), Léon (Caerleon); but these names in Breton and Latin are in most cases identical to their British homelands. (In Breton and French, however, Gwened or Vannetais continued the name of the indigenous Veneti.) Although the details remain confused, these colonies consisted of related and intermarried dynasties which repeatedly unified (as by the 7th-century Saint Judicaël) before splintering again according to Celtic inheritance practices. The area was finally consolidated in the 840s under Nominoe in resistance to Frankish control. Among the immigrant Britons, there were some clergymen who helped the evangelisation of the region, which was still pagan, particularly in rural areas.\n\nBattle of the Catalaunian Plains\n\nThe army recruited for Flavius Aetius to combat Attila the Hun at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains included Romans, Visigoths, Franks, Alans and Armoricans, amongst others. The Alans were placed front and centre, opposite the Huns. The Armoricans supplied archers who attacked the Huns' front lines during the main battle and thwarted Attila's night assault on the Roman camp with a hail of arrows \"like rain\". After the battle was won, Aetius sent the Alans to Armorica and Galicia.\n\nRiothamus\n\nThe late 5th century the Brittonic leader Riothamus received correspondence from the eminent Roman jurist Sidonius Apollinaris and was called \"King of the Britons\" by Jordanes. Some suggest that he was a Breton, though others believe that he was from Britain, pointing to the passage that he arrived in the land of the Biturges \"by way of Ocean\", which would hardly have been efficient or required for a Breton. Both historians describe Riothamus's losing battle against King Euric of the Visigoths at Déols around the year 470. In response to a plea from the Roman Emperor Anthemius, Riothamus had led twelve thousand men to establish a military presence in Bourges in central Gaul, but was betrayed by Arvandus, the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and subsequently ambushed by Euric's army. After a long battle, the Armorican surivivors escaped to Avallon in Burgundy, after which they are lost to history. According to Breton king-lists, Riotham survived and reigned as Prince of Domnonia until his death sometime between 500 and 520, though this may have been a different person.\n\nMiddle Ages\n\nAt the beginning of the medieval era, Brittany was divided between three kingdoms, Domnonea, Cornouaille and Broërec. These realms eventually merged into a single state during the 9th century. The unification of Brittany was carried out by Nominoe, king between 845 and 851 and considered as the Breton pater patriae. His son Erispoe secured the independence of the new kingdom of Brittany and won the Battle of Jengland against Charles the Bald. The Bretons won another war in 867, and the kingdom reached then its maximum extent: it received parts of Normandy, Maine and Anjou and the Channel Islands.\n\nBrittany was heavily attacked by the Vikings at the beginning of the 10th century. The kingdom lost its eastern territories, including Normandy and Anjou, and the county of Nantes was given to Fulk I of Anjou in 909. However, Nantes was seized by the Vikings in 914, and was eventually liberated by Alan II of Brittany in 937 with the support of his god-brother King Æthelstan of England. Alan II totally expelled the Vikings from Brittany and recreated a strong Breton state. He paid homage to Louis IV of France (who was Æthelstan's nephew and had returned from England in the same year as Alan II) and thus Brittany ceased to be a kingdom and became a duchy.\n\nSeveral Breton lords helped William the Conqueror to invade England and received large estates there (e.g. William's double-second cousin Alan Rufus and the latter's brother Brian of Brittany). Some of these lords were powerful rivals. Medieval Brittany was far from being a united nation. The French king maintained envoys in Brittany, alliances contracted by local lords often overlapped and there was no specific Breton consciousness. For example, Brittany replaced Latin with French as its official language in the 13th century, 300 years before France did so itself, and the Breton language never had any formal status. The foreign policy of the duchy changed many times; the dukes were usually independent but they often contracted alliances with England or France. Their support for each nation became very important during the 14th century, because the English kings then started to claim the French throne.\n\nThe Breton War of Succession, a local episode of the Hundred Years War, saw the House of Blois, backed by the French, fighting with the House of Montfort, backed by the English. The Montforts won in 1364 and enjoyed a period of total independence until the end of the Hundred Years' War, because France was weakened and stopped sending royal envoys to the Court of Brittany. English diplomatic failures led to the Breton cavalry commanders Arthur, Comte de Richemont (later to become Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) and his nephew Peter II, Duke of Brittany playing key roles on the French side during the deciding stages of the War (the Battle of Patay, the Treaty of Arras (1435), the Battle of Formigny and the Battle of Castillon). However, Brittany lost the Mad War against France in 1488, mostly because of its internal divisions which were exacerbated by the corruption at the court of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Indeed, some Breton lords were fighting on the French side.\n\nUnion with the French Crown and modern period\n\nAfter the Mad War, the duke Francis II could not marry off his daughter Anne without the King of France's consent. Nonetheless, she married the Holy Roman Emperor in 1490, but this led to a severe crisis with France. Charles VIII of France besieged Rennes and had the marriage cancelled. He eventually married Anne of Brittany. After he died childless, the duchess had to marry his heir and cousin Louis XII. Anne unsuccessfully tried to preserve Breton independence, but she died in 1514 and the union between the two crowns was formally carried out by Francis I in 1532. He granted several privileges to Brittany, such as exemption from the gabelle, a tax on salt which was very unpopular in France. Under the Ancien Régime, Brittany and France were governed as separate countries under the same crown, so Breton aristocrats in the French royal court were classed as Princes étrangers (foreign princes).\n\nFrom the 15th to the 18th century, Brittany reached an economic golden age. The region was located on the seaways between Spain, England and the Netherlands and it greatly benefited from the creation of a French colonial empire. Local seaports like Brest and Saint-Brieuc quickly expanded, and Lorient, first spelled \"L'Orient\", was founded in the 17th century. Saint-Malo was then known for its corsairs, Brest was a major base for the French Navy and Nantes flourished with the Atlantic slave trade. On its side, the inland provided hemp ropes and canvas and linen sheets. However, Colbertism, which encouraged the creation of many factories, did not favour the Breton industry because most of the royal factories were opened in other provinces. Moreover, several conflicts between France and England led the latter to restrain its trade, and the Breton economy went into recession during the 18th century.\n\nTwo significant revolts occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries: the Revolt of the papier timbré (1675) and the Pontcallec Conspiracy (1719). Both arose from attempts to resist centralisation and assert Breton constitutional exceptions to tax. \n\nMany Bretons crossed the Atlantic to support the American War of Independence. These included many sailors such as Armand de Kersaint and soldiers such as Charles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la Rouerie.\n\nSince 1789\n\nDespite early Breton support for the ideals of the French Revolution, the Duchy was legally abolished during the Revolution, in 1789, and divided into five departments. Brittany also lost all its privileges. Three years later, the area became a centre of royalist and Catholic resistance to the Revolution during the Chouannerie. During the 19th century, Brittany remained in economic recession, and many Bretons emigrated to other French regions, particularly to Paris. This trend remained strong until the beginning of the 20th century. Nonetheless, the region was also modernising, with new roads and railways being built, and some places being industrialised. Nantes specialised in shipbuilding and food processing (sugar, exotic fruits and vegetables, fish...), Fougères in glass and shoe production, and metallurgy was practised in small towns such as Châteaubriant and Lochrist, known for its labour movements.\n\nThe region remained deeply Catholic, and during the Second Empire, the conservative values were strongly reasserted. When the Republic was re-established in 1871, there were rumours that Breton troops were mistrusted and mistreated at Camp Conlie during the Franco-Prussian War because of fears that they were a threat to the Republic. \n\nDuring the 19th century, the Breton language started to decline precipitously, mainly because of the Francization policy conducted under the Third Republic. On one hand, children were not allowed to speak Breton at school, and were punished by teachers if they did. Famously, signs in schools read: \"It is forbidden to speak Breton and to spit on the floor\" (\"Il est interdit de parler Breton et de cracher par terre\"). On the other hand, Breton (like Latin) was considered as a language that kept Brittany in the hands of the Roman Catholic church and learning French was a way, especially for women, to free themselves from the influence of the church. As a result, a generation of native Breton speakers were made to feel ashamed of their language and avoided speaking it or teaching it to their children. These factors contributed to the decline of Breton. \n\nAt the same time, the Celtic Revival led to the foundation of the Breton Regionalist Union (URB) and later to independence movements linked to Irish, Welsh and Scottish independence parties in the UK and to pan-Celticism. However, the audience of these movements remained very low and their ideas did not reach a large public until the 20th century. The Seiz Breur movement, created in 1923, permitted a Breton artistic revival but its ties with Nazism and the collaborationism of the Breton National Party during World War II weakened Breton nationalism in the post-war period.\n\nBrittany lost 240,000 men during the First World War. The Second World War was also catastrophic for the region. It was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1940 and freed after Operation Cobra in August 1944. However, the areas around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient only surrendered on 10 and 11 May 1945, several days after the German capitulation. The two towns had been virtually destroyed by Allied air raids, like Brest and Saint-Malo, and other towns, such as Nantes and Rennes, had also suffered.\n\nIn 1956, Brittany was legally reconstituted as the Region of Brittany, although the region excluded the ducal capital of Nantes and the surrounding area. Nevertheless, Brittany retained its cultural distinctiveness, and a new cultural revival emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Bilingual schools were opened, singers started to write songs in Breton, and ecological catastrophes such as the Amoco Cadiz oil spill or the Erika oil spill and water pollution because of intensive pig farming favoured new movements to protect the natural heritage.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nTraditional subdivisions\n\nBrittany as a political entity disappeared in 1790, when it was divided into five départements. The Breton départements more or less correspond to the nine Catholic dioceses that appeared at the beginning of the Middle Ages. They were often called \"pays\" or \"bro\" (\"country\" in French and Breton) and they also served as fiscal and military districts. Brittany is also divided between Lower Brittany (\"Basse Bretagne\" and \"Breizh Izel\"), corresponding to the western half, where Breton is traditionally spoken, and Upper Brittany (\"Haute Bretagne\" and \"Breizh Uhel\"), corresponding to the eastern half, where Gallo is traditionally spoken. The historical Breton dioceses were:\n\nUpper Brittany:\nThe Pays nantais, around Nantes, corresponding to the Loire-Atlantique département.\nThe Pays rennais, around Rennes, forming part of the Ille-et-Vilaine département.\nThe Pays de Dol, around Dol-de-Bretagne, corresponding to the northern part of the Ille-et-Vilaine département.\nThe Pays de Saint-Brieuc, around Saint-Brieuc, forming part of the Côtes-d'Armor département.\nThe Pays de Saint-Malo, around Saint-Malo, divided between Ille-et-Vilaine, Côtes-d'Armor and Morbihan.\nLower Brittany:\nThe Pays vannetais, around Vannes, corresponding to the Morbihan département.\nThe Cornouaille, around Quimper, divided between Finistère and Côtes-d'Armor.\nThe Léon, around Saint-Pol-de-Léon, corresponding to the northern part of the Finistère département.\nThe Trégor, around Tréguier, forming part of the Côtes-d'Armor département.\n\nDuring the French Revolution, four dioceses were suppressed and the five remaining ones were modified to have the same administrative borders as the départements.\n\nCapital cities\n\nBrittany has several historical capital cities. When it was an independent duchy, the Estates of Brittany, which can be compared to a parliament, met in various towns: Dinan, Ploërmel, Redon, Rennes, Vitré, Guérande, and, most of all, Vannes, where they met 19 times, and Nantes, 17 times. The Court and the government were also very mobile, and each dynasty favoured its own castles and estates. The dukes mostly lived in Nantes, Vannes, Redon, Rennes, Fougères, Dol-de-Bretagne, Dinan and Guérande. It is interesting to notice that all these towns except Vannes are located in Upper Brittany, thus not in the Breton speaking area.\n\nAmong all these towns, only Nantes, Rennes and Vannes, which were the biggest ones, could really pretend to the capital status. The dukes were crowned in Rennes and they had a large castle there; it was however destroyed during the 15th century. Vannes, on its side, was the seat of the Chamber of Accounts and of the Parliament until the union with France. The Parliament was then transferred to Rennes, and the Chamber of Accounts to Nantes. Nantes, nicknamed \"the city of the Dukes of Brittany\", was also the permanent residence of the last dukes. The Château des ducs de Bretagne still stands in the city centre. Nowadays, Rennes is the only official capital of the region of Brittany. It is also the seat of an ecclesiastical province encompassing Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region.\n\nPresent subdivisions\n\nDuring the French Revolution, Brittany was divided into five départements, each made up of three or four arrondissements. The arrondissements are further divided in cantons, which are themselves made up of one or several communes. The communes and the départements have a local council elected by their citizens, but arrondissements and cantons are not run by elected officials. The cantons serve as an electoral district for the election of the département councils and arrondissements are run by a subprefect appointed by the French president. The president also appoints a prefect in each département.\n\nBecause the départements are small and numerous, the French government tried to create wider regions during the 20th century. For the Breton nationalists, it was an occasion to recreate Brittany as a political and administrative entity, but the new region had to be economically efficient. Nantes and its département, Loire-Atlantique, raised concerns because they were off-centered, more integrated with the Loire Valley than with the Breton peninsula. The French government and local politicians also feared that Nantes, because of its population and its former Breton capital status, would have maintained a harmful competition with Rennes to get the regional institutions and investments.\n\nSeveral drafts for French regions had been proposed since the 1920s, and the definitive regions were drawn in 1956. The new Brittany had four départements, and Loire-Atlantique formed the Pays de la Loire region together with parts of Anjou, Maine and Poitou. In 1972, the regions received their present competencies, with an elected regional council. Since then, the region of Brittany has had its own council and administrative bodies.\n\nReunification\n\nWhen the region of Brittany was created, several local politicians opposed the exclusion of Loire-Atlantique, and the question still remains.\n\nThe obstacles to reunification are the same as in 1956: having Nantes in Brittany could harm the position of Rennes and create an economic imbalance between Lower and Upper Brittany. Moreover, the Pays de la Loire region could not exist without Loire-Atlantique, because it would lose its political and economic capital. Without Loire-Atlantique, the other départements would not form an efficient region any more, and would have to integrate neighbouring regions such as the Centre-Val de Loire and Poitou-Charentes.\n\nHowever, several institutions have backed the reunification, such as the regional council of Brittany since 2008 and the Loire-Atlantique council since 2001. Some politicians like Jean-Marc Ayrault, the French prime minister and former mayor of Nantes, favour instead the creation of a \"Greater West region\", which would encompass Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region. Polls show that 58% of the Bretons and 62% of the inhabitants in Loire-Atlantique favour the reunification. \n\nPolitical tendencies\n\nUntil the end of the 20th century, Brittany had been characterised by a strong Catholic and conservative influence. However, some areas such as the industrial region around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient and the surroundings of Tréguier are traditional Socialist and Communist strongholds. Left-wing parties, mainly the Socialist party and the Greens, have become more and more powerful after the 1970s and they have formed a majority in the Regional Council of Brittany since 2004. The Loire-Atlantique and Ille-et-Vilaine councils have also been held by the left since 2004. The Socialist party has held the Côtes-d'Armor council since 1976, and the Finistère council since 1998. On its side, Morbihan remains a right-wing stronghold. The local parties have a very small audience, except the Union Démocratique Bretonne which has seats at the Regional Council and in other local assemblies. It advocates more autonomy for the region and its positions are very close to the Socialist parties. It also has a strong ecological orientation. The audience of far-right parties is lower in Brittany than in the rest of France. \n\nGeography and natural history\n\nBrittany is the largest French peninsula. It is around 34030 km2 and stretches towards the northwest and the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered to the north by the English Channel, to the south by the Bay of Biscay and the waters located between the western coast and Ushant island form the Iroise Sea.\n\nThe Breton coast is very indented, with many cliffs, rias and capes. The Gulf of Morbihan is a vast natural harbour with some forty islands that is almost a closed sea. In total, around 800 islands lie off the mainland; the largest being Belle Île, in the south. Brittany has over 2860 km of coastline; it represents a third of the total French coastline.\n\nThe region is generally hilly because it corresponds to the western end of the Armorican massif, a very old range that also extends in Normandy and the Pays de la Loire region. Because of this continuity, the Breton border with the rest of France is not marked by any strong geographical landmark, apart from the river Couesnon, which separates Brittany from Normandy.\n\nThe Armorican massif reaches its maximal elevation outside of Brittany, in neighbouring Mayenne, at 417 m, and slopes towards the west before straightening on its western extremity, with the Montagnes Noires and the Monts d'Arrée. The highest hill in Brittany is the Roc'h Ruz in the Monts d'Arrée, at 385 m. It is closely followed by several neighbouring hills culminating at around 384 m above sea level. \n\nCoastal areas are usually named Armor or Arvor (\"by the sea\" in Breton), and the inland is called Argoat (\"by the forest\"). The best soils were primitively covered by large forests which had been progressively replaced by bocage during the Middle Ages. The Breton bocage, with its small fields enclosed by thick hedgerows, has almost disappeared since the 1960s to fit the modern agricultural needs and methods, particularly mechanisation.\n\nSeveral forests still exist, such as the Paimpont forest, sometimes said to be the Arthurian Brocéliande. The poor and rocky areas are covered by large heathland and moorlands, and Brittany has several marshes, like the Brière, included in a Regional natural park. Another regional park encompasses the Monts d'Arrée and the Iroise seacoast. The Iroise Sea is also a UNESCO biosphere reserve.\n\nGeology\n\nThe Breton peninsula appeared during the Cadomian Orogeny, which formed its northern coastline, between Guingamp and Fougères. The southern part emerged during the Hercynian orogeny. At the same time, an intense volcanic activity left large quantities of granite. Between the Cadomian and Hercynian periods, the region was submerged several times and the sea left fossils and sedimentary rocks, mostly schist and sandstone. Because of the absence of limestone, soils in Brittany are usually acid. The Armorican massif straightened and flattened several times during the formation of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Changes in sea levels and climate led to a strong erosion and to the formation of more sedimentary rocks. Metamorphism is responsible for the distinctive local blue schist and for the rich subsoil of the Groix island, which comprises glaucophane and epidote. \n\nDuring the Quaternary glaciations, Brittany was covered by loess and rivers started to fill the valleys with alluvial deposits. The valleys themselves were a result of a strong tectonic activity between the African and the Eurasian plate. The present Breton landscape did not acquired its final shape before one million years ago. The Breton subsoil is characterised by a huge amount of fractures that form a large aquifer containing several millions square meters of water.\n\nClimate\n\nBrittany lies within the north temperate zone. It has a changeable, maritime climate, similar to Cornwall. Rainfall occurs regularly but sunny, cloudless days are also common. In the summer months, temperatures in the region can reach 30 °C, yet the climate remains comfortable, especially when compared to the French regions located south of the Loire. The temperature difference between summer and winter is about fifteen degrees, but it varies depending on the proximity of the sea. The weather is generally milder on the seacoast than inland but rainfall occurs with the same intensity on both. The Monts d'Arrée, despite their low elevation, have much more rainfall than the rest of the region. The south coast, between Lorient and Pornic, enjoys more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year. \n\nFlora and fauna\n\nBrittany's wildlife is typical of France with several distinctions. On one hand, the region, due to its long coastline, has a rich oceanic fauna, and some birds cannot be seen in other French regions. On the other hand, the species found in the inland are usually common for France, and because Brittany is a peninsula, the number of species is lower in its western extremity than in the eastern part.\n\nA variety of seabirds can be seen close to the seaside, which is home to colonies of cormorants, gulls, razorbills, northern gannets, common murres and Atlantic puffins. Most of these birds breed on isolated islands and rocks and thus are hard to observe. The inland is home to common European species: pheasants, swallows, woodcocks, common swifts, partridges... \n\nLike Cornwall, Wales and Ireland, the waters of Brittany attract marine animals including basking sharks, grey seals, leatherback turtles, dolphins, porpoises, jellyfish, crabs and lobsters. Bass is common along the coast, small-spotted catsharks live on the continental shelf, rattails and anglerfish populate the deep waters. River fish of note include trout, Atlantic salmon, pikes, shades and lampreys. The Breton rivers are also home to beavers and otters and to some invasive American species, such as the coypu which destroys the ecosystem and accelerated the extinction of the European mink. \n\nAmong the invertebrates, Brittany is notably home to the escargot de Quimper, the freshwater pearl mussel and the white-clawed crayfish. The larger Breton mammals died out during the modern period, including the wolf. Today, mammals of note include roe deer, wild boar, foxes, hares and several species of bat. \n\nBrittany is widely known for the Breton horse, a local breed of draft horse, and for the Brittany gun dog. The region also has its own breeds of cattle, some of which are on the brink of extinction: the Bretonne pie noir, the Froment du Léon, the Armorican and the Nantaise.\n\nThe Breton forests, dunes, moorlands and marshes are home to several iconic plants, such as endemic cistus, aster and linaria varieties, the horseshoe vetch and the lotus maritimus. \n\nEducation\n\nBrittany has the same education system as the rest of France. As in other French regions, formal education before the 19th century was the preserve of the elite. Before 1460, Brittany did not have a university, and Breton students had to go to Angers, Poitiers or Caen. The University of Nantes was founded under the duke Francis II, who wanted to affirm the Breton independence from France. All the traditional disciplines were taught there: arts, theology, law and medicine. During the 17th century, it had around 1,500 students. It declined during the 18th century, mostly because Nantes was flourishing with the Atlantic slave trade and paid no attention to its cultural institutions. A mayor eventually asked the university to be relocated to Rennes, more devoted to culture and science, and the faculties progressively moved there after 1735. The transfer was interrupted by the French Revolution, and all the French universities were dissolved in 1793.\n\nNapoleon reorganised the French education system in 1808. He created new universities and invented two secondary education institutions: the \"collèges\" and the \"lycées\" which were opened in numerous towns to educate boys and form a new elite. A new University of Rennes was progressively recreated during the 19th century. In the meantime, several laws were promoted to open schools, notably for girls. In 1882, Jules Ferry succeeded in passing a law which made primary education in France free, non-clerical (laïque) and mandatory. Thus, free schools were opened in almost every villages of Brittany. Jules Ferry also promoted education policies establishing French language as the language of the Republic, and mandatory education was a mean to eradicate regional languages and dialects. In Brittany, it was forbidden for the pupils to speak Breton or Gallo, and the two were strongly depreciated. Humiliating practices aimed at stamping out the Breton language and culture prevailed in state schools until the late 1960s. In response, the Diwan schools were founded in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion. They have taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school, and they have gained more and more fame owing to their high level of results in school exams. A bilingual approach has also been implemented in some state schools after 1979, and some Catholic schools have done the same after 1990. Besides, Brittany, with the neighbouring Pays de la Loire region, remains a stronghold for Catholic private education with around 1,400 schools. \n\nDuring the 20th century, tertiary education was developed with the creation of the École centrale de Nantes in 1919, the University of Nantes in 1961, the ESC Bretagne Brest in 1962, the University of Western Brittany in 1971 and the University of Southern Brittany in 1995. The Catholic University of the West, based in Angers, also opened classes in several Breton towns. In 1969, the University of Rennes was divided between the University of Rennes 1 and the University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany. After the Second World War, the Ecole Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr, the foremost French military academy, settled in Coëtquidan.\n\nEconomy\n\nBrittany, apart from some areas such as Lorient, Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, has never been heavily industrialised. Today, fishing and agriculture remain important activities. Brittany has more than 40,000 agricultural exploitations, mostly oriented towards cattle, pig and poultry breeding, and cereals and vegetables production. The number of exploitations tends to diminish, but as a result, they are merged into very large estates. Brittany is the first producer in France for vegetables (green beans, onions, artichokes, potatoes, tomatoes...). Cereals are mostly grown for cattle feeding. Wine, especially muscadet, is made in a small region south of Nantes. Brittany is the first region in France for fishing. The activity employs around 9,000 people, and more than 60 firms work in fish and seafood processing. \n\nAlthough relatively new, the Breton industry has been constantly growing since 1980. Food processing (meat, vegetables...) represents a third of the industrial jobs, but other activities are also important for the local economy. Shipbuilding, both commercial and military, is implanted in Saint-Nazaire (Chantiers de l'Atlantique), Lorient and Brest; Airbus has plants in Saint-Nazaire and Nantes; and Peugeot has a large factory in Rennes. Brittany is the second French region for telecommunication and the fifth for electronics, two activities mainly developed in Rennes, Lannion and Brest. Tourism is particularly important for the seacoast and Brittany is one of the most visited regions in France.\n\nThe unemployment rate in Brittany is lower than in other French regions and it is usually around 6 or 7% of the active population. Because of the global financial crisis started in 2007, unemployment has arisen to 8.7% in the Region Brittany and 8.4% in Loire-Atlantique in late 2012. However, these results remain under the French national rate (9.9% at the same period). Some activities, such as construction, industry, catering or transport, usually have difficulties to find employees.\n\nIn 2009, Region Brittany's gross domestic product reached 82 billion euros. It was the seventh richest region in France and it produced 4.4% of the national GDP. The Breton GDP per capita was around 25,739 euros in 2009. It was lower than the French result, 29,897 euros, but higher than the European one, 23,500 euros. The GDP of the Loire-Atlantique département is around 26 billion euros, and the GDP of the five historical Breton départements would be at around 108 billion euros. \n\nDemographics\n\nIn 2012, the population in Region Brittany was estimated to 3,195,317 and Loire-Atlantique had around 1,303,103 inhabitants, thus historical Brittany's population can be estimated at 4,552,918, the highest in its history. The population in Region Brittany had grown by 0.9% between 1999 and 2000, and the growth rate reached more than 1% in Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan. The region around Rennes and the south are the more attractive areas, whereas the population is declining in the centre and in the westernmost parts. While most of the metropolitan areas are growing, the cities themselves tend to stagnate or regress, such as for Brest, Lorient, Saint-Brieuc and Saint-Malo. In 2008, Ille-et-Vilaine had 967,588 inhabitants, it was followed by Morbihan, 710,034 inhabitants, Finistère 890,509 inhabitants, and Côtes-d'Armor, with 581,570 inhabitants. The largest cities in Region Brittany were Rennes, with 206,655, Brest, 142,097, Quimper, 63,929, Lorient, 58,148, Vannes, 52,983, Saint-Malo, 48,211, and Saint-Brieuc, 45,879. All the other communes had under 20,000 inhabitants. Brittany is also characterised by a great number of small towns, such as Vitré, Concarneau, Morlaix or Auray. Loire-Atlantique has two major cities, Nantes, with 283,288 inhabitants and an urban area encompassing 873,133, and Saint-Nazaire, with 67,031 inhabitants. Loire-Atlantique's population is more rapidly growing than Region Brittany's and it is the 12th most populated French département. Nevertheless, since the 1990s, Rennes has consistently ranked as one of France's fastest growing metropolitan areas.\n\nIn 1851, Brittany had around 2,7 million inhabitants and the demographic growth stayed low until the second half of the 20th century, mainly because of an important emigration. Brittany had 3,2 million inhabitants in 1962 and the growth was mainly due to Loire-Atlantique and the steady growth of Nantes. Without the Loire-Atlantique's figures, the Breton population only numbered 2,4 millions in 1962, and 2,3 in 1851. After the 1960s, the whole region has had a strong demographic growth because of the decline of the traditional emigration to richer French regions. Instead, Brittany has become attractive, particularly for families, young retired persons and active people over 35 years old. \n\nBrittany do not have a strong share of foreign residents. Together with naturalised French people, they form approximately 2% of the total population. They mainly come from European countries such as the United Kingdom, Portugal and Spain, from former French colonies like Morocco, Algeria, Vietnam, Ivory Coast or Senegal, and from Turkey. Brittany is the region of France that has the smallest proportion of immigrants.\n\nRegional identity\n\nBreton political parties do not have wide support and their electoral success is small. However, Bretons have a strong cultural identity. According to a poll made in 2008, 50% of the inhabitants of the Region Brittany consider themselves as much Breton as French, 22.5% feel more Breton than French, and 15.4% more French than Breton. A minority, 1.5%, considers itself Breton but not French, while 9.3% do not consider themselves to be Breton at all. \n\n51.9% of the poll respondents agreed that Brittany should have more political power, and 31.1% thought that it should stay the same. Only 4.6% favoured independence, and 9.4% did not know what to think.\n\nA 2012 poll taken in the five departments of historical Brittany showed that 48% of the respondents considered themselves belonging first to France, 37% to Brittany, and 10% to Europe. It also showed that Breton identity is stronger among people younger than 35. 53% of them considering themselves to belong first to Brittany. 50% of the older respondents considered themselves belonging first to France. Primary Breton identity is at its lowest among the respondents over 65: 58% consider themselves to belong first to France, with European identify secondary. 21% of the respondents over 65 considering themselves to be European first. Breton identify is stronger among people who vote left-wing. It is stronger among employees than employers. \n\nRegional languages\n\nFrench, the only official language of the French Republic, is spoken today by everybody in Brittany, and it is the mother tongue of most people. Nonetheless, French was not widely known before the 19th century, and two regional languages exist in Brittany: Breton and Gallo. They are separated by a language border that has constantly moved back since the Middle Ages. The current border runs from Plouha on the English Channel to the Rhuys Peninsula on the Bay of Biscay. Because of their origins and practice, Breton and Gallo can be compared to Scottish Gaelic and Scots language in Scotland. Both have been recognised as \"Langues de Bretagne\" (\"languages of Brittany\") by the Regional Council of Brittany since 2004.\n\nBreton\n\nBreton is a Celtic language derived from the historical Common Brittonic language, and is most closely related to Cornish and Welsh. It was imported in Western Armorica during the 5th century by Britons fleeing the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain. Since the 13th century, long before the union of Brittany and France, the main administrative language of the Duchy of Brittany had been French, which had replaced Latin. Breton remained the language of the rural population, but since the Middle Ages the bourgeoisie, the nobility, and the higher clergy have been speaking French.\n\nGovernment policies in the 19th and 20th centuries made education compulsory and, at the same time, forbade the use of Breton in schools to push non-French speakers into adopting the French language. Nevertheless, until the 1960s Breton was spoken or understood by many of the inhabitants of western Brittany. During the 1970s, Breton schools were opened and the local authorities started to promote the language, which was on the brink of extinction because parents had stopped teaching it to their children.\n\nHaving declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, of whom 61% are more than 60 years old, Breton is classified as \"severely endangered\" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. However, the number of children attending bilingual classes has risen 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709. \n\nThe Breton language has several dialects which have no precise limits but rather form a continuum. Most of them are very similar to each other, with only some phonetic and lexical differences. The three main dialects spoken in the western end of Brittany, the Cornouillais, around Quimper, the Léonard, around Saint-Pol-de-Léon, and the Trégorrois, around Tréguier, are grouped into the KLT group (Kerne-Leon-Treger), in opposition to the Vannetais, spoken around Vannes, which is the most differentiated Breton dialect.\n\nGallo\n\nGallo is spoken on the eastern half of Brittany. It is one of the romance Langues d'oïl, but has some Celtic influences, particularly in its vocabulary.\n\nUnlike Breton, Gallo does not have a long promotion history and it is still often perceived as a poor rural dialect. Moreover, because of its similarities with Gallo, French imposed itself more easily as the main language in Upper Brittany than in Breton speaking areas. Gallo was felt as a wrong way of speaking French more than as a proper dialect or language. The Gallo transmission from parents to children is extremely low and efforts to standardise and publish books in Gallo did not reverse the decline of the language and its lack of prestige.\n\nGallo is also threatened by the Breton language revival, because Breton is gaining ground in territories that were not previously part of the main Breton-speaking area, and most of all because Breton appears as the national language of Brittany, thus leaving no place for Gallo.\n\nGallo had never been written before the 20th century, and several writing systems were created. They are however rarely known by the population and signs in Gallo are often unreadable, even for fluent speakers. In Loire-Atlantique, where Gallo is not promoted at all by the local authorities, many people do not even know the word \"Gallo\" and have no idea that it has writing systems and publications. \n\nThe Gallo speaking community is estimated between 28,300 and 200,000 locutors. The language is taught on a non-compulsory basis in some schools, high-schools and universities, particularly in Ille-et-Vilaine.\n\nReligion\n\nBretons are mainly Catholic and the Christianisation occurred during the Roman Gaul and Frank era. During the Briton emigration to Brittany, several Christian missionaries, mostly Welsh, came in the region and founded dioceses. They are known as the \"Seven founder saints\":\n* Paol Aoreliann, at Saint-Pol-de-Léon,\n* Tudwal, at Tréguier,\n* Brieg, at Saint-Brieuc,\n* Maloù, at Saint-Malo,\n* Samsun of Dol, at Dol-de-Bretagne,\n* Padarn, at Vannes,\n* Kaourintin, at Quimper.\n\nOther notable early missionaries are Gildas and the Irish saint Columbanus. In total, Brittany numbers more than 300 \"saints\" (only a few recognised by the Catholic Church) and, since the 19th century at least, it has been known as one of the most devoutly Catholic regions in France, together with the neighbouring Pays de la Loire region. The proportion of students attending Catholic private schools is the highest in France. The patron saint of Brittany is Saint Anne, the Virgin's mother, but Ivo of Kermartin, a 13th-century priest, called Saint-Yves in French and Sant-Erwan in Breton, can also be considered as a patron saint. His feast, the 19 May, is Brittany's national day.\n\nMany distinctive traditions and customs have also been preserved in Brittany. Among them, the \"Pardons\" are one of the most traditional demonstrations of popular Catholicism. These penitential ceremonies occur in some villages in Lower Brittany on the feast day of the parish's saint. The penitents form a procession and they walk together to a shrine, a church or any sacred place. Some Pardons are reputed for their length, and they all finish by large meals and popular feasts.\n\nThere is a very old pilgrimage called the Tro Breizh (tour of Brittany), where the pilgrims walk around Brittany from the grave of one of the seven founder saints to another. Historically, the pilgrimage was made in one trip (a total distance of around 600 km) for all seven saints. Nowadays, however, pilgrims complete the circuit over the course of several years. In 2002, the Tro Breizh included a special pilgrimage to Wales, symbolically making the reverse journey of the Welshmen Sant Paol, Sant Brieg, and Sant Samzun. \n\nThe most powerful folk figure is the Ankou or the \"Reaper of Death\". Sometimes a skeleton wrapped in a shroud with the Breton flat hat, sometimes described as a real human being (the last dead of the year, devoted to bring the dead to Death), he makes his journeys by night carrying an upturned scythe which he throws before him to reap his harvest. Sometimes he is on foot but mostly he travels with a cart, the Karrig an Ankou, drawn by two oxen and a lean horse. Two servants dressed in the same shroud and hat as the Ankou pile the dead into the cart, and to hear it creaking at night means you have little time left to live. \n\nAs official religious statistics are forbidden in France, there are no official figures about religious practices in Brittany. However, successive polls show that the region tends to be more and more nonreligious. Catholic religion has started to decline after the Second World War, during the urbanisation of Brittany. A poll conducted in 2006 showed that Morbihan was the only département to have a strong Catholic population, around 70% of its inhabitants belonging to that religion. Loire-Atlantique and Côtes-d'Armor were among the least Catholic French départements, with only 50% of Catholics, while Ille-et-Vilaine and Finistère were at around 65%. Other religions are almost non-existent, apart from Islam which gathers between 1 and 3% of the inhabitants in Ille-et-Vilaine and Loire-Atlantique. \n\nCulture\n\nArchitecture\n\nBrittany is home to many megalithic monuments; the words menhir and dolmen come from the Breton language. The largest menhir alignments are the Carnac stones. Other major sites include the Barnenez cairn, the Locmariaquer megaliths, the Menhir de Champ-Dolent, the Mane Braz tumulus and the Gavrinis tomb. Monuments from the Roman period are rare, but include a large temple in Corseul and scarce ruins of villas and city walls in Rennes and Nantes.\n\nBrittany has a large quantity of medieval buildings. They include numerous Romanesque and French Gothic churches, usually built in local sandstone and granit, castles and half-timbered houses visible in villages, towns and cities. Several Breton towns still have their medieval walls, such as Guérande, Concarneau, Saint-Malo, Vannes, Fougères and Dinan. Major churches include Saint-Pol-de-Léon Cathedral, Tréguier Cathedral, Dol Cathedral, Nantes Cathedral and the Kreisker chapel. Most of the Breton castles were rebuilt between the 13th and the 15th century, such as the Château de Suscinio, the Château de Dinan, the Château de Combourg, the Château de Largoët, the Château de Tonquédec, the Josselin Castle and the Château de Trécesson. The most impressive castles can be seen along the border with France, where stand the Château de Fougères, the Château de Vitré, the Château de Châteaubriant and the Château de Clisson.\n\nThe French Renaissance occurred when Brittany lost its independence. The Renaissance architecture is almost absent in the region, apart in Upper Brittany, close to the border with France. Major sites include the Château des ducs de Bretagne, the last permanent residence of the dukes, which displays the transition from late Gothic to Renaissance style. The Château de Châteaubriant, a former fortress, was transformed into a vast palace in the Italian style.\n\nIn Lower Brittany, the medieval style never totally disappeared. However, local innovations permitted some changes and the birth of a particular style. Its most distinctive feature is the parish close, which displays an elaborately decorated church surrounded by an entirely walled churchyard. Many villages still have their closes, they date from the 16th and 17th centuries and sometimes include an elaborately carved calvary sculpture.\n\nDuring the 17th and the 18th centuries, the main seaports and towns obtained a typical French look, with baroque and neoclassical buildings. Nantes, which was at the time the biggest French harbour, received a theatre, large avenues and quays, and Rennes was redesigned after a fire in 1720. At the same period, the wealthy ship-owners from Saint-Malo built many mansions called \"Malouinières\" around their town. Along the coast, Vauban and other French architects designed several citadels, such as in Le Palais and Port-Louis. In rural areas, Breton houses remained simple, with a single floor and a longhouse pattern. They were built with local materials: mostly granit in Lower Brittany and schist in Upper Brittany. Slates and reeds were usually used for roofing. During the 19th century, the Breton architecture was mainly characterised by the Gothic Revival and Eclecticism. Clisson, the southernmost Breton town, was rebuilt in an Italian Romantic style around 1820. The Breton lighthouses were mostly built during the 19th century. The most famous are Ar Men, Phare d'Eckmühl, La Vieille and La Jument. The lighthouse on the Île Vierge is, with 77 meters, the highest in Europe.\n\nAt the end of the 19th century, several seaside resorts were created along the coast and villas and hotels were built in historicist, Art Nouveau, and later in the Art Deco styles. These architectures are particularly present in Dinard, La Baule and Bénodet. Architecture from the 20th century can be seen in Saint-Nazaire, Brest and Lorient, three cities destroyed during the Second World War and rebuilt afterwards, and in the works of the Breton nationalist architects like James Bouillé and Olier Mordrel.\n\nFine arts\n\nUntil the 19th century, Catholicism had been the main inspiration for Breton artists. The region has a great number of baroque retables, made between the 17th and the 19th century. Breton sculptors were also famous for their ship models that served as ex-votos and for their richly decorated furniture, which features naïve Breton characters and traditional patterns. The box-bed is the most famous Breton piece of furniture. The Breton style had a strong revival between 1900 and the Second World War and it was used by the Seiz Breur movement. The Seiz Breur artists also tried to invent a modern Breton art by rejecting French standards and mixing traditional techniques with new materials. The leading artists of that period were the designer René-Yves Creston, the illustrators Jeanne Malivel and Xavier Haas, and the sculptors Raffig Tullou, Francis Renaud, Georges Robin, Joseph Savina, Jules-Charles Le Bozec and Jean Fréour.\n\nBrittany is also known for its needlework, which can be seen on its numerous headdress models, and for its faience production, which started at the beginning of the 18th century. Quimper faience is known worldwide for its bowls and plates painted by hand, and other towns, such as Pornic, also maintain a similar tradition. The potteries usually feature naïve Breton characters in traditional clothing and daily scenes. The designs have a strong traditional Breton influence, but Orientalism and Art Deco have also been used.\n\nBecause of its distinct culture and beautiful landscapes, Brittany has inspired many French artists since the 19th century. The Pont-Aven School, which started to emerge in the 1850s and lasted until the beginning of the 20th century, had a decisive influence on modern painting. The artists who settled in Pont-Aven wanted to break away from the Academic style of the École des Beaux-Arts and later from Impressionism when it began to decline. Among them were Paul Gauguin, Paul Signac, Marc Chagall, Paul Sérusier and Raymond Wintz. Before them, Brittany had also been visited by Academic and Romantic painters like Jean Antoine Théodore de Gudin and Jules Achille Noël who were looking for dramatic seascapes and storms.\n\nMusic\n\nSince the early 1970s, Brittany has experienced a tremendous revival of its folk music. Numerous festivals were created, along with smaller festoù noz (popular feasts). The bagadoù, bands composed of bagpipes, bombards and drums (including snare), are also a modern creation, inspired by the Scottish pipe bands. The Lann-Bihoué bagad, one of the most well-known, belongs to the French Navy. It is the only one that does not take part to the annual bagadoù competitions. Celtic harp is also common, as are vocals and dances. The Kan ha diskan is the most common type of singing. The performers sing calls and responses while dancing. Breton dances usually imply circles, chains or couples and they are different in every region. The oldest dances seem to be the passepied and the gavotte, and the newest ones derive from the quadrille and French Renaissance dances.\n\nIn the 1960s, several Breton artists started to use contemporary patterns to create a Breton pop music. Among them, Alan Stivell highly contributed to popularise the Celtic harp and Breton music in the world. He also used American rock and roll in his works and influenced 1970s Breton bands such as Kornog, Gwerz and Tri Yann, who revived traditional songs and made them popular across France. Soldat Louis is the main Breton rock band and the most famous Breton singers are Gilles Servat, Glenmor, Dan Ar Braz, Yann-Fañch Kemener, Denez Prigent, Nolwenn Korbell and Nolwenn Leroy. The Manau Hip hop group from Paris has strong Breton and Celtic inspirations.\n\nYann Tiersen, who composed the soundtrack for Amélie, the Electro band Yelle and the avant-garde singer Brigitte Fontaine are also from Brittany. The 19th-century composer Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray was one of the first western European composers to be influenced by what is now known as world music.\n\nLegends and literature\n\nBrittany is closely associated with the Matter of Britain and King Arthur. According to Wace, Brocéliande is located in Brittany and it is nowadays considered to be Paimpont forest. There, ruins of a castle surrounded by a lake are associated with the Lady of the Lake, a dolmen is said to be Merlin's tomb and a path is presented as Morgan le Fay's Val sans Retour. Tristan and Iseult are also said to have lived in Brittany. Another major Breton legend is the story about Ys, a city swallowed by the ocean.\n\nBreton literature before the 19th century was mostly oral. The oral tradition entertained by medieval poets died out during the 15th century and books in Breton were very rare before 1850. At that time, local writers started to collect and publish local tales and legends and wrote original works. Published between 1925 and the Second World War, the literary journal Gwalarn favoured a modern Breton literature and helped translating widely known novels into Breton. After the war, the journal Al Liamm pursued that mission. Among the authors writing in Breton are Auguste Brizeux, a Romantic poet, the neo-Druidic bard Erwan Berthou, Théodore Hersart de La Villemarqué, who collected the local legends about King Arthur, Roparz Hemon, founder of Gwalarn, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Glenmor, Pêr Denez and Meavenn.\n\nBreton literature in French includes 19th-century historical novels by Émile Souvestre, travel journals by Anatole Le Braz, poems and novels by Charles Le Goffic, the works of the singer-songwriter Théodore Botrel and of the maritime writer Henri Queffélec. Brittany is also the birthplace of many French writers like François-René de Chateaubriand, Jules Verne, Ernest Renan, Félicité Robert de Lamennais and Pierre Abélard.\n\nThe Asterix comics, set during the time of Julius Caesar and written in the second half of the twentieth century, are set in Armorica, now Brittany.\n\nMuseums\n\nThe Museum of Brittany, located in Rennes, was founded in 1856. Its collections are mainly dedicated to the history of the region. Museums dedicated to Prehistory and local megaliths are located in Carnac and Penmarch, while several towns like Vannes and Nantes have a museum presenting their own history.\n\nThe Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes owns a large collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities as well as drawings and engravings by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Parmigianino, Albrecht Dürer and Rembrandt. Its French art collection gathers works by Georges de La Tour, François Boucher, Paul Gauguin, Auguste Rodin, Camille Corot and Robert Delaunay. It has also works by Pablo Picasso, Rubens, Peter Lely and Paolo Veronese. The collections of the Museum of Fine Arts of Nantes are more dedicated to modern and contemporary art and contain works by Edward Burne-Jones, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Gustave Courbet, Paul Signac, Tamara de Lempicka, Wassily Kandinsky, Max Ernst, Pierre Soulages and Piero Manzoni. The Museums of Fine Arts of Brest and Quimper offer similar collections, with large quantities of French painting together with the works of some Italian and Dutch artists. The Museum of Fine Arts Pont-Aven is dedicated to the School of Pont-Aven. Contemporary sculptures can be seen in the park around the Château de Kerguéhennec, in Bignan.\n\nMuseums in Saint-Malo, Lorient and Douarnenez are dedicated to ships and maritime traditions and history. The Musée national de la Marine has a large annexe in Brest and a submarine is opened to visitors in Lorient. In the same town, it is also possible to visit the Keroman Submarine Base built in 1942, and the Cité de la voile Éric Tabarly, a museum dedicated to sailing. In Saint-Nazaire, where many transatlantic ships where built, including SS Normandie and SS France, a museum showing transatlantic interiors was installed in a Second World War base. Nantes has a museum dedicated to Jules Verne, a Natural History Museum and a museum of archaeology and design, the Musée Dobrée.\n\nFestivals\n\nBrittany has a vibrant calendar of festivals and events. It hosts some of France's biggest contemporary music festivals, such as La Route du Rock in Saint-Malo, the Vieilles Charrues in Carhaix, the Rencontres Trans Musicales in Rennes, the Festival du Bout du Monde in Crozon, the Hellfest in Clisson and the Astropolis in Brest. The Festival Interceltique de Lorient welcomes each year participants all the Celtic nations and their diasporas. La Folle Journée, in Nantes, is the largest classical music festival in France.\n\nThe Breton culture is highlighted during the Fête de la Bretagne, which occurs in many places around Saint-Yves's day (19 May), and during the Festival de Cornouaille in Quimper. Several towns also organise historical re-enactments and events celebrating local traditions, such as the Filets Bleus in Concarneau which celebrates fishing.\n\nBrittany also has some film festivals like the Three Continents Festival in Nantes. The Utopiales international science fiction festival is held in the same city. Brest and Douarnenez both organise large tall ship meetings.\n\nSport\n\nFootball, cycling and sailing are the three most popular sports in Brittany. Major football teams are the FC Nantes, the Stade Rennais F.C., the FC Lorient, the Stade Brestois 29 the Vannes OC and the En Avant de Guingamp. Professional footballers coming from the region also form the Brittany national football team which sometimes plays with national teams.\n\nSeveral Bretons have won the Tour de France: Bernard Hinault, Cyrille Guimard, Louison Bobet, Jean Robic and Lucien Petit-Breton.\n\nSailing is particularly important for sea-resorts like La Trinité-sur-Mer, Pornichet, Concarneau, Lorient and the îles de Glénan, where a prestigious school is located. A great number of Bretons have become acclaimed sailors: Éric Tabarly, Loïck Peyron, Jean Le Cam, Michel Desjoyeaux, Olivier de Kersauson, Thomas Coville, Vincent Riou, Marc Pajot… The Route du Rhum, the Transat Québec-Saint-Malo, the Jules Verne Trophy are the main Breton sailing competitions. The Solitaire du Figaro stages often start in Brittany.\n\nGouren, a style of folk wrestling, is the most popular Breton sport. The Boule bretonne is related to pétanque. The Palets, common in Upper Brittany and in other French regions, is also related to pétanque, but players use iron disks instead of balls and they have to throw them on a wooden board.\n\nCuisine\n\nAlthough Muscadet and Gros Plant white wines are produced south of the Loire, the traditional drink of Brittany is cider. Brittany is the second-largest cider-producing region in France. Breton cider is traditionally served in a bowl or a cup. Brittany also has a long beer-brewing tradition, tracing its roots back to the 17th century. Young artisanal brewers are keeping a variety of beer types alive, such as Coreff de Morlaix, Tri Martolod and Britt. Stronger alcohols include the chouchen, a sort of mead made with wild honey, and an apple eau de vie called lambig.\n\nCrêpes and galettes are the two most iconic Breton dishes. The crêpes, made and served with butter, are eaten for dessert and the galettes are usually salty and made with buckwheat. They traditionally replaced bread as basic food and they can be served with cheese, sausages, bacon, mushrooms or eggs. They can be accompanied by Breton buttermilk called lait ribot. Brittany also has a dish similar to the pot-au-feu known as the kig ha farz, which consists of stewed pork or beef with buckwheat dumplings.\n\nSurrounded by the sea, Brittany offers a wide range of fresh seafood and fish, especially mussels and oysters. Among the seafood specialities is a fish stew called cotriade. The beurre blanc sauce, invented in Saint-Julien-de-Concelles, close to Nantes, is often served with fish. Brittany is also known for its salt, mainly harvested around Guérande and used in butter and milk caramels. The region is notable for its biscuit factories, many towns having their own: Quimper, Lorient, Pont-Aven, Saint-Brieuc, BN and LU in Nantes, La Trinitaine in La Trinité-sur-Mer, and Galettes Saint-Michel in Saint-Michel-Chef-Chef. They usually make their biscuits with salted butter and sell them in iron boxes. Famous Breton pastries include the kouign amann (\"butter cake\" in Breton) made with bread dough and high quantities of butter and sugar, and the far, a sort of sweet Yorkshire pudding usually made with plums.\n\nTransport\n\nRoad \n\nUntil the 1970s, the Breton road network was poor because maritime and rail transport prevailed. The French president Charles de Gaulle implemented a major road construction plan in the 1970 and Brittany received over 10 billion francs of investments during 25 years. More than 10,000 km of motorways were built, permitting Breton road transport to multiply by four. The Breton motorways are not toll roads, contrarily to the usual French highways. \n\nThe main road artery linking cities and other settlements along the north coast is the Route nationale 12 which connects the cities of Rennes, Saint-Brieuc, Morlaix and Brest. It also provides a link to southern Normandy, terminating in Paris. In south Brittany the Route nationale 165 performs a similar role along the south coast providing connections between Nantes, Vannes, Lorient, Quimper and Brest. The Route nationale 164 crosses the centre of the peninsula and connects Rennes to Loudéac, Morlaix and Châteaulin, and the Route nationale 166 links Rennes to Vannes. The Route nationale 137 provides connections between Saint-Malo, Rennes and Nantes and terminates in Bordeaux.\n\nNantes is linked to Paris by the A11 autoroute, and Rennes is both on the A81 autoroute to Paris and the A84 autoroute to Caen. These highways are standard French toll road.\n\nAir \n\nThe biggest Breton airport is Nantes Atlantique Airport. It serves destinations in the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Ireland, Morocco... It will be replaced around 2017 by the new Aéroport du Grand Ouest, located 30 km to the north-west of Nantes. The Brest Bretagne Airport is the second airport in Brittany. It is followed by Rennes – Saint-Jacques, Lorient South Brittany and Dinard – Saint-Malo. The Saint-Brieuc – Armor airport serves flights between Brittany and the Channel Islands. Others smaller airport operates domestic flights in Quimper, and Lannion.\n\nRail \n\nBrittany is on two major TGV lines, one linking Paris to Nantes and Le Croisic, on the south coast, and another linking Paris to Rennes and Brest. The LGV Atlantique which stops at Le Mans will be extended to Rennes in 2017, providing faster connections between Paris and Brittany. TGV train services also link the region with cities such as Lyon, Strasbourg, Marseille, and Lille. Secondary train services are operated by TER Bretagne which provides connections between small towns such as Vannes, Carhaix, Roscoff and Paimpol. TER Bretagne also manages coach lines and connections between Rennes and Nantes. TER Pays de la Loire operates trains between Nantes and smaller towns in Loire-Atlantique.\n\nSea \n\nThere are ferry services that take passengers, vehicles and freight to Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Channel Islands. The main companies are Brittany Ferries which operates lines between Plymouth and Roscoff, Portsmouth and Saint-Malo, and Roscoff and Cork. Irish Ferries operates the route Rosslare-Roscoff and Condor Ferries link Saint-Malo with Jersey.\n\nCycling \n\nCycling has always been one of the main sports of Brittany, but leisure cycling and the infrastructure to support it have been growing extremely rapidly. An extensive network of cyclepaths and recommended cycleroutes has opened up all over the region. Some of these are routes using mainly smaller roads and both signposted and maintained by communes individually, but many are based on dedicated cyclepaths often formed by converting disused railway tracks. These help form routes such as 'Vélodyssée' from Roscoff to Nantes and several major routes under the 'V' label (following signs V1, V2 etc.). The old tow-path of the Nantes-Brest canal is now open to cyclists along its entire 385 km length though in places (unlike rail-based cyclepaths) it is very meandering and leaving the path will both shorten the distance and provide variety \n\nAs a general rule cyclists are very well respected in the region and many larger towns have cycle-lanes - however traffic is 'cycle friendly' even in their absence.\n\nSymbols \n\nThe modern flag of Brittany was designed in 1923. It is called Gwenn ha Du (\"white and black\" in Breton) and it features eleven ermine spots (their number may vary) and nine stripes, the black ones represent the Breton speaking historical dioceses, and the white ones symbolise the gallo speaking dioceses. The flag was created to replace the traditional ermine plain standard, considered too aristocratic and royalist. It was inspired by the American flag and the British Red Ensign. Since the 1920s, the flag has become very popular and it is flown from a large number of institutions. Apart from the ermine flag, Breton historic banners include the Kroaz Du, a white flag with a black cross, the perfect negative of the Cornish flag.\n\nThe coat of arms of Brittany, ermine plain, was adopted by John III in 1316. Ermine had been used in Brittany long before, and there is no clue about its origin. It was probably chosen by the dukes because of its similarity with the French fleur-de-lis. The ermine, or stoat, as an animal became the badge of John IV at the end of the 14th century. It appeared later on numerous locations, including churches and castles. According to popular traditions, Anne of Brittany was hunting with her court when she saw a white ermine who preferred to die than to cross a dirty marsh. This episode would have inspired the duchess' motto : \"Potius mori quam foedari\" (\"rather death than dishonour\"). The motto has later been reused by Breton regiments, local World War II Resistants and cultural movements.\n\nThe Breton anthem, although not official, is Bro Gozh ma Zadoù - (\"Old Land of My Fathers\"). It re-employs both the Welsh anthem's music and that of \"Bro Goth agan Tasow\" (the national anthem of Cornwall; its lyrics were written at the end of the 19th century.\n\nColloquial Breton emblems include the Celtic triskelion, the menhirs and dolmens, local dishes such as the galettes, the Bigouden headdress and the traditional black round hat, the fisherman and his yellow raincoat, etc. BZH is a common abbreviation for \"Breizh\" (\"Brittany\" in Breton) and people often put BZH stickers on their car-plates, although it is forbidden under French laws. .bzh is an approved Internet top level domain for the Breton culture and languages. \n\nImage gallery\n\nFile:Tombeau Merlin Brocéliande195.JPG\|Merlin's tomb in the Brocéliande forest, Paimpont\nFile:Crucuno dolmen.jpg\|A dolmen in Plouharnel\nFile:Guerande Tor.jpg\|The city wall of Guérande\nFile:Tour-qui-qu-en-grogne-DS62.jpg\|Castle of Saint-Malo, Qui Qu'en Grogne Tower\nFile:Château Suscinio.jpg\|Château de Suscinio\nFile:Phare IleVerge PM.jpg\|Île Vierge lighthouse\nFile:Parlement de Bretagne-2006.jpg\|Parlement of Brittany in Rennes\nFile:Abbacy and lighthouse of Saint-Mathieu.jpg\|Abbey and lighthouse of Saint-Mathieu\nFile:20 Moulin vert.JPG\|Ar Meilhoù Glaz, a Bagad from Quimper\nFile:PLcdm 2009 S 028.JPG\|Festival du chant de marin, sea songs festival in Paimpol\nFile:Batz-sur-Mer Coiffe.jpg\|A Breton headdress from Batz-sur-Mer\nFile:W. Otway Cannell 8 Modern Brittany.jpg\|Modern Brittany - Illustration from Legends & Romances of Brittany by Lewis Spence, illustrated by W. Otway Cannell.", "Events\n\n597 BC – Babylonians capture Jerusalem, and replace Jeconiah with Zedekiah as king.\n 455 – Emperor Valentinian III is assassinated by two Hunnic retainers while training with the bow on the Campus Martius (Rome).\n* 934 – Meng Zhixiang declares himself emperor and establishes Later Shu as a new state independent of Later Tang.\n1190 – Massacre of Jews at Clifford's Tower, York.\n1244 – Over 200 Cathars are burned after the Fall of Montségur.\n1322 – The Battle of Boroughbridge take place in the Despenser Wars.\n1521 – Ferdinand Magellan reached the island of Homonhon in the Philippines with 150 crew. Members of his expedition became the first Spaniards to reach the Philippine archipelago, but were not the first Europeans. He landed with three small ships - Concepcion, Trinidad, and Victoria - and called the place the Arcigelago de San Lazaro since it was the feast day of Saint Lazarus of Bethany.\n1621 – Samoset, a Mohegan, visited the settlers of Plymouth Colony and greets them, \"Welcome, Englishmen! My name is Samoset.\"\n1660 – The Long Parliament of England is dissolved so as to prepare for the new Convention Parliament.\n1689 – The 23rd Regiment of Foot or Royal Welch Fusiliers is founded.\n1782 – American Revolutionary War: Spanish troops capture the British-held island of Roatán.\n1792 – King Gustav III of Sweden is shot; he dies on March 29.\n1797 – Battle of Valvasone by Napoleon Bonaparte takes place.\n1802 – The Army Corps of Engineers is established to found and operate the United States Military Academy at West Point.\n1812 – Siege of Badajoz begins: British and Portuguese forces besiege and defeat French garrison during the Peninsular War.\n1815 – Prince Willem proclaims himself King of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the first constitutional monarch in the Netherlands.\n1818 – In the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada, Spanish forces defeated Chileans under José de San Martín.\n1864 – American Civil War: During the Red River Campaign, Union troops reach Alexandria, Louisiana.\n1865 – American Civil War: The Battle of Averasborough began as Confederate forces suffer irreplaceable casualties in the final months of the war.\n1870 – The first version of the overture fantasy Romeo and Juliet by Tchaikovsky receives its première performance. \n1872 – The Wanderers F.C. won the first FA Cup, the oldest football competition in the world, beating Royal Engineers A.F.C. 1–0 at The Oval in Kennington, London.\n1894 – Jules Massenet's opera Thaïs is first performed.\n1900 – Sir Arthur Evans purchased the land around the ruins of Knossos, the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete.\n1916 – The 7th and 10th US cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the US–Mexico border to join the hunt for Pancho Villa.\n1924 – In accordance with the Treaty of Rome, Fiume becomes annexed as part of Italy.\n1926 – History of Rocketry: Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket, at Auburn, Massachusetts.\n1935 – Adolf Hitler orders Germany to rearm herself in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Conscription is reintroduced to form the Wehrmacht.\n1936 – Warmer-than-normal temperatures rapidly melt snow and ice on the upper Allegheny and Monongahela rivers and lead to a major flood in Pittsburgh.\n1939 – From Prague Castle, Hitler proclaims Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.\n* 1939 – Marriage of Princess Fawzia of Egypt to Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran.\n1940 – First person killed in a German bombing raid on the UK in World War II during a raid on Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands, James Isbister.\n1942 – The first V-2 rocket test launch. It exploded at lift-off.\n1945 – World War II: The Battle of Iwo Jima ended, but small pockets of Japanese resistance persisted.\n 1945 – Ninety percent of Würzburg, Germany is destroyed in only 20 minutes by British bombers. Five thousand are killed.\n1950 – Communist Czechoslovakia's ministry of foreign affairs asks nuncios of Vatican to leave the country.\n1958 – The Ford Motor Company produces its 50 millionth automobile, the Thunderbird, averaging almost a million cars a year since the company's founding.\n1962 – A Flying Tiger Line Super Constellation disappears in the western Pacific Ocean, with all 107 aboard missing and presumed dead.\n1966 – Launch of Gemini 8, the 12th manned American space flight and first space docking with the Agena target vehicle.\n1968 – Vietnam War: In the My Lai Massacre, between 347 and 500 Vietnamese villagers (men, women, and children) are killed by American troops.\n 1968 – General Motors produces its 100 millionth automobile, the Oldsmobile Toronado.\n1969 – A Viasa McDonnell Douglas DC-9 crashes in Maracaibo, Venezuela, killing 155.\n1976 – British Prime Minister Harold Wilson resigns, citing personal reasons.\n1977 – Assassination of Kamal Jumblatt, the main leader of the anti-government forces in the Lebanese Civil War.\n1978 – Former Italian Prime Minister Aldo Moro is kidnapped and later killed by his captors.\n* 1978 – Supertanker Amoco Cadiz splits in two after running aground on the Portsall Rocks, three miles off the coast of Brittany, resulting in the largest oil spill in history at that time.\n1979 – Sino-Vietnamese War: The People's Liberation Army crosses the border back into China, ends the war.\n 1980 – Formation of the Irish Army Ranger Wing.\n1983 – Demolition of the Ismaning radio transmitter, the last wooden radio tower in Germany.\n1984 – William Buckley, the CIA station chief in Beirut, Lebanon, is kidnapped by Islamic fundamentalists and later died in captivity.\n1985 – Associated Press newsman Terry Anderson is taken hostage in Beirut. He is released on December 4, 1991.\n1988 – Iran–Contra affair: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the United States.\n* 1988 – Halabja chemical attack: The Kurdish town of Halabja in Iraq is attacked with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents on the orders of Saddam Hussein, killing 5000 people and injuring about 10000 people.\n* 1988 – The Troubles: Ulster loyalist militant Michael Stone attacks a Provisional IRA funeral in Belfast with pistols and grenades. Three people are killed and more than 60 wounded. The attack was filmed by news crews.\n1989 – In Egypt, a 4,400-year-old mummy is found near the Pyramid of Cheops.\n1995 – Mississippi formally ratifies the Thirteenth Amendment, becoming the last state to approve the abolition of slavery. The Thirteenth Amendment was officially ratified in 1865.\n2005 – Israel officially hands over Jericho to Palestinian control.\n2014 – Crimea votes in a controversial referendum to secede from Ukraine to join Russia.\n* 2014 – The closing ceremony of the Winter Paralympics take place.\n2016 – A bomb detonates in a bus carrying government employees in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing 15 and injuring at least 54.\n 2016 – Two female suicide bombers detonate their explosives at a mosque during morning prayer on the outskirts of Maiduguri, Nigeria, killing 22 and injuring 18.\n\nBirths\n\n1399 – Xuande Emperor of China (d. 1435)\n1445 – Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg, Swiss priest and theologian (d. 1510)\n1473 – Henry IV, Duke of Saxony (d. 1541)\n1581 – Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch historian and poet (d. 1647)\n1585 – Gerbrand Bredero, Dutch poet and playwright (d. 1618)\n1729 – Countess Maria Louise Albertine of Leiningen-Falkenburg-Dagsburg (d. 1818)\n1750 – Caroline Herschel, German-English astronomer (d. 1848)\n1751 – James Madison, American academic and politician, 4th President of the United States (d. 1836)\n1771 – Antoine-Jean Gros, French painter (d. 1835)\n1773 – Juan Ramón Balcarce, Argentinian general and politician, 6th Governor of Buenos Aires Province (d. 1836)\n1774 – Matthew Flinders, English navigator and cartographer (d. 1814)\n1789 – Francis Rawdon Chesney, English general and explorer (d. 1872)\n* 1789 – Georg Ohm, German physicist and mathematician (d. 1854)\n1794 – Ami Boué, Austrian geologist and ethnographer (d. 1881)\n1797 – Alaric Alexander Watts, English poet and journalist (d. 1864)\n1799 – Anna Atkins, English botanist and photographer (d. 1871)\n1800 – Emperor Ninkō of Japan (d. 1846)\n1805 – Peter Ernst von Lasaulx, German philologist and politician (d. 1861)\n1821 – Eduard Heine, German mathematician and academic (d. 1881)\n1822 – Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor (d. 1899)\n 1822 – John Pope, American general (d. 1892)\n1823 – William Henry Monk, English organist and composer (d. 1889)\n1834 – James Hector, Scottish geologist and surgeon (d. 1907)\n1836 – Andrew Smith Hallidie, English-American engineer and businessman (d. 1900)\n1839 – Sully Prudhomme, French poet and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907)\n* 1839 – John Butler Yeats, Irish painter (d. 1922)\n1840 – Shibusawa Eiichi, Japanese businessman (d. 1931)\n1845 – Umegatani Tōtarō I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 15th Yokozuna (d. 1928)\n1846 – Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician and academic (d. 1927)\n1848 – Axel Heiberg, Norwegian financier and diplomat (d. 1932)\n1851 – Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist (d. 1931)\n1856 – Napoléon, Prince Imperial of France (d. 1879)\n1857 – Charles Harding Firth, English historian and academic (d. 1936)\n1859 – Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Russian physicist and academic (d. 1906)\n1865 – Patsy Donovan, Irish-American baseball player and manager (d. 1953)\n1869 – Willy Burmester, German violinist (d. 1933)\n1871 – Hans Merensky, South African geologist and philanthropist (d. 1951)\n 1871 – Frantz Reichel, French rugby player and hurdler (d. 1932)\n1876 – Charles Halton, American actor (d. 1959)\n1877 – Léo-Ernest Ouimet, Canadian director and producer (d. 1972)\n1878 – Clemens August Graf von Galen, German cardinal (d. 1946)\n1882 – James Lightbody, American runner (d. 1953)\n1883 – Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (d. 1958)\n1884 – Eric P. Kelly, American journalist and author (d. 1960)\n1885 – Giacomo Benvenuti, Italian composer and musicologist (d. 1943)\n 1885 – Sydney Chaplin, English actor (d. 1965)\n1887 – Emilio Lunghi, Italian runner (d. 1925)\n1890 – Solomon Mikhoels, Latvian actor and director (d. 1948)\n1892 – César Vallejo, Peruvian poet, playwright, and journalist (d. 1938)\n1897 – Conrad Nagel, American actor (d. 1970)\n1901 – Edward Pawley, American actor (d. 1988)\n 1901 – Potti Sreeramulu, Indian activist (d. 1952)\n1902 – Leon Roppolo, American clarinet player (New Orleans Rhythm Kings) (d. 1943)\n1903 – Mike Mansfield, American politician and diplomat, 22nd United States Ambassador to Japan (d. 2001)\n1905 – Elisabeth Flickenschildt, German actress, producer, and author (d. 1977)\n1906 – Francisco Ayala, Spanish sociologist, author, and translator (d. 2009)\n* 1906 – Maurice Turnbull, Welsh-English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1944)\n* 1906 – Henny Youngman, English-American violinist and comedian (d. 1998)\n1908 – René Daumal, French author and poet (d. 1944)\n 1908 – Robert Rossen, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1966)\n1910 – Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Indian-English cricketer and politician, 8th Nawab of Pataudi (d. 1952)\n1911 – Pierre Harmel, Belgian lawyer and politician, 40th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2009)\n* 1911 – Josef Mengele, German physician and captain (d. 1979)\n1912 – Pat Nixon, American educator, 39th First Lady of the United States (d. 1993)\n1915 – Kunihiko Kodaira, Japanese mathematician and academic (d. 1997)\n1916 – Sapru, Indian actor (d. 1979)\n 1916 – Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004)\n* 1916 – Tsutomu Yamaguchi, Japanese engineer and businessman (d. 2010)\n1917 – Louis C. Wyman, American lawyer and politician (d. 2002)\n1918 – Frederick Reines, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)\n1920 – John Addison, English-American soldier and composer (d. 1998)\n 1920 – Sid Fleischman, American author and screenwriter (d. 2010)\n* 1920 – Traudl Junge, German secretary and journalist (d. 2002)\n* 1920 – Leo McKern, Australian-English actor (d. 2002)\n1922 – Harding Lemay, American screenwriter and playwright\n1925 – Cornell Borchers, Lithuanian-German actress and singer (d. 2014)\n* 1925 – Mary Hinkson, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2014)\n* 1925 – Ervin Kassai, Hungarian basketball player and referee (d. 2012)\n* 1925 – Luis E. Miramontes, Mexican chemist and engineer (d. 2004)\n1926 – Charles Goodell, American lawyer and politician (d. 1987)\n 1926 – Jerry Lewis, American actor, singer, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1927 – Vladimir Komarov, Russian pilot, engineer, and astronaut (d. 1967)\n 1927 – Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American sociologist and politician, 12th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2003)\n* 1927 – Olga San Juan, American actress and dancer (d. 2009)\n1928 – Wakanohana Kanji I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 45th Yokozuna (d. 2010)\n 1928 – Christa Ludwig, German soprano and actress\n1929 – Betty Johnson, American singer (The Johnson Family Singers)\n 1929 – Tihomir Novakov, Serbian-American physicist and academic (d. 2015)\n1930 – Tommy Flanagan, American pianist and composer (d. 2001)\n1931 – Alan Heyman, American-South Korean musicologist and composer (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Anthony Kenny, English philosopher and academic\n* 1931 – John Munro, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 2003)\n1932 – Don Blasingame, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005)\n 1932 – Walter Cunningham, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut\n* 1932 – Kurt Diemberger, Austrian mountaineer and author\n1933 – Keith Critchlow, English architect and academic, co-founded Temenos Academy\n 1933 – Sanford I. Weill, American banker, financier, and philanthropist\n1934 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (d. 2002)\n 1934 – Roger Norrington, English violinist and conductor\n* 1934 – Ray Walker, American singer (The Jordanaires)\n1935 – Teresa Berganza, Spanish soprano and actress\n1936 – Fred Neil, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)\n* 1936 – Raymond Vahan Damadian, Armenian-American inventor, invented the MRI\n1937 – David Frith, English historian, journalist, and author\n 1937 – Amos Tversky, Israeli-American psychologist and academic (d. 1996)\n1939 – Carlos Bilardo, Argentinian footballer and manager\n 1939 – Koos Van Den Akker, Dutch-American fashion designer (d. 2015)\n1940 – Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian director and screenwriter\n 1940 – Vagif Mustafazadeh, Azerbaijani pianist and composer (d. 1979)\n* 1940 – Jan Pronk, Dutch academic and politician, Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment\n* 1940 – Keith Rowe, English guitarist (AMM and M.I.M.E.O.)\n1941 – Robert Guéï, Ivorian soldier and politician, 3rd President of Côte d'Ivoire (d. 2002)\n 1941 – Chuck Woolery, American game show host and actor\n1942 – Roger Crozier, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 1996)\n 1942 – James Soong, Chinese-Taiwanese politician, Governor of Taiwan Province\n* 1942 – Gijs van Lennep, Dutch race car driver\n* 1942 – Jerry Jeff Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (Lost Gonzo Band)\n1943 – Ursula Goodenough, American biologist, zoologist, and author\n1944 – Andrew S. Tanenbaum, American computer scientist and academic\n1946 – Michael Basman, English chess player and author\n 1946 – Sigmund Groven, Norwegian harmonica player and composer\n* 1946 – Mary Kaldor, English economist and academic\n1947 – Ramzan Paskayev, Kazakh accordion player and composer\n1948 – Michael Owen Bruce, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (Alice Cooper)\n* 1948 – Richard Desjardins, Canadian singer-songwriter and director\n* 1948 – Margaret Weis, American author and game designer\n1949 – Erik Estrada, American actor and producer\n 1949 – Victor Garber, Canadian actor and singer\n* 1949 – Elliott Murphy, American-French singer-songwriter and journalist\n1950 – Peter Forster, English bishop\n 1950 – Kate Nelligan, Canadian actress\n1951 – Ray Benson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (Asleep at the Wheel)\n 1951 – Joe DeLamielleure, American football player\n1952 – Graham Cole, English actor\n 1952 – Alice Hoffman, American author\n* 1952 – Philippe Kahn, French businessman, co-founded Fullpower Technologies\n* 1952 – Scott Simon, American journalist and author\n1953 – Isabelle Huppert, French actress \n 1953 – Óscar Ramírez, Peruvian terrorist\n* 1953 – Richard Stallman, American computer scientist and programmer\n1954 – David Heath, English politician\n 1954 – Jimmy Nail, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor\n* 1954 – Tim O'Brien, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (Hot Rize)\n* 1954 – Dav Whatmore, Sri Lankan-Australian cricketer and coach\n* 1954 – Nancy Wilson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actress (Heart)\n1955 – Svetlana Alexeeva, Russian ice dancer and coach\n 1955 – Bruno Barreto, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1955 – Jiro Watanabe, Japanese boxer\n1956 – Ozzie Newsome, American football player and manager\n 1956 – Clifton Powell, American actor, director, and producer\n1958 – Phillip Wilcher, Australian pianist and composer\n 1958 – Kate Worley, American author (d. 2004)\n1959 – Sebastian Currier, American composer and educator\n 1959 – Greg Dyer, Australian cricketer\n* 1959 – Flavor Flav, American rapper and actor (Public Enemy)\n* 1959 – Jens Stoltenberg, Norwegian economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Norway\n1960 – Jenny Eclair, English actress and author\n 1960 – John Hemming, English businessman and politician\n* 1960 – Duane Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1961 – Brett Kenny, Australian rugby player and coach\n 1961 – Todd McFarlane, Canadian author, illustrator, and businessman, founded McFarlane Toys\n* 1961 – Michiru Ōshima, Japanese composer and producer\n1963 – Jimmy DeGrasso, American drummer (Megadeth, Black Star Riders, F5, Y&T, and Suicidal Tendencies)\n 1963 – Jerome Flynn, English actor \n* 1963 – Kevin Smith, New Zealand actor and singer (d. 2002)\n1964 – H.P. Baxxter, German singer-songwriter (Scooter and Celebrate the Nun)\n 1964 – Henry O. Godwinn, American wrestler\n* 1964 – Patty Griffin, American singer-songwriter (Band of Joy)\n* 1964 – Gore Verbinski, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n1965 – Steve Armstrong, American wrestler\n 1965 – Mark Carney, Canadian-English economist and banker\n* 1965 – Richard Daniel Roman, English-Spanish songwriter and producer\n* 1965 – Belén Rueda, Spanish actress and singer\n1966 – H.P. Baxxter, German singer-songwriter (Scooter and Celebrate the Nun)\n1967 – Tracy Bonham, American singer and violinist\n* 1967 – John Darnielle, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (The Mountain Goats, The Extra Lens, and The Bloody Hawaiians)\n* 1967 – Lauren Graham, American actress and producer\n1968 – Trevor Wilson, American basketball player and police officer\n1969 – Judah Friedlander, American comedian and actor\n* 1969 – Ottis Gibson, Barbadian cricketer and coach\n* 1969 – Evangelos Koronios, Greek basketball player and coach\n1970 – Joakim Berg, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist (Kent)\n1971 – Alan Tudyk, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1972 – Veiko Õunpuu, Estonian director and screenwriter\n1973 – Tim Kang, American actor\n* 1973 – Ahmet Kutsi Karadoğan, Turkish singer-songwriter\n* 1973 – Patrick N. Millsaps, American lawyer and businessman\n* 1973 – Vonda Ward, American boxer and basketball player\n1974 – Georgios Anatolakis, Greek footballer and politician\n 1974 – Heath Streak, Zimbabwean cricketer\n1975 – Sienna Guillory, English model and actress\n1976 – Blu Cantrell, American singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1976 – Abraham Núñez, Dominican baseball player\n* 1976 – Paul Schneider, American actor and director\n1977 – Donal Óg Cusack, Irish hurler and coach\n1978 – Brooke Burns, American model and actress\n* 1978 – Ayesha Dharker, Indian actress\n1979 – Édison Méndez, Ecuadorian footballer\n 1979 – Rashad Moore, American football player\n* 1979 – Leena Peisa, Finnish keyboard player and songwriter (Lordi and Dolchamar)\n* 1979 – Andrei Stepanov, Estonian footballer\n1980 – Todd Heap, American football player\n 1980 – Felipe Reyes, Spanish basketball player\n1981 – Andrew Bree, Irish swimmer\n 1981 – Danny Brown, American rapper\n* 1981 – Curtis Granderson, American baseball player\n* 1981 – Fabiana Murer, Brazilian pole vaulter\n* 1981 – Yoav Ziv, Israeli footballer\n1982 – Riley Cote, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n 1982 – Dian Sastrowardoyo, Indonesian model and actress\n* 1982 – Brian Wilson, American baseball player\n1983 – Brandon League, American baseball player\n 1983 – Stephen Drew, American baseball player\n* 1983 – Tramon Williams, American football player\n1984 – Levi Brown, American football player\n 1984 – Michael Ennis, Australian rugby player\n* 1984 – Hosea Gear, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1984 – Brandon Prust, Canadian ice hockey player\n1985 – Eddy Lover, Panamanian singer-songwriter\n1986 – Toney Douglas, American basketball player\n* 1986 – Kenny Dykstra, American wrestler\n* 1986 – T. J. Jordan, American basketball player\n* 1986 – Boaz Solossa, Indonesian footballer\n* 1986 – Daisuke Takahashi, Japanese figure skater\n1988 – Jhené Aiko, American singer-songwriter (Cocaine 80s)\n 1988 – Brett DiBiase, American wrestler and referee\n* 1988 – Jessica Gregg, Canadian speed skater\n* 1988 – Patrick Herrmann, German footballer\n1989 – Blake Griffin, American basketball player\n 1989 – Theo Walcott, English footballer\n1990 – James Bulger, English murder victim (d. 1993)\n1991 – Wolfgang Van Halen, American bass player (Van Halen and Tremonti)\n1995 – Shy Carlos, Swiss-Filipino actress and singer\n 1995 – Inga Janulevičiūtė, Lithuanian figure skater\n1999 – Bailie Key, American gymnast\n\nDeaths\n\n 37 – Tiberius, Roman emperor (b. 42 BC)\n* 455 – Valentinian III, Roman emperor (b. 419)\n* 933 – Takin al-Khazari, Egyptian commander and politician, Abbasid Governor of Egypt\n1021 – Heribert of Cologne, German archbishop and saint (b. 970)\n1072 – Adalbert of Hamburg, German archbishop (b. 1000)\n1322 – Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, English general and politician, Lord High Constable of England (b. 1276)\n1410 – John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, French-English admiral and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1373)\n1457 – Ladislaus Hunyadi, Hungarian politician (b. 1433)\n1485 – Anne Neville, English wife of Richard III of England (b. 1456)\n1559 – Anthony St. Leger, English-Irish politician Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. 1496)\n1649 – Jean de Brébeuf, French-Canadian missionary and saint (b. 1593)\n1679 – John Leverett, English-American general and politician, 19th Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b. 1616)\n1721 – James Craggs the Elder, English politician, Postmaster General of the United Kingdom (b. 1657)\n1736 – Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian organist and composer (b. 1710)\n1737 – Benjamin Wadsworth, American minister and academic (b. 1670)\n1738 – George Bähr, German architect, designed the Dresden Frauenkirche (b. 1666)\n1747 – Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (b. 1690)\n1838 – Nathaniel Bowditch, American captain and mathematician (b. 1773)\n1841 – Félix Savart, French physicist and psychologist (d. 1791)\n1888 – Hippolyte Carnot, French politician (b. 1801)\n1890 – Princess Zorka of Montenegro (b. 1864)\n1892 – Samuel F. Miller, American lawyer and politician (b. 1827)\n1898 – Aubrey Beardsley, English author and illustrator (b. 1872)\n1899 – Joseph Medill, American journalist and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (b. 1823)\n1903 – Roy Bean, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1825)\n1914 – Gaston Calmette, French journalist (b. 1858)\n 1914 – Charles Albert Gobat, Swiss lawyer and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1843)\n* 1914 – John Murray, Scottish oceanographer, biologist, and limnologist (b. 1841)\n1925 – August von Wassermann, German bacteriologist and hygienist (b. 1866)\n1930 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1870)\n1935 – John James Rickard Macleod, Scottish physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1876)\n 1935 – Aron Nimzowitsch, Latvian-Danish chess player (b. 1886)\n1936 – Marguerite Durand, French actress, journalist, and activist (b. 1864)\n1937 – Alexander von Staël-Holstein, Estonian orientalist and sinologist (b. 1877)\n1940 – Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1858)\n1955 – Nicolas de Staël, French-Russian painter and illustrator (b. 1914)\n1957 – Constantin Brâncuși, Romanian-French sculptor, painter, and photographer (b. 1876)\n1961 – Chen Geng, Chinese general and politician (b. 1903)\n* 1961 – Václav Talich, Czech violinist and conductor (b. 1883)\n1963 – Laura Adams Armer, American author and photographer (b. 1874)\n1968 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian-American pianist and composer (b. 1895)\n* 1968 – Gunnar Ekelöf, Swedish poet and translator (b. 1907)\n1970 – Tammi Terrell, American singer-songwriter (b. 1946)\n1971 – Bebe Daniels, American actress, singer and dancer (b. 1901)\n* 1971 – Thomas E. Dewey, American lawyer and politician, 47th Governor of New York (b. 1902)\n1975 – T-Bone Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1910)\n1977 – Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (b. 1917)\n1979 – Jean Monnet, French economist and politician (b. 1888)\n1980 – Tamara de Lempicka, Polish-American painter (b. 1898)\n1983 – Arthur Godfrey, American actor and television host (b. 1903)\n 1983 – Fred Rose, Polish-Canadian politician (b. 1907)\n1985 – Roger Sessions, American composer, critic, and educator (b. 1896)\n 1985 – Eddie Shore, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1902)\n1988 – Mickey Thompson, American race car driver (b. 1928)\n1990 – Ernst Bacon, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1898)\n1992 – Yves Rocard, French physicist and engineer (b. 1903)\n1993 – Johnny Cymbal, Scottish-American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1945)\n1996 – Charlie Barnett, American actor (b. 1954)\n1998 – Derek Barton, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918)\n* 1998 – Esther Bubley, American photographer (b. 1921)\n1999 – Gratien Gélinas, Canadian actor, director, and playwright (b. 1909)\n2000 – Thomas Ferebee, American colonel and pilot (b. 1918)\n* 2000 – Pavel Prudnikau, Belarusian poet and author (b. 1911)\n* 2000 – Michael Starr, Canadian judge and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Labour (b. 1910)\n2001 – Norma MacMillan, Canadian voice actress (b. 1921)\n 2001 – Bob Wollek, French race car driver (b. 1943)\n2003 – Rachel Corrie, American activist (b. 1979)\n 2003 – Ronald Ferguson, English captain, polo player, and manager (b. 1931)\n2004 – Vilém Tauský, Czech conductor and composer (b. 1910)\n2005 – Todd Bell, American football player (b. 1958)\n* 2005 – Ralph Erskine, English architect, designed The London Ark (b. 1914)\n* 2005 – Dick Radatz, American baseball player (b. 1937)\n2006 – David Feintuch, American lawyer and author (b. 1944)\n2007 – Manjural Islam Rana, Bangladeshi cricketer (b. 1984)\n2008 – Bill Brown, Australian cricketer and soldier (b. 1912)\n 2008 – Ivan Dixon, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1931)\n* 2008 – Gary Hart, American wrestler and manager (b. 1942)\n2011 – Richard Wirthlin, American religious leader (b. 1931)\n2012 – M. A. R. Barker, American linguist, author, and academic (b. 1929)\n* 2012 – Estanislau Basora, Spanish footballer (b. 1926)\n* 2012 – John Ghindia, American football player and coach (b. 1925)\n* 2012 – Donald E. Hillman, American colonel and pilot (b. 1918)\n* 2012 – Peter Serracino Inglott, Maltese priest, philosopher, and academic (b. 1936)\n* 2012 – Takaaki Yoshimoto, Japanese poet, philosopher, and critic (b. 1924)\n2013 – Trond Brænne, Norwegian actor and author (b. 1953)\n 2013 – Jamal Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi physicist and cosmologist (b. 1939)\n* 2013 – José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, Argentinian economist and politician, Minister of Economy of Argentina (b. 1925)\n* 2013 – Jason Molina, American singer-songwriter (b. 1973)\n* 2013 – Bobby Smith, American singer (The Spinners) (b. 1936)\n* 2013 – Marina Solodkin, Russian-Israeli academic and politician (b. 1952)\n* 2013 – Frank Thornton, English actor (b. 1921)\n2014 – Gary Bettenhausen, American race car driver (b. 1941)\n 2014 – Donald Crothers, Indian-American chemist and academic (b. 1937)\n* 2014 – Yulisa Pat Amadu Maddy, Sierra Leonean author, poet, and playwright (b. 1936)\n* 2014 – Steve Moore, English author and illustrator (b. 1949)\n* 2014 – Alexander Pochinok, Russian economist and politician (b. 1958)\n2015 – Bruce Crump, American drummer and songwriter (Molly Hatchet and Gator Country) (b. 1957)\n 2015 – Andy Fraser, English-American singer-songwriter and bass player (Free, Sharks, and John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers (b. 1952)\n* 2015 – Jack Haley, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster (b. 1964)\n* 2015 – Don Robertson, American pianist and composer (b. 1922)\n2016 – Alexander Esenin-Volpin, Russian-American mathematician and poet (b. 1924)\n 2016 – Cliff Michelmore, English television host and producer (b. 1919)\n* 2016 – Frank Sinatra, Jr., American singer and actor (b. 1944)\n\nHolidays and observances\n\nChristian feast day:\nAbbán\nHeribert of Cologne\nMarch 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nDay of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania)\nLatvian Legion Day (Latvia)\nSaint Urho's Day (Finnish Americans and Finnish Canadians)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Amoco Cadiz", "MV Amoco Cadiz", "The Amoco Cadiz", "IMO 7336422", "MV Amaco Cadiz" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "amoco cadiz", "mv amaco cadiz", "mv amoco cadiz", "imo 7336422" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "amoco cadiz", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Amoco Cadiz" }
Where did the US side of the Band Aid concert take place?	tc_1368	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Live_Aid.txt" ], "title": [ "Live Aid" ], "wiki_context": [ "Live Aid was a dual-venue concert held on 13 July 1985, and an ongoing music-based fundraising initiative. The original event was organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise funds for relief of the ongoing Ethiopian famine. Billed as the \"global jukebox\", the event was held simultaneously at Wembley Stadium in London, England, United Kingdom (attended by 72,000 people) and John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States (attended by about 100,000 people). \n\nOn the same day, concerts inspired by the initiative happened in other countries, such as the Soviet Union, Japan, Austria, Australia and West Germany. It was one of the largest-scale satellite link-ups and television broadcasts of all time: an estimated global audience of 1.9 billion, across 150 nations, watched the live broadcast.\n\nBackground \n\nThe 1985 Live Aid concert was conceived as a follow-on to the successful charity single \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" which was also the brainchild of Geldof and Ure. In October 1984, images of millions of people starving to death in Ethiopia were shown in the UK in Michael Buerk's BBC News reports on the 1984 famine. Bob Geldof saw the report, and called Midge Ure from Ultravox, and together they quickly co-wrote the song, \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" in the hope of raising money for famine relief. Geldof then contacted colleagues in the music industry and persuaded them to record the single under the title 'Band Aid' for free. On 25 November 1984, the song was recorded at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, and was released four days later. It stayed at number-one for five weeks in the UK, was Christmas number one, and became the fastest-selling single ever in Britain and raised £8 million, rather than the £70,000 Geldof and Ure had initially expected. Geldof then set his sights on staging a huge concert to raise further funds.\n\nThe idea to stage a charity concert to raise more funds for Ethiopia originally came from Boy George, the lead singer of Culture Club. George and Culture Club drummer Jon Moss had taken part in the recording of \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" and in December 1984 Culture Club were undertaking a tour of the UK, which culminated in six nights at Wembley Arena. On the final night at Wembley, Saturday 22 December 1984, an impromptu gathering of some of the other artists from Band Aid joined Culture Club on stage at the end of the concert for an encore of \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\". George was so overcome by the occasion he told Geldof that they should consider organising a benefit concert. Speaking to the UK music magazine Melody Maker at the beginning of January 1985, Geldof revealed his enthusiasm for George's idea, saying, \"If George is organising it, you can tell him he can call me at any time and I'll do it. It's a logical progression from the record, but the point is you don't just talk about it, you go ahead and do it!\" \n\nIt was clear from the interview that Geldof had already had the idea to hold a dual venue concert and how the concerts should be structured:\n\nOrganization \n\nAmong those involved in organising Live Aid were Harvey Goldsmith, who was responsible for the Wembley Stadium concert, and Bill Graham, who put together the American leg.\n\nThe concert grew in scope, as more acts were added on both sides of the Atlantic. Tony Verna, inventor of instant replay, was able to secure John F. Kennedy Stadium through his friendship with Philadelphia Mayor Goode and was able to procure, through his connections with ABC's prime time chief, John Hamlin, a three-hour prime time slot on the ABC Network and, in addition, was able to supplement the lengthy program through meetings that resulted in the addition of an ad-hoc network within the USA, which covered 85 percent of TVs in the United States. Verna designed the needed satellite schematic and became the Executive Director as well as the Co-Executive Producer along with Hal Uplinger. Uplinger came up with the idea to produce a four-hour video edit of Live Aid to distribute to those countries without the necessary satellite equipment to rebroadcast the live feed.\n\nCollaborative effort \n\nThe concert began at 12:00 British Summer Time (BST) (7:00 Eastern Daylight Time (EDT)) at Wembley Stadium in the United Kingdom. It continued at John F. Kennedy Stadium (JFK) in the United States, starting at 13:51 BST (8:51 EDT). The UK's Wembley performances ended at 22:00 BST (17:00 EDT). The JFK performances and whole concert in the US ended at 04:05 BST 14 July (23:05 EDT). Thus, the concert continued for just over 16 hours, but since many artists' performances were conducted simultaneously in Wembley and JFK, the total concert's length was much longer.\n\nMick Jagger and David Bowie intended to perform an intercontinental duet, with Bowie in London and Jagger in Philadelphia. Problems of synchronization meant the only remotely practical solution was to have one artist, likely Bowie at Wembley, mime along to prerecorded vocals broadcast as part of the live sound mix for Jagger's performance from Philadelphia. Veteran music engineer David Richards (Pink Floyd and Queen) was brought in to create footage and sound mixes Jagger and Bowie could perform to in their respective venues. The BBC would then have had to ensure those footage and sound mixes were in synch while also performing a live vision mix of the footage from both venues. The combined footage would then have had to be bounced back by satellite to the various broadcasters around the world. Due to the time lag (the signal would take several seconds to be broadcast twice across the Atlantic Ocean) Richards concluded there was no way for Jagger to hear or see Bowie's performance, meaning there could be no interaction between the artists; essentially defeating the whole point of the exercise. On top of this, both artists objected to the idea of miming at what was perceived as a historic event. Instead, Jagger and Bowie worked with Richards to create a video clip of the song they would have performed, a cover of \"Dancing in the Street\", which was shown on the screens of both stadiums and broadcast as part of many TV networks coverage.\n\nEach of the two main parts of the concert ended with their particular continental all-star anti-hunger anthems, with Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" closing the UK concert, and USA for Africa's \"We Are the World\" closing the US concert (and thus the entire event itself). \n\nConcert organizers have subsequently said they were particularly keen to ensure at least one surviving member of the Beatles, ideally Paul McCartney, took part in the concert as they felt that having an 'elder statesman' from British music would give it greater legitimacy in the eyes of the political leaders whose opinions the performers were trying to shape. McCartney agreed to perform and has said it was \"the management\" – his children – who persuaded him to take part. In the event, he was the last performer (aside from the Band Aid finale) to take to the stage and one of the few to be beset by technical difficulties; his microphone failed for the first two minutes of his piano performance of \"Let It Be\", making it difficult for television viewers and impossible for those in the stadium to hear him. He later joked by saying he had thought about changing the lyrics to \"There will be some feedback, let it be\".\n\nPhil Collins performed at both Wembley Stadium and JFK, utilising the Concorde to get him from London to Philadelphia. UK TV personality Noel Edmonds piloted the helicopter that took Collins to Heathrow Airport to catch his flight to NYC. (Collins later was flown by chopper to Philadelphia). Aside from his own set at both venues, he also played the drums for Eric Clapton, and played with the reuniting surviving members of Led Zeppelin at JFK. On the Concorde flight, Collins encountered actress and singer Cher, who was unaware of the concerts. Upon reaching the US, she attended the Philadelphia concert and can be seen performing as part of the concert's \"We Are the World\" finale.\n\nAn official book was produced by Bob Geldof in collaboration with photographer Denis O'Regan.\n\nThe broadcasts \n\n\"It's twelve noon in London, seven AM in Philadelphia, and around the world it's time for: Live Aid ....\", said Richard Skinner when opening the show.\n\nThe concert is the most ambitious international satellite television venture that had ever been attempted at the time. In Europe, the feed was supplied by the BBC, whose broadcast was presented by Richard Skinner, Andy Kershaw, Mark Ellen, David Hepworth, Andy Batten-Foster, Steve Blacknell, Paul Gambaccini, Janice Long, Mike Smith and Martina Duffy and included numerous interviews and chats in between the various acts. The BBC's television sound feed was mono, as was all UK TV audio before NICAM was introduced, but the BBC Radio 1 feed was stereo and was simulcast in sync with the TV pictures. Unfortunately, in the rush to set up the transatlantic feeds, the sound feed from Philadelphia was sent to London via transatlantic cable, while the video feed was via satellite, which meant a lack of synchronisation on British television receivers. Due to the constant activities in both London and Philadelphia, the BBC producers omitted the reunion of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young from their broadcast. The BBC, however, did supply a 'clean feed' to various television channels in Europe.\n\nABC was largely responsible for the US broadcast (although ABC themselves only telecast the final three hours of the concert from Philadelphia, hosted by Dick Clark, with the rest shown in syndication through Orbis Communications, acting on behalf of ABC). An entirely separate and simultaneous US feed was provided for cable viewers by MTV, whose broadcast was presented in stereo, and accessible as such for those with stereo televisions. At the time, before Multichannel television sound was enacted nationwide, very few televisions reproduced stereo signals and few television stations were able to broadcast in stereo. While the telecast was run commercial-free by the BBC, both the MTV and syndicated/ABC broadcasts included advertisements and interviews. As a result, many songs were omitted due to the commercial breaks, as these songs were played during these slots.\n\nThe biggest caveat of the syndicated/ABC coverage is that the network had wanted to reserve some of the biggest acts that had played earlier in the day for certain points in the entire broadcast, particularly in the final three hours in prime time; thus, Orbis Communications had some sequences replaced by others, especially those portions of the concert that had acts from London and Philadelphia playing simultaneously. For example, while the London/Wembley finale was taking place at 22:00 (10:00 pm) London time, syndicated viewers saw segments that had been recorded earlier, so that ABC could show the UK finale during its prime-time portion. In 1995, VH1 and MuchMusic aired a re-edited ten-hour re-broadcast of the concert for its 10th Anniversary.\n\nAt one point midway through the concert, Billy Connolly announced he had just been informed that 95% of the television sets around the world were tuned to the event, though this can of course not be verified.\n\nThe Live Aid concert in London was also the first time that the BBC outside broadcast sound equipment had been used for an event of such a scale. In stark contrast to the mirrored sound systems commonly used by the rock band touring engineers, with two 40–48 channel mixing consoles at the Front of house, and another pair for monitors, the BBC sound engineers had to use multiple 12 channel desks. Some credit this as the point where the mainstream entertainment industry realised that the rock concert industry had overtaken them in technical expertise. \n\nWembley Stadium \n\nThe Coldstream Guards band opened with the \"Royal Salute\", \"God Save the Queen\". Status Quo started their set with \"Rockin' All Over the World\", also playing \"Caroline\" and fan favourite \"Don't Waste My Time\". This was to be the last appearance by the band to feature bassist and founder member Alan Lancaster, and drummer Pete Kircher who had joined the band three years earlier.\n\nQueen also performed at the stadium, in which lead singer Freddie Mercury at times led the crowd in unison refrains. The band's 20-minute set opened with \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" and closed with \"We Are the Champions\". Queen's performance on that day has since been voted by more than 60 artists, journalists and music industry executives as the greatest live performance in the history of rock music, Mercury and fellow band member Brian May later sang the first song of the three-part Wembley event finale, \"Is This The World We Created...?\".\n\nBob Geldof performed with the rest of the Boomtown Rats, singing \"I Don't Like Mondays\". He stopped just after the line \"The lesson today is how to die\" to loud applause. He finished the song and left the crowd to sing the final words.\n\nElvis Costello sang a version of The Beatles' \"All You Need Is Love\", which he introduced by asking the audience to \"help [him] sing this old northern English folk song\". \n\nU2's performance further established them as a pre-eminent live group – something for which they would eventually become superstars. The band played a 14-minute rendition of \"Bad\", during which lead vocalist Bono jumped off the stage to join the crowd and dance with a girl. The length of their performance of \"Bad\" limited them to playing just two songs; the third, \"Pride (In the Name of Love)\", had to be ditched. In July 2005, the girl with whom he danced said that he actually saved her life at the time. She was being crushed by the throngs of people pushing forwards; Bono saw this, and gestured frantically at the ushers to help her. They did not understand what he was saying, and so he jumped down to help her himself. \n\nAnother moment that garnered a huge crowd response was when David Bowie performed \"Heroes\" and dedicated it to his son, as well as \"All our children, and the children of the world\".\n\nThe UK reception of the US feed failed several times and was dogged throughout the US concert by an intermittent regular buzzing on the audio from the US (see the John F. Kennedy Stadium section for more detail) and also failed during their relay of Japan's concert, which blacked out most of Off Course's song \"Endless Nights\".\n\nIn addition, the transatlantic broadcast from Wembley Stadium suffered technical problems and failed during the Who's performance of their song \"My Generation\", immediately after Roger Daltrey sang \"Why don't you all fade...\" (the last word was cut off when a blown fuse caused the Wembley stage TV feed to temporarily fail). The Who played with Kenney Jones on drums and it was their first performance since they'd officially disbanded after their 1982 'farewell' tour. The Who's performance included an at times chaotic but still blistering version of \"Won't Get Fooled Again\". The band's performance was described as \"rough but right\" by Rolling Stone magazine, but they would not perform together again until the 1988 BPI Awards. \n\nWhile performing \"Let it Be\" near the end of the show, the microphone mounted to Paul McCartney's piano failed for the first two minutes of the song, making it difficult for television viewers and the stadium audience to hear him. During this performance, the TV audience were better off, audio-wise, than the stadium audience, as the TV sound was picked up from other microphones near McCartney. The stadium audience, who could obviously not hear the electronic sound feed from these mikes, unless they had portable TV sets and radios, drowned out what little sound from Paul could be heard during this part of his performance. As a result, organiser and performer Bob Geldof, accompanied by earlier performers David Bowie, Alison Moyet, Pete Townshend and five children and one of their fathers, returned to the stage to sing with him and back him up (as did the stadium audience despite not being able to hear much), by which time, Paul's microphone had been repaired. \n\nAt the conclusion of the Wembley performances, Bob Geldof was raised onto the shoulders of the Who's guitarist Pete Townshend and Paul McCartney. \n\nJohn F. Kennedy Stadium \n\nThe host of the televised portion of the concert in Philadelphia was actor Jack Nicholson. The artist Joan Baez announced to the crowd, \"this is your Woodstock, and it's long overdue,\" before leading the crowd in singing \"Amazing Grace\" and \"We Are the World\".\n\nDuring his opening number, \"American Girl\", Tom Petty flipped the middle finger to somebody off stage about one minute into song. Petty stated the song was a last-minute addition when the band realised that they would be the first act to play the American side of the concert after the London finale and \"since this is, after all, JFK Stadium\". \n\nWhen Bob Dylan broke a guitar string, while playing with the Rolling Stones' Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood, Wood took off his own guitar and gave it to Dylan. Wood was left standing on stage guitarless. After shrugging to the audience, he played air guitar, even mimicking the Who's Pete Townshend by swinging his arm in wide circles, until a stagehand brought him a replacement. The performance itself was included in the DVD, including the guitar switch and Wood talking to stage hands, but much of the footage used were close-ups of either Dylan or Richards.\n\nDuring their duet on \"It's Only Rock 'n' Roll\", Mick Jagger ripped away part of Tina Turner's dress, leaving her to finish the song in what was, effectively, a leotard.\n\nThe JFK portion included reunions of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, the original Black Sabbath with Ozzy Osbourne, and surviving members of Led Zeppelin, with Phil Collins and the Power Station (and former Chic) member Tony Thompson sharing duties on drums in place of the band's late drummer John Bonham (although they were not officially announced by their group name from the stage, but were announced as Led Zeppelin on the VH1 10th Anniversary re-broadcast in 1995). \n\nTeddy Pendergrass made his first public appearance since his near-fatal car accident in 1982 which paralysed him. Pendergrass, along with Ashford & Simpson, performed \"Reach Out and Touch\".\n\nDuran Duran performed a four-song set which was the final time the five original band members would publicly perform together until 2003. Their set saw a weak, off-key falsetto note hit by frontman Simon Le Bon during \"A View to a Kill\". Le Bon later recalled that it was the most embarrassing moment of his career.\n\nThe UK TV feed from Philadelphia was dogged by an intermittent regular buzzing on the sound during Bryan Adams' turn on stage and continued less frequently throughout the rest of the UK reception of the American concert and both the audio and video feed failed entirely during that performance and during Simple Minds's performance.\n\nPhil Collins, who had performed in England earlier in the day, began his set with the quip, \"I was in England this afternoon. Funny old world, innit?\", to cheers from the Philadelphia crowd.\n\nFundraising \n\nThroughout the concerts, viewers were urged to donate money to the Live Aid cause. Three hundred phone lines were manned by the BBC, so that members of the public could make donations using their credit cards. The phone number and an address that viewers could send cheques to were repeated every twenty minutes.\n\nNearly seven hours into the concert in London, Bob Geldof enquired how much money had been raised; he was told £1.2 million. He is said to have been sorely disappointed by the amount and marched to the BBC commentary position. Pumped up further by a performance by Queen which he later called \"absolutely amazing\", Geldof gave an interview in which he used the word \"fuck\". Conducting the interview, BBC presenter David Hepworth had attempted to provide a list of addresses to which potential donations should be sent; Geldof interrupted him in mid-flow and shouted \"Fuck the address, let's get the numbers!\" and \"Give us your fucking money!\". It has passed into folklore, although Geldof has stated that the latter phrase was never uttered. Private Eye magazine made great capital out of these outbursts, emphasising Geldof's accent which meant the profanities were heard as \"fock\" and \"focking\". After the outburst, giving increased to £300 per second.\n\nLater in the evening, following David Bowie's set, a video shot by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation was shown to the audiences in London and Philadelphia, as well as on televisions around the world (though neither US feed chose to show the film), showing starving and diseased Ethiopian children set to \"Drive\" by the Cars. (This would also be shown at the London Live 8 concert in 2005.) The rate of giving became faster in the immediate aftermath of the moving video. Geldof had previously refused to allow the video to be shown, due to time constraints, and had only relented when Bowie offered to drop the song \"Five Years\" from his set as a trade-off.\n\nGeldof mentioned during the concert that the Republic of Ireland gave the most donations per capita, despite being in the threat of a serious economic recession at the time. The single largest donation came from the Al Maktoum, who was part of the ruling family of Dubai, who donated £1M in a phone conversation with Geldof. The next day, news reports stated that between £40 and £50 million had been raised. It is now estimated that around £150m has been raised for famine relief as a direct result of the concerts.\n\nNotable absences \n\nBruce Springsteen failed to appear at the Wembley Live Aid concert despite his huge popularity in 1985, later stating that he \"simply did not realise how big the whole thing was going to be\". He has since expressed regret at turning down Geldof's invitation stating that he could have played a couple of acoustic songs had there been no slot available for a full band performance.\n\nMichael Jackson also refused to take part in the whole event. According to Joan Baez, Jackson and Stevie Wonder attempted to organize a boycott of the event. \n\nPrince did not play, but did send a pre-taped video of an acoustic version of \"4 the Tears in Your Eyes\", which was played during the concert. The original version appears on the We Are the World album, while the video version was released in 1993 on Prince's compilation The Hits/The B-Sides. He wrote the song \"Hello\" about the criticism he got for turning it down. \n\nBilly Joel, Boy George, Waylon Jennings, Kris Kristofferson, Tears for Fears, Huey Lewis and the News and Paul Simon, were all included in the initial promotional material for the Philadelphia concert, but failed to appear at the show itself. Paul Simon and Huey Lewis both accepted requests to play the Philadelphia concert but later issued press statements stating they had chosen not to appear after all, citing disagreements with promoter Bill Graham. The final poster for the Philadelphia show features the acts Peter, Paul and Mary and Rod Stewart (who also featured in the Philadelphia concert programme). Peter, Paul and Mary were to have joined Bob Dylan for a rendition of \"Blowing In The Wind\" since they had recorded a cover version in the 1960s – but Dylan called the organizers a few days before the show saying that he would play with Ronnie Wood and Keith Richards instead (ironically, Bill Wyman apparently told Geldof before not to approach the Stones because ‘Keith doesn’t give a fuck’). Stewart was not touring at the time and was ultimately unable to put together a band in time for the concert as was Billy Joel who actually did not like the idea of performing solo in front of such a big stadium audience. Geldof claimed \"Stevie Wonder eventually agreed to appear, but then he phoned me up and said, 'I am not going to be the token black on the show'\".\n\nCliff Richard was unable to perform as he was committed to a gospel charity concert in Birmingham, although, he did perform during BBC One's coverage of the Philadelphia Live Aid concert.\n\nRegarding Tears for Fears's absence, band member Roland Orzabal remarked that Bob Geldof \"gave us so much gip for not turning up at Live Aid. All those millions of people dying, it was our fault. I felt terrible. I tell you, I know how Hitler must have felt.\" The group made up for their absence by donating the proceeds from several shows of their world tour that year, and also contributed a re-recording of \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" (entitled \"Everybody Wants to Run the World\") for Geldof's Sport Aid charity event in 1986. The single reached the Top 5 in the UK, even though the band's original version had been a hit only a year earlier.\n\nCat Stevens wrote a song for the Live Aid concert, which he never got to perform. According to the official book that was released after the event, he arrived at Wembley Stadium on the day without prior warning, and Geldof was unable to fit him into the schedule.\n\nLiza Minnelli, Yoko Ono, and Cyndi Lauper were tapped to present at JFK Stadium, but backed out. Lauper did appear in a commercial for the \"Live Aid Book\" that aired during the concert.\n\nA reunited Deep Purple were also due to appear from Switzerland via satellite, but pulled out after guitarist Ritchie Blackmore refused to take part in the event. Eurythmics were scheduled to play Wembley but cancelled after Annie Lennox suffered serious throat problems. Deep Purple (minus Blackmore, who left the band in 1993) appeared at Geldof's Live 8 sequel 20 years later, performing at the Toronto leg of the event while Annie Lennox appeared at the London and Edinburgh Live 8 concerts.\n\nFrank Zappa was invited to perform, but refused because he believed that the money raised by Live Aid did not address the core problems facing the developing world and instead aided the developed world by providing ways to get drugs, calling the concert \"the biggest cocaine money laundering scheme of all time\". \n\nA sighting of George Harrison arriving Wednesday night at Heathrow Airport led to widespread speculation that a reunion of the three living Beatles was in the works. He was approached by Geldof to join Paul McCartney at \"Let it Be\", answering \"Paul didn’t ask me to sing on it (Let It Be) ten years ago, why does he want me now?\" Frustrated by a bombardment of Beatles reunion questions, Geldof said: \"It's just something you have to answer. I find it silly that with all these acts and the real purpose of the concert that the one thing people suddenly get caught up over is, 'Are the Beatles going to reform?' Who cares? Besides, they can't reform--or haven't people read the papers the last five years?\" (a reference to the death of John Lennon).\n\nBill Graham is said to have turned down Foreigner and Yes because there was no free space on the bill for them.\n\nBritish rock band Marillion, riding high in the UK charts that summer with their Misplaced Childhood album and \"Kayleigh\" single, missed out on an invitation to perform at Wembley because their manager had deemed it not worthwhile for their lead singer Fish to participate in the \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" single. Fish was quoted: \"When it came to the bill for the concert we were passed over.\" \n\nParticipating in the \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" finale at Wembley were Justin Hayward and John Lodge from The Moody Blues, Stewart Copeland from The Police, the members of Big Country and five girls from Derry in Northern Ireland and their fathers. On the other hand, Lionel Richie, Harry Belafonte, Dionne Warwick, Melissa Manchester, Sheena Easton and Cher all showed up at the JFK finale performing \"We Are The World\".\n\nDiana Ross, Van Halen, Frankie Goes to Hollywood, The Smiths, Talking Heads and Donna Summer also turned down requests to appear. Depeche Mode, one of the most successful English bands of the 1980s, was not invited. Alan Wilder, one of the DM members at the time said: \"I doubt very much that we would have accepted the invitation, had we been asked. My personal view is that giving to 'chariddy' should be a totally private gesture, out of which no personal gain should be made. Inevitably, nearly all the artists who took part in Live Aid achieved a considerable rise in record sales and being the cynic I am, I wonder just how much of the profit gained from those sales actually ended up going to Ethiopia.\"\n\nThin Lizzy keyboard player Darren Wharton expressed his regrets about the band not being asked to perform at the event: \"I think that was a tragic, tragic decision. It could've been and it should've been the turning point for Phil (Lynott). And I think that really did Phil in quite a lot, that we were never asked to play. I mean Phil, had a few problems at the time, but at the end of the day, if he would've been asked to play Live Aid, that would've been a goal for him to clean himself up to do that gig. We were all very upset of the fact that we weren't asked to do it. Because as you say, it was Geldof and Midge who Phil knew very well. I was surprised that we weren't asked to do that. That would've been the turning point, you know, definitely. I don't think Phil ever forgave Bob and Midge for that really.\" \n\nNeil Peart, drummer of the Canadian rock band Rush said this about Live Aid: \"Geddy was involved with the Northern Lights charity record here in Canada, although Rush weren't invited to participate in the 'Live Aid' event – mainly because if you look at the guest list, it was very much an 'in-crowd' situation. We didn't refuse to take part because of any principles. Mind you, I wouldn't have been happy being part of this scenario. Those stars should have shut up and just given over their money if they were genuine. I recall that 'Tears For Fears', who made a musical and artistic decision to pull out of the concert, were subsequently accused of killing children in Africa – what a shockingly irresponsible and stupid attitude to take towards the band. But I have nothing bad whatsoever to say about Bob Geldof; he sacrificed his health, his career, everything for something he believed in. But others around him got involved for their own reasons. Some of those involved in Northern Lights were actually quoted as saying that their managers told them to get down to the recording sessions because it would be a good career move! What a farce!\" \n\nCriticisms and controversies \n\nBob Dylan's performance generated controversy after he said \"I hope that some of the money…maybe they can just take a little bit of it, maybe…one or two million, maybe…and use it, say, to pay the mortgages on some of the farms and, the farmers here, owe to the banks…\" He is often misquoted, as on the Farm Aid website, as saying: \"Wouldn't it be great if we did something for our own farmers right here in America?\" In his autobiography, Is That It? (published in 1986), Geldof was extremely critical of the remark, saying \"He displayed a complete lack of understanding of the issues raised by Live Aid…. Live Aid was about people losing their lives. There is a radical difference between losing your livelihood and losing your life. It did instigate Farm Aid, which was a good thing in itself, but it was a crass, stupid, and nationalistic thing to say.\" \n\nGeldof was not happy about The Hooters being tacked onto the bill as the opening band in Philadelphia. He felt pressured into it by Graham and local promoter Larry Magid. Magid, promoting the concert through Electric Factory Concerts, correctly argued that the band was hugely popular in Philadelphia, their first major label album Nervous Night being released less than three months beforehand was a genuine hit record. Geldof let his feelings be known during an interview for Rolling Stone by asking: \"Who the fuck are the Hooters?\" In December 2004, Geldof appeared on the bill with the Hooters in Germany as their opening act.\n\nAdam Ant subsequently criticised the event and expressed regrets about playing it, saying, \"I was asked by Bob to promote this concert. They had no idea they could sell it out. Then in Bob's book he said, 'Adam was over the hill so I let him have one number.' ... Doing that show was the biggest fucking mistake in the world. Knighthoods were made, Bono got it made, and it was a waste of fucking time. It was the end of rock 'n' roll.\" Geldof stated in his autobiography that Miles Copeland, manager of Adam Ant and Sting, asked Geldof if he'd thought of asking Ant after Geldof contacted him to get Sting to appear: \"I hadn't. I thought he was a bit passe. But then so were the Boomtown Rats, and each represented a certain piece of pop history, so I agreed. I also thought that might entice him to encourage Sting, or perhaps all three of the Police\". \n\nBBC coverage co-host Andy Kershaw criticised the event in his autobiography No Off Switch, stating, \"Musically, Live Aid was to be entirely predictable and boring. As they were wheeled out – or rather bullied by Geldof into playing – it became clear that this was another parade of the same old rock aristocracy in a concert for Africa, organised by someone who, while advertising his concern for, and sympathy with, the continent didn’t see fit to celebrate or dignify the place by including on the Live Aid bill a single African performer.\" [Kershaw is incorrect on the last criticism, as the bill included Sade, who is African, born in Nigeria of a Nigerian father and British mother.] Kershaw also described the attitude of Geldof and his showbusiness associates as \"irritating, shallow, sanctimonious and self-satisfied\". \n\nLed Zeppelin reunion \n\nLed Zeppelin's reunion for the first time since the death of their drummer John Bonham in 1980 was poorly received due to Robert Plant's hoarse voice, Jimmy Page's struggling with an out-of-tune guitar, lack of rehearsal with the two drummers taking Bonham's place and poorly functioning monitors. Plant described the performance as \"a fucking atrocity for us. … It made us look like loonies\". \n\nPage later criticised Phil Collins, who had played on Plant's first two solo albums, for his performance on drums. Page said: \"Robert told me Phil Collins wanted to play with us. I told him that was all right if he knows the numbers. But at the end of the day, he didn't know anything. We played 'Whole Lotta Love', and he was just there bashing away cluelessly and grinning. I thought that was really a joke.\" However, Collins said \"It was a disaster, really. Robert wasn't match-fit with his voice and Jimmy was out of it, dribbling. It wasn't my fault it was crap. … If I could have walked off, I would have. But then we'd all be talking about why Phil Collins walked off Live Aid – so I just stuck it out. … I thought it was just going to be low-key and we'd all get together and have a play. … But something happened between that conversation and the day – it became a Led Zeppelin reunion. I turned up and I was a square peg in a round hole. Robert was happy to see me, but Jimmy wasn't.\" \n\nDue to their \"sub-standard\" performance, the band members have blocked all possible broadcasts of it since and they withheld permission for it to be included on the official DVD release of the concerts, although footage of the band's performance does exist in its entirety on YouTube. It has since been selected by Philadelphia as \"one of the worst rock-and-roll reunions of all time\". Victor Fiorillo wrote: \"I'd like to be able to blame all of the awfulness on anaemic Phil Collins, who sat in on drums, and Page himself later fingered the Genesis drummer for screwing up the set. But Collins was just the beginning of the bad. Go ahead. Watch and remember. It really was that terrible.\" \n\nFund use in Ethiopia \n\nIn 1986 Spin published an exposé on the realities of Live Aid's actions in Ethiopia. Geldof responded by deriding both the articles and the medical relief organisation Médecins Sans Frontières who had been expelled from the country. There have been claims including by the BBC World Service that much of the funds were siphoned off by Mengistu Haile Mariam and his army (which included the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front). This coalition battled at the time against Derg. (The Band Aid Trust complained to the BBC Editorial Complaints Unit regarding the specific allegations in the BBC World Service documentary, and their complaint was upheld ) Although a professed admirer of Geldof's generosity and concern, American television commentator Bill O'Reilly has been critical of the Live Aid's oversight of the money raised for starving Ethiopian people, O'Reilly believes that charity organizations, operating in aid-receiving countries, should control donations, rather than possibly corrupt governments. \n\nArguing that Live Aid accomplished good ends while inadvertently causing harm at the same time, David Rieff gave a presentation of similar concerns in The Guardian at the time of Live 8. Tim Russert, in an interview on Meet the Press shortly after O'Reilly's comments, addressed these concerns to Bono. Bono responded that corruption, not disease or famine, was the greatest threat to Africa, agreeing with the belief that foreign relief organizations should decide how the money is spent. On the other hand, Bono said that it was better to spill some funds into nefarious quarters for the sake of those who needed it, than to stifle aid because of possible theft. \n\nPerformers and setlists \n\nLondon, Wembley Stadium \n\nPresenters:\n* Richard Skinner — opened the show and introduced Charles, Prince of Wales with Diana, Princess of Wales\n* Tommy Vance — introduced Coldstream Guards, Status Quo, The Style Council, The Boomtown Rats, Nik Kershaw, U2 and Dire Straits\n* Harvey Goldsmith — introduced Adam Ant\n* Andy Peebles — introduced Spandau Ballet, Elvis Costello, Noel Edmonds, Howard Jones, Bryan Ferry, Paul Young, Griff Rhys Jones with Mel Smith and David Bowie\n* Noel Edmonds — introduced Sting with Phil Collins\n* Griff Rhys Jones, Mel Smith, John Duffy and Martina Duffy — introduced Queen\n* Jack Nicholson, Tommy Vance and Martina Duffy - introduced The Who\n* Billy Connolly — introduced Elton John\n* John Hurt — introduced Freddie Mercury and Brian May\n\nPhiladelphia, John F. Kennedy Stadium \n\nPresenters:\n* Bill Graham — introduced Jack Nicholson (before his first and last appearance), Chevy Chase with Joe Piscopo, Marilyn McCoo, Dire Straits, Santana, Bette Midler, Don Johnson, Eric Clapton and Dionne Warwick\n* Jack Nicholson — introduced Joan Baez, Bryan Adams, U2, The Who and Bob Dylan\n* Chevy Chase and Joe Piscopo — introduced The Hooters\n* Chevy Chase — introduced Four Tops, Billy Ocean, Black Sabbath, REO Speedwagon, Judas Priest, David Bowie, Kenny Loggins and Duran Duran\n* Joe Piscopo — introduced Run–D.M.C., Rick Springfield, Simple Minds and Neil Young\n* Marilyn McCoo — introduced The Beach Boys\n* George Segal — introduced George Thorogood and the Destroyers \n* Grace Slick — introduced Pretenders\n* Bette Midler — introduced Madonna, Thompson Twins, Patti LaBelle and Mick Jagger\n* Don Johnson — introduced Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and The Power Station\n* Jack Nicholson & Bette Midler — introduced Phil Collins\n* Phil Collins — introduced Led Zeppelin\n* Dionne Warwick — introduced Hall & Oates\n\nOthers \n\nPresenters:\n* Molly Meldrum — introduced Oz for Africa\n* Mladen Popović — introduced YU Rock Misija\n* Vladimir Posner — introduced Autograph and made a speech between their performances\n* Evelyn Selbert and Ken Janz — introduced Band für Afrika\n* Udo Lindenberg — made a speech between the Band für Afrika performances\n* Andy Kershaw and Martina Duffy — introduced Cliff Richard\n\nLive Aid recordings \n\nWhen organiser Bob Geldof was persuading artists to take part in the concert, he promised them that it would be a one-off event, never to be seen again. That was the reason why the concert was never recorded in its complete original form, and only secondary television broadcasts were recorded. Following Geldof's request, ABC even erased its own broadcast tapes. However, before the syndicated/ABC footage was erased, copies of it were donated to the Smithsonian Institution and have now been presumed lost. It should be noted here that the ABC feed of the USA for Africa/\"We Are The World\" finale does exist in its entirety, complete with the network end credits, and can be found as a supplemental feature on the We Are The World: The Story Behind The Song DVD.\n\nMeanwhile, MTV decided to keep recordings of its broadcast and eventually located more than 100 tapes of Live Aid in its archives, but many songs in these tapes were cut short by MTV's ad breaks and presenters (according to the BBC). The BBC also decided to erase fragments of the performance due to storage limitations, to pave the way for newer programmes. Many performances from the US were not shown on the BBC, and recordings of these performances are missing.\n\nOfficial Live Aid DVD \n\nAn official four-disc DVD set of the Live Aid concerts was released on 8 November 2004. It contains 10-hour partial footage of the 16-hour length concert. The DVD was produced by Geldof's company, Woodcharm Ltd., and distributed by Warner Music Vision.\n\nThe decision to finally release it was taken by Bob Geldof nearly 20 years after the original concerts, after he found a number of pirate copies of the concert on the Internet. There has been controversy over the DVD release because a decision had been taken for a substantial number of tracks not to be included in this edited version.\n\nThe most complete footage that exists is used from the BBC source, and this was the main source of the DVD. During production on the official DVD, MTV lent Woodcharm Ltd. their B-roll and alternate camera footage where MTV provided extra footage of the Philadelphia concert (where ABC had erased the tapes from the command of Bob Geldof), and those songs that were not littered with ads were used on the official DVD.\n\nWorking from the BBC and MTV footage, several degrees of dramatic license were taken, in order to release the concert on DVD. For example, many songs on the official DVD had their soundtracks altered, mainly in sequences where there were originally microphone problems. In one of those instances, Paul McCartney had re-recorded his failed vocals for \"Let It Be\" in a studio the day after the concert (14 July 1985) but it was never used until the release of the DVD. Also, in the US finale, the original 'USA for Africa' studio track for \"We Are the World\" was overlaid in places where the microphone was absent (in fact, if you listen closely, you can hear the vocals of Kenny Rogers and James Ingram, two artists who did not even take part in Live Aid).\n\nJudicious decisions were also made on which acts would be included and which ones would not, due to either technical difficulties in the original performances, the absence of original footage, or for music rights reasons. For example, Rick Springfield, the Four Tops, the Hooters, the Power Station, Billy Ocean, Kool and the Gang and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young were among those acts that were left off the DVD. Many of the artists' songs that were performed were also omitted. For example, Madonna performed three solo songs in the concert, but only two were included on the DVD (\"Love Makes the World Go Round\" was omitted). Phil Collins played \"Against All Odds\" and \"In the Air Tonight\" at both Wembley and JFK, but only the London performance of the former and the Philadelphia performance of the latter were included on the DVD. The JFK performance of \"Against All Odds\" was later included on Phil Collins' Finally...The First Farewell Tour DVD. Tom Petty performed four songs, and only two were included on DVD. Patti LaBelle played 6 songs but only 2 songs were included.\n\nThere were also issues with the artists themselves. Two such performers were left off at their own request: Led Zeppelin and Santana. The former defended their decision not to be included on the grounds that their performance was 'sub-standard', but to lend their support, Jimmy Page and Robert Plant pledged to donate proceeds from an upcoming DVD release of Led Zeppelin to the campaign, and John Paul Jones pledged proceeds from his American tour with Mutual Admiration Society. \n\nIn 2007, Queen released a special edition of Queen Rock Montreal on Blu-ray and DVD formats containing their 1981 concert from The Forum in Montreal, Canada, and their complete Live Aid performance, along with Freddie Mercury and Brian May performing \"Is This The World We Created...?\" from the UK Live Aid finale, all re-mixed in DTS 5.1 sound by Justin Shirley-Smith—this marked the first Live Aid material officially released in a high-definition/Blu-ray format. Also included is their Live Aid rehearsal, and an interview with the band, from earlier in the week.\n\nOn its release, the then British Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, decided the VAT collected on sales of the Live Aid DVD would be given back to the charity, which would raise an extra £5 for every DVD sold.\n\nCertifications\n\nUnofficial recordings \n\nBecause the Live Aid broadcast was watched by 1.5 billion people, most of the footage was recorded on home consumer video recorders all around the world, in various qualities. Many of these recordings were in mono, because in the mid-1980s most home video machines could only record mono sound, and also because the European BBC TV broadcast was in mono. The US MTV broadcast, the ABC Radio Network and BBC Radio 1 simulcasts were stereo. These recordings circulated among collectors, and in recent years, have also appeared on the Internet in file sharing networks.\n\nSince the official DVD release of Live Aid includes only partial footage of this event, unofficial distribution sources continue to be the only source of the most complete recordings of this event. The official DVD is the only authorized video release in which proceeds go directly to famine relief, the cause that the concert was originally intended to help." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Philedelphia", "City of brotherly love", "City of Brotherly Love", "The Quaker City", "Philadelphia", "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania", "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.", "Philadelphia, Pa.", "List of nicknames for Philadelphia", "Philidalphia", "Philadelphia, United States", "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.", "Philadelphia PA", "Philadelphia Suburban Rail", "Philadelphi", "Philadelphia, U.S.", "Philadelphia Regional Rail", "The City of Brotherly Love", "City of Philadelphia", "Philadelphia (Pennsylvania)", "Wiccacoa", "Philadelpia, Pennsylvania", "Philadelphia, USA", "Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania", "Government of Philadelphia", "Philadelphia (PA)", "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA", "Philadelphia (City)", "UN/LOCODE:USPHL", "The City That Loves You Back", "Philadelphia (Pa.)", "Phila.", "The Cradle of Liberty", "The city of brotherly love", "Philadelphia (city, Pennsylvania)", "Philidelphia", "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US", "Philadelphia Commuter Rail", "The City and County of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania", "Philadephia, Pennsylvania", "Philadelphia City", "Philadelphia Pennsylvania", "Philadelphia City Controller", "Philladelphia", "Political families of Philadelphia", "Philadelphia, Pa", "Philadelphia, PA", "The Birthplace of America", "Philadelpia, PA" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "birthplace of america", "philadelpia pa", "philadelphia pennsylvania u s", "un locode usphl", "philadephia pennsylvania", "government of philadelphia", "city and county of philadelphia pennsylvania", "philidelphia", "philadelphia commuter rail", "philedelphia", "philladelphia", "philadelphia pa", "philadelpia pennsylvania", "philadelphia city", "philadelphia", "philadelphia pennsylvania us", "philadelphia pennsylvania", "political families of philadelphia", "philadelphia regional rail", "list of nicknames for philadelphia", "philadelphi", "phila", "philadelphia u s", "philadelphia suburban rail", "cradle of liberty", "philidalphia", "philadelphia usa", "city that loves you back", "philadelphia city pennsylvania", "city of brotherly love", "wiccacoa", "philadelphia united states", "philadelphia philadelphia county pennsylvania", "philadelphia city controller", "quaker city", "city of philadelphia", "philadelphia pennsylvania usa" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "philadelphia", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Philadelphia" }
Natan Sharansky was released from prison in the USSR to begin a new life where?	tc_1369	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Natan_Sharansky.txt" ], "title": [ "Natan Sharansky" ], "wiki_context": [ "Natan Sharansky (, ; born Anatoly Borisovich Shcharansky () on 20 January 1948) is a Soviet-born Israeli politician, human rights activist and author who spent nine years in Soviet prisons. Natan Sharansky has served as Chairman of the Executive of the Jewish Agency since June 2009. \n\nBiography\n\nSharansky was born in Donetsk (then called Stalino), Soviet Union on 20 January 1948 to a Jewish family. He graduated with a degree in applied mathematics from Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. As a child, he was a chess prodigy. He performed in simultaneous and blindfold displays, usually against adults. At the age of 15, he won the championship in his native Donetsk. When incarcerated in solitary confinement, he claims to have maintained his sanity by playing chess against himself in his mind. Sharansky beat the world chess champion Garry Kasparov in a simultaneous exhibition in Israel in 1996.\n\nHe was given the current name in 1986 by the Israeli ambassador to West Germany, after he was freed from the Soviet incarceration as part of prisoner exchange.\n\nNatan Sharansky is married to Avital Sharansky and has two daughters, Rachel and Hannah. In the Soviet Union, his marriage application to Avital was denied by the authorities. They were married in a friend's apartment, in a ceremony not recognized by the government, as the USSR only recognized civil marriage and not religious marriage. \n\nActivism\n\nSharansky was denied an exit visa to Israel in 1973. The reason given for denial of the visa was that he had been given access, at some point in his career, to information vital to Soviet national security and could not now be allowed to leave. After becoming a refusenik, Sharansky became a human rights activist, working as a translator for dissident and nuclear physicist Andrei Sakharov, and spokesman for the Moscow Helsinki Group and a leader for the rights of refuseniks.\n\nArrest and imprisonment\n\nOn 15 March 1977 Sharansky was arrested on multiple charges including high treason and spying for Americans. The accusation stipulated that he passed to the West lists of over 1,300 refuseniks, many of which were denied exit visas because of their knowledge of state secrets, which resulted in a publication by Robert C. Toth, \"Russ Indirectly Reveal 'State Secrets': Clues in Denials of Jewish Visas\". High treason carried the death penalty. The following year, in 1978, he was sentenced to 13 years of forced labor.\n\nSharansky spent time in the Lefortovo Prison in Moscow, followed by Vladimir and Chistopol prisons, where for part of the time he was placed in solitary confinement. His health deteriorated, to the point of endangering his life. Later he was detained in Perm 35, a post-Stalin-Gulag-type so-called \"strict regimen colony\" in Perm Oblast. He kept himself sane during solitary confinement by playing chess with himself, in his head. \n\nSharansky appeared in a March 1990 edition of National Geographic magazine. The article, \"Last Days of the Gulag\" by Mike Edwards, profiles through photographs and text one of the few remaining Soviet prison labor camps. The article featured a photo of Natan Sharansky and his wife Avital in their home in Israel viewing photos of the same Gulag where he had been imprisoned, but as it appeared in 1990. Sharansky remarked in the article that after viewing images of the prisoner's faces he could discern that the protocol of oppression was still at work. The author also showed Sharansky a photo of the cold isolation cell where he had himself been confined. Sharansky commented with irony that conditions had improved slightly—the stark cell now featured a thin bench bolted to the middle of the floor. He said that if that bench had existed when he was there he could have utilized it to sleep, albeit uncomfortably.\n\nRelease from detention\n\nAs a result of an international campaign led by his wife, Avital Sharansky (including assistance from East German lawyer Wolfgang Vogel, New York Congressman Benjamin Gilman and Rabbi Ronald Greenwald), Sharansky was released on 11 February 1986 as part of a larger exchange of detainees. He was the first political prisoner released by Mikhail Gorbachev due to intense political pressure from Ronald Reagan.\n\nSharansky and three low-level Western spies (Czech citizen Jaroslav Javorský and West German citizens Wolf-Georg Frohn and Dietrich Nistroy) were exchanged for Czech spies Karl Koecher and Hana Koecher held in the USA, Soviet spy Yevgeni Zemlyakov, Polish spy Marian Zacharski and East German spy Detlef Scharfenorth (the latter three held in West Germany). The exchange took place on the Glienicke Bridge between East and West Berlin, which had been used before for this purpose. \n\nAftermath\n\nSharansky immediately immigrated to Israel, adopting the Hebrew name Natan and eventually simplifying his surname to Sharansky. His wife had become religiously observant during his detention, but he did not follow her on this path.\n\nDue to his age and poor health, he was exempted from the standard mandatory three years' military service, but had to undergo three weeks of military training and do a stint in the Civil Guard. \n\nIn 1988, he wrote Fear No Evil, his memoirs of his time as a prisoner, and founded the Zionist Forum, an organization of Soviet immigrant Jewish activists dedicated to helping new Israelis and educating the public about integration issues, known in Israel as klita (lit. \"absorption\"). Sharansky also served as a contributing editor to The Jerusalem Report and as a Board member of Peace Watch.\n\nFreedom fighter awards\n\nIn 1986, the United States Congress granted him the Congressional Gold Medal. \n\nIn 1987, Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America Sharansky received the Henrietta Szold Award from National President Ruth Popkin. \n\nIn 2006 US President George W. Bush awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom. \n\nOn 17 September 2008, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation awarded Sharansky its 2008 Ronald Reagan Freedom Award. \n\nIsraeli political career\n\nIn 1995 Sharansky and Yoel Edelstein founded the Yisrael BaAliyah party (a play of words, since \"aliya\" means both Jewish emigration to Israel, and \"rise\", thus the party name means \"(People of) Israel immigrating (to the State of Israel)\", as well as \"Israel on the rise\"), promoting the absorption of the Soviet Jews into Israeli society. The party won seven Knesset seats in 1996. It won 6 seats in the Israeli legislative election, 1999, gaining two ministerial posts, but left the government on 11 July 2000 in response to suggestions that Prime Minister Ehud Barak's negotiations with the Palestinians would result in a division of Jerusalem. After Ariel Sharon won a special election for Prime Minister in 2001, the party joined his new government, and was again given two ministerial posts. \n\nIn the January 2003 elections the party was reduced to just two seats. Sharansky resigned from the Knesset, and was replaced by Edelstein. However, he remained party chairman, and decided to merge it into Likud (which had won the election with 38 seats). The merger went through on 10 March 2003, and Sharansky was appointed Minister of Jerusalem Affairs.\n\nFrom March 2003 – May 2005, he was Israel's Minister without Portfolio, responsible for Jerusalem, social and Jewish diaspora affairs. Under this position Sharansky chaired a secret committee that approved the confiscation of East Jerusalem property of West Bank Palestinians. This decision was reversed after an outcry from the Israeli left and the international community. \n\nPreviously he served as the Deputy Prime Minister of Israel, Minister of Housing and Construction since March 2001, Interior Minister of Israel (July 1999 – resigned in July 2000), Minister of Industry and Trade (1996–1999).\n\nHe resigned from the cabinet in April 2005 to protest plans to withdraw Israeli settlements from the Gaza Strip and northern West Bank.\n\nHe was re-elected to the Knesset in March 2006 as a member of the Likud Party. On 20 November 2006, he resigned from the Knesset.\n\nNGO work and other activities\n\nHis resignation was meant to allow him to form the right-leaning Adelson Institute for Strategic Studies. The funding came from American billionaire Sheldon Adelson.\n\nSince 2007, Sharansky has been Chairman of the Board of Beit Hatefutsot, the Jewish diaspora museum. \n\nIn June 2009 Sharansky was elected to the Chair of the Executive of the Jewish Agency for Israel by the Jewish Agency Board of Governors. In September 2009 Sharansky secured $6 million from the Genesis Philanthropy Group for educational activities in the former Soviet Union. \n\nHe is a Founding Member of One Jerusalem.\n\nMedia recognition and awards\n\nIn 1997, Sharansky was the focus of a 2.5-hour-long episode of Chaim SheKa'ele (\"What A Life\"), the Israeli version of This Is Your Life. The episode focused mainly on his experiences as a Soviet dissident, and featured many of his family and acquaintances. In 2005, Sharansky participated in They Chose Freedom, a four-part television documentary on the history of the Soviet dissident movement, and in 2008 he was featured in Laura Bialis' documentary Refusenik. In 2014 he took part in Natella Boltyanskaya's documentary Parallels, Events, People. He was number eleven on the list of Time magazine's 100 most influential people of 2005 in the \"Scientists and thinkers\" category. \n\nPublished works\n\nSharansky is the author of three books. The first is the autobiographical Fear No Evil, which dealt with his trial and imprisonment.\n\nHis second book, The Case for Democracy: The Power of Freedom to Overcome Tyranny and Terror was co-written with Ron Dermer. George W. Bush offered praise for the book:\nIf you want a glimpse of how I think about foreign policy, read Natan Sharansky's book, The Case for Democracy. ... For government, particularly – for opinion makers, I would put it on your recommended reading list. It's short and it's good. This guy is a heroic figure, as you know. It's a great book. \n\nHis book Defending Identity: Its Indispensable Role in Protecting Democracy, is a defense of the value of national and religious identity in building democracy. \n\nPolitical views\n\nSharansky has argued that there can never be peace between Israel and the Palestinians until there is \"the building of real democratic institutions in the fledgling Palestinian society, no matter how tempting a 'solution' without them may be.\" In a Haaretz interview, he maintained the following:\n\nJews came here 3,000 years ago and this is the cradle of Jewish civilization. Jews are the only people in history who kept their loyalty to their identity and their land throughout the 2,000 years of exile, and no doubt that they have the right to have their place among nations—not only historically but also geographically. As to the Palestinians, who are the descendants of those Arabs who migrated in the last 200 years, they have the right, if they want, to have their own state ... but not at the expense of the state of Israel.\n\nIn the wake of the Arab uprisings of 2011, he told Moment Magazine, \"To sign an agreement you must have a partner who is dependent on the well-being of his people, which is what democracy means.\" \n\nCriticism\n\nSharansky has been accused of double standards for not granting the Palestinians the same human rights he has claimed for himself and fellow Jewish and non-Jewish Soviet citizens." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "İsrail", "ISRAEL", "Israeli Republic", "Isræl", "Medinat Yisrael", "מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל", "Istrael", "Israeli (nation)", "ISO 3166-1:IL", "Medinat Israel", "Dawlat Isra'il", "State of israel", "Yisraél", "Isra'il", "Republic of Israel", "دولة إسرائيل", "Israel", "Israël", "Israelim", "Medinat Yisra'el", "ישראל", "State of Israel", "יִשְרָאֵל", "מדינת ישראל", "Dawlat Isrā'īl", "Yisra'el", "Yisrael", "Israeli state", "The state of Israel", "Jewish Republic", "Israil", "Jewish Palestine", "Etymology of Israel", "Isreal", "Yisroel", "Israyl", "Israel (nation)", "Modern Israel", "Israelian", "Hebrew state", "M'dinat Yisrael", "Israe;", "Izrael (state)", "Isreael", "Isreali", "יִשְׂרָאֵל", "Medīnat Yisrā'el", "Yisroeil", "Israel (country)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "israel", "yisroel", "יִשְׂרָאֵל", "israeli state", "republic of israel", "yisrael", "etymology of israel", "israelian", "dawlat isrā īl", "medinat yisrael", "medinat yisra el", "israil", "isræl", "dawlat isra il", "מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל", "medinat israel", "i̇srail", "מדינת ישראל", "isreali", "state of israel", "iso 3166 1 il", "izrael state", "israeli nation", "israelim", "israeli republic", "دولة إسرائيل", "israel nation", "yisraél", "יִשְרָאֵל", "isra il", "israyl", "m dinat yisrael", "medīnat yisrā el", "hebrew state", "istrael", "isreal", "modern israel", "ישראל", "israël", "jewish palestine", "israel country", "isreael", "israe", "yisra el", "jewish republic", "yisroeil" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "israel", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Israel" }
Which country celebrated its bicentenary in 1988?	tc_1371	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "National_Party_of_Australia.txt", "Australian_Bicentenary.txt" ], "title": [ "National Party of Australia", "Australian Bicentenary" ], "wiki_context": [ "The National Party of Australia (also known as The Nationals or simply, The Nats) is an Australian political party. Traditionally representing graziers, farmers, and rural voters generally, it began as the Country Party in 1920 at a federal level. It would later briefly adopt the name National Country Party in 1975, before adopting their current name in 1982. \n\nFederally, and in New South Wales, and to an extent in Victoria and historically in Western Australia, it has, in government, been the minor party in a centre-right Coalition with the Liberal Party of Australia, and its leader has usually served as Deputy Prime Minister. In Opposition the Coalition was usually maintained, but otherwise still generally continued to work in co-operation with the Liberal Party of Australia (and their predecessors the Nationalist Party of Australia and United Australia Party). In Queensland however, they were the senior coalition party between 1925 and 2008, after which they merged with the junior Liberal Party of Australia to form the Liberal National Party (LNP).\n\nThe current federal leader and Deputy Prime Minister is Barnaby Joyce, with Fiona Nash as the current federal deputy leader. Both were elected in a party-room ballot on 11 February 2016, following the retirement of former leader and Deputy Prime Minister Warren Truss and the elevation of former deputy leader Joyce. \n\nHistory\n\n \n\nThe Country Party was formally founded in 1913 in Western Australia, and nationally in 1920 from a number of state-based parties such as the Victorian Farmers' Union (VFU) and the Farmers and Settlers Party of New South Wales. Australia's first Country Party was founded in 1912 by Harry J. Stephens, editor of The Farmer & Settler, but under fierce opposition from rival newspapers, failed to gain momentum.\n\nThe VFU won a seat in the House of Representatives in 1918, and at the 1919 federal election the state-based country parties won seats in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia. They also began to win seats in the state parliaments. In 1920 the Country Party was established as a national party led by William McWilliams from Tasmania. In his first speech as leader, McWilliams laid out the principles of the new party, stating \"we crave no alliance, we spurn no support but we intend drastic action to secure closer attention to the needs of primary producers\"Neilson, W. (1986) 'McWilliams, William James (1856–1929)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 10, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. McWilliams was deposed as party leader in favour of Dr Earle Page in April 1921 following instances where McWilliams voted against the party line. McWilliams would later leave the Country Party to sit as an Independent.\n\nAccording to historian B. D. Graham (1959), the graziers who operated the sheep stations were politically conservative. They disliked the Labor party, which represented their workers, and feared that Labor governments would pass unfavorable legislation and listen to foreigners and Communists. The graziers were satisfied with the marketing organisation of their industry, opposed any change in land tenure and labour relations, and advocated lower tariffs, low freight rates, and low taxes. On the other hand, Graham reports, the small farmers, not the graziers, founded the Country party. The farmers advocated government intervention in the market through price support schemes and marketing pools. The graziers often politically and financially supported the Country party, which in turn made the Country party more conservative. \n\nAt the 1922 election, it won enough seats to deny the Nationalists an overall majority, and was the Nationalists' only realistic coalition partner. However, Page let it be known that his party would not serve under Hughes, and forced his resignation. Page then entered negotiations with the Nationalists' new leader, Stanley Bruce, for a coalition government. Page's terms were stiff—five seats in a Cabinet of 11, including the Treasurer portfolio and the second rank in the ministry for himself. Nonetheless, Bruce readily agreed, and the \"Bruce-Page Ministry\" was formed—thus beginning the tradition of the party's leader ranking second in Coalition cabinets.\n\nPage remained dominant in the party until 1939 and briefly served as an interim Prime Minister between the death of Joseph Lyons and the election of Robert Menzies as his successor, but Page's refusal to serve under Menzies led to his resignation as leader. The coalition was re-formed under Archie Cameron in 1940, and continued until October 1941 despite the election of Arthur Fadden as leader after the 1940 Election. Fadden was well regarded within conservative circles and proved to be a loyal deputy to Menzies in the difficult circumstances of 1941. When Menzies was forced to resign as Prime Minister, the UAP was so bereft of leadership that Fadden briefly succeeded him (despite the Country Party being the junior partner in the governing coalition). However, the two independents who had been propping up the government rejected Fadden's budget and brought the government down. Fadden stood down in favour of Labor leader John Curtin.\n\nThe Fadden-led Coalition made almost no headway against Curtin, and was severely defeated in the 1943 election. After that loss, Fadden became deputy Leader of the Opposition under Menzies, a role that continued after Menzies folded the UAP into the Liberal Party of Australia in 1944. Fadden remained a loyal partner of Menzies, though he was still keen to assert the independence of his party. Indeed, in the lead up to the 1949 federal election, Fadden played a key role in the defeat of the Chifley Labor government, frequently making inflammatory claims about the \"socialist\" nature of the Labor Party, which Menzies could then \"clarify\" or repudiate as he saw fit, thus appearing more \"moderate\". In 1949, Fadden became Treasurer in the second Menzies government and remained so until his retirement in 1958. His successful partnership with Menzies was one of the elements that sustained the coalition, which remained in office until 1972 (Menzies himself retired in 1966).\n\nFadden's successor, Trade Minister John McEwen, took the then unusual step of declining to serve as Treasurer, believing he could better ensure that the interests of Australian primary producers were safeguarded. Accordingly, McEwen personally supervised the signing of the first post-war trade treaty with Japan, new trade agreements with New Zealand and Britain, and Australia's first trade agreement with the USSR (1965). In addition to this he insisted on developing an all encompassing system of tariff protection that would encourage the development of those secondary industries that would \"value add\" Australia's primary produce. His success in this endeavour is sometimes dubbed \"McEwenism\". This was the period of the Country Party's greatest power, as was demonstrated in 1962 when McEwen was able to insist that Menzies sack a Liberal Minister who claimed that Britain's entry into the European Economic Community was unlikely to severely impact on the Australian economy as a whole. \n\nMenzies retired in 1966 and was succeeded by Harold Holt. McEwen thus became the longest-tenured member of the government, with the informal right to veto government policy. The most significant instance that McEwen exercised this came when Holt disappeared in December 1967. John Gorton became the new Liberal Prime Minister in January 1968. McEwen was sworn in as an interim Prime Minister pending the election of the new Liberal leader. Logically, the Liberals' deputy leader, William McMahon, should have succeeded Holt. However, McMahon was a staunch free-trader, and there were also rumors that he was homosexual. As a result, McEwen told the Liberals that he and his party would not serve under McMahon. McMahon stood down in favour of John Gorton. It would be only after McEwen announced his retirement that MacMahon would be able to successfully challenge Gorton for the Liberal leadership. McEwen's reputation for political toughness led to him being nicknamed \"Black Jack\" by his allies and enemies alike. \n\nAt the state level, from 1957 to 1989, the Country Party under Frank Nicklin and Joh Bjelke-Petersen dominated governments in Queensland—the last six of those years ruling in its own right, without the Liberals. It also took part in governments in New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia. \n\nHowever, successive electoral redistributions after 1964 indicated that the Country Party was losing ground electorally to the Liberals as the rural population declined, and the nature of some parliamentary seats on the urban/rural fringe changed. A proposed merger with the Democratic Labor Party (DLP) under the banner of \"National Alliance\" was rejected when it failed to find favour with voters at the 1974 state election.\n\nAlso in 1974, the Northern Territory members of the party joined with its Liberal party members to form the independent Country Liberal Party. This party continues to represent both parent parties in that territory. A separate party, the Joh-inspired NT Nationals, competed in the 1987 election with former Chief Minister Ian Tuxworth winning his seat of Barkly by a small margin. However, this splinter group were not endorsed by the national executive and soon disappeared from the political scene. \n\nCountrymindedness\n\n\"Countrymindedness\" was a slogan that summed up the ideology of the Country Party from 1920 through the early 1970s. It was an ideology that was physiocratic, populist, and decentralist; it fostered rural solidarity and justified demands for government subsidies. \"Countrymindedness\" grew out of the failure of the country areas to participate in the rapid economic and population expansions that occurred after 1890. The growth of the ideology into urban areas came as most country people migrated to jobs in the cities. Its decline was due mainly to the reduction of real and psychological differences between country and city brought about by the postwar expansion of the Australian urban population and to the increased affluence and technological changes that accompanied it. \n\nNational Country Party, and National Party \n\nIn 1975 the Country Party changed its name to the National Country Party as part of a strategy to expand into urban areas. This had some success in Queensland under Joh Bjelke-Petersen, but nowhere else. In Western Australia, the party briefly walked out of the coalition agreement in Western Australia in May 1975, returning within the month. However, the party split in two over the decision and other factors in late 1978, with a new National Party forming and becoming independent, holding three seats in the Western Australian lower house, while the National Country Party remained in coalition and also held three seats. They reconciled after the Burke Labor government came to power in 1983.\n\nThe 1980s were dominated by the feud between Bjelke-Petersen and the federal party leadership. Bjelke-Petersen briefly triumphed in 1987, forcing the Nationals to tear up the Coalition agreement and support his bid to become Prime Minister. The \"Joh for Canberra\" campaign backfired spectacularly when a large number of three-cornered contests allowed Labor to win a third term under Bob Hawke. It also proved to be the Queensland Nationals' last hurrah; Bjelke-Petersen was forced into retirement a few months after the federal election, and his party was heavily defeated in 1989. The Nationals experienced difficulties in the late 1990s from two fronts – firstly from the Liberal Party, who were winning seats on the basis that the Nationals were not seen to be a sufficiently separate party, and from the One Nation Party riding a swell of rural discontent with many of the policies such as multiculturalism and gun control embraced by all of the major parties. The rise of Labor in formerly safe National-held areas in rural Queensland, particularly on the coast, has been the biggest threat to the Queensland Nationals.\n\nState parties \n\nQueensland\n\nQueensland is the only state in which the Nationals have consistently been the stronger coalition partner. The Nationals were the senior partner in the non-Labor Coalition from 1925 until the Coalition was broken in 1983. At the 1983 state election, the Nationals under Joh Bjelke-Petersen came up one seat short of a majority, but later gained a majority when two Liberal members crossed the floor to join the Nationals. The Nationals then governed in their own right until 1989.\n\nThe continued success of the Australian Labor Party at a state level has put pressure on the Nationals' links with the Liberal Party, their traditional coalition partner. In most states, the Coalition agreement is not in force when the parties are in opposition, allowing the two parties greater freedom of action.\n\nIn Queensland the National Party merged with the Liberal Party forming the Liberal National Party (LNP) in 2008. The LNP led by Lawrence Springborg went on to lose the March 2009 election to Anna Bligh's Australian Labor Party. However, in the Queensland state election, 2012, the LNP defeated the Labor Party in a landslide, but lost government in 2015.\n\nSouth Australia\n\nIn South Australia, for the first time in the Nationals' history, in 2002 the single Nationals member in the House of Assembly entered the Rann Labor Government as a Minister forming an informal coalition between the two parties. Since the 2010 South Australian State election, the Nationals in South Australia have no representative in either the House of Assembly or the Upper House or at a Federal level. There existed a distinctly different Country Party in South Australia which merged with the Liberal Federation to become the Liberal and Country League in 1932.\n\nWestern Australia\n\nWestern Australia's National Party chose to assert its independence after an acrimonious co-habitation with the Liberals on the 2005 campaign trail. Unlike its New South Wales and Queensland counterparts, the WA party had decided to oppose Liberal candidates in the 2008 election. The party aimed to hold the balance of power in the state \"as an independent conservative party\" ready to negotiate with the Liberals or Labor to form a minority government. After the election, the Nationals negotiated an agreement to form a government with the Liberals and an independent MP, though not described as a \"traditional coalition\" due to the reduced cabinet collective responsibility of National cabinet members. \n\nWestern Australia's one-vote-one-value reforms will cut the number of rural seats in the state assembly to reflect the rural population level: this, coupled with the Liberals' strength in country areas has put the Nationals under significant pressure.\n\nVictoria\n\nThe Nationals were stung in early 2006, when their only Victorian senator, Julian McGauran, defected to the Liberals and created a serious rift between the Nationals and the Liberals. Several commentators believed that changing demographics and unfavourable preference deals would demolish the Nationals at the state election that year, but they went on to enjoy considerable success by winning two extra lower house seats. The Nationals were in a coalition government with the Liberals at a State level in Victoria until their defeat at the 2014 election. Following the election, the ABC reported that the coalition parties would \"review\" whether to continue their joint working arrangement into opposition. However, both outgoing Nationals leader Peter Ryan and incoming Liberal leader Matthew Guy indicated they felt the coalition should continue. \n\nPolitical role\n\nThe Nationals see their main role as giving a voice to Australians who live outside the country's metropolitan areas.\n\nTraditionally, the leader of the National Party serves as Deputy Prime Minister when the Coalition is in government. This tradition dates back to the creation of the office in 1968.\n\nThe National Party's support base and membership are closely associated with the agricultural community. Historically anti-union, the party has vacillated between state support for primary industries (\"agrarian socialism\") and free agricultural trade and has opposed tariff protection for Australia's manufacturing and service industries. This vacillation prompted those opposed to the policies of the Nationals to joke that its real aim was to \"capitalise its gains and socialise its losses!\". It is usually pro-mining, pro-development, and anti-environmentalist.\n\nThe Nationals vote is in decline and its traditional supporters are turning instead to prominent independents such as Bob Katter, Tony Windsor and Peter Andren in Federal Parliament and similar independents in the Parliaments of New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria, many of whom are former members of the National Party. In fact at the 2004 Federal election, National Party candidates received fewer first preference votes than the Australian Greens.\n\nDemographic changes are not helping, with fewer people living and employed on the land or in small towns, the continued growth of the larger provincial centres, and, in some cases, the arrival of left-leaning \"city refugees\" in rural areas. The Liberals have also gained support as the differences between the coalition partners on a federal level have become invisible. This was highlighted in January 2006, when Nationals Senator Julian McGauran defected to the Liberals, saying that there was \"no longer any real distinguishing policy or philosophical difference\". \n\nIn Queensland, Nationals leader Lawrence Springborg advocated merger of the National and Liberal parties at a state level in order to present a more effective opposition to the Labor Party. Previously this plan had been dismissed by the Queensland branch of the Liberal party, but the idea received in-principle support from the Liberals. Federal leader Mark Vaile stated the Nationals will not merge with the Liberal Party at a federal level. The plan was opposed by key Queensland Senators Ron Boswell and Barnaby Joyce, and was scuttled in 2006. After suffering defeat in the 2006 Queensland poll, Lawrence Springborg was replaced by Jeff Seeney, who indicated he was not interested in merging with the Liberal Party until the issue is seriously raised at a Federal level.\n\nSupport for the Nationals in the 2006 Victorian state election was considerable with the party picking up two extra seats in the Lower House to maintain its total representation of 11 sitting members (two Upper House seats were lost, mostly due to a change from preferential to proportional representation). This success can be attributed to a more assertive National Party image (a differentation to that of the Liberals) and the growing popularity of state and federal Nationals identities such as Joyce.\n\nIn September 2008, Joyce replaced CLP Senator and Nationals deputy leader Nigel Scullion as leader of the Nationals in the Senate, and stated that his party in the upper house would no longer necessarily vote with their Liberal counterparts in the upper house, which opened up another possible avenue for the Rudd Labor Government to get legislation through. \n\nLiberal/National merger\n\nMerger plans came to a head in May 2008, when the Queensland state Liberal Party gave an announcement not to wait for a federal blueprint but instead to merge immediately. The new party, the Liberal National Party, was founded in July 2008.\n\nHistorical electoral results\n\nParliamentary leaders\n\nAustralian Parliament\n\nCountry/National Leader\n\nCountry/National Deputy Leader\n\nCountry/National Leader in the Australian Senate\n\nState and Territory Parliaments\n\n1 In the Northern Territory, the Nationals do not endorse their own candidates. Instead, the Country Liberal Party is their preferred party in the Territory.\n\n2 Queensland is represented by the Liberal National Party of Queensland. This party is the result of a merger of the Queensland Division of the Liberal Party and the Queensland National Party to contest elections as a single party.\n\nThe National Party does not stand candidates in Tasmania or the Australian Capital Territory.\n\nPast Premiers\n\nQueensland \n\nVictoria", "The bicentenary of Australia was celebrated in 1988. It marked 200 years since the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. The event triggered debate on Australian national identity, Aboriginal rights, historical interpretation and multiculturalism.\n\nHistory\n\nThe bicentennial year of Captain Arthur Phillip's arrival with the 11 ships of the First Fleet in Sydney Harbour in 1788, and the founding of the city of Sydney and the colony of New South Wales. 1988 is considered the official bicentenary year of the founding of Australia.\n\nCelebrations\n\nThe Australian Bicentenary was marked by huge pomp and ceremony across Australia to mark anniversary of the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney in 1788. The Australian Bicentennial Authority (ABA), pursuant to the Australian Bicentennial Authority Act 1980, was set up to plan, fund and coordinate projects that emphasized the nation's cultural heritage. State Councils were also created to ensure cooperation between the federal and state governments. The result was a national programme of events and celebrations to commemorate the Bicentenary, including:\n\n* Australia Live, a television special on New Year's Night\n* the arrival of the First Fleet Re-enactment Voyage in Sydney Harbour on Australia Day\n* World Expo 88 in Brisbane, the largest event of these celebrations\n* Australian Bicentennial Exhibition, toured throughout Australia\n* all Australian schoolchildren were presented with a Bicentennial \"Heritage Medallion\"\n* the issue by the NSW Department of Motor Transport (from late 1987 to the end of 1988) of over 160,000 commemorative Bicentennial number plates which were sold at a premium\n* the painting of A class locomotive A66 by regional Victorian train operator V/Line in a unique green and gold livery featuring the official ABA Bicentennial Logo and the wording 1788 Australian Bicentennary 1988\n* Aus Steam '88, a railway display of steam locomotives at Spencer Street Station.\n* the Australian Bicentennial Airshow held at RAAF Richmond\n* the 1988 Women's Cricket World Cup, held in Perth, Sydney, and Melbourne, which was branded as the Bicentennial World Cup\n* Trans-Australia hot air balloon Race, Perth to Sydney March 30, 1988.\n\nThe opening ceremony of the 16th World Scout Jamboree, which took place at midnight on 31 December 1987, was the first official event of Australia's Bicentenary.\n\nOther events\n\nOn Australia Day, Sydney Harbour hosted a re-enactment of the arrival of the First Fleet. The Hawke Government refused to fund the First Fleet re-enactment, because it believed this might offend Indigenous Australians. Radio 2GB in Sydney stepped in and held a fund raising appeal to keep the re-enactment on track. The government instead funded a rival display of Tall Ships which sailed up Australia's east coast and entered Sydney Harbour on the day, and it was felt that this was more acceptable to the Indigenous community.\n\n1988 was also marked by the completion of many unique development projects such as the Bicentennial National Trail and on 9 May of that year, Queen Elizabeth II opened the New Parliament House in Canberra. As well as this, the modern Darling Harbour precinct was completed and opened, as was the modern Sydney Football Stadium. It was also marked by the creation of one of Australia's most significant art works, the Aboriginal Memorial, which commemorated those Indigenous Australians who died as a result of European settlement. Other events included the Bicentennial Beacons, a series of bonfires lit around Australia. A celebration featuring motor cycle riders from around Australia was also held in Canberra during the year. Not all events went well with the disastrous Round Australia Yacht Race claiming several lives and being the subject of legal action.\n\nSignificant improvements to Australian roads were made through the Australian Bicentennial Road Development Program.[http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?SCSubject&SA\nAustralian%20Bicentennial%20Road%20Development%20Program%2E&PID414&BROWSE\n1&HC1&SID\n3 National Library of Australia Catalogue]\n\nProtests\n\nThe event was widely viewed as controversial. Planning for the event raised issues of national identity and historical interpretation. Some wanted to remember the colonisation as an invasion while others wanted it to focus on historical re-enactments. The Uniting Church in Australia wanted people to boycott the event unless Aboriginal rights were recognised. The official slogan was \"Living Together\" which emphasised the theme of multi-culturism. Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser intervened to change the motto to \"The Australian Achievement\" in order to be more celebratory. Bob Hawke later restored the original motto. The response from the right wing in the country was loud. The Institute of Public Affairs suggested that tradition had been sacrificed to appease a minority. The historian Geoffrey Blainey claimed the Bicentenary was attempting to re-write the British out of the history of Australia.\n\nOn 26 January 1988, more than 40,000 people, including aborigines from across the country, staged the largest march in Sydney since the early 1970s Vietnam Moratorium demonstrations. The protesters marched through Sydney chanting for land rights. The march ended at Hyde Park where several prominent aboriginal leaders and activists spoke, among them Gary Foley. Demonstrations were also held in other cities and towns including Canberra. This was part of a wider Bicentennial Boycott movement which started in the leadup to the Bicentennial. When it was revealed during the year that attendances at Bicentennial events were below expectations, claims were made that it was due to the public boycotting the events and the Bicentennial in general." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Australia (Commonwealth realm)", "AustraliA", "Continental Australia", "Australias", "Peace of Australia", "Australian city life", "City life in Australia", "Australocentrist", "Mainland Australia", "Australiia", "Straya", "Australia (commonwealth)", "Austraila", "Ausrtalia", "Australia (nation)", "Australien", "New Australian", "Australia (dominion)", "Australia (federation)", "Australia (country)", "Aussieland", "Federal Australia", "Country life in Australia", "Orstraya", "Australia (nation state)", "Australia (commonwealth realm)", "Australia", "Australocentrism", "Austraya", "Australie", "AUSTRALIA", "Geopolitics of Australia", "Australia (nation-state)", "Australia's", "Australian mainland", "Australian country life", "Australian Woman's Day", "Imperial Australia", "United States of Australia", "Australia (realm)", "Australia (constitutional monarchy)", "Austalia", "Etymology of Australia", "Philosophy in Australia", "Commonwealth of Australia", "Australija", "Australia (monarchy)", "Dominion of Australia", "Empire of Australia", "Ostralia", "Modern Australia", "Commonwealth of australia", "Australia (empire)", "Australo", "The Commonwealth of Australia", "Australia.", "Austrlia", "Australlia", "AUSTRALIAN", "Australia (state)", "ISO 3166-1:AU", "Austrailia", "Commonwealth Australia", "Pax Australiana", "Australian Commonwealth", "Australocentric", "Austrlaia", "Technology in Australia", "Australia (Commonwealth)", "Australai", "Australian geopolitics", "Asutralia", "Australo-", "Australian's", "Science in Australia" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "australie", "orstraya", "federal australia", "australias", "empire of australia", "modern australia", "asutralia", "iso 3166 1 au", "australien", "australia country", "australia federation", "austraila", "country life in australia", "philosophy in australia", "australlia", "continental australia", "pax australiana", "austrlaia", "australia dominion", "australian woman s day", "australia monarchy", "australia", "australian country life", "united states of australia", "mainland australia", "australia commonwealth", "austalia", "australija", "australocentric", "peace of australia", "australia realm", "ostralia", "australocentrist", "australian geopolitics", "australia nation", "australia commonwealth realm", "australian", "australian city life", "australia empire", "austraya", "australiia", "geopolitics of australia", "australo", "technology in australia", "ausrtalia", "australai", "australia nation state", "science in australia", "dominion of australia", "commonwealth of australia", "australia state", "aussieland", "australian mainland", "australian s", "imperial australia", "austrailia", "city life in australia", "austrlia", "commonwealth australia", "straya", "australocentrism", "australia s", "australia constitutional monarchy", "etymology of australia", "australian commonwealth", "new australian" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "australia", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Australia" }
The mother of which Monkee invented typewriter correction fluid?	tc_1372	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "The_Monkees.txt", "Bette_Nesmith_Graham.txt" ], "title": [ "The Monkees", "Bette Nesmith Graham" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Monkees are an American Pop-rock band originally active between 1965 and 1971, with subsequent reunion albums and tours in the decades that followed. They were formed in Los Angeles in 1965 by Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider for the American television series The Monkees, which aired from 1966 to 1968. The musical acting quartet was composed of Americans Micky Dolenz, Michael Nesmith and Peter Tork and British actor and singer Davy Jones. The band's music was initially supervised by producer Don Kirshner.\n\nDolenz described the Monkees as initially being \"a TV show about an imaginary band ... that wanted to be The Beatles, [but] that was never successful\". The actor-musicians, however, soon became a real band.\n\nFor the first few months of their initial five-year career as \"The Monkees\", the four actor-musicians were allowed only limited roles in the recording studio. This was due in part to the amount of time required to film the television series. Nonetheless, Nesmith did compose and produce some songs from the beginning, and Peter Tork contributed limited guitar work on the sessions produced by Nesmith. They eventually fought for and earned the right to collectively supervise all musical output under the band's name. The sitcom was canceled in 1968, but the band continued to record music through 1971.\n\nA revival of interest in the television show came in 1986, which led to a series of reunion tours and new records. Up until 2011 the group had reunited and toured several times, with varying degrees of success. Despite the sudden death of Davy Jones on February 29, 2012, the surviving members reunited for a tour in November–December 2012 and again in 2013 for a 24-date tour.\n\nThe Monkees have sold more than 75 million records worldwide and had international hits, including \"Last Train to Clarksville\", \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\", \"Daydream Believer\" and \"I'm a Believer\". At their peak in 1967, the band outsold The Beatles and The Rolling Stones combined. \n\nConception\n\nAspiring filmmaker Bob Rafelson developed the initial idea for The Monkees in 1962, but was unsuccessful in selling the series. He had tried selling it to Revue, the television division of Universal Pictures. In May 1964, while working at Screen Gems, Rafelson teamed up with Bert Schneider, whose father, Abraham Schneider, headed the Colpix Television and Screen Gems Television units of Columbia Pictures. Rafelson and Schneider ultimately formed Raybert Productions. \n\nThe Beatles' film A Hard Day's Night inspired Rafelson and Schneider to revive Rafelson's idea for The Monkees. As \"The Raybert Producers\", they sold the show to Screen Gems Television on April 16, 1965. Rafelson and Schneider's original idea was to cast an existing New York folk rock group, The Lovin' Spoonful, who were not widely known at the time. However, John Sebastian had already signed the band to a record contract, which would have denied Screen Gems the right to market music from the show.\n\nOn July 14, 1965, The Hollywood Reporter stated that future band member Davy Jones was expected to return to the United States in September 1965 after a trip to England \"to prepare for [a] TV pilot for Bert Schneider and Bob Rafelson\". Jones had previously starred as the Artful Dodger in the Broadway show Oliver!, which debuted on December 17, 1962, and his performance was later seen on The Ed Sullivan Show the same night as the Beatles' first appearance on that show, February 9, 1964. He was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Musical in 1963. In September 1964 he was signed to a long-term contract to appear in TV programs for Screen Gems, make feature films for Columbia Pictures and to record music for the Colpix label. Rafelson and Schneider already had him in mind for their project after their plans for The Lovin' Spoonful fell through; when they chose him, he was essentially a proto-star looking for his lucky break.\n\nOn September 8–10, 1965, Daily Variety and The Hollywood Reporter ran an ad to cast the remainder of the band/cast members for the TV show:\n\nMadness!! Auditions. Folk & Roll Musicians-Singers for acting roles in new TV series. Running Parts for 4 insane boys, age 17-21. Want spirited Ben Frank's types. Have courage to work. Must come down for interview.\n\nOut of 437 applicants, the other three chosen for the cast of the TV show were Michael Nesmith, Peter Tork and Micky Dolenz. Nesmith had been working as a musician since early 1963 and had been recording and releasing music under various names, including Michael Blessing and \"Mike & John & Bill\" and had studied drama in college; contrary to popular belief, of the final four, Nesmith was the one member who actually saw the ad in the Daily Variety and The Hollywood Reporter. Tork, the last to be chosen, had been working the Greenwich Village scene as a musician, and had shared the stage with Pete Seeger; he learned of The Monkees from Stephen Stills, whom Rafelson and Schneider had rejected. Dolenz was an actor (his father was veteran character actor George Dolenz) who had starred in the TV series Circus Boy as a child, using the stage name Mickey Braddock, and he had also played guitar and sung in a band called the Missing Links before the Monkees, which had recorded and released a very minor single, \"Don't Do It\". By that time he was using his real name; he found out about The Monkees through his agent.\n\nDeveloping the music for their debut album\n\nDuring the casting process Don Kirshner, Screen Gems' head of music, was contacted to secure music for the pilot that would become The Monkees. Not getting much interest from his usual stable of Brill Building writers, Kirshner assigned Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to the project. The duo contributed four demo recordings for the pilot. One of these recordings was \"(Theme From) The Monkees\" which helped get the series the green light. \n\nWhen The Monkees was picked up as a series, development of the musical side of the project accelerated. Columbia-Screen Gems and RCA Victor entered into a joint venture called Colgems Records primarily to distribute Monkees records. Raybert set up a rehearsal space and rented instruments for the group to practice playing in April 1966, but it quickly became apparent they would not be in shape in time for the series debut. The producers called upon Kirshner to recruit a producer for the Monkees sessions. \n\nKirshner called on Snuff Garrett, composer of several hits by Gary Lewis & the Playboys, to produce the initial musical cuts for the show. Garrett, upon meeting the four Monkees in June 1966, decided that Jones would sing lead, a choice that was unpopular with the group. This cool reception led Kirshner to drop Garrett and buy out his contract. Kirshner next allowed Nesmith to produce sessions, provided he did not play on any tracks he produced. Nesmith did, however, start using the other Monkees on his sessions, particularly Tork as a guitarist. Kirshner came back to the enthusiastic Boyce and Hart to be the regular producers, but he brought in one of his top East Coast associates, Jack Keller, to lend some production experience to the sessions. Boyce and Hart observed quickly that when brought into the studio together, the four actors would fool around and try to crack each other up. Because of this, they would often bring in each singer individually. \n\nAccording to Nesmith, it was Dolenz's voice that made the Monkees' sound distinctive, and even during tension-filled times Nesmith and Tork sometimes turned over lead vocal duties to Dolenz on their own compositions, such as Tork's \"For Pete's Sake,\" which became the closing title theme for the second season of the television show.\n\nThe Monkees' debut and second albums were meant to be a soundtrack to the first season of the TV show, to cash in on the audience. In the 2006 Rhino Deluxe Edition re-issue of their second album, More of the Monkees, Mike Nesmith stated, \"The first album shows up and I look at it with horror because it makes [us] appear as if we are a rock 'n' roll band. There's no credit for the other musicians. I go completely ballistic, and I say, 'What are you people thinking?' [The powers that be say], 'Well, you know, it's the fantasy.' I say, 'It's not the fantasy. You've crossed the line here! You are now duping the public. They know when they look at the television series that we're not a rock 'n' roll band; it's a show about a rock 'n' roll band. ... nobody for a minute believes that we are somehow this accomplished rock 'n' roll band that got their own television show. ... you putting the record out like this is just beyond the pale.\" Within a few months of their debut album, Music Supervisor Don Kirshner would be forcibly dismissed and the Monkees would take control as a real band.\n\nThe Monkees' first single, \"Last Train to Clarksville\" b/w \"Take a Giant Step\", was released in August 1966, just weeks prior to the TV broadcast debut. In conjunction with the first broadcast of the television show on September 12, 1966, on the NBC television network, NBC and Columbia had a major hit on their hands. The first long-playing album, The Monkees, was released a month later, spent 13 weeks at #1 and stayed on the Billboard charts for 78 weeks. Twenty years later, during their reunion, it would spend another 24 weeks on the Billboard charts. This first album is also notable, in addition to containing their debut single, for containing band member Nesmith's first foray into country-rock, \"Papa Gene's Blues,\" which mixed country, rock and Latin flavors.\n\nFrom television to concert stage\n\nIn assigning instruments for purposes of the television show, a dilemma arose as to which of the four would be the drummer. Both Nesmith (a skilled guitarist and bassist) and Tork (who could play several stringed and keyboard instruments) were peripherally familiar with the instrument but both declined to give the drum set a try. Jones knew how to play the drums and tested well enough initially on the instrument, but the producers felt that, behind a drum kit, the camera would exaggerate his short stature and make him virtually hidden from view. Thus, Dolenz (who only knew how to play the guitar) was assigned to become the drummer. Tork taught Dolenz his first few beats on the drums, enough for him to fake his way through filming the pilot, but he was soon taught how to play properly. Thus, the lineup for the TV show most frequently featured Nesmith on guitar, Tork on bass, Dolenz on drums and Jones as a frontman, singer and percussionist. This, however, is in opposition to the lineup which would have made the most sense based upon the members' musical strengths. For example, Tork is actually a better guitar player than Nesmith, while Nesmith had at one time specifically trained on the bass. While Jones certainly had a strong lead voice and sings lead on several Monkees recordings, Dolenz's voice is regarded, particularly by Nesmith, as one of the most distinctive in popular music history and a hallmark of the Monkees' sound. This theoretical lineup was actually depicted once, in the music video for the band's song \"Words\", which shows Jones on drums, Tork playing lead guitar, Nesmith on bass and Dolenz fronting the group. In concert appearances Tork also took much of the guitar duties, even in appearances with Nesmith, and Dolenz often plays rhythm guitar on stage.\n\nUnlike most television shows of the time, The Monkees episodes were written with many setups, requiring frequent breaks to prepare the set and cameras for short bursts of filming. Some of the \"bursts\" are considered proto-music videos, inasmuch as they were produced to sell the records. Eric Lefcowitz, in The Monkees Tale, pointed out that the Monkees were—first and foremost—a video group. The four actors would spend 12-hour days on the set, many of them waiting for the production crew to do their jobs. Noticing that their instruments were left on the set unplugged, the four decided to turn them on and start playing.\n\nAfter working on the set all day, the Monkees (usually Dolenz or Jones) would be called into the recording studio to cut vocal tracks. As the band was essential to this aspect of the recording process, there were few limits on how long they could spend in the recording studio, and the result was an extensive catalogue of unreleased recordings.\n\nOn tour\n\nPleased with their initial efforts, Columbia (over Kirshner's objections) planned to send the Monkees out to play live concerts. The massive success of the series—and its spin-off records—created intense pressure to mount a touring version of the group. Against the initial wishes of the producers, the band went out on the road and made their debut live performance in December 1966 in Hawaii.\n\nThey had no time to rehearse a live performance except between takes on set. They worked on the TV series all day, recorded in the studio at night and slept very little. The weekends were usually filled with special appearances or filming of special sequences. These performances were sometimes used during the actual series. The episode \"Too Many Girls (Fern and Davy)\" opens with a live version of \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" being performed as the scene was shot. One entire episode was filmed featuring live music. The last show of the premiere season, \"Monkees on Tour\", was shot in a documentary style by filming a concert in Phoenix, Arizona, on January 21, 1967. Bob Rafelson wrote and directed the episode.\n\nIn DVD commentary tracks included in the Season One release, Nesmith admitted that Tork was better at playing guitar than bass. In Tork's commentary he stated that Jones was a good drummer, and had the live performance lineups been based solely on playing ability, it should have been Tork on guitar, Nesmith on bass and Jones on drums, with Dolenz taking the fronting role. The four Monkees performed all the instruments and vocals for most of the live set. The most notable exceptions were during each member's solo sections where, during the December 1966 – May 1967 tour, they were backed by the Candy Store Prophets. During the summer 1967 tour of the United States and the UK (from which the Live 1967 recordings are taken), they were backed by a band called The Sundowners. In 1968 the Monkees toured Australia and Japan. The results were far better than expected. Wherever they went, the group was greeted by scenes of fan adulation reminiscent of Beatlemania. This gave the singers increased confidence in their fight for control over the musical material chosen for the series.\n\nWith Jones sticking primarily to vocals and tambourine (except when filling in on the drums when Dolenz came forward to sing a lead vocal), the Monkees' live act constituted a classic power trio of electric guitar, electric bass and drums (except when Tork passed the bass part to Jones or one of The Sundowners in order to take up the banjo or electric keyboards).\n\nKirshner and More of the Monkees\n\nAndrew Sandoval noted in Rhino's 2006 Deluxe Edition CD reissue of More of the Monkees that album sales were outstripping Nielsen ratings, meaning that more people were buying the music than watching the television show, which meant that the producers decided that more attention needed to be paid to the music and that more music needed to be produced for more albums. Sandoval also noted that their second album, More of the Monkees, propelled by their second single, \"I'm a Believer\" b/w \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\", became the biggest selling LP of their career, spending 70 weeks on the Billboard charts, staying No. 1 for 18 weeks, becoming the third biggest selling album of the 1960s and also returning to the charts in 1986 for another 26 weeks.\n\nAt the time songwriters Boyce and Hart considered the Monkees to be their project, with Tommy Boyce stating in the 2006 Rhino reissue of More of the Monkees that he considered the Monkees to be actors in the television show, while Boyce and Hart were the songwriters and producers doing the records. They wanted Micky to sing the faster songs and have Davy sing the ballads. He also stated in the liner notes that he felt that Michael's country leanings didn't fit in with the Monkees' image, and although he thought that Peter was a great musician, he had a different process of thinking about songs that wasn't right for the Monkees. Music Coordinator Kirshner, though, realizing how important the music was, wanted to move the music in a newer direction than Boyce and Hart to get the best record, and so he decided to move the production to New York where his A-list of writers/producers resided.\n\nHowever, the Monkees had been complaining that the music publishing company would not allow them to play their own instruments on their records, or to use more of their own material. These complaints intensified when Kirshner moved track recording from California to New York, leaving the band out of the musical process until they were called upon to add their vocals to the completed tracks. This campaign eventually forced Kirshner to let the group have more participation in the recording process. Dolenz's initial reaction, mentioned in the 2006 Rhino CD reissue of More of the Monkees, was \"To me, these were the soundtrack albums to the show, and it wasn't my job. My job was to be an actor and to come in and to sing the stuff when I was asked to do so. I had no problem with that . . . It wasn't until Mike and Peter started getting so upset that Davy and I started defending them . . . they were upset because it wasn't the way they were used to making music. The artist is the bottom line. The artist decides what songs are gonna go on and in what order and who writes 'em and who produces 'em.\" Nesmith, when asked about the situation, in Rolling Stone magazine, said, \". . . We were confused, especially me. But all of us shared the desire to play the songs we were singing. Everyone was accomplished--the notion [that] I was the only musician is one of those rumors that got started and won't stop--but it was not true . . . We were also kids with our own taste in music and were happier performing songs we liked--and/or wrote--than songs that were handed to us . . . The [TV show's] producers [in Hollywood] backed us and David went along. None of us could have fought the battles we did [with the music publishers] without the explicit support of the show's producers.\" \n\nFour months after their debut single was released in September 1966, on January 16, 1967, the Monkees held their first recording session as a fully functioning, self-contained band, recording an early version of Nesmith's self-composed top 40 hit single \"The Girl I Knew Somewhere\", along with \"All of Your Toys\" and \"She's So Far Out, She's In\". Four days later, on January 20, 1967, their debut self-titled album made its belated release in the U.K. (it was released in October '66 in the U.S.). This same month Kirshner released their second album of songs that used session musicians, More of the Monkees, without the band's knowledge. Nesmith and Tork were particularly upset when they were on tour in January 1967 and discovered this second album. The Monkees were annoyed at not having even been told of the release in advance, at having their opinions on the track selection ignored, at Kirshner's self-congratulatory liner notes and also because of the amateurish-looking cover art, which was merely a composite of pictures of the four taken for a J.C. Penney clothing advertisement. Indeed, the Monkees had not even been given a copy of the album; they had to buy it from a record store. \n\nThe climax of the rivalry between Kirshner and the band was an intense argument among Nesmith, Kirshner and Colgems lawyer Herb Moelis, which took place at the Beverly Hills Hotel in January 1967. Kirshner had presented the group with royalty checks and gold records. Nesmith had responded with an ultimatum, demanding a change in the way the Monkees' music was chosen and recorded. Moelis reminded Nesmith that he was under contract. The confrontation ended with Nesmith punching a hole in a wall and saying, \"That could have been your face!\" However, each of the members, including Nesmith, accepted the $250,000 royalty checks (equivalent to approximately $ in today's funds).\n\nKirshner's dismissal came in early February 1967, when he violated an agreement between Colgems and the Monkees not to release material directly created by the group together with unrelated Kirshner-produced material. Kirshner violated this agreement when he released \"A Little Bit Me, A Little Bit You\", composed and written by Neil Diamond, as a single with an early version of \"She Hangs Out\", a song recorded in New York with Davy Jones' vocals, as the B-side. This single was only released in Canada and was withdrawn after a couple weeks. \n\nKirshner was reported to have been incensed by the group's unexpected rebellion, especially when he felt they had \"modicum talent\" when compared to the superstars of the day like John Lennon and Paul McCartney. In the liner notes for Rhino's 2006 Deluxe Edition CD reissue of More of the Monkees, Kirshner stated, \"[I controlled the group] because I had a contract. I kicked them out of the studio because I had a TV show that I had to put songs in, and to me it was a business and I had to knock off the songs.\" This experience led directly to Kirshner's later venture, The Archies, which was an animated series—the \"stars\" existed only on animation cels, with music done by studio musicians, and obviously could not seize creative control over the records issued under their name.\n\nScreen Gems held the publishing rights to a wealth of material, with the Monkees being offered the first choice of many new songs. Due to the abundance of material numerous tracks were recorded but left unreleased, until Rhino Records started releasing them through the Missing Links series of albums, starting in the late 1980s. A rumor persists that the Monkees were offered \"Sugar, Sugar\" in 1967, but declined to record it. Producer and songwriter Jeff Barry, joint writer and composer of \"Sugar, Sugar\" with Andy Kim, has denied this, saying that the song had not even been written at the time. \n\nIndependence\n\nHeadquarters and Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones\n\nThe Monkees wanted to pick the songs they sang and play on the songs they recorded, and be the Monkees. With Kirshner dismissed as Musical Supervisor, in late February 1967 Nesmith hired former Turtles bassist Douglas Farthing Hatlelid, who was better known by his stage name Chip Douglas, to produce the next Monkees album, which was to be the first Monkees album where they were the only musicians, outside of most of the bass, and the horns. Douglas was responsible for both music presentation—actually leading the band and engineering recordings—and playing bass on most of Headquarters. This album, along with their next, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., would serve as the soundtrack to the second season of the television show.\n\nIn March 1967 \"The Girl I Knew Somewhere\", composed by Nesmith and performed by Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork and bassist John London, was issued as the B-side to the Monkees' third single, \"A Little Bit Me, a Little Bit You\", and it rose to No. 39 on the charts. The A-side rose to No. 2. \n\nIssued in May 1967, Headquarters had no songs released as singles in the United States, but it would still be their third No. 1 album in a row, with many of its songs played on the second season of the television show. Having a more country-folk-rock sound than the pop outings under Kirshner, Sandoval notes in the 2007 Deluxe Edition reissue from Rhino that the album rose to No. 1 on May 24, 1967, with the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper released the following week, which would knock Headquarters to the #2 spot on the charts for the next 11 weeks, the same weeks which would become known by the counterculture as the \"Summer of Love\". A selection that Dolenz wrote and composed, \"Randy Scouse Git,\" was issued under the title \"Alternate Title\" (due to the controversial title of the song) as a single internationally, where it rose to No. 2 on the charts in the UK and Norway, and in the top 10 in other parts of the world. Tork's \"For Pete's Sake\" would be used as the closing theme for the television show. Nesmith would continue in his country-rock leanings, adding the pedal steel guitar to three of the songs, along with contributing his self-composed countrified-rock song \"Sunny Girlfriend\". Tork added the banjo to the Nesmith-composed rocker \"You Told Me\", a song whose introduction was satirical of the Beatles' \"Taxman\". Other notable songs are the Nesmith-composed straightforward pop-rock song \"You Just May Be the One\", used on the television series during both seasons, along with \"Shades of Gray\" (with piano introduction written by Tork ), \"Forget that Girl\" and \"No Time\", used in the television show. The Monkees wrote five of the 12 songs on the album, plus the two tracks \"Band 6\" and \"Zilch\". The Los Angeles Times, when reviewing Headquarters, stated that \"The Monkees Upgrade Album Quality\" and that \"The Monkees are getting better. Headquarters has more interesting songs and a better quality level [than previous albums] . . . None of the tracks is a throwaway . . . The improvement trend is laudable.\" \n\nThe high of Headquarters was short-lived, however. Recording and producing as a group was Tork's major interest and he hoped that the four would continue working together as a band on future recordings, according to the liner notes of the 2007 Rhino reissue of Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd.. \"Cuddly Toy\" on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. would mark the last time Dolenz, who originally played guitar before the Monkees, would make a solo stand as a studio drummer. In commentary for the DVD release of the second season of the show, Tork said that Dolenz was \"incapable of repeating a triumph.\" Having been a drummer for one album, Dolenz lost interest in being a drummer and indeed, he largely gave up playing instruments on Monkees recordings (producer Chip Douglas also had identified Dolenz's drumming as the weak point in the collective musicianship of the quartet, having to splice together multiple takes of Dolenz's \"shaky\" drumming for final use). By this point the four did not have a common vision regarding their musical interests, with Nesmith and Jones also moving in different directions—Nesmith following his country/folk instincts and Jones reaching for Broadway-style numbers. The next three albums featured a diverse mixture of musical style influences, including country-rock, folk-rock, psychedelic rock, soul/R&B, guitar rock, Broadway and English music hall sensibilities.\n\nAt the height of their fame in 1967, they also suffered from a media backlash. Nesmith states in the 2007 Rhino reissue of Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., \"Everybody in the press and in the hippie movement had got us into their target window as being illegitimate and not worthy of consideration as a musical force [or] certainly any kind of cultural force. We were under siege; wherever we went there was such resentment for us. We were constantly mocked and humiliated by the press. We were really gettin' beat up pretty good. We all knew what was going on inside. Kirshner had been purged. We'd gone to try to make Headquarters and found out that it was only marginally okay and that our better move was to just go back to the original songwriting and song-making strategy of the first albums except with a clear indication of how [the music] came to be . . . The rabid element and the hatred that was engendered is almost impossible to describe. It lingers to this day among people my own age.\" Tork disagreed with Nesmith's assessment of Headquarters, stating, \"I don't think the Pisces album was as groovy to listen to as Headquarters. Technically it was much better, but I think it suffers for that reason.\" Both Headquarters and Pisces are highly revered by most Monkees fans.\n\nWith Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., the Monkees fourth album, they went back to making music for the television show, except that they had control over the music and which songs would be chosen. They used a mixture of themselves and session musicians on the album. They would use this strategy of themselves playing, plus adding session musicians (including the Wrecking Crew, Louie Shelton, Glen Campbell, members of the Byrds and the Association, drummer \"Fast\" Eddie Hoh, Lowell George, Stephen Stills, Buddy Miles, and Neil Young) throughout their recording career, relying more on session musicians when the group became temporarily estranged after Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. and recorded some of their songs separately.\n\nUsing Chip Douglas again to produce, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., released in November 1967 was the Monkees' fourth No. 1 album in a row, staying at No. 1 for 5 weeks, and was also their last No. 1 album. It featured the hit single \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\" (#3 on charts) b/w \"Words\" (#11 on charts), the A-side had Nesmith on electric guitar/backing vocals, Tork on piano/backing vocals, Dolenz on lead vocals and possibly guitar and Jones on backing vocals; the B-side had Micky and Peter alternating lead vocals, Peter played organ, Mike played guitar, percussion, and provided backing vocals, and Davy provided percussion and backing vocals. Other notable items about this album is that it features an early use of the Moog Synthesizer on two tracks, the Nesmith-penned \"Daily Nightly\", along with \"Star Collector\". All of its songs, except for two, were featured on the Monkees' television show during the second season.\n\nThe song \"What Am I Doing Hangin' 'Round?\", recorded in June 1967 and featured on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd., is seen as a landmark in the fusion of country and rock despite Nesmith's prior country-flavored rock songs for the Monkees. Nesmith stated, \"One of the things that I really felt was honest was country-rock. I wanted to move the Monkees more into that because ... if we get closer to country music, we'll get closer to blues, and country blues, and so forth. ... It had a lot of un-country things in it: a familiar change from a I major to a VI minor — those kinds of things. So it was a little kind of a new wave country song. It didn't sound like the country songs of the time, which was Buck Owens.\"\n\nTheir next single, \"Daydream Believer\" (with a piano intro written by Tork), would shoot to No. 1 on the charts, letting the Monkees hold the No. 1 position in the singles chart and the album chart with Pisces simultaneously. \"Daydream Believer\" used the non-album track \"Goin' Down\" as its B-side, which featured Nesmith and Tork on guitar with Micky on lead vocals.\n\nDuring their 1986 reunion, both Headquarters and Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. would return to the charts for 17 weeks.\n\nThe Birds, The Bees & The Monkees\n\nThe Monkees decided that they no longer needed Chip Douglas as a producer, and starting in November 1967, they largely produced their own sessions. Although the Monkees albums after this date will state \"Produced by The Monkees\", they would mostly be recording as solo artists. In a couple of cases, Boyce and Hart had returned from the first two albums to produce, but credit was given to the Monkees. It was also during this time that Michael Nesmith recorded his first solo album, The Wichita Train Whistle Sings, a big band jazz instrumental collection of interpretations of Nesmith's compositions, arranged by the jazz musician Shorty Rogers. Praised in The Los Angeles Times by the author of The Encyclopedia of Jazz, jazz critic Leonard Feather wrote \"Verbally and musically, Mike Nesmith is one of the most articulate spokesmen for the new and literate breed of pop musicians who have spring from the loins of primitive rock. [The album] with its carriage trade of symphony, rock, country, western, and swing, and with jazz riding in the caboose, may well indicate where contemporary popular music will be situated in the early 1970s.\"\n\nConsidered by some to be the Monkees' \"White Album\" period (for example, Sandoval mentions this in the liner notes of Rhino Handmade's 2010 Deluxe reissue of the album), each of the Monkee's contributions reflected his own musical tastes, which resulted in an eclectic album. Micky sang the pop songs (e.g., \"I'll Be Back Upon My Feet\"), and performed a double-vocal with Mike on the Nesmith/Allison composed \"Auntie's Municipal Court\". Davy sang the ballads (e.g., \"Daydream Believer\" and \"We Were Made for Each Other\") and Nesmith contributed some experimental songs, like the progressive \"Writing Wrongs\", the unusual hit song \"Tapioca Tundra\", and the lo-fi 1920s sound of \"Magnolia Simms\". This last song is notable for added effects to make it sound like an old record (even including a \"record skipping\" simulation) made before the Beatles \"Honey Pie\", which used a similar effect.\n\nPropelled by the hit singles \"Daydream Believer\" and \"Valleri\", along with Nesmith's self-penned top 40 hit \"Tapioca Tundra\", The Birds, The Bees & The Monkees reached No. 3 on the Billboard charts shortly after it was released in April 1968. It was the first album released after NBC announced they were not renewing The Monkees for a third season. The album cover—a quaint collage of items looking like a display in a jumble shop or toy store—was chosen over the Monkees' objections. It was the last Monkees' album to be released in separate, dedicated mono and stereo mixes. During the 1986 reunion, it would return to the Billboard charts for 11 weeks.\n\nBeyond television\n\nDuring the filming of the second season, the band became tired of scripts which they deemed monotonous and stale. They had already succeeded in eliminating the laugh track (a then-standard on American sitcoms), with the bulk of Season 2 episodes airing minus the canned chuckles. They proposed switching the format of the series to become more like a variety show, with musical guests and live performances. This desire was partially fulfilled within some second-season episodes, with guest stars like musicians Frank Zappa, Tim Buckley and Charlie Smalls (composer of The Wiz) performing on the show. However, NBC was not interested in eliminating the existing format, and the group (except for Peter) had little desire to continue for a third season. Tork said in DVD commentary that everyone had developed such difficult personalities that the big-name stars invited as guests on the show would invariably leave the experience \"hating everybody\".\n\nScreen Gems and NBC went ahead with the existing format anyway, commissioning Monkees writers Gerald Gardner and Dee Caruso to create a straight-comedy, no-music half-hour in the Monkees mold; a pilot episode was filmed with the then-popular nightclub act The Pickle Brothers. The pilot had the same energy and pace of The Monkees, but never became a series.\n\nIn June 1968, Music Supervisor Lester Sill chose to release the two non-album tracks \"D.W. Washburn\" b/w \"It's Nice To Be With You\" as the Monkees' next single. The Leiber/Stoller-penned A-side would break into the Top 20, peaking at No. 19 on the charts.\n\nHead\n\nAfter The Monkees was canceled in February 1968, Rafelson directed the four Monkees in a feature film, Head. Schneider was executive producer, and the project was co-written and co-produced by Bob Rafelson with a then relatively unknown Jack Nicholson.\n\nThe film, conceived and edited in a stream of consciousness style, featured oddball cameo appearances by movie stars Victor Mature, Annette Funicello, a young Teri Garr, boxer Sonny Liston, famous stripper Carol Doda, Green Bay Packer linebacker Ray Nitschke, and musician Frank Zappa. It was filmed at Columbia Pictures' Screen Gems studios and on location in California, Utah, and The Bahamas between February 19 and May 17, 1968 and premiered in New York City on November 6 of that year (the film later debuted in Hollywood on November 20).\n\nThe film was not a commercial success, in part because it was the antithesis of The Monkees television show, intended to comprehensively demolish the group's carefully groomed public image. Rafelson and Nicholson's Ditty Diego-War Chant (recited at the start of the film by the Monkees), ruthlessly parodies Boyce and Hart's \"Monkees Theme\". A sparse advertising campaign (with no mention of the Monkees) squelched any chances of the film doing well, and it played only briefly. In commentary for the DVD release, Nesmith said that by this time, everyone associated with the Monkees \"had gone crazy\". They were each using the platform of the Monkees to push their own disparate career goals, to the detriment of the Monkees project. Indeed, Nesmith said, Head was Rafelson and Nicholson's intentional effort to \"kill\" the Monkees, so that they would no longer be bothered with the matter.\n\nReleased in October 1968, the single from the album, \"The Porpoise Song\", is a psychedelic pop song written by Goffin/King, with lead vocals from Micky Dolenz and backing vocals from Davy Jones, and it reached number 62 on the Billboard charts. \n\nThe soundtrack album to the movie, Head, reached No. 45 on the Billboard charts. Jack Nicholson assembled the film's soundtrack album, weaving dialogue and sound effects from the film in between the songs from the film. The six (plus \"Ditty Diego\") Monkees songs on the album range from psychedelic pop to straight ahead rockers to Broadway rock to eastern-influenced pop to a folk-rock ballad. Although the Monkees performed \"Circle Sky\" live in the film, the studio version is chosen for the soundtrack album. The live version would later be released on various compilations, including Rhino's Missing Links series of Monkees albums. The soundtrack album also includes a song from the film's composer, Ken Thorne. The album had a mylar cover, to give it a mirror-like appearance, so that the person looking at the cover would see his own head, a play on the album title Head. Peter Tork said, \"That was something special ... [Jack] Nicholson coordinated the record, made it up from the soundtrack. He made it different from the movie. There's a line in the movie where [Frank] Zappa says, 'That's pretty white.' Then there's another line in the movie that was not juxtaposed in the movie, but Nicholson put them together in the [soundtrack album], when Mike says, 'And the same thing goes for Christmas.' ... that's funny, ... very different from the movie ...that was very important and wonderful that he assembled the record differently from the movie. ... It was a different artistic experience.\" The soundtrack album is a cult favorite among the Monkees' fans.\n\nOver the intervening years Head has developed a cult following for its innovative style and anarchic humor. Members of the Monkees, Nesmith in particular, cite the soundtrack album as one of the crowning achievements of the band.\n\nEarly 1969: Tork's resignation, Instant Replay and The Monkees Present\n\nTensions within the group were increasing. Peter Tork, citing exhaustion, quit by buying out the last four years of his Monkees contract at $150,000 per year, equal to about $ per year today. This was shortly after the band's Far East tour in December 1968, after completing work on their 1969 NBC television special, 33⅓ Revolutions Per Monkee, which rehashed many of the ideas from Head, only with the Monkees playing a strangely second-string role. In the DVD commentary for the television special, Dolenz noted that after filming was complete, Nesmith gave Tork a gold watch as a going-away present, engraved \"From the guys down at work.\" (Tork kept the back, but replaced the watch several times in later years.) Most of the songs from the 33 1/3 Revolutions Per Monkee TV Special would not be officially released until over 40 years later, on the 2010 and 2011 Rhino Handmade Deluxe boxed sets of Head and Instant Replay.\n\nSince the Monkees at this point were producing their own songs with very little of the other band members involvement, they planned a future double album (eventually to be reduced to The Monkees Present) on which each Monkee would separately produce one side of a disc.\n\nIn February 1969, the Monkees' seventh album, Instant Replay, without Tork's involvement beyond playing guitar on \"I Won't Be the Same Without Her\", was released, which reached No. 32 on the charts. The single from the album was \"Tear Drop City\", which peaked at No. 56 on the U.S. Billboard chart and No. 34 on the Australian chart. According to Rhino Handmade's 2011 Deluxe Edition reissue of this album, Davy Jones told Melody Maker, \"Half of the songs were recorded over the last three years, but there are also about six new ones.\" The Monkees wanted to please the original 1966 fans by offering up new recordings of some previously unreleased older styled songs, as well as gain a new audience with what they considered a more mature sound. Nesmith continued in his country-rock vein after offering straight ahead rock and experimental songs on the two prior albums. Nesmith stated in Rhino Handmade's 2011 Deluxe Edition reissue, \"I guess it was the same embryo beating in me that was somewhere in Don Henley and Glenn Frey and Linda Ronstadt and Neil Young. Everybody who was hanging out in those times. I could just feel this happening that there was this thing. So, I headed off to Nashville to see if I couldn't get some of the Nashville country thing into the rock 'n' roll or vice versa. What I found was that Nashville country was not the country that was going to be the basis of country-rock and that it was Western, Southwest country. It was coming much more out of the Southern California scene. I ended up with a lot of Dobro, mandolin, banjo, and things that were hard-core mountain music stuff ... the Nashville cats were so blown out by playin' this kind of music. They loved it, for one thing.\"\n\nDolenz contributed the biggest and longest Monkees' production, \"Shorty Blackwell\", a song inspired by his cat of the same name. Dolenz called it his \"feeble attempt at something to do with Sgt. Pepper.\" Jones contributed an electric guitar rocker, \"You and I.\" Both Jones and Dolenz continued their role of singing on the pop songs. Lyrically, it has a theme of being one of the Monkees' most melancholy albums.\n\nThroughout 1969 the trio appeared as guests on television programs such as The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour, The Johnny Cash Show, Hollywood Squares, and Laugh-In. The Monkees also had a contractual obligation to appear in several television commercials with Bugs Bunny for Kool-Aid drink mix as well as Post cereal box singles.\n\nIn April 1969, the single \"Someday Man\" b/w \"Listen to the Band\" was released, which had the unique distinction of the B-side, a Nesmith composed country-rock song, charting higher (#63) than the Jones-sung A-side (#81).\n\nThe final album with Michael Nesmith from the Monkees original incarnation would be their eighth album, The Monkees Present, released in October 1969, which peaked at No. 100 on the Billboard charts. It would include the Nesmith composed country-rock singles \"Listen to the Band\" and \"Good Clean Fun\" (released in September 1969). Other notable songs include the Dolenz composition \"Little Girl\", which featured Louie Shelton on electric guitar, joining Micky on acoustic guitar, along with \"Mommy and Daddy\" (B-side to the \"Good Clean Fun single) in which he sang about America's treatment of the Native Americans and drug abuse, and in an earlier take, released on Rhino Handmade's 2011 Deluxe Edition of Instant Replay, sang about JFK's assassination and the Vietnam war. Jones collaborated with Bill Chadwick on some slower ballads, along with releasing a couple of older upbeat songs from 1966.\n\nIn the summer of 1969 the three Monkees embarked on a tour with the backing of the soul band \"Sam and the Good-Timers\". The concerts for this tour were longer sets than their earlier concert tours, many shows running over two hours. Although the tour was met with some positive critical reception (Billboard in particular praised it), other critics were not favorable of the mixing of the Monkees' pop music with the Goodtimers' R&B approach. Toward the end of the tour, some dates were canceled due to poor ticket sales, and the tour failed to re-establish the band commercially, with no single entering the Top 40 in 1969. Dolenz remarked that the tour \"was like kicking a dead horse. The phenomenon had peaked.\" \n\nApril 1970: Nesmith's resignation and Changes\n\nOn April 14, 1970, Nesmith joined Dolenz and Jones for the last time as part of the original incarnation of the Monkees to film a Kool-Aid commercial, with Nesmith leaving the group to continue recording songs with his own country-rock group called Michael Nesmith & The First National Band, which he had started recording with on February 10, 1970. His first album with his own band was called Magnetic South, and at the time he left the Monkees in April, he was recording songs for his second album with The First National Band, called Loose Salute.\n\nThis left Dolenz and Jones to record the bubblegum pop album Changes as the ninth and final album by the Monkees released during its original incarnation. By this time, Colgems was hardly putting any effort into the project, and they sent Dolenz and Jones to New York for the Changes sessions, to be produced by Jeff Barry and Andy Kim. In comments for the liner notes of the 1994 re-release of Changes, Jones said that he felt they had been tricked into recording an \"Andy Kim album\" under the Monkees name. Except for the two singers' vocal performances, Changes is the only album that fails to win any significant praise from critics looking back 40 years to the Monkees' recording output. The album spawned the single \"Oh My My\", which was accompanied by a music film promo (produced/directed by Dolenz). Dolenz contributed one of his own compositions, \"Midnight Train\", which was used in the re-runs of the Monkees TV series. The \"Oh My My\" b/w \"I Love You Better\" single from the Changes album would be the last single issued under the Monkees name in the United States, until 1986. Originally released in June 1970, Changes would first chart in Billboard's Top 200 during the Monkees' 1986 reunion, staying on the charts for 4 weeks.\n\nSeptember 22, 1970 marked the final recording session by the Monkees in their original incarnation, when Jones and Dolenz recorded \"Do It in the Name of Love\" and \"Lady Jane\". Not mixed until February 19, 1971, and released later that year as a single (\"Do It in the Name Of Love\" b/w \"Lady Jane\"), the two remaining Monkees then lost the rights to use the name in several countries, the U.S. included. The single was not credited to the Monkees in the U.S., but to a misspelled \"Mickey Dolenz and Davy Jones\", although in Japan it was issued under the Monkees' name.\n\nJones released a solo album in 1971, titled Davy Jones, featuring the single \"Rainy Jane\" / \"Welcome to My Love\". Both Jones and Dolenz released multiple singles as solo artists in the years following the original break-up of the Monkees. The duo continued to tour throughout most of the 1970s.\n\nReunions and revivals\n\nDolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart\n\nPartly because of repeats of the television series The Monkees on Saturday mornings and in syndication, The Monkees Greatest Hits charted in 1976. The LP, issued by Arista, who by this time had custody of the Monkees' master tapes, courtesy of their corporate owner, Screen Gems, was actually a re-packaging of an earlier (1972) compilation LP called Refocus that had been issued by Arista's previous label imprint, Bell Records, also owned by Screen Gems. Dolenz and Jones took advantage of this, joining ex-Monkees songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to tour the United States. From 1975 to 1977, as the \"Golden Hits of The Monkees\" show (\"The Guys who Wrote 'Em and the Guys who Sang 'Em!\"), they successfully performed in smaller venues such as state fairs and amusement parks, as well as making stops in Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong and Singapore. They also released an album of new material as Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart. Nesmith had not been interested in a reunion. Tork claimed later that he had not been asked, although a Christmas single (credited to Micky Dolenz, Davy Jones and Peter Tork due to legal reasons) was produced by Chip Douglas and released on his own label in 1976. The single featured Douglas' and Howard Kaylan's \"Christmas Is My Time Of Year\" (originally recorded by a 1960s group Christmas Spirit), with a B-side of Irving Berlin's \"White Christmas\" (Douglas released a remixed version of the single, with additional overdubbed instruments, in 1986). This was the first (albeit unofficial) Monkees single since 1971. Tork also joined Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart on stage at Disneyland on July 4, 1976, and also joined Dolenz and Jones on stage at the Starwood in Hollywood in 1977.\n\nOther semi-reunions occurred between 1970 and 1986. Tork helped arrange a Dolenz single, \"Easy on You\"/\"Oh Someone\" in 1971. Tork also recorded some unreleased tracks for Nesmith's Countryside label during the 1970s, and Dolenz (by then a successful television director in the United Kingdom) directed a segment of Nesmith's NBC-TV series Television Parts, although the segment in question was not included when the series' six episodes aired during the summer of 1985.\n\nMTV and Nickelodeon reignite Monkeemania\n\nBrushed off by critics during their heyday as manufactured and lacking talent, the Monkees experienced a critical and commercial rehabilitation two decades later. A Monkees TV show marathon (\"Pleasant Valley Sunday\") was broadcast on February 23, 1986, on the then five-year-old MTV video music channel. In February and March, Tork and Jones played together in Australia. Then in May, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork announced a \"20th Anniversary Tour\" produced by David Fishof and they began playing North America in June. Their original albums began selling again as Nickelodeon began to run their old series daily. MTV promotion also helped to resurrect a smaller version of Monkeemania, and tour dates grew from smaller to larger venues and became one of the biggest live acts of 1986 and 1987. A new greatest hits collection was issued, reaching platinum status.\n\nBy now, Nesmith was amenable to a reunion, but forced to sit out most projects because of prior commitments to his Pacific Arts video production company. However, he did appear with the band in a 1986 Christmas medley music video for MTV, and appeared on stage with Dolenz, Jones, and Tork at the Greek Theatre, in Los Angeles, on September 7, 1986. In September 1988, the three rejoined to play Australia again, Europe and then North America, with that string of tours ending in September 1989. Nesmith again returned at the Universal Amphitheatre, Los Angeles, show on July 10, 1989 and took part in a dedication ceremony at the Hollywood Walk of Fame, when the Monkees received a TV star there in 1989.\n\nThe sudden revival of the Monkees in 1986 helped move the first official Monkees single since 1971, \"That Was Then, This Is Now\", to the No. 20 position in Billboard Magazine. The success, however, was not without controversy. Jones had declined to sing on the track, recorded along with two other new songs included in a compilation album, Then & Now... The Best of The Monkees. Some copies of the single and album credit the new songs to \"The Monkees\", others as \"Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork (of the Monkees)\". Reportedly, these recordings were the source of some personal friction between Jones and the others during the 1986 tour; Jones would typically leave the stage when the new songs were performed.\n\nThe 1980s reunion tours were the most lucrative venture the three had ever seen in their days as the Monkees, far surpassing the monies they had made in the 1960s. Nesmith had little financial need to join in Monkees-related projects, mostly as his mother Bette Nesmith Graham was the inventor of Liquid Paper, leaving Nesmith over $25 million upon her death in 1980.\n\nA new album by the touring trio, Pool It! (the Monkees' tenth), appeared the following year and was a moderate success. From 1986 to 1989, the Monkees would conduct major concert tours in the United States, Australia, Japan, and Europe.\n\nNew Monkees\n\nIn 1987, a new television series called New Monkees appeared. Four young musicians were placed in a similar series based on the original show, but \"updated\" for the 1980s. The New Monkees left the air after 13 episodes. (Neither Bob Rafelson nor Bert Schneider were involved in the development or production of the series, although it was produced by \"Straybert Productions\" headed by Steve Blauner, Rafelson and Schneider's partner in BBS Productions.)\n\n1990s reunions\n\nIn the 1990s, the Monkees continued to record new material. In 1993, Dolenz and Jones worked together on a television commercial, and another reunion tour was launched with the two of them in 1994. Rhino Records re-issued all the original LPs on CD, each of which included between three and six bonus tracks of previously unreleased or alternate takes; the first editions came with collectible trading cards.\n\nTheir eleventh album Justus was released in 1996. It was the first since 1968 on which all four original members performed and produced. Justus was produced by the Monkees, all songs were written by one of the four Monkees, and it was recorded using only the four Monkees for all instruments and vocals, which was the inspiration for the album title and spelling (Justus = Just Us).\n\nThe trio of Dolenz, Jones, and Tork reunited again for a successful 30th anniversary tour of American amphitheaters in 1996, while Nesmith joined them onstage in Los Angeles to promote the new songs from Justus. For the first time since the brief 1986 reunion, Nesmith returned to the concert stage for a tour of the United Kingdom in 1997, highlighted by two sold-out concerts at Wembley Arena in London. The full quartet also appeared in an ABC television special titled Hey, Hey, It's the Monkees, which was written and directed by Nesmith and spoofed the original series that had made them famous. Following the UK tour, Nesmith declined to continue future performances with the Monkees, having faced harsh criticism from the British music press for his deteriorating musicianship. Tork noted in DVD commentary that \"In 1966, Nesmith had learned a reasonably good version of the famous 'Last Train to Clarksville' guitar lick, but in 1996, Mike was no longer able to play it\" and so Tork took over the lead guitar parts.\n\nNesmith's departure from the tour was acrimonious. Jones was quoted by the Los Angeles Times as complaining that Nesmith \"made a new album with us. He toured Great Britain with us. Then all of a sudden, he's not here. Later, I hear rumors he's writing a script for our next movie. Oh, really? That's bloody news to me. He's always been this aloof, inaccessible person... the fourth part of the jigsaw puzzle that never quite fit in.\" \n\n2000s reunions\n\nTork, Jones, and Dolenz toured the United States in 1997, after which the group took another hiatus until 2001 when they once again reunited to tour the United States. However, this tour was also accompanied by public sniping. Dolenz and Jones had announced that they had \"fired\" Tork for his constant complaining and threatening to quit. Tork was quoted as saying that, as well as the fact he wanted to tour with his own band, \"Shoe Suede Blues.\" Tork told WENN News he was troubled by the overindulgence in alcohol by other members of the tour crew:\n\nMicky Dolenz and Davy Jones fired me just before the last two shows of our 35th anniversary tour. I'm both happy and sad over the whole thing. I always loved the work onstage—but I just couldn't handle the backstage problems. I'd given them 30 days notice that I was leaving so my position is that I resigned first and then they dropped me. Thank God I don't need the Monkees anymore...I'm a recovering alcoholic and haven't had a drink in several years. I'm not against people drinking—just when they get mean and abusive. I went on the anniversary tour with the agreement that I didn't have to put up with drinking and difficult behavior offstage. When things weren't getting better, I gave the guys notice that I was leaving in 30 days for good. \n\nTork later stated in 2011 that the alcohol played only a small role and Tork then said, \"I take full responsibility for the backstage problems on the 2001 tour. We were getting along pretty well until I had a meltdown. I ticked the other guys off good and proper and it was a serious mistake on my part. I was not in charge of myself to the best of my ability – the way I hope I have become since. I really just behaved inappropriately, honestly. I apologized to them.\" \n\nJones and Dolenz went on to tour the United Kingdom in 2002, but Tork declined to participate. Jones and Dolenz toured the United States one more time as a duo in 2002, and then split to concentrate on their own individual projects. With different Monkees citing different reasons, the group chose not to mark their 40th anniversary in 2006.\n\n2010–2011 reunions\n\nIn October, Jones stated that a reunion marking the band's 45th anniversary was a possibility. Noted Monkees biographer Andrew Sandoval commented in The Hollywood Reporter that he \"spent three years cajoling them to look beyond their recent differences (which included putting aside solo projects to fully commit to The Monkees).\"\n\nAn Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour commenced on May 12, 2011 in Liverpool, England, before moving to North America in June and July for a total of 43 performances. Sandoval noted, \"Their mixed feelings on the music business and their long and winding relationship weighed heavily, but once they hit the stage, the old magic was apparent. For the next three months...[they brought] the music and memories to fans in the band's grandest stage show in decades. Images from their series and films flashed on a huge screen behind them; even Rolling Stone, whose owner, Jann Wenner, has vowed to keep them out of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, gushed.\" Nesmith did not take part in the tour, which grossed approximately $4 million. \n\nOn August 8, 2011, the band cancelled ten last-minute shows due to what was initially reported as \"internal group issues and conflicts\", though Tork later confirmed \"there were some business affairs that couldn't be coordinated correctly. We hit a glitch and there was just this weird dislocation at one point.\" Jones clarified that \"the (45th Anniversary) tour was only supposed to go until July. And it was great, the best time we've had because we're all on the same page now. We gelled onstage and off. But then more dates were being added. And more. And then the next thing we knew, they were talking about Japan, Australia, Brazil, and we were like, 'Wait a second. This is turning into something more than a tour.' We were doing 40 songs a night, plus other material. Some of these shows were 2 hours long. Then there was the travel, getting to the next venue with no time to revive. The audiences were great. But, let's face it, we're not kids.\" \n\nDeath of Jones and reunion with Nesmith\n\nThe 45th anniversary tour would be the last with Jones, who died of a heart attack due to atherosclerosis on February 29, 2012. Soon thereafter, rumors began to circulate that Nesmith would reunite with Dolenz and Tork in the wake of Jones' death. This was confirmed on August 8, 2012, when the surviving trio announced a series of U.S. shows for November and December, commencing in Escondido, California and concluding in New York City. The brief tour marked the first time Nesmith performed with the Monkees since 1997, as well as the first without Jones. Jones' memory was honored throughout the shows via recordings and video. During one point, the band went quiet and a recording of Jones singing \"I Wanna Be Free\" played while footage of him was screening behind the band. For Jones' signature song, \"Daydream Believer\", Dolenz said that the band had discussed who should sing the song and had concluded that it should be the fans, saying \"It doesn't belong to us anymore. It belongs to you.\"\n\nThe Fall 2012 tour was very well received by both fans and critics, resulting in the band scheduling a 24-date summer tour for 2013. Dubbed \"A Midsummer’s Night With the Monkees\", concerts also featured Nesmith, Dolenz, and Tork. \"The reaction to the last tour was euphoric\", Dolenz told Rolling Stone magazine. \"It was pretty apparent there was a demand for another one.\" A third tour with Nesmith would follow in 2014.\n\nIn 2014, the Monkees were inducted into the Pop Music Hall of Fame at the 2014 Monkees Convention. At the convention the band announced a 2014 tour of the Eastern and Midwestern US. \n\nGood Times! and 50th anniversary: 2015-present\n\nDolenz and Tork toured as the Monkees in 2015 without Nesmith's participation. Nesmith stated that he was busy with other ventures, although Dolenz stated \"He's always invited.\" In February 2016, Dolenz announced that the Monkees would be releasing a new album, entitled Good Times!, as a celebration of their 50th Anniversary. Good Times!, produced by Adam Schlesinger of Fountains of Wayne. It features unused songs written for the band in the 60s as well as songs by contemporary songwriters. One track includes an archived Jones vocal track. All three surviving members appear on the new album. The album was announced in conjunction with the band's 50th anniversary tour, which will again feature just Dolenz and Tork. \n\nControversies\n\nStudio recordings controversy\n\nControversy over the Monkees' studio abilities hit early in 1967. Dolenz told a reporter that the Wrecking Crew provided the backing tracks for the first two Monkees albums, and that his origin as a drummer was simply that a Monkee had to be tasked with learning the drums since he knew how to play only the guitar. A January 28, 1967 Saturday Evening Post article quoted Nesmith railing against the music creation process. \"Do you know how debilitating it is to sit up and have to duplicate somebody else’s records?\" he asked. \"Tell the world we don’t record our own music... Our records are not our forté,\" he added. The whistle blowing on themselves worked in forcing producer Don Kirshner out of the project and the band taking creative control for its third album. But when the Monkees toured the U.K. in 1967, the story that the band was recording their own music for its current album and playing their own instruments on stage was not the headline.\n\nMaking the front pages of several U.K. and international music papers was that the group members did not always play all of their own instruments or sing all of the backing vocals in the studio during their tour of England. The group was derisively dubbed the \"Pre-Fab Four\", and the London Sunday Mirror called them a \"Disgrace to the Pop World.\" Piling on later that year was tour opener Jimi Hendrix who before he left the tour told Melody Maker magazine, \"Oh God, I hate them! Dishwater....You can't knock anybody for making it, but people like the Monkees?\" Dealing with the controversy on the television series proved challenging. An interview tag at the end of episode No. 31 of their TV show, \"Monkees at the Movies\", which first aired April 1967, where Bob Rafelson asked the group about accusations that they did not play their instruments in concert, to which Nesmith responded, \"I'm fixin' to walk out there in front of fifteen thousand people, man! If I don't play my own instrument, I'm in a lot of trouble!\" But in the \"Devil and Peter Tork\" episode, the episode serves as a parable as a Kirshner-like producer has Tork sign over his soul to be a success as a musician. \n\nIn November 1967, the wave of anti-Monkee sentiment was reaching its peak while the Monkees released their fourth album, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn, & Jones Ltd. In liner notes for the 1995 re-release of this album, Nesmith was quoted as saying that after Headquarters, \"The press went into a full-scale war against us, talking about how 'The Monkees are four guys who have no credits, no credibility whatsoever and have been trying to trick us into believing they are a rock band.' Number 1, not only was this not the case; the reverse was true. Number 2, for the press to report with genuine alarm that the Monkees were not a real rock band was looney tunes! It was one of the great goofball moments of the media, but it stuck.\" Davy Jones stated in 1969 to Tiger Beat, \"I get so angry when musicians say, 'Oh, your music is so bad,' because it's not bad to the kids. Those people who talk about 'doing their own thing' are groups that go and play in the clubs that hold 50 people, while we're playing to 10,000 kids. You know, it hurts me to think that anybody thinks we're phony, because we're not. We're only doing what we think is our own thing.\" \n\nIt was reported in Rolling Stone on October 11, 2011 that Tork still feels that the Monkees do not get the respect that they deserve. \"With all due modesty since I had little to do with it, the Monkees' songbook is one of the better songbooks in pop history\", he says. \"Certainly in the top five in terms of breadth and depth. It was revealed that we didn't play our own instruments on the records much at the very moment when the idealism of early Beatlemania in rock was at its peak. So we became the ultimate betrayers. The origins of the group were obvious and everyone understood that, but suddenly some little switch was flipped and all that stuff came crashing down around our ears.\" \n\nTimeline for the studio recordings controversy\n\n* 1962: Jones lands the part of Michael in the stage show Peter Pan, in which he is coached on the tone of his voice. Later that year, he lands the role of the Artful Dodger in the Broadway musical production of Oliver! Nesmith receives his first guitar during Christmas of 1962. He will build his proficiency with it to rehabilitate his hands after they are injured. Tork takes part in folk ensembles. The initial idea for The Monkees is developed\n* 1963: Tork moves to New York's Greenwich Village to play in various folk groups in music \"basket\" houses, where money is collected after each performance. While still performing in the musical Oliver!, Jones makes his first studio recordings of demonstration tapes of his singing. He is also nominated for a Tony award. Nesmith performs solo and with folk groups and releases his first recording.\n* 1964: Dolenz plays guitar and sings in his first band, the Missing Links. Dolenz had started playing Spanish guitar when he was 10–12 years old. Jones signs recording contract with Colpix Records. He appears on The Ed Sullivan Show on the same night as the Beatles. This will bring him to the attention of Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider. Nesmith wins Headliner of the Year talent contest performing with John London. Tork tours with folk group.\n* 1965: Jones's first singles and album are released. He appears on Dick Clark's Where the Action Is. Nesmith releases more singles and plays with folk group. He records for Colpix. Record World gives one of Nesmith's singles a four star review. He appears on a couple of TV shows performing music. Tork still performs in Greenwich Village clubs. Dolenz sings on stage. At the end of the year, the four Monkees are cast in the TV show. Rafelson: \"It's often been said that the Monkees were manufactured, but the term irritates me just a little bit. The Monkees were more like a Japanese marriage: arranged. In America and elsewhere the divorce rate is pretty high, but in Japan things go better.\" \n* April 1966: The Monkees begin rehearsing as a band to produce music for the upcoming TV Show and records. Nesmith, Dolenz, and Tork were all experienced guitar players, but no one had experience playing the drums. Jones had been a singer on Broadway, but lacked any experience with any musical instruments. Producer Ward Sylvester tells Tork that he would have signed the band even without a TV show.\n* May 1966: Filming for the TV show starts, taking 12 hours a day for the cast of the Monkees. The public is informed in the beginning that the Monkees are \"manufactured\", as seen in this Washington Post report: \"The series stars a fearsome foursome in the Monkees, a wholly manufactured singing group of attractive young men who come off as a combination of the Beatles, the Dead End Kids and the Marx Brothers. Critics will cry foul. Longhairs will demand, outraged, that they be removed from the air. But the kids will adore the Monkees [...] unlike other rock 'n' roll groups, the boys had never performed together before. Indeed, they'd never even met [...] they've been working to create their own sound.\" \n* June 1966: Although the producers want the Monkees to create their own music, they had not progressed enough by this point and still lacked the \"upbeat, young, happy, driving, pulsating sound\" that they desired. Dolenz stated, \"I'm sure that Rafelson and Schneider said in all honesty, 'Yeah, don't worry, when we start going you're gonna record your own tunes and it will be wonderful.' But the things get caught up in the inertia of the moment. NBC gets involved. RCA gets involved. Screen Gems gets involved. Millions and millions of dollars are on the line [...] people aren't as forthcoming. Mike's style was very distinct, country-western, Peter was very folk-rock, neither of which at the time would have been considered mainstream pop. Davy would have done all Broadway tunes [...] I ended up singing the leads [...] pop-rock was more my style.\" However, they used selections of Nesmith's authorship and composition from the beginning. \n* June 10, 1966: The Monkees' first recording sessions take place. These sessions feature members of the Wrecking Crew, a group of studio musicians in Los Angeles who would play on several Monkees album tracks, mostly those produced by Nesmith. These sessions were unsuccessful, however, and most future sessions in 1966 would feature the Candy Store Prophets, a studio band led by Boyce & Hart.\n* June 25, 1966: Nesmith produces his first Monkees track in a recording studio, his two self-composed songs \"All the King's Horses\", \"The Kind of Girl I Could Love\", plus \"I Don't Think You Know Me\", as a way for Raybert Productions to fulfill their promise to him to allow him to produce and record his own music. He is not allowed to play the instruments.\n* July 1966: Various producers from Boyce & Hart to Jack Keller to Nesmith continue to record sessions. Nesmith gets all four members to sing on his productions. On July 18, 1966 Nesmith also gets Tork to play guitar on the songs he is producing for the first time. Sessions continue in this manner, with the hired producers Boyce & Hart and Jack Keller and Monkees member Nesmith producing/recording songs in the studio through November 1966. \n* August 1966: The Monkees' first single is released.\n* September 1966: The Monkees' TV show premieres. \n* October 1966: The Monkees' debut album is released. Group member Nesmith, in particular, is angered when he sees the album cover, because he thinks it makes it look like they played all of the instruments.\n* October 2, 1966: The Monkees give their first public interview, which appears in The New York Times, in which Jones is asked if the big push for the Monkees is fair to the real rock groups, to which he responds, \"... That's the breaks, but you can't fool the people, you really can't.\" \n* October 24, 1966: Newsweek interviews the Monkees. They are asked how the music is created. Davy Jones tells them, \"This isn't a rock 'n' roll group. This is an act.\" \n* December 1966: The Monkees perform live in concert starting December 3, 1966. TV Week in the meantime, interviews Rafelson about why the Monkees' public access to interviews is limited, wondering if it could be related to embarrassing questions regarding their musical prowess, to which Rafelson assures that they do all of their own playing and singing. He also states that interviews are almost impossible due to them spending 12 hours a day filming the TV show, 4 hours recording, rehearsing for concert tours, and spending some weekends making personal appearance tours. During this time frame, the Monkees are generally barred from making television appearances on shows outside of their own, as Raybert fears the group's overexposure. \n* December 27, 1966: The Monkees are again interviewed about their music in Look magazine. Tork responds, \"We have the potential, but there's not time to practice.\" Dolenz says, \"We're advertisers. We're selling the Monkees. It's gotta be that way.\" Nesmith says, \"They're in the middle of something good and they're trying to sell something. They want us to be the Beatles, but we're not. We're us. We're funny.\" \n* December 28, 1966: Weekly Variety reports that the Monkees are selling faster than the Beatles did at their launch.\n* January 1967: The Monkees' second album is released while they were on tour, without the Monkees' knowledge. This upsets Nesmith and Tork, as they had been told that they were going to be doing their own album. Dolenz and Jones are initially indifferent because to them, coming from the acting world, it was just a soundtrack to the TV show and they were doing their job by singing what they were asked to sing. But when they saw how angry Nesmith and Tork were, they too joined in that anger.\n* January 16, 1967: Four months after their first single is released, the Monkees hold their first recording session as a self-contained, fully functioning band.\n* January 28, 1967: Band member Nesmith speaks to the Saturday Evening Post in an expose, stating, \"The music had nothing to do with us. It was totally dishonest. Do you know how debilitating it is to sit up and have to duplicate somebody else's records? That's really what we're doing. The music happened in spite of the Monkees. It was what Kirshner wanted to do. Our records are not our forte. I don't care if we never sell another record. Maybe we were manufactured [...] Tell the world we're synthetic because [...] we are. Tell them the Monkees are wholly man-made overnight, that millions of dollars have been poured into this thing. Tell the world we don't record our own music. But that's us they see on television. That show is really a part of us. They're not seeing something invalid.\" Decades later, Nesmith reflected, \"The press decided they were going to unload on us as being somehow illegitimate, somehow false. That we were making an attempt to dupe the public, when in fact it was me that was making the attempt to maintain the integrity. So, the press went into a full-scale war against us. Telling us the Monkees are four guys who have no credits, no credibility whatsoever, who have been trying to trick us into believing that they are a rock band. Number one, not only was it not the case, the reverse was true. Number two, [for] the press to report with genuine alarm that the Monkees were not a real rock band was looney tunes. It was one of the great goofball moments of the media, but it stuck.\" \n* February 4, 1967: Although the Monkees have continued to play and record their own music for their upcoming album, Jones records some songs with hired producer Jeff Barry. \n* February 1967: Kirshner works behind the Monkees' backs to release another single without the band's knowledge. \n* February 25, 1967: Jones is interviewed for the New Musical Express, and says, \"I can only speak for myself. I am an actor and I have never pretended to be anything else. The public have made me into a rock 'n' roll singer. No one is trying to fool anyone! People have tried to put us down by saying we copied the Beatles. So, all right, maybe the Monkees is a half-hour Hard Day's Night. But now we read that the Who are working on a TV a group. Now who's copying who?\" \n* February 27, 1967: Kirshner is dismissed as Music Coordinator for the Monkees, primarily due to his handling of the third would-be-but-withdrawn single from the Monkees. Lester Sill takes his place. The Monkees continue recording their own songs, with them playing instruments, getting ready for their next album. In the meantime, the Nesmith-penned \"The Girl I Knew Somewhere\" is released as part of the Monkees third single, which features the Monkees playing as a self-contained band, which becomes a top 40 hit.\n* May 1967: The Monkees' first self made album, Headquarters, is released.\n\nAfter Headquarters, the Monkees started using a mixture of themselves playing along with other musicians, including members of the Wrecking Crew and Candy Store Prophets along with other musicians such as Stephen Stills, Neil Young, and Harry Nilsson; but they still wrote, sang, produced, and played on their remaining albums, except for their final offering from the original incarnation in 1970, Changes, which was recorded after Nesmith and Tork had left the group and featured Dolenz and Jones singing to the backing tracks of what Jones referred to in the liner notes of the 1994 reissue that album as \"a rejected Andy Kim album\". In the same liner notes, Jones stated that he was unhappy about that recording and claimed that it was not a real album. The final album featured one Dolenz composition.\n\nTork commented on some of the controversy when writing about Jones's death: \"When we first met, I was confronted with a slick, accomplished, young performer, vastly more experienced than I in the ways of show biz, and yes, I was intimidated. Englishness was at a high premium in my world, and his experience dwarfed my entertainer's life as a hippie, basket-passing folk singer on the Greenwich Village coffee house circuit. If anything, I suppose I was selected for the cast of 'The Monkees' TV show partly as a rough-hewn counterpart to David's sophistication. [...] the Monkees—the group now, not the TV series—took a lot of flack for being 'manufactured,' by which our critics meant that we hadn't grown up together, paying our dues, sleeping five to a room, trying to make it as had the Beatles and Rolling Stones. Furthermore, critics said, the Monkees' first albums—remember albums?—were almost entirely recorded by professional studio musicians, with hardly any input from any of us beyond lead vocals. I felt this criticism keenly, coming as I did from the world of the ethical folk singer, basically honoring the standards of the naysayers. We did play as a group live on tour.\" \n\nMeeting the Beatles\n\nCritics of the Monkees observed that they were simply the \"Pre-Fab four\", a made-for-TV knockoff of the Beatles; the Beatles, however, took it in their stride and hosted a party for the Monkees when they visited England. The party occurred during the time when the Beatles were recording Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band; as such, the party inspired the line in the Monkees' tune \"Randy Scouse Git\", written by Dolenz, which read, \"the four kings of EMI are sitting stately on the floor.\"\n\nGeorge Harrison praised their self-produced musical attempts, saying, \"It's obvious what's happening, there's talent there. They're doing a TV show, it's a difficult chore and I wouldn't be in their shoes for the world. When they get it all sorted out, they might turn out to be the best.\" (Tork was later one of the musicians on Harrison's Wonderwall Music, playing Paul McCartney's five-string banjo.)\n\nNesmith attended the \"A Day in the Life\" sessions at Abbey Road Studios; he can be seen in the Beatles' home movies, including one scene where he is talking with John Lennon. During the conversation, Nesmith had reportedly asked Lennon \"Do you think we're a cheap imitation of the Beatles, your movies and your records?\" to which Lennon assuredly replied, \"I think you're the greatest comic talent since the Marx Brothers. I've never missed one of your programs.\" Nesmith wrote about this encounter on Facebook:\n\nWhen The Beatles were recording Sgt. Peppers, Phyllis and I spent a few days with John and Cynthia at their home, and one in the studio with \"the boys.\" That's where those pictures of John and I come from—the \"Day in the Life\" session. The minute I had the wherewithal—cachet and money—I raced to London and looked up John.\n\nDuring the '60s it seemed to me London was the center of the World and The Beatles were the center of London and the Sgt Pepper session was the center of The Beatles. It was an extraordinary time, I thought, and I wanted to get as close as I could to the heart of it. But like a hurricane the center was not stormy or tumultuous. It was exciting, but it was calm, and to an extent peaceful. The confidence of the art permeated the atmosphere. Serene—and really, really fun. Then I discovered the reason for this. During that time in one of our longer, more reflective, talks I realized that John was not aware of who The Beatles were. Of course he could not be. He was clueless in this regard. He had never seen or experienced them. In the strange paradox of fame, none of The Beatles ever saw The Beatles the way we did. Certainly not the way I did. I loved them beyond my ability to express it. As the years passed and I met more and more exceptional people sitting in the center of their own hurricane I saw they all shared this same sensibility. None of them could actually know the force of their own work.\n\nDolenz was also in the studio during a Sgt. Pepper session, which he mentioned while broadcasting for WCBS-FM in New York (incidentally, he interviewed Ringo Starr on his program). On February 21, 1967, he attended the overdub and mixing session for the Beatles' \"Fixing a Hole\" at EMI's Abbey Road studio 2. \n\nDuring the 1970s, during Lennon's infamous \"lost weekend\", John Lennon, Ringo Starr, Micky Dolenz, Harry Nilsson and Keith Moon often hung out together, and were collectively known in the press as \"The Hollywood Vampires\". \n\nPaul McCartney can be seen in the 2002 concert film Back in the U.S. singing \"Hey, Hey, We're The Monkees\", the theme from The Monkees show, while backstage.\n\nThe Monkees \"Cuddly Toy\" and \"Daddy's Song\" were written by songwriter Harry Nilsson. \"Cuddly Toy\" would be recorded several months before Nilsson's own debut in October 1967. At the press conference announcing the formation of Apple, the Beatles named Harry Nilsson as both their favorite American artist and as their favorite American group. Derek Taylor, the Beatles's press officer, had introduced them to Harry's music. \n\nIn 1995, Ringo Starr joined Davy, Peter, Micky to film a Pizza Hut commercial. \n\nJulian Lennon was a fan, stating at the time of Davy Jones' passing, \"You did some Great work!\" \n\nRock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\nIn June 2007, Tork complained to the New York Post that Jann Wenner had blackballed the Monkees from the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Tork stated:\n\n[Wenner] doesn't care what the rules are and just operates how he sees fit. It is an abuse of power. I don't know whether the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame, but it's pretty clear that we're not in there because of a personal whim. Jann seems to have taken it harder than everyone else, and now, 40 years later, everybody says, 'What's the big deal? Everybody else does it.' [Uses studio artists or backing bands.] Nobody cares now except him. He feels his moral judgment in 1967 and 1968 is supposed to serve in 2007.\n\nIn a Facebook post, Nesmith stated that he does not know if the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame because he can only see the impact of the Monkees from the inside, and further stated: \"I can see the HOF (Hall of Fame) is a private enterprise. It seems to operate as a business, and the inductees are there by some action of the owners of the Enterprise. The inductees appear to be chosen at the owner's pleasure. This seems proper to me. It is their business in any case. It does not seem to me that the HOF carries a public mandate, nor should it be compelled to conform to one.\"\n\nIn 1992, Davy Jones spoke to People magazine, stating \"I'm not as wealthy as some entertainers, but I work hard, and I think the best is yet to come. I know I'm never going to make the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but maybe there's something else for me in show business. I've been given a talent—however big or little—that has given me many opportunities. I've got to try to use it the best way I can. A lot of people go days without having someone hug them or shake their hand. I get that all the time.\" \n\nIn 2015, Micky Dolenz said, \"As far as the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame I’ve never been one to chase awards or anything like that; it’s never been very important to me. I was very proud to win an Emmy for The Monkees, having come out of television as a kid. When we won the Emmy for best TV show in ’66 or ‘67 that was a huge feather in my cap. But I’ve never chased that kind of stuff. I’ve never done a project and thought, “What do I do here to win an award?” Specifically as far as the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame I’ve been very flattered that the fans and people have championed the Monkees. Very flattered and honored that they do. If you know anything about the organization, and I’ve done charity work for the foundation, the Hall of Fame is a private club. It’s like a country club and they have the right to do that; that’s their prerogative. That’s their private club. That’s kind of how I feel about it.\" \n\nVarious magazines and news outlets, such as Time, NPR radio, The Christian Science Monitor, Goldmine magazine, Yahoo Music and MSNBC have argued that the Monkees belong in the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame.\n\nOriginally unreleased recordings\n\nBeginning in 1987, Rhino Records started to make available previously unreleased Monkees recordings on a series of albums called Missing Links. Having numerous quality songwriters, musicians, producers and arrangers—along with high budgets—at their hands while making albums during the 1960s, the band was able to record as many songs as the Beatles in half the time.\n\nThe three volumes of this initial series contained 59 songs. These include the group's first recordings as a self-contained band, including the intended single \"All Of Your Toys,\" Nesmith's Nashville sessions, and alternate versions of songs featured only on the television series. The Listen to the Band box set also contained previously unreleased recordings, as did the 1994-95 series CD album reissues. Rhino/Rhino Handmade's Deluxe Edition reissue series has also included alternate mixes, unreleased songs, and the soundtrack to 33 1/3 Revolutions Per Monkee.\n\nBand members\n\nCurrent\n\n* Micky Dolenz – vocals, drums, moog synthesizer, guitar (1966–1971, 1986–1989, 1993–1997, 2001–2002, 2011–present)\n* Peter Tork – vocals, keyboards, piano, guitar, bass, banjo (1966–1968, 1986–1989, 1995–1997, 2001, 2011–present)\n* Michael Nesmith – guitar, vocals, keyboards (1966–1970, 1986, 1989, 1996–1997, 2012–2014, 2016)\n\nFormer\n\n* Davy Jones – vocals, tambourine, maracas, bass, guitar, drums (1966–1971, 1986–1989, 1993–1997, 2001–2002, 2011–2012; died in 2012)\n\nTimeline \n\nImpact and legacy\n\nThe Monkees, selected specifically to appeal to the youth market as American television's response to the Beatles with their manufactured personae and carefully produced singles, are seen as an original precursor to the modern proliferation of studio and corporation-created bands. But this critical reputation has softened somewhat, with the recognition that the Monkees were neither the first manufactured group nor unusual in this respect. The Monkees also frequently contributed their own songwriting efforts on their albums and saw their musical skills improve. They ultimately became a self-directed group, playing their own instruments and writing many of their own songs.\n\nNoted Monkees and 1960s music historian Andrew Sandoval noted, in The Hollywood Reporter, that the Monkees \"pioneered the music video format [and band member Mike Nesmith dreamed up the prototype for what would become MTV] and paved the way for every boy band that followed in their wake, from New Kids on the Block to 'N Sync to Jonas Brothers, while Davy set the stage for future teen idols David Cassidy and Justin Bieber. As pop stars go, you would be hard pressed to find a successful artist who didn't take a page from the Monkees' playbook, even generations later. Monkee money also enabled Rafelson and Schneider to finance Easy Rider and Five Easy Pieces, which made Jack Nicholson a star. In fact, the Monkees series was the opening salvo in a revolution that brought on the New Hollywood cinema, an influence rarely acknowledged but no less impactful.\"\n\nThe Chicago Tribune interviewed Davy Jones, who said, \"We touched a lot of musicians, you know. I can't tell you the amount of people that have come up and said, 'I wouldn't have been a musician if it hadn't been for the Monkees.' It baffles me even now,\" Jones added. \"I met a guy from Guns N' Roses, and he was overwhelmed by the meeting, and was just so complimentary.\" \n\nThe Monkees found unlikely fans among musicians of the punk rock period of the mid-1970s. Many of these punk performers had grown up on TV reruns of the series, and sympathized with the anti-industry, anti-Establishment trend of their career. Sex Pistols and Minor Threat both recorded versions of \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" and it was often played live by Toy Love. The Japanese new wave pop group The Plastics recorded a synthesizer and drum-machine version of \"Last Train to Clarksville\" for their 1979 album Welcome Plastics.\n\nGlenn A. Baker, author of Monkeemania: The True Story of the Monkees, described the Monkees as \"rock's first great embarrassment\" in 1986:\n\nLike an illegitimate child in a respectable family, the Monkees are destined to be regarded forever as rock's first great embarrassment; misunderstood and maligned like a mongrel at a ritzy dog show, or a test tube baby at the Vatican. The rise of the pre-fab four coincided with rock's desperate desire to cloak itself with the trappings of respectability, credibility and irreproachable heritage. The fact was ignored that session players were being heavily employed by the Beach Boys, the Beatles, the Mamas and the Papas, the Byrds and other titans of the age. However, what could not be ignored, as rock disdained its pubescent past, was a group of middle-aged Hollywood businessmen had actually assembled their concept of a profitable rock group and foisted it upon the world. What mattered was that the Monkees had success handed to them on a silver plate. Indeed, it was not so much righteous indignation but thinly disguised jealousy which motivated the scornful dismissal of what must, in retrospect, be seen as entertaining, imaginative and highly memorable exercise in pop culture. \n\nMediaite columnist Paul Levinson noted that \"The Monkees were the first example of something created in a medium—in this case, a rock group on television—that jumped off the screen to have big impact in the real world.\"\n\nWhen commenting on the death of Jones on February 29, 2012, Time magazine contributor James Poniewozik praised the television show, saying that \"even if the show never meant to be more than entertainment and a hit-single generator, we shouldn't sell The Monkees short. It was far better TV than it had to be; during an era of formulaic domestic sitcoms and wacky comedies, it was a stylistically ambitious show, with a distinctive visual style, absurdist sense of humor and unusual story structure. Whatever Jones and the Monkees were meant to be, they became creative artists in their own right, and Jones' chipper Brit-pop presence was a big reason they were able to produce work that was commercial, wholesome and yet impressively weird.\n\nBoth the style and substance of the Monkees were imitated by American boy band Big Time Rush (BTR), who performed in their own television series which -- by admission of series creator Scott Fellows -- was heavily influenced by the Monkees. Similar to the Monkees, Big Time Rush featured a \"made-for-tv\" boy band often caught in a series of misadventures, hijinks, and somewhat slapstick comedy. The show, now in reruns but still hugely popular on Teen Nick, is highly stylized and patterned after the Monkees, even capped with similar cartoonish sound effects. Like the Monkees, BTR has also seen critical and commercial success in America and worldwide through album, singles and high TV ratings worldwide.\"\n\nCovers\n\n* Mike Nesmith's individual song publishing opened the way for the Paul Butterfield Blues Band to record \"Mary, Mary\" for their groundbreaking second album, East-West, in 1966---months before the song was recorded by the Monkees for the controversial More of the Monkees second album. \n* Linda Ronstadt would have her first major hit two years later, when her folk-rock group The Stone Poneys recorded Nesmith's \"Different Drum,\" a song they may have found by way of the Greenbriar Boys' earlier version. Except for a comic and brief playing of the song on a Monkees television episode, neither Nesmith nor the Monkees themselves recorded the song.\n* Canadian singer Anne Murray recorded \"Daydream Believer\" on her 1979 album, I'll Always Love You. In 1980, it peaked at No. 1 on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart, No. 12 on the pop chart, and No. 3 on the country chart.\n* In 1988, Run–D.M.C. recorded \"Mary, Mary\" on their album Tougher Than Leather.\n* Australian indie-rock bands of the 1980s such as Grooveyard (\"All The King's Horses\"), Prince Vlad & the Gargoyle Impalers (\"Mary, Mary\", \"For Pete's Sake\", \"Circle Sky\"), the Upbeat, and the Mexican Spitfires (\"Mary, Mary\") performed Monkees cover versions.\n* Cassandra Wilson had an indie hit with \"Last Train to Clarksville\" in 1995.\n* The alternative rock group Smash Mouth had a hit with \"I'm a Believer\" in 2001, and their version was featured in the computer-animated movie Shrek.\n* Japanese indie rock band Shonen Knife recorded \"Daydream Believer\".\n* Indie group Carter USM recorded \"Randy Scouse Git\", which is also called \"Alternate Title\".\n* The 1980s psychedelic rock band Bongwater recorded \"You Just May Be The One\" and \"The Porpoise Song\".\n* The Dickies recorded their own version of \"She\" on their 1979 debut album The Incredible Shrinking Dickies. \n* The Monkees also had a big influence on Paul Westerberg, lead singer and songwriter for the Replacements; \"Daydream Believer\" and \"You Just May Be The One\" are staples at his live shows.\n* The British alternative rock band the Wedding Present recorded \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\" in the early 1990s.\n* The Sex Pistols covered \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" in the 1970s.\n* George Benson covered \"Last Train to Clarksville\" in 1968 on his jazz album Shape of Things to Come.\n* Thrash metal band Intruder covered \"(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone\" in 1989 on their album A Higher Form of Killing.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nThe band's legacy was strengthened by Rhino Entertainment's acquisition of the Monkees' franchise from Columbia Pictures in the early 1990s. The label has released several Monkees-related projects, including remastered editions of both the original television series and their complete music library, as well as their motion picture Head.\n\nThe highly respected Criterion Collection, whose stated goal is to release \"a continuing series of important classic and contemporary films, [and] has been dedicated to gathering the greatest films from around the world and publishing them in editions that offer the highest technical quality and award-winning, original supplements\" recognized The Monkees film Head as meeting their criteria when they fully restored and released it on DVD and Blu-ray in 2010. They stated that Head was \"way, way ahead of its time\" and \"arguably the most authentically psychedelic film made in 1960s Hollywood\", Head dodged commercial success on its release but has since been reclaimed as one of the great cult objects of its era.\" \n\nIn the book, Hey, Hey We're The Monkees, Rafelson explains, \"[Head] explored techniques on film that hadn't been used before. The first shot of Micky under water is a perfect example. Now you see it on MTV all the time, but it was invented for the movie [...] I got two long-haired kids out of UCLA who created the effects that the established laboratory guys said couldn't be done. We invented double-matted experiences. Polarization hadn't been used in movies before. [...] When it was shown in France, the head of the Cinematheque overly praised the movie as a cinematic masterpiece, and from that point on, this movie began to acquire an underground reputation.\" \n\nOther examples of the Monkees impact:\n* Brian Wilson, of the Beach Boys, noted in the Monkees Anthology CD liner notes that \"The Monkees inspired me to write \"Break Away\" with my dad. Thank you for all of the good music.\"\n* Glen Campbell, who was a touring member of the Beach Boys, and a successful solo artist, mentioned in the Monkees Anthology CD liner notes that \"I love the Monkees because I dug their music.\"\n* Nirvana's lead singer Kurt Cobain was a fan of the Monkees, and put their logo on the back of one of his early guitars.\n* U2 was a big fan of the Monkees, and had Davy Jones come out during one of their concerts to sing \"Daydream Believer.\"\n* R.E.M.'s lead singer Michael Stipe had once stated that they would not accept induction into the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame until the Monkees were inducted. (R.E.M. has since been inducted.)\n* In the 1990s, Dolenz, Jones and Tork had minor roles in the family sitcom Boy Meets World. Tork played Topanga's father Jedidiah; Jones played Reginald, an old friend from Europe; Dolenz played Gordy, Mr. Matthews' best friend. In the one episode that the three were in together, they performed \"My Girl\" and \"Not Fade Away.\"\n* In 1991, a feature film called Daydream Believer (known as The Girl Who Came Late in some markets) was released in Australia.\n* In 1995, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork, alongside the Beatles drummer Ringo Starr, starred in a Pizza Hut commercial. Starr wants to convince \"the lads\" to reunite in order to promote a new pizza style. In the end, Dolenz, Jones, and Tork appear next to Starr, leading the drummer to say \"oops, wrong lads.\"\n* Jones, Tork and Dolenz also feature memorably as themselves in The Brady Bunch Movie. Jones is invited by Marcia to appear as the surprise star guest at the high school prom. (This was a take-off on a 1971 episode of the original series with Jones and a similar plotline.) After a difficult start, he proves a surprise hit with the modern-day audience, especially the adult chaperones when they realize their girlhood idol is on-stage. Later, the Bradys themselves perform \"Keep On Dancing,\" a 1960s-style \"groovy\" song, in the evening's \"Search for a Star\" talent contest. Everyone is surprised when they win the award until it is revealed that the judging panel consists of Jones, Tork and Dolenz.\n* In The Simpsons episode \"Fear of Flying,\" a flashback to Marge's childhood showed that she had a Monkees lunchbox on her first day of school, only for another girl to taunt her about her love for the band by telling her they did not play their own instruments or write their own songs—and claim that Mike Nesmith's hat was not his own. In the present, Marge notes that the girl was right, however her psychiatrist assures her by saying, \"The Monkees weren't about music, Marge. They were about rebellion, about political and social upheaval!\"\n* In the South Park episode \"Chickenpox,\" a cover of the song \"I'm a Believer,\" recorded by Weezer, plays in the background of a montage depicting the strenuous relationship between Kyle Broflovski and Eric Cartman.\n* The 1999 British Pop band S Club 7's T.V. show Miami 7 featured a very similar storyline to the Monkees TV Show as they were also a manufactured band trying to become famous like the Monkees. It was also the 2nd time a manufactured band had appeared on television in the USA. \n* In 2005, eBay used \"Daydream Believer\" as the theme for a promotional campaign.\n* In 2006, Evergreen used \"Daydream Believer\" in their advertisements; the lyrics were adapted for the product.\n* In 2009, Britain's Got Talent sensation Susan Boyle recorded \"Daydream Believer.\"\n* In 2010, Nick Vernier Band created a digital \"Monkees reunion\" through the release of Mister Bob (featuring The Monkees), a new song produced under license from Rhino Entertainment, containing vocal samples from the band's recording \"Zilch.\"\n* In 2011, \"Mister Bob\" was released as a single to coincide with the Monkees's 45th Anniversary Tour.\n* In 2012, the television show Breaking Bad featured the song \"Goin' Down\" as the soundtrack to a meth cooking montage.\n* In 2013, the closing song of Mad Men Season 6, Episode 12 is the Monkees' \"Porpoise Song\", also known as the theme from their 1968 psychedelic film (co-written by a young Jack Nicholson), \"Head\".\n\nNotable achievements\n\n* Had the top-charting American single of 1967 (\"I'm a Believer\"). (Billboard number-one for seven weeks) with \"Daydream Believer\" tied for third. I'm a Believer was listed as the #48 song on the Billboard Hot 100 50th Anniversary Chart that was released in August 2008. The August 2013 updated 55th Anniversary Chart shows the song at #57. \n* Gave the Jimi Hendrix Experience their first U.S. concert tour exposure as an opening act in July 1967. Jimi Hendrix's heavy psychedelic guitar and sexual overtones did not go over well with the teenage girls in the audience, which eventually led to his leaving the tour early. \n* Gene Roddenberry was inspired to introduce the character of Chekov in his Star Trek TV series in response to the popularity of Davy Jones, complete with hairstyle and appearance mimicking that of Jones. \n* Introduced Tim Buckley to a national audience, via his appearance in the series finale, \"The Frodis Caper\" (aka \"Mijacogeo\").\n* Last music artist to win the MTV Friday Night Video Fights by defeating Bon Jovi 51% to 49%.\n* First music artist to win two Emmy Awards.\n* Had seven albums on the Billboard top 200 chart at the same time (six were re-issues during 1986-1987).\n* One of the first artists achieving number-one hits in the United States and United Kingdom simultaneously.\n* The only recording act to have four No. 1 albums in a 12-month (changed from 1 year to avoid confusion with a calendar year) span. \n* Held the No. 1 spot on the Billboard album chart for 31 consecutive weeks, 37 weeks total. \n* Held the record for the longest stay at No. 1 for a debut record album until 1982 when Men at Work's debut record album Business As Usual broke that record.\n* Received their star on the Hollywood Walk of fame in July 1989. All 4 members were present for the ceremony.\n* In 2008, the Monkees were inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.\n* In 2014 the Monkees were inducted into America's Pop Music Hall of Fame. \n* The Music Business Association (Music Biz) honored The Monkees with an Outstanding Achievement Award celebrating their 50th anniversary on May 16, 2016. \n\nDiscography\n\n* The Monkees (1966)\n* More of The Monkees (1967)\n* Headquarters (1967)\n* Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. (1967)\n* The Birds, The Bees & the Monkees (1968)\n* Head (1968)\n* Instant Replay (1969)\n* The Monkees Present (1969)\n* Changes (1970)\n* Pool It! (1987)\n* Justus (1996)\n* Good Times! (2016)\n\nTours\n\n* North American Tour (1966–67)\n* British Tour (1967)\n* Pacific Rim Tour (1968)\n* North American Tour (1969) (Dolenz, Jones, Nesmith)\n* The Golden Hits of The Monkees (1975–77) (Dolenz, Jones, Boyce and Hart)\n* Sounds of The Monkees (1986; 1987) (Jones, Tork)\n* 20th Anniversary World Tour (1986) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Here We Come Again Tour (1987–88) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* The Monkees Live (1989) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* The Monkees Summer Tour (1989) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Micky and Davy: Together Again (1994–95) (Dolenz, Jones)\n* Monkees: The 30th Anniversary Tour (1996) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Justus Tour (1997)\n* North American Tour (1997) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* Monkeemania Returns Tour (2001–2002) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* An Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour (2011) (Dolenz, Jones, Tork)\n* An Evening with The Monkees (Fall 2012) (Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork)\n* A Midsummer's Night with the Monkees (Summer 2013) (Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork)\n* The Monkees Live in Concert (Spring 2014) (Dolenz, Nesmith, Tork)\n* An Evening with the Monkees (2015) (Dolenz, Tork)\n* 50th Anniversary Tour (2016) (Dolenz, Tork)\n\nComics\n\nThere was also \"The Monkees\" comic published in the United States by Dell Comics, which ran for seventeen issues from 1967 to 1969. In the United Kingdom, a Daily Mirror \"Crazy Cartoon Book\" featured four comic stories as well as four photos of The Monkees, all in black and white; it was published in 1967.\n\nBiopic\n\nIn 2000, VH-1 produced the television biopic Daydream Believers: The Monkees' Story. In 2002, the movie was released on DVD, and featured both commentaries and interviews with Dolenz, Jones and Tork. The aired version did differ from the DVD release as the TV version had an extended scene with all four Monkees meeting the Beatles but with a shortened Cleveland concert segment. It was also available on VHS.\n\nMusical\n\nA stage musical opened in the UK at the Manchester Opera House on Friday March 30, 2012, and was dedicated to Davy Jones (the Jones family attended the official opening on April 3). The production is a Jukebox musical and starred Stephen Kirwan, Ben Evans, Tom Parsons and Oliver Savile as actors playing the parts of the Monkees (respectively Dolenz, Jones, Nesmith, Tork) who are hired by an unscrupulous businessman to go on a world tour pretending to be the real band. The show includes 18 Monkees songs plus numbers by other 60s artists. It ran in Manchester as part of the \"Manchester Gets it First\" program until April 14, 2012 before a UK tour. Following its Manchester run, the show appeared in the Glasgow King's Theatre and the Sunderland Empire Theatre.\n\nBibliography\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*", "Bette Nesmith Graham (March 23, 1924 – May 12, 1980) was an American typist, commercial artist, and the inventor of Liquid Paper. She was also the mother of musician and producer Michael Nesmith of The Monkees.\n\nBiography\n\nGraham was born Bette Clair McMurray in Dallas, Texas to Jesse McMurray, an automotive supply company manager, and Christine Duval. She was raised in San Antonio and graduated from Alamo Heights High School. She married Warren Audrey Nesmith (1919–1984) before he left to fight in World War II. While he was overseas she had a child (Robert Michael Nesmith, born December 30, 1942). After Warren Nesmith returned home, they divorced (1946).\nIn the early 1950s, her father died, leaving some property in Dallas to Bette. She, her mother, Michael, and her sister Yvonne moved there. To support herself as a single mother, she worked as a secretary at Texas Bank and Trust. She eventually attained the position of the executive secretary, the highest position open at that time to women in the industry.\n\nIt was difficult to erase mistakes made by early electric typewriters, which caused problems. In order to make extra money she used her talent painting holiday windows at the bank. She realized, as she said, \"with lettering, an artist never corrects by erasing, but always paints over the error. So I decided to use what artists use. I put some tempera water-based paint in a bottle and took my watercolor brush to the office. I used that to correct my mistakes.\"\n\nGraham secretly used her white correction paint for five years, making some improvements with help from her son's chemistry teacher at Thomas Jefferson High School in Dallas. Some bosses admonished her against using it, but coworkers frequently sought her \"paint out.\" She eventually began marketing her typewriter correction fluid as \"Mistake Out\" in 1956. The name was later changed to Liquid Paper when she began her own company.\n\nMistake Out started the 1960s operating at a small loss, with Nesmith's home doubling as company headquarters. As the product became an indispensable tool of the secretarial trade, Nesmith relocated production and shipping from her kitchen to a 10x26-foot portable metal structure in her backyard, where packaging, shipping, and production were centered. \n\nIn 1962 Bette Nesmith married Robert Graham, who joined her in running the company. They divorced in 1975. \n\nIn 1979 she sold Liquid Paper to the Gillette Corporation for USD $47.5 million. At the time, her company employed 200 people and made 25 million bottles of Liquid Paper per year. \n\nBette Nesmith died May 12, 1980, at the age of 56, in Richardson, Texas. \n\nManagement style\n\nFrom the start, Graham ran her company with a unique combination of spirituality, egalitarianism, and pragmatism. Raised a Methodist, Graham converted to Christian Science in 1942 and this faith inspired the development of her corporate \"Statement of Policy.\" Part code of ethics, part business philosophy, it covered everything from her belief in a \"Supreme Being\" to a focus on decentralized decision making and an emphasis on product quality over profit motive. She also believed that women could bring a more nurturing and humanistic quality to the male world of business, and did so herself by including a greenbelt with a fish pond, an employee library, and a childcare center in her new company headquarters in 1975. \n\nLegacy\n\nHer only son Michael inherited half of his mother's $50+ million estate. A portion financed the Gihon Foundation which established the Council on Ideas, a think tank with a retreat center located north of Santa Fe, New Mexico active from 1990 to 2000 and devoted to exploring world problems." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mike Nesmith", "Michael Nesmith" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "michael nesmith", "mike nesmith" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mike nesmith", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mike Nesmith" }
What type of aircraft is the Hawker Siddley Harrier?	tc_1374	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Aircraft.txt", "Hawker_Siddeley_Harrier.txt" ], "title": [ "Aircraft", "Hawker Siddeley Harrier" ], "wiki_context": [ "An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines.\n\nThe human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft propulsion, usage and others.\n\nHistory\n\nFlying model craft and stories of manned flight go back many centuries, however the first manned ascent – and safe descent – in modern times took place by larger hot-air balloons developed in the 18th century. Each of the two World Wars led to great technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras:\nPioneers of flight, from the earliest experiments to 1914.\nFirst World War, 1914 to 1918.\nAviation between the World Wars, 1918 to 1939.\nSecond World War, 1939 to 1945.\nPostwar era, also called the jet age, 1945 to the present day.\n\nMethods of lift\n\nLighter than air – aerostats\n\nAerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces.\n\nSmall hot-air balloons called sky lanterns were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites which were first invented in ancient China over two thousand years ago.\n\nA balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to \"ships of the air,\" with smaller passenger types as \"Air yachts.\" In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as \"ships of the air\" or \"flying-ships\". – though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so \"airship\" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a \"balloon\" is an unpowered aerostat and an \"airship\" is a powered one.\n\nA powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered.\n\nHeavier-than-air – aerodynes\n\nHeavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust: aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.\n\nAerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate lift. A flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary.\n\nWith powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward. V/STOL aircraft, such as the Harrier Jump Jet and F-35B take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.\n\nA pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case.\n\nFixed-wing\n\nThe forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly, and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, wind tunnels, and computer modelling programs became available.\n\nThe first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders. A glider designed by Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853.\n\nPractical, powered, fixed-wing aircraft (the aeroplane or airplane) were invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright. Besides the method of propulsion, fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are:\nNumber of wings – Monoplane, biplane, etc.\nWing support – Braced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible.\nWing planform – including aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along the span (including the important class of delta wings).\nLocation of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.\nDihedral angle – positive, zero, or negative (anhedral).\n\nA variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.\n\nA flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces.\n\nWing-in-ground-effect vehicles are not considered aircraft. They \"fly\" efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan (nicknamed the \"Caspian Sea Monster\"). Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne with a minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered — in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.\n\nRotorcraft\n\nRotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.\n\nHelicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips.\n\nAutogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites are unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in high-wind for kited flight.\n\nCyclogyros rotate their wings about a horizontal axis.\n\nCompound rotorcraft have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are nowadays classified as powered lift types and not as rotorcraft. Tiltrotor aircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey), tiltwing, tailsitter, and coleopter aircraft have their rotors/propellers horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.\n\nOther methods of lift\n\nA lifting body is an aircraft body shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are not efficient: they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at high speed to generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as the Martin-Marietta X-24, which led up to the Space Shuttle, were lifting bodies (though the shuttle itself is not), and some supersonic missiles obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body.\nPowered lift types rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL). Most types transition to fixed-wing lift for horizontal flight. Classes of powered lift types include VTOL jet aircraft (such as the Harrier jump-jet) and tiltrotors (such as the V-22 Osprey), among others. A few experimental designs rely entirely on engine thrust to provide lift throughout the whole flight, including personal fan-lift hover platforms and jetpacks. VTOL research designs include the flying Bedstead.\nThe Flettner airplane uses a rotating cylinder in place of a fixed wing, obtaining lift from the magnus effect.\nThe ornithopter obtains thrust by flapping its wings.\n\nPropulsion\n\nUnpowered aircraft\n\nGliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered \"tug\" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can 'soar' – gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley, whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common examples of gliders are sailplanes, hang gliders and paragliders.\n\nBalloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control.\n\nKites are aircraft that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether or kite line; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air.\n\nPowered aircraft\n\nPowered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typically aircraft engines although rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines. Engine fuel is stored in tanks, usually in the wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks in the fuselage.\n\nPropeller aircraft\n\nPropeller aircraft use one or more propellers (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction. The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in tractor configuration but can be mounted behind in pusher configuration. Variations of propeller layout include contra-rotating propellers and ducted fans.\n\nMany kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power or steam engines. The more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for virtually all fixed-wing aircraft until World War II and is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop or propfan. Human-powered flight has been achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned aircraft and models have also used power sources such as electric motors and rubber bands.\n\nJet aircraft\n\nJet aircraft use airbreathing jet engines, which take in air, burn fuel with it in a combustion chamber, and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust.\n\nTurbojet and turbofan engines use a spinning turbine to drive one or more fans, which provide additional thrust. An afterburner may be used to inject extra fuel into the hot exhaust, especially on military \"fast jets\". Use of a turbine is not absolutely necessary: other designs include the pulse jet and ramjet. These mechanically simple designs cannot work when stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed by some other method. Other variants have also been used, including the motorjet and hybrids such as the Pratt & Whitney J58, which can convert between turbojet and ramjet operation.\n\nCompared to propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about 40000 ft, greater efficiency. They are also much more fuel-efficient than rockets. As a consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet engines.\n\nRotorcraft\n\nSome rotorcraft, such as helicopters, have a powered rotary wing or rotor, where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards. The rotor may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine or turbine. Experiments have also used jet nozzles at the rotor blade tips.\n\nOther types of powered aircraft\n\nRocket-powered aircraft have occasionally been experimented with, and the Messerschmitt Komet fighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then, they have been restricted to research aircraft, such as the North American X-15, which traveled up into space where air-breathing engines cannot work (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant, typically for the rocket-assisted take off of heavily loaded aircraft, but also to provide high-speed dash capability in some hybrid designs such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53.\nThe ornithopter obtains thrust by flapping its wings. It has found practical use in a model hawk used to freeze prey animals into stillness so that they can be captured, and in toy birds.\n\nDesign and construction\n\nAircraft are designed according to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols and physical and economic constraints. For many types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities.\n\nThe key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories:\nThe structure comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment.\nThe propulsion system (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above.\nThe avionics comprise the control, navigation and communication systems, usually electrical in nature.\n\nStructure\n\nThe approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft. Some, such as paragliders, comprise only flexible materials that act in tension and rely on aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape. A balloon similarly relies on internal gas pressure but may have a rigid basket or gondola slung below it to carry its payload. Early aircraft, including airships, often employed flexible doped aircraft fabric covering to give a reasonably smooth aeroshell stretched over a rigid frame. Later aircraft employed semi-monocoque techniques, where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much of the flight loads. In a true monocoque design there is no internal structure left.\n\nThe key structural parts of an aircraft depend on what type it is.\n\nAerostats\n\nLighter-than-air types are characterised by one or more gasbags, typically with a supporting structure of flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull. Other elements such as engines or a gondola may also be attached to the supporting structure.\n\nAerodynes\n\nHeavier-than-air types are characterised by one or more wings and a central fuselage. The fuselage typically also carries a tail or empennage for stability and control, and an undercarriage for takeoff and landing. Engines may be located on the fuselage or wings. On a fixed-wing aircraft the wings are rigidly attached to the fuselage, while on a rotorcraft the wings are attached to a rotating vertical shaft. Smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure, held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure. The fixed parts of the structure comprise the airframe.\n\nAvionics\n\nThe avionics comprise the flight control systems and related equipment, including the cockpit instrumentation, navigation, radar, monitoring, and communication systems.\n\nFlight characteristics\n\nFlight envelope\n\nThe flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its capabilities in terms of airspeed and load factor or altitude. The term can also refer to other measurements such as maneuverability. When a craft is pushed, for instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown outside the envelope, something considered unsafe.\n\nRange\n\nThe range is the distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing, as limited by the time it can remain airborne.\n\nFor a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and rate of consumption.\n\nFor an unpowered aircraft, the maximum flight time is limited by factors such as weather conditions and pilot endurance. Many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours, while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas. The range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air.\n\nFlight dynamics\n\nFlight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation around three axes about the vehicle's center of mass, known as pitch, roll, and yaw (quite different from their use as Tait-Bryan angles).\n\nRoll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis (equivalent to the rolling or heeling of a ship) giving an up-down movement of the wing tips measured by the roll or bank angle.\nPitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an up-down movement of the aircraft nose measured by the angle of attack.\nYaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a side-to-side movement of the nose known as sideslip.\n\nFlight dynamics is concerned with the stability and control of an aircraft's rotation about each of these axes.\n\nStability\n\nAn aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its current flight path and so is difficult to fly. A very stable aircraft tends to stay on its current flight path and is difficult to manoeuvre—so it is important for any design to achieve the desired degree of stability. Since the widespread use of digital computers, it is increasingly common for designs to be inherently unstable and rely on computerised control systems to provide artificial stability.\n\nA fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers, which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow. These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw. They are usually mounted on the tail section (empennage), although in the canard layout, the main aft wing replaces the canard foreplane as pitch stabilizer. Tandem wing and Tailless aircraft rely on the same general rule to achieve stability, the aft surface being the stabilising one.\n\nA rotary wing is typically unstable in yaw, requiring a vertical stabiliser.\n\nA balloon is typically very stable in pitch and roll due to the way the payload is hung underneath.\n\nControl\n\nFlight control surfaces enable the pilot to control an aircraft's flight attitude and are usually part of the wing or mounted on, or integral with, the associated stabilizing surface. Their development was a critical advance in the history of aircraft, which had until that point been uncontrollable in flight.\n\nAerospace engineers develop control systems for a vehicle's orientation (attitude) about its center of mass. The control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate rotational forces or moments about the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For example, a pitching moment is a vertical force applied at a distance forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. Control systems are also sometimes used to increase or decrease drag, for example to slow the aircraft to a safe speed for landing.\n\nThe two main aerodynamic forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air and drag opposing its motion. Control surfaces or other techniques may also be used to affect these forces directly, without inducing any rotation.\n\nImpacts of aircraft use\n\nAircraft permit long distance, high speed travel and may be a more fuel efficient mode of transportation in some circumstances. Aircraft have environmental and climate impacts beyond fuel efficiency considerations, however. They are also relatively noisy compared to other forms of travel and high altitude aircraft generate contrails, which experimental evidence suggests may alter weather patterns.\n\nUses for aircraft\n\nAircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses; military aircraft, which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and civil aircraft, which include all non-military types, experimental and model.\n\nMilitary\n\nA military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:\n* Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament. Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types such as fighter-bombers and ground-attack aircraft (including attack helicopters).\n* Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Non-combat roles include search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation, transport, training, and aerial refueling. These aircraft are often variants of civil aircraft.\n\nMost military aircraft are powered heavier-than-air types. Other types such as gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to land troops.\n\nCivil\n\nCivil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps.\n\nCommercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying passengers, mail and other cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are the airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.\n\nGeneral aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt, gliders, warbirds and hot air balloons to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types.\n\nExperimental\n\nAn experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight, or that carries an FAA airworthiness certificate in the \"Experimental\" category. Often, this implies that the aircraft is testing new aerospace technologies, though the term also refers to amateur and kit-built aircraft—many based on proven designs.\n\nModel\n\nA model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for static display, for aerodynamic research or for other purposes. A scale model is a replica of some larger design.", "The Hawker Siddeley Harrier, developed in the 1960s, was the first of the Harrier Jump Jet series of aircraft. It was the first operational close-support and reconnaissance fighter aircraft with vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities and the only truly successful V/STOL design of the many that arose in that era. The Harrier was developed directly from the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel prototype aircraft, following the cancellation of a more advanced supersonic aircraft, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154. The British Royal Air Force (RAF) ordered the Harrier GR.1 and GR.3 variants in the late 1960s. It was exported to the United States as the AV-8A, for use by the US Marine Corps (USMC), in the 1970s.\n\nDuring the Harrier's service the RAF positioned the bulk of the aircraft in West Germany to defend against a potential invasion of Western Europe by the Warsaw Pact forces; the unique abilities of the Harrier allowed the RAF to disperse their forces away from vulnerable airbases. The USMC used their Harriers primarily for close air support, operating from amphibious assault ships, and, if needed, forward operating bases. Harrier squadrons saw several deployments overseas. The Harrier's ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed-wing aircraft. The Harrier received criticism for having a high accident rate and for a time-consuming maintenance process.\n\nIn the 1970s the British Aerospace Sea Harrier was developed from the Harrier for use by the Royal Navy (RN) on s. The Sea Harrier and the Harrier fought in the 1982 Falklands War, in which the aircraft proved to be crucial and versatile. The RN Sea Harriers provided fixed-wing air defence while the RAF Harriers focused on ground-attack missions in support of the advancing British land force. The Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the AV-8B Harrier II and British Aerospace Harrier II by the team of McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace. The innovative Harrier family and its Rolls-Royce Pegasus engines with thrust vectoring nozzles have generated long-term interest in V/STOL aircraft. Similar V/STOL operational aircraft include the contemporary Soviet Yakovlev Yak-38. The F-35B V/STOL variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is under development.\n\nDevelopment\n\nOrigins\n\nThe Harrier's design was derived from the Hawker P.1127. Prior to developing the P.1127 Hawker Aircraft had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter, the Hawker P.1121. The P.1121 was cancelled after the release of the British Government's 1957 Defence White Paper, which advocated a policy shift away from manned aircraft and towards missiles. This policy resulted in the termination of the majority of aircraft development projects then underway for the British military.Jefford 2006, p. 11. Hawker sought to quickly move on to a new project and became interested in Vertical Take Off/Landing (VTOL) aircraft, which did not need runways. According to Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine this interest may have been stimulated by the presence of Air Staff Requirement 345, which sought a V/STOL ground attack fighter for the Royal Air Force.Jefford 2006, pp. 11–12.\n\nDesign work on the P.1127 was formally started in 1957 by Sir Sydney Camm, Ralph Hooper of Hawker Aircraft, and Stanley Hooker (later Sir Stanley Hooker) of the Bristol Engine Company.Jefford 2006, pp. 26–27. The close cooperation between Hawker, the airframe company, and Bristol, the engine company, was viewed by project engineer Gordon Lewis as one of the key factors that allowed the development of the Harrier to continue in spite of technical obstacles and political setbacks.Jefford 2006, p. 23. Rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust, the P.1127 had an innovative vectored thrust turbofan engine, the Pegasus. The Pegasus I was rated at 9000 lb(f) of thrust and first ran in September 1959.Jefford 2006, p. 24. A contract for two development prototypes was signed in June 1960 and the first flight followed in October 1960. Of the six prototypes built three crashed—including one during an air display at the 1963 Paris Air Show. \n\nTripartite evaluation\n\nIn 1961 the United Kingdom, United States and West Germany jointly agreed to purchase nine aircraft developed from the P.1127, for the evaluation of the performance and potential of V/STOL aircraft. These aircraft were built by Hawker Siddeley and were designated Kestrel FGA.1 by the UK.Jefford 2006, p. 39. The Kestrel was strictly an evaluation aircraft and to save money the Pegasus 5 engine was not fully developed as intended, only having 15000 lb(f) of thrust instead of the projected 18200 lb(f). The Tripartite Evaluation Squadron numbered ten pilots; four each from the UK and US and two from West Germany. The Kestrel's first flight took place on 7 March 1964.Jefford 2006, p. 41.\n\nA total of 960 sorties had been made during the trials, including 1,366 takeoffs and landings, by the end of evaluations in November 1965. Jefford 2006, p. 47. One aircraft was destroyed in an accident and six others were transferred to the United States, assigned the US designation XV-6A Kestrel, and underwent further testing. The two remaining British-based Kestrels were assigned to further trials and experimentation at RAE Bedford with one being modified to use the uprated Pegasus 6 engine. \n\nP.1154\n\nAt the time of the development of the P.1127 Hawker and Bristol had also undertaken considerable development work on a supersonic version, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154, to meet a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) requirement issued for such an aircraft.Jefford 2006, p. 12. The design used a single Bristol Siddeley BS100 engine with four swivelling nozzles, in a fashion similar to the P.1127, and required the use of plenum chamber burning (PCB) to achieve supersonic speeds.Buttler 2000, pp. 119–120. The P.1154 won the competition to meet the requirement against strong competition from other aircraft manufacturers such as Dassault Aviation's Mirage IIIV. The French government did not accept the decision and withdrew; the NATO requirement was cancelled shortly after in 1965.Jefford 2006, pp. 12–13.\n\nThe Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy planned to develop and introduce the supersonic P.1154 independently of the cancelled NATO requirement. This ambition was complicated by the conflicting requirements between the two services—while the RAF wanted a low-level supersonic strike aircraft, the Navy sought a twin-engine air defence fighter.Jefford 2006, p. 13. Following the election of the Labour Government of 1964 the P.1154 was cancelled, as the Royal Navy had already begun procurement of the McDonnell Douglas Phantom II and the RAF placed a greater importance on the BAC TSR-2's ongoing development. Work continued on elements of the project, such as a supersonic PCB-equipped Pegasus engine, with the intention of developing a future Harrier variant for the decades following cancellation. \n\nProduction\n\nFollowing the collapse of the P.1154's development the RAF began considering a simple upgrade of the existing subsonic Kestrel and issued Requirement ASR 384 for a V/STOL ground attack jet. Hawker Siddeley received an order for six pre-production aircraft in 1965, designated P.1127 (RAF), of which the first made its maiden flight on 31 August 1966. An order for 60 production aircraft, designated as Harrier GR.1, was received in early 1967. The aircraft was named for the Harrier, a small bird of prey.\n\nThe Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967. It officially entered service with the RAF on 18 April 1969 when the Harrier Conversion Unit at RAF Wittering received its first aircraft. The aircraft were built in two factories—one in Kingston upon Thames, southwest London, and the other at Dunsfold Aerodrome, Surrey—and underwent initial testing at Dunsfold.Nordeen 2006, p. 66. The ski-jump technique for launching Harriers from Royal Navy aircraft carriers was extensively trialled at RNAS Yeovilton from 1977. Following these tests ski-jumps were added to the flight decks of all RN carriers from 1979 onwards, in preparation for the new variant for the navy, the Sea Harrier. \n\nIn the late 1960s the British and American governments held talks on producing Harriers in the United States. Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas formed a partnership in 1969 in preparation for American production,Nordeen 2006, p. 28. but Congressman Mendel Rivers and the House Appropriations Committee held that it would be cheaper to produce the AV-8A on the pre-existing production lines in the United Kingdom—hence all AV-8A Harriers were purchased from Hawker Siddeley. Improved Harrier versions with better sensors and more powerful engines were developed in later years. The USMC received 102 AV-8A and 8 TAV-8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976.Nordeen 2006, p. 31.\n\nDesign\n\nOverview\n\nThe Harrier was typically used as a ground attack aircraft, though its manoeuvrability also allows it to effectively engage other aircraft at short ranges.Brown 1970, p. 71. The Harrier is powered by a single Pegasus turbofan engine mounted in the fuselage. The engine is fitted with two air intakes and four vectoring nozzles for directing the thrust generated: two for the bypass flow and two for the jet exhaust. Several small reaction nozzles are also fitted, in the nose, tail and wingtips, for the purpose of balancing during vertical flight.Brown 1970, p. 81. It has two landing gear units on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear units, one near each wing tip.Brown 1970, p. 80. The Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying a variety of weapons and external fuel tanks.Spick 2000, pp. 364–371.\n\nThe Kestrel and the Harrier were similar in appearance, though approximately 90 per cent of the Kestrel's airframe was redesigned for the Harrier. The Harrier was powered by the more powerful Pegasus 6 engine; new air intakes with auxiliary blow-in doors were added to produce the required airflow at low speed. Its wing was modified to increase area and the landing gear was strengthened. Several hardpoints were installed, two under each wing and one underneath the fuselage; two 30 mm ADEN cannon gun pods could also be fitted to the underside of the fuselage. The Harrier was outfitted with updated avionics to replace the basic systems used in the Kestrel; a navigational-attack system incorporating an inertial navigation system, originally for the P.1154, was installed and information was presented to the pilot by a head-up display and a moving map display. \n\nThe Harrier's VTOL abilities allowed it to be deployed from very small prepared clearings or helipads as well as normal airfields. It was believed that, in a high-intensity conflict, air bases would be vulnerable and likely to be quickly knocked out. The capability to scatter Harrier squadrons to dozens of small \"alert pads\" on the front lines was highly prized by military strategists and the USMC procured the aircraft because of this ability. Hawker Siddeley noted that STOL operation provided additional benefits over VTOL operation, saving fuel and allowing the aircraft to carry more ordnance.Brown 1970, p. 83.\n\n\"I still don't believe the Harrier. Think of the millions that have been spent on VTO in America and Russia, and quite a bit in Europe, and yet the only vertical take-off aircraft which you can call a success is the Harrier. When I saw the Harrier hovering and flying backwards under control, I reckoned I'd seen everything. And it's not difficult to fly.\" -Thomas Sopwith \n\nThe Harrier, while serving for many decades in various forms, has been criticised on multiple issues; in particular a high accident rate, though Nordeen notes that several conventional single-engine strike aircraft like the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and LTV A-7 Corsair II had worse accident rates.Nordeen 2006, p. 155. The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier \"...has amassed the highest major accident rate of any military plane now in service. Forty-five Marines have died in 148 noncombat accidents\". Colonel Lee Buland of the USMC declared the maintenance of a Harrier to be a \"challenge\"; the need to remove the wings before performing most work upon the engine, including engine replacements, meant the Harrier required considerable man-hours in maintenance, more than most aircraft. Buland noted however that the maintenance difficulties were unavoidable in order to create a V/STOL aircraft.Nordeen 2006, p. 118.\n\nEngine\n\nThe Pegasus turbofan jet engine, developed in tandem with the P.1127 then the Harrier, was designed specifically for V/STOL manoeuvring. Bristol Siddeley developed it from their earlier conventional Orpheus turbofan engine as the core with Olympus compressor blades for the fan. The engine's thrust is directed through the four rotatable nozzles. The engine is equipped for water injection to increase thrust and takeoff performance in hot and high altitude conditions; in normal V/STOL operations the system would be used in landing vertically with a heavy weapons load. The water injection function had originally been added following the input of US Air Force Colonel Bill Chapman, who worked for the Mutual Weapons Development Team.Jefford 2006, p. 27. Water injection was necessary in order to generate maximum thrust, if only for a limited time, and was typically used during landing, especially in high ambient temperatures.\n\nThe aircraft was initially powered by the Pegasus 6 engine which was replaced by the more powerful Pegasus 11 during the Harrier GR.1 to GR.3 upgrade process. The primary focus throughout the engine's development was on achieving high performance with as little weight as possible,Gunston 1977, p. 189. tempered by the amount of funding that was available. Following the Harrier's entry to service the focus switched to improving reliability and extending engine life;Gunston 1977, p. 190. a formal joint US–UK Pegasus Support Program operated for many years and spent a £3-million annual budget to develop engine improvements. Several variants have been released; the latest is the Pegasus 11–61 (Mk 107), which provides 23,800 lbf (106 kN) thrust, more than any previous engine. \n\nControls and handling\n\nThe Harrier has been described by pilots as \"unforgiving\". The aircraft is capable of both forward flight (where it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed-wing aircraft above its stall speed), as well as VTOL and STOL manoeuvres (where the traditional lift and control surfaces are useless) requiring skills and technical knowledge usually associated with helicopters. Most services demand great aptitude and extensive training for Harrier pilots, as well as experience in piloting both types of aircraft. Trainee pilots are often drawn from highly experienced and skilled helicopter pilots.\n\nIn addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles. It is viewed by senior RAF officers as a significant design success, that to enable and control the aircraft's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit.Jefford 2006, p. 42. For horizontal flight, the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings, the lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downwards. Jenkins 1998, p. 25.\n\nThe Harrier has two control elements not found in conventional fixed-wing aircraft: the thrust vector and the reaction control system. The thrust vector refers to the slant of the four engine nozzles and can be set between 0° (horizontal, pointing directly backwards) and 98° (pointing down and slightly forwards). The 90° vector is normally deployed for VTOL manoeuvring. The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter. While irrelevant during forward flight mode, these controls are essential during VTOL and STOL manoeuvres.Jefford 2006, p. 36.\n\nThe wind direction is a critical factor in VTOL manoeuvres. The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind. The thrust vector is set to 90° and the throttle is brought up to maximum, at which point the aircraft leaves the ground. The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude. The short-takeoff procedure involves proceeding with normal takeoff and then applying a thrust vector (less than 90°) at a runway speed below normal takeoff speed; usually the point of application is around 65 kn. For lower takeoff speeds the thrust vector is greater. The reaction control system involves a thrusters at key points in the aircraft's fuselage and nose, also the wingtips. Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control and correct the aircraft's pitch and roll during vertical flight. \n\nRotating the vectored thrust nozzles into a forward-facing position during normal flight is called vectoring in forward flight, or \"VIFFing\". This is a dog-fighting tactic, allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates. Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier it was chasing, a combat technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s.Nordeen 2006, pp. 33–34.Spick 2000, pp. 382–383.\n\nDifferences between versions\n\nThe two largest users of the Harrier were the Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps (USMC). The exported model of the aircraft operated by the USMC was designated the AV-8A Harrier, which was broadly similar to the RAF's Harrier GR.1. Changes included the removal of all magnesium components, which corroded quickly at sea, and the integration of American radios and Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems; furthermore the outer pylons, unlike the RAF aircraft, were designed from delivery to be equipped with self-defence AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking air-to-air missiles. Most of the AV-8As had been delivered with the more powerful Pegasus engine used in the GR.3 instead of the one used in the earlier GR.1. Two-seat Harriers were operated for training purposes; the body was stretched and a taller tail fin added. The RAF trained in the T.2 and T.4 versions, while T.4N and T.8 were training versions the Navy's Sea Harrier, with appropriate fittings. The US and Spain flew the TAV-8A and TAV-8S, respectively. Nordeen 2006, p. 14.\n\nAll RAF GR.1s and the initial AV-8As were fitted with the Ferranti FE541 inertial navigation/attack suite, but these were replaced in the USMC Harriers by a simpler Interface/Weapon Aiming Computer to aid quick turnaround between missions. The Martin-Baker ejection seats were also replaced by the Stencel SEU-3A in the American aircraft. The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to the GR.3 standard, which featured improved sensors, a nose-mounted laser tracker, the integration of electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems and a further upgraded Pegasus Mk 103. The USMC upgraded their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration; this programme involved the installation of ECM equipment and adding a new inertial navigation system to the aircraft's avionics. Substantial changes were the Lift Improvement Devices, to increase VTOL performance; at the same time several airframe components were restored or replaced to extend the life of the aircraft. Spain's Harriers, designated AV-8S or VA.1 Matador for the single-seater and TAV-8S or VAE.1 for the two-seater, were almost identical to USMC Harriers differing only in the radios fitted. \n\nThe Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm (FAA) operated a substantially modified variant of the Harrier, the British Aerospace Sea Harrier. The Sea Harrier was not intended for ground-attack duties and, unlike the standard Harrier, was equipped with radar and Sidewinder missiles for air combat duties and fleet air defence. The Sea Harrier was also fitted with navigational aids for carrier landings, modifications to reduce corrosion and a raised bubble-canopy for greater visibility.Bull 2004, p. 120.Jenkins 1998, pp. 51–55. The aircraft were later equipped to use AIM-120 AMRAAM beyond-visual-range anti-aircraft missiles and the more advanced Blue Vixen radar for longer range air-to-air combat, as well as Sea Eagle missiles for conducting anti-ship missions.[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id\nBX7c6gVuyVQC&pgPA780&dq\nSea+Harrier&hlen&ei\nlNkfTJ2BDs6TOMXCya0M&saX&oi\nbook_result&ctresult&resnum\n3&ved0CDMQ6AEwAjgK#v\nonepage&qSea%20Harrier&f\nfalse \"Navy puts more punch in its Harriers\".] New Scientist, 98(1362), 16 June 1983, p. 780. Retrieved 31 July 2011.\n\nThe McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II is the latest Harrier variant, a second-generation series to replace the first generation of Harrier jets already in service; all the above variants of the Harrier have mainly been retired with the Harrier II taking their place in the RAF, USMC and FAA. In the 1970s the United Kingdom considered two options for replacing their existing Harriers: joining McDonnell Douglas (MDD) in developing the BAE Harrier II, or the independent development of a \"Big Wing\" Harrier. This proposal would have increased the wing area from 200 to, allowing for significant increases in weapons load and internal fuel reserves. The option of cooperation with MDD was chosen in 1982 over the more risky isolated approach. \n\nOperational history\n\nRoyal Air Force\n\nThe first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier GR.1, No. 1 Squadron, started to convert to the aircraft at RAF Wittering in April 1969. An early demonstration of the Harrier's capabilities was the participation of two aircraft in the Daily Mail Transatlantic Air Race in May 1969, flying between St Pancras railway station, London and downtown Manhattan with the use of aerial refuelling. The Harrier completed the journey in 6 hours 11 minutes. Two Harrier squadrons were established in 1970 at the RAF's air base in Wildenrath to be part of its air force in Germany; another squadron was formed there two years later. In 1977, these three squadrons were moved forward to the air base at Gütersloh, closer to the prospective front line in the event of an outbreak of a European war. One of the squadrons was disbanded and its aircraft distributed between the other two. \n\nIn RAF service, the Harrier was used in close air support (CAS), reconnaissance, and other ground-attack roles. The flexibility of the Harrier led to a long-term heavy deployment in West Germany as a conventional deterrent and potential strike weapon against Soviet aggression; from camouflaged rough bases the Harrier was expected to launch attacks on advancing armour columns from East Germany. Harriers were also deployed to bases in Norway and Belize, a former British colony.[http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/london/collections/aircraft/bae-harrier-gr3.cfm \"BAe Harrier GR3 Aircraft History – Post-World War Two Aircraft\".] RAF Museum. Retrieved: 4 March 2011. No. 1 Squadron was specifically earmarked for Norwegian operations in the event of war, operating as part of Allied Forces Northern Europe. The Harrier's capabilities were necessary in the Belize deployment, as it was the only RAF combat aircraft capable of safely operating from the airport's short runway; British forces had been stationed in Belize for several years due to tensions over a Guatemalan claim to Belizean territory; the forces were withdrawn in 1993, two years after Guatemala recognized the independence of Belize. \n\nIn the Falklands War in 1982, 10 Harrier GR.3s of No. 1 Squadron operated from the aircraft carrier .Duffner, Robert W. [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1984/mar-apr/duffner.html \"Conflict In The South Atlantic: The Impact of Air Power.\"] Air University Review, March–April 1984. Retrieved 31 July 2011. As the RAF Harrier GR.3 had not been designed for naval service, the 10 aircraft had to be rapidly modified prior to the departure of the task force. Special sealants against corrosion were applied and a new deck-based inertial guidance aid was devised to allow the RAF Harrier to land on a carrier as easily as the Sea Harrier. Transponders to guide aircraft back to the carriers during night-time operations were also installed, along with flares and chaff dispensers. \n\nAs there was little space on the carriers, two requisitioned merchant container ships, and , were modified with temporary flight decks and used to carry Harriers and helicopters to the South Atlantic. The Harrier GR.3s focused on providing close air support to the ground forces on the Falklands and attacking Argentine positions; suppressing enemy artillery was often a high priority.[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,951776-1,00.html \"That Magnificent Flying Machine.\"] Time, 7 June 1982. Retrieved 31 July 2011. Sea Harriers were also used in the war, primarily conducting fleet air defence and combat air patrols against the threat of attacking Argentine fighters.Corum, James S. [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj02/fal02/corum.html \"Argentine Airpower in the Falklands War.\"] Air & Space Power Journal, 20 August 2002. Retrieved 31 July 2011. However, both Sea Harriers and Harrier GR.3s were used in ground-attack missions against the main airfield and runway at Stanley. \n\nIf most of the Sea Harriers had been lost, the GR.3s would have replaced them in air patrol duties, even though the Harrier GR.3 was not designed for air defence operations; as such the GR.3s quickly had their outboard weapons pylons modified to take air-to-air Sidewinder missiles.Braybrook 1982, p. 15. From 10 to 24 May 1982, prior to British forces landing in the Falklands, a detachment of three GR.3s provided air defence for Ascension Island until three F-4 Phantom IIs arrived to take on this responsibility. During the Falklands War, the greatest threats to the Harriers were deemed to be surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and small arms fire from the ground. In total, four Harrier GR.3s and six Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire, accidents, or mechanical failure. More than 2,000 Harrier sorties were conducted during the conflict—equivalent to six sorties per day per aircraft. \n\nFollowing the Falklands war, British Aerospace explored the Skyhook, a new technique to operate Harriers from smaller ships. Skyhook would have allowed the launching and landing of Harriers from smaller ships by holding the aircraft in midair by a crane; secondary cranes were to hold weapons for rapid re-arming. This would potentially have saved fuel and allowed for operations in rougher seas. The system was marketed to foreign customers, and it was speculated that Skyhook could be applied to large submarines such as the Russian , but the system attracted no interest. \n\nThe first generation of Harriers did not see further combat with the RAF after the Falklands War, although they continued to serve for years afterwards. As a deterrent against further Argentine invasion attempts, No. 1453 Flight RAF was deployed to the Falkland Islands from August 1983 to June 1985.Sturtivant 2007, p. 123. However the second generation Harrier IIs saw action in Bosnia, Iraq, and Afghanistan. The first generation Hawker Siddeley airframes were replaced by the improved Harrier II, which had been developed jointly between McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace.Jenkins 1998, pp. 88–89.\n\nUnited States Marine Corps\n\nThe United States Marine Corps began showing a significant interest in the aircraft around the time the first RAF Harrier squadron was established in 1969, and this motivated Hawker Siddeley to further develop the aircraft to encourage a purchase. Although there were concerns in Congress about multiple coinciding projects in the close air support role, the Marine Corps were enthusiastic about the Harrier and managed to overcome efforts to obstruct its procurement. \n\nThe AV-8A entered service with the Marine Corps in 1971, replacing other aircraft in the Marines' attack squadrons. The service became interested in performing ship-borne operations with the Harrier. Admiral Elmo Zumwalt promoted the concept of a Sea Control Ship, a 15,000-ton light carrier equipped with Harriers and helicopters, to supplement the larger aircraft carriers of the US Navy. An amphibious assault ship, , was converted into the Interim Sea Control Ship and operated as such between 1971 and 1973 with the purpose of studying the limits and possible obstacles for operating such a vessel.Nordeen 2006, p. 33. Since then the Sea Control Ship concept has been subject to periodic re-examinations and studies, often in the light of budget cuts and questions over the use of supercarriers. \n\nOther exercises were performed to demonstrate the AV-8A's suitability for operating from various amphibious assault ships and aircraft carriers, including a deployment of 14 Harriers aboard for six months in 1976. The tests showed, amongst other things, that the Harrier was capable of performing in weather where conventional carrier aircraft could not. In support of naval operations, the USMC devised and studied several methods to further integrate the Harrier. One result was Arapaho, a stand-by system to rapidly convert civilian cargo ships into seagoing platforms for operating and maintaining a handful of Harriers, to be used to augment the number of available ships to deploy upon. \n\nWhen the reactivation of the s was under consideration, a radical design for a battleship-carrier hybrid emerged that would have replaced the ship's rear turret with a flight deck, complete with a hangar and two ski jumps, for operating several Harriers. However, the USMC considered the need for naval gunfire support to be a greater priority than additional platforms for carrier operations, while the cost and delay associated with such elaborate conversions was significant, and the concept was dropped. \n\nThe Marines Corps' concept for deploying the Harriers in a land-based expeditionary role focused on aggressive speed. Harrier forward bases and light maintenance facilities were to be set up in under 24 hours on any prospective battle area. The forward bases, containing one to four aircraft, were to be located 20 mi from the forward edge of battle (FEBA), while a more established permanent airbase would be located around 50 mi from the FEBA. The close proximity of forward bases allowed for a far greater sortie rate and reduced fuel consumption.\n\nThe AV-8A's abilities in air-to-air combat were tested by the Marine Corps by conducting mock dogfights with McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs; these exercises trained pilots to use the vectoring-in-forward-flight (VIFF) capability to outmanoeuvre their opponents and showed that the Harriers could act as effective air-to-air fighters at close range. The success of Harrier operations countered scepticism of V/STOL aircraft, which had been judged to be expensive failures in the past. Marine Corps officers became convinced of the military advantages of the Harrier and pursued extensive development of the aircraft. \n\nStarting in 1979 the USMC began upgrading their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration—the work focused mainly on extending useful service lives and improving VTOL performance.Nordeen 2006, p. 35. The AV-8C and the remaining AV-8A Harriers were retired by 1987. These were replaced by the Harrier II, designated as the AV-8B, which was introduced into service in 1985.Nordeen 2006, pp. 36, 61. The performance of the Harrier in USMC service led to calls for the United States Air Force to procure Harrier IIs in addition to the USMC's own plans,Bingham, Price T. [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1985/jan-feb/bingham.html \"Improving Force Flexibility Through V/STOL\".] Air University Review, January–February 1985. Retrieved 31 July 2011. but these never resulted in Air Force orders. Since the late 1990s, the AV-8B has been slated to be replaced by the F-35B variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, a more modern V/STOL jet aircraft. \n\nLike the next generation AV-8Bs, nevertheless, the AV-8A/C Harriers suffered many accidents, with around 40 aircraft lost and some 30 pilots killed during '70 and '80s.[http://articles.latimes.com/2002/dec/17/nation/na-wall17 \"More Than a Few Good Men.\"] \n\nOther operators\n\nDue to the Harrier's unique characteristics it attracted a large amount of interest from other nations, often as attempts to make their own V/STOL jets were unsuccessful, such as in the cases of the American XV-4 Hummingbird and the German VFW VAK 191B. Operations by the USMC aboard in 1981 and by British Harriers and Sea Harriers in the Falklands War proved that the aircraft were highly effective in combat. These operations also demonstrated that \"Harrier Carriers\" provided a powerful presence at sea without the expense of big deck carriers. \n\nFollowing the display of Harrier operations from small carriers, the navies of Spain and later Thailand bought the Harrier for use as their main carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft. Spain's purchase of Harriers was complicated by long-standing political friction between the British and Spanish governments of the era; even though the Harriers were manufactured in the UK they were sold to Spain with the US acting as an intermediary. During tests in November 1972, the British pilot John Farley showed that the wooden deck of Daedalus was able to withstand the temperature of the gases generated by the Harrier. Since 1976, the Spanish Navy operated the AV-8S Matador from their aircraft carrier (formerly the ); the aircraft provided both air defence and strike capabilities for the Spanish fleet. Spain later purchased five Harriers directly from the British government to replace losses.Jenkins 1998, pp. 48–49.\n\nHawker Siddeley aggressively marketed the Harrier for export. At one point the company was holding talks with Australia, Brazil, Switzerland, India and Japan. Of these only India became a customer, purchasing the Sea Harrier. At one point China came very close to becoming an operator of the first generation Harrier. Following an overture by the UK in the early 1970s, when relations with the West were warming, China became interested in the aircraft as it sought to modernise its armed forces; British Prime Minister James Callaghan noted significant hostility from the USSR over the sales bid. The deal was later cancelled by the UK as part of a diplomatic backlash after China invaded Vietnam in 1979. \n\nThe Spanish Navy, Thai Navy, Royal Air Force, and United States Marine Corps have all retired their first-generation Harriers. Spain sold seven single-seat and two twin-seat Harriers to Thailand in 1998.Nordeen 2006, p. 183. The Royal Thai Navy's AV-8S Matadors were delivered as part of the air wing deployed on the new light aircraft carrier .Nordeen 2006, p. 164. The Thai Navy had from the start significant logistical problems keeping the Harriers operational due to a shortage of funds for spare parts and equipment, leaving only a few Harriers serviceable at a time. In 1999, two years after being delivered, only one airframe was in airworthy condition. Around 2003, Thailand considered acquiring former Royal Navy Sea Harriers, which were more suitable for maritime operations and better equipped for air defence, to replace their AV-8S Harriers; this investigation did not progress to a purchase. The last first-generation Harriers were retired by Thailand in 2006. \n\nVariants\n\n;Harrier GR.1, GR.1A, GR.3 : Single-seat versions for the RAF. The RAF ordered 118 of the GR.1/GR.3 series, with the last production aircraft delivery in December 1986. 122 built.Mason 1991, pp. 421–432.\n;AV-8A, AV-8C Harrier : Single-seat versions for the US Marine Corps. The USMC ordered 102 AV-8As (company designation: Harrier Mk. 50). The AV-8C was an upgrade to the AV-8A. 110 built.\n;AV-8S Matador : Export version of the AV-8A Harrier for the Spanish Navy, who designated them as VA-1 Matador. 10 built.\n\n;Harrier T.2, T.2A, T.4, T.4A: Two-seat training versions for the RAF, with a stretched body and taller tail fin. 25 built.\n;Harrier T.4N, T.8, T.60: Two-seat training versions for the Royal Navy and Indian Navy with avionics based on the Sea Harrier.\n;TAV-8A Harrier : Two-seat training version for the USMC, powered by a Pegasus Mk 103. \n;TAV-8S Matador : Two-seat training version for the Spanish Navy and later sold to the Royal Thai Navy.\n\nOperators\n\n; \n* Royal Thai Navy\n\n; \n* Indian Navy\n\n; \n* Spanish Navy\n\n; \n* Royal Air Force\n* Royal Navy\n\n; \n* United States Marine Corps\n\nAircraft on display\n\nCanada\n\n;AV-8A\n158966 - Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Ontario. \n\nGermany\n\n;GR.1\nXV278 - Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, Gatow. \n;GR.3\nXZ998 - Flugausstellung Leo Junior at Hermeskeil. \n\nPoland\n\n;GR.3\nXW919 - Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Poland. \n\nNew Zealand\n\n;GR.3\nXZ129 - Ashburton Aviation Museum, Ashburton, New Zealand. \n\nUnited Kingdom\n\n;GR.1\nXV277 - National Museum of Flight, East Fortune. \n;GR.3\nXV744 - Tangmere Military Aviation Museum, Chichester, West Sussex. \nXV748 - Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington. \nXV751 - Gatwick Aviation Museum, Surrey. \nXV752 - South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, Doncaster, South Yorkshire. \nXV753 - Classic Air Force, St Mawgan, Newquay, Cornwall. \nXV779 - RAF Wittering (Gate Guardian). \nXZ133 - Imperial War Museum, Duxford. \nXZ968 - Muckleburgh Collection, Norfolk. \nXZ997 - RAF Museum, Hendon. \nZD667 - [http://www.bcwm.org.uk/ Bentwaters Cold War Museum], Suffolk. \n;Mk.52 G-VTOL\nZA250 - Brooklands Museum, Surrey. \n;T.2\nXW269 - Airworld Aviation Museum Caernarfon Wales\n;T.4\nXW934 - Farnborough Air Sciences Trust, Farnborough, Hampshire. \n;AV-8A\n159233 - Imperial War Museum North\n\nUnited States\n\n;AV-8A\n158695 - Air Park, Yuma MCAS, Yuma, Arizona. \n159239 - San Diego Air and Space Museum, San Diego, California. \n158963 - Craven County Regional Airport, Grantham, North Carolina. \t\n158976 - City of Havelock, Havelock, North Carolina. \n;TAV-8A \n159381 - Oakland Aviation Museum, Oakland, California. \n159382 - Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona. \n;AV-8C\n158387 - Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, San Diego, California. \n158710 - Quonset Air Museum, North Kingstown, Rhode Island. \n158959 - Pacific Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa, California. \n158975 - National Naval Aviation Museum, NAS Pensacola, Pensacola, Florida. \n158977 - Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington. \n159232 - Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum, New York City, New York. \n159238 - Hangar 25 Museum, Webb AFB (formerly), Big Spring, Texas. \n159241 - Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona. \n159247 - Naval Inventory Control Point (NAVICP) Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. \n159249 - United States Naval Museum of Armament and Technology, NCC China Lake (North), Ridgecrest, California. \n\nSpecifications (Harrier GR.3)\n\nPopular culture" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Vertical Takeoff and Landing", "VATOL", "Heli-Jet", "Vertical takeoff and landing aircraft", "VTAL", "Vertical takeoff and landing", "Vertical take off and landing", "Jump jet", "Vtol Airplane", "VTOL", "Vertical takeoff and landing craft", "Vertical Take-Off and Landing", "Jump Jet", "VTOLs", "Vertical take-off and landing", "VTOVL", "Vertical Take-Off Vertical Landing", "Verticle Takeoff Or Landing", "VTOL aircraft", "Vertical lift aircraft" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "heli jet", "vertical takeoff and landing craft", "vertical take off vertical landing", "jump jet", "vtol aircraft", "vertical lift aircraft", "vtovl", "vertical takeoff and landing aircraft", "vertical takeoff and landing", "vtol", "vatol", "vtols", "vtol airplane", "vertical take off and landing", "vtal", "verticle takeoff or landing" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "jump jet", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Jump Jet" }
What does Volkswagen actually mean?	tc_1375	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Volkswagen.txt" ], "title": [ "Volkswagen" ], "wiki_context": [ "Volkswagen AG (VW;) () is a German car manufacturer headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Established in 1937, Volkswagen is the top-selling and namesake marque of the Volkswagen Group, the holding company created in 1975 for the growing company, and is now the second-largest automaker in the world. \n\nVolkswagen has three cars in the top 10 list of best-selling cars of all time compiled by the website 24/7 Wall St.: the Volkswagen Golf, the Volkswagen Beetle, and the Volkswagen Passat. With these three cars, Volkswagen has the most cars of any automobile manufacturer in the list that are still being manufactured, which includes model names that span multiple revisions and generations. \n\nVolkswagen translates as \"People's Automobile\" in German. The company's current international slogan is \"Volkswagen\". In North America, the pronunciation is Americanized to the approximate \"folks-wagon\" (). \n\nHistory\n\n1932–1938: People's Car project\n\nVolkswagen was originally created in 1936 by the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront). In the early 1930s, the German auto industry was still largely composed of luxury models, and the average German could rarely afford anything more than a motorcycle. As a result, only one German out of 50 owned a car. Seeking a potential new market, some car makers began independent \"peoples' car\" projects – the Mercedes 170H, Adler AutoBahn, Steyr 55, and Hanomag 1.3L, among others.\n\nThe trend was not new, as Béla Barényi is credited with having conceived the basic design in the mid-1920s. Josef Ganz developed the Standard Superior (going as far as advertising it as the \"German Volkswagen\"). In Germany the company Hanomag mass-produced the 2/10 PS \"Komissbrot\", a small, cheap rear engined car, from 1925 to 1928. Also, in Czechoslovakia, the Hans Ledwinka's penned Tatra T77, a very popular car amongst the German elite, was becoming smaller and more affordable at each revision. Ferdinand Porsche, a well-known designer for high-end vehicles and race cars, had been trying for years to get a manufacturer interested in a small car suitable for a family. He felt the small cars at the time were just stripped down big cars. Instead he built a car he called the \"Volksauto\" from the ground up in 1933, using many of the ideas floating around at the time and several of his own, putting together a car with an air-cooled rear engine, torsion bar suspension, and a \"beetle\" shape, the front hood rounded for better aerodynamics (necessary as it had a small engine).\n\nIn 1932, with many of the above projects still in development or early stages of production, Adolf Hitler got involved, ordering the production of a basic vehicle capable of transporting two adults and three children at 100 km/h. He wanted his German citizens to have the same access to a car as the Americans. The \"People's Car\" would be available to citizens of the Third Reich through a savings plan at 990 Reichsmark ($396 in 1930s U.S. dollars)—about the price of a small motorcycle (the average income being around 32RM a week). \n\nDespite heavy lobbying in favour of one of the existing projects, it soon became apparent that private industry could not turn out a car for only 990RM. Thus, Hitler chose to sponsor an all-new, state-owned factory using Ferdinand Porsche's design (with some of Hitler's design constraints, including an air-cooled engine so nothing could freeze). The intention was that ordinary Germans would buy the car by means of a savings scheme (\"\" – \"Five marks a week you must put aside, if you want to drive your own car\"), which around 336,000 people eventually paid into. However, the entire project was financially unsound, and only the corruption and lack of accountability of the Nazi regime made it possible. Tooze notes: \"Even if the war had not intervened, developments up to 1939 made clear that the entire conception of the 'people's car' was a disastrous flop.\" Tooze (2006) p.156).\n\nPrototypes of the car called the \"KdF-Wagen\" (German: Kraft durch Freude – \"strength through joy\"), appeared from 1938 onwards (the first cars had been produced in Stuttgart). The car already had its distinctive round shape and air-cooled, flat-four, rear-mounted engine. The VW car was just one of many KdF programs, which included things such as tours and outings. The prefix Volks— (\"People's\") was not just applied to cars, but also to other products in Germany; the \"Volksempfänger\" radio receiver for instance. On 28 May 1936, the Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH (sometimes abbreviated to Gezuvor ) was established by the Deutsche Arbeitsfront. It was later renamed \"Volkswagenwerk GmbH\" on 16 September 1937. \n\nErwin Komenda, the longstanding Auto Union chief designer, part of Ferdinand Porsche's hand-picked team, developed the car body of the prototype, which was recognizably the Beetle known today. It was one of the first cars designed with the aid of a wind tunnel—a method used for German aircraft design since the early 1920s. The car designs were put through rigorous tests, and achieved a record-breaking million miles of testing before being deemed finished.\n\nThe building of the new factory started 26 May 1938 in the new town of KdF-Stadt (modern-day Wolfsburg), which had been purpose-built for the factory workers. This factory had only produced a handful of cars by the time war started in 1939. None were actually delivered to any holder of the completed saving stamp books, though one Type 1 Cabriolet was presented to Hitler on 20 April 1944 (his 55th birthday).\n\nWar changed production to military vehicles—the Type 82 Kübelwagen (\"Bucket car\") utility vehicle (VW's most common wartime model), and the amphibious Schwimmwagen—manufactured for German forces. As was common with much of the production in Nazi Germany during the war, slave labor was utilized in the Volkswagen plant, e.g. from Arbeitsdorf concentration camp. The company would admit in 1998 that it used 15,000 slaves during the war effort. German historians estimated that 80% of Volkswagen's wartime workforce was slave labor. Many of the slaves were reported to have been supplied from the concentration camps upon request from plant managers. A lawsuit was filed in 1998 by survivors for restitution for the forced labor. Volkswagen would set up a voluntary restitution fund. \n\n1945–1948: British Army intervention, unclear future\n\nThe company owes its post-war existence largely to one man, War-time British Army officer Major Ivan Hirst, REME. In April 1945, KdF-Stadt and its heavily bombed factory were captured by the Americans, and subsequently handed over to the British, within whose occupation zone the town and factory fell. The factories were placed under the control of Oldham-born Hirst, by then a civilian Military Governor with the occupying forces. At first, one plan was to use it for military vehicle maintenance, and possibly dismantle and ship it to Britain. Since it had been used for military production, (though not of KdF-Wagens) and had been in Hirst's words, a \"political animal\" rather than a commercial enterprise — technically making it liable for destruction under the terms of the Potsdam Agreement — the equipment could have been salvaged as war reparations. (Allied dismantling policy changed in late 1946 to mid-1947, though heavy industry continued to be dismantled until 1951.)\n\nOne of the factory's War-time 'KdF-Wagen' cars had been taken to the factory for repairs and abandoned there. Hirst had it repainted green and demonstrated it to British Army headquarters. Short of light transport, in September 1945 the British Army was persuaded to place a vital order for 20,000 cars. However, production facilities had been massively disrupted, there was a refugee crisis at and around the factory and some parts (such as carburetors) were unavailable. With striking humanity and great engineering and management ingenuity, Hirst and his German assistant Heinrich Nordhoff (who went on to run Wolfsberg after Military Government ended in 1949) helped to stabilize the acute social situation while simultaneously re-establishing production. Hirst, for example, used his fine engineering experience to arrange the manufacture of carburetors, the original producers being effectively 'lost' in the Russian zone. The first few hundred cars went to personnel from the occupying forces, and to the German Post Office. Some British Service personnel were allowed to take their Beetles back to the United Kingdom when they were demobilised.\n\nIn 1986, Hirst explained how it was commonly misunderstood that he had run Wolfsburg as a British Army Major. The defeated German staff, he said, were initially sullen and unresponsive, having been conditioned by many years of Nazism and they were sometimes unresponsive to orders. At Nordhoff's suggestion, he sent back to England for his officer's uniform and from then on, had no difficulty in having his instructions followed. Hirst can be seen photographed at Wolfsburg in his uniform, although he was not actually a soldier at the time but a civilian member of the Military Government. The title of 'Major' was sometimes used by someone who had left the Army as a courtesy title. In fact, Hirst chose not to do so.\n\nThe post-war Industrial plans for Germany set out rules that governed which industries Germany was allowed to retain. These rules set German car production at a maximum of 10% of 1936 car production. By 1946, the factory produced 1,000 cars a month—a remarkable feat considering it was still in disrepair. Owing to roof and window damage, production had to stop when it rained, and the company had to barter new vehicles for steel for production.\n\nThe car and its town changed their Second World War-era names to \"Volkswagen\" and \"Wolfsburg\" respectively, and production increased. It was still unclear what was to become of the factory. It was offered to representatives from the American, Australian, British, and French motor industries. Famously, all rejected it. After an inspection of the plant, Sir William Rootes, head of the British Rootes Group, told Hirst the project would fail within two years, and that the car \"...is quite unattractive to the average motorcar buyer, is too ugly and too noisy ... If you think you're going to build cars in this place, you're a bloody fool, young man.\" The official report said \"To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise.\" In an ironic twist of fate, Volkswagen manufactured a locally built version of Rootes's Hillman Avenger in Argentina in the 1980s, long after Rootes had gone bankrupt at the hands of Chrysler in 1978—the Beetle outliving the Avenger by over 30 years.\n\nFord representatives were equally critical. In March 1948, the British offered the Volkswagen company to Ford, free of charge. Henry Ford II, the son of Edsel Ford, traveled to West Germany for discussions. Heinz Nordhoff was also present, and Ernest Breech, chairman of the board for Ford Motor Company. Henry Ford II looked to Ernest Breech for his opinion, and Breech said, \"Mr. Ford, I don't think what we're being offered here is worth a dime!\" Ford passed on the offer, leaving Volkswagen to rebuild itself under Nordhoff's leadership.\n\n1948–1961: Icon of post war West German regeneration\n\nFrom 1948, Volkswagen became an important element, symbolically and economically, of West German regeneration. Heinrich Nordhoff (1899–1968), a former senior manager at Opel who had overseen civilian and military vehicle production in the 1930s and 1940s, was recruited to run the factory in 1948. In 1949, Major Hirst left the company—now re-formed as a trust controlled by the West German government and government of the State of Lower Saxony. Apart from the introduction of the Volkswagen Type 2 commercial vehicle (van, pick-up and camper), and the VW Karmann Ghia sports car, Nordhoff pursued the one-model policy until shortly before his death in 1968.\n\nVolkswagens were first exhibited and sold in the United States in 1949, but sold only two units in America that first year. On entry to the U.S. market, the VW was briefly sold as a Victory Wagon. Volkswagen of America was formed in April 1955 to standardise sales and service in the United States. Production of the Type 1 Volkswagen Beetle increased dramatically over the years, the total reaching one million in 1955.\n\nThe UK's first official Volkswagen Importer, Colborne Garages of Ripley, Surrey, started with parts for the models brought home by soldiers returning from Germany.\n\nCanadian Motors, Limited brought in Canada's first shipment of Volkswagens on 10 July 1952 (shipping order 143075). The order consisted of 12 vehicles, (3) model 11C, a black, green, and sandcolor (3) 11GS, a chestnut brown and two azure blue, (2) 24A-M51 in red, (1)21A in blue, (1) 23A in blue, (1) 22A beige color, and one ambulance. Volkswagens were seen in Canada for the first time at the Canadian National Exhibition in August 1952 and were accepted enthusiastically. (At least one Type 2 bus from this order still exists, and is currently in France undergoing restoration.) The first shipment for Volkswagen Canada reached Toronto in early December 1952. (At least one Type 1 from this first shipment still exists, and was driven on a nationwide tour for Volkswagen Canada's 60th year of business festivities in 2012.) By 1955, sales were on a basis that warranted the building of the Volkswagen plant on a 32 acre site on Scarboro's Golden Mile. To this, a 60000 sqft building with administration, showrooms, service, repairs and parts, an addition of 60000 sqft was built in 1957, with storage for $4,000,000 of parts. (See 1959 Canadian Register of Commerce & Industry held in the Western Libraries at the University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario.)\n\nSales soared—thanks in part to the famous advertising campaigns by New York advertising agency Doyle, Dane Bernbach. Led by art director Helmut Krone, and copywriters Julian Koenig and Bob Levinson, Volkswagen advertisements became as popular as the car, using crisp layouts and witty copy to lure the younger, sophisticated consumers with whom the car became associated. Even though it was almost universally known as the Beetle (or the Bug), it was never officially labelled as such by the manufacturer, instead referred to as the Type 1.\n\nAlthough the car was becoming outdated, during the 1960s and early 1970s, American exports, innovative advertising, and a growing reputation for reliability helped production figures surpass the levels of the previous record holder, the Ford Model T. On 17 February 1972 the 15,007,034th Beetle was sold. Volkswagen could now claim the world production record for the most-produced, single make of car in history. By 1973, total production was over 16 million.\n\nTo commemorate its passing the Ford Model T's record sales mark and its victories in the Baja 1000 Mexican races from 1967 to 1971, Volkswagen produced its first limited-edition Beetle. It was marketed as the \"Baja Champion SE\" in the United States and the \"Marathon\" Superbeetle in the rest of the world. It featured unique \"Marathon Blau\" metallic blue paint, steel-pressed 10-spoke 15-inch (38 cm) magnesium-alloy wheels, a commemorative metal plate mounted on the glovebox and a certificate of authenticity presented to the original purchaser. Dealer-installed options for this limited-edition Superbeetle included the following: white stripes running the length of the rocker-panel, a special shifter knob, bumper overriders, tapered exhaust tips, fake walnut inserts in the dashboard (behind the steering wheel and the glovebox cover) as well as Bosch fog lights mounted on the front bumper.\n\n1961–1973: Beetle to Golf\n\nVW expanded its product line in 1961 with the introduction of four Type 3 models (Karmann Ghia, Notchback, Fastback, and Squareback) based on the new Type 3 mechanical underpinnings, and again in 1969 with the larger Type 4 (411 and 412) models. These differed substantially from previous vehicles, with the notable introduction of monocoque/unibody construction, the option of a fully automatic transmission, electronic fuel injection, and a sturdier powerplant. Volkswagen added a \"Super Beetle\" (the Type 131) to its lineup in 1971. The Type 131 differed from the standard Beetle in its use of a MacPherson strut front suspension instead of the usual torsion bars. The Super Beetle featured a new hooded, padded dash and curved windshield (from 1973 model year on up). Rack and pinion steering replaced recirculating ball steering gears in model year 1974 and up. The front of the car was stretched 2 in to allow the spare tire to lie flat, and the combination of these two features increased the usable front luggage space. In 1973, Volkswagen introduced the military-themed Type 181, or \"Trekker\" in Europe, \"Thing\" in America, recalling the wartime Type 82. The military version was produced for the NATO-era German Army during the Cold War years of 1970 to 1979. The U.S. Thing version only sold for two years, 1973 and 1974.\n\nIn 1964, Volkswagen acquired Auto Union, and in 1969, NSU Motorenwerke AG (NSU). The former company owned the historic Audi brand, which had disappeared after the Second World War. VW ultimately merged Auto Union and NSU to create the modern Audi company, and would go on to develop it as its luxury vehicle marque. The purchase of Auto Union and NSU was a pivotal point in Volkswagen's history, as both companies yielded the technological expertise that proved necessary for VW to survive when demand for its air-cooled models went into decline.\n\nBy late 1972, Volkswagen had decided to cancel the nearly finished typ 266, a project for a mid-engined car to replace the Beetle, and to focus on front-wheel-drive, water-cooled cars. Rudolf Leiding, recently made head of Volkswagen, cited noise, heat, and servicing problems with the mid-engine layout, as well as the difficulty of making it a station wagon.\n\nVolkswagen was in serious trouble by 1973. The Type 3 and Type 4 models had sold in much smaller numbers than the Beetle and the NSU-based K70 also failed to woo buyers. Beetle sales had started to decline rapidly in European and North American markets. The company knew that Beetle production had to end, but faced a conundrum of how to replace it. VW's ownership of Audi/Auto Union proved beneficial. Its expertise in front-wheel drive, and water-cooled engines would help Volkswagen produce a credible Beetle successor. Audi influences paved the way for this new generation of Volkswagens: the Passat, Scirocco, Golf, and Polo.\n\nFirst in the series was the Volkswagen Passat (Dasher in the US), introduced in 1973, a fastback version of the Audi 80, using many identical body and mechanical parts. Estate/wagon versions were available in many markets. In Europe, the estate/wagon version dominated in market share for many years.\n\nIn spring 1974, the Scirocco followed. The coupe was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro. Based on the platform of the not yet released Golf, it was built at Karmann due to capacity constraints at Volkswagen.\n\nThe pivotal model emerged as the Volkswagen Golf in 1974, marketed in the United States and Canada as the Rabbit for the 1st generation (1975–1985) and 5th generation (2006–2009). Its angular styling was designed by the Italian Giorgetto Giugiaro). Its design followed trends for small family cars set by the 1959 Mini – the Golf had a transversely mounted, water-cooled engine in the front, driving the front wheels, and had a hatchback, a format that has dominated the market segment ever since. Beetle production at Wolfsburg ended upon the Golf's introduction. It continued in smaller numbers at other German factories (Hanover and Emden) until 1978, but mainstream production shifted to Brazil and Mexico.\n\nIn 1975, the Volkswagen Polo followed. It was a re-badged Audi 50, which was soon discontinued in 1978. The Polo became the base of the Volkswagen Derby, which was introduced 1977. The Derby was for all intents and purposes a three-box design of the Polo. After a second model generation, the Derby was discontinued in 1985, although the bodystyle lived on in the form of the polo classic/polo saloon until 1991.\n\nPassat, Scirocco, Golf, and Polo shared many character defining features, as well as parts and engines. They built the basis for Volkswagen's turn-around.\n\n1974–1990: Product line expansion\n\nWhile Volkswagen's range of cars soon became similar to that of other large European automakers, the Golf has been the mainstay of the Volkswagen lineup since its introduction, and the mechanical basis for several other cars of the company. There have been seven generations of the Volkswagen Golf, the first of which was produced from the summer of 1974 until the autumn of 1983 (sold as the Rabbit in the United States and Canada and as the Caribe in Latin America). Its chassis also spawned the Volkswagen Scirocco sport coupe, Volkswagen Jetta saloon/sedan, Volkswagen Golf Cabriolet convertible, and Volkswagen Caddy pick-up. North American production of the Rabbit commenced at the Volkswagen Westmoreland Assembly Plant near New Stanton, Pennsylvania in 1978. It would be produced in the United States as the Rabbit until the spring of 1984. The second-generation Golf hatchback/Jetta sedan ran from October 1983 until the autumn of 1991, and a North American version produced at Westmoreland Assembly went on sale at the start of the 1985 model year. The production numbers of the first-generation Golf has continued to grow annually in South Africa as the Citi Golf, with only minor modifications to the interior, engine and chassis, using tooling relocated from the New Stanton, Pennsylvania plant when that site began to build the Second Generation car.\n\nIn the 1980s, Volkswagen's sales in the United States and Canada fell dramatically, despite the success of models like the Golf elsewhere. The Japanese and the Americans were able to compete with similar products at lower prices. Sales in the United States were 293,595 in 1980, but by 1984 they were down to 177,709. The introduction of the second-generation Golf, GTI and Jetta models helped Volkswagen briefly in North America. Motor Trend named the GTI its Car of the Year for 1985, and Volkswagen rose in the J.D. Power buyer satisfaction ratings to eighth place in 1985, up from 22nd a year earlier. VW's American sales broke 200,000 in 1985 and 1986 before resuming the downward trend from earlier in the decade. Chairman Carl Hahn decided to expand the company elsewhere (mostly in developing countries), and the New Stanton, Pennsylvania factory closed on 14 July 1988. Meanwhile, four years after signing a cooperation agreement with the Spanish car maker SEAT in 1982, Hahn expanded the company by purchasing a majority share of SEAT up to 75% by the end of 1986, which VW bought outright in 1990. \n\nVolkswagen had entered the supermini market in 1975 with the Volkswagen Polo, a stylish and spacious three-door hatchback designed by Bertone. It was a strong seller in West Germany and most of the rest of Western Europe, being one of the first foreign small cars to prove popular in Britain. It had started out in 1974 as the Audi 50, which was only available in certain markets and was less popular. The Polo entered a market sector already being dominated by the Fiat 127 and Renault 5, and which before long would also include the Austin Metro and Ford Fiesta.\n\nThe second-generation Polo, launched in 1981 and sold as a hatchback and \"coupe\" (with the hatchback resembling a small estate car and the coupe being similar to a conventional hatchback), was an even greater success for Volkswagen. Its practicality, despite the lack of a five-door version, helped ensure even stronger sales than its predecessor, and it continued to sell well after a makeover in 1990, finally being replaced by an all-new version in 1994.\n\nAlso arriving in 1981 were the second generation of the larger Passat and a second generation of the Volkswagen Scirocco coupe. The original Scirocco had been launched in 1974 to compete with affordable four-seater coupes like the Ford Capri.\n\nAfter the launch of the MK2 Golf in 1983, the next major car launch was the third generation Passat at the beginning of 1988. Perhaps surprisingly, Volkswagen did not produce a hatchback version of this Passat, despite the rising popularity of the hatchback bodystyle throughout Europe. Just after launching the B3 Passat, Volkswagen launched the Corrado, replacement for the Scirocco, although the Scirocco remained in production until 1992.\n\n1991–1999\n\nIn 1991, Volkswagen launched the third-generation Golf, which was European Car of the Year for 1992. The Golf Mk3 and Jetta arrived in North America in 1993. The sedan version of the Golf was badged Vento in Europe, but remained Jetta in the U.S. The Scirocco and the later Corrado were both Golf-based coupés.\n\nIn 1994, Volkswagen unveiled the J Mays-designed Concept One, a \"retro\"-themed concept car with a resemblance to the original Beetle, based on the platform of the Polo. Due to a positive response to the concept, a production version was developed as the New Beetle, based on the Golf's larger platform. \n\nIn 1995 the Sharan was launched in Europe, the result of a joint venture with Ford, which also resulted in the Ford Galaxy and SEAT Alhambra. \n\nThe company's evolution of its model range was continued with the Golf Mk4, introduced at the end of 1997 (and in North America in 1999), its chassis spawned a host of other cars within the Volkswagen Group; the Volkswagen Bora (the sedan called Jetta in the U.S.), SEAT Toledo, SEAT León, Audi A3, Audi TT, and Škoda Octavia. Other main models during the decade include the Polo, a smaller car than the Golf, and the larger Passat for the segment above the Golf.\n\nIn 1998 the company launched the new Lupo city car. In 1999 they announced the first \"3-litre\" car, a lightweight version of the Lupo that could travel 100 km with only 3-litres of diesel—making it the world's most fuel efficient car at the time. \n\n2000–present: Further expansion\n\nVolkswagen began introducing an array of new models after Bernd Pischetsrieder became Volkswagen Group CEO (responsible for all Group brands) in 2002. The sixth-generation VW Golf was launched in 2008, came runner-up to the Opel/Vauxhall Insignia in the 2009 European Car of the Year, and has spawned several cousins: VW Jetta, VW Scirocco, SEAT León, SEAT Toledo, Škoda Octavia and Audi A3 hatchback ranges, as well as a new mini-MPV, the SEAT Altea. The GTI, a \"hot hatch\" performance version of the Golf, boasts a 2.0 L Turbocharged Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) direct injection engine. VW began marketing the Golf under the Rabbit name once again in the U.S. and Canada in 2006.\n\nThe sixth-generation Passat and the fifth-generation Jetta both debuted in 2005, and VW has announced plans to expand its lineup further by bringing back the Scirocco by 2008. Other models in Wolfgang Bernhard's (Volkswagen brand CEO) \"product offensive\" include the Tiguan mid-sized SUV in 2008 and a Passat Coupé. In November 2006 Bernd Pischetsrieder announced his resignation as Volkswagen Group CEO, and was replaced by Audi worldwide CEO Martin Winterkorn at the beginning of 2007.\n\nVolkswagen in 2005 maintained North American sales of 224,195. Momentum continued for fiscal 2006, as VW's North American sales for the year were 235,140 vehicles, a 4.9 percent increase over 2005, despite a slump in domestic North American manufacturer's sales. In conjunction with the introduction of new models, production location of Volkswagen vehicles also underwent great change. The 2007 Eos, a hardtop convertible, is produced in a new facility in Portugal. All Golfs/Rabbits and GTIs as of 2006 are manufactured in Wolfsburg, Germany, rather than VW's Mexican factory in Puebla, where Golfs and GTIs for the North American market were produced from 1989 to 1998, and the Brazilian factory in Curitiba, where Golfs and GTIs were produced from 1999 to 2006 (the Jetta has primarily been made in Mexico since 1989). VW is also in the process of reconfiguring an automotive assembly plant in Belgium. The new models and investments in manufacturing improvements were noticed immediately by automotive critics. Favorable reviews for VW's newest cars include the GTI being named by Consumer Reports as the top sporty car under $25,000, one of Car and Driver magazine's \"10 Best\" for 2007, Automobile Magazine's 2007 Car of the Year, as well as a 2008 Motor Trend comparison ranking the mid-size Passat first in its class.\n\nVolkswagen partnered with Daimler AG and other companies to market the BlueTec clean diesel technology on cars and trucks from Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, and other companies and brands. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, four of the ten most fuel-efficient vehicles available for sale in the U.S. are powered by Volkswagen diesel engines. Volkswagen has offered a number of its vehicles with a TDI (Turbocharged Direct Injection) engine, which lends class-leading fuel economy to several models. They were a three-way tie for 8th (TDI Beetle, TDI Golf, TDI Jetta) and ninth, the TDI Jetta Wagon. In addition, all Volkswagen TDI diesel engines produced from 1996 to 2006 can be driven on 100% biodiesel fuel. For the 2007 model year, however, strict U.S. government emissions regulations have forced VW to drop most diesels from their U.S. engine lineup, but a new lineup of diesel engines compatible to U.S. standards returned to the American market starting with Model Year 2009. These post-2009 Clean Diesel engines are limited to running on 5% (B5) biodiesel only to maintain Volkswagen's warranty. Volkswagen long resisted adding a SUV to its lineup, but relented with the introduction of the Touareg, made in partnership with Porsche, while they worked on the Porsche Cayenne and later the Audi Q7. Though acclaimed as a fine handling vehicle, the Touareg has been a modest seller at best, and it has been criticised by auto reviewers for its absence of a third-row seat, the relatively poor fuel economy, and the high vehicle mass. VW set plans to add a compact SUV with styling influences from the \"Concept A\" concept vehicle introduced at the 2006 Geneva Auto Show, and on 20 July 2006, VW announced that the new vehicle, called the Tiguan.\n\nSince the discontinuance of the T4 in 2003 and decision not to bring the T5 to the US market, Volkswagen, ironically, lacked a van in its North American lineup. To change this, Volkswagen launched the Volkswagen Routan, a badge-engineered Dodge Grand Caravan made for the American and Canadian markets, in 2008.\n\nIn September 2006, Volkswagen began offering the City Golf and City Jetta only for the Canadian market. Both models were originally the Mk4 Golf and Jetta but were later replaced with the Brazilian versions of the Golf Mk4 and Bora. Volkswagen's introduction of such models is seen as a test of the market for a subcompact and, if successful, may be the beginnings of a thriving subcompact market for Volkswagen.\n\nIn May 2011, Volkswagen completed Chattanooga Assembly in the US state of Tennessee. The facility has produced Volkswagen cars and SUVs specifically designed for North American markets, beginning with the Passat B7 in 2011. The company recently announced plans to expand further by investing $900 million to add floor space to the factory. \n\nThe VW XL1 began a limited production run in 2013. The XL1 is a lightweight and fuel efficient two-person vehicle (only 795 kg).\n\nThe CrossBlue (a placeholder name for an as-yet-unnamed large crossover SUV) begins production in late 2016, and aims to help end several years of losses for Volkswagen in the US, the world's second-largest auto market. \n\nOperations\n\nVolkswagen is the founding and namesake member of the Volkswagen Group, a large international corporation in charge of multiple car and truck brands, including Audi, SEAT, Lamborghini, Bentley, Bugatti, Scania, and Škoda. Volkswagen Group's global headquarters are located in Volkswagen's historic home of Wolfsburg, Germany.\n\nVolkswagen Group, as a unit, is currently Europe's largest automaker. For a long time, Volkswagen has had a market share over 20 percent. \n\nIn 2010, Volkswagen, posted record sales of 6.29 million vehicles, with its global market share at 11.4%. In 2008, Volkswagen became the third largest automaker in the world, and, as of 2012, Volkswagen is the second largest manufacturer worldwide. Volkswagen has aimed to double its US market share from 2% to 4% in 2014, and is aiming to become, sustainably, the world's largest car maker by 2018. Volkswagen Group's core markets include Germany and China. \n\nWorldwide presence\n\nVolkswagen has factories in many parts of the world, manufacturing or assembling vehicles for local markets. Volkswagen has manufacturing or assembly plants in Germany, Mexico, US, Slovakia, China, India, Indonesia, Russia, Malaysia, Brazil, Argentina, Portugal, Spain, Poland, Czech Republic, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and South Africa. In 2011, Volkswagen was named in the top 25 largest companies in the world by the Forbes Global 2000. \n\nVolkswagen is setting up a new factory in West Java, Indonesia, which started construction in mid-2013,. The investment into the new plant, which will produce large transporters and multivans, is valued at $140 million.\n\nAs of May 2014, Volkswagen is planning to start assembling certain engines in India to increase localisation from 70% to 90%. \n\nIn January 2016, Volkswagen announced launching a new factory in Algeria during a summit between Angela Merkel and Algerian Prime minister Abdelmalek Sellal. \n\nWork–life balance\n\nVolkswagen agreed in December 2011 to implement a rule passed by the company's works council aimed at improving work–life balance by restricting company email functionality on the firm's BlackBerry smartphones from 6:30 pm to 7:30 am. The change was a response to employees' complaints about high stress levels at work and the expectation that employees would immediately answer after-hours email from home. About 1,150 of Volkswagen's more than 190,000 employees are affected by the email restriction. \n\nRelationship with Porsche and the Volkswagen Law\n\nVolkswagen has always had a close relationship with Porsche, the Zuffenhausen-based sports car manufacturer founded in 1931 by Ferdinand Porsche, the original Volkswagen designer and Volkswagen company co-founder, hired by the leader of the Nazi Party Adolf Hitler for the project. The first Porsche car, the Porsche 64 of 1938, used many components from the Volkswagen Beetle. The 1948 Porsche 356 continued using many Volkswagen components, including a tuned engine, gearbox and suspension.\n\nThe two companies continued their collaboration in 1969 to make the VW-Porsche 914 and Porsche 914-6. (The 914-6 had a 6-cylinder Porsche engine, and the standard 914 had a Volkswagen engine.) Volkswagen and Porsche would collaborate again in 1976 on the Porsche 912-E (USA only) and the Porsche 924, which used many Audi components and was built at Audi's Neckarsulm facilities. The 924 was originally designated for AUDI. Most Porsche 944 models were built there, although they used far fewer VW components.\n\nThe Porsche Cayenne, introduced in 2002, shares its entire chassis with the Volkswagen Touareg and Audi Q7, and is built at the same Volkswagen factory in Bratislava that the other SUV's are built.\n\nIn September 2005, Porsche announced it would increase its 5% stake in Volkswagen to 20% at a cost of €3 billion, with the intention that the combined stakes of Porsche and the government of Lower Saxony would ensure that any hostile takeover by foreign investors would be impossible. Speculated suitors included DaimlerChrysler, BMW, and Renault. In July 2006, Porsche increased their ownership again to 25.1%.\n\nOn 4 March 2005, the European Commission brought an action against the Federal Republic of Germany before the European Court of Justice, claiming that the Volkswagen Law, which prevents any shareholder in Volkswagen from executing more than 20% of the total voting rights in the firm, was illegally restricting the flow of capital in Europe. On 13 February 2007, Advocate General Dámaso Ruiz-Jarabo Colomer submitted an opinion to the court in support of the action. This again opened the possibility of a hostile takeover of VW and so on 26 March of the same year Porsche took its holding of Volkswagen shares to 30.9%. Porsche formally announced in a press statement that it did not intend to take over Volkswagen, but intended the move to avoid a competitor's taking a large stake and to stop hedge funds from dismantling VW. As expected, on 22 October 2007, the European Court of Justice ruled in agreement with Ruiz-Jarabo and the law was struck down. In October 2007, the European Court of Justice ruled that the VW law was illegal because it was protectionist. At that time, Porsche held 31% of VW shares — although a smaller proportion of voting rights, due to the Volkswagen Law — and there had been speculation that Porsche would be interested in taking over VW if the law did not stand in its way. The court also prevented the government from appointing Volkswagen board members. The German government then rewrote the Volkswagen law, only to be sued again. In October 2013, the EU Court of Justice in Luxembourg ruled that the rewritten Volkswagen law \"complied in full\" with EU rules. \n\nOn 26 October 2008, Porsche revealed its plan to assume control of VW. As of that day, it held 42.6% of Volkswagen's ordinary shares and stock options on another 31.5%. Combined with the state of Lower Saxony's 20.1% stake, this left only 5.8% of shares on the market—mostly with index funds that could not legally sell. Hedge funds desperate to cover their short positions forced Volkswagen stock above one thousand euros per share, briefly making it the world's largest company by market capitalisation on 28 October 2008. By January 2009, Porsche had a 50.76% holding in Volkswagen AG, although the \"Volkswagen Law\" prevented it from taking control of the company. \n\nOn 6 May 2009, the two companies decided to join together, in a merger.\n\nOn 13 August, Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft's Supervisory Board signed the agreement to create an integrated automotive group with Porsche led by Volkswagen. The initial decision was for Volkswagen to take a 42.0% stake in Porsche AG by the end of 2009, and it would also see the family shareholders selling the automobile trading business of Porsche Holding Salzburg to Volkswagen. In October 2009 however, Volkswagen announced that its percentage in Porsche would be 49.9% for a cost of €3.9 billion (the 42.0% deal would have cost €3.3 billion). On 1 March 2011, Volkswagen has finalized the purchase of Porsche Holding Salzburg (PHS), Germany's leading specialty automobile distributor, for €3.3 billion ($4.55 billion). \n\nAutoMuseum\n\nSince 1985, Volkswagen has run the Volkswagen AutoMuseum in Wolfsburg, a museum dedicated specifically to the history of Volkswagen. In addition to visiting exhibits in person, owners of vintage Volkswagens anywhere in the world may order what the museum refers to as a \"Birth Certificate\" for a set fee of €50—this formal \"Zertifikat\" indicates basic information known at the time of manufacture (colors, options, port of destination, etc.). \n\nGlobal sales figures\n\nCurrent models\n\nGTI models\n\nElectric models\n\nGTE models\n\nGTE are plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The GTE's engine, electric motor, and transmission are fully shared with the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron: \n\ne-models\n\nVW e-models are all-electric vehicles. \n\nR models\n\nR models are exotic and sport vehicles.\n\nHistoric models\n\nElectric and alternative fuel vehicles\n\nNeat ethanol vehicles\n\nVolkswagen do Brasil produced and sold neat ethanol-powered, (E100 only), vehicles in Brazil, and production was discontinued only after they were supplanted by more modern Flex Fuel technology. As a response to the 1973 oil crisis, the Brazilian government began promoting bioethanol as a fuel, and the National Alcohol Program -Pró-Álcool- () was launched in 1975. Compelled by the 1979 energy crisis, and after development and testing with government fleets by the CTA at São José dos Campos, and further testing of several prototypes developed by the four local carmakers, including Volkswagen do Brasil, neat ethanol vehicles were launched in the Brazilian market. Gasoline engines were modified to support hydrous ethanol characteristics and changes included compression ratio, amount of fuel injected, replacement of materials that would get corroded by the contact with ethanol, use of colder spark plugs suitable for dissipating heat due to higher flame temperatures, and an auxiliary cold-start system that injects gasoline from a small tank in the engine compartment to help starting when cold. Within six years, around 75% of all Brazilian passenger cars were manufactured with ethanol engines. \n\nProduction and sales of neat ethanol vehicles tumbled beginning in 1987 owing to several factors, including a sharp decline in gasoline prices as a result of the 1980s oil glut, and high sugar prices in the world market, shifting sugarcane ethanol production from fuel to sugar. By mid-1989, a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages, forcing consumers to abandon ethanol vehicles. \n\nFlexible-fuel vehicles\n\nThe 2003 VW Gol 1.6 Total Flex was the first full flexible-fuel vehicle launched in Brazil, capable of running on any blend of gasoline and E100. In March of that year, on its fiftieth anniversary, Volkswagen do Brasil launched in the local market the Gol 1.6 Total Flex, the first Brazilian commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any mix of E20-E25 gasoline and up to 100% hydrous ethanol fuel (E100). After the neat ethanol fiasco, consumer confidence in ethanol-powered vehicles was restored, allowing a rapid adoption of the flex technology. This was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place throughout Brazil, with more than 30 thousand fueling stations, a heritage of the Pró-Álcool program \n\nOwing to the success and rapid consumer acceptance of the flex-fuel versions, by 2005 VW had sold 293,523 flex-fuel cars and light-duty trucks, and only 53,074 gasoline-only automobiles, jumping to 525,838 flex-fuel vehicles and only 13,572 gasoline-only cars and 248 gasoline-only light trucks in 2007, and reaching new car sales of 564,959 flex-fuel vehicles in 2008, representing 96% of all new cars and light-duty trucks sold in that year. VW do Brasil stopped manufacturing gasoline-only vehicles models for the local market in 2006, and all of the remaining gasoline-only Volkswagen models sold in Brazil are imported. The flex-fuel models currently produced for the local market are the Gol, Fox, CrossFox, Parati, Polo Hatch, Polo Sedan, Saveiro, Golf, and Kombi. By March 2009, Volkswagen do Brasil had attained the milestone mark of two million flex-fuel vehicles produced since 2003. \n\nHybrid vehicles\n\nVolkswagen and Sanyo have teamed up to develop a battery system for hybrid cars. Volkswagen head Martin Winterkorn has confirmed the company plans to build compact hybrid electric vehicles. He has stated \"There will definitely be compact hybrid models, such as Polo and Golf, and without any great delay\", with gasoline and diesel power. For example, Golf is the ideal model to go hybrid as the Golf 1.4 TSI was recently awarded the \"Auto Environment Certificate\" by the Oko-Trend Institute for Environmental Research, and was considered as one of the most environmentally friendly vehicles of 2007. Also underway at Volkswagen's Braunschweig R&D facilities in Northern Germany is a hybrid version of the next-generation Touareg. \n\nVW intends all future models to have the hybrid option. \"Future VW models will fundamentally also be constructed with hybrid concepts,\" VW head of development Ulrich Hackenberg told Automobilwoche in an interview. Hackenberg mentioned that the car based on the Up! concept seen at Frankfurt Motor Show, as well as all future models, could be offered with either full or partial hybrid options. The rear-engine up! will go into production in 2011. Nothing has been said about plug-in hybrid options. \n\nVolkswagen announced at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show the launch of the 2012 Touareg Hybrid, scheduled for 2011. VW also announced plans to introduce diesel-electric hybrid versions of its most popular models in 2012, beginning with the new Jetta, followed by the Golf Hybrid in 2013 together with hybrid versions of the Passat. In 2012, the Volkswagen Jetta Hybrid set the world record to become the fastest hybrid car at 187 mph.\n\nPlug-in electric vehicles\n\nIn November 2009, Volkswagen announced it has hired Karl-Thomas Neumann as its group chief officer for electric traction. VW's Chief of research, Dr. Jürgen Leohold, said in 2010 the company has concluded hydrogen fuel-cell cars are not a viable option. \n\n, the Volkswagen Group offers for retails customers nine plug-in electric cars, of which, three are all-electric cars: the Volkswagen e-Up!, e-Golf and Audi R8 e-tron, and six are plug-in hybrids: the Volkswagen Golf GTE, Passat GTE, Audi A3 Sportback e-tron, Q7 e-tron quattro, Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid and Cayenne S E-Hybrid. Also two limited production plug-in hybrids were manufactured beginning in 2013, the Volkswagen XL1 (250 units) and the Porsche 918 Spyder (918 units). Total cumulative sales of all Volkswagen brand electrified cars since the start of their respective production is expected to reach about 103,000 by the end of 2016.\n\nIn order to comply with increasingly strict carbon dioxide emission limits in major markets, the VW Group expects to sell about one million all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles a year worldwide by 2025. The Group plans to expand its plug-in range with 20 new pure electric and plug-in hybrid cars, including two cars to compete with Tesla Motors, the Porsche Mission E all-electric car and the Audi e-tron quattro, which is expected to become the brand's first mass production electric vehicle. According to Thomas Ulbrich, VW brand production chief, the carmaker has capacitty to build as many as 75,000 battery electric and plug-in hybrids a year if demand rises. Volkswagen announced in October 2015 that \"it will develop a modular architecture for battery electric cars, called the MEB. The standardized system will be designed for all body structures and vehicle types and will allow the company to build emotionally appealing EVs with a range of up to 310 mi.\" In June 2016, VW launched a program to develop 30 all-electric cars in 10 years, and sell 2-3 million electric cars per year by 2025. \n\nEnvironmental record\n\nIn 1974 Volkswagen paid a $120,000 fine to settle a complaint filed by the Environmental Protection Agency over the use of so-called \"defeat devices\" that disabled certain pollution-control systems. The complaint said the use of the devices violated the U.S. Clean Air Act.\n \n\nVolkswagen first implemented its seven environmental goals in Technical Development in 1996. The plan contains themes involving climate protection, resource conservation, and healthcare, through objectives such as reducing greenhouse emissions and fuel consumption, enabling the use of alternative fuels, and avoiding the use of hazardous materials. The original 1996 goals have since been revised in 2002 and 2007. Volkswagen was the first car manufacturer to apply ISO 14000, during its drafting stage and was re-certified under the standards in September 2005. In 2011 Greenpeace began criticising Volkswagen's opposition to legislation requiring tighter controls on CO2 emissions and energy efficiency, and an advertising campaign was launched parodying VW's recent series of Star Wars-based commercials. \n\nIn 2013, the Volkswagen XL1 became the most fuel-efficient production car in the world, with a claimed combined fuel consumption of 261 mpg (0.90 liter/100 km). Driving style has huge impact on this result - \"normal\" driving produces mileage in the 120 mpg range (1.96 liter/100 km) \n\n, VW is registered with a Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) of 34-38 mpg in USA. \n\nDiesel emission violations\n\nOn Friday, 18 September 2015, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said beginning in 2008 the automaker improperly installed engine control unit (ECU) software determined to be a \"defeat device\", in violation of the Clean Air Act to circumvent environmental regulations of NOx emissions by diesel engine 2009-2015 model year Volkswagen and Audi cars. The software detects when the cars were being subject to emissions testing, and then fully enabled ECU emission controls to successfully pass. However, during normal driving conditions, emission control software was shut off in order to attain greater fuel economy and additional power, resulting in as much as 40 times more pollution than allowed by law. Consumer Reports tested a 2011 Jetta SportWagen TDI and found in emissions mode its 0-60 mph time increased by 0.6 seconds and its highway fuel economy dropped from 50 mpg to 46 mpg. Volkswagen admitted to using the defeat device, and has been ordered to recall approximately 482,000 cars with four-cylinder 2.0-liter TDI engines. United States federal penalties may include fines ranging up to US$18billion, and possibly criminal charges. On June 28, 2016, Volswagen agreed to pay a settlement of $15.3 billion, the largest auto-related consumer class-action lawsuit in the United States history. \n\nThe EPA was first alerted to the issue by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), reporting results of research commissioned for them by West Virginia University's Center for Alternative Fuels, Engines and Emissions (CAFEE). In May 2014, CAFEE published their ICCT sponsored research. After 15 months of denying the emissions control systems were deliberately gamed and instead claiming discrepancies due to \"technical\" reasons, on August 21 Volkswagen acknowledged to the EPA and California Air Resources Board (CARB) their emission controls systems were rigged. This was followed by a formal announcement of admission to regulators on September 3 which took place immediately after the EPA threatened to withhold approval for their 2016 cars. Volkswagen's initial public response came on 20 September, when a spokesman said they would stop all US sales of the diesel models affected. Chairman Martin Winterkorn issued an apology and said Volkswagen would cooperate with investigators. Since emission standards in Canada are close to those in the US, Volkswagen Canada also halted sales of the affected diesel models. Tuesday, 22 September Volkswagen spokesman admit that the defeat device is installed in ~11 million vehicles with Type EA 189 diesel engines worldwide. \n\nOn the first business day after the news, Volkswagen's stock price declined 20% and declined another 17% on Tuesday, that same day a social media advertisement with Wired about \"how diesel was re-engineered\" was removed as well as a series of YouTube ads titled \"Diesel Old Wives’ Tales\". On Wednesday, 23 September, Volkswagen chief executive officer Martin Winterkorn resigned. Volkswagen hired Kirkland & Ellis law firm for defense, the same firm that defended BP during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. \n\nOn November 2, the EPA issued a second notice of violation (NOV) pertaining to certain diesel 3.0-liter V6 equipped Audi, Volkswagen Touareg and Porsche Cayenne vehicles. The EPA found beginning with the 2009 model year all vehicles powered by the V6 were non-compliant. During testing the EPA, CARB and Transport Canada discovered software that activates pollution systems when the automobiles are being driven under federal test conditions, otherwise during real world driving these devices are inactive. Volkswagen disputed the EPA's findings stating their software is legally permitted, however shortly after Volkswagen issued a stop-sale for the EPA's disputed vehicles and additional models the EPA did not question. \nFalse Advertising\n\nIn March 2016 the US Federal Trade Commission sued Volkswagen for false advertising. \n\nAwards\n\nVolkswagen was named the fourth most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, for its Volkswagen Type 1 'Beetle\" model. It trailed only the Ford Model T, BMC Mini, and Citroën DS. \n\nVolkswagen has produced three winners of the 50-year-old European Car of the Year award.\n\nVolkswagen has produced five winners of the United States Motor Trend Car of the Year award — the original Car of the Year designation, which began in 1949.\n\nVolkswagen has already produced four winners of the recently developed World Car of the Year award.\n\nMotorsport\n\nFormula racing\n\n* In 1963, Formula Vee circuit racing, with cars built from easily available Beetle parts, started in the United States. It quickly spread to Europe and other parts of the world. It proved very popular as a low-cost route into formula racing. \n* In 1971, Volkswagen of America started the more powerful Formula Super Vee, which became famous for hothousing new talent. In the 11 years it ran, until 1982, it produced a stable of world-famous Formula One drivers—names like Niki Lauda, Jochen Mass, Nelson Piquet, Jochen Rindt and Keke Rosberg. Volkswagen also notched up several victories, and the championship in Formula Three.\nIn July 2011 Wolfgang Dürheimer, the director of Bugatti and Bentley, told German magazine Auto, Motor und Sport that \"if [the VW group] is at the forefront of the auto industry, I can imagine us competing in Formula 1 in 2018. We have enough brands to pull it off.\" \n\nWorld Rally Championship\n\n In 1981, now based in Hanover, VW took a new direction into rallying, with the launch of the first-generation Golf, and Sweden's Per Eklund, Frenchman Jean-Luc Thérier, and the Finn Pentti Airikkala. The final chapters in Volkswagen Racing UK's rallying story were the 'one-make' Castrol Polo Challenge, and the Polo GTI 'Super 1600' in 2001.\n* In 2013 Volkswagen Motorsport driver Sébastien Ogier won the World Rally Championship and Jari-Matti Latvala finished third.\n\nDakar Rally\n\nIn 1980, Volkswagen competed in the Paris-Dakar Rally with the Audi-developed Iltis, placing 1st, 2nd, 4th and 9th overall.\n\nIn 2003, the Hanover-based team entered with a 2WD buggy named Tarek. It placed 6th outright but took 1st in the 2WD and Diesel class. In 2005, an updated Race-Touareg with slightly more power entered, with driver Bruno Saby, finishing in 3rd overall and 1st in the Diesel class. In 2006, the revised Race-Touareg entered, with driver Giniel de Villiers finishing in 2nd place overall, and 1st in the Diesel class. For three consecutive years from 2009, Volkswagen won the 2009, 2010 and 2011 Dakar Rally, held in Argentina and Chile.\n\nVolkswagen motorsport worldwide\n\nEurope: In 1998 the company founded the ADAC Volkswagen Lupo Cup, founded in 1998 (renamed Polo Cup in 2003, and Volkswagen Scirocco R-Cup from 2010 to 2014), and started the ADAC New Beetle Cup in 2000. In 2004, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles entered the European Truck Racing series with the Volkswagen Titan truck – it became a back-to-back champion for the 2004 and 2005 series.\nUnited States: In 1976, Volkswagen entered the under-2000-cc Trans-Am Series, with the Scirocco, and they won their class outright. Beginning in 2008 Volkswagen introduced the Jetta TDI Cup. The Jetta TDI Cup is a SCCA sanctioned race series that features 25 drivers between the ages of 16 and 26 driving slightly modified 2009 Jetta TDIs. The series features 10 events at 8 different road courses across North America. There is $50,000 prize money at stake over the course of the series in addition to the $100,000 prize awarded to the champion of the series at the conclusion of the last race. \nArgentina: Many Volkswagen models have competed in TC 2000, including the 1980 to 1983 champion Volkswagen 1500 and the 1994 champion Volkswagen Gol.\nIn 1999 and 2000, VW won the F2 Australian Rally Championship with the Golf GTI.\nFinland: In 2002, VW won the Finnish Rally Championship in a7/(F2), with a Golf Mk4 KitCar, with Mikko Hirvonen. In 1999 and 2000, VW won the Finnish Rally Championship in a7/(F2) with a Golf Mk3 KitCar. In 2000, 2001 and 2002, VW won the Finnish Racing Championship in Sport 2000 with a Golf Mk4. \nAustria: From 1967 until 1974, the Austrian sole distributor Porsche Salzburg entered the VW Beetle (1500, 1302S and 1303S) in Europe-wide rallies. Victories were achieved in 1972 and 1973 in the overall Austrian championship, on Elba, in the Acropolis rally (first in class). Top drivers were Tony Fall (GB), Achim Warmbold (D), Günter Janger (A), Harry Källström(S).\n\nFile:VW Berlin-Rom,Bj.1939.jpg\|1939 Berlin to Rome. Porsche Type 64 racer based on Beetle platform\nFile:Volkswagen Beetle Fittipaldi-Baldahl 1967.jpg\|Twin-engine racing Beetle developed by Wilson and Emerson Fittipaldi brothers\nFile:TC2000 Sportteam Competicion 2006 Volkswagen Bora.jpg\|Bora in TC 2000, a national championship of Argentina\nFile:Stock Car V8 Brasil Amir Nasr Racing.jpg\|Bora in Stock Car Brasil\nFile:VW Race Touareg 2 blue vl EMS.jpg\|Edition 2007 Race Touareg 2 at Essen Motor Show 2006\nFile:Formula Truck 2006 Interlagos Volkswagen leads.jpg\|Constellation in the 2006 Brazilian Fórmula Truck Championship" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "People's car", "Tata nano", "Tata 1 Lakh car", "E-Nano", "Tata Nano EV", "Tata jeh", "Nano Europa", "Nano car", "Tata Nano", "Nano (car)", "The People's Car", "One lakh car", "Tata Jeh", "People's Car (Tata)", "Nano (Tata's car)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "tata nano ev", "nano europa", "tata nano", "people s car tata", "people s car", "nano car", "one lakh car", "nano tata s car", "e nano", "tata 1 lakh car", "tata jeh" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "people s car", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "People's car" }
What does the Transalaska Pipeline System transport?	tc_1376	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_System.txt", "Transport.txt" ], "title": [ "Trans-Alaska Pipeline System", "Transport" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) includes the trans-Alaska crude-oil pipeline, 12 pump stations, several hundred miles of feeder pipelines, and the Valdez Marine Terminal. TAPS is one of the world's largest pipeline systems. It is commonly called the Alaska pipeline, trans-Alaska pipeline, or Alyeska pipeline, (or the pipeline as referred to in Alaska), but those terms technically apply only to the 800 mi of the pipeline with the diameter of 48 inches (122 cm) that conveys oil from Prudhoe Bay, to Valdez, Alaska. The crude oil pipeline is privately owned by the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company.\n\nThe pipeline was built between 1974 and 1977 after the 1973 oil crisis caused a sharp rise in oil prices in the United States. This rise made exploration of the Prudhoe Bay oil field economically feasible. Environmental, legal, and political debates followed the discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay in 1968, and the pipeline was built only after the oil crisis provoked the passage of legislation designed to remove legal challenges to the project.\n\nThe task of building the pipeline had to address a wide range of difficulties, stemming mainly from the extreme cold and the difficult, isolated terrain. The construction of the pipeline was one of the first large-scale projects to deal with problems caused by permafrost, and special construction techniques had to be developed to cope with the frozen ground. The project attracted tens of thousands of workers to Alaska, causing a boomtown atmosphere in Valdez, Fairbanks, and Anchorage.\n\nThe first barrel of oil traveled through the pipeline in 1977, and full-scale production began by the end of the year. Several notable incidents of oil leakage have occurred since, including those caused by sabotage, maintenance failures, and bullet holes. As of 2010, the pipeline has shipped almost 16 Goilbbl of oil.\n\nOrigins \n\nIñupiat people on the North Slope of Alaska had mined oil-saturated peat for possibly thousands of years, using it as fuel for heat and light. Whalers who stayed at Point Barrow saw the substance the Iñupiat called pitch and recognized it as petroleum. Charles Brower, a whaler who settled at Barrow and operated trading posts along the arctic coast, directed geologist Alfred Hulse Brooks to oil seepages at Cape Simpson and Fish Creek in the far north of Alaska, east of the village of Barrow. Brooks' report confirmed the observations of Thomas Simpson, an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company who first observed the seepages in 1836. Similar seepages were found at the Canning River in 1919 by Ernest de Koven Leffingwell. Following the First World War, as the United States Navy converted its ships from coal to fuel oil, the importance of securing a stable supply of oil became important to the U.S. government. Accordingly, President Warren G. Harding established by executive order a series of Naval Petroleum Reserves (NPR-1 through -4) across the United States. These reserves were areas thought to be rich in oil and set aside for future drilling by the U.S. Navy. Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 was sited in Alaska's far north, just south of Barrow, and encompassed 23000000 acre. Other Naval Petroleum Reserves were embroiled in controversy over government corruption in the Teapot Dome Scandal.\n\nThe first explorations of NPR-4 were undertaken by the U.S. Geological Survey from 1923 to 1925 and focused on mapping, identifying and characterizing coal resources in the western portion of the reserve and petroleum exploration in the eastern and northern portions of the reserve. These surveys were primarily pedestrian in nature; no drilling or remote sensing techniques were available at the time. These surveys named many of the geographic features of the areas explored, including the Philip Smith Mountains and quadrangle. These efforts are summarized in. \n\nThe petroleum reserve lay dormant until the Second World War provided an impetus to explore new oil prospects. The first renewed efforts to identify strategic oil assets were a two pronged survey using bush aircraft, local Inupiat guides, and personnel from multiple agencies to locate reported seeps. Ebbley and Joesting reported on these initial forays in 1943 Starting in 1944, the U.S. Navy funded oil exploration near Umiat Mountain, on the Colville River in the foothills of the Brooks Range. Surveyors from the U.S. Geological Survey spread across the petroleum reserve and worked to determine its extent until 1953, when the Navy suspended funding for the project. The USGS found several oil fields, most notably the Alpine and Umiat Oil Field, but none were cost-effective to develop. \n\nFour years after the Navy suspended its survey, Richfield Oil Corporation (later Atlantic Richfield and ARCO) drilled an enormously successful oil well near the Swanson River in southern Alaska, near Kenai. The resulting Swanson River Oil Field was Alaska's first major commercially producing oil field, and it spurred the exploration and development of many others. By 1965, five oil and 11 natural gas fields had been developed. This success and the previous Navy exploration of its petroleum reserve led petroleum engineers to the conclusion that the area of Alaska north of the Brooks Range surely held large amounts of oil and gas. The problems came from the area's remoteness and harsh climate. It was estimated that between 200000000 oilbbl and 500000000 oilbbl of oil would have to be recovered to make a North Slope oil field commercially viable.\n\nIn 1967, Atlantic Richfield (ARCO) began detailed survey work in the Prudhoe Bay area. By January 1968, reports began circulating that natural gas had been discovered by a discovery well. On March 12, 1968, an Atlantic Richfield drilling crew hit paydirt. A discovery well began flowing at the rate of 1152 oilbbl of oil per day. On June 25, ARCO announced that a second discovery well likewise was producing oil at a similar rate. Together, the two wells confirmed the existence of the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. The new field contained more than 25 Goilbbl of oil, making it the largest in North America and the 18th largest in the world.\n\nThe problem soon became how to develop the oil field and ship product to U.S. markets. Pipeline systems represent a high initial cost but lower operating costs, but no pipeline of the length needed had yet been constructed. Several other solutions were offered. Boeing proposed a series of gigantic 12-engine tanker aircraft to transport oil from the field, the Boeing RC-1. General Dynamics proposed a line of tanker submarines for travel beneath the Arctic ice cap, and another group proposed extending the Alaska Railroad to Prudhoe Bay. Ice breaking oil tankers were proposed to transport the oil directly from Prudhoe Bay. \n\nIn 1969, Humble Oil and Refining Company sent a specially fitted oil tanker, the , to test the feasibility of transporting oil via ice-breaking tankers to market. The Manhattan was fitted with an ice-breaking bow, powerful engines, and hardened propellers before successfully traveling the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Beaufort Sea. During the voyage, the ship suffered damage to several of its cargo holds, which flooded with seawater. Wind-blown ice forced the Manhattan to change its intended route from the M'Clure Strait to the smaller Prince of Wales Strait. It was escorted back through the Northwest Passage by a Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker, the CCGS John A. Macdonald. Although the Manhattan successfully transited the Northwest Passage again in the summer of 1970, the concept was considered too risky. A pipeline was thus the only viable system for transporting the oil to the nearest port free of pack-ice, almost 800 miles (1,300 km) away at Valdez.\n\nForming Alyeska \n\nIn February 1969, before the SS Manhattan had even sailed from its East Coast starting point, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), an unincorporated joint group created by ARCO, British Petroleum, and Humble Oil in October 1968, asked for permission from the United States Department of the Interior to begin geological and engineering studies of a proposed oil pipeline route from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez, across Alaska. Even before the first feasibility studies began, the oil companies had chosen the approximate route of the pipeline. Permission was given, and teams of engineers began drilling core samples and surveying in Alaska.\n\nBecause TAPS hoped to begin laying pipe by September 1969, substantial orders were placed for steel pipeline 48 inches (122 cm) in diameter. No American company manufactured pipe of that specification, so three Japanese companies—Sumitomo Metal Industries Ltd., Nippon Steel Corporation, and Nippon Kokan Kabushiki Kaisha—received a $100 million contract for more than 800 miles (1280 km) of pipeline. At the same time, TAPS placed a $30 million order for the first of the enormous pumps that would be needed to push the oil through the pipeline. \n\nIn June 1969, as the SS Manhattan traveled through the Northwest Passage, TAPS formally applied to the Interior Department for a permit to build an oil pipeline across 800 mi of public land—from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez. The application was for a 100-foot (30.5 m) wide right of way to build a subterranean 48-inch (122-centimeter) pipeline including 11 pumping stations. Another right of way was requested to build a construction and maintenance highway paralleling the pipeline. A document of just 20 pages contained all of the information TAPS had collected about the route up to that stage in its surveying. \n\nThe Interior Department responded by sending personnel to analyze the proposed route and plan. Max Brewer, an arctic expert in charge of the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory at Barrow, concluded that the plan to bury most of the pipeline was completely unfeasible because of the abundance of permafrost along the route. In a report, Brewer said the hot oil conveyed by the pipeline would melt the underlying permafrost, causing the pipeline to fail as its support turned to mud. This report was passed along to the appropriate committees of the U.S. House and Senate, which had to approve the right-of-way proposal because it asked for more land than authorized in the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 and because it would break a development freeze imposed in 1966 by former Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall. \n\nUdall imposed the freeze on any projects involving land claimed by Alaska Natives in hopes that an overarching Native claims settlement would result. In the fall of 1969, the Department of the Interior and TAPS set about bypassing the land freeze by obtaining waivers from the various native villages that had claims to a portion of the proposed right of way. By the end of September, all the relevant villages had waived their right-of-way claims, and Secretary of the Interior Wally Hickel asked Congress to lift the land freeze for the entire TAPS project. After several months of questioning by the House and Senate committees with oversight of the project, Hickel was given the authority to lift the land freeze and give the go-ahead to TAPS.\n\nTAPS began issuing letters of intent to contractors for construction of the \"haul road\", a highway running the length of the pipeline route to be used for construction. Heavy equipment was prepared, and crews prepared to go to work after Hickel gave permission and the snow melted. Before Hickel could act, however, several Alaska Native and conservation groups asked a judge in Washington, D.C. to issue an injunction against the project continuing. Several of the native villages that had waived claims on the right of way reneged because TAPS had not chosen any Native contractors for the project, and the contractors chosen were not likely to hire Native workers. \n\nOn April 1, 1970, Judge George Luzerne Hart, Jr., of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, ordered the Interior Department to not issue a construction permit for a section of the project that crossed one of the claims. Less than two weeks later, Hart heard arguments from conservation groups that the TAPS project violated the Mineral Leasing Act and the National Environmental Policy Act, which had gone into effect at the start of the year. Hart issued an injunction against the project, preventing the Interior Department from issuing a construction permit and halting the project in its tracks. \n\nAfter the Department of the Interior was stopped from issuing a construction permit, the unincorporated TAPS consortium was reorganized into the new incorporated Alyeska Pipeline Service Company. Former Humble Oil manager Edward L. Patton was put in charge of the new company and began to lobby strongly in favor of an Alaska Native claims settlement to resolve the disputes over the pipeline right of way. \n\nOpposition \n\nOpposition to construction of the pipeline primarily came from two sources: Alaska Native groups and conservationists. Alaska Natives were upset that the pipeline would cross the land traditionally claimed by a variety of native groups, but no economic benefits would accrue to them directly. Conservationists were angry at what they saw as an incursion into America's last wilderness. Both opposition movements launched legal campaigns to halt the pipeline and were successful in preventing construction from 1970 to 1973.\n\nConservation objections \n\nAlthough conservation groups and environmental organizations had voiced opposition to the pipeline project before 1970, the introduction of the National Environmental Policy Act allowed them legal grounds to halt the project. Arctic engineers had raised concerns about the way plans for a subterranean pipeline showed ignorance of Arctic engineering and permafrost in particular. A clause in NEPA requiring a study of alternatives and another clause requiring an environmental impact statement turned those concerns into tools used by the Wilderness Society, Friends of the Earth, and the Environmental Defense Fund in their spring 1970 lawsuit to stop the project. \n\nDue to the injunction against the project, Alyeska was forced to do further research throughout the summer of 1970. The collected material was turned over to the Interior Department in October 1970, and a draft environmental impact statement was published in January 1971. The statement met with massive criticism from almost the moment it was released. The statement amounted to 294 pages but generated more than 12,000 pages of testimony and evidence in Congressional debates by the end of March. Criticisms of the project included its effect on the Alaska tundra, possible pollution, harm to animals, geographic features, and the lack of much engineering information from Alyeska. One element of opposition the report quelled was the discussion of alternatives. All the proposed alternatives—extension of the Alaska Railroad, an alternative route through Canada, establishing a port at Prudhoe Bay, and more—were deemed to pose more environmental risks than construction of a pipeline directly across Alaska.\n\nOpposition also was directed at the building of the construction and maintenance highway parallel to the pipeline. Although a clause in Alyeska's pipeline proposal called for removal of the pipeline at a certain point, no such provision was made for removal of the road. Sydney Howe, president of the Conservation Foundation, warned: \"The oil might last for fifty years. A road would remain forever.\" This argument relied upon the slow growth of plants and animals in far northern Alaska due to the harsh conditions and short growing season. In testimony, an environmentalist argued that arctic trees, though only a few feet tall, had been seedlings \"when George Washington was inaugurated\". \n\nThe portion of the environmental debate with the biggest symbolic impact took place when discussing the pipeline's impact on caribou herds. Environmentalists proposed that the pipeline would have an effect on caribou similar to the effect of the U.S. transcontinental railroad on the American Bison population of North America. Pipeline critics said the pipeline would block traditional migration routes, making caribou populations smaller and making them easier to hunt. This idea was exploited in anti-pipeline advertising, most notably when a picture of a forklift carrying several legally shot caribou was emblazoned with the slogan, \"There is more than one way to get caribou across the Alaska Pipeline\". The use of caribou as an example of the pipeline's environmental effects reached a peak in the spring of 1971, when the draft environmental statement was being debated.\n\nNative objections \n\nIn 1902, the United States Department of Agriculture set aside 16000000 acre of Southeast Alaska as the Tongass National Forest. Tlingit natives who lived in the area protested that the land was theirs and had been unfairly taken. In 1935, Congress passed a law allowing the Tlingits to sue for recompense, and the resulting case dragged on until 1968, when a $7.5 million settlement was reached. Following the Native lawsuit to halt work on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, this precedent was frequently mentioned in debate, causing pressure to resolve the situation more quickly than the 33 years it had taken for the Tlingits to be satisfied. Between 1968 and 1971, a succession of bills were introduced into the U.S. Congress to compensate statewide Native claims. The earliest bill offered $7 million, but this was flatly rejected. \n\nThe Alaska Federation of Natives, which had been created in 1966, hired former United States Supreme Court justice Arthur Goldberg, who suggested that a settlement should include 40 e6acre of land and a payment of $500 million. The issue remained at a standstill until Alyeska began lobbying in favor of a Native claims act in Congress in order to lift the legal injunction against pipeline construction. In October 1971, President Richard Nixon signed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). Under the act, Native groups would renounce their land claims in exchange for $962.5 million and in federal land. The money and land were split up among village and regional corporations, which then distributed shares of stock to Natives in the region or village. The shares paid dividends based on both the settlement and corporation profits. To pipeline developers, the most important aspect of ANCSA was the clause dictating that no Native allotments could be selected in the path of the pipeline. \n\nLegal issues and politics \n\nAlyeska and the oil companies fought objections to the pipeline's construction in both the courts and in Congress, where debates about the pipeline's environmental impact statement continued through 1971. Objections about the caribou herds were countered by observations of Davidson Ditch, a water pipeline with the same diameter of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, which caribou were able to jump over. To those who argued that the pipeline would irrevocably alter Alaska wilderness, proponents pointed to the overgrown remnants of the Fairbanks Gold Rush, most of which had been erased 70 years later. Some pipeline opponents were satisfied by Alyeska's preliminary design, which incorporated underground and raised crossings for caribou and other big game, gravel and styrofoam insulation to prevent permafrost melting, automatic leak detection and shutoff, and other techniques. Other opponents, including fishermen who feared tanker leaks south of Valdez, maintained their disagreement with the plan. \n\nAll the arguments both for and against the pipeline were incorporated into the 3,500-page, 9-volume final environmental impact statement, which was released on March 20, 1972. Although Alaska Sen. Ted Stevens felt the statement \"was not written by a proponent,\" it maintained the general approval for pipeline construction that was demonstrated in the draft statement. U.S. Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton allowed 45–days of comment after the release, and conservationists created a 1,300-page document opposing the impact statement. This document failed to sway Judge Hart, who lifted the injunction on the project on August 15, 1972. \n\nThe environmental groups that had filed the injunction appealed the decision, and on October 6, 1972, the U.S. District Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C. partially reversed Hart's decision. The appeals court said that although the impact statement followed the guidelines set by the National Environmental Policy Act, it did not follow the Minerals Leasing Act, which allowed for a smaller pipeline right of way than was required for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. The oil companies and Alyeska appealed this decision to the U.S. Supreme Court, but in April 1973, the court declined to hear the case. \n\nCongressional issues \n\nWith the appeals court having decided that the Minerals Leasing Act did not cover the pipeline's requirements, Alyeska and the oil companies began lobbying Congress to either amend the act or create a new law that would permit a larger right-of-way. The Senate Interior Committee began the first hearings on a series of bills to that effect on March 9, 1973. Environmental opposition switched from contesting the pipeline on NEPA grounds to fighting an amendment to the leasing act or a new bill. By the spring and summer of 1973, these opposition groups attempted to persuade Congress to endorse a Trans-Canada oil pipeline or a railroad. They believed the \"leave it in the ground\" argument was doomed to fail, and the best way to oppose the pipeline would be to propose an ineffective alternative which could be easily defeated. The problem with this approach was that any such alternative would cover more ground and be more damaging environmentally than the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. \n\nHearings in both the U.S. Senate and the House continued through the summer of 1973 on both new bills and amendments to the Mineral Leasing Act. On July 13, an amendment calling for more study of the project—the Mondale-Bayh Amendment—was defeated. This was followed by another victory for pipeline proponents when an amendment by Alaska Sen. Mike Gravel was passed by the Senate. The amendment declared that the pipeline project fulfilled all aspects of NEPA and modified the Mineral Leasing Act to allow the larger right-of-way for the Alaska pipeline. Upon reconsideration, the vote was tied at 49–49 and required the vote of vice president Spiro Agnew, who supported the amendment. A similar amendment was passed in the House on August 2. \n\nOil crisis and authorization act \n\nOn October 17, 1973, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries announced an oil embargo against the United States in retaliation for its support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War. Because the United States imported approximately 35 percent of its oil from foreign sources, the embargo had a major effect. The price of gasoline shot upward, gasoline shortages were common, and rationing was considered. Most Americans began demanding a solution to the problem, and President Richard Nixon began lobbying for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline as at least a part of the answer.\n\nNixon supported the pipeline project even before the oil crisis. On September 10, 1973, he released a message stating that the pipeline was his priority for the remainder of the Congressional session that year. On November 8, after the embargo had been in place for three weeks, he reaffirmed that statement. Members of Congress, under pressure from their constituents, created the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act, which removed all legal barriers from construction of the pipeline, provided financial incentives, and granted a right-of-way for its construction. The act was drafted, rushed through committee, and approved by the House on November 12, 1973, by a vote of 361–14–60. The next day, the Senate passed it, 80–5–15. Nixon signed it into law on November 16, and a federal right-of-way for the pipeline and transportation highway was granted on January 3, 1974. The deal was signed by the oil companies on January 23, allowing work to start. \n\nConstruction \n\nAlthough the legal right-of-way was cleared by January 1974, cold weather, the need to hire workers, and construction of the Dalton Highway meant work on the pipeline itself did not begin until March. Between 1974 and July 22, 1977, when the first barrel of oil reached Valdez, tens of thousands of people worked on the pipeline. Thousands of workers came to Alaska, attracted by the prospect of high-paying jobs at a time when most of the rest of the United States was undergoing a recession. \n\nConstruction workers endured long hours, cold temperatures, and brutal conditions. Difficult terrain, particularly in Atigun Pass, Keystone Canyon, and near the Sagavanirktok River forced workers to come up with solutions for unforeseen problems. Faulty welds and accusations of poor quality control caused a Congressional investigation that ultimately revealed little. More than $8 billion was spent to build the 800 mi of pipeline, the Valdez Marine Terminal, and 12 pump stations. The construction effort also had a human toll. Thirty-two Alyeska and contract employees died from causes directly related to construction. That figure does not include common carrier casualties. \n\nImpact \n\nThe construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System and its completion in 1977 had an immense effect on Alaska, the United States, and the rest of the world. Its impact has included economic, physical, and social repercussions running the gamut from life in small towns to the global oil market.\n\nBoomtowns \n\nConstruction of the pipeline caused a massive economic boom in towns up and down the pipeline route. Prior to construction, most residents in towns like Fairbanks—still recovering from the devastating 1967 Fairbanks Flood—strongly supported the pipeline. By 1976, after the town's residents had endured a spike in crime, overstressed public infrastructure, and an influx of people unfamiliar with Alaska customs, 56 percent said the pipeline had changed Fairbanks for the worse. The boom was even greater in Valdez, where the population jumped from 1,350 in 1974 to 6,512 by the summer of 1975 and 8,253 in 1976. \n\nThis increase in population caused many adverse effects. Home prices skyrocketed—a home that sold for $40,000 in 1974 was purchased for $80,000 in 1975. In Valdez, lots of land that sold for $400 in the late 1960s went for $4,000 in 1973, $8,000 in 1974, and $10,000 in 1975. Home and apartment rentals were correspondingly squeezed upward by the rising prices and the demand from pipeline workers. Two-room log cabins with no plumbing rented for $500 per month. One two-bedroom home in Fairbanks housed 45 pipeline workers who shared beds on a rotating schedule for $40 per week. In Valdez, an apartment that rented for $286 per month in December 1974 cost $520 per month in March 1975 and $1,600 per month—plus two mandatory roommates—in April 1975. Hotel rooms were sold out as far away as Glenallen, 115 mi north of Valdez. \n\nThe skyrocketing prices were driven by the high salaries paid to pipeline workers, who were eager to spend their money. The high salaries caused a corresponding demand for higher wages among non-pipeline workers in Alaska. Non-pipeline businesses often could not keep up with the demand for higher wages, and job turnover was high. Yellow cab in Fairbanks had a turnover rate of 800 percent; a nearby restaurant had a turnover rate of more than 1,000 percent. Many positions were filled by high school students promoted above their experience level. To meet the demand, a Fairbanks high school ran in two shifts: one in the morning and the other in the afternoon in order to teach students who also worked eight hours per day. More wages and more people meant higher demand for goods and services. Waiting in line became a fact of life in Fairbanks, and the Fairbanks McDonalds became No. 2 in the world for sales—behind only the recently opened Stockholm store. Alyeska and its contractors bought in bulk from local stores, causing shortages of everything from cars to tractor parts, water softener salt, batteries and ladders.\n\nThe large sums of money being made and spent caused an upsurge in crime and illicit activity in towns along the pipeline route. This was exacerbated by the fact that police officers and state troopers resigned in large groups to become pipeline security guards at wages far in excess of those available in public-sector jobs. Fairbanks' Second Avenue became a notorious hangout for prostitutes, and dozens of bars operated throughout town. In 1975, the Fairbanks Police Department estimated between 40 and 175 prostitutes were working in the city of 15,000 people. Prostitutes brought pimps, who then engaged in turf fights. In 1976, police responded to a shootout between warring pimps who wielded automatic firearms. By and large, however, the biggest police issue was the number of drunken brawls and fighting. On the pipeline itself, thievery was a major problem. Poor accounting and record keeping allowed large numbers of tools and large amounts of equipment to be stolen. The Los Angeles Times reported in 1975 that as many as 200 of Alyeska's 1,200 yellow-painted trucks were missing from Alaska and \"scattered from Miami to Mexico City\". Alyeska denied the problem and said only 20–30 trucks were missing. The theft problem was typified by pipeliners' practice of mailing empty boxes to pipeline camps. The boxes then would be filled with items and shipped out. After Alyeska ruled that all packages had to be sealed in the presence of a security guard, the number of packages being sent from camps dropped by 75 percent. \n\nEconomy of Alaska \n\nSince the completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System in 1977, the government of the state of Alaska has been reliant on taxes paid by oil producers and shippers. Prior to 1976, Alaska's personal income tax rate was 14.5 percent—the highest in the United States. The gross state product was $8 billion, and Alaskans earned $5 billion in personal income. Thirty years after the pipeline began operating, the state had no personal income tax, the gross state product was $39 billion, and Alaskans earned $25 billion in personal income. Alaska moved from the most heavily taxed state to the most tax-free state. \n\nThe difference was the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System and the taxes and revenue it brought to Alaska. Alyeska and the oil companies injected billions of dollars into the Alaska economy during the construction effort and the years afterward. In addition, the taxes paid by those companies altered the tax structure of the state. By 1982, five years after the pipeline started transporting oil, 86.5 percent of Alaska revenue came directly from the petroleum industry. \n\nThe series of taxes levied on oil production in Alaska has changed several times since 1977, but the overall form remains mostly the same. Alaska receives royalties from oil production on state land. The state also has a property tax on oil production structures and transportation (pipeline) property—the only state property tax in Alaska. There is a special corporate income tax on petroleum companies, and the state taxes the amount of petroleum produced. This production tax is levied on the cost of oil at Pump Station 1. To calculate this tax, the state takes the market value of the oil, subtracts transportation costs (tanker and pipeline tariffs), subtracts production costs, then multiplies the resulting amount per barrel of oil produced each month. The state then takes a percentage of the dollar figure produced. \n\nUnder the latest taxation system, introduced by former governor Sarah Palin in 2007 and passed by the Alaska Legislature that year, the maximum tax rate on profits is 50 percent. The rate fluctuates based on the cost of oil, with lower prices incurring lower tax rates. The state also claims 12.5 percent of all oil produced in the state. This \"royalty oil\" is not taxed but is sold back to the oil companies, generating additional revenue. At a local level, the pipeline owners pay property taxes on the portions of the pipeline and the pipeline facilities that lay within districts that impose a property tax. This property tax is based on the pipeline's value (as assessed by the state) and the local property tax rate. In the Fairbanks North Star Borough, for example, pipeline owners paid $9.2 million in property taxes—approximately 10 percent of all property taxes paid in the borough. \n\nThe enormous amount of public revenue created by the pipeline provoked debates about what to do with the windfall. The record $900 million created by the Prudhoe Bay oil lease sale took place at a time when the entire state budget was less than $118 million, yet the entire amount created by the sale was used up by 1975. Taxes on the pipeline and oil carried by it promised to bring even more money into state coffers. To ensure that oil revenue wasn't spent as it came in, the Alaska Legislature and governor Jay Hammond proposed the creation of an Alaska Permanent Fund—a long-term savings account for the state. This measure required a constitutional amendment, which was duly passed in November 1976. The amendment requires at least 25 percent of mineral extraction revenue to be deposited in the Permanent Fund. On February 28, 1977, the first deposit—$734,000—was put into the Permanent Fund. That deposit and subsequent ones were invested entirely in bonds, but debates quickly arose about the style of investments and what they should be used for. \n\nIn 1980, the Alaska Legislature created the Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation to manage the investments of the Permanent Fund, and it passed the Permanent Fund Dividend program, which provided for annual payments to Alaskans from the interest earned by the fund. After two years of legal arguments about who should be eligible for payments, the first checks were distributed to Alaskans. After peaking at more than $40 billion in 2007, the fund's value declined to approximately $26 billion as of summer 2009. In addition to the Permanent Fund, the state also maintains the Constitutional Budget Reserve, a separate savings account established in 1990 after a legal dispute over pipeline tariffs generated a one-time payment of more than $1.5 billion from the oil companies. The Constitutional Budget reserve is run similar to the Permanent Fund, but money from it can be withdrawn to pay for the state's annual budget, unlike the Permanent Fund.\n\nOil prices \n\nAlthough the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System began pumping oil in 1977, it did not have a major immediate impact on global oil prices. This is partly because it took several years to reach full production and partly because U.S. production outside Alaska declined until the mid-1980s. The Iranian Revolution and OPEC price increases triggered the 1979 energy crisis despite TAPS production increases. Oil prices remained high until the late 1980s, when a stable international situation, the removal of price controls, and the peak of production at Prudhoe Bay contributed to the 1980s oil glut. In 1988, TAPS was delivering 25 percent of all U.S. oil production. As North Slope oil production declined, so did TAPS' share of U.S. production. Today, TAPS provides less than 17 percent of U.S. oil production. \n\nSocial impact \n\nThe pipeline attracts tens of thousands of visitors annually on pipeline tourism trips. Notable visitors have included Henry Kissinger, Jamie Farr, John Denver, President Gerald Ford, King Olav V of Norway, and Gladys Knight. Knight starred in one of two movies about the pipeline construction, Pipe Dreams. The other film was Joyride, and both were critically panned. Other films, such as On Deadly Ground and 30 Days of Night, refer to the pipeline or use it as a plot device. \n\nThe pipeline has also inspired various forms of artwork. The most notable form of art unique to the pipeline are pipeline maps—portions of scrap pipe cut into the shape of Alaska with a piece of metal delineating the path of the pipeline through the map. Pipeline maps were frequently created by welders working on the pipeline, and the maps were frequently sold to tourists or given away as gifts. Other pipeline-inspired pieces of art include objects containing crude oil that has been transported through the pipeline. \n\nTechnical details \n\nOil going into the Trans-Alaska Pipeline comes from one of several oil fields on Alaska's North Slope. The Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, the one most commonly associated with the pipeline, contributes oil, as do the Kuparuk, Alpine, Endicott, and Liberty oil fields, among others. Oil emerges from the ground at approximately 120 F and cools to 111 F by the time it reaches Pump Station 1 through feeder pipelines that stretch across the North Slope. North Slope crude oil has a specific gravity of 29.9 API at 60 F. In 2008, the pipeline carried approximately 700 koilbbl/d, less than its theoretical maximum capacity of or its actual maximum of in 1988. From Pump Station 1 it takes an average of 11.9 days for oil to travel the entire length of the pipeline to Valdez, a speed of .\n\nThe minimum flow through the pipeline is not as clearly defined as its maximum. Operating at lower flows will extend the life of the pipeline as well as increasing profit for its owners. The 2012 flow of 600,000 bbd is significantly less than what the pipeline was designed for. Low flowrates require that the oil move slower through the line, meaning that its temperature drops more than in high-flow situations. A freeze in the line would block a pig in the line, which would force a shutdown and repairs. A 2011 engineering report by Alyeska stated that, to avoid freezing, heaters would need to be installed at several pump stations. This report noted that these improvements could bring flow as low as 350,000 bbd, but it did not attempt to determine the absolute minimum. Other studies have suggested that the minimum is 70,000 100,000 bbd with the current pipeline. Alyeska could also replace the 48\" pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to Fairbanks with a 20\" pipeline and use rail the rest of the way, which would allow as little as 45,000 bbd.\n\nPumping stations maintain the momentum of the oil as it goes through the pipeline. Pump Station 1 is the northernmost of 11 pump stations spread across the length of the pipeline. The original design called for 12 pump stations with 4 pumps each, but Pump Station 11 was never built. Nevertheless, the pump stations retained their intended naming system. Eight stations were operating at startup, and this number increased to 11 by 1980 as throughput rose. As of December 2006, only five stations were operating, with Pump Station 5 held in reserve. Pump Stations 2 and 7 have a capacity of moving 60,000 gallons/minute (227,125 l/min), while all other stations have a capacity of 20,000 gal/min (75,708 l/min). The pumps are natural-gas or liquid-fueled turbines.\n\nBecause of meanders and thermal and seismic accommodations, the amount of 48 in diameter welded steel pipeline between the pipe stations and the end of the line is , while the linear distance between the Prudhoe Bay and Valdez station endpoints is . The pipeline crosses 34 major streams or rivers and nearly 500 minor ones. Its highest point is at Atigun Pass, where the pipeline is 4739 ft above sea level. The maximum grade of the pipeline is 145%, at Thompson Pass in the Chugach Mountains. The pipeline was created in 40 and 60-foot (12.2 and 18.3-meter) sections. Forty-two thousand of these sections were welded together to make a double joint, which was laid in place on the line. Sixty-six thousand \"field girth welds\" were needed to join the double joints into a continuous pipeline. The pipe is of two different thicknesses: 466 mi of it is thick, while the remaining 334 mi is thick. More than 78,000 vertical support members hold up the aboveground sections of pipeline, and the pipeline contains 178 valves. \n\nAt the end of the pipeline is the Valdez Marine Terminal, which can store of oil. Eighteen storage tanks provide this capacity. They are tall and 250 ft in diameter. They average 85% full at any given time—. Three power plants at the terminal generate 12.5 megawatts each. Four tanker berths are available for mooring ships in addition to two loading berths, where oil pumping takes place. More than 19,000 tankers have been filled by the marine terminal since 1977. \n\nMaintenance \n\nThe pipeline is surveyed several times per day, mostly by air. Foot and road patrols also take place to check for problems such as leaks or pipe settling or shifting. The pipeline can be surveyed in as little as two hours, but most surveys take longer to ensure thoroughness. These external inspections are only part of standard maintenance, however. The majority of pipeline maintenance is done by pipeline pigs—mechanical devices sent through the pipeline to perform a variety of functions. \n\nThe most common pig is the scraper pig, which removes wax that precipitates out of the oil and collects on the walls of the pipeline. The colder the oil, the more wax buildup. This buildup can cause a variety of problems, so regular \"piggings\" are needed to keep the pipe clear. A second type of pig travels through the pipe and looks for corrosion. Corrosion-detecting pigs use either magnetic or ultrasonic sensors. Magnetic sensors detect corrosion by analyzing variations in the magnetic field of the pipeline's metal. Ultrasonic testing pigs detect corrosion by examining vibrations in the walls of the pipeline. Other types of pigs look for irregularities in the shape of the pipeline, such as if it is bending or buckling. \"Smart\" pigs, which contain a variety of sensors, can perform multiple tasks. Typically, these pigs are inserted at Prudhoe Bay and travel the length of the pipeline. In July 2009, a pig launcher was installed at Pump Station 8, near the midpoint of the pipeline.\n\nA third type of common maintenance is the installation and replacement of sacrificial anodes along the subterranean portions of pipeline. These anodes reduce the corrosion caused by electrochemical action that affect these interred sections of pipeline. Excavation and replacement of the anodes is required as they corrode. \n\nIncidents \n\nThe pipeline has at times been damaged due to sabotage, human error, maintenance failures, and natural disasters. By law, Alyeska is required to report significant oil spills to regulatory authorities. The Exxon Valdez oil spill is the best-known accident involving Alaska oil, but it did not involve the pipeline itself. Following the spill, Alyeska created a rapid response force that is paid for by the oil companies, including ExxonMobil, which was found liable for the spill. \n\nAn explosion on July 8, 1977, Pump Station No. 8, killed one worker, injured five others, and destroyed the pump station. A US House of Representatives Committee later announced the cause was workers not following the proper procedures, causing crude oil to flow into a pump under repair at the time. Since the startup of the Alaska pipeline on June 20, 1977, to August 15, 1977, seven incidents and accidents have caused the pipeline to be shut down periodically. The NTSB investigated the system, and made recommendations. \n\nThe largest oil spill involving the main pipeline took place on February 15, 1978, when an unknown individual blew a 1-inch (2.54-centimeter) hole in it at Steele Creek, just east of Fairbanks. Approximately 16000 oilbbl of oil leaked out of the hole before the pipeline was shut down. After more than 21 hours, it was restarted. \n\nThe steel pipe is resistant to gunshots and has resisted them on several occasions, but on October 4, 2001, a drunken gunman named Daniel Carson Lewis shot a hole into a weld near Livengood, causing the second-largest mainline oil spill in pipeline history. Approximately 6144 oilbbl leaked from the pipeline; 4238 oilbbl were recovered and reinjected into the pipeline. Nearly 2 acre of tundra were soiled and were removed in the cleanup. The pipeline was repaired and was restarted more than 60 hours later. Lewis was found guilty in December 2002 of criminal mischief, assault, drunken driving, oil pollution, and misconduct. \n\nThe pipeline was built to withstand earthquakes, forest fires, and other natural disasters. The 2002 Denali earthquake damaged some of the pipeline sliders designed to absorb similar quakes, and it caused the pipeline to shut down for more than 66 hours as a precaution. In 2004, wildfires overran portions of the pipeline, but it was not damaged and did not shut down. \n\nIn May 2010, as much as several thousands of barrels were spilled from a pump station near Fort Greely during a scheduled shutdown. A relief valve control circuit failed during a test of the fire control system, and oil poured into a tank and overflowed onto a secondary containment area.\n \n\nA leak was discovered on Jan 8, 2011, in the basement of the booster pump at Pump Station 1. For more than 80 hours, pipeline flow was reduced to 5 percent of normal. An oil collection system was put in place, and full flow resumed until the pipeline was again shut down while a bypass was installed to avoid the leaking section. \n\nFuture of the pipeline \n\nDecline in oil production has posed a serious problem for the pipeline. \n\nBy 2015, it is anticipated that daily oil throughput will approach 500000 oilbbl/d, unless additional sources of oil are developed. As volumes decrease, Alyeska will begin closing pump stations. The company intends to close all but four stations, because the lower throughput will require less pumping to maintain its momentum. While some reports supporting drilling in the ANWR coastal plain maintain that the pipeline may reach its minimum operating level of 200000 oilbbl/d by 2020 the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System Renewal Environmental Impact Statement estimated levels above this through at least 2032 due to ongoing exploration outside ANWR. Improvements that allow low flow-rates could extend its lifespan as far as 2075.\n\nBy law, Alaska is required to remove all traces of the pipeline after oil extraction is complete. No date has been set for this removal, but plans for it are being updated continuously.", "Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between persons, which is essential for the development of civilizations.\n\nTransport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance.\n\nVehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, watercraft, spacecraft and aircraft. Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode.\n\nPassenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow and restrain urban sprawl.\n\nMode\n\nA mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a particular type of vehicle, infrastructure and operation. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, with the latter case being called intermodal or multimodal transport. Each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route.\n\nHuman-powered\n\nHuman powered transport, a form of sustainable transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power, in the form of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power. Human-powered transport remains popular for reasons of cost-saving, leisure, physical exercise, and environmentalism; it is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions.\n\nAlthough humans are able to walk without infrastructure, the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads, especially when using the human power with vehicles, such as bicycles and inline skates. Human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing; even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft.\n\nAnimal-powered\n\nAnimal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people and commodities. Humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles.\n\nAir\n\nA fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift. A gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo aircraft.\n\nTwo things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow and calm water.\n\nThe aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the rocket. Commercial jets can reach up to 955 km/h, single-engine aircraft 555 km/h. Aviation is able to quickly transport people and limited amounts of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy use; for short distances or in inaccessible places helicopters can be used. As of April 28, 2009 The Guardian article notes that, \"the WHO estimates that up to 500,000 people are on planes at any time.\" \n\nRail\n\nRail transport is where a train runs along a set of two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include monorail and maglev.\n\nA train consists of one or more connected vehicles that operate on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships.\n\nIntercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities; modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h, but this requires specially built track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.\n\nRoad\n\nA road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route. \n\nThe most common road vehicle is the automobile; a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2010, there were 1.015 billion automobiles worldwide.\nRoad transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to the other and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed, and timings of travel is not available to other modes of transport. It is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport.\n\nAutomobiles provide high flexibility with low capacity, but require high energy and area use, and are the main source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport.\n\nWater\n\nWater transport is movement by means of a watercraft—such as a barge, boat, ship or sailboat—over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. The need for buoyancy is common to watercraft, making the hull a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and appearance.\n\nIn the 19th century the first steam ships were developed, using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced in a boiler using wood or coal and fed through a steam external combustion engine. Now most ships have an internal combustion engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some ships, such as submarines, use nuclear power to produce the steam. Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas, hovercraft are propelled by large pusher-prop fans. (See Marine propulsion.)\n\nAlthough slow, modern sea transport is a highly efficient method of transporting large quantities of goods. Commercial vessels, nearly 35,000 in number, carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2007. Transport by water is significantly less costly than air transport for transcontinental shipping; short sea shipping and ferries remain viable in coastal areas. \n\nOther modes\n\nPipeline transport sends goods through a pipe; most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can also send solid capsules using compressed air. For liquids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline. Short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas.\n\nCable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal power source. It is most commonly used at steep gradient. Typical solutions include aerial tramway, elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are also categorized as conveyor transport.\n\nSpaceflight is transport out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means of a spacecraft. While large amounts of research have gone into technology, it is rarely used except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct scientific experiments. However, man has landed on the moon, and probes have been sent to all the planets of the Solar System.\n\nSuborbital spaceflight is the fastest of the existing and planned transport systems from a place on Earth to a distant other place on Earth. Faster transport could be achieved through part of a low Earth orbit, or following that trajectory even faster using the propulsion of the rocket to steer it.\n\nElements\n\nInfrastructure\n\nInfrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to operate. It consists of a way, a terminal and facilities for parking and maintenance. For rail, pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle travels must be built up. Air and water craft are able to avoid this, since the airway and seaway do not need to be built up. However, they require fixed infrastructure at terminals.\n\nTerminals such as airports, ports and stations, are locations where passengers and freight can be transferred from one vehicle or mode to another. For passenger transport, terminals are integrating different modes to allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each mode's advantages. For instance, airport rail links connect airports to the city centers and suburbs. The terminals for automobiles are parking lots, while buses and coaches can operate from simple stops. For freight, terminals act as transshipment points, though some cargo is transported directly from the point of production to the point of use.\n\nThe financing of infrastructure can either be public or private. Transport is often a natural monopoly and a necessity for the public; roads, and in some countries railways and airports are funded through taxation. New infrastructure projects can have high cost, and are often financed through debt. Many infrastructure owners therefore impose usage fees, such as landing fees at airports, or toll plazas on roads. Independent of this, authorities may impose taxes on the purchase or use of vehicles. Because of poor forecasting and overestimation of passenger numbers by planners, there is frequently a benefits shortfall for transport infrastructure projects. \n\nVehicles\n\nA vehicle is a non-living device that is used to move people and goods. Unlike the infrastructure, the vehicle moves along with the cargo and riders. Unless being pulled/pushed by a cable or muscle-power, the vehicle must provide its own propulsion; this is most commonly done through a steam engine, combustion engine, electric motor, a jet engine or a rocket, though other means of propulsion also exist. Vehicles also need a system of converting the energy into movement; this is most commonly done through wheels, propellers and pressure.\n\nVehicles are most commonly staffed by a driver. However, some systems, such as people movers and some rapid transits, are fully automated. For passenger transport, the vehicle must have a compartment, seat, or platform for the passengers. Simple vehicles, such as automobiles, bicycles or simple aircraft, may have one of the passengers as a driver.\n\nOperation\n\nPrivate transport is only subject to the owner of the vehicle, who operates the vehicle themselves. For public transport and freight transport, operations are done through private enterprise or by governments. The infrastructure and vehicles may be owned and operated by the same company, or they may be operated by different entities. Traditionally, many countries have had a national airline and national railway. Since the 1980s, many of these have been privatized. International shipping remains a highly competitive industry with little regulation, but ports can be public owned. \n\nFunctions\n\nRelocation of travelers and cargo are the most common uses of transport. However, other uses exist, such as the strategic and tactical relocation of armed forces during warfare, or the civilian mobility construction or emergency equipment.\n\nPassenger\n\nPassenger transport, or travel, is divided into public and private transport. Public transport is scheduled services on fixed routes, while private is vehicles that provide ad hoc services at the riders desire. The latter offers better flexibility, but has lower capacity, and a higher environmental impact. Travel may be as part of daily commuting, for business, leisure or migration.\n\nShort-haul transport is dominated by the automobile and mass transit. The latter consists of buses in rural and small cities, supplemented with commuter rail, trams and rapid transit in larger cities. Long-haul transport involves the use of the automobile, trains, coaches and aircraft, the last of which have become predominantly used for the longest, including intercontinental, travel. Intermodal passenger transport is where a journey is performed through the use of several modes of transport; since all human transport normally starts and ends with walking, all passenger transport can be considered intermodal. Public transport may also involve the intermediate change of vehicle, within or across modes, at a transport hub, such as a bus or railway station.\n\nTaxis and buses can be found on both ends of the public transport spectrum. Buses are the cheaper mode of transport but are not necessarily flexible, and taxis are very flexible but more expensive. In the middle is demand-responsive transport, offering flexibility whilst remaining affordable.\n\nInternational travel may be restricted for some individuals due to legislation and visa requirements.\n\nFreight\n\nFreight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain in manufacturing. With increased specialization and globalization, production is being located further away from consumption, rapidly increasing the demand for transport. Transportation creates place utility by moving the goods from the place of production to the place of consumption. While all modes of transport are used for cargo transport, there is high differentiation between the nature of the cargo transport, in which mode is chosen. Logistics refers to the entire process of transferring products from producer to consumer, including storage, transport, transshipment, warehousing, material-handling and packaging, with associated exchange of information. Incoterm deals with the handling of payment and responsibility of risk during transport. \n\nContainerization, with the standardization of ISO containers on all vehicles and at all ports, has revolutionized international and domestic trade, offering huge reduction in transshipment costs. Traditionally, all cargo had to be manually loaded and unloaded into the haul of any ship or car; containerization allows for automated handling and transfer between modes, and the standardized sizes allow for gains in economy of scale in vehicle operation. This has been one of the key driving factors in international trade and globalization since the 1950s.\n\nBulk transport is common with cargo that can be handled roughly without deterioration; typical examples are ore, coal, cereals and petroleum. Because of the uniformity of the product, mechanical handling can allow enormous quantities to be handled quickly and efficiently. The low value of the cargo combined with high volume also means that economies of scale become essential in transport, and gigantic ships and whole trains are commonly used to transport bulk. Liquid products with sufficient volume may also be transported by pipeline.\n\nAir freight has become more common for products of high value; while less than one percent of world transport by volume is by airline, it amounts to forty percent of the value. Time has become especially important in regards to principles such as postponement and just-in-time within the value chain, resulting in a high willingness to pay for quick delivery of key components or items of high value-to-weight ratio. In addition to mail, common items sent by air include electronics and fashion clothing.\n\nHistory\n\nHumans' first means of transport involved walking, running and swimming. The domestication of animals introduced a new way to lay the burden of transport on more powerful creatures, allowing the hauling of heavier loads, or humans riding animals for greater speed and duration. Inventions such as the wheel and the sled helped make animal transport more efficient through the introduction of vehicles. Water transport, including rowed and sailed vessels, dates back to time immemorial, and was the only efficient way to transport large quantities or over large distances prior to the Industrial Revolution.\n\nThe first forms of road transport involved animals, such as horses (domesticated in the 4th or 3rd millennium BCE), oxen (from about 8000 BCE) \nor humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trails. Many early civilizations, including Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization, constructed paved roads. In classical antiquity, the Persian and Roman empires built stone-paved roads to allow armies to travel quickly. Deep roadbeds of crushed stone underneath kept such roads dry. The medieval Caliphate later built tar-paved roads. The first watercraft were canoes cut out from tree trunks. Early water transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for propulsion, or a combination of the two. The importance of water has led to most cities that grew up as sites for trading being located on rivers or on the sea-shore, often at the intersection of two bodies of water. Until the Industrial Revolution, transport remained slow and costly, and production and consumption gravitated as close to each other as feasible.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw a number of inventions fundamentally change transport. With telegraphy, communication became instant and independent of the transport of physical objects. The invention of the steam engine, closely followed by its application in rail transport, made land transport independent of human or animal muscles. Both speed and capacity increased rapidly, allowing specialization through manufacturing being located independently of natural resources. The 19th century also saw the development of the steam ship, which sped up global transport.\n\nWith the development of the combustion engine and the automobile around 1900, road transport became more competitive again, and mechanical private transport originated. The first \"modern\" highways were constructed during the 19th century with macadam. Later, tarmac and concrete became the dominant paving materials. In 1903 the Wright brothers demonstrated the first successful controllable airplane, and after World War I (1914-1918)aircraft became a fast way to transport people and express goods over long distances. \n\nAfter World War II (1939-1945) the automobile and airlines took higher shares of transport, reducing rail and water to freight and short-haul passenger services.Cooper et al., 1998: 277 Scientific spaceflight began in the 1950s, with rapid growth until the 1970s, when interest dwindled. In the 1950s the introduction of containerization gave massive efficiency gains in freight transport, fostering globalization.Bardi, Coyle and Novack, 2006: 211–14 International air travel became much more accessible in the 1960s with the commercialization of the jet engine. Along with the growth in automobiles and motorways, rail and water transport declined in relative importance. After the introduction of the Shinkansen in Japan in 1964, high-speed rail in Asia and Europe started attracting passengers on long-haul routes away from airlines.\n\nEarly in U.S. history, private joint-stock corporations owned most aqueducts, bridges, canals, railroads, roads, and tunnels. Most such transportation infrastructure came under government control in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the nationalization of inter-city passenger rail-service with the establishment of Amtrak. Recently, however, a movement to privatize roads and other infrastructure has gained some ground and adherents. \n\nImpact\n\nEconomic\n\nTransport is a key necessity for specialization—allowing production and consumption of products to occur at different locations. Transport has throughout history been a spur to expansion; better transport allows more trade and a greater spread of people. Economic growth has always been dependent on increasing the capacity and rationality of transport. But the infrastructure and operation of transport has a great impact on the land and is the largest drainer of energy, making transport sustainability a major issue.\n\nDue to the way modern cities and communities are planned and operated, a physical distinction between home and work is usually created, forcing people to transport themselves to places of work, study, or leisure, as well as to temporarily relocate for other daily activities. Passenger transport is also the essence of tourism, a major part of recreational transport. Commerce requires the transport of people to conduct business, either to allow face-to-face communication for important decisions or to move specialists from their regular place of work to sites where they are needed.\n\nPlanning\n\nTransport planning allows for high utilization and less impact regarding new infrastructure. Using models of transport forecasting, planners are able to predict future transport patterns. On the operative level, logistics allows owners of cargo to plan transport as part of the supply chain. Transport as a field is studied through transport economics, the backbone for the creation of regulation policy by authorities. Transport engineering, a sub-discipline of civil engineering, must take into account trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice and route assignment, while the operative level is handled through traffic engineering.\n\nBecause of the negative impacts incurred, transport often becomes the subject of controversy related to choice of mode, as well as increased capacity. Automotive transport can be seen as a tragedy of the commons, where the flexibility and comfort for the individual deteriorate the natural and urban environment for all. Density of development depends on mode of transport, with public transport allowing for better spatial utilization. Good land use keeps common activities close to people's homes and places higher-density development closer to transport lines and hubs, to minimize the need for transport. There are economies of agglomeration. Beyond transportation some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities, pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.\n\nToo much infrastructure and too much smoothing for maximum vehicle throughput means that in many cities there is too much traffic and many—if not all—of the negative impacts that come with it. It is only in recent years that traditional practices have started to be questioned in many places, and as a result of new types of analysis which bring in a much broader range of skills than those traditionally relied on—spanning such areas as environmental impact analysis, public health, sociologists as well as economists—the viability of the old mobility solutions is increasingly being questioned. European cities are leading this transition.\n\nEnvironment\n\nTransport is a major use of energy and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-growing emission sector. By subsector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming. Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced individual vehicles' emissions; however, this has been offset by increases in the numbers of vehicles and in the use of each vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied. Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes, causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport, as well as increased transport electrification and energy efficiency.\n\nOther environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing transportation emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth's air quality, acid rain, smog and climate change." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Oily", "Oil", "ATCvet code QA06AG06", "🝆", "Oil (liquid)", "Heat transfer oil", "Fixed oils", "Petro", "Oils", "ATC code A06AG06", "Thermal oil", "Diathermal oil", "Heat-transfer oil" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "oil", "oils", "thermal oil", "oily", "diathermal oil", "atcvet code qa06ag06", "oil liquid", "petro", "fixed oils", "heat transfer oil", "atc code a06ag06", "🝆" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "oil", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Oil" }
What was the name of the world's first nuclear-powered submarine?	tc_1378	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Submarine.txt", "USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571).txt" ], "title": [ "Submarine", "USS Nautilus (SSN-571)" ], "wiki_context": [ "A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term most commonly refers to a large, crewed, autonomous vessel. It is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine and the wet sub. Used as an adjective in phrases such as submarine cable, submarine means \"under the sea\". The noun submarine evolved as a shortened form of submarine boat (and is often further shortened to sub). For reasons of naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as \"boats\" rather than as \"ships\", regardless of their size.\n\nAlthough experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, and they were adopted by several navies. Submarines were first widely used during World War I (1914–1918), and now figure in many navies large and small. Military usage includes attacking enemy surface ships (merchant and military), submarines, aircraft carrier protection, blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike force, reconnaissance, conventional land attack (for example using a cruise missile), and covert insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection and maintenance. Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology.\n\nMost large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the \"sail\" in American usage, and \"fin\" in European usage. A \"conning tower\" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins. Smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines change the amount of water and air in their ballast tanks to decrease buoyancy for submerging or increase it for surfacing.\n\nSubmarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. They range from small autonomous examples and one- or two-person vessels that operate for a few hours, to vessels that can remain submerged for six months—such as the Russian , the biggest submarines ever built. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers. Modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly Modern era\n\nEarly submersibles\n\nAccording to a report in Opusculum Taisnieri published in 1562:\n\nThe first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was built in 1620 by Cornelius Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England. It was created to the standards of the design outlined by English mathematician William Bourne. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claims suggest it was merely a bell towed by a boat.\n\nLate modern era\n\n18th century submarines\n\nBy the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design necessarily stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion and stability could be applied. \n\nThe first military submarine was the Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person. It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. \n\n19th century submarines\n\nIn 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert Fulton, the . The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later considered Fulton's submarine design.\n\nIn 1864, late in the American Civil War, the Confederate navy's became the first military submarine to sink an enemy vessel, the Union sloop-of-war . In the aftermath of its successful attack against the ship, the Hunley also sank, possibly because it was too close to its own exploding torpedo.\n\nIn 1866, the first submarine that successfully dived, made a controlled underwater cruise and emerged to the surface again all by its own was the Sub Marine Explorer of the German American Julius H. Kroehl (in German, Kröhl), which incorporated many technologies that are still essential to modern submarines. \n\nMechanical power\n\nThe first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French (Diver), launched in 1863, which used compressed air at 180 psi (1241 kPa). There are also claims that Cosme García Sáez produced a viable submersible design in the same epoch.\n\nThe first air–independent and combustion–powered submarine was Ictineo II, designed by the Catalan intellectual, artist and engineer Narcís Monturiol. Launched in Barcelona in 1864, it was originally human-powered, but in 1867 Monturiol invented an air–independent engine to power it underwater. The 14 m long craft was designed for a crew of two, performed dives of 30 m and remained underwater for two hours. Both Ictineo I and Ictineo II were double-hulled vessels that solved pressure and buoyancy control problems that had troubled and limited the functionality of earlier submarines.\n\nThe submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the development of the Whitehead torpedo, the first practical self-propelled or 'locomotive' torpedo. The spar torpedo that had been developed earlier by the Confederate navy was considered to be impracticable, as it was believed to have sunk both its intended target, and probably , the submarine that deployed it. The Whitehead torpedo was designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead. His 'mine ship' was an 11 ft long, 14 in diameter torpedo propelled by compressed air, carrying an explosive warhead. The device had a speed of 7 kn and it could hit a target 700 yd away. \n\nDiscussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the Swedish industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with torpedoes and ready for military use. The first was Nordenfelt I, a 56-tonne, vessel similar to Garret's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 km, armed with a single torpedo, in 1885.\n\nLike Resurgam, Nordenfelt I operated on the surface by steam, then shut down its engine to dive. While submerged the submarine released pressure generated when the engine was running on the surface to provide propulsion for some distance underwater. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans, purchased it. Nordenfelt then built Nordenfelt II () in 1886 and Nordenfelt III (Abdül Mecid) in 1887, a pair of 30 m submarines with twin torpedo tubes, for the Ottoman navy. Abdül Hamid became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo submerged. Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with Nordenfelt IV, which had twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the Russians, but proved unstable, ran aground, and was scrapped.\n\nA reliable means of propulsion for the submerged vessel was only made possible in the 1880s with the advent of the necessary electric battery technology. The first electrically powered boats were built by James Franklin Waddington in England, Dupuy de Lôme and Gustave Zédé in France, and Isaac Peral in Spain. \n\nWaddington's Porpoise was similar in size to Resurgam and its propulsion system consisted of 45 accumulator cells with a capacity of 660 ampere hours each. These were coupled in series to a motor driving a propeller at about 750 rpm, giving the ship a sustained speed of 8 mph for at least 8 hours. The boat was armed with two externally mounted torpedoes as well as a mine torpedo that could be detonated electrically. Although the boat performed well at trials, Waddington was unable to attract further contracts and went bankrupt. \n\nThe Spanish Peral was launched in 1888, and had three 14 in Schwarzkopf torpedoes and one torpedo tube in the bow, new air systems, hull shape, propeller, and cruciform external controls anticipating later designs. Peral was an all-electrical powered submarine. After two years of trials the project was scrapped by naval officials who cited, among other reasons, concerns over its limited range.\n\nThe submarine Gymnote was launched by the French Navy in the same year. Gymnote was also an electrically powered and fully functional military submarine. It completed over 2,000 successful dives using a 204-cell battery. Although the Gymnote project was terminated due to the vessel's limited range, its side hydroplanes became the standard for future submarine designs.\n\n20th century submarines\n\nSubmarines were not put into service for any widespread or routine use by navies until the early 1900s. This era marked a pivotal time in submarine development, and several important technologies appeared. A number of nations built and used submarines. Diesel electric propulsion became the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope became standardized. Countries conducted many experiments on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, which led to their large impact in World War I.\n\nThe Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine in 1876 and a full-scale version in 1878, followed by a number of unsuccessful ones. In 1896 he designed the Holland Type VI submarine, which used internal combustion engine power on the surface and electric battery power underwater. Launched on 17 May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey, the Holland VI was purchased by the United States Navy on 11 April 1900, becoming the Navy's first commissioned submarine, christened . \n\nCommissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric Narval employed the now typical double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over 100 miles (160 km) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.\n\nThe Royal Navy commissioned five Holland-class submarines from Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness, under licence from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company from 1901 to 1903. Construction of the boats took longer than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902. Although the design had been purchased entire from the US company, the actual design used was an untested improvement to the original Holland design using a new 180 hp petrol engine. \n\nThese types of submarines were first used during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Due to the blockade at Port Arthur, the Russians sent their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first \"operational submarine fleet\". The new submarine fleet began patrols on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours each. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the Russian submarine Som was fired upon by Japanese torpedo boats, but then withdrew. \n\nWorld War I\n\nMilitary submarines first made a significant impact in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic, and were responsible for sinking , which was sunk as a result of unrestricted submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war. \n\nAt the outbreak of war Germany had only 20 submarines immediately available for combat, although these included vessels of the diesel-engined U-19 class with the range (5,000 miles) and speed (eight knots) to operate effectively around the entire British coast. By contrast the Royal Navy had a total of 74 submarines, though of mixed effectiveness. In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history. \n\nThe U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel-electric power system developed in the preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats. \n\nWorld War II\n\nDuring World War II, Germany used submarines to devastating effect in the Battle of the Atlantic, where it attempted to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain could replace. (Shipping was vital to supply Britain's population with food, industry with raw material, and armed forces with fuel and armaments.) While U-boats destroyed a significant number of ships, the strategy ultimately failed. Although the U-boats had been updated in the interwar years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack naval tactics (Rudeltaktik, commonly known as \"wolfpack\"), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall. By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) had been sunk by U-boats. \n\nThe Imperial Japanese Navy operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any navy, including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines ( and es), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and long-range fleet submarines. They also had submarines with the highest submerged speeds during World War II (s) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (s). They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95. Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan chose to utilize its submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships.\n\nThe submarine force was the most effective anti-ship weapon in the American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. US submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.\n\nDuring World War II, 314 submarines served in the US Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific. When the Japanese attacked Hawaii in December 1941, 111 boats were in commission; 203 submarines from the , , and es were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities. US submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels, a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk). \n\nThe Royal Navy Submarine Service was used primarily in the classic Axis blockade. Its major operating areas were around Norway, in the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North Africa), and in the Far East. In that war, British submarines sank 2 million tons of enemy shipping and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when engaged the ; the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost, the majority, 42, in the Mediterranean.\n\nCold-War military models\n\nThe first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953, from the deck of , a World War II fleet boat modified to carry the missile with a nuclear warhead. Tunny and its sister boat, , were the United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months. Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the US, the Soviet Union, Britain, and France have been powered by nuclear reactors.\n\nIn 1959–1960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service by both the United States () and the Soviet Union () as part of the Cold War nuclear deterrent strategy.\n\nDuring the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union lost at least four submarines during this period: was lost in 1968 (a part of which the CIA retrieved from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship Glomar Explorer), in 1970, in 1986, and in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—1000 m). Many other Soviet subs, such as (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: due to equipment failure during a test dive while at its operational limit, and due to unknown causes.\n\nDuring the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Pakistan Navy's sank the Indian frigate . This was the first sinking by a submarine since World War II. During the same war, the , a on loan to Pakistan from the US, was sunk. It was the first submarine combat loss since World War II. In 1982 during the Falklands War, the Argentine cruiser was sunk by the British submarine , the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war.\n\n21st century submarines\n\nUsage\n\nMilitary\n\nBefore and during World War II, the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface ship warfare. Submarines would attack either on the surface, using deck guns or submerged, using torpedoes. They were particularly effective in sinking Allied transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting Japanese supply routes and naval operations in the Pacific in World War II.\n\nMine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The facility was used in both World Wars. Submarines were also used for inserting and removing covert agents and military forces, for intelligence gathering, and to rescue aircrew during air attacks on islands, where the airmen would be told of safe places to crash-land so the submarines could rescue them. Submarines could carry cargo through hostile waters or act as supply vessels for other submarines.\n\nSubmarines could usually locate and attack other submarines only on the surface, although managed to sink with a four torpedo spread while both were submerged. The British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine in WWI, the R class. After WWII, with the development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion, submarines also became able to hunt each other effectively.\n\nThe development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons.\n\nThe primary defense of a submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the ocean. Early submarines could be detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent conductor of sound (much better than air), and submarines can detect and track comparatively noisy surface ships from long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis on stealth. Advanced propeller designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special machinery help a submarine remain as quiet as ambient ocean noise, making them difficult to detect. It takes specialized technology to find and attack modern submarines.\n\nActive sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect submarines. It has been used since WWII by surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped buoys and helicopter \"dipping\" arrays), but it reveals the emitter's position, and is susceptible to counter-measures.\n\nA concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy navy to waste resources searching large areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This advantage was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the British nuclear-powered submarine sank the Argentine cruiser . After the sinking the Argentine Navy recognized that they had no effective defense against submarine attack, and the Argentine surface fleet withdrew to port for the remainder of the war, though an Argentine submarine remained at sea.\n\nCivilian\n\nAlthough the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civilian submarines, which are used for tourism, exploration, oil and gas platform inspections, and pipeline surveys. Some are also used in illegal activities.\n\nThe Submarine Voyage ride opened at Disneyland in 1959, but although it ran under water it was not a true submarine, as it ran on tracks and was open to the atmosphere. The first tourist submarine was , which went in to service in 1964 at Expo64. By 1997 there were 45 tourist submarines operating around the world. Submarines with a crush depth in the range of 400 - are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with bottom depths around 100 to, with a carrying capacity of 50 to 100 passengers.\n\nIn a typical operation a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area and loads them into the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interest such as natural or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an observer in a support craft.\n\nA recent development is the deployment of so-called narco submarines by South American drug smugglers to evade law enforcement detection. Although they occasionally deploy true submarines, most are self-propelled semi-submersibles, where a portion of the craft remains above water at all times. In September 2011, Colombian authorities seized a 16-meter-long submersible that could hold a crew of 5, costing about $2 million. The vessel belonged to FARC rebels and had the capacity to carry at least 7 tonnes of drugs. \n\nPolar operations\n\n* 1903 – Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice off Newport, Rhode Island. \n* 1930 – operated under ice near Spitsbergen.\n* 1937 – Soviet submarine Krasnogvardeyets operated under ice in the Denmark Strait.\n* 1941–45 – German U-boats operated under ice from the Barents Sea to the Laptev Sea.\n* 1946 – used upward-beamed fathometer in Operation Nanook in the Davis Strait.\n* 1946–47 – used under-ice sonar in Operation High Jump in the Antarctic.\n* 1947 – used upward-beamed echo sounder under pack ice in the Chukchi Sea.\n* 1948 – developed techniques for making vertical ascents and descents through polynyas in the Chukchi Sea.\n* 1952 – used an expanded upward-beamed sounder array in the Beaufort Sea.\n* 1957 – reached 87 degrees north near Spitsbergen.\n* 3 August 1958 – Nautilus used an inertial navigation system to reach the North Pole.\n* 17 March 1959 – surfaced through the ice at the north pole.\n* 1960 – transited 900 mi under ice over the shallow (125 to deep) Bering-Chukchi shelf.\n* 1960 – transited the Northwest Passage under ice.\n* 1962 – Soviet reached the north pole.\n* 1970 – carried out an extensive undersea mapping survey of the Siberian continental shelf. \n* 1971 – reached the North Pole.\n* conducted three Polar Exercises: 1976 (with US actor Charlton Heston aboard); 1984 joint operations with ; and 1990 joint exercises with . \n* 6 May 1986 – , and meet and surface together at the Geographic North Pole. First multi-submarine surfacing at the Pole.\n* 19 May 1987 – joined and at the North Pole. The first British and American meeting at the North Pole.\n* March 2007 – participated in the Joint US Navy/Royal Navy Ice Exercise 2007 (ICEX-2007) in the Arctic Ocean with the .\n* March 2009 – took part in Ice Exercise 2009 to test submarine operability and war-fighting capability in Arctic conditions.\n\nTechnology\n\nSubmersion and trimming\n\nAll surface ships, as well as surfaced submarines, are in a positively buoyant condition, weighing less than the volume of water they would displace if fully submerged. To submerge hydrostatically, a ship must have negative buoyancy, either by increasing its own weight or decreasing its displacement of water. To control their displacement, submarines have ballast tanks, which can hold varying amounts of water and air.\n\nFor general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward and aft tanks, called Main Ballast Tanks (MBT), which are filled with water to submerge or with air to surface. Submerged, MBTs generally remain flooded, which simplifies their design, and on many submarines these tanks are a section of interhull space. For more precise and quick control of depth, submarines use smaller Depth Control Tanks (DCT) – also called hard tanks (due to their ability to withstand higher pressure), or trim tanks. The amount of water in depth control tanks can be controlled to change depth or to maintain a constant depth as outside conditions (chiefly water density) change. Depth control tanks may be located either near the submarine's center of gravity, or separated along the submarine body to prevent affecting trim.\n\nWhen submerged, the water pressure on a submarine's hull can reach 4 MPa for steel submarines and up to 10 MPa for titanium submarines like , while interior pressure remains relatively unchanged. This difference results in hull compression, which decreases displacement. Water density also marginally increases with depth, as the salinity and pressure are higher. This change in density incompletely compensates for hull compression, so buoyancy decreases as depth increases. A submerged submarine is in an unstable equilibrium, having a tendency to either sink or float to the surface. Keeping a constant depth requires continual operation of either the depth control tanks or control surfaces. \n\nSubmarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired trim, submarines use forward and aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between the tanks, changing weight distribution and pointing the sub up or down. A similar system is sometimes used to maintain stability.\n\nThe hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way to control the submarine underwater. Hydrodynamic maneuvering is done by several surfaces, which can be moved to create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at sufficient speed. The stern planes, located near the propeller and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose as the trim tanks, controlling the trim, and are commonly used, while other control surfaces may not be present on all submarines. The fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main body, both also horizontal, are closer to the center of gravity, and are used to control depth with less effect on the trim. \n\nWhen a submarine performs an emergency surfacing, all depth and trim methods are used simultaneously, together with propelling the boat upwards. Such surfacing is very quick, so the sub may even partially jump out of the water, potentially damaging submarine systems.\n\nHull\n\nOverview\n\nModern submarines are cigar-shaped. This design, visible in early submarines is sometimes called a \"teardrop hull\". It reduces the hydrodynamic drag when submerged, but decreases the sea-keeping capabilities and increases drag while surfaced. Since the limitations of the propulsion systems of early submarines forced them to operate surfaced most of the time, their hull designs were a compromise. Because of the slow submerged speeds of those subs, usually well below 10 kt (18 km/h), the increased drag for underwater travel was acceptable. Late in World War II, when technology allowed faster and longer submerged operation and increased aircraft surveillance forced submarines to stay submerged, hull designs became teardrop shaped again to reduce drag and noise. On modern military submarines the outer hull is covered with a layer of sound-absorbing rubber, or anechoic plating, to reduce detection.\n\nThe occupied pressure hulls of deep diving submarines such as are spherical instead of cylindrical. This allows a more even distribution of stress at the great depth. A titanium frame is usually affixed to the pressure hull, providing attachment for ballast and trim systems, scientific instrumentation, battery packs, syntactic flotation foam, and lighting.\n\nA raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the periscope and electronics masts, which can include radio, radar, electronic warfare, and other systems including the snorkel mast. In many early classes of submarines (see history), the control room, or \"conn\", was located inside this tower, which was known as the \"conning tower\". Since then, the conn has been located within the hull of the submarine, and the tower is now called the \"sail\". The conn is distinct from the \"bridge\", a small open platform in the top of the sail, used for observation during surface operation.\n\n\"Bathtubs\" are related to conning towers but are used on smaller submarines. The bathtub is a metal cylinder surrounding the hatch that prevents waves from breaking directly into the cabin. It is needed because surfaced submarines have limited freeboard, that is, they lie low in the water. Bathtubs help prevent swamping the vessel.\n\nSingle and double hulls \n\nModern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones, usually have a single hull. Large submarines generally have an additional hull or hull sections outside. This external hull, which actually forms the shape of submarine, is called the outer hull (casing in the Royal Navy) or light hull, as it does not have to withstand a pressure difference. Inside the outer hull there is a strong hull, or pressure hull, which withstands sea pressure and has normal atmospheric pressure inside.\n\nAs early as World War I, it was realized that the optimal shape for withstanding pressure conflicted with the optimal shape for seakeeping and minimal drag, and construction difficulties further complicated the problem. This was solved either by a compromise shape, or by using two hulls; internal for holding pressure, and external for optimal shape. Until the end of World War II, most submarines had an additional partial cover on the top, bow and stern, built of thinner metal, which was flooded when submerged. Germany went further with the Type XXI, a general predecessor of modern submarines, in which the pressure hull was fully enclosed inside the light hull, but optimized for submerged navigation, unlike earlier designs that were optimized for surface operation.\n\nAfter World War II, approaches split. The Soviet Union changed its designs, basing them on German developments. All post–World War II heavy Soviet and Russian submarines are built with a double hull structure. American and most other Western submarines switched to a primarily single-hull approach. They still have light hull sections in the bow and stern, which house main ballast tanks and provide a hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main cylindrical hull section has only a single plating layer. Double hulls are being considered for future submarines in the United States to improve payload capacity, stealth and range. \n\nPressure hull\n\nThe pressure hull is generally constructed of thick high-strength steel with a complex structure and high strength reserve, and is separated with watertight bulkheads into several compartments. There are also examples of more than two hulls in a submarine, like the , which has two main pressure hulls and three smaller ones for control room, torpedoes and steering gear, with the missile launch system between the main hulls.\n\nThe dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull thicker increases the weight and requires reduction of onboard equipment weight, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This is acceptable for civilian research submersibles, but not military submarines.\n\nWWI submarines had hulls of carbon steel, with a 100 m maximum depth. During WWII, high-strength alloyed steel was introduced, allowing 200 m depths. High-strength alloy steel remains the primary material for submarines today, with 250 - depths, which cannot be exceeded on a military submarine without design compromises. To exceed that limit, a few submarines were built with titanium hulls. Titanium can be stronger than steel, lighter, and is not ferromagnetic, important for stealth. Titanium submarines were built by the Soviet Union, which developed specialized high-strength alloys. It has produced several types of titanium submarines. Titanium alloys allow a major increase in depth, but other systems must be redesigned to cope, so test depth was limited to 1000 m for the , the deepest-diving combat submarine. An may have successfully operated at 1300 m, though continuous operation at such depths would produce excessive stress on many submarine systems. Titanium does not flex as readily as steel, and may become brittle during many dive cycles. Despite its benefits, the high cost of titanium construction led to the abandonment of titanium submarine construction as the Cold War ended. Deep–diving civilian submarines have used thick acrylic pressure hulls.\n\nThe deepest deep-submergence vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On 5 October 1959, Trieste departed San Diego for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11521 m, although this was later revised to 10916 m and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep slightly shallower, at 10911 m.\n\nBuilding a pressure hull is difficult, as it must withstand pressures at its required diving depth. When the hull is perfectly round in cross-section, the pressure is evenly distributed, and causes only hull compression. If the shape is not perfect, the hull is bent, with several points heavily strained. Inevitable minor deviations are resisted by stiffener rings, but even a one-inch (25 mm) deviation from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and consequently dive depth. The hull must therefore be constructed with high precision. All hull parts must be welded without defects, and all joints are checked multiple times with different methods, contributing to the high cost of modern submarines. (For example, each attack submarine costs US$2.6 billion, over US$200,000 per ton of displacement.)\n\nPropulsion\n\nThe first submarines were propelled by humans. The first mechanically driven submarine was the 1863 French , which used compressed air for propulsion. Anaerobic propulsion was first employed by the Spanish Ictineo II in 1864, which used a solution of zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium chlorate to generate sufficient heat to power a steam engine, while also providing oxygen for the crew. A similar system was not employed again until 1940 when the German Navy tested a hydrogen peroxide-based system, the Walter turbine, on the experimental V-80 submarine and later on the naval and type XVII submarines. \n\nUntil the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th-century submarines used batteries for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the surface, and for battery recharging. Early submarines used gasoline, but this quickly gave way to kerosene (paraffin), then diesel, because of reduced flammability. Diesel-electric became the standard means of propulsion. The diesel or gasoline engine and the electric motor, separated by clutches, were initially on the same shaft driving the propeller. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be disengaged when the submarine dived, so that the motor could drive the propeller. The motor could have multiple armatures on the shaft, which could be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and in parallel for high speed (these connections were called \"group down\" and \"group up\", respectively).\n\nElectric \n\nDiesel-electric \n\nEarly submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and propeller, switching between diesel engines for surface running, and battery-driven electric motors for submerged propulsion.\n\nIn 1928, the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering proposed a diesel-electric transmission. Instead of driving the propeller directly while running on the surface, the submarine's diesel drove a generator that could either charge the submarine's batteries or drive the electric motor. This made electric motor speed independent of diesel engine speed, so the diesel could run at an optimum and non-critical speed. One or more diesel engines could be shut down for maintenance while the submarine continued to run on the remaining engine or battery power. The US pioneered this concept in 1929, in the S-class submarines , , and . The first production submarines with this system were the Porpoise-class of the 1930s, and it was used on most subsequent US diesel submarines through the 1960s. No other navy adopted the system before 1945, apart from the Royal Navy's U-class submarines, though some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy used separate diesel generators for low speed running. \n\nOther advantages of such an arrangement were that a submarine could travel slowly with the engines at full power to recharge the batteries quickly, reducing time on the surface or on snorkel. It was then possible to isolate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the submarine quieter. Additionally, diesel-electric transmissions were more compact.\n\nDuring World War II the Germans experimented with the idea of the schnorchel (snorkel) from captured Dutch submarines, but didn't see the need for them until rather late in the war. The schnorchel was a retractable pipe that supplied air to the diesel engines while submerged at periscope depth, allowing the boats to cruise and recharge their batteries while maintaining a degree of stealth. It was far from a perfect solution, however. There were problems with the device's valve sticking shut or closing as it dunked in rough weather; since the system used the entire pressure hull as a buffer, the diesels would instantaneously suck huge volumes of air from the boat's compartments, and the crew often suffered painful ear injuries. Speed was limited to 8 kn, lest the device snap from stress. The schnorchel also had the effect of making the boat essentially noisy and deaf in sonar terms. Finally, Allied radar eventually became sufficiently advanced that the schnorchel mast could be detected beyond visual range.\n\nWhile the snorkel renders a submarine far less detectable, it is not perfect. In clear weather, diesel exhaust can be seen on the surface to a distance of about three miles, while 'periscope feather' (the wave created by the snorkel or periscope moving through the water), is visible from far off in calm sea conditions. Modern radar is also capable of detecting a snorkel in calm sea conditions. \n\nThe problem of the diesels causing a vacuum in the submarine when the head valve is submerged still exists in later model diesel submarines, but is mitigated by high-vacuum cut-off sensors that shut down the engines when the vacuum in the ship reaches a pre-set point. Modern snorkel induction masts use a fail-safe design using compressed air, controlled by a simple electrical circuit, to hold the \"head valve\" open against the pull of a powerful spring. Seawater washing over the mast shorts out exposed electrodes on top, breaking the control, and shutting the \"head valve\" while it is submerged.\n\nAir-independent propulsion\n\nDuring World War II, German Type XXI submarines (also known as \"Elektroboote\") were the first submarines designed to operate submerged for extended periods. Initially they were to carry hydrogen peroxide for long-term, fast air-independent propulsion, but were ultimately built with very large batteries instead. At the end of the War, the British and Soviets experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin) engines that could run surfaced and submerged. The results were not encouraging. Though the Soviet Union deployed a class of submarines with this engine type (codenamed by NATO), they were considered unsuccessful.\n\nThe United States also used hydrogen peroxide in an experimental midget submarine, X-1. It was originally powered by a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957. X-1 was later converted to use diesel-electric drive. \n\nToday several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably Sweden uses Stirling technology on the and s. The Stirling engine is heated by burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A newer development in air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used on the German Type 212 submarine, with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon to be used in the new Spanish s. \n\nNuclear power\n\nSteam power was resurrected in the 1950s with a nuclear-powered steam turbine driving a generator. By eliminating the need for atmospheric oxygen, the time that a submarine could remain submerged was limited only by its food stores, as breathing air was recycled and fresh water distilled from seawater. More importantly, a nuclear submarine has unlimited range at top speed. This allows it to travel from its operating base to the combat zone in a much shorter time and makes it a far more difficult target for most anti-submarine weapons. Nuclear-powered submarines have a relatively small battery and diesel engine/generator powerplant for emergency use if the reactors must be shut down.\n\nNuclear power is now used in all large submarines, but due to the high cost and large size of nuclear reactors, smaller submarines still use diesel-electric propulsion. The ratio of larger to smaller submarines depends on strategic needs. The US Navy, French Navy, and the British Royal Navy operate only nuclear submarines, which is explained by the need for distant operations. Other major operators rely on a mix of nuclear submarines for strategic purposes and diesel-electric submarines for defense. Most fleets have no nuclear submarines, due to the limited availability of nuclear power and submarine technology.\n\nDiesel-electric submarines have a stealth advantage over their nuclear counterparts. Nuclear submarines generate noise from coolant pumps and turbo-machinery needed to operate the reactor, even at low power levels. Some nuclear submarines such as the American can operate with their reactor coolant pumps secured, making them quieter than electric subs. A conventional submarine operating on batteries is almost completely silent, the only noise coming from the shaft bearings, propeller, and flow noise around the hull, all of which stops when the sub hovers in mid-water to listen, leaving only the noise from crew activity. Commercial submarines usually rely only on batteries, since they operate in conjunction with a mother ship.\n\nSeveral serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps. The reactor accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people were over-exposed to radiation.[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull413/article1.pdf Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources] p. 14 The reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries. The accident in 1985 resulted in 10 fatalities and 49 other radiation injuries.\n\nAlternative propulsion\n\nOil-fired steam turbines powered the British K-class submarines, built during World War I and later, to give them the surface speed to keep up with the battle fleet. The K-class subs were not very successful, however.\n\nToward the end of the 20th century, some submarines—such as the British Vanguard class—began to be fitted with pump-jet propulsors instead of propellers. Though these are heavier, more expensive, and less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, providing an important tactical advantage.\n\nMagnetohydrodynamic drive (MHD) was portrayed as the operating principle behind the titular submarine's nearly silent propulsion system in the film adaptation of The Hunt for Red October. However, in the novel the Red October did not use MHD, but rather something more similar to the above-mentioned pump-jet.\n\nArmament\n\nThe success of the submarine is inextricably linked to the development of the torpedo, invented by Robert Whitehead in 1866. His invention is essentially the same now as it was 140 years ago. Only with self-propelled torpedoes could the submarine make the leap from novelty to a weapon of war. Until the perfection of the guided torpedo, multiple \"straight-running\" torpedoes were required to attack a target. With at most 20 to 25 torpedoes stored on board, the number of attacks was limited. To increase combat endurance most World War I submarines functioned as submersible gunboats, using their deck guns against unarmed targets, and diving to escape and engage enemy warships. The importance of guns encouraged the development of the unsuccessful Submarine Cruiser such as the French and the Royal Navy's and M-class submarines. With the arrival of Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft, guns became more for defense than attack. A more practical method of increasing combat endurance was the external torpedo tube, loaded only in port.\n\nThe ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly led to their use as minelayers. Minelaying submarines of World War I and World War II were specially built for that purpose. Modern submarine-laid mines, such as the British Mark 5 Stonefish and Mark 6 Sea Urchin, can be deployed from a submarine's torpedo tubes.\n\nAfter World War II, both the US and the USSR experimented with submarine-launched cruise missiles such as the SSM-N-8 Regulus and P-5 Pyatyorka. Such missiles required the submarine to surface to fire its missiles. They were the forerunners of modern submarine-launched cruise missiles, which can be fired from the torpedo tubes of submerged submarines, for example the US BGM-109 Tomahawk and Russian RPK-2 Viyuga and versions of surface–to–surface anti-ship missiles such as the Exocet and Harpoon, encapsulated for submarine launch. Ballistic missiles can also be fired from a submarine's torpedo tubes, for example missiles such as the anti-submarine SUBROC. With internal volume as limited as ever and the desire to carry heavier warloads, the idea of the external launch tube was revived, usually for encapsulated missiles, with such tubes being placed between the internal pressure and outer streamlined hulls.\n\nThe strategic mission of the SSM-N-8 and the P-5 was taken up by submarine-launched ballistic missile beginning with the US Navy's Polaris missile, and subsequently the Poseidon and Trident missiles.\n\nGermany is working on the torpedo tube-launched short-range IDAS missile, which can be used against ASW helicopters, as well as surface ships and coastal targets.\n\nSensors\n\nA submarine can have a variety of sensors, depending on its missions. Modern military submarines rely almost entirely on a suite of passive and active sonars to locate targets. Active sonar relies on an audible \"ping\" to generate echoes to reveal objects around the submarine. Active systems are rarely used, as doing so reveals the sub's presence. Passive sonar is a set of sensitive hydrophones set into the hull or trailed in a towed array, generally several hundred feet long. The towed array is the mainstay of NATO submarine detection systems, as it reduces the flow noise heard by operators. Hull mounted sonar is employed to back up the towed array, and in confined waters where obstacles could foul a towed array.\n\nSubmarines also carry radar equipment to detect surface ships and aircraft. Submarine captains are more likely to use radar detection gear than active radar to detect targets, as radar can be detected far beyond its own return range, revealing the submarine. Periscopes are rarely used, except for position fixes and to verify a contact's identity.\n\nCivilian submarines, such as the or the Russian Mir submersibles, rely on small active sonar sets and viewing ports to navigate. The human eye cannot detect sunlight below about 300 ft underwater, so high intensity lights are used to illuminate the viewing area.\n\nNavigation\n\nEarly submarines had few navigation aids, but modern subs have a variety of navigation systems. Modern military submarines use an inertial guidance system for navigation while submerged, but drift error unavoidably builds over time. To counter this, the crew occasionally uses the Global Positioning System to obtain an accurate position. The periscope—a retractable tube with a prism system that provides a view of the surface—is only used occasionally in modern submarines, since the visibility range is short. The and s use photonics masts rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. These masts must still be deployed above the surface, and use electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range-finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the mast above the surface is that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the water and is much harder to detect visually or by radar.\n\nCommunication\n\nMilitary submarines use several systems to communicate with distant command centers or other ships. One is VLF (Very Low Frequency) radio, which can reach a submarine either on the surface or submerged to a fairly shallow depth, usually less than 250 ft. ELF (Extremely Low Frequency) can reach a submarine at greater depths, but has a very low bandwidth and is generally used to call a submerged sub to a shallower depth where VLF signals can reach. A submarine also has the option of floating a long, buoyant wire antenna to a shallower depth, allowing VLF transmissions by a deeply submerged boat.\n\nBy extending a radio mast, a submarine can also use a \"burst transmission\" technique. A burst transmission takes only a fraction of a second, minimizing a submarine's risk of detection.\n\nTo communicate with other submarines, a system known as Gertrude is used. Gertrude is basically a sonar telephone. Voice communication from one submarine is transmitted by low power speakers into the water, where it is detected by passive sonars on the receiving submarine. The range of this system is probably very short, and using it radiates sound into the water, which can be heard by the enemy.\n\nCivilian submarines can use similar, albeit less powerful systems to communicate with support ships or other submersibles in the area.\n\nLife support systems\n\nWith nuclear power or air-independent propulsion, submarines can remain submerged for months at a time. Conventional diesel submarines must periodically resurface or run on snorkel to recharge their batteries. Most modern military submarines generate breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water (using a device called an \"Elektrolytic Oxygen Generator\"). Atmosphere control equipment includes a CO2 scrubber, which uses an amine absorbent to remove the gas from air and diffuse it into waste pumped overboard. A machine that uses a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide (removed by the CO2 scrubber) and bonds hydrogen produced from the ship's storage battery with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce water, is also used. An atmosphere monitoring system samples the air from different areas of the ship for nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, R-12 and R-114 refrigerants, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other gases. Poisonous gases are removed, and oxygen is replenished by use of an oxygen bank located in a main ballast tank. Some heavier submarines have two oxygen bleed stations (forward and aft). The oxygen in the air is sometimes kept a few percent less than atmospheric concentration to reduce fire danger.\n\nFresh water is produced by either an evaporator or a reverse osmosis unit. The primary use for fresh water is to provide feedwater for the reactor and steam propulsion plants. It is also available for showers, sinks, cooking and cleaning once propulsion plant needs have been met. Seawater is used to flush toilets, and the resulting \"black water\" is stored in a sanitary tank until it is blown overboard using pressurized air or pumped overboard by using a special sanitary pump. The blackwater–discharge system is difficult to operate, and the German Type VIIC boat was lost with casualties because of human error while using this system. Water from showers and sinks is stored separately in \"grey water\" tanks and discharged overboard using drain pumps.\n\nTrash on modern large submarines is usually disposed of using a tube called a Trash Disposal Unit (TDU), where it is compacted into a galvanized steel can. At the bottom of the TDU is a large ball valve. An ice plug is set on top of the ball valve to protect it, the cans atop the ice plug. The top breech door is shut, and the TDU is flooded and equalized with sea pressure, the ball valve is opened and the cans fall out assisted by scrap iron weights in the cans. The TDU is also flushed with seawater to ensure it is completely empty and the ball valve is clear before closing the valve.\n\nCrew\n\nA typical nuclear submarine has a crew of over 80; conventional boats typically have fewer than 40. The conditions on a submarine can be difficult because crew members must work in isolation for long periods of time, without family contact. Submarines normally maintain radio silence to avoid detection. Operating a submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime, and many submarines have been lost in accidents.\n\nWomen\n\nMost navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even after they had been permitted to serve on surface warships. The Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy to allow females on its submarine crews in 1985. The Royal Danish Navy allowed female submariners in 1988. Others followed suit including the Swedish Navy (1989), the Royal Australian Navy (1998), the German Navy (2001) and the Canadian Navy (2002). In 1995, Solveig Krey of the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first female officer to assume command on a military submarine, . \n\nOn 8 December 2011, British Defence Secretary Philip Hammond announced that the UK's ban on women in submarines was to be lifted from 2013. Previously there were fears that women were more at risk from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the submarine. But a study showed no medical reason to exclude women, though pregnant women would still be excluded. Similar dangers to the pregnant woman and her fetus barred females from submarine service in Sweden in 1983, when all other positions were made available for them in the Swedish Navy. Today, pregnant women are still not allowed to serve on submarines in Sweden. However, the policymakers thought that it was discriminatory with a general ban and demanded that females should be tried on their individual merits and have their suitability evaluated and compared to other candidates. Further, they noted that a female complying with such high demands is unlikely to become pregnant. In May 2014, three women became the RN's first female submariners. \n\nWomen have served on US Navy surface ships since 1993, and , began serving on submarines for the first time. Until presently, the Navy only allowed three exceptions to women being on board military submarines: female civilian technicians for a few days at most, women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for Navy ROTC and Naval Academy, and family members for one-day dependent cruises. In 2009, senior officials, including then-Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus, Joint Chief of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary Roughead, began the process of finding a way to implement females on submarines. In 2011, the first class of female submarine officers graduated from Naval Submarine School's Submarine Officer Basic Course (SOBC) at the Naval Submarine Base New London. Additionally, more senior ranking and experienced female supply officers from the surface warfare specialty attended SOBC as well, proceeding to fleet Ballistic Missile (SSBN) and Guided Missile (SSGN) submarines along with the new female submarine line officers beginning in late 2011. \n\nBoth the US and British navies operate nuclear-powered submarines that deploy for periods of six months or longer. Other navies that permit women to serve on submarines operate conventionally powered submarines, which deploy for much shorter periods—usually only for a few months. Prior to the change by the US, no nation using nuclear submarines permitted women to serve on board. \n\nIn 2012, the US Navy announced that women would begin serving on US attack submarines in 2013. In 2013, US Navy Secretary Ray Mabus said that the first women to join Virginia-class attack subs had been chosen. They were newly commissioned female officers scheduled to report to their subs in fiscal year 2015. On 15 October 2013, the US Navy announced that two submarines, and , would have female crew-members by January 2015. By late 2011 several women were assigned to . \n\nAbandoning the vessel\n\nIn an emergency, submarines can transmit a signal to other ships. The crew can use Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment to abandon the submarine. The crew can prevent a lung injury from the pressure change known as pulmonary barotrauma by exhaling during the ascent. Following escape from a pressurized submarine, the crew is at risk of developing decompression sickness. An alternative escape means is via a Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle that can dock onto the disabled submarine.", "USS Nautilus (SSN-571) was the world's first operational nuclear-powered submarine. The vessel was the first submarine to complete a submerged transit of the North Pole on 3 August 1958. Sharing names with Captain Nemo's fictional submarine in Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, and named after another that served with distinction in World War II, Nautilus was authorized in 1951 and launched in 1954. Because her nuclear propulsion allowed her to remain submerged far longer than diesel-electric submarines, she broke many records in her first years of operation, and traveled to locations previously beyond the limits of submarines. In operation, she revealed a number of limitations in her design and construction. This information was used to improve subsequent submarines.\n\nNautilus was decommissioned in 1980 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1982. The submarine has been preserved as a submarine museum in Groton, Connecticut, where the vessel receives some 250,000 visitors a year.\n\nPlanning and construction\n\nIn July 1951 the United States Congress authorized the construction of a nuclear-powered submarine for the U.S. Navy, which was planned and personally supervised by Captain (later Admiral) Hyman G. Rickover, USN, known as the \"Father of the Nuclear Navy.\" On 12 December 1951 the US Department of the Navy announced that the submarine would be called Nautilus, the fourth U.S. Navy vessel officially so named. The boat carried the hull number SSN-571. The Nautilus benefited from the GUPPY improvements to the American Gato-, Balao-, and Tench-class submarines.\n\nNautiluss keel was laid at General Dynamics' Electric Boat Division in Groton, Connecticut by Harry S. Truman on 14 June 1952. She was christened on 21 January 1954 and launched into the Thames River, sponsored by Mamie Eisenhower. Nautilus was commissioned on 30 September 1954, under the command of Commander Eugene P. Wilkinson, USN.\n\nNautilus was powered by the Submarine Thermal Reactor (STR), later redesignated the S2W reactor, a pressurized water reactor produced for the US Navy by Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory, operated by Westinghouse, developed the basic reactor plant design used in Nautilus after being given the assignment on 31 December 1947 to design a nuclear power plant for a submarine. Nuclear power had the crucial advantage in submarine propulsion because it is a zero-emission process that consumes no air. This design is the basis for nearly all of the US nuclear-powered submarine and surface combat ships, and was adapted by other countries for naval nuclear propulsion. The first actual prototype (for Nautilus) was constructed and tested by the Argonne National Laboratory in 1953 at the S1W facility, part of the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho. \n\nNautilus ship's patch was designed by The Walt Disney Company, and her wardroom currently displays a set of tableware made of zirconium, as the reactor core was partly made of zirconium.\n\n\"Underway on nuclear power\"\n\nFollowing her commissioning, Nautilus remained dockside for further construction and testing. At 11 a.m. on 17 January 1955 she put to sea for the first time and signaled her historic message: \"Underway on nuclear power.\" On 10 May, she headed south for shakedown. Submerged throughout, she traveled 1100 nmi from New London to San Juan, Puerto Rico and covered 1200 nmi in less than ninety hours. At the time, this was the longest submerged cruise by a submarine and at the highest sustained speed (for at least one hour) ever recorded.\n\nFrom 1955 to 1957, Nautilus continued to be used to investigate the effects of increased submerged speeds and endurance. The improvements rendered the progress made in anti-submarine warfare during World War II virtually obsolete. Radar and anti-submarine aircraft, which had proved crucial in defeating submarines during the war, proved ineffective against a vessel able to quickly move out of an area, change depth quickly and stay submerged for very long periods. \n\nOn 4 February 1957, Nautilus logged her 60,000th nautical mile (60000 nmi), matching the endurance of her namesake, the fictional Nautilus described in Jules Verne's novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under The Sea. In May, she departed for the Pacific Coast to participate in coastal exercises and the fleet exercise, operation \"Home Run,\" which acquainted units of the Pacific Fleet with the capabilities of nuclear submarines.\n\nNautilus returned to New London, Connecticut, on 21 July and departed again on 19 August for her first voyage of 1200 nmi under polar pack ice. Thereafter, she headed for the Eastern Atlantic to participate in NATO exercises and conduct a tour of various British and French ports where she was inspected by defense personnel of those countries. She arrived back at New London on 28 October, underwent upkeep, and then conducted coastal operations until the spring.\n\nOperation Sunshine – under the North Pole\n\nIn response to the nuclear ICBM threat posed by Sputnik, President Eisenhower ordered the U.S. Navy to attempt a submarine transit of the North Pole to gain credibility for the soon-to-come SLBM weapons system. \n\nOn 25 April 1958, Nautilus was underway again for the West Coast, now commanded by Commander William R. Anderson, USN.\n\nStopping at San Diego, San Francisco, and Seattle, she began her history-making polar transit, operation \"Sunshine\", as she departed the latter port on 9 June. On 19 June she entered the Chukchi Sea, but was turned back by deep drift ice in those shallow waters. On 28 June she arrived at Pearl Harbor to await better ice conditions.\n\nBy 23 July 1958 her wait was over, and she set a course northward. She submerged in the Barrow Sea Valley on 1 August and on 3 August, at 2315 (EDT) she became the first watercraft to reach the geographic North Pole. The ability to navigate at extreme latitudes and without surfacing was enabled by the technology of the North American Aviation N6A-1 Inertial Navigation System, a naval modification of the N6A used in the Navaho cruise missile; it had been installed on Nautilus and after initial sea trials on in 1957. From the North Pole, she continued on and after 96 hours and 1590 nmi under the ice, surfaced northeast of Greenland, having completed the first successful submerged voyage around the North Pole. The technical details of this mission were planned by scientists from the Naval Electronics Laboratory including Dr. Waldo Lyon who accompanied Nautilus as chief scientist and ice pilot.\n\nNavigation beneath the arctic ice sheet was difficult. Above 85°N both magnetic compasses and normal gyrocompasses become inaccurate. A special gyrocompass built by Sperry Rand was installed shortly before the journey. There was a risk that the submarine would become disoriented beneath the ice and that the crew would have to play \"longitude roulette\". Commander Anderson had considered using torpedoes to blow a hole in the ice if the submarine needed to surface. \n\nThe most difficult part of the journey was in the Bering Strait. The ice extended as much as 60 ft below sea level. During the initial attempt to go through the Bering Strait, there was insufficient room between the ice and the sea bottom. During the second, successful attempt to pass through the Bering passage, the submarine passed through a known channel close to Alaska (this was not the first choice, as the submarine wanted to avoid detection).\n\nThe trip beneath the ice cap was an important boost to America as the Soviets had recently launched Sputnik, but had no nuclear submarine of their own. During the address announcing the journey, the president mentioned that one day nuclear cargo submarines might use that route for trade. \n\nAs Nautilus proceeded south from Greenland, a helicopter airlifted Commander Anderson to connect with transport to Washington, D.C. At a White House ceremony on 8 August, President Eisenhower presented him with the Legion of Merit and announced that the crew had earned a Presidential Unit Citation. \n\nAt her next port of call, the Isle of Portland, England, she received the Unit Citation, the first ever issued in peace time, from American Ambassador JH Whitney, and then crossed the Atlantic reaching New London, Connecticut on 29 October. For the remainder of the year Nautilus operated from her home port of New London.\n\nOperational history\n\nFollowing fleet exercises in early 1959, Nautilus entered the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, for her first complete overhaul (28 May 1959 – 15 August 1960). Overhaul was followed by refresher training and on 24 October she departed New London for her first deployment with the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, returning to her home-port 16 December.\n\nNautilus spent most of her career assigned to SubRon Ten (Submarine Squadron Ten) at State Pier in New London, Connecticut. The squadron commander was stationed aboard , a submarine tender also stationed at State Pier. Nautilus and other submarines in the squadron made their home tied up alongside the tender, where they received preventive maintenance and, if necessary, repairs, from the well-equipped Fulton and her crew of machinists, millwrights, and other craftsmen.\n\nNautilus operated in the Atlantic, conducting evaluation tests for ASW improvements, participating in NATO exercises and, during October 1962, in the naval quarantine of Cuba, until she headed east again for a two-month Mediterranean tour in August 1963. On her return she joined in fleet exercises until entering the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard for her second overhaul 17 January 1964.\n\nOn 2 May 1966, Nautilus returned to her homeport to resume operations with the Atlantic Fleet, and at some point around that month, logged her 300,000th nautical mile (300000 nmi) underway. For the next year and a quarter she conducted special operations for ComSubLant and then in August 1967, returned to Portsmouth, for another year's stay. During an exercise in 1966 she collided with the aircraft carrier on 10 November, while diving shallow. Following repairs in Portsmouth she conducted exercises off the southeastern seaboard. She returned to New London in December 1968 and operated as a unit of Submarine Squadron 10 for most of the remainder of her career.\n\nIn the spring of 1979, Nautilus set out from Groton, Connecticut on her final voyage under the command of Richard A. Riddell. She reached Mare Island Naval Shipyard of Vallejo, California on 26 May 1979, her last day underway. She was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 3 March 1980.\n\nNoise\n\nToward the end of its service, the hull and sail of Nautilus vibrated sufficiently that sonar became ineffective at more than 4 kn speed. As noise generation is extremely undesirable in submarines, this made the vessel vulnerable to detection. Lessons learned from this problem were applied to later nuclear submarines. \n\nAwards and commendations\n\nPresidential Unit Citation\n\nTo commemorate the first submerged voyage under the North Pole, all Nautilus crewmembers who made the voyage may wear a Presidential Unit Citation ribbon with a special clasp in the form of a gold block letter N (image above). \n\nMuseum\n\nNautilus was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Secretary of the Interior on 20 May 1982.\n and\n\nShe was named as the official state ship of Connecticut in 1983. Following an extensive conversion at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, Nautilus was towed back to Groton, Connecticut, under the command of Captain John Almon, arriving on 6 July 1985. On 11 April 1986, Nautilus opened to the public as part of the Submarine Force Library and Museum. \n\nNautilus now serves as a museum of submarine history operated by the Naval History and Heritage Command. The ship underwent a five-month preservation in 2002 at the Electric Boat division of General Dynamics, at a cost of approximately $4.7 million ($ in present-day terms). Nautilus attracts some 250,000 visitors annually to her present berth near Naval Submarine Base New London.\n\nNautilus celebrated the 50th anniversary of her commissioning on 30 September 2004 with a ceremony that included a speech from Vice Admiral Eugene P Wilkinson, the first Commanding Officer of Nautilus, and a designation of the ship as an American Nuclear Society National Nuclear Landmark.\n\nVisitors may tour the forward two compartments, with guidance from an automated system. Despite similar alterations to exhibit the engineering spaces, tours aft of the control room are not permitted due to safety and security concerns." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nautilus", "Nautilid", "Nautili", "Nautilidae", "Eutrephoceratidae", "Nautilus (zoology)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "nautilus zoology", "nautili", "nautilus", "eutrephoceratidae", "nautilidae", "nautilid" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nautilus", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nautilus" }
Which American company pioneered electric ignition in motor cars?	tc_1380	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Car.txt" ], "title": [ "Car" ], "wiki_context": [ "A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. Most definitions of the term specify that cars are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels with tyres, and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods. The year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen. Cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, but took much longer to be accepted in Western Europe and other parts of the world.\n\nCars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, making them progressively more complex. Examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by an internal combustion engine, fueled by deflagration of gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel. Both fuels cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries. Electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008.\n\nThere are costs and benefits to car use. The costs of car usage include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, interest payments (if the car is financed), repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include: maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life. Road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide.\n\nThe benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience. The societal benefits may include: economic benefits, such as job and wealth creation from car production, sales and maintenance, transportation provision, society well-being derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies. It was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India and other newly industrialized countries. \n\nEtymology\n\nThe word \"car\" is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum (\"wheeled vehicle\"), or the Middle English word carre (meaning cart, from Old North French). In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros (a Gallic chariot). The Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr; the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh (and Gaelic) where 'Car llusg' (a drag cart or sledge) and 'car rhyfel' (war chariot) still survive. [http://www.lib.wayne.edu/resources/special_collections/local/cfai/index.php 'Car' derived from 'carrus'] It originally referred to any wheeled horse-drawn vehicle, such as a cart, carriage, or wagon. \"Motor car\" is attested from 1895, and is the usual formal name for cars in British English. \"Autocar\" is a variant that is also attested from 1895, but that is now considered archaic. It literally means \"self-propelled car\". The term \"horseless carriage\" was used by some to refer to the first cars at the time that they were being built, and is attested from 1895. \n\nThe word \"automobile\" is a classical compound derived from the Ancient Greek word autós (αὐτός), meaning \"self\", and the Latin word mobilis, meaning \"movable\". It entered the English language from French, and was first adopted by the Automobile Club of Great Britain in 1897. Over time, the word \"automobile\" fell out of favour in Britain, and was replaced by \"motor car\". It remains a chiefly North American usage. An abbreviated form, \"auto\", was formerly a common way to refer to cars in English, but is now considered old-fashioned. The word is still used in some compound formations in American English, like \"auto industry\" and \"auto mechanic\". \n\nHistory\n\nThe first working steam-powered vehicle was designed—and most likely built—by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65-cm-long scale-model toy for the Chinese Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger. – Note that the vehicle pictured is the 20th century diecast model made by Brumm, of a later vehicle, not a model based on Verbiest's plans. It is not known if Verbiest's model was ever built.\n\nNicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first full-scale, self-propelled mechanical vehicle or car in about 1769; he created a steam-powered tricycle. He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts. His inventions were, however, handicapped by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure. In 1801, Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and was of little practical use.\n\nThe development of external combustion engines is detailed as part of the history of the car, but often treated separately from the development of true cars. A variety of steam-powered road vehicles were used during the first part of the 19th century, including steam cars, steam buses, phaetons, and steam rollers. Sentiment against them led to the Locomotive Acts of 1865.\n\nIn 1807, Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world's first internal combustion engine (which they called a Pyréolophore), but they chose to install it in a boat on the river Saone in France. Coincidentally, in 1807 the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own 'de Rivaz internal combustion engine' and used it to develop the world's first vehicle to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried spores of the Lycopodium plant), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. Neither design was very successful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir with his hippomobile, who each produced vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by internal combustion engines.\n\nIn November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris. \n\nAlthough several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the same time, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modern car.\n\nIn 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle. His first Motorwagen was built in 1885 in Mannheim, Germany. He was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on 29 January 1886 (under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883). Benz began promotion of the vehicle on 3 July 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model intended for affordability. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early cars, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany. In August 1888 Bertha Benz, the wife of Karl Benz, undertook the first road trip by car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention.\n\nIn 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine, called boxermotor. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was the largest car company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company.\n\nThe first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra) in 1897, the Präsident automobil.\n\nDaimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890, and sold their first car in 1892 under the brand name Daimler. It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, which they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, Maybach and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together; by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG.\n\nDaimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG car was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine, which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers.\n\nKarl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and, in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest, valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, and sales and they advertised or marketed their car models jointly, although keeping their respective brands. On 28 June 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its cars Mercedes Benz, as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG cars, the Maybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35 hp, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929, and at times his two sons also participated in the management of the company.\n\nIn 1890, Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the automotive industry in France. In 1891, Auguste Doriot and his Peugeot colleague Louis Rigoulot completed the longest trip by a gasoline-powered vehicle when their self-designed and built Daimler powered Peugeot Type 3 completed 2100 km from Valentigney to Paris and Brest and back again. They were attached to the first Paris–Brest–Paris bicycle race, but finished 6 days after the winning cyclist, Charles Terront.\n\nThe first design for an American car with a gasoline internal combustion engine was made in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York. Selden applied for a patent for a car in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments to his application, on 5 November 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent () for a two-stroke car engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of cars in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911.\n\nIn 1893, the first running, gasoline-powered American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers of Springfield, Massachusetts. The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on 21 September 1893, on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield. The Studebaker Automobile Company, subsidiary of a long-established wagon and coach manufacturer, started to build cars in 1897 and commenced sales of electric vehicles in 1902 and gasoline vehicles in 1904. \n\nIn Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860. Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first gasoline-powered car in the country in 1894 followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs. The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first car in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler.\n\nIn 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a \"New Rational Combustion Engine\". In 1897, he built the first diesel engine. Steam-, electric-, and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.\n\nAlthough various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.\n\nMass production\n\nThe large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable cars was debuted by Ransom Olds in 1901 at his Oldsmobile factory located in Lansing, Michigan and based upon stationary assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills, England, in 1802. The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the U.S. by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1913 with the world's first moving assembly line for cars at the Highland Park Ford Plant.\n\nAs a result, Ford's cars came off the line in fifteen-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold, while using less manpower (from 12.5-man-hours to 1 hour 33 minutes). It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan Black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1913, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, \"any color as long as it's black\". In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.\n\nFord's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called \"Fordism,\" and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.\n\nIn the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.\n\nDevelopment of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.\n\nSince the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced car design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, called the General Motors Companion Make Program, so that buyers could \"move up\" as their fortunes improved.\n\nReflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson, Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.\n\nIn Europe much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practice of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41% of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra, had gone under. Citroen did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CV and Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete. Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Russelsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5% of the market.\n\nIn Japan, car production was very limited before World War II. Only a handful of companines were producing vehicles in limited numbers, and the vehicles were small, and three-wheeled for commercial uses, like Daihatsu, or were the result of partnering with European companies, like Isuzu building the Wolseley A-9 in 1922. Mitsubishi was also partnered with Fiat and built the Mitsubishi Model A based on a Fiat vehicle. Toyota, Nissan, Suzuki, Mazda, and Honda began as companies producing non-automotive products before the war, switching to car production during the 1950s. Kiichiro Toyoda's decision to take Toyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing would create what would eventually become Toyota Motor Corporation, the largest automobile manufacturer in the world. Subaru, meanwhile, was formed from a conglomerate of six companies who banded together as Fuji Heavy Industries, as a result of having been broken up under keiretsu legislation.\n\nFuel and propulsion technologies\n\nMost cars in use today are propelled by an internal combustion engine, fueled by deflagration of gasoline or diesel. Both fuels are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming. Rapidly increasing oil prices, concerns about oil dependence, tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for cars. Efforts to improve or replace existing technologies include the development of hybrid vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries. Cars for racing or speed records have sometimes employed jet or rocket engines, but these are impractical for common use.\n\nOil consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by car growth; the 1985–2003 oil glut even fuelled the sales of low-economy vehicles in OECD countries. The BRIC countries are adding to this consumption; in December 2009 China was briefly the largest car market.\n\nUser interface\n\nCars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort and safety, normally operated by a combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 2000s-era cars. These controls include a steering wheel, pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car's speed (and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal), a shift lever or stick for changing gears, and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights, ventilation and other functions. Modern cars' controls are now standardised, such as the location for the accelerator and brake, but this was not always the case. Controls are evolving in response to new technologies, for example the electric car and the integration of mobile communications.\n\nSince the car was first invented, its controls have become fewer and simpler through automation. For example, all cars once had a manual controls for the choke valve, clutch, ignition timing, and a crank instead of an electric starter. However new controls have also been added to vehicles, making them more complex. Examples include air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Another trend is the replacement of physical knob and switches for secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW's iDrive and Ford's MyFord Touch. Another change is that while early cars' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the 2010s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls.\n\nLighting\n\nCars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. These include headlights, which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car (and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing); and on some vehicles, additional lights (e.g., side marker lights) to increase the visibility of the car. Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a trunk light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light.\n\nWeight\n\nIn the United States, \"from 1975 to 1980, average [car] weight dropped from , likely in response to rising gasoline prices\" and new fuel efficiency standards. The average new car weighed 3221 lb in 1987 but 4009 lb in 2010, due to modern steel safety cages, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and \"more-powerful—if more-efficient—engines.\" Heavier cars are safer for the driver, from an accident perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users. The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. The SmartFortwo, a small city car, weighs 750 -. Heavier cars include full-size cars, SUVs and extended-length SUVs like the Suburban.\n\nAccording to research conducted by Julian Allwood of the University of Cambridge, global energy use could be heavily reduced by using lighter cars, and an average weight of 500 kg has been said to be well achievable. In some competitions such as the Shell Eco Marathon, average car weights of 45 kg have also been achieved. These cars are only single-seaters (still falling within the definition of a car, although 4-seater cars are more common), but they nevertheless demonstrate the amount by which car weights could still be reduced, and the subsequent lower fuel use (i.e. up to a fuel use of 2560 km/l). \n\nSeating and body style\n\nMost cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear. Full-size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. In the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. The differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted in the availability of a large variety of body styles to meet individual consumer requirements that include, among others, the sedan/saloon, hatchback, station wagon/estate, and minivan.\n\nSafety\n\nRoad traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland, and Henry Bliss one of the United States' first pedestrian car casualties in 1899 in New York City. \nThere are now standard tests for safety in new cars, such as the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests, and insurance-industry-backed tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). \n\nWorldwide, road traffic is becoming ever safer, in part due to efforts by the government to implement safety features in cars (e.g., seat belts, air bags, etc.), reduce unsafe driving practices (e.g., speeding, drinking and driving and texting and driving) and make road design more safe by adding features such as speed bumps, which reduce vehicle speed, and roundabouts, which reduce the likelihood of a head-on-collision (as compared with an intersection).\n\nCosts and benefits\n\nThe costs of car usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance, are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits – perceived and real – of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience. During the 1920s, cars had another benefit: \"[c]ouples finally had a way to head off on unchaperoned dates, plus they had a private space to snuggle up close at the end of the night.\" \n\nSimilarly the costs to society of encompassing car use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, land use, air pollution, road congestion, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that car use generates. The societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of car production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies.\n\nEnvironmental impact\n\nWhile there are different types of fuel that may power cars, most rely on gasoline or diesel. The United States Environmental Protection Agency states that the average vehicle emits 8,887 grams of carbon dioxide per gallon of gasoline. The average vehicle running on diesel fuel will emit 10,180 grams of carbon dioxide. Many governments are using fiscal policies (such as road tax or the US gas guzzler tax) to influence vehicle purchase decisions, with a low figure often resulting in reduced taxation. Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's cars are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution. In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have changed more frequently, and were set at in 2007. \n\nThe manufacture of vehicles is resource intensive, and many manufacturers now report on the environmental performance of their factories, including energy usage, waste and water consumption. \n\nThe growth in popularity of the car allowed cities to sprawl, therefore encouraging more travel by car resulting in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases. \n\nTransportation (of all types including trucks, buses and cars) is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has worsened over the last decade. \n\nAnimals and plants are often negatively impacted by cars via habitat destruction and pollution. Over the lifetime of the average car the \"loss of habitat potential\" may be over 50000 m2 based on primary production correlations. Animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill. More recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigations in their designs such as green bridges to allow wildlife crossings, and creating wildlife corridors.\n\nGrowth in the popularity of vehicles and commuting has led to traffic congestion. Brussels was considered Europe's most congested city in 2011 according to TomTom. \n\nEmerging car technologies\n\nCar propulsion technologies that are under development include gasoline/electric and plug-in hybrids, battery electric vehicles, hydrogen cars, biofuels, and various alternative fuels. Research into future alternative forms of power include the development of fuel cells, Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), Stirling engines, and even using the stored energy of compressed air or liquid nitrogen.\n\nNew materials which may replace steel car bodies include duralumin, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and carbon nanotubes. Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-go basis, through car share and carpool schemes. Communication is also evolving due to connected car systems.\n\nAutonomous car\n\nFully autonomous vehicles, also known as driverless cars, already exist in prototype (such as the Google driverless car), and are expected to be commercially available around 2020. According to urban designer and futurist Michael E. Arth, driverless electric vehicles—in conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work, travel, and pleasure—could reduce the world's 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades. This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers, which are not in use and parked 90% of the time, would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use. This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular need—a bus could come for a group of people, a limousine could come for a special night out, and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person. Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety, DUIs would no longer exist, and 41,000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone. \n\nOpen source development\n\nThere have been several projects aiming to develop a car on the principles of open design. The projects include OScar, Riversimple (through 40fires.org) and c,mm,n. None of the projects have reached significant success in terms of developing a car as a whole both from hardware and software perspective and no mass production ready open-source based design have been introduced as of late 2009. Some car hacking through on-board diagnostics (OBD) has been done so far. \n\nIndustry\n\nThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide. \n\nIn 2007, a total of 71.9 million new cars were sold worldwide: 22.9 million in Europe, 21.4 million in the Asia-Pacific Region, 19.4 million in the USA and Canada, 4.4 million in Latin America, 2.4 million in the Middle East and 1.4 million in Africa. The markets in North America and Japan were stagnant, while those in South America and other parts of Asia grew strongly. Of the major markets, China, Russia, Brazil and India saw the most rapid growth.\n\nAbout 250 million vehicles are in use in the United States. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; they burn over 260 e9USgal of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India. In the opinion of some, urban transport systems based around the car have proved unsustainable, consuming excessive energy, affecting the health of populations, and delivering a declining level of service despite increasing investments. Many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars. The sustainable transport movement focuses on solutions to these problems.\n\nIn 2008, with rapidly rising oil prices, industries such as the automotive industry, are experiencing a combination of pricing pressures from raw material costs and changes in consumer buying habits. The industry is also facing increasing external competition from the public transport sector, as consumers re-evaluate their private vehicle usage. Roughly half of the US's fifty-one light vehicle plants are projected to permanently close in the coming years, with the loss of another 200,000 jobs in the sector, on top of the 560,000 jobs lost this decade. Combined with robust growth in China, in 2009, this resulted in China becoming the largest car producer and market in the world.\nChina 2009 sales had increased to 13.6 million, a significant increase from one million of domestic car sales in 2000. Since then however, even in China and other BRIC countries, the automotive production is again falling. \n\nAlternatives to the car\n\nEstablished alternatives for some aspects of car use include public transit such as buses, trolleybuses, trains, subways, tramways light rail, cycling, and walking. Car-share arrangements and carpooling are also increasingly popular, in the US and Europe. For example, in the US, some car-sharing services have experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007. Services like car sharing offering a residents to \"share\" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighborhoods. Bike-share systems have been tried in some European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam. Similar programs have been experimented with in a number of US Cities. Additional individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to cars if they prove to be socially accepted. \n\nOther meanings\n\nThe term motorcar has formerly also been used in the context of electrified rail systems to denote a car which functions as a small locomotive but also provides space for passengers and baggage. These locomotive cars were often used on suburban routes by both interurban and intercity railroad systems." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Cadillick", "Cadillac Automobile Company", "Cadillac Motor Company", "Cadallac", "Cadilac", "Cadillac", "Cadillacs", "Cadillac (automobile)", "Cadillac automobile" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cadilac", "cadillac motor company", "cadillacs", "cadillick", "cadillac automobile", "cadillac", "cadillac automobile company", "cadallac" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "cadillac", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Cadillac" }
Who invented the world's first photocopier?	tc_1381	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Photocopier.txt" ], "title": [ "Photocopier" ], "wiki_context": [ "A photocopier (also known as a copier or copy machine) is a machine that makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply. Most current photocopiers use a technology called xerography, a dry process that uses electrostatic charges on a light-sensitive photoreceptor to first attract and then transfer toner particles (a powder) onto paper in the form of an image. Heat, pressure or a combination of both is then used to fuse the toner onto the paper. (Copiers can also use other technologies such as ink jet, but xerography is standard for office copying.)\n\nXerographic office photocopying was introduced by Xerox in 1959, and it gradually replaced copies made by Verifax, Photostat, carbon paper, mimeograph machines, and other duplicating machines.\n\nPhotocopying is widely used in the business, education, and government sectors. While there have been predictions that photocopiers will eventually become obsolete as information workers increase their use of digital document creation, storage and distribution, and rely less on distributing actual pieces of paper, as of 2015, photocopiers continue to be widely used. In the 2010s, there is a convergence in some high-end machines between the roles of a photocopier, a fax machine, a scanner, and a computer network-connected printer. As of 2015, some high-end machines can copy and print in color.\n\nHow it works (using xerography)\n\n#Charging: cylindrical drum is electrostatically charged by a high voltage wire called a corona wire or a charge roller. The drum has a coating of a photoconductive material. A photoconductor is a semiconductor that becomes conductive when exposed to light. \n#Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates the original document, and the white areas of the original document reflect the light onto the surface of the photoconductive drum. The areas of the drum that are exposed to light become conductive and therefore discharge to the ground. The area of the drum not exposed to light (those areas that correspond to black portions of the original document) remains negatively charged. \n#Developing: The toner is positively charged. When it is applied to the drum to develop the image, it is attracted and sticks to the areas that are negatively charged (black areas), just as paper sticks to a balloon with a static charge.\n#Transfer: The resulting toner image on the surface of the drum is transferred from the drum onto a piece of paper with a higher negative charge than the drum.\n#Fusing: The toner is melted and bonded to the paper by heat and pressure rollers.\n\nA negative photocopy inverts the colors of the document when creating a photocopy, resulting in letters that appear white on a black background instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or faded documents sometimes produce documents which have better focus and are easier to read and study.\n\nHistory\n\nChester Carlson, the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney, as well as a part-time researcher and inventor. His job at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic, found this to be a painful and tedious process. This motivated him to conduct experiments with photoconductivity. Carlson used his kitchen for his \"electrophotography\" experiments, and, in 1938, he applied for a patent for the process. He made the first photocopy using a zinc plate covered with sulfur. The words \"10-22-38 Astoria\" were written on a microscope slide, which was placed on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his invention to some companies, but failed because the process was still underdeveloped. At the time, multiple copies were most commonly made at the point of document origination, using carbon paper or manual duplicating machines, and people did not see the need for an electronic machine. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by over 20 companies, including IBM and General Electric—neither of which believed there was a significant market for copiers.\n\nIn 1944, the Battelle Memorial Institute, a non-profit organization in Columbus, Ohio, contracted with Carlson to refine his new process. Over the next five years, the institute conducted experiments to improve the process of electrophotography. In 1947, Haloid Corporation (a small New York-based manufacturer and seller of photographic paper) approached Battelle to obtain a license to develop and market a copying machine based on this technology.\n\nHaloid felt that the word \"electrophotography\" was too complicated and did not have good recall value. After consulting a professor of classical language at Ohio State University, Haloid and Carlson changed the name of the process to \"xerography,\" which was derived from Greek words that meant \"dry writing.\" Haloid called the new copier machines \"Xerox Machines\" and, in 1948, the word \"Xerox\" was trademarked. Haloid eventually changed its name to Xerox Corporation.\n\n In 1949, Xerox Corporation introduced the first xerographic copier called the Model A. Xerox became so successful that, in North America, photocopying came to be popularly known as \"xeroxing.\" Xerox has actively fought to prevent \"Xerox\" from becoming a genericized trademark. While the word \"Xerox\" has appeared in some dictionaries as a synonym for photocopying, Xerox Corporation typically requests that such entries be modified, and that people not use the term \"Xerox\" in this way. Some languages include hybrid terms, such as the widely used Polish term kserokopia (\"xerocopy\"), even though relatively few photocopiers are of the Xerox brand.\n\nIn the early 1950s, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) introduced a variation on the process called Electrofax, whereby images are formed directly on specially coated paper and rendered with a toner dispersed in a liquid.\n\nDuring the 1960s and through the 1980s, Savin Corporation developed and sold a line of liquid-toner copiers that implemented a technology based on patents held by the company.\n\nBefore the widespread adoption of xerographic copiers, photo-direct copies produced by machines such as Kodak's Verifax were used. A primary obstacle associated with the pre-xerographic copying technologies was the high cost of supplies: a Verifax print required supplies costing USD $0.15 in 1969, while a Xerox print could be made for USD $0.03 including paper and labor. The coin-operated Photostat machines still found in some public libraries in the late 1960s made letter-size copies for USD $0.25 each, at a time when the minimum wage for a US worker was USD $1.65 per hour; the Xerox machines that replaced them typically charged USD $0.10.\n\nXerographic copier manufacturers took advantage of a high perceived-value of the 1960s and early 1970s, and marketed paper that was \"specially designed\" for xerographic output. By the end of the 1970s, paper producers made xerographic \"runability\" one of the requirements for most of their office paper brands.\n\nSome devices sold as photocopiers have replaced the drum-based process with inkjet or transfer film technology.\n\nAmong the key advantages of photocopiers over earlier copying technologies are their ability:\n* to use plain (untreated) office paper,\n* to implement duplex (or two-sided) printing,\n* Able to scan several pages automatically with an ADF, and\n* eventually, to sort and/or staple output.\n\nColor photocopiers\n\nColored toner became available in the 1950s, although full-color copiers were not commercially available until 3M released the Color-in-Color copier in 1968, which used a dye sublimation process rather than conventional electrostatic technology. The first electrostatic color copier was released by Xerox (the 6500) in 1973. Color photocopying is a concern to governments, as it facilitates counterfeiting currency and other documents: for more information, see Counterfeiting section.\n\nDigital technology\n\nThere is an increasing trend for new photocopiers to adopt digital technology, thus replacing the older analog technology. With digital copying, the copier effectively consists of an integrated scanner and laser printer. This design has several advantages, such as automatic image quality enhancement and the ability to \"build jobs\" (that is, to scan page images independently of the process of printing them). Some digital copiers can function as high-speed scanners; such models typically offer the ability to send documents via email or to make them available on file servers.\n\nA great advantage of digital copier technology is \"automatic digital collation.\" For example, when copying a set of 20 pages 20 times, a digital copier scans each page only once, then uses the stored information to produce 20 sets. In an analog copier, either each page is scanned 20 times (a total of 400 scans), making one set at a time, or 20 separate output trays are used for the 20 sets.\n\nLow-end copiers also use digital technology, but tend to consist of a standard PC scanner coupled to an inkjet or low-end laser printer, both of which are far slower than their counterparts in high-end copiers. However, low-end scanner-inkjets can provide color copying at a lower purchase price but with a much higher cost per copy. The cost of electronics is such that combined scanner-printers sometimes have built-in fax machines. (See Multifunction printer.)\n\nCopyright issues\n\nPhotocopying material that is subject to copyright (such as books or scientific papers) is subject to restrictions in most countries. This is common practice, as the cost of purchasing a book for the sake of one article or a few pages can be excessive. The principle of fair use (in the United States) or fair dealing (in other Berne Convention countries) allows this type of copying for research purposes.\n\nIn certain countries, such as Canada, some universities pay royalties from each photocopy made at university copy machines and copy centers to copyright collectives out of the revenues from the photocopying, and these collectives distribute resulting funds to various scholarly publishers. In the United States, photocopied compilations of articles, handouts, graphics, and other information called readers are often required texts for college classes. Either the instructor or the copy center is responsible for clearing copyright for every article in the reader, and attribution information must be clearly included in the reader.\n\nCounterfeiting\n\nTo counter the risk of people using color copiers to create counterfeit copies of paper currency, some countries have incorporated anti-counterfeiting technologies into their currency. These include watermarks, microprinting, holograms, tiny security strips made of plastic (or other material), and ink that appears to change color as the currency is viewed at an angle. Some photocopying machines contain special software that can prevent copying currency that contains a special pattern.\n\nColor copying also raises concerns regarding the copying and/or forging of other documents as well, such as driver's licenses and university degrees and transcripts. Some driver's licenses are made with embedded holograms so that a police officer can detect a fake copy. Some university and college transcripts have special anti-copying watermarks in the background. If a copy is made, the watermarks will become highly visible, which allows the recipient to determine that they have a copy rather than a genuine original transcript.\n\nHealth issues\n\nExposure to ultraviolet light is a concern. In the early days of photocopiers, the sensitizing light source was filtered green to match the optimal sensitivity of the photoconductive surface. This filtering conveniently removed all ultraviolet. Currently, a variety of light sources are used. As glass transmits ultraviolet rays between 325 and 400 nanometers, copiers with ultraviolet-producing lights such as fluorescent, tungsten halogen, or xenon flash, expose documents to some ultraviolet.\n\nConcerns about emissions from photocopy machines have been expressed by some in connection with the use of selenium and emissions of ozone and fumes from heated toner. However, these concerns may be due to misunderstanding or exaggeration. \n\nForensic identification\n\nSimilar to forensic identification of typewriters, computer printers and copiers can be traced by imperfections in their output. The mechanical tolerances of the toner and paper feed mechanisms cause banding, which can reveal information about the individual device's mechanical properties. It is often possible to identify the manufacturer and brand, and, in some cases, the individual printer can be identified from a set of known printers by comparing their outputs. \n\nSome high-quality color printers and copiers steganographically embed their identification code into the printed pages, as fine and almost invisible patterns of yellow dots. Some sources identify Xerox and Canon as companies doing this. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has investigated this issue and documented how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the yellow channel. EFF is working to reverse engineer additional printers. The EFF also reports that the US government has asked these companies to implement such a tracking scheme, so that counterfeiting can be traced. The EFF has filed a Freedom of Information Act request in order to look into privacy implications of this tracking." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Carlson, Chester F", "Chester Carlson", "Chester Floyd Carlson", "Chester F Carlson", "Chester F. Carlson" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "chester carlson", "chester floyd carlson", "chester f carlson", "carlson chester f" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chester carlson", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Chester Carlson" }
Where were the 2002 Winter Olympic Games held?	tc_1383	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "2002_Winter_Olympics.txt", "Winter_Olympic_Games.txt" ], "title": [ "2002 Winter Olympics", "Winter Olympic Games" ], "wiki_context": [ "The 2002 Winter Olympics, officially the XIX Olympic Winter Games (French: Les XIXes Jeux olympiques d'hiver) and commonly known as Salt Lake 2002, were a winter multi-sport event that was celebrated in February 2002 in and around Salt Lake City, United States. Approximately 2,400 athletes from 78 nations participated in 78 events in fifteen disciplines, held throughout 165 sporting sessions. The 2002 Winter Olympics and the 2002 Paralympic Games were both organized by the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC). Utah became the fifth state in the United States to host the Olympic Games, and the 2002 Winter Olympics are the most recent games to be held in the United States.\n\nThe opening ceremony was held on February 8, 2002, and sporting competitions were held up until the closing ceremony on February 24, 2002. Production for both ceremonies was designed by Seven Nielsen, and music for both ceremonies was directed by Mark Watters. Salt Lake City became the most populous area ever to have hosted the Winter Olympics, although the two subsequent host cities' populations were larger. Following a trend, the 2002 Olympic Winter Games were also larger than all prior Winter Games, with 10 more events than the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan; this became a trend with more and more events held in subsequent Games.\n\nThe Salt Lake Games faced a bribery scandal and some local opposition during the bid, as well as some sporting and refereeing controversies during the competitions. Nevertheless, from sporting and business standpoints, this was one of the most successful Winter Olympiads in history; records were set in both the broadcasting and marketing programs. Over 2 billion viewers watched more than 13 billion viewer-hours. The Games were also financially successful raising more money with fewer sponsors than any prior Olympic Games, which left SLOC with a surplus of $40 million. The surplus was used to create the Utah Athletic Foundation, which maintains and operates many of the remaining Olympic venues. U.S. Federal subsidies amounted to $1.3 billion. \n\nHost city selection\n\nSalt Lake City was chosen over Québec City, Canada, Sion, Switzerland, and Östersund, Sweden, on June 16, 1995, at the 104th IOC Session in Budapest, Hungary. Salt Lake City had previously come in second during the bids for the 1998 Winter Olympics, awarded to Nagano, Japan, and had offered to be the provisional host of the 1976 Winter Olympics when the original host, Denver, Colorado, withdrew. The 1976 Winter Olympics were ultimately awarded to Innsbruck, Austria.\n\nVenues\n\nCompetitive venues\n\n1Because of the no-commercialization policy of the Olympics, the Delta Center, now the Vivint Smart Home Arena, was labeled as the \"Salt Lake Ice Center\", causing some confusion for visitors.\n\nNon-competitive venues\n\nParticipating nations\n\nA total 78 National Olympic Committees sent athletes to the Salt Lake City games. Cameroon, Hong Kong (China), Nepal, Tajikistan, and Thailand participated in their first Winter Olympic Games.\n\nSports\n\nThere were 78 events contested in 7 sports (15 disciplines).\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\nCalendar\n\nIn the following calendar for the 2002 Winter Olympic Games, each blue box represents an event competition, such as a qualification round, on that day. The yellow boxes represent days during which medal-awarding finals for a sport are held. The number in each box represents the number of finals that were contested on that day. \nAll dates are in Mountain Standard Time (UTC−7)\n\nMedal table\n\nTo sort this table by nation, total medal count, or any other column, click on the icon next to the column title.\n\nRecords\n\nSeveral medals records were set and/or tied. They included (bold-face indicates broken during the Vancouver Olympics):\n* Norway tied the Soviet Union at the 1976 Winter Olympics for most gold medals at a Winter Olympics, with 13.\n* Germany set a record for most total medals at a Winter Olympics, with 36.\n* The following records the United States set and/or tied:\n Most gold medals at a home Winter Olympics, with 10, tying Norway at the 1994 Winter Olympics.\n Most total medals at a home Winter Olympics, with 34.\n\nHighlights\n\n* The opening ceremonies included Grammy Award-winning artist LeAnn Rimes singing \"Light the Fire Within\", the official song of the 2002 Olympics.\n* The Grammy Award-winning Mormon Tabernacle Choir performed the \"Star-Spangled Banner\", national anthem of the United States, for the opening ceremonies.\n* John Williams composed a five-minute work for orchestra and chorus, \"Call of the Champions\", that served as the official theme of the 2002 Winter Olympics, his first for a Winter Olympiad. It was performed by the Utah Symphony Orchestra and featured the Mormon Tabernacle Choir and the Madeleine Choir School singing the official motto of the Olympic Games \"Citius, Altius, Fortius\" (Faster, Higher, Stronger). The premiere of the work at the opening ceremonies also corresponded with John Williams's 70th birthday. The work is featured on the CD American Journey, and also on the Choir's recording Spirit of America.\n* There were also signs of remembrance of September 11, 2001, being the first Olympics since then. They included the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing \"God Bless America\", and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members.\n* Along with the flag that flew at the World Trade Center site, the Challenger flag was also carried into the stadium.\n* The opening segment of the opening ceremony celebrated all previous hosts of the Olympic Winter Games.\n* The Olympic Flame was lit by the members of the Gold Medal-winning US Hockey Team of the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, which was the previous time the Winter Olympics were in the US. (See picture at right)\n* These Olympics marked the first time a President of the United States opened an Olympic Winter Games held in the United States, although previous Presidents Franklin Roosevelt and Richard Nixon had opened the 1932 Winter Olympics and the 1960 Winter Olympics in their roles as Governor of New York and Vice President of the United States, respectively.\n* These were the first Games to be presided over by IOC president Jacques Rogge.\n* Competition highlights included biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen of Norway, winning gold in all four men's events (10 k, 12.5 k, 20 k, 4 x 7.5 relay), Nordic combined athlete Samppa Lajunen of Finland winning three gold medals, Simon Ammann of Switzerland taking the double in ski jumping. In alpine skiing, Janica Kostelić won three golds and a silver (the first Winter Olympic medals ever for an athlete from Croatia and the first three-gold performance by a female), while Kjetil André Aamodt of Norway earned his second and third career golds, setting up both athletes to beat the sport's record with their fourth golds earned at the next Winter Olympics near Turin (Aamodt also set the overall medal record in the sport with 8).\n* Skeleton returned as a medal sport in the 2002 Games for the first time since 1948.\n* Ireland reached its best ever position and came close to winning its first winter medal when Clifton Wrottesley (Clifton Hugh Lancelot de Verdon Wrottesley, 6th Baron Wrottesley) finished fourth in the men's skeleton event.\n* The Women's Bobsled Event had its debut at the 2002 Games after several years of World Cup competition.\n* A feature of these Games was the emergence of the extreme sports, such as snowboarding, moguls and aerials, which appeared in previous Olympic Winter Games but have captured greater public attention in recent years.\n* The United States completed a remarkable sweep of the podium in men's halfpipe snowboarding, with Americans Ross Powers, Danny Kass, and Jarret Thomas all winning medals.\n* American Sarah Hughes won the gold medal in figure skating. American and heavy favorite Michelle Kwan fell during her long program and received the bronze medal.\n* China won its first and second Winter Olympic gold medals, both by women's short-track speed skater Yang Yang (A).\n* One of the most memorable stories of the event occurred at the men's short track. Australian skater Steven Bradbury, a competitor who had won a bronze in 1994 as part of a relay team but well off the pace of the medal favourites, cruised off the pace in his semifinal only to see three of his competitors crash into each other, allowing him to finish second and go through to the final. Bradbury was again well off the pace, but lightning struck again and all four other competitors crashed out in the final turn, leaving a jubilant Bradbury to take the most unlikely of gold medals, the first for Australia—or any other country of the Southern Hemisphere—in the Olympic Winter Games.\n* Australia winning their second gold medal, courtesy of Alisa Camplin in Women's Aerials, the first ever Winter Games gold won by a woman from the Southern Hemisphere.\n* The Canadian men's ice hockey team defeated the American team 5–2 to claim the gold medal, ending 50 years without the hockey gold. The Canadian women's team also defeated the American team 3–2 after losing to them at the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano.\n* The closing ceremonies marked the final live performance of KISS with its lineup of Stanley/Simmons/Frehley/Singer. They performed \"Rock and Roll All Nite\". Other artists performing at the 2002 ceremonies were Willie Nelson, Creed, Sting, Yo Yo Ma, R. Kelly, Christina Aguilera, Dianne Reeves, Harry Connick Jr., Dorothy Hamill, Dave Matthews Band, 'N Sync, Earth, Wind & Fire, The Dixie Chicks, Josh Groban, Charlotte Church, Bon Jovi, Mormon Tabernacle Choir and, during the presentation of Turin, Irene Grandi, and Elisa.\n* There was a Canadian dollar underneath the ice in support of the Canadian men's team, supposedly placed there at the request of Wayne Gretzky, who knew the man responsible for ice upkeep.\n* Team Belarus's Vladimir Kopat scored a game winning goal from center ice against Team Sweden in the quarter finals, getting Belarus to their best place in international hockey so far.\n* The games were formally closed by International Olympic Committee President Jacques Rogge departing from former IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch's tradition of declaring each games \"best ever\". Rogge's began a tradition of assigning each games their own identity in his comments calling the 2002 Salt Lake Games \"flawless\".\n\nOpening ceremony\n\nPrior to the ceremony, the turf inside the stadium was removed and a giant, abstract shaped ice rink, designed by Seven Nielsen, was installed, covering a large part of the stadium floor. Performers would later perform on ice skates, rather than shoes.\n\nAn American flag rescued from the World Trade Center Site on September 11 was carried into the stadium by an honor guard of American athletes and was carried in by firefighters and police officers. The Mormon Tabernacle Choir, clad in white sweaters, performed The Star Spangled Banner, the US national anthem, as the flag was raised. The parade of the 2,300 athletes was led by the Child of Light and began traditionally with Greece and ending with the host nation, the United States of America. As the artistic section kicked off, the five native Utah Native American tribes arrived together on horseback and performed several traditional \"Welcome\" stomp dances. The Dixie Chicks also performed.\n\nThe beauty of the Utah landscape was showcased as huge puppets of native Utah animals, including a 15-foot-long bison and the American bald eagle (the national bird and animal of the U.S.), entered the stadium, as well as dancing pioneer settlers as two trains came together on, symbolizing the US railroad industry which was beneficial to Utah's economy beginning in the 1860s, as well as economically linking the Western U.S. and the Eastern U.S. At the end of their performance, the performers unfurled a giant quilt that covered the entire stadium floor with the 2002 Winter Olympics logo in the center. Two figure skaters, Olympians Kristi Yamaguchi and Scott Hamilton performed on the oversized ice rink as \"Light the Fire Within\", the 2002 Winter Olympic's theme song was sung by LeAnn Rimes. \n\nAfter speeches by Jacques Rogge, President over the IOC and Mitt Romney, the CEO of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee, the Olympic flame, which had traveled 13500 mi was carried into the stadium by gold medalists Dorothy Hamill and Dick Button. They passed the flame to other pairs U.S. Olympic heroes, who either ran or skated their short relay. Gold medalists in Nagano 1998 Picabo Street and Cammi Granato carried the flame up the steps to the towering cauldron where they were met by Mike Eruzione, captain of the miracle on ice hockey team that won the Olympic gold medal in 1980. Eruzione summoned the other members of the team, who together lit the Olympic cauldron. The Opening Ceremony would win seven Emmy Awards.\n\nWhile there was a lot of international sympathy for the US in the wake of the 9/11 attacks, there were complaints that the Games were being conducted in an overtly patriotic manner. President Bush received some criticism for departing from the Olympic charter by extending the declaration to open the Games, saying \"On behalf of a proud, determined and grateful nation\" before the traditional formula, \"I declare open the Games of Salt Lake City\". In addition, the President opened the Games standing among the US athletes, while previous heads of state opened the Games from an official box. NBC's Bob Costas applauded the move during the network's coverage of the Opening Ceremony.\n\nThe official box was occupied by the President's Olympic delegation:\n* Dorothy Koch, the President's sister\n* Colin Powell, U.S. Department of State\n* Mel Martinez, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development\n* Gale Ann Norton, U.S. Department of the Interior\n* Tommy Thompson, Department of Health and Human Services\n* Ann Veneman, U.S. Department of Agriculture\n* Christine Todd Whitman, Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\n* Lance Armstrong, champion cyclist\n* Hayden Fry, 2003 College Football Hall of Fame (University of Iowa head football coach)\n* John Morris, Bass Pro Shops founder\n* Cal Ripken, Jr., 2007 Baseball Hall of Fame (Baltimore Orioles shortstop)\n* Sheryl Swoopes-Jackson, WNBA star\n* Darrell Waltrip, 2012 NASCAR Hall of Fame (3-time NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Champion)\n\n2002 Olympic Symbols\n\nOlympic Emblem\n\nThe 2002 Olympic emblem is a snowflake, which consisted of three separate sections. The yellow top section symbolizes the Olympic Flame, and represents the athletes' courage. The orange center section symbolizes the ancient weaving styles of Utah's Native Americans, and represents the region's culture. The blue/purple bottom section symbolizes a snow-capped mountain, and represents the contrast of Utah's mountain and desert areas. The orange/yellow colors above the blue/purple bottom section also gave the appearance of a sun rising from behind a mountain.\n\nTheme colors\n\nAn official palette of colors, which ranged from cool blues to warm reds and oranges, was created for the Salt Lake 2002 games. The palette became part of the official design theme named Land of Contrast – Fire and Ice, with the blues representing the cooler, snowy, mountainous regions of Northern Utah, and the oranges and red representing the warmer, rugged, red-rock areas of Southern Utah.\n\nPictograms\n\nAs with all Olympic Games, pictograms, which easily identified the venues, sports, and services for spectators without using a written language, were specifically designed for the Salt Lake 2002 games. The pictograms for these games mimicked the designs of branding-irons found in the western United States, and used the Fire and Ice theme colors of the Salt Lake 2002 Games. The line thickness and 30-degree angles found in the pictograms mirror those found in the snowflake emblem.\n\nThe mascots\n\nThe mascots represent three of the indigenous animals of the Western United States, and are named after natural resources which have long been important to Utah's economy, survival, and culture. All three animals are major characters in the legends of local Native Americans, and each mascot wears a charm around its neck with an original Anasazi or Fremont-style petroglyph.\n* Powder – A Snowshoe Hare, represents the Native American legend when the sun was too close to the earth and was burning it. The hare ran to the top of a mountain, and shot her arrow into the sun. This caused it to drop lower in the sky, cooling the earth.\n* Copper – A Coyote, represents the Native American legend when the earth froze and turned dark, the coyote climbed to the highest mountaintop and stole a flame from the fire people. He returned and brought warmth and light to the people.\n* Coal – An American black bear, represents the Native American legend of hunters who were never able to kill the mighty bear. Today the sons of these hunters still chase the bear across the night sky, as constellations.\n\nThe Olympic Torch and relay\n\nThe 2002 Olympic Torch is modeled after an icicle, with a slight curve to represent speed and fluidity. The Torch measures 33 in long, 3 in wide at the top, at the bottom, and was designed by Axiom Design of Salt Lake City. It was created with three sections, each with its own meaning and representation.\n\nThe torch relay was a 65-day run, from December 4, 2001 to February 8, 2002, which carried the Olympic flame through 46 of the 50 states in the United States. The torch covered 13500 mi, passed through 300 communities, and was carried by 12,012 Torchbearers.\n\nThe Olympic Cauldron\n\nThe Olympic Cauldron was designed with the official motto Light the Fire Within and the Fire and Ice theme in mind. It was designed to look like an icicle, and was made of glass which allowed the fire to be seen burning within. The actual glass cauldron stands atop a twisting glass and steel support, is 12 ft high, and the flame within burns at 900 F. Together with its support the cauldron stands 117 ft tall and was made of 738 individual pieces of glass. Small jets send water down the glass sides of the cauldron, both to keep the glass and metal cooled (so they would not crack or melt), and to give the effect of melting ice. The cauldron was designed by WET Design of Los Angeles, its frame built by Arrow Dynamics of Clearfield, Utah, and its glass pieces created by Western Glass of Ogden, Utah. The cauldron's cost was 2 million dollars, and it was unveiled to the public during its original install at Rice-Eccles Stadium (2002 Olympic Stadium) on January 8, 2002. Following the completion of the 2002 Winter Olympics the cauldron was installed at the permanent Salt Lake 2002 Olympic Cauldron Park, next the 2002 Olympic Stadium in Salt Lake City.\n\nA second Olympic cauldron burned at the Awards Plaza in downtown Salt Lake City during the games. It was known as the Hero's Cauldron and was in the backdrop of every awards ceremony. This was the first time two cauldrons were used during the same Olympic Games. \n\nEconomic effect of the 2002 Winter Olympics\n\nPublic Transportation\n\nPublic transportation has expanded greatly due to hosting the Olympics. The biggest project that has been completed is TRAX (light rail) which is used by many locals to this day. Other expansions include widened freeways and roadways throughout the city. TRAX also includes a line that has now extended to the airport making transit easier for tourists and visitors. One article from the Salt Lake Tribune states that 37% of locals use the trax to commute daily while 25% of travelers within the city use this service. This is a direct result of holding the games in Salt Lake City and just one of the many positive economic effects on the city.\n\nSki Industry and Winter Sport\n\nThe 2002 Winter Olympics brought a massive amount of success to the Utah skiing industry. Since hosting the Winter Games, Utah has seen a 42% increase in skier and snowboarder visits as of 2010-11. This increase resulted in direct expenditures from skiers and snowboarders growing 67% from $704 million in 2002–2003 to $1.2 billion in 2010–2011. \n\nIn preparation for the Winter Games 14 venues were constructed or expanded. The Utah Olympic Park was one of the venues constructed for the games. The Olympic Park has proven to be one of the most successful venues to date because it has been maintained in top competition form. Due to the routine maintenance of the park Utah has been able to host a large number of winter competitions since 2002. Some of these events include, more than 60 World Cup events, as well as seven world championships, including the FIS Freestyle Skiing World Cup and various other sporting events. Hosting these various events has resulted in approximately $1 billion being pushed into the economy. During 2013–2014 Utah held 16 various winter sport competitions bringing $27.3 million to the economy of the Utah. After holding the games, Utah became home to two National Governing Bodies of Sport. The United States Ski and Snowboard Association is headquartered in Park City, Utah and the US Olympic Speedskating team is based out of the Utah Olympic Oval.\n\nUniversity of Utah Expansion\n\nThe University of Utah was one of the hosts the of 2002 Winter Olympics, the planning committee approached the University of Utah and asked them to build several student dormitories which would serve as an athletes' accommodation during the games. It was agreed that the University would pay approximately $98 million out of the total required amount of $110 million in order to complete the construction. Students of the university have benefited as almost 3,500 of them would be housed here after the games. This was a great economic benefit to the university since the amount of money used to complete such dormitories could take long to be afforded. Apart from that, the University was also asked to expand Rice Eccles Stadium to accommodate 50,000 people up from 32,000. The University would then be refunded almost $59 million and be given an extra $40 million for its maintenance. It is worth noting that the U.S. team involved in the 2010 winter games lived in the University of Utah's housing to use the stadium because of its facilities.\n\nThe 2002 Olympic Games also benefited the university economically since the Salt Lake 2002 Olympic Cauldron Park was elevated by the renovations that took place. Ice rinks were very scarce in Utah, but due to the Olympic Games, they became plentiful and offered several entertainment and training opportunities for hockey players and figure skaters. The Cauldron Park located at the University of Utah which was built with $6.5 million in profits and had the following features: a visitors’ center which had a theater that showed a thrilling movie about the Olympic Games of 2002 and a \"park\" which had a dazzling pool and a V-shaped stone wall with the names of all the medalists of the 2002 Olympic Games. Besides, the park had 17 plates which hung on the fence of the stadium celebrating the highlights of each day of the Olympics. All these features acted as tourist attraction that boosted the economic development of the university. It is indicated that the approximate value of media exposure through print during the Games was equated to $22.9 million. Mainly, this was a huge economic benefit to the university as more and more people got to know about the educational establishment, and this also boosted enrollment and future development.\n\nImmigration\n\nHolger Preuss in his book The Economics of Staging the Olympics: A Comparison of the Games 1972–2008 argues that \"The export of the ‘Olympic Games’ service results in an inflow of funds to the host city, causing additional production which, in its turn, leads to employment and income effects.\" According to the study \"2002 Olympic Winter Games, Economic, Demographic and Fiscal Impacts,\" the estimated creation of new job years of employment was 35,424, and additional earnings of $1,544,203,000. It was noted that the increase of Olympic related job started in 1996 and continued till 2003. These effects can be estimated on the ground of historical relationship between job and corresponding population growth. A lot of people migrated into the future place of the Olympic Games for expanding and favorable employment opportunities that the Olympics ensured. Although many of the higher paying jobs created by the Games were occupied by residents, many of the vacated jobs were filled by immigrants who relocated for the better employment opportunities.\n\nBasically, the immigration rate was even larger because the employees immigrated with their families. The additional people paid diverse taxes and fees from their income that created additional revenue on the state and local levels. It is necessary to stress that there was some out-migration after the end of the Games and it is possible to illustrate by seeing the population effect of broadcasters. Before the Games, several hundred highly qualified, professional employees relocated to Salt Lake City to arrange the television broadcasting of the Games, but after it, they removed equipment and left for another project.\n\nEmployment\n\nOlympic related jobs in Utah started in 1996 with slight job opportunities of less than 100. However, from the job measurement conducted from 1996 to 2002, steady attainment of job opportunities established and a maximum level was noted in 2001 where there were 12,500 job opportunities attained yearly, and approximately 25,070 jobs created in 2002. Therefore, from 1996 to 2002 the sum of employment equated to 35,000 jobs which lasted a year. February 2002, it is when the highest employment opportunities were created compared to other years. There were around 25,070 job opportunities created compared to 35,000 created from 1996–2001.\n\nOn the same point, the unemployment rates in Utah's economy have been on the decline following the extensive employment opportunities offered over the years. In 1996 the unemployment rate in Utah was approximately 9.2% and since then has dropped to 5.2 percent in 2002. \nThere was a high percentage of visitors which raised the number of tourists for the games whose consumption and demand prompted the establishment of job opportunities to meet the demands. The unemployment rate has reduced to 3.2 percent currently which is an indication of increasing job opportunities rising to around 44,700.\n\nUtah Alcohol Laws\n\nThe alcohol laws of Utah are known for being some of the most restrictive alcohol laws in the country however having the Olympic Games in Salt Lake helped state officials ease up on a few different laws concerning alcohol in the state of Utah which has helped the nightlife grow and helped more bars and restaurants increase revenues by simply improving the accessibility of alcohol to customers.\n\nDuring the Olympics, alcohol regulations were not changed to accommodate those coming in from outside of Utah to watch and take part of the games. Officials from the Olympics as well as visitors complained about the unreasonable laws. Shortly after in 2003 the tide began to turn and some of the restrictive laws were altered. The charge to join a \"private club\" or what is essentially a bar with a membership fee was lowered from five dollars to four dollars. Additionally, they allowed existing members or \"sponsors\" seven guests instead of five. The maximum amount of alcohol permitted with any one drink from a bar increased from 2 to 2.75 ounces. Beer licenses were also expanded to allow restaurants to serve wine as well with their beer license. Finally, people were now allowed to have more than one drink with them at their table.\n\nThis loosening of laws lowered the bar for entry into a bar in Salt Lake City. Changing demographics, due in large part to the Olympics, disrupted the number of people looking to drink as more non-Mormons began to settle in Utah. Travelers have also increased due to the Olympics and account for a share of the increase in liquor sales since the games. According to The Salt Lake Tribune: sales at Utah's 125 liquor outlets shows a 153 percent increase in liquor sales since 2002, from $156.2 million to $396 million. Even adjusted for inflation, sales have nearly doubled, and per capita spending on alcohol has grown by more than 50 percent. \n\nConcerns and controversies\n\nBribery to bring the games to Salt Lake City \n\nIn 1998, several IOC members were forced to resign after it was uncovered that they had accepted bribes from Salt Lake Bid Committee co-heads Tom Welch and Dave Johnson in return for voting for Salt Lake City to hold the Games. In response to the scandal and a financial shortfall for the games, Mitt Romney, then CEO of the private equity firm Bain Capital (and future presidential candidate), was hired as the new President and CEO of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee, leaving him and IOC President Dr. Jacques Rogge to contend with the public outcry and financial mess. Romney, Kem C. Gardner, a Utah commercial real estate developer, and Don Stirling, the Olympics' local marketing chief, raised \"millions of dollars from Mormon families with pioneer roots: the Eccles family, whose forebears were important industrialists and bankers\" to help rescue the games, according to a later report. An additional $410 million was received from the federal government. \n\nDisqualifications for doping \n\nThe 2002 games were the first Winter Olympics held after formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency; as a result there were a large number of athletes disqualified following the new testing. \n\nAthletes in cross-country skiing were disqualified for various reasons, including doping by two Russians and one Spaniard, leading Russia to file protests and threaten to withdraw from the competition.\n\nJudging controversies \n\nIn the first week of the Games, a controversy in the pairs' figure skating competition culminated in the French judge's scores being thrown out and the Canadian team of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier being awarded a second gold medal. Allegations of bribery were leveled against many ice-skating judges, leading to the arrest of known criminal Alimzhan Tokhtakhounov in Italy (at the request of the United States). He was released by the Italian officials.\n\nSecurity measures\n\nThese Olympic Games were the first since September 11, 2001, which meant a higher level of security than ever before provided for the Games. The Office of Homeland Security (OHS) designated the Olympics a National Special Security Event (NSSE).\n\nAerial surveillance and radar control was provided by the U.S. Marines of Marine Air Control Squadron 2, Detachment C, from Cherry Point, North Carolina.\n\nAccording to the Wall Street Journal, the FBI and NSA arranged with Qwest Communications to use intercept equipment for a period of less than six months around the time of the 2002 Winter Olympics. The agencies monitored the content of all email and text communications in the Salt Lake City area. \n\nWhen he spoke during the opening ceremonies, Jacques Rogge, presiding over his first Olympics as the IOC president, told the athletes of the United States:", "The Winter Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques d'hiver) is a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years. Unlike the Summer Olympics, the Winter Olympics feature sports practiced on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, was held in Chamonix, France. The original five sports (broken into nine disciplines) were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing (consisting of the disciplines military patrol, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, and ski jumping), and skating (consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating). The Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1936, after which they were interrupted by World War II. The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was again held every four years. Until 1992, the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years, but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four-year cycles in alternating even-numbered years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994.\n\nThe Winter Games have evolved since its inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such as Alpine skiing, luge, short track speed skating, freestyle skiing, skeleton, and snowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic program. Others (such as curling and bobsleigh) have been discontinued and later reintroduced, or have been permanently discontinued (such as military patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it). Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It created an income stream, via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address several criticisms, internal scandals, the use of performance-enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians, as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have used the Winter Games to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems.\n\nThe Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by eleven different countries. The United States has hosted the Games four times (1932, 1960, 1980, 2002); France has been the host three times (1924, 1968, 1992); Austria (1964, 1976), Canada (1988, 2010), Japan (1972, 1998), Italy (1956, 2006), Norway (1952, 1994), and Switzerland (1928, 1948) have hosted the Games twice. Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), and Russia (2014) have hosted the Games once. The IOC has selected Pyeongchang, South Korea, to host the 2018 Winter Olympics and Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics. No country in the southern hemisphere has hosted or even been an applicant to host the Winter Olympics; the major challenge preventing one hosting the games is the dependence on winter weather, and the traditional February timing of the games falls in the middle of the southern hemisphere summer.\n\nTwelve countries – Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States – have sent athletes to every Winter Olympic Games. Six of those – Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States – have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games, and only one – the United States – has earned gold at each Games. Germany and Japan have been banned at times from competing in the Games.\n\nSports\n\nThe Olympic Charter limits winter sports to \"those ... which are practised on snow or ice.\" Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme; which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports. The results are more parity in the national medal tables, more interest in the Winter Olympics and higher global television ratings. \n\nCurrent sport disciplines\n\nNote 1. Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics.\nNote 2. A men's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics.\nNote 3. The IOC's website now treats Men's Military Patrol at the 1924 games as an event within the sport of Biathlon.\n\nDemonstration events\n\nDemonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960. The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Bandy (Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it's considered a national sport. It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria. The ski ballet event, later known as ski-acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992. Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928. A sled-dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932. Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Winter pentathlon, a variant of the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It was composed of cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly years\n\n A predecessor, the Nordic Games, were organized by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926. Balck was a charter member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic program but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Four figure skating events were contested, at which Ulrich Salchow (10-time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles. \n\nThree years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organizers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports. The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.\n\nThe first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Summer Olympics, were held in Antwerp, Belgium, and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games. At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate \"International Winter Sports Week\" under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this \"week\" (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events. Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined. Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the Winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate Olympic Winter Games and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.\n\nSt. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Olympic Winter Games in 1928. Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed-skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled. The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games: Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she would hold for 74 years.\n\nThe next Winter Olympics was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated. This was less than in 1928 as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was a long and expensive one for most competitors who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and it was not until mid-January that there was enough snow to hold all the events. Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title and Eddie Eagan, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold in the men's bobsleigh event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.\n\nThe German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on 6–16 February. This would be the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals. Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games.\n\nWorld War II\n\nWorld War II interrupted the celebrations of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. The Games were moved to Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, but the German invasion of Poland in 1939 forced the complete cancellation of the 1940 Games. Due to the ongoing war the 1944 Games, originally scheduled for Cortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled. \n\n1948 to 1960\n\nSt. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Switzerland's neutrality had protected the town during World War II and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice. Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited. Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals—more than any Games to that point. \n\nThe Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo, was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis. Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations. They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition. \n\nAfter not being able to host the Games in 1944, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron. These were the first Winter Games to be televised and the first Olympics ever broadcast nationwide, though no television rights would be sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.Guttman (1986), p. 135 The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia, when he placed second in the slalom. \n\nThe IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. Since the village was underdeveloped, there was a rush to construct infrastructure and sports facilities like an ice arena, speed-skating track, and a ski-jump hill.Judd (2008), pp. 27–28 The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney.Judd (2008), p. 28 The Squaw Valley Olympics had a number of notable firsts: it was the first Olympics to have a dedicated athletes' village, it was the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time, because the organising committee found it too expensive to build the bobsleigh run.\n\n1964 to 1980\n\nThe Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was asked to transport snow and ice to the sport venues. Soviet speed-skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by sweeping all four speed-skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes. Luge was first contested in 1964, although the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run. \n\nHeld in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 37 nations and 1,158 athletes competing in 35 events. Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men's alpine skiing events. The organising committee sold television rights for $2 million, which was more than double the price of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games.Findling and Pelle (2004), p. 277 Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes' villages. The organisers claimed this was required to accommodate technological advances. Critics disputed this, alleging that the layout was necessary to provide the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the expense of the athletes.\n\nThe 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted outside North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism became contentious during the Sapporo Games. Three days before the Games IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar a number of alpine skiers from competing because they participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States. Brundage reasoned that the skiers had financially benefited from their status as athletes and were therefore no longer amateurs. Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than all the other skiers, was not allowed to compete. Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest of their inability to use players from professional leagues. Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first (and only) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal; he triumphed in the slalom.\n\nThe 1976 Winter Olympics had been awarded in 1970 to Denver, United States, but in November 1972 the voters of the state of Colorado voted against public funding of the games by a 3 to 2 margin. The IOC turned to offer the Games to Vancouver-Garibaldi, British Columbia, which had been a candidate for the 1976 Games. However, a change in provincial government brought in an administration which did not support the Olympic bid, so the offer was rejected. Salt Lake City, a candidate for the 1972 Games, offered itself, but the IOC opted to ask Innsbruck, which had maintained most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games. With half the time to prepare for the Games as intended, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973. Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time the Austrian town had hosted the Games. The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track, in neighbouring Igls. The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal.\n\nIn 1980 the Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. The first boycott of a Winter Olympics occurred in 1980 when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem. The IOC was attempting to accommodate China, who wished to compete using the same name and anthem that had been used by Taiwan. American speed-skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or world record in each of the five events he competed in. Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist. In the \"Miracle on Ice\" the American hockey team beat the favoured Soviets, and then went on to win the gold medal. \n\n1984 to 1998\n\nSapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front-runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host. The Games were well-organised and displayed no indication of the war that would engulf the country eight years later. A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won a silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean. Their performance to Ravel's Boléro earned the pair the gold medal after achieving unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression.\n\nIn 1988, the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span 16 days. New events were added in ski-jumping and speed skating; while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their appearance as demonstration sports. For the first time the speed skating events were held indoors, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race. Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport. Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East German Christa Rothenburger won the women's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.\n\nThe 1992 Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games. They were hosted in the French Savoie region in the city of Albertville, though only 18 events were held in the city. The rest of the events were spread out over the Savoie. Political changes of the time were reflected in the Olympic teams appearing in France: this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II. At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion. New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women's slalom.\n\nIn 1986 the IOC had voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even-numbered years. This change became effective for the 1994 Games, held in Lillehammer, Norway, which became the first Winter Olympics to be held separate from the Summer Games. After the division of Czechoslovakia in 1993 the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts. The women's figure skating competition garnered media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding. Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was won by Oksana Baiul. She became Ukraine's first Olympic champion. Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. \n\nThe 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes. The men's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States, with their many NHL players, were favoured to win the tournament. Neither won any hockey medals however, as the Czech Republic prevailed. Women's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal. Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing. He became the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall. Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-g and the giant slalom. A wave of new world records were set in speed skating because of the introduction of the clap skate. \n\n2002 to 2010\n\nThe 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City, United States, hosting 77 nations and 2,399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports. These games were the first to take place since 11 September 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremonies of the games saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing \"God Bless America\", and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members.\n\nGerman Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics. Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men's and women's ice hockey gold medals. Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians. The only exception was the French judge, Marie-Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games. Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short-track speed skating event. \n\nThe Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short-track speed skating events. Sun-Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun-Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze. In the women's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009 Pechstein tested positive for \"blood manipulation\" and received a two-year suspension, which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team. This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver. \n\nIn 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games. Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events. The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze. The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal-winning nations. In 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under-performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty-one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea, Japan and China. \n\n2014\n\nSochi, Russia, was selected as the host city of the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time since the breakup of the Soviet Union that Russia hosted a Winter Olympics. Over 2800 athletes from 88 countries participated in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues were 50 km away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana.\n\nThe 2014 Winter Olympics, officially the XXII Olympic Winter Games, or the 22nd Winter Olympics, took place from 7 to 23 February 2014. \n\nFuture\n\nOn 6 July 2011, the IOC selected the city of Pyeongchang, South Korea to host the 2018 Winter Olympics.\n\nThe host city for the XXIV Olympic Winter Games, also known as the 2022 Winter Olympics, is Beijing, elected on 31 July 2015, at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur. Beijing will be the first city to host both the summer and winter olympics.\n\nControversy\n\nThe process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games. Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member.Cashmore (2005), p. 444 The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988. For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as \"astronomical\". Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities. \n\nHost city legacy\n\nAccording to the IOC, the host city is responsible for, \"...establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services etc., as well as operations during the Games.\" Due to the cost of hosting an Olympic Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment. For example, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion. By comparison the Torino Games of 2006 cost $3.6 billion to host. The organisers claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee hoped that the exposure of the Olympic Games, and the expedited access to Nagano from Tokyo, would be a boon to the local economy for years afterward. Nagano's economy did experience a two-year post-Olympic spurt, but the long-term effects have not materialised as planned. The possibility of heavy debt, coupled with unused sports venues and infrastructure that saddle the local community with upkeep costs and no practical post-Olympic value, is a deterrent to prospective host cities. \n\nTo mitigate these concerns the IOC has enacted several initiatives. First it has agreed to fund part of the host city's budget for staging the Games. Secondly, the IOC limits the qualifying host countries to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation. This eliminates a large portion of the developing world. Finally, cities bidding to host the Games are required to add a \"legacy plan\" to their proposal. This requires prospective host cities and the IOC, to plan with a view to the long-term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region.\n\nDoping \n\nIn 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics. The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player, but his team was still allowed to compete. During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs.Mottram (2003), p. 313 The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug-testing protocols. The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999. \n\nThe 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue. The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross-country ski team's residence during the Games where they seized blood-doping specimens and equipment. This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of hemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.\n\nCommercialisation\n\nAvery Brundage, as president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interests as he felt that the Olympic movement should be completely separate from financial influence.Cooper-Chen (2005), p. 231 The 1960 Winter Olympics marked the beginning of corporate sponsorship of the Games. Despite Brundage's strenuous resistance the commercialisation of the Games continued during the 1960s, and revenue generated by corporate sponsorship swelled the IOC's coffers.Senn (1999), p. 136 By the Grenoble Games, Brundage had become so concerned about the direction of the Winter Olympic Games towards commercialisation that, if it could not be corrected, he felt the Winter Olympics should be abolished. Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant that the IOC was unable to gain a share of the financial windfall that was coming to host cities, and had no control over the structuring of sponsorship deals. When Brundage retired the IOC had $2 million in assets; eight years later its accounts had swelled to $45 million. This was due to a shift in ideology among IOC members, towards expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights.\n\nBrundage's concerns proved prophetic. The IOC has charged more for television broadcast rights at each successive Games. At the 1998 Nagano Games American broadcaster CBS paid $375 million, whereas the 2006 Turin Games cost NBC $613 million to broadcast. The more television companies have paid to televise the Games, the greater their persuasive power has been with the IOC. For example, the television lobby has influenced the Olympic programme by dictating when event finals are held, so that they appear in prime time for television audiences. They have pressured the IOC to include new events, such as snowboarding, that appeal to broader television audiences. This has been done to boost ratings, which were slowly declining until the 2010 Games.Cooper-Chen (2005), p. 230 \n\nIn 1986 the IOC decided to stagger the Summer and Winter Games. Instead of holding both in the same calendar year the committee decided to alternate them every two years, although both Games would still be held on four-year cycles.Whannel (1992), p. 174 It was decided that 1992 would be the last year to have both a Winter and Summer Olympic Games. There were two underlying reasons for this change: first was the television lobby's desire to maximise advertising revenue as it was difficult to sell advertising time for two Games in the same year; second was the IOC's desire to gain more control over the revenue generated by the Games. It was decided that staggering the Games would make it easier for corporations to sponsor individual Olympic Games, which would maximise revenue potential. The IOC sought to directly negotiate sponsorship contracts so that they had more control over the Olympic \"brand\". The first Winter Olympics to be hosted in this new format were the 1994 Games in Lillehammer.\n\nPolitics\n\nCold War\n\nThe Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. Soviet and American politicians used the Olympics as an opportunity to demonstrate the superiority of their respective political systems.Hazan (1982), p. 36 The successful Soviet athlete was feted and honoured. Irina Rodnina, three-time Olympic gold medallist in figure skating, was awarded the Order of Lenin after her victory at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck. Soviet athletes who won gold medals could expect to receive between $4,000 and $8,000 depending on the prestige of the sport. A world record was worth an additional $1,500. In 1978 the United States Congress responded to these measures by passing legislation that reorganised the United States Olympic Committee. It also approved financial rewards to medal-winning athletes. \n\nThe Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics. In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games.Hill (1992), p. 34 East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team. The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes. The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host-city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes. \n\nBoycott\n\nThe Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the \"People's Republic of China\" (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name \"Republic of China\" (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem. The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the \"Republic of China\". The IOC renamed the island \"Chinese Taipei\" and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies. Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day. \n\nAll-time medal table\n\nWith reference to the top ten nations and according to official data of the International Olympic Committee.\n\nList of Winter Olympic Games\n\nUnlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads, the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Salt Lake, Utah", "Kilby Court", "Salt Lake City, Ut", "Salt Lake city", "Salt Lake City, UT, USA", "Salt Lake City, Utah", "Salt Lake City, USA", "SL, UT", "UN/LOCODE:USSLC", "Salt Lake City, UT", "Salt lake city", "Grid plan (Salt Lake City)", "Utah state capital", "Capital of Utah", "Salt Lake City , Utah", "Salt Lake Cit", "Salt Lake City, Utah, USA", "Salt Lake, UT", "Saltlake City", "J. E. Cosgriff Memorial Catholic School", "J.E. Cosgriff Memorial Catholic School", "Salt Lake City", "Great Salt Lake City", "Salt Lake City (UT)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "kilby court", "salt lake city", "salt lake city usa", "salt lake city utah usa", "salt lake utah", "salt lake city ut usa", "salt lake city ut", "sl ut", "salt lake cit", "great salt lake city", "capital of utah", "utah state capital", "salt lake ut", "grid plan salt lake city", "salt lake city utah", "un locode usslc", "saltlake city", "j e cosgriff memorial catholic school" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "salt lake city", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Salt Lake City" }
"Who wrote the line, ""Do not go gentle into that good night?"	tc_1384	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Do_not_go_gentle_into_that_good_night.txt" ], "title": [ "Do not go gentle into that good night" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Do not go gentle into that good night\" is a poem in the form of a villanelle, and the most famous work of Welsh poet Dylan Thomas (1914–1953). Though first published in the journal Botteghe Oscure in 1951, it was actually written in 1947 when he was in Florence with his family. It was published, along with other stories previously written, as part of his In Country Sleep, And Other Poems in 1952.\n\nIt has been suggested that it was written for Thomas' dying father, although he did not die until just before Christmas 1952. It has no title other than its first line, \"Do not go gentle into that good night\", a line which appears as a refrain throughout. Its other refrain is \"Rage, rage against the dying of the light\".\n\nThe poem currently remains under copyright, but was made publicly available here [http://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/do-not-go-gentle-good-night] at poets.org (with the copyright holder's permission).\n\nUse in popular culture \n\n* It was used as the text for the 1954 In Memoriam Dylan Thomas (Dirge-Canons and Song) for tenor and chamber ensemble, by Igor Stravinsky. The piece was written soon after Thomas' death and first performed in 1954. \n* It was the inspiration for three paintings by Swansea-born painter and print-maker Ceri Richards, in 1954, 1956 and 1965 respectively. \n* The title of George R. R. Martin's first novel, the 1977 Dying of the Light, about a planet moving away from its life-supporting stars, was inspired by the poem.\n* Rodney Dangerfield recited the poem in the exam scene of the 1986 movie Back to School \n* In the 1996 film Independence Day, the President makes a rousing speech as he prepares to lead the attack against the alien invaders, adapting Thomas' line, saying, \"We will not go quietly into the night\". \n* Scottish-american band Garbage included the line \"You rage against the dying/Rage against the dying light\" in the song \"Big Bright World\", the second single from their 2012 album Not Your Kind of People.\n* It is used repeatedly by both the character Professor John Brand, played by Michael Caine, as well as several other supporting characters in the 2014 film Interstellar. \nIt is used by artist Sarah Beck in her work The Light about the death of the tungsten light bulb in 2015. \n English synthpop duo Hurts included the line \"Don't go gentle into that good night. Rage on against the dying light\" in the song \"Somebody to Die For\", the third single from their 2013 album Exile\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Dillon Thomas", "Colm Garan Thomas", "Llewelyn Thomas", "Dylan Thomas", "Dylan Tomas", "Dylan Marlais Thomas", "Dillan Thomas" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "colm garan thomas", "dylan tomas", "llewelyn thomas", "dillan thomas", "dillon thomas", "dylan marlais thomas", "dylan thomas" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dylan thomas", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Dylan Thomas" }
Which musical instrument was found in Bonnie & Clyde's car after they were shot?	tc_1388	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Bonnie_and_Clyde.txt" ], "title": [ "Bonnie and Clyde" ], "wiki_context": [ "Bonnie Elizabeth Parker (October 1, 1910 – May 23, 1934) and Clyde Chestnut Barrow a.k.a. Clyde Champion Barrow (March 24, 1909 – May 23, 1934) were American criminals who traveled the central United States with their gang during the Great Depression, robbing and killing people. At times, the gang included Clyde's older brother Buck Barrow and his wife Blanche, Raymond Hamilton, W. D. Jones, Joe Palmer, Ralph Fults, and Henry Methvin. Their exploits captured the attention of the American public during the \"Public Enemy Era,\" between 1931 and 1935. Though known today for their dozen-or-so bank robberies, the two preferred to rob small stores or rural gas stations. The gang is believed to have killed at least nine police officers and several civilians. The couple were eventually ambushed and killed by law officers near the town of Sailes, in Bienville Parish, Louisiana. Their reputation was revived and cemented in American pop folklore by Arthur Penn's 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde, in which they were played by Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty.\n\nEven during their lifetimes, their depiction in the press was at considerable odds with the hardscrabble reality of their life on the road, especially for Bonnie Parker. She was present at a hundred or more felonies during the two years she was Barrow's companion, but she was not a machine gun-wielding killer as depicted in the newspapers, newsreels, and pulp detective magazines of that time. Gang member W. D. Jones later testified he could not recall ever having seen her shoot at a law officer. Jones, W.D. [http://www.cinetropic.com/janeloisemorris/commentary/bonn%26clyde/wdjones.html \"Riding with Bonnie and Clyde\"], Playboy, November 1968. Reprinted at Cinetropic.com. Bonnie's reputation as a cigar-smoking gun moll grew out of a playful snapshot police found at an abandoned hideout. It was released to the press and published nationwide. Parker did chain smoke Camel cigarettes, but she never smoked cigars. \n\nHistorian Jeff Guinn writes that the hideout photos led to Parker's glamorization and the creation of legends about the gang:John Dillinger had matinee-idol good looks and Pretty Boy Floyd had the best possible nickname, but the Joplin photos introduced new criminal superstars with the most titillating trademark of all—illicit sex. Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker were wild and young, and undoubtedly slept together. \n\nBonnie Parker\n \n\nBonnie Elizabeth Parker (October 1, 1910 – May 23, 1934) was born in Rowena, Texas, the second of three children. Her father, Charles Parker, was a bricklayer who died when Bonnie was four. Her mother, Emma (Krause) Parker moved her family to her parents' home in Cement City, an industrial suburb now known as West Dallas. She worked as a seamstress. Her maternal grandfather, Frank Krause, came from Germany. As an adult, her fondness for writing found expression in poems such as \"The Story of Suicide Sal\" and \"The Trail's End\" (known since as \"The Story of Bonnie and Clyde\" ).\n\nIn her second year in high school, Parker met Roy Thornton. They dropped out of school and were married on September 25, 1926, six days before her 16th birthday. Their marriage, marked by his frequent absences and brushes with the law, was short-lived. After January 1929, their paths never crossed again. However, they never divorced, and Bonnie was wearing Thornton's wedding ring when she died. Thornton was still in prison when he heard of her death. He commented, \"I'm glad they went out like they did. It's much better than being caught.\"\n\nIn 1929, after the breakdown of her marriage, Parker lived with her mother and worked as a waitress in Dallas. One of her regular customers in the café was postal worker Ted Hinton, who would join the Dallas Sheriff's Department in 1932. As a posse member in 1934, he participated in her ambush. In the diary she kept briefly early in 1929, Parker wrote of her loneliness, her impatience with life in provincial Dallas, and her love of talking pictures. \n\nClyde Barrow\n\nClyde Chestnut Barrow (March 24, 1909 – May 23, 1934) was born into a poor farming family in Ellis County, Texas, near Telico, a town just southeast of Dallas. He was the fifth of seven children of Henry Basil Barrow (1874–1957) and Cumie T. Walker (1874–1943). They migrated, piecemeal, to Dallas in the early 1920s as part of a wave of resettlement from the impoverished nearby farms to the urban slum known as West Dallas. The Barrows spent their first months in West Dallas living under their wagon. When father Henry had earned enough money to buy a tent, it was a significant improvement for the family. During his lifetime, it was rumored that Clyde was a psychic. \n\nClyde was first arrested in late 1926, after running when police confronted him over a rental car he had failed to return on time. His second arrest, with brother Marvin \"Buck\" Barrow, came soon after, this time for possession of stolen goods (turkeys). Despite having legitimate jobs during the period 1927 through 1929, he also cracked safes, robbed stores, and stole cars. After sequential arrests in 1928 and 1929, he was sent to Eastham Prison Farm in April 1930. While in prison, Barrow used a lead pipe to crush the skull of another inmate, Ed Crowder, who had repeatedly sexually assaulted him. This was Clyde Barrow's first killing. Another inmate took the blame, however. Barrow convinced another inmate to use an axe to chop off two of Barrow's toes in order to excuse him from working hard labor in the fields; Barrow would walk with a limp for the rest of his life as a result. Unbeknownst to Barrow, his mother successfully petitioned a release for him, six days after his intentional injury.\n\nParoled in February 2, 1932, Barrow emerged from Eastham a hardened and bitter criminal. His sister Marie said, \"Something awful sure must have happened to him in prison, because he wasn't the same person when he got out.\" A fellow inmate, Ralph Fults, said he watched him \"change from a schoolboy to a rattlesnake.\" \n\nIn his post-Eastham career, Barrow chose smaller jobs, robbing grocery stores and gas stations, at a rate far outpacing the ten to fifteen bank robberies attributed to him and the Barrow Gang. His favored weapon was the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (called a BAR). According to John Neal Phillips, Barrow's goal in life was not to gain fame or fortune from robbing banks, but to seek revenge against the Texas prison system for the abuses he suffered while serving time. \n\nFirst meeting\n\nSeveral accounts describe Bonnie and Clyde's first meeting, but the most credible version tells that Bonnie Parker met Clyde Barrow on January 5, 1930 at Clarence Clay's (a friend of Clyde) house at 105 Herbert Street. Parker was out of work and was staying in West Dallas to assist a female friend with a broken arm. Barrow dropped by the girl's house while Parker was in the kitchen making hot chocolate. \n\nWhen they met, both were smitten immediately; most historians believe Parker joined Barrow because she was in love. She remained a loyal companion to him as they carried out their crime spree and awaited the violent deaths they viewed as inevitable. \n\nThe Spree\n\n1932: Early jobs, early murders\n\nAfter Barrow was released from prison in February 1932, he and Ralph Fults assembled a rotating core group of associates. They began a series of small robberies, primarily of stores and gas stations; their goal was to collect enough money and firepower to launch a raid of liberation against Eastham prison. On April 19, Bonnie Parker and Fults were captured in a failed hardware store burglary, where they intended to steal firearms, in Kaufman, Texas, and subsequently convicted and jailed. While Parker was released in a few months after the grand jury failed to indict her, Fults was prosecuted and tried; he served time and never rejoined the gang.\n\nOn April 30, Barrow was the driver in a robbery in Hillsboro, Texas, during which the store's owner, J.N. Bucher, was shot and killed. When shown mugshots, the victim's wife identified Barrow as one of the shooters, although he had stayed outside in the car. It was the first time in the crime spree that Barrow was accused of murder.\n\nParker was held in jail until June 17, where she wrote poetry to pass the time. When the Kaufman County grand jury convened, it declined to indict her, and she was released. Within a few weeks, she reunited with Barrow.\n\nOn August 5, while Parker was visiting her mother in Dallas, Barrow, Raymond Hamilton and Ross Dyer were drinking alcohol at a country dance in Stringtown, Oklahoma, when Sheriff C.G. Maxwell and his deputy, Eugene C. Moore, approached them in the parking lot. Barrow and Hamilton opened fire, killing the deputy and gravely wounding the sheriff. This was the first time Barrow and his gang killed a lawman; eventually, they reached a total of nine. On October 11, they allegedly killed Howard Hall at his store during a robbery in Sherman, Texas, though historians have considered this unlikely since 1997. \n\nW. D. Jones had been a friend of the Barrow family since childhood. Only 16 years old on Christmas Eve 1932, he persuaded Barrow to let him join the pair and leave Dallas with them that night. The next day, Jones was initiated when he and Barrow killed Doyle Johnson, a young family man, while stealing his car in Temple, Texas. Less than two weeks later, on January 6, 1933, Barrow killed Tarrant County Deputy Sheriff Malcolm Davis when he, Parker and Jones wandered into a police trap set for another criminal. The total murdered by the gang since April was five.\n\n1933: Buck joins the gang\n\nOn March 22, 1933, Buck Barrow was granted a full pardon and released from prison. Within days, he and his wife Blanche had set up housekeeping with Clyde, Parker and Jones in a temporary hideout at 3347 1/2 Oakridge Drive in Joplin, Missouri. According to family sources, Buck and Blanche were there to visit; they tried to persuade Clyde to surrender to law enforcement.\n\nBonnie and Clyde's next brush with the law arose from their generally suspicious—and conspicuous—behavior, not because they had been identified. The group ran loud, alcohol-fueled card games late into the night in the quiet neighborhood. \"We bought a case of beer a day\", Blanche would later recall. The men came and went noisily at all hours, and Clyde discharged a BAR (Browning Automatic Rifle) in the apartment while cleaning it. No neighbors went to the house, but one reported suspicions to the Joplin Police Department.\n\nThe lawmen assembled a five-man force in two cars on April 13 to confront what they suspected were bootleggers living in the garage apartment. Though taken by surprise, Clyde was noted for remaining cool under fire. He, Jones, and Buck quickly killed Detective McGinnis and fatally wounded Constable Harryman. During the escape from the apartment, Parker laid down covering fire with her own BAR, forcing Highway Patrol sergeant G. B. Kahler to duck behind a large oak tree while .30 caliber bullets struck the other side, forcing wood splinters into the sergeant's face. Parker got into the car with the others. They slowed enough to pull in Blanche Barrow from the street, where she was pursuing her dog Snow Ball. The surviving officers later testified that their side had fired only fourteen rounds in the conflict, but one hit Jones in the side, one struck Clyde and was deflected by his suitcoat button, and one grazed Buck after ricocheting off a wall.\n\nThe group escaped the police at Joplin, but left behind most of their possessions at the apartment: items included Buck and Blanche's marriage license, Buck's parole papers (three weeks old), a large arsenal of weapons, a handwritten poem by Bonnie, and a camera with several rolls of undeveloped film. The film was developed at The Joplin Globe and yielded many now-famous photos of Barrow, Parker and Jones clowning and pointing weapons at one another. When the poem and the photos, including one of Parker clenching a cigar in her teeth and a pistol in her hand, went out on the newly installed newswire, the obscure five criminals from Dallas became front-page news across America as the Barrow Gang. The poem \"Story of 'Suicide Sal was an apparent backstory.\n\nFor the next three months, the group ranged from Texas as far north as Minnesota. In May, they tried to rob the bank in Lucerne, Indiana and robbed the bank in Okabena, Minnesota. Previously they had kidnapped Dillard Darby and Sophia Stone at Ruston, Louisiana, in the course of stealing Darby's car; this was one of several incidents between 1932 and 1934 in which they kidnapped lawmen or robbery victims. They usually released their hostages far from home, sometimes with money to help them return home. \n\nStories of such encounters made headlines, as did the more violent episodes. The Barrow Gang did not hesitate to shoot anyone, lawman or civilian, who got in their way. Other members of the Barrow Gang known or thought to have committed murders included Raymond Hamilton, W.D. Jones, Buck Barrow and Henry Methvin. Eventually, the cold-bloodedness of their killings soured the public perception of the outlaws, and led to their ends. \n\nThe photos entertained the public, but the gang was desperate and discontented, as described by Blanche Barrow in her account written while imprisoned in the late 1930s. With their new notoriety, their daily lives became more difficult, as they tried to evade discovery. Restaurants and motels became less secure; they resorted to campfire cooking and bathing in cold streams. The unrelieved, round-the-clock proximity among two couples, plus a fifth-wheel, in one car gave rise to vicious bickering. So unpleasant did it become that W.D. Jones, who was the driver when he and Barrow stole Dillard Darby's car in late April, used that car to leave the others. He stayed away throughout May and up until June 8. \n\nOn June 10, while driving with Jones and Parker near Wellington, Texas, Barrow missed warning signs at a bridge under construction and flipped their car into a ravine. Sources disagree on whether there was a gasoline fire or if Parker was doused with acid from the car's battery under the floorboards. Parker sustained third-degree burns to her right leg so severe the muscles contracted and caused the leg to \"draw up\". \n\nNear the end of her life, Parker could hardly walk; she either hopped on her good leg or was carried by Clyde. After getting help from a nearby farm family and kidnapping two local lawmen, the three outlaws rendezvoused with Blanche and Buck Barrow. They hid in a tourist court near Fort Smith, Arkansas, nursing Parker's burns. Buck and Jones bungled a local robbery and killed Town Marshal Henry D. Humphrey in Alma, Arkansas. With the renewed pursuit by the law, they had to flee despite Parker's grave condition. \n\n1933: Platte City and Dexfield Park\n\nIn 1933, the gang checked into the Red Crown Tourist Court south of Platte City, Missouri (now within the city limits of Kansas City, Missouri). It consisted of two brick cabins joined by garages, and the gang rented both. To the south stood the Red Crown Tavern, a popular restaurant among Missouri Highway Patrolmen. The gang seemed to go out of their way to draw attention: Blanche Barrow registered the party as three guests, but owner Neal Houser could see five people getting out of the car. He noted the driver backed into the garage \"gangster style\", for a quick getaway. Blanche paid for their cabins with coins rather than bills, and repeated that later when buying five dinners and five beers. The next day, Houser noticed that his guests had taped newspapers over the windows of their cabin; Blanche again paid for five meals with coins. Blanche's outfit— jodhpur riding breeches —attracted attention; they were not typical attire for women in the area, and eyewitnesses reminiscing 40 years later mentioned them first. Houser told Captain William Baxter of the Highway Patrol, a patron of his restaurant, about the group.\n\nClyde and Jones went into town to purchase bandages, crackers, cheese, and atropine sulfate to treat Bonnie's leg. The druggist contacted Sheriff Holt Coffey, who put the cabins under surveillance. Coffey had been alerted by Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas law enforcement to watch for strangers seeking such supplies. The sheriff contacted Captain Baxter, who called for reinforcements from Kansas City, including an armored car. At 11 p.m. that night, Sheriff Coffey led a group of officers armed with Thompson submachine guns toward the cabins. \n\nBut in the pitched gunfight at considerable distances, the submachine guns proved no match for Clyde Barrow's preferred Browning Automatic Rifles (BAR), stolen July 7 from the National Guard armory at Enid, Oklahoma. The Barrows laid down fire and escaped when a bullet short-circuited the horn on the armored car and the lawmen mistook it for a cease-fire signal. They did not pursue the retreating Barrow vehicle.\n\nAlthough the gang had evaded the law again, Buck Barrow had sustained a gruesome and ultimately mortal bullet wound to his head that blasted a large hole in his forehead skull bone and exposed his injured brain, and Blanche was nearly blinded by glass fragments in both her eyes. Their prospects for evading a manhunt dwindled.\n\nFive days later, on July 24, the Barrow Gang was camped at Dexfield Park, an abandoned amusement park near Dexter, Iowa. Although he was sometimes semiconscious, and even talked and ate, Buck's massive head wound and loss of blood was so severe that Clyde and Jones dug a grave for him. After their bloody bandages were noticed by local residents, officers determined the campers were the Barrow gang. Local lawmen and approximately one hundred spectators surrounded the group, and the Barrows soon came under fire. Clyde Barrow, Parker, and W.D. Jones escaped on foot. Buck was shot in the back, and he and his wife were captured by the officers. Buck died five days later at Kings Daughters Hospital in Perry, Iowa, of his head wound and pneumonia after surgery.\n\nFor the next six weeks, the remaining trio ranged far afield from their usual area of operations—west to Colorado, north to Minnesota, southeast to Mississippi—keeping a low profile and pulling only small robberies for subsistence. They restocked their arsenal when Barrow and Jones burgled an armory at Plattville, Illinois on August 20, acquiring three BARs, handguns, and a large quantity of ammunition. \n\nBy early September, they risked a run to Dallas to see their families for the first time in four months. Jones parted company with them, continuing to Houston, where his mother had moved. He was arrested there without incident on November 16 and returned to Dallas. Through the autumn, Clyde Barrow executed a series of small-time robberies with a series of small-time local accomplices while his family and Parker's attended to her considerable medical needs.\n\nOn November 22, 1933, they narrowly evaded arrest while trying to hook up with family members near Sowers, Texas. Their hometown sheriff, Dallas' Smoot Schmid, and his squad, Deputies Bob Alcorn and Ted Hinton, lay in wait nearby. As Barrow drove up, he sensed a trap and drove past his family's car, at which point Schmid and his deputies stood up and opened fire with machine guns and a BAR. The family members in the crossfire were not hit, but a BAR bullet passed through the car, striking the legs of both Barrow and Parker. They escaped that night.\n\nThe following week on November 28, a Dallas grand jury delivered a murder indictment against Parker and Barrow for the January 1933 killing of Tarrant County Deputy Malcolm Davis; it was Parker's first warrant for murder.\n\n1934: Final run\n\nOn January 16, 1934, Barrow orchestrated the escape of Raymond Hamilton, Henry Methvin and several others in the infamous \"Eastham Breakout\" of 1934. The brazen raid generated negative publicity for Texas, and Barrow seemed to have achieved what historian Phillips described as his overriding goal: revenge on the Texas Department of Corrections. \n\nDuring the jailbreak, escapee Joe Palmer shot prison officer Major Joe Crowson. This attack attracted the full power of the Texas and federal government to the manhunt for Barrow and Parker. As Crowson struggled for life, prison chief Lee Simmons reportedly promised him that all persons involved in the breakout would be hunted down and killed. All were, except for Henry Methvin, whose life was traded for turning Barrow and Parker over to authorities.\n\nThe Texas Department of Corrections contacted former Texas Ranger Captain Frank A. Hamer, and persuaded him to hunt down the Barrow Gang. Though retired, Hamer had retained his commission, which had not yet expired. He accepted the assignment as a Texas Highway Patrol officer, secondarily assigned to the prison system as a special investigator, and given the specific task of taking Bonnie, Clyde and the Barrow Gang.\n\nTall, burly, taciturn, Hamer was described as unimpressed by authority and driven by an \"inflexible adherence to right, or what he thinks is right.\" For 20 years he had been feared and admired throughout Texas as \"the walking embodiment of the 'One Riot, One Ranger' ethos.\" He \"had acquired a formidable reputation as a result of several spectacular captures and the shooting of a number of Texas criminals.\" He was officially credited with 53 kills (and suffered 17 wounds). Although prison boss Simmons always said publicly that Hamer had been his first choice, there is evidence he approached two other Rangers first, both of whom were reluctant to shoot a woman and declined. Starting February 10, Hamer became the constant shadow of Barrow and Parker, living out of his car, just a town or two behind the bandits. Three of Hamer's brothers were also Texas Rangers, and while brother Harrison was the best shot of the four, Frank was considered the most tenacious. \n\nOn April 1, 1934, Easter Sunday, Barrow and Henry Methvin killed two young highway patrolmen, H. D. Murphy and Edward Bryant Wheeler, at the intersection of Route 114 and Dove Road near Grapevine, Texas (now Southlake). An eyewitness account stated that Barrow and Parker fired the fatal shots, and this story got widespread coverage before it was discredited. Methvin later admitted he fired the first shot, after assuming Barrow wanted the officers killed; he also said that Parker approached the dying officers intending to help them, not to administer the coup de grâce described by the discredited eyewitness. Barrow joined in, firing at Patrolman Murphy. Most likely, Parker was asleep in the back seat when Methvin started shooting and took no part in the assault.\n\nIn the spring of 1934, the Grapevine killings were recounted in exaggerated detail, affecting public perception: all four Dallas daily papers seized on the story told by the eyewitness, a farmer, who claimed to have seen Parker laugh at the way Patrolman Murphy's head \"bounced like a rubber ball\" on the ground as she shot him. The stories claimed that police found a cigar butt \"with tiny teeth marks\" supposedly Parker's. Several days later Murphy's fiancee wore her intended wedding dress to his funeral, sparking photos and newspaper coverage. The eyewitness's ever-changing story was soon discredited, but the massive negative publicity, against Parker in particular, increased the public clamor for extermination of the survivors of the Barrow Gang.\n\nThe outcry also galvanized the authorities into action: Highway Patrol boss L.G. Phares immediately offered a $1,000 reward for \"the dead bodies of the Grapevine slayers\"—not their capture, just the bodies. Texas governor Ma Ferguson added another $500 reward for each of the two alleged killers, which \"meant for the first time there was a specific price on Bonnie's head, since she was so widely believed to have shot H.D. Murphy.\" \n\nPublic hostility increased five days later, when Barrow and Methvin killed 60-year-old Constable William \"Cal\" Campbell, a widower single father, near Commerce, Oklahoma. They kidnapped Commerce police chief Percy Boyd, drove around with him, crossing the state line into Kansas, and let him go, giving him a clean shirt, a few dollars, and a request from Parker to tell the world she did not smoke cigars. Boyd identified both Barrow and Parker to authorities but he never learned Methvin's name. The resultant arrest warrant for the Campbell murder specified \"Clyde Barrow, Bonnie Parker and John Doe.\" Historian Knight writes: \"For the first time, Bonnie was seen as a killer, actually pulling the trigger—just like Clyde. Whatever chance she had for clemency had just been reduced.\"\n\nThe Dallas Journal ran a cartoon on its editorial page showing the Texas electric chair, empty, but with a sign on it saying '\"Reserved\" and \"Clyde and Bonnie\". \n\nDeaths\n\nBarrow and Parker were ambushed and killed on May 23, 1934, on a rural road in Bienville Parish, Louisiana. The couple appeared in daylight in an automobile and were shot by a posse of four Texas officers (Frank Hamer, B.M. \"Manny\" Gault, Bob Alcorn, and Ted Hinton) and two Louisiana officers (Henderson Jordan and Prentiss Morel Oakley). \n\nThe posse was led by Hamer who had begun tracking the pair on February 12, 1934. He studied the gang's movements and found they swung in a circle skirting the edges of five midwestern states, exploiting the \"state line\" rule that prevented officers from one jurisdiction from pursuing a fugitive into another. Barrow was a master of that pre-FBI rule, but consistent in his movements, so the experienced Hamer charted his path and predicted where he would go. The gang's itinerary centered on family visits, and they were due to see Methvin's family in Louisiana.\n\nOn May 21, 1934, the four posse members from Texas were in Shreveport when they learned that Barrow and Parker were to go to Bienville Parish that evening with Methvin. Barrow had designated the residence of Methvin's parents as a rendezvous in case they were separated, and Methvin did get separated from the pair in Shreveport. The full posse, consisting of Captain Hamer, Dallas County Sheriff's Deputies Alcorn and Ted Hinton (both of whom knew Barrow and Parker by sight), former Texas Ranger B.M. \"Manny\" Gault, Bienville Parish Sheriff Henderson Jordan and his deputy Prentiss Oakley, set up an ambush at the rendezvous point along Louisiana State Highway 154 south of Gibsland toward Sailes. Hinton recounted that their group was in place by 9:00 pm on the 21st and waited through the whole next day (May 22) with no sign of the outlaw couple.Hinton, Ted and Larry Grove (1979). [https://books.google.com/books?id\nNcsLAAAACAAJ Ambush: The Real Story of Bonnie and Clyde]. Austin, TX: Shoal Creek Publishers. ISBN 0-88319-041-9. Other accounts said the officers set up on the evening of the 22nd. \t\n\nAt approximately 9:15 a.m. on May 23, the posse, concealed in the bushes and almost ready to concede defeat, heard Barrow's stolen Ford V8 approaching at a high speed. The posse's official report had Barrow stopping to speak with Methvin's father, who had been planted there with his truck that morning to distract Barrow and force him into the lane closer to the posse. The lawmen opened fire, killing Barrow and Parker while shooting a combined total of about 130 rounds. Oakley fired first, probably before any order to do so. Barrow was killed instantly by Oakley's initial head shot, but Hinton reported hearing Parker scream as she realized Barrow was dead, before the shooting at her fully began. The officers emptied all their arms at the car. Any one of the many wounds suffered by Bonnie and Clyde would have been fatal. \n\nAccording to statements made by Ted Hinton and Bob Alcorn:\n\nResearchers have said Bonnie and Clyde were shot more than fifty times each; others claim closer to twenty-five wounds per corpse, or fifty total. Officially, parish coroner Dr. J. L. Wade's 1934 report listed 17 separate entrance wounds on Barrow's body and 26 on Parker's, including several headshots on each, and one that had snapped Barrow's spinal column. Undertaker C. F. \"Boots\" Bailey had difficulty embalming the bodies because of all the bullet holes. \n\nThe temporarily deafened officers inspected the vehicle and discovered an arsenal of weapons, including stolen automatic rifles, sawed-off semi-automatic shotguns, assorted handguns, and several thousand rounds of ammunition, along with 15 sets of license plates from various states.\n \nWord of the ambush quickly got around when Hamer, Jordan, Oakley, and Hinton drove into town to telephone their respective bosses. A crowd soon gathered at the ambush spot. Gault and Alcorn, left to guard the bodies, lost control of the jostling curious; one woman cut off bloody locks of Parker's hair and pieces from her dress, which were subsequently sold as souvenirs. Hinton returned to find a man trying to cut off Barrow's trigger finger, and was sickened by what was occurring. Arriving at the scene, the coroner said he saw the following: \"... nearly everyone had begun collecting souvenirs such as shell casings, slivers of glass from the shattered car windows, and bloody pieces of clothing from the garments of Bonnie and Clyde. One eager man had opened his pocket knife, and was reaching into the car to cut off Clyde's left ear.\"Milner, E.R. [https://books.google.com/books?idbfLXGwAACAAJ The Lives and Times of Bonnie and Clyde.] Southern Illinois University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8093-2552-7. Published 1996.The coroner enlisted Hamer for help in controlling the \"circus-like atmosphere\", and got people away from the car.\n\nThe Ford, with the bodies, was towed to the Conger Furniture Store & funeral parlor in downtown Arcadia. Preliminary embalming was done by Bailey in a small preparation room in back of the furniture store (it was common for furniture and undertakers to be together). The northwest Louisiana town was estimated to swell in population from 2,000 to 12,000 within hours, with the curious throngs arriving by train, horseback, buggy, and plane. Beer, which normally sold for 15 cents a bottle, jumped to 25 cents; ham sandwiches quickly sold out. After identifying his son's body, Henry Barrow sat in a rocking chair in the furniture section and wept.\n\nH.D. Darby, a young undertaker who worked for the McClure Funeral Parlor in nearby Ruston, and Sophia Stone, a home demonstration agent also from Ruston, came to Arcadia to identify the bodies. They had been kidnapped by the Barrow gang the previous year in Ruston, on April 27, 1933, and released near Waldo, Arkansas. Parker reportedly had laughed when she asked Darby his profession and discovered he was an undertaker. She remarked that maybe someday he would be working on her. Darby assisted Bailey in embalming the outlaws.\n\nFuneral and burial\n\nBonnie and Clyde wished to be buried side by side, but the Parker family would not allow it. Mrs. Parker wanted to grant her daughter's final wish, to be brought home, but the mobs surrounding the Parker house made that impossible. More than 20,000 attended Bonnie Parker's funeral, and her family had difficulty reaching her gravesite.\n\nParker's family used the now defunct McKamy-Campbell Funeral Home, then located on Forest Avenue (now Martin Luther King, Jr. Boulevard) in Dallas, to conduct her funeral. Hubert \"Buster\" Parker accompanied his sister's body to Dallas from Arcadia in the McKamy-Campbell ambulance. Her services were held on Saturday, May 26, 1934, at 2 pm, in the funeral home, directed by Allen D. Campbell. His son, Dr. Allen Campbell, later recalled that flowers came from everywhere, including some with cards allegedly from Pretty Boy Floyd and John Dillinger. The largest floral tribute was sent by a group of Dallas city newsboys; the sudden end of Bonnie and Clyde sold 500,000 newspapers in Dallas alone. Although initially buried in the Fishtrap Cemetery, Parker was moved in 1945 to the new Crown Hill Cemetery in Dallas.\n\nBarrow's family used the Sparkman-Holtz-Brand Morticians, located in downtown Dallas. Thousands of people gathered outside both Dallas funeral homes hoping for a chance to view the bodies. Barrow's private funeral was held at sunset on Friday, May 25, in the funeral home chapel. He was buried in Western Heights Cemetery in Dallas, next to his brother, Marvin. The Barrow brothers share a single granite marker with their names on it and a four-word epitaph previously selected by Clyde: \"Gone but not forgotten.\" \n\nThe life insurance policies for both Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow were paid in full by American National of Galveston. Since then, the policy of payouts has changed to exclude payouts in cases of deaths caused by any criminal act by the insured. \n\nThe six men of the posse were each to receive a one-sixth share of the reward money. Dallas Sheriff Schmid had promised Ted Hinton this would total some $26,000, but most of the state, county, and other organizations that had pledged reward funds reneged on their pledges. In the end, each lawman earned $200.23 for his efforts. They collected memorabilia. \n\nThe ambush of Barrow and Parker proved to be the beginning of the end of the \"public enemy era\" of the 1930s. By the summer of 1934, new federal statutes made bank robbery and kidnapping federal offenses; and the growing coordination of local jurisdictions by the FBI, plus two-way radios in police cars, combined to make the outlaw bandit sprees much more difficult to carry out than just months before. Two months after Gibsland, Dillinger was ambushed and killed on the street in Chicago; three months after that, Charles Arthur \"Pretty Boy Floyd\" was killed by 14 FBI bullets in the back in Ohio; and one month after that, Lester \"Baby Face Nelson\" Gillis shot it out, and lost, in Illinois. \n\nControversies\n\nFollowing the ambush, numerous questions arose, based on the differing accounts: Hamer and Gault were both former Texas Rangers then working for the Texas Department of Corrections, Hinton and Alcorn were employees of the Dallas Sheriff's office, and Jordan and Oakley were Sheriff and Deputy of Bienville Parish. The three duos distrusted each other, kept to themselves, and did not much like each other. They each carried differing agendas into the operation and brought differing narratives out of it. Historian Guinn puts it this way:\n\n\"[Hamer's, Simmons's, Jordan's and Hinton's] various testimonies combine into one of the most dazzling displays of deliberate obfuscation in modern history. Such widely varied accounts can't be dismissed as different people honestly recalling the same events different ways. Motive becomes an issue, and they all had reason to lie. Hamer was fanatical about protecting sources. Simmons was interested in resurrecting his own public image ... Jordan wanted to present himself as the critical dealmaker. Nobody can account for Ted Hinton's improbable reminiscences ...\" \n\nBecause their self-serving accounts vary so widely, and because all six men are long deceased, the exact details of the ambush are unknown and unknowable. Lingering questions include whether fair warning was given the fugitives before the firing began, whether Parker should have been classified as a \"shoot-on-sight\" candidate, and the 1970s-era accusations of Deputy Hinton.\n\nCalling a \"Halt!\"\n\nDallas Sheriff Schmid had previously warned Clyde Barrow before an ambush at Sowers, Texas in November 1933. When he called \"Halt!\", gunfire erupted from the outlaw car, it made a quick U-turn, and he saw rapidly vanishing taillights. Hinton later said it was \"the most futile gesture of the week.\" When the two Louisiana posse officers discussed calling \"Halt!\", the four Texans \"vetoed the idea,\" telling them that Clyde's history had always been to shoot his way out, as had occurred in Platte City, Dexfield Park, and Sowers. It is unlikely that Hamer planned to give warning, but Oakley stood up and opened fire; after a beat, the other officers joined him in firing. Later, Jordan was reported as saying he called out to Barrow, Alcorn said Hamer called out, and Hinton claimed Alcorn did. In another report, they each said they both did. These conflicting claims most likely were collegial attempts to divert the focus from their gun-jumping associate Oakley, who later admitted firing too early.Guinn, p. 357.\n\nWarrants on Parker\n\nDifferent sources have noted five occasions when Bonnie Parker may or may not have fired shots during crises faced by the gang. The number of shots is unimportant as she never hit anyone, let alone murdered. But, she was an accomplice to 100 or more felony criminal acts during her two-year career in crime, including eight murders, seven kidnappings, half-a-dozen bank robberies, scores of felony armed robberies, countless automobile thefts, one major jailbreak and an episode of assault and battery, at a time when being a \"habitual criminal\" was a capital offense in Texas. Because her gang kept on the run, Parker stayed a step ahead of legal entanglements.\n\nAfter Joplin, she became identified among the wanted; the Joplin Police Department issued a Wanted for Murder poster in April 1933 that featured her name and photo first, before Barrow's. In June, another Wanted for Murder poster was distributed by Crawford County, Arkansas, with Parker's name and photo getting first billing. A $250 cash bounty was offered for either of the \"Barrow Brothers\" (Clyde and \"Melvin\"), with an alert to their need for medical care for a woman. \n\nBy November 1933, W.D. Jones was in custody and supplying details of the gang's 1933 activities; a grand jury was empaneled in Dallas to hear material and decide on indictments. On November 28, the grand jury indicted Parker, Barrow, and Jones for the murder of Deputy Malcolm Davis in January; Judge Nolan G. Williams of Criminal District Court No. 2 issued arrest warrants for Parker and Barrow for murder. Parker's assistance in the raid on Eastham prison in January 1934 earned her the enmity of a wide group of influential Texans. After being linked to the Grapevine murders, she was marked by a bounty set by the head of the Highway Patrol, and the Governor. Five days later, Barrow and Henry Methvin killed Constable Campbell in Commerce, Oklahoma; the Oklahoma murder warrant named \"Clyde Barrow, Bonnie Parker and John Doe\" as his killers. \n\nHinton's accusations\n\nA travelling showman called Stanley toured with a lecture that supported some aspects of what Hinton later said. According to Stanley, Hamer had arranged the ambush through Methvin's family, which carried the implication that Hamer had secretly made an agreement that Methvin would escape justice. Methvin, who unlike WD Jones was not a juvenile, served a total of 8 years for being convicted of murdering Constable Campbell in Oklahoma. He was never tried for murdering two highway patrolmen near Grapevine, Texas, which Clyde accused him of in a letter to the Barrows. When Stanley came to Austin, Hamer slapped his face, took his slides and told him to stop putting on his show. Stanley returned to Texas in 1939 for a performance at the State Fair, with Bob Alcorn and Ted Hinton as guards; Hamer did not show up. \n\nIn 1979, Ted Hinton's as-told-to account of the ambush was published posthumously as Ambush. His version of the Methvin family's involvement in the planning and execution of the ambush was that the posse had tied Henry Methvin's father Ivy to a tree the previous night, to keep him from warning the outlaws off. Hinton claimed that Hamer made a deal with Ivy Methvin: keep quiet about being tied up, and his son would escape prosecution for the Grapevine murders. Hinton alleged that Hamer made every member of the posse swear they would never divulge this secret. Other accounts, however, place Methvin Senior at the center of the action, not tied up but on the road, waving for Clyde Barrow to stop Hinton's memoir suggests that the stogie in the famous \"cigar photo\" of Bonnie had been a rose, and it was retouched as a cigar by darkroom staff at the Joplin Globe while preparing the photo for publication. Guinn says that \"some people who knew [Hinton] suspect he became delusional late in life.\" \n\nAftermath\n\nThe smoke from the fusillade had not even cleared before the posse began sifting through the items in the Barrow death car. Hamer appropriated the \"considerable\" arsenal of stolen guns and ammunition, plus a box of fishing tackle, under the terms of his compensation package with the Texas DOC. In July, Clyde's mother Cumie wrote to Hamer asking for the return of the guns: \"You don't never [sic] want to forget my boy was never tried in no court for murder, and no one is guilty until proven guilty by some court so I hope you will answer this letter and also return the guns I am asking for.\"Treherne, p 224 No record exists of any response.\n\nAlcorn claimed Barrow's saxophone from the car, but feeling guilty, later returned it to the Barrow family. Other personal items such as Parker's clothing were also taken, and when the Parker family asked for them back, they were refused. These items were later sold as souvenirs. A rumored suitcase full of cash was said by the Barrow family to have been kept by Sheriff Jordan, \"who soon after the ambush purchased an auction barn and land in Arcadia.\" Jordan also attempted to keep the death car for his own but found himself the target of a lawsuit by Ruth Warren of Topeka, the owner of the car from whom Barrow had stolen the vehicle on April 29; after considerable legal sparring and a court order, Jordan relented and the car was returned to Mrs. Warren in August 1934. It was still covered with blood and tissue. She had to pay an $85 towing and storage bill. \n\nIn February 1935, Dallas and federal authorities conducted a \"harboring trial\" in which 20 family members and friends of the outlaw couple were arrested and jailed for the aid and abetment of Barrow and Parker. All twenty either pleaded or were found guilty. The two mothers were jailed for 30 days; other sentences ranged from two years' imprisonment for Raymond Hamilton's brother Floyd to one hour in custody for teenager Marie Barrow, Clyde's sister. Other defendants included Blanche Barrow, W. D. Jones, Henry Methvin and Bonnie's sister Billie.\n\nBlanche Barrow's injuries left her permanently blinded in her left eye. After the 1933 shootout at Dexfield Park, she was taken into custody on the charge of \"Assault With Intent to Kill.\" She was sentenced to ten years in prison but was paroled in 1939 for good behavior. She returned to Dallas, leaving her life of crime in the past, and lived with her invalid father as his caregiver. She married Eddie Frasure in 1940, worked as a taxi cab dispatcher and a beautician, and completed the terms of her parole one year later. She lived in peace with her husband until he died of cancer in 1969. Warren Beatty approached her to purchase the rights to her name for use in the 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde. While she agreed to the original script, she objected to her characterization in the final film, describing Estelle Parsons's Academy Award-winning portrayal of her as \"a screaming horse's ass.\" Despite this, she maintained a firm friendship with Beatty. She died from cancer at the age of 77 on December 24, 1988, and was buried in Dallas's Grove Hill Memorial Park under the name \"Blanche B. Frasure\". \n\nBarrow cohorts Raymond Hamilton and Joe Palmer, both Eastham escapees in January 1934, both recaptured, and both subsequently convicted of murder, shared one more thing in common: They were both executed in the electric chair, \"Old Sparky\", at Huntsville, Texas, and both on the same day, May 10, 1935. Barrow protégé W. D. Jones had split from his mentors six weeks after the three slipped the noose at Dexfield Park in July 1933. He found his way to Houston and got a job picking cotton, where he was soon discovered and captured. He was returned to Dallas, where he dictated a \"confession\" in which he claimed to have been kept a prisoner by Barrow and Parker. Some of the more lurid embellishments he made concerned the gang's sex lives, and it was this testimony that gave rise to many of the stories about Barrow's ambiguous sexuality. Jones was convicted of the murder of Doyle Johnson and served a lenient sentence of fifteen years. He struggled for years with substance abuse problems, gave an interview to Playboy during the heyday of excitement surrounding the 1967 movie, and was killed on August 4, 1974 in a misunderstanding by the jealous boyfriend of a woman he was trying to help out. \n\nSubstitute protégé Henry Methvin's ambush-earned Texas pardon didn't help him in Oklahoma, where he was convicted of the 1934 murder of Constable Campbell at Commerce. He was paroled in 1942 and killed by a train in 1948; it was said that he fell asleep, drunk, on the tracks, but there were rumors that he had been pushed by parties seeking revenge for his betrayal of Clyde Barrow. His father Ivy had been killed in 1946 by a hit-and-run driver, and here too there was talk of foul play. Bonnie Parker's husband Roy Thornton was sentenced to five years in prison for burglary in March 1933. He was killed by guards on October 3, 1937, during an escape attempt from Eastham Farm prison. \n\nIn the years after the ambush, Prentiss Oakley, who all six possemen agree fired the first shots, was reported to have been troubled by his actions. He often admitted to his friends that he had fired prematurely and he was the only posse member to express regret publicly. He would go on to succeed Henderson Jordan as sheriff of Bienville Parish in 1940.\n\nFrank Hamer returned to a quieter life as a freelance security consultant — a strikebreaker — for oil companies, although, according to Guinn, \"his reputation suffered somewhat after Gibsland\" because many people felt he had not given Barrow and Parker a fair chance to surrender. He made headlines again in 1948 when he and Governor Coke Stevenson unsuccessfully challenged Lyndon Johnson's vote totals during the election for the U.S. Senate. He died in 1955 at age 71 after several years of poor health. His possemate Bob Alcorn died on May 23, 1964, exactly thirty years to the day after the Gibsland ambush.\n\nThe bullet-riddled Ford which Bonnie and Clyde had driven when they were killed became a popular traveling attraction that was initially displayed at fairs, amusement parks and flea markets for three decades, and became a fixture at a Nevada race track where it could be sat in for a dollar. The car eventually changed hands between casinos after settling momentarily in a Las Vegas car museum in the 1980s, moving between Iowa, Missouri and Nevada. The car is currently on display at Whiskey Pete's in Primm, Nevada. \n\nOn April 1, 2011, the 77th anniversary of the Grapevine murders, Texas Rangers, troopers and DPS staff presented the Yellow Rose of Texas commendation to Ella Wheeler-McLeod, 95, the last surviving sibling of highway patrolman Edward Bryan Wheeler, killed that Easter Sunday by the Barrow Gang. They presented McLeod, of San Antonio, with a plaque and framed portrait of her brother. \n\nIn media\n\nFilm\n\nHollywood has treated the story of Bonnie and Clyde several times, most notably:\n* Dorothy Provine starred in the film The Bonnie Parker Story (1958), directed by William Witney.Walker, John, ed. (1994). Halliwell's Film Guide. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-273241-2. p. 150\n* Arthur Penn directed the best-known version of the tale, Bonnie and Clyde (1967), which starred Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway.\n\nMusic\n\n* In December 1967 Serge Gainsbourg and Brigitte Bardot recorded the song \"Bonnie and Clyde\", which conveys a highly romanticized account of the pair. The song, one of Gainsbourg's most famous and popular ones, was released in January 1968 on the LP Brigitte Bardot et Serge Gainsbourg, Bonnie and Clyde (Fontana 885529). The recording, with its hypnotic, repetitive string motif and eerie vocals and sound effects, has been sampled widely. The English-language version of the track is sung by Gainsbourg alone and the lyrics are from a poem written by Bonnie Parker.\n* In 1967 Georgie Fame released a single called \"The Ballad of Bonnie and Clyde\" (UK #1), whose lyrics tell of Bonnie's and Clyde's exploits. This song was inspired by the movie about them.\n* In 1968 Mel Torme wrote and performed the song \"A Day in the Life of Bonnie and Clyde\", featured on his album of the same name.\n* In 1968 Merle Haggard recorded \"The Legend of Bonnie and Clyde\".\n* In 1996 the German punk band Die Toten Hosen released the song \"Bonnie & Clyde\" on their seventh album Opium fürs Volk.\n* In 2015 the American shoegaze band The Stargazer Lilies released the song \"Bonnie and Clyde\" as a single.\n* In 2016 independent rock band The Cooch Experiment released the song \"Bonnie and Clyde\" on their debut album Starry Robe Sessions.\n\nMusical theater\n\n* On November 20, 2009, La Jolla Playhouse presented the world premiere of the musical Bonnie & Clyde. The production was adapted from the book by Ivan Menchell with music written by Frank Wildhorn and lyrics by Don Black. The cast was led by Laura Osnes as Bonnie and Stark Sands as Clyde. The musical won the San Diego Theatre Critics Circle's Award for Outstanding New Musical and director Jeff Calhoun was honored for Best Direction of a Musical.\n* The next production ran at the Asolo Repertory Theatre in Sarasota, Florida from November 12, 2010 through December 19, 2010, directed again by Jeff Calhoun. In this production Laura Osnes starred once more as Bonnie (for which she has received a nomination for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for the 2011–2012 year) and Jeremy Jordan starred in the role of Clyde, Melissa van der Schyff as Blanche Barrow, and Claybourne Elder as Buck Barrow. Bonnie & Clyde began previews on Broadway on November 4, 2011, with an official opening on December 1, 2011. The show closed on December 30, 2011 after 69 performances. \n\nTelevision\n\n* In the TV film, Bonnie & Clyde: The True Story (1992), Tracey Needham played Bonnie while Clyde was portrayed by Dana Ashbrook. \n* Bruce Beresford directed a television miniseries, Bonnie & Clyde, which aired on Lifetime, History Channel, and A&E on December 8 and 9, 2013. \n* In March 2009 the pair were the subject a program in the BBC series Timewatch, based in part on gang members' private papers and previously unavailable police documents. \n*The Barrow gang's criminal career was featured in Season 28 of American Experience episode 'Bonnie & Clyde'. \n\nThe Bonnie and Clyde Festival\n\nEvery year near the anniversary of the ambush, a \"Bonnie and Clyde Festival\" is hosted in the town of Gibsland, off Interstate 20 in Bienville Parish. The ambush location, still comparatively isolated on Louisiana Highway 154, south of Gibsland, is commemorated by a stone marker that has been defaced to near illegibility by souvenir hunters and gunshot. A small metal version was added to accompany the stone monument. It was stolen, as was its replacement.\n\nHistorical perspective\n\nThrough the decades, many cultural historians have analyzed Bonnie's and Clyde's enduring appeal to the public imagination. E.R. Milner, an historian, writer, and expert on Bonnie and Clyde and their era, put the duo's enduring appeal to the public, both during the Depression and continuing on through the decades, into historical and cultural perspective. To those people who, as Milner says, \"consider themselves outsiders, or oppose the existing system,\" Bonnie and Clyde represent the ultimate outsiders, revolting against an uncaring system. \n\"The country's money simply declined by 38 percent\", explains Milner, author of The Lives and Times of Bonnie and Clyde. \"Gaunt, dazed men roamed the city streets seeking jobs ... Breadlines and soup kitchens became jammed. (In rural areas) foreclosures forced more than 38 percent of farmers from their lands (while simultaneously) a catastrophic drought struck the Great Plains ... By the time Bonnie and Clyde became well known, many had felt that the capitalistic system had been abused by big business and government officials ... Now here were Bonnie and Clyde striking back.\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Saxamophone", "Neckstrap", "Strich", "Saxaphone", "Neckstrap (Saxophone)", "Stritch (saxophone)", "Saxophone family", "Manzello", "Saxy", "Saxophones", "Conn-o-sax", "Conn-O-Sax", "🎷", "Saxello", "Saxist", "Saxophonist", "Neck Strap", "Saxphone", "Saxofone", "Saxophone", "Contralto saxophone", "Jazz Tube" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "conn o sax", "contralto saxophone", "saxist", "saxophone", "saxphone", "manzello", "strich", "stritch saxophone", "saxophone family", "saxofone", "neckstrap", "saxy", "saxello", "jazz tube", "saxophonist", "saxamophone", "neckstrap saxophone", "saxophones", "neck strap", "saxaphone", "🎷" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "saxophone", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Saxophone" }
Which album was said to have reflected the end of Bob Dylan's marriage?	tc_1389	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bob_Dylan.txt" ], "title": [ "Bob Dylan" ], "wiki_context": [ "Bob Dylan (; born Robert Allen Zimmerman, May 24, 1941) is an American singer-songwriter, artist and writer. He has been influential in popular music and culture for more than five decades. Much of his most celebrated work dates from the 1960s when his songs chronicled social unrest, although Dylan repudiated suggestions from journalists that he was a spokesman for his generation. Nevertheless, early songs such as \"Blowin' in the Wind\" and \"The Times They Are a-Changin'\" became anthems for the American civil rights and anti-war movements. After he left his initial base in the American folk music revival, his six-minute single \"Like a Rolling Stone\" altered the range of popular music in 1965. His mid-1960s recordings, backed by rock musicians, reached the top end of the United States music charts while also attracting denunciation and criticism from others in the folk movement.\n\nDylan's lyrics have incorporated various political, social, philosophical, and literary influences. They defied existing pop music conventions and appealed to the burgeoning counterculture. Initially inspired by the performances of Little Richard and the songwriting of Woody Guthrie, Robert Johnson, and Hank Williams, Dylan has amplified and personalized musical genres. His recording career, spanning more than 50 years, has explored the traditions in American song—from folk, blues, and country to gospel, rock and roll, and rockabilly to English, Scottish, and Irish folk music, embracing even jazz and the Great American Songbook. Dylan performs with guitar, keyboards, and harmonica. Backed by a changing lineup of musicians, he has toured steadily since the late 1980s on what has been dubbed the Never Ending Tour. His accomplishments as a recording artist and performer have been central to his career, but songwriting is considered his greatest contribution.\n\nSince 1994, Dylan has published six books of drawings and paintings, and his work has been exhibited in major art galleries. As a musician, Dylan has sold more than 100 million records, making him one of the best-selling artists of all time. He has also received numerous awards including eleven Grammy Awards, a Golden Globe Award, and an Academy Award. Dylan has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Minnesota Music Hall of Fame, Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame, and Songwriters Hall of Fame. The Pulitzer Prize jury in 2008 awarded him a special citation for \"his profound impact on popular music and American culture, marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power.\" In May 2012, Dylan received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama.\n\nLife and career\n\nOrigins and musical beginnings\n\nBob Dylan was born Robert Allen Zimmerman (Hebrew name [Shabtai Zisl ben Avraham]) in St Mary's Hospital on May 24, 1941, in Duluth, Minnesota, and raised in Hibbing, Minnesota, on the Mesabi Range west of Lake Superior. He has a younger brother, David. Dylan's paternal grandparents, Zigman and Anna Zimmerman, emigrated from Odessa, in the Russian Empire (now Ukraine), to the United States following the anti-Semitic pogroms of 1905.Sounes, pp. 12–13. His maternal grandparents, Ben and Florence Stone, were Lithuanian Jews who arrived in the United States in 1902. In his autobiography, Chronicles: Volume One, Dylan wrote that his paternal grandmother's maiden name was Kirghiz and her family originated from Kağızman district of Kars Province in northeastern Turkey. \n\nDylan's parents, Abram Zimmerman and Beatrice \"Beatty\" Stone, were part of a small but close-knit Jewish community. They lived in Duluth until Robert was six, when his father had polio and the family returned to his mother's hometown, Hibbing, where they lived for the rest of Robert's childhood. In his early years he listened to the radio—first to blues and country stations from Shreveport, Louisiana and later, when he was a teenager, to rock and roll.Shelton, pp. 38–40. He formed several bands while attending Hibbing High School. In the Golden Chords, he performed covers of songs by Little Richard and Elvis Presley. Their performance of Danny & the Juniors' \"Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay\" at their high school talent show was so loud that the principal cut the microphone. In 1959, his high school yearbook carried the caption \"Robert Zimmerman: to join 'Little Richard'.\" The same year, as Elston Gunnn , he performed two dates with Bobby Vee, playing piano and clapping.An interview with Vee suggests Zimmerman may have been eccentric in spelling his early pseudonym: \"[Dylan] was in the Fargo/Moorhead area ... Bill [Velline] was in a record shop in Fargo, Sam's Record Land, and this guy came up to him and introduced himself as Elston Gunnn—with three n's, G-U-N-N-N.\" Bobby Vee Interview, July 1999, Goldmine Reproduced online: \n\nZimmerman moved to Minneapolis in September 1959 and enrolled at the University of Minnesota. His focus on rock and roll gave way to American folk music. In 1985, he said:\n\nHe began to perform at the Ten O'Clock Scholar, a coffeehouse a few blocks from campus, and became involved in the Dinkytown folk music circuit. This is related in the documentary film No Direction Home, directed by Martin Scorsese. broadcast September 26, 2005, PBS & BBC Two.\n\nDuring his Dinkytown days, Zimmerman began introducing himself as \"Bob Dylan\". According to Dylan biographer Robert Shelton, the singer first confided his change of name to his high school girlfriend, Echo Helstrom, in 1958, telling her that he had found a \"great name, Bob Dillon\". Shelton surmises that Dillon had two sources: Marshal Matt Dillon was the hero of the TV western Gunsmoke; Dillon was also the name of one of Hibbing's principal families. While Shelton was writing Dylan's biography in the 1960s, Dylan told him, \"Straighten out in your book that I did not take my name from Dylan Thomas. Dylan Thomas's poetry is for people that aren't really satisfied in their bed, for people who dig masculine romance.\" At the University of Minnesota, the singer told a few friends that Dillon was his mother's maiden name, which was untrue. He later told reporters that he had an uncle named Dillon. Shelton added that only when he reached New York in 1961 did the singer begin to spell his name \"Dylan\", by which time he was acquainted with the life and work of Dylan Thomas. Shelton (2011), pp. 44–45. In his memoir, Dylan acknowledged that he had been influenced by the poetry of Dylan Thomas. Explaining his change of name in a 2004 interview, Dylan remarked, \"You're born, you know, the wrong names, wrong parents. I mean, that happens. You call yourself what you want to call yourself. This is the land of the free.\"\n\n1960s\n\nRelocation to New York and record deal\n\nIn May 1960, Dylan dropped out of college at the end of his first year. In January 1961, he traveled to New York City, to perform there and visit his musical idol Woody Guthrie, who was seriously ill with Huntington's disease in Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital. Guthrie had been a revelation to Dylan and influenced his early performances. Describing Guthrie's impact, he wrote: \"The songs themselves had the infinite sweep of humanity in them... [He] was the true voice of the American spirit. I said to myself I was going to be Guthrie's greatest disciple.\" As well as visiting Guthrie in hospital, Dylan befriended Guthrie's acolyte Ramblin' Jack Elliott. Much of Guthrie's repertoire was channeled through Elliott, and Dylan paid tribute to Elliott in Chronicles: Volume One. \n\nFrom February 1961, Dylan played at clubs around Greenwich Village. He befriended and picked up material from folk singers there, including Dave Van Ronk, Fred Neil, Odetta, the New Lost City Ramblers, and Irish musicians the Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem. In September, Dylan gained public recognition when Robert Shelton wrote a review in The New York Times of a show at Gerde's Folk City. The same month Dylan played harmonica on folk singer Carolyn Hester's third album, which brought his talents to the attention of the album's producer, John Hammond. Hammond signed Dylan to Columbia Records in October. The performances on his first Columbia album—Bob Dylan—in March 1962, consisted of familiar folk, blues and gospel with two original compositions. The album sold only 5,000 in its first year, just enough to break even.Scaduto, p. 110. Within Columbia Records, some referred to the singer as \"Hammond's Folly\" and suggested dropping his contract, but Hammond defended Dylan and was supported by Johnny Cash. In March 1962, Dylan contributed harmonica and back-up vocals to the album Three Kings and the Queen, accompanying Victoria Spivey and Big Joe Williams on a recording for Spivey Records. While working for Columbia, Dylan recorded under the pseudonym Blind Boy Grunt, for Broadside, a folk magazine and record label. Dylan used the pseudonym Bob Landy to record as a piano player on The Blues Project, a 1964 anthology album by Elektra Records. As Tedham Porterhouse, Dylan played harmonica on Ramblin' Jack Elliott's 1964 album, Jack Elliott.\n\nDylan made two important career moves in August 1962: he legally changed his name to Robert Dylan, and he signed a management contract with Albert Grossman. (In June 1961, Dylan had signed an agreement with Roy Silver. In 1962, Grossman paid Silver $10,000 to become sole manager.) Grossman remained Dylan's manager until 1970, and was notable for his sometimes confrontational personality and for protective loyalty. Dylan said, \"He was kind of like a Colonel Tom Parker figure ... you could smell him coming.\" Tensions between Grossman and John Hammond led to Hammond's being replaced as producer of Dylan's second album by the young African-American jazz producer, Tom Wilson. \n\nDylan made his first trip to the United Kingdom from December 1962 to January 1963.Heylin (1996), pp. 35–39. He had been invited by TV director Philip Saville to appear in a drama, Madhouse on Castle Street, which Saville was directing for BBC Television. At the end of the play, Dylan performed \"Blowin' in the Wind\", one of its first public performances. The film recording of Madhouse on Castle Street was destroyed by the BBC in 1968. While in London, Dylan performed at London folk clubs, including the Troubadour, Les Cousins, and Bunjies. He also learned material from UK performers, including Martin Carthy.\n\nBy the time of Dylan's second album, The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan, in May 1963, he had begun to make his name as a singer and a songwriter. Many songs on this album were labeled protest songs, inspired partly by Guthrie and influenced by Pete Seeger's passion for topical songs. \"Oxford Town\", for example, was an account of James Meredith's ordeal as the first black student to risk enrollment at the University of Mississippi. \n\nThe first song on the Freewheelin album, \"Blowin' in the Wind\", partly derived its melody from the traditional slave song, \"No More Auction Block\", while its lyrics questioned the social and political status quo. The song was widely recorded by other artists and became a hit for Peter, Paul and Mary. Another Freewheelin song, \"A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall\" was based on the folk ballad \"Lord Randall\". With veiled references to an impending apocalypse, the song gained more resonance when the Cuban Missile Crisis developed a few weeks after Dylan began performing it. In a May 1963 interview with Studs Terkel, Dylan broadened the meaning of the song, saying \"the pellets of poison flooding the waters\" refers to \"the lies people are told on their radios and in their newspapers\". Cott (2006), p. 8. Like \"Blowin' in the Wind\", \"A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall\" marked a new direction in songwriting, blending a stream-of-consciousness, imagist lyrical attack with traditional folk form. \n\nDylan's topical songs enhanced his early reputation, and he came to be seen as more than just a songwriter. Janet Maslin wrote of Freewheelin: \"These were the songs that established [Dylan] as the voice of his generation—someone who implicitly understood how concerned young Americans felt about nuclear disarmament and the growing movement for civil rights: his mixture of moral authority and nonconformity was perhaps the most timely of his attributes.\" The title \"Spokesman of a Generation\" was viewed by Dylan with disgust in later years. He came to feel it was a label the media had pinned on him, and in his autobiography, Chronicles, Dylan wrote: \"The press never let up. Once in a while I would have to rise up and offer myself for an interview so they wouldn't beat the door down. Later an article would hit the streets with the headline \"Spokesman Denies That He's A Spokesman\". I felt like a piece of meat that someone had thrown to the dogs.\" Dylan (2004), p.119 Freewheelin also included love songs and surreal talking blues. Humor was an important part of Dylan's persona, and the range of material on the album impressed listeners, including The Beatles. George Harrison said of the album, \"We just played it, just wore it out. The content of the song lyrics and just the attitude—it was incredibly original and wonderful.\" \n\nThe rough edge of Dylan's singing was unsettling to some but an attraction to others. Joyce Carol Oates wrote: \"When we first heard this raw, very young, and seemingly untrained voice, frankly nasal, as if sandpaper could sing, the effect was dramatic and electrifying.\" Many early songs reached the public through more palatable versions by other performers, such as Joan Baez, who became Dylan's advocate as well as his lover. Baez was influential in bringing Dylan to prominence by recording several of his early songs and inviting him on stage during her concerts. \n\nOthers who had hits with Dylan's songs in the early 1960s included the Byrds, Sonny & Cher, the Hollies, Peter, Paul and Mary, the Association, Manfred Mann and the Turtles. Most attempted a pop feel and rhythm, while Dylan and Baez performed them mostly as sparse folk songs. The covers became so ubiquitous that CBS promoted him with the slogan \"Nobody Sings Dylan Like Dylan.\" \n\n\"Mixed-Up Confusion\", recorded during the Freewheelin sessions with a backing band, was released as a single and then quickly withdrawn. In contrast to the mostly solo acoustic performances on the album, the single showed a willingness to experiment with a rockabilly sound. Cameron Crowe described it as \"a fascinating look at a folk artist with his mind wandering towards Elvis Presley and Sun Records.\" \n\nProtest and Another Side\n\nIn May 1963, Dylan's political profile rose when he walked out of The Ed Sullivan Show. During rehearsals, Dylan had been told by CBS television's head of program practices that \"Talkin' John Birch Paranoid Blues\" was potentially libelous to the John Birch Society. Rather than comply with censorship, Dylan refused to appear. \n\nBy this time, Dylan and Baez were prominent in the civil rights movement, singing together at the March on Washington on August 28, 1963. Dylan's third album, The Times They Are a-Changin', reflected a more politicized and cynical Dylan. The songs often took as their subject matter contemporary stories, with \"Only A Pawn In Their Game\" addressing the murder of civil rights worker Medgar Evers; and the Brechtian \"The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll\" the death of black hotel barmaid Hattie Carroll, at the hands of young white socialite William Zantzinger. On a more general theme, \"Ballad of Hollis Brown\" and \"North Country Blues\" addressed despair engendered by the breakdown of farming and mining communities. This political material was accompanied by two personal love songs, \"Boots of Spanish Leather\" and \"One Too Many Mornings\". \n\nBy the end of 1963, Dylan felt both manipulated and constrained by the folk and protest movements. Accepting the \"Tom Paine Award\" from the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee shortly after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, an intoxicated Dylan questioned the role of the committee, characterized the members as old and balding, and claimed to see something of himself and of every man in Kennedy's assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald. \n\nAnother Side of Bob Dylan, recorded on a single evening in June 1964, had a lighter mood. The humorous Dylan reemerged on \"I Shall Be Free No. 10\" and \"Motorpsycho Nightmare\". \"Spanish Harlem Incident\" and \"To Ramona\" are passionate love songs, while \"Black Crow Blues\" and \"I Don't Believe You (She Acts Like We Never Have Met)\" suggest the rock and roll soon to dominate Dylan's music. \"It Ain't Me Babe\", on the surface a song about spurned love, has been described as a rejection of the role of political spokesman thrust upon him. His newest direction was signaled by two lengthy songs: the impressionistic \"Chimes of Freedom\", which sets social commentary against a metaphorical landscape in a style characterized by Allen Ginsberg as \"chains of flashing images,\" and \"My Back Pages\", which attacks the simplistic and arch seriousness of his own earlier topical songs and seems to predict the backlash he was about to encounter from his former champions as he took a new direction. \n\nIn the latter half of 1964 and 1965, Dylan moved from folk songwriter to folk-rock pop-music star. His jeans and work shirts were replaced by a Carnaby Street wardrobe, sunglasses day or night, and pointed \"Beatle boots\". A London reporter wrote: \"Hair that would set the teeth of a comb on edge. A loud shirt that would dim the neon lights of Leicester Square. He looks like an undernourished cockatoo.\" Dylan began to spar with interviewers. Appearing on the Les Crane television show and asked about a movie he planned, he told Crane it would be a cowboy horror movie. Asked if he played the cowboy, Dylan replied, \"No, I play my mother.\" \n\nGoing electric\n\nDylan's late March 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home was another leap, featuring his first recordings with electric instruments. The first single, \"Subterranean Homesick Blues\", owed much to Chuck Berry's \"Too Much Monkey Business\"; its free association lyrics described as harkening back to the energy of beat poetry and as a forerunner of rap and hip-hop. The song was provided with an early video, which opened D. A. Pennebaker's cinéma vérité presentation of Dylan's 1965 tour of Great Britain, Dont Look Back. Instead of miming, Dylan illustrated the lyrics by throwing cue cards containing key words from the song on the ground. Pennebaker said the sequence was Dylan's idea, and it has been imitated in music videos and advertisements. \n\nThe second side of Bringing It All Back Home contained four long songs on which Dylan accompanied himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica.Sounes, pp. 168–169. \"Mr. Tambourine Man\" became one of his best known songs when The Byrds recorded an electric version that reached number one in the US and UK . \"It's All Over Now, Baby Blue\" and \"It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)\" were two of Dylan's most important compositions. \n\nIn 1965, heading the Newport Folk Festival, Dylan performed his first electric set since high school with a pickup group mostly from the Paul Butterfield Blues Band, featuring Mike Bloomfield (guitar), Sam Lay (drums) and Jerome Arnold (bass), plus Al Kooper (organ) and Barry Goldberg (piano). Dylan had appeared at Newport in 1963 and 1964, but in 1965 met with cheering and booing and left the stage after three songs. One version has it that the boos were from folk fans whom Dylan had alienated by appearing, unexpectedly, with an electric guitar. Murray Lerner, who filmed the performance, said: \"I absolutely think that they were booing Dylan going electric.\" An alternative account claims audience members were upset by poor sound and a short set. This account is supported by Kooper and one of the directors of the festival, who reports his recording proves the only boos were in reaction to the MC's announcement that there was only enough time for a short set. \n\nNevertheless, Dylan's performance provoked a hostile response from the folk music establishment. In the September issue of Sing Out!, Ewan MacColl wrote: \"Our traditional songs and ballads are the creations of extraordinarily talented artists working inside disciplines formulated over time ...'But what of Bobby Dylan?' scream the outraged teenagers ... Only a completely non-critical audience, nourished on the watery pap of pop music, could have fallen for such tenth-rate drivel.\" On July 29, four days after Newport, Dylan was back in the studio in New York, recording \"Positively 4th Street\". The lyrics contained images of vengeance and paranoia, and it has been interpreted as Dylan's put-down of former friends from the folk community—friends he had known in clubs along West 4th Street. \n\nHighway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde\n\nIn July 1965, the single \"Like a Rolling Stone\" peaked at two in the U.S. and at four in the UK charts. At over six minutes, the song altered what a pop single could convey. Bruce Springsteen, in his speech for Dylan's inauguration into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, said that on first hearing the single, \"that snare shot sounded like somebody'd kicked open the door to your mind\". In 2004 and in 2011, Rolling Stone listed it as number one of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". The song opened Dylan's next album, Highway 61 Revisited, named after the road that led from Dylan's Minnesota to the musical hotbed of New Orleans. The songs were in the same vein as the hit single, flavored by Mike Bloomfield's blues guitar and Al Kooper's organ riffs. \"Desolation Row\", backed by acoustic guitar and understated bass, offers the sole exception, with Dylan alluding to figures in Western culture in a song described by Andy Gill as \"an 11-minute epic of entropy, which takes the form of a Fellini-esque parade of grotesques and oddities featuring a huge cast of celebrated characters, some historical (Einstein, Nero), some biblical (Noah, Cain and Abel), some fictional (Ophelia, Romeo, Cinderella), some literary (T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound), and some who fit into none of the above categories, notably Dr. Filth and his dubious nurse.\" \n\nIn support of the album, Dylan was booked for two U.S. concerts with Al Kooper and Harvey Brooks from his studio crew and Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm, former members of Ronnie Hawkins's backing band the Hawks. On August 28 at Forest Hills Tennis Stadium, the group was heckled by an audience still annoyed by Dylan's electric sound. The band's reception on September 3 at the Hollywood Bowl was more favorable. \n\nFrom September 24, 1965, in Austin, Texas, Dylan toured the U.S. and Canada for six months, backed by the five musicians from the Hawks who became known as the Band. While Dylan and the Hawks met increasingly receptive audiences, their studio efforts floundered. Producer Bob Johnston persuaded Dylan to record in Nashville in February 1966, and surrounded him with top-notch session men. At Dylan's insistence, Robertson and Kooper came from New York City to play on the sessions. The Nashville sessions produced the double album Blonde on Blonde (1966), featuring what Dylan called \"that thin wild mercury sound\". Kooper described it as \"taking two cultures and smashing them together with a huge explosion\": the musical world of Nashville and the world of the \"quintessential New York hipster\" Bob Dylan. \n\nOn November 22, 1965, Dylan secretly married 25-year-old former model Sara Lownds.Sounes, p. 193. Some of Dylan's friends, including Ramblin' Jack Elliott, say that, immediately after the event, Dylan denied he was married. Journalist Nora Ephron made the news public in the New York Post in February 1966 with the headline \"Hush! Bob Dylan is wed.\" \n\nDylan toured Australia and Europe in April and May 1966. Each show was split in two. Dylan performed solo during the first half, accompanying himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica. In the second, backed by the Hawks, he played electrically amplified music. This contrast provoked many fans, who jeered and slow handclapped. The tour culminated in a raucous confrontation between Dylan and his audience at the Manchester Free Trade Hall in England on May 17, 1966. A recording of this concert was released in 1998: The Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966. At the climax of the evening, a member of the audience, angered by Dylan's electric backing, shouted: \"Judas!\" to which Dylan responded, \"I don't believe you ... You're a liar!\" Dylan turned to his band and said, \"Play it fucking loud!\" as they launched into the final song of the night—\"Like a Rolling Stone\".\n\nDuring his 1966 tour, Dylan was described as exhausted and acting \"as if on a death trip\". D. A. Pennebaker, the film maker accompanying the tour, described Dylan as \"taking a lot of amphetamine and who-knows-what-else.\" In a 1969 interview with Jann Wenner, Dylan said, \"I was on the road for almost five years. It wore me down. I was on drugs, a lot of things ... just to keep going, you know?\" In 2011, BBC Radio 4 reported that, in an interview that Robert Shelton taped in 1966, Dylan said he had kicked heroin in New York City: \"I got very, very strung out for a while ... I had about a $25-a-day habit and I kicked it.\" Some journalists questioned the validity of this confession, pointing out that Dylan had \"been telling journalists wild lies about his past since the earliest days of his career.\" \n\nMotorcycle accident and reclusion\n\nAfter his tour, Dylan returned to New York, but the pressures increased. ABC Television had paid an advance for a TV show. His publisher, Macmillan, was demanding a manuscript of the poem/novel Tarantula. Manager Albert Grossman had scheduled a concert tour for the latter part of the year.\n\nOn July 29, 1966, Dylan crashed his 500cc Triumph Tiger 100 motorcycle near his home in Woodstock, New York and was thrown to the ground. Though the extent of his injuries was never disclosed, Dylan said that he broke several vertebrae in his neck.Sounes, pp. 217–219. Mystery still surrounds the circumstances of the accident since no ambulance was called to the scene and Dylan was not hospitalized. Dylan's biographers have written that the crash offered Dylan the chance to escape the pressures around him. Dylan confirmed this interpretation in his autobiography: \"I had been in a motorcycle accident and I'd been hurt, but I recovered. Truth was that I wanted to get out of the rat race.\" Dylan withdrew from public and, apart from a few appearances, did not tour again for almost eight years. \n\nOnce Dylan was well enough to resume creative work, he began to edit D. A. Pennebaker's film of his 1966 tour. A rough cut was shown to ABC Television and rejected as incomprehensible to a mainstream audience. The film was subsequently titled Eat the Document on bootleg copies, and it has been screened at a handful of film festivals. In 1967 he began recording with the Hawks at his home and in the basement of the Hawks' nearby house, \"Big Pink\". These songs, initially demos for other artists to record, provided hits for Julie Driscoll and the Brian Auger Trinity (\"This Wheel's on Fire\"), The Byrds (\"You Ain't Goin' Nowhere\", \"Nothing Was Delivered\"), and Manfred Mann (\"Mighty Quinn\"). Columbia released selections in 1975 as The Basement Tapes. Over the years, more songs recorded by Dylan and his band in 1967 appeared on bootleg recordings, culminating in a five-CD set titled The Genuine Basement Tapes, containing 107 songs and alternative takes. In the coming months, the Hawks recorded the album Music from Big Pink using songs they worked on in their basement in Woodstock, and renamed themselves the Band, beginning a long recording and performing career of their own.\n\nIn October and November 1967, Dylan returned to Nashville. Back in the studio after 19 months, he was accompanied by Charlie McCoy on bass, Kenny Buttrey on drums, and Pete Drake on steel guitar. The result was John Wesley Harding, a contemplative record of shorter songs, set in a landscape that drew on the American West and the Bible. The sparse structure and instrumentation, with lyrics that took the Judeo-Christian tradition seriously, departed from Dylan's own work and from the psychedelic fervor of the 1960s. It included \"All Along the Watchtower\", with lyrics derived from the Book of Isaiah (21:5–9). The song was later recorded by Jimi Hendrix, whose version Dylan acknowledged as definitive.Biograph, 1985, Liner notes & text by Cameron Crowe. Woody Guthrie died on October 3, 1967, and Dylan made his first live appearance in twenty months at a Guthrie memorial concert held at Carnegie Hall on January 20, 1968, where he was backed by the Band. \n\nDylan's next release, Nashville Skyline (1969), was mainstream country featuring Nashville musicians, a mellow-voiced Dylan, a duet with Johnny Cash, and the hit single \"Lay Lady Lay\". Variety wrote, \"Dylan is definitely doing something that can be called singing. Somehow he has managed to add an octave to his range.\" Dylan and Cash also recorded a series of duets, but only their recording of Dylan's \"Girl from the North Country\" was used on the album.\n\nIn May 1969, Dylan appeared on the first episode of Johnny Cash's television show, duetting with Cash on \"Girl from the North Country\", \"I Threw It All Away\", and \"Living the Blues\". Dylan next traveled to England to top the bill at the Isle of Wight festival on August 31, 1969, after rejecting overtures to appear at the Woodstock Festival closer to his home. \n\n1970s\n\nIn the early 1970s, critics charged that Dylan's output was varied and unpredictable. Rolling Stone writer Greil Marcus asked \"What is this shit?\" on first listening to Self Portrait, released in June 1970. Self Portrait, a double LP including few original songs, was poorly received. In October 1970, Dylan released New Morning, considered a return to form. This album included \"Day of the Locusts\", a song in which Dylan gave an account of receiving an honorary degree from Princeton University on June 9, 1970. In November 1968, Dylan had co-written \"I'd Have You Anytime\" with George Harrison; Harrison recorded \"I'd Have You Anytime\" and Dylan's \"If Not for You\" for his 1970 solo triple album All Things Must Pass. Dylan's surprise appearance at Harrison's 1971 Concert for Bangladesh attracted media coverage, reflecting that Dylan's live appearances had become rare. \n\nBetween March 16 and 19, 1971, Dylan reserved three days at Blue Rock, a small studio in Greenwich Village to record with Leon Russell. These sessions resulted in \"Watching the River Flow\" and a new recording of \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". On November 4, 1971, Dylan recorded \"George Jackson\", which he released a week later. For many, the single was a surprising return to protest material, mourning the killing of Black Panther George Jackson in San Quentin State Prison that year. Dylan contributed piano and harmony to Steve Goodman's album, Somebody Else's Troubles, under the pseudonym Robert Milkwood Thomas in September 1972. \n\nIn 1972, Dylan signed to Sam Peckinpah's film Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid, providing songs and backing music for the movie, and playing \"Alias\", a member of Billy's gang with some historical basis. Despite the film's failure at the box office, the song \"Knockin' on Heaven's Door\" became one of Dylan's most covered songs. \n\nReturn to touring\n\nDylan began 1973 by signing with a new label, David Geffen's Asylum Records, when his contract with Columbia Records expired. On his next album, Planet Waves, he used the Band as backing group, while rehearsing for a tour. The album included two versions of \"Forever Young\", which became one of his most popular songs.Sounes, pp. 273–274. As one critic described it, the song projected \"something hymnal and heartfelt that spoke of the father in Dylan\", and Dylan himself commented: \"I wrote it thinking about one of my boys and not wanting to be too sentimental.\"\n\nColumbia Records simultaneously released Dylan, a collection of studio outtakes (almost exclusively covers), widely interpreted as a churlish response to Dylan's signing with a rival record label. In January 1974, Dylan returned to touring after seven years; backed by the Band, he embarked on a North American tour of 40 concerts. A live double album, Before the Flood, was on Asylum Records. Soon, according to Clive Davis, Columbia Records sent word they \"will spare nothing to bring Dylan back into the fold\".Shelton, p. 378. Dylan had second thoughts about Asylum, miffed that while there had been millions of unfulfilled ticket requests for the 1974 tour, Geffen had sold only 700,000 copies of Planet Waves. Dylan returned to Columbia Records, which reissued his two Asylum albums.\n\nAfter the tour, Dylan and his wife became estranged. He filled a small red notebook with songs about relationships and ruptures, and recorded an album entitled Blood on the Tracks in September 1974. Dylan delayed the release and re-recorded half the songs at Sound 80 Studios in Minneapolis with production assistance from his brother, David Zimmerman. \n\nReleased in early 1975, Blood on the Tracks received mixed reviews. In the NME, Nick Kent described \"the accompaniments [as] often so trashy they sound like mere practice takes.\"Heylin (2000), p. 383. In Rolling Stone, Jon Landau wrote that \"the record has been made with typical shoddiness.\" Over the years critics came to see it as one of Dylan's greatest achievements. In Salon.com, Bill Wyman wrote: \"Blood on the Tracks is his only flawless album and his best produced; the songs, each of them, are constructed in disciplined fashion. It is his kindest album and most dismayed, and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea-plagued excesses of his mid-1960s output and the self-consciously simple compositions of his post-accident years.\" Novelist Rick Moody called it \"the truest, most honest account of a love affair from tip to stern ever put down on magnetic tape.\" \n\nIn the middle of that year, Dylan wrote a ballad championing boxer Rubin \"Hurricane\" Carter, imprisoned for a triple murder in Paterson, New Jersey, in 1966. After visiting Carter in jail, Dylan wrote \"Hurricane\", presenting the case for Carter's innocence. Despite its length—over eight minutes—the song was released as a single, peaking at 33 on the U.S. Billboard chart, and performed at every 1975 date of Dylan's next tour, the Rolling Thunder Revue.According to Shelton, Dylan named the tour Rolling Thunder and then \"appeared pleased when someone told him to native Americans, rolling thunder means speaking the truth.\" A Cherokee medicine man named Rolling Thunder appeared on stage at Providence, RI, \"stroking a feather in time to the music\". Shelton (2011), p. 310. The tour featured about one hundred performers and supporters from the Greenwich Village folk scene, including T-Bone Burnett, Ramblin' Jack Elliott, Joni Mitchell, David Mansfield, Roger McGuinn, Mick Ronson, Joan Baez, and Scarlet Rivera, whom Dylan discovered walking down the street, her violin case on her back. Allen Ginsberg accompanied the troupe, staging scenes for the film Dylan was shooting. Sam Shepard was hired to write the screenplay, but ended up accompanying the tour as informal chronicler. \n\nRunning through late 1975 and again through early 1976, the tour encompassed the release of the album Desire, with many of Dylan's new songs featuring a travelogue-like narrative style, showing the influence of his new collaborator, playwright Jacques Levy. The 1976 half of the tour was documented by a TV concert special, Hard Rain, and the LP Hard Rain; no concert album from the better-received and better-known opening half of the tour was released until 2002's Live 1975. \n\nThe 1975 tour with the Revue provided the backdrop to Dylan's nearly four-hour film Renaldo and Clara, a sprawling narrative mixed with concert footage and reminiscences. Released in 1978, the movie received poor, sometimes scathing, reviews. Later in that year, a two-hour edit, dominated by the concert performances, was more widely released. \n\nIn November 1976, Dylan appeared at the Band's \"farewell\" concert, with Eric Clapton, Joni Mitchell, Muddy Waters, Van Morrison and Neil Young. Martin Scorsese's cinematic chronicle, The Last Waltz, in 1978 included about half of Dylan's set. In 1976, Dylan wrote and duetted on \"Sign Language\" for Eric Clapton's No Reason To Cry.\n\nIn 1978, Dylan embarked on a year-long world tour, performing 114 shows in Japan, the Far East, Europe and the US, to a total audience of two million. Dylan assembled an eight piece band and three backing singers. Concerts in Tokyo in February and March were released as the live double album, Bob Dylan At Budokan.Sounes, pp. 314–316. Reviews were mixed. Robert Christgau awarded the album a C+ rating, giving the album a derisory review, while Janet Maslin defended it in Rolling Stone, writing: \"These latest live versions of his old songs have the effect of liberating Bob Dylan from the originals.\" When Dylan brought the tour to the U.S. in September 1978, the press described the look and sound as a 'Las Vegas Tour'. The 1978 tour grossed more than $20 million, and Dylan told the Los Angeles Times that he had debts because \"I had a couple of bad years. I put a lot of money into the movie, built a big house ... and it costs a lot to get divorced in California.\"\n\nIn April and May 1978, Dylan took the same band and vocalists into Rundown Studios in Santa Monica, California, to record an album of new material: Street-Legal. It was described by Michael Gray as, \"after Blood On The Tracks, arguably Dylan's best record of the 1970s: a crucial album documenting a crucial period in Dylan's own life\". However, it had poor sound and mixing (attributed to Dylan's studio practices), muddying the instrumental detail until a remastered CD release in 1999 restored some of the songs' strengths. \n\nChristian period\n\nIn the late 1970s, Dylan became a born again Christian and released two albums of contemporary gospel music. Slow Train Coming (1979) featured the guitar accompaniment of Mark Knopfler (of Dire Straits) and was produced by veteran R&B producer Jerry Wexler. Wexler said that Dylan had tried to evangelize him during the recording. He replied: \"Bob, you're dealing with a 62-year-old Jewish atheist. Let's just make an album.\" Dylan won the Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for the song \"Gotta Serve Somebody\". His second Christian-themed album, Saved (1980), received mixed reviews, described by Michael Gray as \"the nearest thing to a follow-up album Dylan has ever made, Slow Train Coming II and inferior\" When touring in late 1979 and early 1980, Dylan would not play his older, secular works, and he delivered declarations of his faith from the stage, such as:\n\nDylan's Christianity was unpopular with some fans and musicians. Shortly before his murder, John Lennon recorded \"Serve Yourself\" in response to Dylan's \"Gotta Serve Somebody\". By 1981, Stephen Holden wrote in the New York Times that \"neither age (he's now 40) nor his much-publicized conversion to born-again Christianity has altered his essentially iconoclastic temperament.\" \n\n1980s\n\nIn late 1980, Dylan briefly played concerts billed as \"A Musical Retrospective\", restoring popular 1960s songs to the repertoire. Shot of Love, recorded early the next year, featured his first secular compositions in more than two years, mixed with Christian songs. \"Every Grain of Sand\" reminded some of William Blake's verses. \n\nIn the 1980s, reception of Dylan's recordings varied, from the well-regarded Infidels in 1983 to the panned Down in the Groove in 1988. Michael Gray condemned Dylan's 1980s albums for carelessness in the studio and for failing to release his best songs. As an example of the latter, the Infidels recording sessions, which again employed Knopfler on lead guitar and also as the album's producer, resulted in several notable songs that Dylan left off the album. Best regarded of these were \"Blind Willie McTell\", a tribute to the dead blues musician and an evocation of African American history, \"Foot of Pride\" and \"Lord Protect My Child\". These three songs were released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991. \n\nBetween July 1984 and March 1985, Dylan recorded Empire Burlesque.Sounes, p. 362. Arthur Baker, who had remixed hits for Bruce Springsteen and Cyndi Lauper, was asked to engineer and mix the album. Baker said he felt he was hired to make Dylan's album sound \"a little bit more contemporary\".\n\nDylan sang on USA for Africa's famine relief single \"We Are the World\". On July 13, 1985, he appeared at the climax at the Live Aid concert at JFK Stadium, Philadelphia. Backed by Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood, he performed a ragged version of \"Hollis Brown\", his ballad of rural poverty, and then said to the worldwide audience exceeding one billion people: \"I hope that some of the money ... maybe they can just take a little bit of it, maybe ... one or two million, maybe ... and use it to pay the mortgages on some of the farms and, the farmers here, owe to the banks.\" His remarks were widely criticized as inappropriate, but they did inspire Willie Nelson to organize a series of events, Farm Aid, to benefit debt-ridden American farmers. \n\nIn April 1986, Dylan made a foray into rap music when he added vocals to the opening verse of \"Street Rock\", featured on Kurtis Blow's album Kingdom Blow. Dylan's next studio album, Knocked Out Loaded, in July 1986 contained three covers (by Little Junior Parker, Kris Kristofferson and the gospel hymn \"Precious Memories\"), plus three collaborations with (Tom Petty, Sam Shepard and Carole Bayer Sager), and two solo compositions by Dylan. One reviewer commented that \"the record follows too many detours to be consistently compelling, and some of those detours wind down roads that are indisputably dead ends. By 1986, such uneven records weren't entirely unexpected by Dylan, but that didn't make them any less frustrating.\" It was the first Dylan album since Freewheelin' (1963) to fail to make the Top 50. Since then, some critics have called the 11-minute epic that Dylan co-wrote with Sam Shepard, \"Brownsville Girl\", a work of genius. \n\nIn 1986 and 1987, Dylan toured with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, sharing vocals with Petty on several songs each night. Dylan also toured with the Grateful Dead in 1987, resulting in a live album Dylan & The Dead. This received negative reviews: Allmusic said, \"Quite possibly the worst album by either Bob Dylan or the Grateful Dead.\" Dylan then initiated what came to be called the Never Ending Tour on June 7, 1988, performing with a back-up band featuring guitarist G. E. Smith. Dylan continued to tour with a small, evolving band for the next 20 years. \n\nIn 1987, Dylan starred in Richard Marquand's movie Hearts of Fire, in which he played Billy Parker, a washed-up rock star turned chicken farmer whose teenage lover, (Fiona), leaves him for a jaded English synth-pop sensation played by Rupert Everett. Dylan also contributed two original songs to the soundtrack—\"Night After Night\", and \"I Had a Dream About You, Baby\", as well as a cover of John Hiatt's \"The Usual\". The film was a critical and commercial flop. \nDylan was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in January 1988, with Bruce Springsteen's introduction declaring, \"Bob freed your mind the way Elvis freed your body. He showed us that just because music was innately physical did not mean that it was anti-intellectual. \n\nThe album Down in the Groove in May 1988 sold even more unsuccessfully than his previous studio album.Sounes, p. 385. Michael Gray wrote: \"The very title undercuts any idea that inspired work may lie within. Here was a further devaluing of the notion of a new Bob Dylan album as something significant.\" The critical and commercial disappointment of that album was swiftly followed by the success of the Traveling Wilburys. Dylan co-founded the band with George Harrison, Jeff Lynne, Roy Orbison, and Tom Petty, and in late 1988 their multi-platinum Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 reached three on the US album chart, featuring songs that were described as Dylan's most accessible compositions in years. Despite Orbison's death in December 1988, the remaining four recorded a second album in May 1990 with the title Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3. \n\nDylan finished the decade on a critical high note with Oh Mercy produced by Daniel Lanois. Michael Gray wrote that the album was: \"Attentively written, vocally distinctive, musically warm, and uncompromisingly professional, this cohesive whole is the nearest thing to a great Bob Dylan album in the 1980s.\" The track \"Most of the Time\", a lost love composition, was later prominently featured in the film High Fidelity, while \"What Was It You Wanted?\" has been interpreted both as a catechism and a wry comment on the expectations of critics and fans. The religious imagery of \"Ring Them Bells\" struck some critics as a re-affirmation of faith. \n\n1990s\n\nDylan's 1990s began with Under the Red Sky (1990), an about-face from the serious Oh Mercy. The album contained several apparently simple songs, including \"Under the Red Sky\" and \"Wiggle Wiggle\". The album was dedicated to \"Gabby Goo Goo\", a nickname for the daughter of Dylan and Carolyn Dennis, Desiree Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan, who was four. Sidemen on the album included George Harrison, Slash from Guns N' Roses, David Crosby, Bruce Hornsby, Stevie Ray Vaughan, and Elton John. Despite the line-up, the record received bad reviews and sold poorly. \n\nIn 1991, Dylan received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award from American actor Jack Nicholson. The event coincided with the start of the Gulf War against Saddam Hussein, and Dylan performed \"Masters of War\". Dylan then made a short speech, saying \"My daddy once said to me, he said, 'Son, it is possible for you to become so defiled in this world that your own mother and father will abandon you. If that happens, God will believe in your ability to mend your own ways.'\"Heylin (2000), pp. 664–665. This sentiment was subsequently revealed to be a quote from 19th-century German Jewish intellectual, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch. \n\nThe next few years saw Dylan returning to his roots with two albums covering folk and blues numbers: Good as I Been to You (1992) and World Gone Wrong (1993), featuring interpretations and acoustic guitar work. Many critics and fans commented on the quiet beauty of the song \"Lone Pilgrim\", written by a 19th-century teacher. In November 1994 Dylan recorded two live shows for MTV Unplugged. He said his wish to perform traditional songs was overruled by Sony executives who insisted on hits. The album from it, MTV Unplugged, included \"John Brown\", an unreleased 1962 song of how enthusiasm for war ends in mutilation and disillusionment. \n\nDylan's longtime road manager Victor Maymudes has claimed that the singer quit drinking alcohol in 1994. Maymudes felt that Dylan sobering up made him \"more introverted and a little less social.\"\n\nWith a collection of songs reportedly written while snowed-in on his Minnesota ranch, Dylan booked recording time with Daniel Lanois at Miami's Criteria Studios in January 1997. The subsequent recording sessions were, by some accounts, fraught with musical tension. Before the album's release Dylan was hospitalized with a life-threatening heart infection, pericarditis, brought on by histoplasmosis. His scheduled European tour was cancelled, but Dylan made a speedy recovery and left the hospital saying, \"I really thought I'd be seeing Elvis soon.\" He was back on the road by mid-year, and performed before Pope John Paul II at the World Eucharistic Conference in Bologna, Italy. The Pope treated the audience of 200,000 people to a homily based on Dylan's lyric \"Blowin' in the Wind\". \n\nSeptember saw the release of the new Lanois-produced album, Time Out of Mind. With its bitter assessment of love and morbid ruminations, Dylan's first collection of original songs in seven years was highly acclaimed. One critic wrote: \"the songs themselves are uniformly powerful, adding up to Dylan's best overall collection in years.\" This collection of complex songs won him his first solo \"Album of the Year\" Grammy Award. \n\nIn December 1997, U.S. President Bill Clinton presented Dylan with a Kennedy Center Honor in the East Room of the White House, paying this tribute: \"He probably had more impact on people of my generation than any other creative artist. His voice and lyrics haven't always been easy on the ear, but throughout his career Bob Dylan has never aimed to please. He's disturbed the peace and discomforted the powerful.\" \n\nIn 1999, Dylan embarked on a North American tour with Paul Simon, where each alternated as headline act with a \"middle\" section where they performed together, starting on the first of June and ending September 18. The collaboration was generally well-received, with just one critic, Seth Rogovoy, from the Berkshire Eagle, questioning the collaboration. \n\n2000s\n\nDylan commenced the new millennium by winning the Polar Music Prize in May 2000 and his first Oscar; his song \"Things Have Changed\", written for the film Wonder Boys, won an Academy Award in March 2001. The Oscar, by some reports a facsimile, tours with him, presiding over shows perched atop an amplifier. \n\n\"Love and Theft\" was released on September 11, 2001. Recorded with his touring band, Dylan produced the album himself under the pseudonym Jack Frost. The album was critically well received and earned nominations for several Grammy awards. Critics noted that Dylan was widening his musical palette to include rockabilly, Western swing, jazz, and even lounge ballads. \"Love and Theft\" generated controversy when The Wall Street Journal pointed out similarities between the album's lyrics and Japanese author Junichi Saga's book Confessions of a Yakuza. \n\nIn 2003, Dylan revisited the evangelical songs from his \"born again\" period and participated in the CD project Gotta Serve Somebody: The Gospel Songs of Bob Dylan. That year also saw the release of the film Masked & Anonymous, which Dylan co-wrote with director Larry Charles under the alias Sergei Petrov. Dylan played the central character in the film, Jack Fate, alongside a cast that included Jeff Bridges, Penélope Cruz and John Goodman. The film polarised critics: many dismissed it as an \"incoherent mess\"; a few treated it as a serious work of art. \n\nIn October 2004, Dylan published the first part of his autobiography, Chronicles: Volume One. Confounding expectations, Dylan devoted three chapters to his first year in New York City in 1961–1962, virtually ignoring the mid-1960s when his fame was at its height. He also devoted chapters to the albums New Morning (1970) and Oh Mercy (1989). The book reached number two on The New York Times Hardcover Non-Fiction best seller list in December 2004 and was nominated for a National Book Award. \n\nNo Direction Home, Martin Scorsese's acclaimed film biography of Dylan, was first broadcast on September 26–27, 2005, on BBC Two in the UK and PBS in the US. The documentary focuses on the period from Dylan's arrival in New York in 1961 to his motorcycle crash in 1966, featuring interviews with Suze Rotolo, Liam Clancy, Joan Baez, Allen Ginsberg, Pete Seeger, Mavis Staples, and Dylan himself. The film received a Peabody Award in April 2006 and a Columbia-duPont Award in January 2007. The accompanying soundtrack featured unreleased songs from Dylan's early career.\n\nDylan earned yet another distinction in a 2007 study of US legal opinions and briefs that found his lyrics were quoted by judges and lawyers more than those of any other songwriter, 186 times versus 74 by the Beatles, who were second. Among those quoting Dylan were US Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Antonin Scalia, both conservatives. The most widely cited lines included \"you don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows\" from \"Subterranean Homesick Blues\" and \"when you ain't got nothing, you got nothing to lose\" from \"Like a Rolling Stone\".\n\nModern Times\n\nMay 3, 2006, was the premiere of Dylan's radio presenting career, hosting a weekly radio program, Theme Time Radio Hour, for XM Satellite Radio, with song selections revolving around a chosen theme. Dylan played classic and obscure records from the 1930s to the present day, including contemporary artists as diverse as Blur, Prince, L.L. Cool J and the Streets. The show was praised by fans and critics as \"great radio,\" as Dylan told stories and made eclectic references with his sardonic humor, while achieving a thematic beauty with his musical choices. In April 2009, Dylan broadcast the 100th show in his radio series; the theme was \"Goodbye\" and the final record played was Woody Guthrie's \"So Long, It's Been Good to Know Yuh\". This has led to speculation that Dylan's radio series may have ended. \n\nOn August 29, 2006, Dylan released his Modern Times album. Despite some coarsening of Dylan's voice (a critic for The Guardian characterised his singing on the album as \"a catarrhal death rattle\" ) most reviewers praised the album, and many described it as the final installment of a successful trilogy, embracing Time Out of Mind and \"Love and Theft\". Modern Times entered the U.S. charts at number one, making it Dylan's first album to reach that position since 1976's Desire. The New York Times published an article exploring similarities between some of Dylan's lyrics in Modern Times and the work of the Civil War poet Henry Timrod.\n\nNominated for three Grammy Awards, Modern Times won Best Contemporary Folk/Americana Album and Bob Dylan also won Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for \"Someday Baby\". Modern Times was named Album of the Year, 2006, by Rolling Stone magazine, and by Uncut in the UK. On the same day that Modern Times was released the iTunes Music Store released Bob Dylan: The Collection, a digital box set containing all of his albums (773 tracks in total), along with 42 rare and unreleased tracks. \n\nIn August 2007, the award-winning film biography of Dylan I'm Not There, written and directed by Todd Haynes, was released—bearing the tagline \"inspired by the music and many lives of Bob Dylan\". The movie used six different actors to represent different aspects of Dylan's life: Christian Bale, Cate Blanchett, Marcus Carl Franklin, Richard Gere, Heath Ledger and Ben Whishaw. Dylan's previously unreleased 1967 recording from which the film takes its name was released for the first time on the film's original soundtrack; all other tracks are covers of Dylan songs, specially recorded for the movie by a diverse range of artists, including Sonic Youth, Eddie Vedder, Mason Jennings, Stephen Malkmus, Jeff Tweedy, Karen O, Willie Nelson, Cat Power, Richie Havens, and Tom Verlaine. \n\nOn October 1, 2007, Columbia Records released the triple CD retrospective album Dylan, anthologising his entire career under the Dylan 07 logo. As part of this campaign, Mark Ronson produced a re-mix of Dylan's 1966 tune \"Most Likely You Go Your Way and I'll Go Mine\", which was released as a maxi-single. This was the first time Dylan had sanctioned a re-mix of one of his classic recordings. \n\nThe sophistication of the Dylan 07 marketing campaign was a reminder that Dylan's commercial profile had risen considerably since the 1990s. This first became evident in 2004, when Dylan appeared in a TV advertisement for Victoria's Secret lingerie. Three years later, in October 2007, he participated in a multi-media campaign for the 2008 Cadillac Escalade. Then, in 2009, he gave the highest profile endorsement of his career, appearing with rapper will.i.am in a Pepsi ad that debuted during the telecast of Super Bowl XLIII. The ad, broadcast to a record audience of 98 million viewers, opened with Dylan singing the first verse of \"Forever Young\" followed by will.i.am doing a hip hop version of the song's third and final verse. \n\nIn October 2008, Columbia released The Bootleg Series Vol. 8 – Tell Tale Signs as both a two-CD set and a three-CD version with a 150-page hardcover book. The set contains live performances and outtakes from selected studio albums from Oh Mercy to Modern Times, as well as soundtrack contributions and collaborations with David Bromberg and Ralph Stanley. The pricing of the album—the two-CD set went on sale for $18.99 and the three-CD version for $129.99—led to complaints about \"rip-off packaging\" from some fans and commentators. The release was widely acclaimed by critics. The abundance of alternative takes and unreleased material suggested to one reviewer that this volume of old outtakes \"feels like a new Bob Dylan record, not only for the astonishing freshness of the material, but also for the incredible sound quality and organic feeling of everything here.\" \n\nTogether Through Life and Christmas in the Heart\n\nBob Dylan released his album Together Through Life on April 28, 2009. In a conversation with music journalist Bill Flanagan, published on Dylan's website, Dylan explained that the genesis of the record was when French film director Olivier Dahan asked him to supply a song for his new road movie, My Own Love Song; initially only intending to record a single track, \"Life Is Hard,\" \"the record sort of took its own direction\". Nine of the ten songs on the album are credited as co-written by Bob Dylan and Robert Hunter. \n\nThe album received largely favorable reviews, although several critics described it as a minor addition to Dylan's canon of work. Andy Gill wrote in The Independent that the record \"features Dylan in fairly relaxed, spontaneous mood, content to grab such grooves and sentiments as flit momentarily across his radar. So while it may not contain too many landmark tracks, it's one of the most naturally enjoyable albums you'll hear all year.\" \n\nIn its first week of release, the album reached number one in the Billboard 200 chart in the U.S., making Bob Dylan (67 years of age) the oldest artist to ever debut at number one on that chart. It also reached number one on the UK album chart, 39 years after Dylan's previous UK album chart topper New Morning. This meant that Dylan currently holds the record for the longest gap between solo number one albums in the UK chart.\n\nOn October 13, 2009, Dylan released a Christmas album, Christmas in the Heart, comprising such Christmas standards as \"Little Drummer Boy\", \"Winter Wonderland\" and \"Here Comes Santa Claus\". Dylan's royalties from the sale of this album will benefit the charities Feeding America in the USA, Crisis in the UK, and the World Food Programme. \n\nThe album received generally favorable reviews. The New Yorker commented that Dylan had welded a pre-rock musical sound to \"some of his croakiest vocals in a while\", and speculated that Dylan's intentions might be ironic: \"Dylan has a long and highly publicized history with Christianity; to claim there's not a wink in the childish optimism of 'Here Comes Santa Claus' or 'Winter Wonderland' is to ignore a half-century of biting satire.\" In USA Today, Edna Gundersen pointed out that Dylan was \"revisiting yuletide styles popularized by Nat King Cole, Mel Tormé, and the Ray Conniff Singers.\" Gundersen concluded that Dylan \"couldn't sound more sentimental or sincere\". \n\nIn an interview published in The Big Issue, journalist Bill Flanagan asked Dylan why he had performed the songs in a straightforward style, and Dylan responded: \"There wasn't any other way to play it. These songs are part of my life, just like folk songs. You have to play them straight too.\"\n\n2010s\n\nTempest\n\nOn October 18, 2010, Dylan released Volume 9 of his Bootleg Series, The Witmark Demos. This comprised 47 demo recordings of songs taped between 1962 and 1964 for Dylan's earliest music publishers: Leeds Music in 1962, and Witmark Music from 1962 to 1964. One reviewer described the set as \"a hearty glimpse of young Bob Dylan changing the music business, and the world, one note at a time.\" The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a Metascore of 86, indicating \"universal acclaim\". In the same week, Sony Legacy released Bob Dylan: The Original Mono Recordings, a box set that for the first time presented Dylan's eight earliest albums, from Bob Dylan (1962) to John Wesley Harding (1967), in their original mono mix in the CD format. The CDs were housed in miniature facsimiles of the original album covers, replete with original liner notes. The set was accompanied by a booklet featuring an essay by music critic Greil Marcus. \n\nOn April 12, 2011, Legacy Recordings released Bob Dylan in Concert – Brandeis University 1963, taped at Brandeis University on May 10, 1963, two weeks prior to the release of The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan. The tape was discovered in the archive of music writer Ralph J. Gleason, and the recording carries liner notes by Michael Gray, who writes the recording captures Dylan \"from way back when Kennedy was President and the Beatles hadn't yet reached America. It reveals him not at any Big Moment but giving a performance like his folk club sets of the period... This is the last live performance we have of Bob Dylan before he becomes a star.\" \n\nThe extent to which his work was studied at an academic level was demonstrated on Dylan's 70th birthday on May 24, 2011, when three universities organized symposia on his work. The University of Mainz, the University of Vienna, and the University of Bristol invited literary critics and cultural historians to give papers on aspects of Dylan's work. Other events, including tribute bands, discussions and simple singalongs, took place around the world, as reported in The Guardian: \"From Moscow to Madrid, Norway to Northampton and Malaysia to his home state of Minnesota, self-confessed 'Bobcats' will gather today to celebrate the 70th birthday of a giant of popular music.\" \n\nOn October 4, 2011, Dylan's label, Egyptian Records, released an album of previously unheard Hank Williams songs, The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams. Dylan had helped to curate this project, in which songs unfinished when Williams died in 1953 were completed and recorded by a variety of artists, including Dylan himself, his son Jakob Dylan, Levon Helm, Norah Jones, Jack White, and others. \n\nOn May 29, 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama awarded Dylan a Presidential Medal of Freedom in the White House. At the ceremony, Obama praised Dylan's voice for its \"unique gravelly power that redefined not just what music sounded like but the message it carried and how it made people feel\". \n\nOn September 11, 2012, Dylan released his 35th studio album, Tempest. The album features a tribute to John Lennon, \"Roll On John\", and the title track is a 14 minute song about the sinking of the Titanic. Reviewing Tempest for Rolling Stone, Will Hermes gave the album five out of five stars, writing: \"Lyrically, Dylan is at the top of his game, joking around, dropping wordplay and allegories that evade pat readings and quoting other folks' words like a freestyle rapper on fire.\" Hermes called Tempest \"one of [Dylan's] weirdest albums ever\", and opined, \"It may also be the single darkest record in Dylan's catalog.\" The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a score of 83 out of 100, indicating \"universal acclaim\". \n\nOn August 27, 2013, Columbia Records released Volume 10 of Dylan's Bootleg Series, Another Self Portrait (1969–1971). The album contained 35 previously unreleased tracks, including alternate takes and demos from Dylan's 1969–1971 recording sessions during the making of the Self Portrait and New Morning albums. The box set also included a live recording of Dylan's performance with the Band at the Isle of Wight Festival in 1969. Another Self Portrait received favorable reviews, earning a score of 81 on the critical aggregator, Metacritic, indicating \"universal acclaim\". AllMusic critic Thom Jurek wrote, \"For fans, this is more than a curiosity, it's an indispensable addition to the catalog.\" \n\nOn November 4, 2013, Columbia Records released Bob Dylan: Complete Album Collection: Vol. One, a boxed set containing all 35 of Dylan's studio albums, six albums of live recordings, and a collection, entitled Sidetracks, of singles, songs from films and non-album material. The box includes new album-by-album liner notes written by Clinton Heylin with an introduction by Bill Flanagan. On the same date, Columbia released a compilation, The Very Best of Bob Dylan, which is available in both single CD and double CD formats. To publicize the 35 album box set, an innovative video of the song \"Like a Rolling Stone\" was released on Dylan's website. The interactive video, created by director Vania Heymann, allowed viewers to switch between 16 simulated TV channels, all featuring characters who are lip-synching the lyrics of the 48-year-old song. \n\nOn February 2, 2014, Dylan appeared in a commercial for the Chrysler 200 car which was screened during the 2014 Super Bowl American football game. At the end of the commercial, Dylan says: \"So let Germany brew your beer, let Switzerland make your watch, let Asia assemble your phone. We will build your car.\" Dylan's Super Bowl commercial generated controversy and op-ed pieces discussing the protectionist implications of his words, and whether the singer had \"sold out\" to corporate interests. \n\nIn 2013 and 2014, auction house sales demonstrated the high cultural value attached to Dylan's mid-1960s work, and the record prices that collectors were willing to pay for artefacts from this period. In December 2013, the Fender Stratocaster which Dylan had played at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival fetched $965,000, the second highest price paid for a guitar. In June 2014, Dylan's hand-written lyrics of \"Like a Rolling Stone\", his 1965 hit single, fetched $2 million dollars at auction, a record for a popular music manuscript. \n\nOn October 28, 2014, Simon & Schuster published a massive 960 page, thirteen and a half pound edition of Dylan's lyrics, Lyrics: Since 1962. The book was edited by literary critic Christopher Ricks, Julie Nemrow and Lisa Nemrow, to offer variant versions of Dylan's songs, sourced from out-takes and live performances. A limited edition of 50 books, signed by Dylan, was priced at $5,000. \"It’s the biggest, most expensive book we’ve ever published, as far as I know,\" said Jonathan Karp, Simon & Schuster’s president and publisher. \n\nOn November 4, 2014, Columbia Records/Legacy Recordings released The Basement Tapes Complete by Bob Dylan and The Band. These 138 tracks in a six-CD box form Volume 11 of Dylan's Bootleg Series. The 1975 album, The Basement Tapes, contained some of the songs which Dylan and the Band recorded in their homes in Woodstock, New York, in 1967. Subsequently, over 100 recordings and alternate takes have circulated on bootleg records. The sleeve notes for the new box set are by Sid Griffin, American musician and author of Million Dollar Bash: Bob Dylan, The Band, and The Basement Tapes. \n\nShadows in the Night and Fallen Angels\n\nOn February 3, 2015, Dylan released Shadows in the Night, featuring ten songs written between 1923 and 1963, which have been described as part of the Great American Songbook. All the songs on the album were recorded by Frank Sinatra but both critics and Dylan himself cautioned against seeing the record as a collection of \"Sinatra covers\". Dylan explained, \"I don't see myself as covering these songs in any way. They've been covered enough. Buried, as a matter a fact. What me and my band are basically doing is uncovering them. Lifting them out of the grave and bringing them into the light of day.\" In an interview, Dylan said he had been thinking about making this record since hearing Willie Nelson's 1978 album Stardust.\n\nShadows In the Night received favorable reviews, scoring 82 on the critical aggregator Metacritic, which indicates \"universal acclaim\". Critics praised the restrained instrumental backings and Dylan's singing, saying that the material had elicited his best vocal performances in recent years. Bill Prince in GQ commented: \"A performer who's had to hear his influence in virtually every white pop recording made since he debuted his own self-titled album back in 1962 imagines himself into the songs of his pre-rock'n'roll early youth.\" In The Independent, Andy Gill wrote that the recordings \"have a lingering, languid charm, which... help to liberate the material from the rusting manacles of big-band and cabaret mannerisms.\" The album debuted at number one in the UK albums chart in its first week of release. \n\nOn October 5, 2015, IBM launched a marketing campaign for its Watson computer system which featured Dylan. Dylan is seen conversing with the computer which says it has read all his lyrics and reports: \"My analysis shows that your major themes are that time passes and love fades.\" Dylan replies: \"That sounds about right.\" \n\nOn November 6, 2015, Sony Music released The Bootleg Series Vol. 12: The Cutting Edge 1965–1966. This work consists of previously unreleased material from the three albums Dylan recorded Between January 1965 and March 1966: Bringing It All Back Home, Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde. The records have been released in three formats: a 2-CD \"Best Of\" version, a 6-CD \"Deluxe edition\", and an 18-CD \"Collector's Edition\" in a limited edition of 5,000 units. On Dylan's website the \"Collector's Edition\" was described as containing \"every single note recorded by Bob Dylan in the studio in 1965/1966\". The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded Cutting Edge a score of 99, indicating universal acclaim. The Best of the Cutting Edge entered the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart at number one on November 18, based on its first-week sales. \n\nOn March 2, 2016, it was announced that Dylan had sold an extensive archive of about 6,000 items to the George Kaiser Family Foundation and the University of Tulsa. It was reported that the sale price was \"an estimated $15 million to $20 million\", and the archive comprises notebooks, drafts of Dylan lyrics, recordings, and correspondence. Filmed material in the collection includes 30 hours of outtakes from the 1965 tour documentary Dont Look Back, 30 hours of footage shot on Dylan's legendary 1966 electric tour, and 50 hours shot on the 1975 Rolling Thunder Revue. The archive will be housed at Helmerich Center for American Research, a facility at the Gilcrease Museum. \n\nOn May 20, 2016, Dylan released his 37th studio album, Fallen Angels, which was described as \"a direct continuation of the work of 'uncovering' the Great Songbook that he began on last year’s Shadows In the Night.\" The album contained twelve songs by classic songwriters such as Harold Arlen, Sammy Cahn and Johnny Mercer, eleven of which had been recorded by Sinatra. Jim Farber wrote in Entertainment Weekly: \"Tellingly, [Dylan] delivers these songs of love lost and cherished not with a burning passion but with the wistfulness of experience. They’re memory songs now, intoned with a present sense of commitment. Released just four days ahead of his 75th birthday, they couldn’t be more age-appropriate.\" The album received a score of 79 on critical aggregator website Metacritic, denoting \"generally favorable reviews\". \n\nNever Ending Tour\n\nThe Never Ending Tour commenced on June 7, 1988, and Dylan has played roughly 100 dates a year for the entirety of the 1990s and 2000s—a heavier schedule than most performers who started out in the 1960s. By May 2013, Dylan and his band had played more than 2,500 shows, anchored by long-time bassist Tony Garnier, drummer George Recile, multi-instrumentalist Donnie Herron, and guitarist Charlie Sexton. To the dismay of some of his audience, Dylan's performances remain unpredictable as he alters his arrangements and changes his vocal approach night after night. Critical opinion about Dylan's shows remains divided. Critics such as Richard Williams and Andy Gill have argued that Dylan has found a successful way to present his rich legacy of material. Others have criticized his live performances for mangling and spitting out \"the greatest lyrics ever written so that they are effectively unrecognisable\", and giving so little to the audience that \"it is difficult to understand what he is doing on stage at all.\" \n\nDylan's performances in China in April 2011 generated controversy. Some criticised him for not making any explicit comment on the political situation in China, and for, allegedly, allowing the Chinese authorities to censor his set list. Others defended Dylan's performances, arguing that such criticism represented a misunderstanding of Dylan's art, and that no evidence for the censorship of Dylan's set list existed. In response to these allegations, Dylan posted a statement on his website: \"As far as censorship goes, the Chinese government had asked for the names of the songs that I would be playing. There's no logical answer to that, so we sent them the set lists from the previous 3 months. If there were any songs, verses or lines censored, nobody ever told me about it and we played all the songs that we intended to play.\" \n\nDylan commenced a tour of Japan in Tokyo on April 4, 2016, which concluded in Yokohama on April 28. Dylan announced a tour of the US starting in Woodinville WA on June 4, 2016, and finishing in Gilford NH on July 17. Dylan has also announced his participation in a so-called \"Mega-Fest\" titled Desert Trip, in California on October 7, when he will perform at the same event as the Rolling Stones, Neil Young, Paul McCartney, the Who and Roger Waters. \n\nVisual artist\n\nThe cover of Dylan's album Self Portrait (1970) is a reproduction of a painting of a face by Dylan. Another of his paintings is reproduced on the cover of the 1974 album Planet Waves. In 1994 Random House published Drawn Blank, a book of Dylan's drawings. In 2007, the first public exhibition of Dylan's paintings, The Drawn Blank Series, opened at the Kunstsammlungen in Chemnitz, Germany; it showcased more than 200 watercolors and gouaches made from the original drawings. The exhibition coincided with the publication of Bob Dylan: The Drawn Blank Series, which includes 170 reproductions from the series. From September 2010 until April 2011, the National Gallery of Denmark exhibited 40 large-scale acrylic paintings by Dylan, The Brazil Series. \n\nIn July 2011, a leading contemporary art gallery, Gagosian Gallery, announced their representation of Dylan's paintings. An exhibition of Dylan's art, The Asia Series, opened at the Gagosian Madison Avenue Gallery on September 20, displaying Dylan's paintings of scenes in China and the Far East. The New York Times reported that \"some fans and Dylanologists have raised questions about whether some of these paintings are based on the singer's own experiences and observations, or on photographs that are widely available and were not taken by Mr. Dylan.\" The Times pointed to close resemblances between Dylan's paintings and historic photos of Japan and China, and photos taken by Dmitri Kessel and Henri Cartier-Bresson. The Magnum photo agency confirmed that Dylan had licensed the reproduction rights of these photographs. \n\nDylan's second show at the Gagosian Gallery, Revisionist Art, opened in November 2012. The show consisted of thirty paintings, transforming and satirizing popular magazines, including Playboy and Babytalk. In February 2013, Dylan exhibited the New Orleans Series of paintings at the Palazzo Reale in Milan. In August 2013, Britain's National Portrait Gallery in London hosted Dylan's first major UK exhibition, Face Value, featuring twelve pastel portraits. \n\nIn November 2013, the Halcyon Gallery, in London, exhibited seven wrought iron gates created by Dylan (the exhibition was entitled Mood Swings). In a statement released by the gallery, Dylan said, \"I've been around iron all my life ever since I was a kid. I was born and raised in iron ore country, where you could breathe it and smell it every day. Gates appeal to me because of the negative space they allow. They can be closed but at the same time they allow the seasons and breezes to enter and flow. They can shut you out or shut you in. And in some ways there is no difference.\" \n\nSince 1994, Dylan has published six books of paintings and drawings. \n\nDiscography\n\nBob Dylan (1962)\nThe Freewheelin' Bob Dylan (1963)\nThe Times They Are a-Changin' (1964)\nAnother Side of Bob Dylan (1964)\nBringing It All Back Home (1965)\nHighway 61 Revisited (1965)\nBlonde on Blonde (1966)\nJohn Wesley Harding (1967)\nNashville Skyline (1969)\nSelf Portrait (1970)\nNew Morning (1970)\nPat Garrett & Billy the Kid (1973)\nDylan (1973)\nPlanet Waves (1974)\nBlood on the Tracks (1975)\nThe Basement Tapes (1975)\nDesire (1976)\nStreet Legal (1978)\nSlow Train Coming (1979)\nSaved (1980)\nShot of Love (1981)\nInfidels (1983)\nEmpire Burlesque (1985)\nKnocked Out Loaded (1986)\nDown in the Groove (1988)\nOh Mercy (1989)\nUnder the Red Sky (1990)\nGood as I Been to You (1992)\nWorld Gone Wrong (1993)\nTime Out of Mind (1997)\nLove and Theft (2001)\nModern Times (2006)\nTogether Through Life (2009)\nChristmas in the Heart (2009)\nTempest (2012)\n Shadows in the Night (2015)\n*Fallen Angels (2016)\n\nAccolades\n\nDylan has won many awards throughout his career including eleven Grammy Awards, one Academy Award and one Golden Globe Award. He has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame, and Songwriters Hall of Fame. In May 2000, Dylan was awarded the Polar Music Prize. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in May 2012. In February 2015, Dylan accepted the MusiCares Person of the Year award from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, in recognition of his philanthropic and artistic contributions to society. \n\nPersonal life\n\nFamily\n\nDylan married Sara Lownds on November 22, 1965. Their first child, Jesse Byron Dylan, was born on January 6, 1966, and they had three more children: Anna Lea (born July 11, 1967), Samuel Isaac Abram (born July 30, 1968), and Jakob Luke (born December 9, 1969). Dylan also adopted Sara's daughter from a prior marriage, Maria Lownds (later Dylan, born October 21, 1961). Bob and Sara Dylan were divorced on June 29, 1977. Maria married musician Peter Himmelman in 1988. In the 1990s, Dylan's son Jakob became well known as the lead singer of the band The Wallflowers. Jesse Dylan is a film director and a successful businessman.\n\nDesiree Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan, Dylan's daughter with his backup singer Carolyn Dennis (often professionally known as Carol Dennis), was born on January 31, 1986, and Dylan married Carolyn Dennis on June 4, 1986. The couple divorced in October 1992. Their marriage and child remained a closely guarded secret until the publication of Howard Sounes' Dylan biography, Down the Highway: The Life Of Bob Dylan in 2001. \n\nWhen not touring, Dylan is believed to live primarily in Point Dume, a promontory on the coast of Malibu, California, though he also owns property around the world. \n\nReligious beliefs\n\nGrowing up in Hibbing, Minnesota, Dylan and his family were part of the area's small but close-knit Jewish community, and in May 1954 Dylan had his Bar Mitzvah. Around the time of his 30th birthday, in 1971, Dylan visited Israel, and also met Rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the New York-based Jewish Defense League. Time magazine quoted him saying about Kahane, \"He's a really sincere guy. He's really put it all together.\" Subsequently, Dylan downplayed the extent of his contact with Kahane. \n\nDuring the late 1970s and early 1980s, Dylan converted to Christianity. From January to April 1979, he participated in Bible study classes at the Vineyard School of Discipleship in Reseda, California. Pastor Kenn Gulliksen has recalled: \"Larry Myers and Paul Emond went over to Bob's house and ministered to him. He responded by saying, 'Yes he did in fact want Christ in his life.' And he prayed that day and received the Lord.\" \n\nBy 1984, Dylan was distancing himself from the \"born again\" label. He told Kurt Loder of Rolling Stone magazine: \"I've never said I'm born again. That's just a media term. I don't think I've been an agnostic. I've always thought there's a superior power, that this is not the real world and that there's a world to come.\" In response to Loder's asking whether he belonged to any church or synagogue, Dylan laughingly replied, \"Not really. Uh, the Church of the Poison Mind.\" In 1997 he told David Gates of Newsweek:\nHere's the thing with me and the religious thing. This is the flat-out truth: I find the religiosity and philosophy in the music. I don't find it anywhere else. Songs like \"Let Me Rest on a Peaceful Mountain\" or \"I Saw the Light\"—that's my religion. I don't adhere to rabbis, preachers, evangelists, all of that. I've learned more from the songs than I've learned from any of this kind of entity. The songs are my lexicon. I believe the songs. \n\nIn an interview published in The New York Times on September 28, 1997, journalist Jon Pareles reported that \"Dylan says he now subscribes to no organized religion.\" \n\nDylan has been a supporter of the Chabad Lubavitch movement in the last 20 years, and has privately participated in Jewish religious events, including the Bar Mitzvahs of his sons and attending Hadar Hatorah, a Chabad Lubavitch yeshiva. In September 1989 and September 1991, he appeared on the Chabad telethon. Dylan reportedly visits Chabad synagogues; on Yom Kippur in 2007 he attended Congregation Beth Tefillah, in Atlanta, Georgia, where he was called to the Torah for the sixth aliyah. \n\nDylan has continued to perform songs from his gospel albums in concert, occasionally covering traditional religious songs. He has also made passing references to his religious faith—such as in a 2004 interview with 60 Minutes, when he told Ed Bradley that \"the only person you have to think twice about lying to is either yourself or to God.\" He also explained his constant touring schedule as part of a bargain he made a long time ago with the \"chief commander—in this earth and in the world we can't see.\"\n\nIn a 2009 interview with Bill Flanagan promoting Dylan's Christmas LP, Christmas in the Heart, Flanagan commented on the \"heroic performance\" Dylan gave of \"O Little Town of Bethlehem\" and that he \"delivered the song like a true believer\". Dylan replied: \"Well, I am a true believer.\"\n\nLegacy\n\nDylan has been described as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century, musically and culturally. He was included in the Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century where he was called \"master poet, caustic social critic and intrepid, guiding spirit of the counterculture generation\". In 2008, The Pulitzer Prize jury awarded him a special citation for \"his profound impact on popular music and American culture, marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power.\" \nPresident Barack Obama said of Dylan in 2012, \"There is not a bigger giant in the history of American music.\" In their 2008 assessment of the \"100 Greatest Singers\", Rolling Stone magazine ranked him at number seven. Rolling Stone then ranked Dylan at number two in its 2011 list of \"100 Greatest Artists\" of all time, while \"Like A Rolling Stone\" was listed as the \"Greatest Song of all Time.\" In 2008, it was estimated that Dylan had sold about 120 million albums worldwide. \n\nInitially modeling his writing style on the songs of Woody Guthrie,Dylan, pp. 243–246. the blues of Robert Johnson,Dylan, pp. 281–288. and what he termed the \"architectural forms\" of Hank Williams songs,Dylan, pp. 95–97. Dylan added increasingly sophisticated lyrical techniques to the folk music of the early 1960s, infusing it \"with the intellectualism of classic literature and poetry\". Paul Simon suggested that Dylan's early compositions virtually took over the folk genre: \"[Dylan's] early songs were very rich ... with strong melodies. 'Blowin' in the Wind' has a really strong melody. He so enlarged himself through the folk background that he incorporated it for a while. He defined the genre for a while.\" \n\nWhen Dylan made his move from acoustic folk and blues music to a rock backing, the mix became more complex. For many critics, his greatest achievement was the cultural synthesis exemplified by his mid-1960s trilogy of albums—Bringing It All Back Home, Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde. In Mike Marqusee's words:\n\nBetween late 1964 and the middle of 1966, Dylan created a body of work that remains unique. Drawing on folk, blues, country, R&B, rock'n'roll, gospel, British beat, symbolist, modernist and Beat poetry, surrealism and Dada, advertising jargon and social commentary, Fellini and Mad magazine, he forged a coherent and original artistic voice and vision. The beauty of these albums retains the power to shock and console.\" \n\nDylan's lyrics began to receive detailed scrutiny from academics and poets. Literary critic Christopher Ricks published a 500-page analysis of Dylan's work, placing him in the context of Eliot, Keats and Tennyson, claiming that Dylan was a poet worthy of the same close analysis. Former British poet laureate Sir Andrew Motion argued that his lyrics should be studied in schools. Since 1996, academics have lobbied the Swedish Academy to award Dylan the Nobel Prize in Literature. \n\nDylan's voice also received critical attention. New York Times critic Robert Shelton described his early vocal style as \"a rusty voice suggesting Guthrie's old performances, etched in gravel like Dave Van Ronk's.\" David Bowie, in his tribute, \"Song for Bob Dylan\", described Dylan's singing as \"a voice like sand and glue\". His voice continued to develop as he began to work with rock'n'roll backing bands; critic Michael Gray described the sound of Dylan's vocal work on \"Like a Rolling Stone\" as \"at once young and jeeringly cynical\". As Dylan's voice aged during the 1980s, for some critics, it became more expressive. Christophe Lebold writes in the journal Oral Tradition, \"Dylan's more recent broken voice enables him to present a world view at the sonic surface of the songs—this voice carries us across the landscape of a broken, fallen world. The anatomy of a broken world in \"Everything is Broken\" (on the album Oh Mercy) is but an example of how the thematic concern with all things broken is grounded in a concrete sonic reality.\" \n\nDylan is considered a seminal influence on several musical genres, especially folk rock, country rock and Christian rock. As Edna Gundersen stated in USA Today: \"Dylan's musical DNA has informed nearly every simple twist of pop since 1962.\" Punk musician Joe Strummer praised Dylan for having \"laid down the template for lyric, tune, seriousness, spirituality, depth of rock music.\" Other major musicians who acknowledged Dylan's importance include Johnny Cash, Jerry Garcia, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Pete Townshend, Neil Young, Bruce Springsteen, David Bowie, Bryan Ferry, Nick Cave, Patti Smith, Syd Barrett Joni Mitchell, and Tom Waits. Dylan significantly contributed to the initial success of both the Byrds and the Band: the Byrds achieved chart success with their version of \"Mr. Tambourine Man\" and the subsequent album, while the Band were Dylan's backing band on his 1966 tour, recorded The Basement Tapes with him in 1967, and featured three previously unreleased Dylan songs on their debut album. \n\nSome critics have dissented from the view of Dylan as a visionary figure in popular music. In his book Awopbopaloobop Alopbamboom, Nik Cohn objected: \"I can't take the vision of Dylan as seer, as teenage messiah, as everything else he's been worshipped as. The way I see him, he's a minor talent with a major gift for self-hype.\" Australian critic Jack Marx credited Dylan with changing the persona of the rock star: \"What cannot be disputed is that Dylan invented the arrogant, faux-cerebral posturing that has been the dominant style in rock since, with everyone from Mick Jagger to Eminem educating themselves from the Dylan handbook.\" \n\nFellow musicians also presented dissenting views. Joni Mitchell described Dylan as a \"plagiarist\" and his voice as \"fake\" in a 2010 interview in the Los Angeles Times, in response to a suggestion that she and Dylan were similar since they had both created personas. Mitchell's comment led to discussions of Dylan's use of other people's material, both supporting and criticizing him. In 2013 Mitchell told the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) in an interview that her remarks in the Los Angeles Times had been taken \"completely out of context\", and that the interviewer was a \"moron\". Mitchell added: \"I like a lot of Bob's songs. Musically he's not very gifted. He's borrowed his voice from old hillbillies. He's got a lot of borrowed things. He's not a great guitar player. He's invented a character to deliver his songs.\" \n\nTalking to Mikal Gilmore in Rolling Stone in 2012, Dylan responded to the allegation of plagiarism, including his use of Henry Timrod's verse in his album Modern Times, by saying that it was \"part of the tradition\". Dylan told Gilmore: \"As far as Henry Timrod is concerned, have you even heard of him? Who's been reading him lately? And who's pushed him to the forefront?... And if you think it's so easy to quote him and it can help your work, do it yourself and see how far you can get. Wussies and pussies complain about that stuff. It's an old thing—it's part of the tradition.\"\n\nIf Dylan's work in the 1960s was seen as bringing intellectual ambition to popular music, critics in the 21st century described him as a figure who had greatly expanded the folk culture from which he initially emerged. Following the release of Todd Haynes' Dylan biopic I'm Not There, J. Hoberman wrote in his 2007 Village Voice review:\n\nElvis might never have been born, but someone else would surely have brought the world rock 'n' roll. No such logic accounts for Bob Dylan. No iron law of history demanded that a would-be Elvis from Hibbing, Minnesota, would swerve through the Greenwich Village folk revival to become the world's first and greatest rock 'n' roll beatnik bard and then—having achieved fame and adoration beyond reckoning—vanish into a folk tradition of his own making. \n\nPrior to the June 2014 sale of the original lyrics of \"Like a Rolling Stone\", written on four sheets of hotel stationery by Dylan in 1965, Richard Austin, of Sotheby's, New York, said: \"Before the release of Like a Rolling Stone, music charts were overrun with short and sweet love songs, many clocking in at three minutes or less. By defying convention with six and a half minutes of dark, brooding poetry, Dylan rewrote the rules for pop music.\"\n\nBibliography\n\nDylan has published Tarantula, a work of prose poetry, Chronicles: Volume One, the first part of his memoirs, several books of the lyrics of his songs, and six books of his art. He has been the subject of many biographies and critical studies of his work." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go", "Blood on the Tracks (Bob Dylan album)", "Bob Dylan/Blood On The Tracks", "Blood On the Tracks", "Blood On The Tracks", "Blood on the tracks", "Blood on the Tracks" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "blood on tracks", "bob dylan blood on tracks", "blood on tracks bob dylan album", "you re gonna make me lonesome when you go" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "blood on tracks", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Blood On The Tracks" }
What was the only Fleetwood Mac track to top the singles charts in the 70s?	tc_1390	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Fleetwood_Mac.txt" ], "title": [ "Fleetwood Mac" ], "wiki_context": [ "Fleetwood Mac are a British-American rock band formed in July 1967, in London. The band have sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling bands of all time. In 1998, selected members of Fleetwood Mac were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. \n\nThe two most successful periods for the band were during the late 1960s British blues boom, when they were led by guitarist Peter Green and achieved a UK number one with \"Albatross\"; and from 1975 to 1987, as a more pop-oriented act, featuring Christine McVie, Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks. Fleetwood Mac's second album after the incorporation of Buckingham and Nicks, 1977's Rumours, produced four U.S. Top 10 singles (including Nicks' song \"Dreams\"), and remained at No. 1 on the American albums chart for 31 weeks, as well as reaching the top spot in various countries around the world. To date, the album has sold over 40 million copies worldwide, making it the eighth-highest-selling album of all time.\n\nThe band achieved more modest success between 1971 and 1974, when the line-up included Bob Welch, during the 1990s in between the departure and return of Nicks and Buckingham, and during the 2000s when Christine McVie was absent.\n\nDue to numerous lineup changes, the only original member present in the band is drummer Mick Fleetwood. Although band founder Green named the group by combining the surnames of two of his former bandmates (Fleetwood and McVie) from John Mayall's Bluesbreakers, bassist John McVie played neither on their first single nor at their first concerts, as he initially decided to stay with Mayall. Keyboardist Christine McVie, who joined the band in 1970 while married to John McVie, has appeared on every album except the debut album, either as a member or as a session musician. She left the band in 1998 but returned in 2014. \n\nHistory\n\nFormation and early years (1967–71)\n\nFleetwood Mac were formed in July 1967 in London when Peter Green left the British blues band John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Green had replaced guitarist Eric Clapton in the Bluesbreakers, and received critical acclaim for his work on their album A Hard Road. After he had been in the Bluesbreakers for some time, Green asked if drummer Mick Fleetwood could replace Aynsley Dunbar. Green had been in two bands with Fleetwood—Peter B's Looners and the subsequent Shotgun Express (which featured a young Rod Stewart as vocalist). John Mayall agreed and Fleetwood became a member of the band.\n\nThe Bluesbreakers now consisted of Green, Fleetwood, John McVie and Mayall. Mayall gave Green free recording time as a gift, in which Fleetwood, McVie and Green recorded five songs. The fifth song was an instrumental which Green named after the rhythm section, \"Fleetwood Mac\".\n\nSoon after, Green contacted Fleetwood to form a new band. The pair wanted McVie on bass guitar and even named the band 'Fleetwood Mac' as a way to entice him. However, McVie opted to keep his steady income with Mayall rather than take a risk with a new band. In the meantime Peter Green and Mick Fleetwood teamed up with slide guitarist Jeremy Spencer and bassist Bob Brunning, who was in the band on the understanding that he would leave if McVie agreed to join. The Green, Fleetwood, Spencer, Brunning version of the band made its debut on 13 August 1967 at the Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival as Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer. Brunning merely played at a handful of gigs with Fleetwood Mac. Within weeks of this show, John McVie agreed to join the band as permanent bassist. \n\nFleetwood Mac's first album, Fleetwood Mac, was a no-frills blues album and was released on the Blue Horizon label in February 1968. In fact there were no other players on the album (except for the song \"Long Grey Mare\", which was recorded with Brunning on bass). The album was successful in the UK, hitting No. 4, though it did not have any singles on it. The band soon released two singles \"Black Magic Woman\" (later a big hit for Santana) and \"Need Your Love So Bad\". \n\nThe band's second album, Mr. Wonderful, was released in August 1968. Like the first it was an all-blues album, but this time they made a few changes. The album was recorded live in the studio with miked amplifiers and PA system, rather than plugged into the board. This method provided the ideal environment for producing this style of music, and gave it an authentically vintage sound. They also added horns and featured a friend of the band on keyboards, Christine Perfect of Chicken Shack prior to her marriage to John McVie. \n\nShortly after the release of their second album Fleetwood Mac added guitarist Danny Kirwan, then just eighteen years old, to their line-up, recruited from the South London blues trio Boilerhouse, consisting of Kirwan on guitar with Trevor Stevens on bass and Dave Terrey on drums. Green and Fleetwood had been to watch Boilerhouse rehearse in a basement boiler-room and Green was so impressed, he invited the band to play support slots for Fleetwood Mac. Green wanted Boilerhouse to become a professional band but Stevens and Terrey were not prepared to turn professional at the time, so Green sought to find another rhythm section by placing an ad in Melody Maker. There were over 300 applicants, but when Green and Fleetwood ran auditions at the Nag's Head in Battersea (home of the Mike Vernon Blue Horizon Club), the hard to please Green could not find anyone good enough to replace the pair, so he invited Kirwan to join Fleetwood Mac as their third guitarist. \n\nGreen had been frustrated that Jeremy Spencer had little desire to contribute to Green's songs. A mature and accomplished self-taught guitarist, Kirwan's signature vibrato and unique style added a new dimension to an already complete band. With Kirwan the band released their first number one single in Europe, \"Albatross\". Around this time they released their second American album, English Rose, which contained half of Mr. Wonderful, new songs from Kirwan, and their third European album called The Pious Bird of Good Omen, which was a collection of singles, B-sides, and a selection of some work the band did with Eddie Boyd.\n\nWhen the band went to the United States in January 1969 they recorded many songs at the soon-to-close Chess Records Studio, with some blues legends of Chicago including Willie Dixon, Buddy Guy and Otis Spann. These would prove, however, to be Fleetwood Mac's last all-blues recordings. Along with their change of style the band was also going through some label changes. Up until this point they had been on Blue Horizon. With Kirwan in the band, however, the musical possibilities were too great for them to stay on a blues-only label. The band signed with the Immediate Records label and released \"Man of the World\", another British and European hit single. For the B-side Spencer fronted Fleetwood Mac as \"Earl Vince and the Valiants\" and recorded \"Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonite\", typifying the more raucous rock 'n' roll side of the band. Immediate Records was in bad shape and the band shopped around for a new deal. Even though The Beatles wanted the band on Apple Records (Mick Fleetwood and George Harrison were brothers-in-law), the band's manager Clifford Davis decided to go with Warner Bros. Records (through Reprise Records, a Frank Sinatra-founded label), the label they have stayed with ever since.\n\nFleetwood Mac's first album for Reprise, released in September 1969, was the well-regarded Then Play On. Although the initial pressing of the American release of this album was the same as the British version, it was altered to contain the song \"Oh Well\", featured consistently in live performances from the time of its release through 1997 and then again starting in 2009. Then Play On, which was the band's first rock album, featured only the songs of Kirwan and Green. Jeremy Spencer, meanwhile, recorded a solo album (he was backed by the rest of the band) which consisted of many 1950s-style rock and roll songs.\n\nIn July 1969, Fleetwood Mac opened for Ten Years After at the Schaefer Music Festival at New York City's Wollman Rink. They re-appeared at the festival in 1970.\n\nFleetwood Mac were an extremely popular band in Europe at the time. However, Peter Green, the frontman of the band, was not in good health. He had taken LSD in Munich, which may have contributed to the onset of his schizophrenia. German author and filmmaker Rainer Langhans mentions in his autobiography that he and Uschi Obermaier met Peter Green in Munich, where they invited him to their \"High-Fish-Commune\". They were not really interested in Green; they just wanted to get in contact with Mick Taylor: Langhans and Obermaier wished to organise a \"Bavarian Woodstock\". They wanted Jimi Hendrix and The Rolling Stones to be the leading acts of their Bavarian open air festival. They needed Green just to get in contact with The Rolling Stones via Mick Taylor.\n\nGreen's last hit with Fleetwood Mac was \"The Green Manalishi (With the Two-Prong Crown)\" (first recorded at the Boston Tea Party in February 1970 and later recorded by Judas Priest). This recording was released as Green's mental stability deteriorated, and he wanted to give all of the band's money to charity. Other members of the band did not agree, and subsequently Green decided to leave the band. His last show with Fleetwood Mac was on 20 May 1970. During that show, the band went past their allotted time and the power was shut off, although Mick Fleetwood kept drumming. Some of the Boston Tea Party recordings (5/6/7 February 1970) were eventually released in the 1980s as the Live in Boston album, with a more complete remastered 3-volume compilation released by Snapper Music in the late 90s.\n\nTransitional era (1970–74)\n\nKirwan and Spencer were left with the task of having to fill up Peter's space in their live shows and on their recordings. In September 1970, Fleetwood Mac released Kiln House. Kirwan's songs moved the band in the direction of rock. Meanwhile, Spencer's contributions focused on re-creating the country-tinged \"Sun Sound\" of the late 1950s. Christine Perfect, who had retired from the music business after one unsuccessful solo album, contributed to Kiln House, singing backup vocals, and drawing the album cover. Since Fleetwood Mac were progressing and developing a new sound, Perfect was asked to join the band. They also released a single at that time; \"Dragonfly\" b/w \"The Purple Dancer\" in the U.K. and certain European countries. Despite good notices in the press, the single was not a success and the B-side has been reissued only once, on a Reprise German-only \"Best of\" album, making it one of their most obscure songs.\n\nChristine Perfect, who was married to bassist John McVie, made her first appearance with the band as Christine McVie at Bristol University in May 1969 just as she was leaving Chicken Shack. She had success with the Etta James classic, \"I'd Rather Go Blind\", and was twice voted female artist of the year in England. Christine McVie played her first gig as an official member on 6 August 1970 in New Orleans. CBS Records, which now owned Blue Horizon (except in the US and Canada), released an album of previously unreleased material from the original Fleetwood Mac called The Original Fleetwood Mac. The album was relatively successful, and the band continued to gain popularity.\n\nWhile on tour in February 1971, Jeremy Spencer said he was going out to \"get a magazine\", but never returned. After several days of frantic searching, the band discovered that Spencer had joined a religious group, the Children of God. Liable for the remaining shows on the tour, they convinced Peter Green to help finish the tour. He brought along his friend, Nigel Watson, who played the congas (twenty-five years later Green and Watson collaborated again to form the Peter Green Splinter Group). Green, however, would only be back with Fleetwood Mac temporarily, so the band decided to search for a new guitarist.\n\nIn the summer of 1971, the band held auditions for a guitarist in their large country home, \"Benifold\", which they bought prior to the Kiln House tour. A friend of the band named Judy Wong recommended her high school friend, Bob Welch, who was living in Paris at the time. The band had a few meetings with Welch and decided to hire him, without actually playing with him or listening to any of his recordings.\n\nIn September 1971, the band released Future Games. Due to Welch's arrival and Spencer's departure, the album was different from anything the band had done up to that point, and there were many new fans in America who were becoming more and more interested in the band. In Europe, CBS released Fleetwood Mac's first Greatest Hits package, which was predominantly composed of songs by Peter Green, though there was one song by Spencer and one by Kirwan.\n\nIn 1972, six months after the release of Future Games, the band released the well-received album Bare Trees. Though mostly composed by Kirwan, Bare Trees featured Welch's \"Sentimental Lady\", which would be a much bigger hit for him five years later when he re-recorded it for his solo album French Kiss, backed with Mick Fleetwood and Christine McVie. It also featured \"Spare Me a Little of Your Love\", a bright Christine McVie tune that became a staple of the band's live act throughout the early to mid-1970s.\n\nWhile the band was doing well in the studio, their tours were more problematic. Danny Kirwan developed an alcohol dependency and became alienated from Welch and the McVies. It was not until he smashed his Les Paul Custom guitar before a concert, refused to go on stage, and criticised the band afterwards that Fleetwood was finally convinced that he had no choice but to fire Kirwan.\n\nThe next two and a half years proved to be the most challenging for the band. In the three albums they released in this period, they constantly changed line-ups. In September 1972, the band added guitarist Bob Weston and vocalist Dave Walker, formerly of Savoy Brown and Idle Race. Bob Weston was well known for playing slide guitar and had known the band from his touring period with Long John Baldry. Fleetwood Mac also hired Savoy Brown's road manager, John Courage. Mick, John, Christine, Welch, Weston, and Walker recorded Penguin, which was released in January 1973. After the tour, the band fired Walker because his vocal style and attitude did not fit in with the rest of the band.\n\nThe remaining five carried on and recorded Mystery to Me six months later. This album contained Welch's song \"Hypnotized\" which got a lot of airplay on the radio and became one of the band's most successful songs to date in the US. The band was proud of the new album and anticipated that it would be a hit. However, things were not well within the band. The McVies' marriage at this time was under a lot of stress, which was aggravated by their constant working with each other, and John McVie's considerable alcohol abuse. During the tour, Weston had an affair with Fleetwood's wife, Jenny Boyd Fleetwood, the sister of Pattie Boyd Harrison. Fleetwood soon fired Weston and the tour was cancelled. Due to lack of touring, the album sold less than its predecessor.\n\nThe fake Fleetwood Mac (1974)\n\nIn 1974, the band's manager, Clifford Davis, then claimed that he owned the name Fleetwood Mac, and recruited members of a band called Legs (which had recently issued one single under Davis' management) to tour as Fleetwood Mac.\n\nThe fake Fleetwood Mac consisted of Elmer Gantry (vocals, guitar), Kirby Gregory (guitar), Paul Martinez (bass), John Wilkinson (keyboards) and Australian-born drummer Craig Collinge (formerly of The Librettos, Procession and Third World War). Fans were told that Bob Welch and John McVie had quit the group, and that Mick Fleetwood and Christine McVie would be joining the band at a later date, after getting some rest. The members of the fake Fleetwood Mac apparently had themselves been told that Mick Fleetwood would join them on later dates, and averred that Fleetwood had been involved in the early planning stages of the tour before dropping out. \n\nAs the tour got underway, Fleetwood Mac's road manager, John Courage, worked one show before he realised that the line-up being used was a lie. Courage ended up hiding the real Fleetwood Mac's equipment, which helped shorten the tour by the fake band, which soon dissolved. But the lawsuit that followed—regarding who actually owned the rights to the band name \"Fleetwood Mac\"—put the real Fleetwood Mac out of commission for almost a year. While the band was named after Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, they had signed contracts that showed the band forfeited the rights to the name.\n\nIn the aftermath of the dissolution of the fake Fleetwood Mac, nobody from that lineup was ever officially made a part of the real Fleetwood Mac, although some of them later acted as Danny Kirwan's studio band. Gantry and Gregory went on to become members of Stretch, whose 1975 UK hit single \"Why Did You Do It\" was written about the fake Fleetwood Mac touring debacle. Gantry later joined The Alan Parsons Project. Fake Fleetwood Mac bassist Martinez, meanwhile, eventually went on to play with Paice Ashton Lord and Robert Plant's backing band.\n\nReturn of the real Fleetwood Mac (1974)\n\nDuring the fake Fleetwood Mac months, Welch stayed in Los Angeles and connected with entertainment attorneys. He swiftly realised that the band was being neglected by Warner Bros., and that if they wanted to change that, they would have to change their base of operation from England to Los Angeles, to which the rest of the band agreed immediately. Rock promoter Bill Graham wrote a letter to Warner Bros. to convince them that the real Fleetwood Mac were in fact Fleetwood, Welch and the McVies, but while this did not end the legal battle, the band was able to record as Fleetwood Mac again. Instead of getting another manager, Fleetwood Mac decided to manage themselves.\n\nIn September 1974, Fleetwood Mac signed a new recording contract with Warner Bros., but remained on the Reprise imprint. The quartet released their album Heroes Are Hard to Find in September 1974 and for the first time in its history, the band had only one guitarist. While on tour they added a second keyboardist, Doug Graves, who had been an engineer on Heroes Are Hard to Find. although Graves was preparing to be a full member of the band following the US tour in late 1974. At the time he said:\n\nHowever, Graves did not ultimately join full-time. In 1980, Christine McVie explained the decision:\n\nHunt, who had been in the band Head West with Bob Welch back in 1970 replaced Graves. Neither musician, however, proved to be a long-term addition to the line-up, and Welch left soon after the tour ended (on 5 December 1974 at Cal State Univ. Chico), having tired of the touring and legal struggles. Nevertheless, the tour enabled the Heroes album to reach a higher position on the American charts than any of the band's previous records.\n\nMainstream success (1975–87)\n\nAfter Welch announced that he was leaving the band, Fleetwood began searching for a possible replacement. While Fleetwood was checking out Sound City Studios in L.A., the house engineer, Keith Olsen, played him a track which he had recorded in the studio, \"Frozen Love\", from the album Buckingham Nicks (1973). Fleetwood liked it, and was introduced to the guitarist from the band, Lindsey Buckingham, who coincidentally was at Sound City that day recording some demos. Fleetwood soon asked him to join. Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his musical partner and girlfriend, Stephanie \"Stevie\" Nicks, also become part of the band; Fleetwood agreed. Buckingham and Nicks joined the band on New Year's Eve 1974 (within 4 weeks of the previous incarnation splitting). \n\nIn 1975, the new line-up released the eponymous Fleetwood Mac. The album proved to be a breakthrough for the band and became a huge hit, reaching No.1 in the US and selling over 5 million copies. Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie's \"Over My Head\" and \"Say You Love Me\", and Stevie Nicks' \"Rhiannon\" and \"Landslide\" (actually a hit twenty years later on The Dance album).\n\nBehind the scenes the band was fraying apart in 1976; with the success of the band also came the end of John and Christine McVie's marriage, as well as Buckingham and Nicks' long term romantic relationship. Even Fleetwood was in the midst of divorce proceedings from his wife, Jenny. The pressure put on Fleetwood Mac to release a successful follow-up album, combined with their new-found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions, fuelled by high consumption of drugs and alcohol.\n\nThe album Rumours (the band's first release on the main Warner label after Reprise was retired and all of its acts were reassigned to the parent label) was released in the spring of 1977, in which the band members laid bare the emotional turmoil they were experiencing at the time. Critically acclaimed, it was the recipient of the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for 1977. The album generated multiple Top Ten singles, including Buckingham's \"Go Your Own Way\", Nicks' U.S. No.1 \"Dreams\" (), and Christine McVie's \"Don't Stop\" and \"You Make Loving Fun\". Buckingham's \"Second Hand News\", Nicks' \"Gold Dust Woman\" and \"The Chain\" (the only song written by all five bandmates) also received significant radio airplay. By 2003, Rumours had sold over 19 million copies in the U.S. alone (certified as a diamond album by the RIAA), and a total of 40 million copies worldwide, making it the second biggest selling album of all time. Fleetwood Mac supported the album with a lucrative tour.\n\nOn October 10th, 1979, Fleetwood Mac was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to the music industry at 6608 Hollywood Boulevard. \n\nBuckingham was able to convince Fleetwood to allow his work on their next album to be more experimental and to work on tracks at home, then bring them to the band in the studio. The result of this was the quirky 20-track double album, Tusk, released in 1979. It spawned three hit singles; Lindsey Buckingham's \"Tusk\" (U.S. No. 8), which featured the USC Trojan Marching Band; Christine McVie's \"Think About Me\" (U.S. No. 20); and Stevie Nicks' 6½ minute opus \"Sara\" (U.S. No. 7). The last of those three was cut to 4½ minutes for both the hit single and the first CD-release of the album, but the unedited version has since been restored on the 1988 greatest hits compilation, the 2004 reissue of Tusk and Fleetwood Mac's 2002 release of The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac. Original guitarist Green also took part in the sessions of Tusk, but his playing for the Christine McVie track \"Brown Eyes\" is not credited on the album. \n\nTusk sold four million copies worldwide. Fleetwood blames the album's relative failure on the RKO radio chain playing the album in its entirety prior to release, thus allowing mass home taping. \n\nThe band embarked on a 18-month tour to support and promote Tusk. They travelled across the world, including the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Germany they shared the bill with reggae superstar Bob Marley. It was on this world tour that the band recorded music for the Fleetwood Mac Live album, which was released at the end of 1980.\n\nThe next album, 1982's Mirage, following 1981 solo turns by Nicks (Bella Donna) and Buckingham (Law and Order), was a return to the more conventional. Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow band members and music business managers for the lesser commercial success enjoyed by Tusk. Recorded at Château d'Hérouville in France and produced by Richard Dashut, Mirage was an attempt to recapture the huge success of Rumours. Its hits included Christine McVie's \"Hold Me\" and \"Love in Store\" (each song being co-written by Robbie Patton and Jim Recor, respectively), Stevie Nicks' \"Gypsy\", and Lindsey Buckingham's \"Oh Diane\", which made the Top 10 in the UK. A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham's \"Eyes Of The World\" and \"Can't Go Back\".\n\nIn contrast to the Tusk Tour, the band only embarked on a short tour of 18 American cities, the Los Angeles show being recorded and released on video. They also headlined the first US Festival, on 5 September 1982, for which the band was paid $500,000 ($ today). Mirage was certified double platinum in the U.S.\n\nFollowing Mirage, the band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers. Stevie Nicks released two more solo albums (1983's The Wild Heart and 1985's Rock a Little), Lindsey Buckingham issued Go Insane in 1984, the same year that Christine McVie made an eponymous album (yielding the Top 10 hit \"Got a Hold on Me\" and the Top 40 hit \"Love Will Show Us How\"). All three met with success and it was Nicks who became the most popular. However, also during this period, Mick Fleetwood had filed for bankruptcy, Nicks was admitted to the Betty Ford Clinic for addiction problems, and John McVie had suffered an addiction-related seizure—all attributed to the lifestyle of excess afforded to them by their worldwide success. It was rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had finally broken up; however, Buckingham commented that he was unhappy to allow Mirage to remain as the band's last effort. \n\nThe Rumours line-up of Fleetwood Mac recorded one more album for the time being, Tango in the Night, in 1987. Initially, as with various other Fleetwood Mac albums, the material started off as a Buckingham solo album before becoming a group project. The album went on to become their best-selling release since Rumours, especially in the UK where it hit No. 1 three times over the following year. The album sold three million copies in the USA and contained four hits: Christine McVie's \"Little Lies\" and \"Everywhere\" (the former being co-written with McVie's new husband Eddy Quintela), Sandy Stewart and Stevie Nicks' \"Seven Wonders\", and Lindsey Buckingham's \"Big Love\". \"Family Man\" Richard Dashut, \"Isn't It Midnight\", and the title track were also released as singles, with lesser success.\n\nDeparture of Buckingham and Nicks (1987–95)\n\nAlthough a ten-week tour was scheduled, Buckingham backed out at the last minute. He tried to explain to his bandmates that he felt his creativity was being stifled by his remaining in the band. A group meeting at Christine McVie's house on 7 August 1987 resulted in much rancour and recrimination, as well as an alleged (in Mick Fleetwood's autobiography) physical altercation between Buckingham and Nicks. Buckingham left the band the following day. Following Buckingham's departure, Fleetwood Mac added two new guitarists to the band, Billy Burnette and Rick Vito. Burnette was mainly added for his singing and songwriting skills and Vito for his lead guitar abilities.\n\nBurnette is the son of Dorsey Burnette and nephew of Johnny Burnette, both of The Rock and Roll Trio. He had already worked with Mick Fleetwood in Zoo, with Christine McVie as part of her solo band, did some session work with Stevie Nicks and even backed Lindsey Buckingham on Saturday Night Live. Furthermore, Fleetwood and Christine McVie played on his Try Me album in 1985. Vito, a Peter Green admirer, played with many artists from Bonnie Raitt to John Mayall, and even worked with John McVie on two Mayall albums.\n\nThe 1987–88 \"Shake the Cage\" tour was the first outing for this line-up, and was successful enough to warrant the release of a concert video (simply titled \"Tango in the Night\"), filmed at San Francisco's Cow Palace arena in December 1987.\n\nCapitalising on the success of Tango in the Night, the band continued with a Greatest Hits album in 1988. It featured singles from the 1975–88 era, and included two new compositions: \"No Questions Asked\" written by Nicks, and \"As Long as You Follow\" written by McVie and Quintela, which was released as a single in 1988 but only made No.43 in the US and No.66 in the UK. It did, however, reach No.1 on the US Adult Contemporary charts. The Greatest Hits album, which peaked at No.3 in the UK and No.14 in the US (though has since sold over 8 million copies there), was dedicated to Buckingham by the band, with whom they had now reconciled.\n\nFollowing the Greatest Hits collection, Fleetwood Mac recorded Behind the Mask. With this album, the band veered away from the stylised sound that Buckingham had evolved during his tenure in the band (also evident in his solo works), and ended up with a more adult contemporary style from producer Greg Ladanyi. However, the album yielded only one Top 40 hit, McVie's \"Save Me\". Behind the Mask only achieved Gold album status in the US, peaking at No.18 on the Billboard album chart, though it entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 1. It received mixed reviews, and was seen by some music critics as a low point for the band in the absence of Lindsey Buckingham (who had actually made a guest appearance by playing on the title track). However, Rolling Stone magazine said that Vito and Burnette were \"the best thing to ever happen to Fleetwood Mac\" and the British Q magazine also praised the album in their review. The subsequent \"Behind the Mask\" tour saw the band play sold out shows at London's Wembley Stadium, and on the final show in Los Angeles, the band were joined onstage by Buckingham. The two women of the band, McVie and Nicks, had decided that the tour would be their last (McVie's father died during the tour) though both stated that they would still record with the band. However, in 1991, both Nicks and Rick Vito announced they were leaving Fleetwood Mac altogether.\n\nIn 1992, Fleetwood himself arranged a 4-disc box set spanning highlights from the band's 25-year history, titled 25 Years – The Chain (an edited 2-disc set was also available). A notable inclusion in the box set was \"Silver Springs\", a Stevie Nicks composition that was recorded during the Rumours sessions but was omitted from the album and used as the B-side of \"Go Your Own Way\" instead. Nicks had requested use of the track for her 1991 best-of compilation TimeSpace, but Fleetwood had refused her request as he had planned to include it in this collection as something of a rarity. The disagreement between Nicks and Fleetwood garnered press coverage, and is believed to be the main catalyst for Nicks leaving the band in 1991. The box set, however, also included a brand new Stevie Nicks/Rick Vito composition, \"Paper Doll\", which was released in the US as a single. As both members had left the band by this point, the track was presumably a leftover from the Behind the Mask sessions. There were also two new Christine McVie compositions, \"Heart of Stone\" and \"Love Shines\", the latter of which was released as a single in the UK and certain other territories. Lindsey Buckingham also contributed a new song, \"Make Me a Mask\", which bore all the markings of an insular Buckingham studio creation, devoid of input from other band members. Mick Fleetwood also released a deluxe hardcover companion book to coincide with the release of the box set, titled My 25 Years in Fleetwood Mac. The volume featured many rare photographs and notes (written by Fleetwood himself) detailing the band's 25-year history.\n\nSome months after this, the Buckingham/Nicks/McVie/McVie/Fleetwood line-up reunited at the request of U.S. President Bill Clinton for his first Inaugural Ball in 1993. Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac's \"Don't Stop\" his campaign theme song. His subsequent request to perform it at the Inauguration Ball was met with enthusiasm by the band, however this line-up had no intention to reunite again.\n\nInspired by the new interest in the band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, and Christine McVie recorded another album as Fleetwood Mac, with Billy Burnette taking on lead guitar duties. However, just as they made the decision to continue, Billy Burnette announced in March 1993, that he was leaving the band to pursue a country album and an acting career. Bekka Bramlett, who had worked a year earlier with Mick Fleetwood's Zoo, was recruited. Solo singer/songwriter/guitarist and Traffic's Dave Mason, who had worked with Bekka's parents Delaney & Bonnie twenty five years earlier, was subsequently added. By March 1994, Billy Burnette, himself a good friend and co-songwriter with Delaney Bramlett, returned with Fleetwood's blessing.\n\nThe band, minus Christine McVie, toured in 1994, opening for Crosby, Stills, & Nash, and in 1995 as part of a package with REO Speedwagon and Pat Benatar. The tour saw the band perform classic Fleetwood Mac songs from the initial 1967–1974 era. In 1995, at a concert in Tokyo, the band was greeted by former member Jeremy Spencer, who performed a few songs with them.\n\nOn 10 October 1995, Fleetwood Mac released the unsuccessful Time album. Although hitting the UK Top 60 for one week the album had zero impact in the US. It failed even to graze the Billboard Top 200 albums chart, a stunning reversal for a band that had been a mainstay on that chart for most of the previous two decades. Shortly after the album's release, Christine McVie informed the band that the album was her last. Bramlett and Burnette subsequently formed a country music duo, Bekka & Billy.\n\nBreak-up (1995–97)\n\nJust weeks after disbanding Fleetwood Mac, Mick Fleetwood announced that he was working with Lindsey Buckingham again. John McVie was soon added to the sessions, and later Christine McVie. Stevie Nicks also enlisted Lindsey Buckingham to produce a song for a soundtrack.\n\nIn May 1996, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie and Stevie Nicks made an appearance at a private party in Louisville, Kentucky prior to the Kentucky Derby (with Steve Winwood filling in for Lindsey Buckingham). A week later, the Twister film soundtrack was released, which featured the Stevie Nicks-Lindsey Buckingham duet, \"Twisted\", with Mick Fleetwood on drums. This eventually led to a full Rumours line-up reunion when the band officially reformed in March 1997.\n\nReunion and Christine McVie's departure (1997–2007)\n\nThe regrouped Mac performed a live concert recorded on a Warner Bros. Burbank, California soundstage on 22 May, and from this performance came the 1997 live album The Dance, bringing Fleetwood Mac back to the top of the US album charts for the first time in 15 years. The album returned Fleetwood Mac to their superstar commercial status that they had not enjoyed since their Tango in the Night album. The album was certified a 5 million seller by the RIAA. A successful arena tour followed the MTV premiere of The Dance, which kept the reunited Mac on the road throughout much of 1997, the 20th anniversary of their Rumours album. With the added ensemble of Neale Heywood on guitar, Brett Tuggle on keyboards, Lenny Castro on percussion, and Sharon Celani (she had toured with Fleetwood Mac in the late 80s) and Mindy Stein on backing vocals, this would, however, be the final foray of the classic line-up with Christine McVie for 16 years. As of 2015, Brett Tuggle, Neale Heywood, and Sharon Celani still perform with Fleetwood Mac as touring musicians.\n\nIn 1998, Fleetwood Mac were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Members inducted included the original band – Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Peter Green, Jeremy Spencer and Danny Kirwan – and Rumours-era members Christine McVie, Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham, but not Bob Welch, despite his key role in keeping the band alive during the early 1970s. The Rumours-era version of the band performed both at the induction ceremony and at the Grammy Awards program that year. Peter Green attended the induction ceremony but did not perform with his former bandmates, opting instead to perform his composition \"Black Magic Woman\" with Santana, who were inducted the same night. Neither Jeremy Spencer nor Danny Kirwan attended. Fleetwood Mac were also the recipients of the \"Outstanding Contribution to Music\" award at the BRIT Awards (British Phonographic Industry Awards) the same year.\n\nIn 1998, Christine McVie left the band permanently to retire from touring (though not from the music business entirely as she created a new album, In the Meantime, in 2004). Her departure left Buckingham and Nicks to sing all the lead vocals for the band's 2003 album, Say You Will, although Christine did contribute some backing vocals and keyboards. The album debuted at No.3 on the Billboard 200 chart (No. 6 in the UK) and yielded chart hits with \"Peacekeeper\" and the title track, and a successful world arena tour which lasted through 2004. The tour grossed $27,711,129 and was ranked No. 21 in the 'top 25 grossing tours of 2004'.\n\nAround 2004–2005, there were rumours of a reunion of the early line-up of Fleetwood Mac, involving Peter Green and Jeremy Spencer. Whilst these two guitarists and vocalists apparently remained unconvinced of the merits of such a project, In April 2006, during a question-and-answer session on the Penguin Fleetwood Mac fan website, bassist John McVie said of the reunion idea:\n\nIn interviews given in November 2006 to support his solo album Under the Skin, Buckingham stated that plans for the band to reunite once more for a 2008 tour were still on the cards. Recording plans have been put on hold for the foreseeable future. In a September 2007 interview Stevie Nicks gave to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, she noted that she was unwilling to carry on with the band unless Christine McVie returned. \nHowever, in a more recent interview, Mick Fleetwood said \"... be very happy and hopeful that we will be working again. I can tell you everyone's going to be extremely excited about what's happening with Fleetwood Mac.\" \n\nUnleashed Tour and Extended Play (2008–2014)\n\nOn 14 March 2008, the Associated Press reported Sheryl Crow as saying that she would be working with Fleetwood Mac in 2009. Crow and Stevie Nicks collaborated a great deal in the past and she has stated that Nicks has been a great teacher and inspiration for her. In a subsequent interview with Buckingham, he said after discussions between the band and Crow, the potential collaboration with Crow \"lost its momentum\". However, in a June 2008 interview, Nicks denied that Crow would be joining Fleetwood Mac as a replacement for Christine McVie. According to Nicks, \"the group will start working on material and recording probably in October, and finish an album.\" On 7 October 2008, Mick Fleetwood confirmed on the BBC's The One Show that the band were working in the studio and also announced plans for a world tour in 2009.\n\nIn late 2008, Fleetwood Mac announced that the band would tour in 2009, beginning in March. As per the 2003–2004 tour, Christine McVie would not be featured in the line-up. The tour was branded as a 'greatest hits' show entitled \"Unleashed\", although they played album tracks such as \"Storms\" and \"I Know I'm Not Wrong\". The first show was on 1 March 2009, and in February they announced a slew of new dates.\n\nDuring their show on 20 June 2009 in New Orleans, Louisiana, Stevie Nicks premiered part of a new song that she had written about Hurricane Katrina. The song was later released as \"New Orleans\" on Stevie Nicks' 2011 album \"In Your Dreams\" with Mick Fleetwood on drums.\n\nIn October 2009, the band began a tour of Europe which carried on into early November, followed by a tour of Australia and New Zealand in December. Also in October, The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac was re-released in an extended two-disc format (this format having been released in the US in 2002), premiering at number six on the UK Albums Chart.\n\nOn 1 November 2009, a new one-hour documentary, Fleetwood Mac: Don't Stop, was broadcast in the UK on BBC One, which featured recent interviews with all four current band members. During the documentary, Nicks gave a candid summary of the current state of her relationship with Buckingham, stating \"Maybe when we're 75 and Fleetwood Mac is a distant memory, we might be friends ...\".\n\nOn 6 November 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the last show of the European leg of their Unleashed tour at London's Wembley Arena. Christine McVie was present in the audience, so Stevie Nicks paid a tribute from the stage to a standing ovation from the audience, stating that she thought about her former bandmate \"every day\", and went on to dedicate that night's performance of \"Landslide\" to McVie.\n\nOn 19 December 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the second to last act of their Unleashed tour to a sell-out crowd at what was originally intended to be a one-off event at the TSB Bowl of Brooklands, New Plymouth, New Zealand. Tickets, after pre-sales, sold out within twelve minutes of public release, and another date (Sunday 20 December), which also sold out, was added. The tour grossed $84,900,000 and was ranked No. 13 in the highest grossing worldwide tours of 2009.\n\nOn 19 October 2010, Fleetwood Mac played a private show at the Phoenician Hotel in Scottsdale, Arizona for TPG (Texas Pacific Group).\n\nOn 3 May 2011, the Fox Network broadcast an episode of Glee entitled \"Rumours\" that featured six songs from the band's 1977 album. The show sparked renewed interest in the band and its most commercially successful album, and Rumours reentered the Billboard 200 chart at No. 11, the same week that Stevie Nicks' new solo album In Your Dreams debuted at No. 6. (Nicks was quoted by Billboard saying that her new album was \"my own little Rumours.\" ) The two recordings sold about 30,000 and 52,000 units, respectively. Music downloads accounted for ninety-one percent of the Rumours sales. The spike in sales for Rumours represented an uptick of 1,951%. It was the highest chart entry by a previously issued album since The Rolling Stoness reissue of Exile On Main St. reentered the chart at No. 2 on 5 June 2010. \n\nIn a July 2012 interview, Nicks confirmed that the band would reunite for a tour in 2013. \n\nOriginal Fleetwood Mac bassist Bob Brunning died on 18 October 2011, at the age of 68. Former guitarist and singer Bob Weston was found dead on 3 January 2012, at the age of 64. Former singer and guitarist Bob Welch was found dead from a self-inflicted gunshot wound on 7 June 2012, at the age of 66. A spokesman at the scene Don Aaron states \"He died from an apparent self inflicted gunshot wound to the chest,\" Aaron said. \"A suicide note was found in the residence\" (Tennessean Music Team). The musician had been struggling with health issues and was dealing with depression. His wife was the one to discover the body. \n\nThe band's 2013 tour, which covered 34 cities, started on 4 April in Columbus, OH. The band performed two new songs (\"Sad Angel\" and \"Without You\"), which Buckingham described as some of the most 'Fleetwood Mac-y' sounding songs since Mirage, with the latter song re-recorded from the Buckingham Nicks era. \n\nThe band released their first new studio material in 10 years, Extended Play, on 30 April 2013. The EP debuted and peaked at No. 48 in the US, and produced one single, \"Sad Angel\".\n\nOn 25 and 27 September 2013, the second and third nights of the band's London O2 shows, Christine McVie joined them onstage for Don't Stop. \n\nOn 27 October, the band announced that John McVie had been diagnosed with cancer, and that they were cancelling their New Zealand and Australian performances in order for him to undergo treatment. They stated that \"We are sorry to not be able to play these Australian and New Zealand dates. We hope our Australian and New Zealand fans as well as Fleetwood Mac fans everywhere will join us in wishing John and his family all the best.\" \n\nAccording to an article in The Guardian on 22 November 2013, Christine McVie stated that she would like to return to Fleetwood Mac if they wanted her, and also affirmed that John McVie's prognosis was \"really good.\" \n\nReturn of Christine McVie (2014–present)\n\nOn 11 January 2014, Mick Fleetwood announced that Christine McVie would be rejoining Fleetwood Mac, and the news was confirmed on 13 January by the band's primary publicist, Liz Rosenberg. Rosenberg also stated that an official announcement regarding a new album and tour would be forthcoming. On October 2014, Stevie Nicks appeared on an FX TV show called \"American Horror Story: Coven\" right after their 2014 tour ended. Stevie Nicks appeared in the show while Fleetwood Mac's song \"Seven Wonders\" was playing in the background. \n\nOn with the Show, a 33-city North American Tour opened in Minneapolis, Minnesota on 30 September 2014. A series of May–June 2015 arena dates in the United Kingdom went on sale on 14 November, selling out in minutes. Additional dates for the tour have continued to be added, extending into November.\n\nIn January 2015, Buckingham suggested that the new album and the new tour might be Fleetwood Mac's last act and that the band will cease to operate in 2015 or soon afterwards. He concluded: \"We're going to continue working on the new album, and the solo stuff will take a back seat for a year or two. A beautiful way to wrap up this last act\". On the other hand, Mick Fleetwood stated that the new album may take a few years to complete and that they are waiting for contributions from Stevie Nicks, who has been ambivalent about committing to a new record. \n\nIn December 2015, Stevie Nicks announced that she would commit to recording a new Fleetwood Mac album. \n\nRemasters\n\nThe 1967–69 era Blue Horizon albums (Fleetwood Mac, Mr. Wonderful, The Pious Bird of Good Omen and Fleetwood Mac in Chicago) and 1971 outtakes album The Original Fleetwood Mac have been remastered and reissued on CD, as have the 1975–79 era Warner Brothers albums Fleetwood Mac, Rumours, Tusk and Mirage. Remasters were planned for the Reprise/Warner Brothers albums from 1971–1974 and 1980–1995, but were shelved. In 2013, Then Play On was remastered, which included four bonus tracks, and peaked at No. 112 in the UK. In 2015, a 5CD/1DVD/2 LP deluxe edition, a 3CD expanded edition, plus a 1CD remaster of Tusk was released. \n\nTours\n\n* Kiln House tour – 1970\n* Future Games tour – 1971\n* Bare Trees tour – 1972\n* Penguin tour – early 1973\n* Mystery To Me tour – mid-1973\n* Heroes Are Hard to Find tour – 1974\n* Fleetwood Mac tour – 1975 \n* Rumours tour – 1977\n* Tusk tour – 1979–80\n* Mirage tour – 1982\n* Shake the Cage tour – 1987–88\n* Behind the Mask tour – 1990\n* Another Link in the Chain tour – 1994–95\n* The Dance – 1997\n* Say You Will tour – 2003–04\n* Unleashed tour – 2009\n* 2013 World tour – 2013\n* On With the Show tour – 2014–15\n\nPersonnel\n\nMembers\n\n;Current members\n* Mick Fleetwood – drums, percussion (1967–95, 1997–present)\n* John McVie – bass guitar (1967–95, 1997–present)\n* Christine McVie – keyboards, vocals (1970–95, 1997–98, 2014–present)\n* Lindsey Buckingham – guitars, vocals, keyboards (1974–87, 1993, 1997–present)\n* Stevie Nicks – vocals, tambourine (1974–91, 1993, 1997–present)\n\n;Former members\n* Peter Green – guitars, vocals, harmonica (1967–70, 1971)\n* Jeremy Spencer – guitars, vocals, piano (1967–71)\n* Bob Brunning – bass guitar (1967; died 2011)\n* Danny Kirwan – guitars, vocals (1968–72)\n* Bob Welch – guitars, vocals (1971–74; died 2012)\n* Bob Weston – guitars (1972–73; died 2012)\n* Dave Walker – vocals, harmonica (1972–73)\n* Billy Burnette – guitars, vocals (1987–93, 1994–95)\n* Rick Vito – guitars, vocals (1987–91)\n* Bekka Bramlett – vocals, tambourine (1993–95)\n* Dave Mason – guitars, vocals (1993–95)\n\n;Current touring musicians\n* Sharon Celani – backing vocals (1987–91, 1997–present)\n* Lori Nicks – backing vocals (1987–88, 2009–present)\n* Brett Tuggle – keyboards, rhythm guitars, samples, backing vocals (1997–present)\n* Neale Heywood – rhythm guitars, backing vocals (1997–present)\n* Steve Rinkovv – drums, percussion (2003–present)\n* Stevvi Alexander – backing vocals (2014–present)\n\n;Former touring musicians\n* Nigel Watson – congas (1971)\n* Doug Graves – Hammond organ, ARP String Ensemble, backing vocals (1974)\n* Bobby Hunt – Hammond organ, ARP String Ensemble, backing vocals (1974)\n* Ray Lindsey – rhythm guitar (1979–82)\n* Tony Todaro – percussion (1979–80)\n* Jeffery Sova – keyboards (1979–80)\n* Isaac Asanté – percussion (1987–88)\n* Dan Garfield – keyboards (1987–90)\n* Eliscia Wright – backing vocals (1987–88)\n* Steve Thoma – keyboards, percussion, backing vocals (1994–95)\n* Mindy Stein – backing vocals (1997–2003)\n* Lenny Castro – percussion (1997)\n* Carlos Rios – rhythm guitars (2003–04)\n* Taku Hirano – percussion (2003–04)\n* Jana Anderson – backing vocals (2003–09)\n* Michael Dean – keyboards (2003)\n* Michael Bernard – keyboards, samples (2004)\n\nDiscography\n\n;Studio albums\n* Fleetwood Mac (1968)\n* Mr. Wonderful (1968)\n* Then Play On (1969)\n* Kiln House (1970)\n* Future Games (1971)\n* Bare Trees (1972)\n* Penguin (1973)\n* Mystery to Me (1973)\n* Heroes Are Hard to Find (1974)\n* Fleetwood Mac (1975)\n* Rumours (1977)\n* Tusk (1979)\n* Mirage (1982)\n* Tango in the Night (1987)\n* Behind the Mask (1990)\n* Time (1995)\n* Say You Will (2003)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Dream recall", "Dream environment", "Neurology of dreams", "Dreamlike", "Sweven", "Deams", "Dream", "Dreams", "Color dream" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "neurology of dreams", "dream environment", "dreams", "dream recall", "deams", "color dream", "dreamlike", "sweven", "dream" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dreams", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Dreams" }
In which country did Argentina first win soccer's World Cup?	tc_1395	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "FIFA_World_Cup.txt" ], "title": [ "FIFA World Cup" ], "wiki_context": [ "The FIFA World Cup, often simply called the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the senior men's national teams of the members of ' (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946 when it was not held because of the Second World War. The current champion is Germany, which won its fourth title at the 2014 tournament in Brazil.\n\nThe current format of the competition involves a qualification phase, which currently takes place over the preceding three years, to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase, which is often called the World Cup Finals. 32 teams, including the automatically qualifying host nation(s), compete in the tournament phase for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over a period of about a month.\n\nThe 20 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams. Brazil have won five times, and they are the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy, with four titles each; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay, with two titles each; and England, France and Spain, with one title each.\n\nThe World Cup is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games; the cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 FIFA World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the final match, a ninth of the entire population of the planet. \n\nHistory\n\nPrevious international competitions\n\nThe world's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England, which ended in a 0–0 draw. The first international tournament, the inaugural edition of the British Home Championship, took place in 1884. As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the turn of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics (however, the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events), and at the 1906 Intercalated Games. \n\nAfter FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure. \n\nAt the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official competition. Planned by The Football Association (FA), England's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat in 1912 in Stockholm.\n\nWith the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each one of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup, and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from County Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.\n\nIn 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event. This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and 13 European teams, and won by Belgium. Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era.\n\nWorld Cups before World War II\n\nDue to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet as the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself. With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament.\n\nThe national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides. Indeed, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America.\n\nThe first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and USA, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup. \n\nAfter the creation of the World Cup, the 1932 Summer Olympics, held in Los Angeles, did not plan to include football as part of the schedule due to the low popularity of the sport in the United States, as American football had been growing in popularity. FIFA and the IOC also disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the Games. Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup.\n\nThe issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 and 1938 tournaments, with Brazil the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, which Nazi Germany and Brazil sought to host, were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath.\n\nWorld Cups after World War II\n\nThe 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British participants. British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football, but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation. The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese: Maracanaço).\n\nIn the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland, and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams. Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: USA, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938; North Korea, quarter-finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1970.\n\nExpansion to 32 teams\n\nThe tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982, and then to 32 in 1998, also allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals: Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1986; Cameroon, quarter-finalists in 1990; South Korea, finishing in fourth place in 2002; Senegal, along with USA, both quarter-finalists in 2002; Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010; and Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014. Nevertheless, European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, and 2006 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far.\n\nTwo hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds; 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, while a record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. \n\nPossible expansion to 40 teams\n\nIn October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup. In the 25 October 2013 edition of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\" Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. \n\nFollowing the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency, UEFA President Michel Platini responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA, two to Asia Football Confederation and Confederation of African Football, two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation. Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \"[The World Cup is] not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\"\n\nIn 2016 FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 40-team World Cup in 2026. \n\n2015 FIFA corruption case \n\nBy May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games, with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Justice Department announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on May 29 and December 3. \n\nBy the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. \n\nOn 4 June 2015 Chuck Blazer while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African, 1998 and 2010 World Cups. \n\nOn 10 June 2015 Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter. \nAlso, on 10 June 2015 FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\" \n\nOn 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. \n\nOn 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May. An additional 16 indictments by the U.S. Department of Justice were announced on the same day. \n\nOther FIFA tournaments\n\nAn equivalent tournament for women's football, the FIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in 1991 in China. The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991.\n\nFootball has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players. Women's football made its Olympic debut in 1996, and is contested between full national sides with no age restrictions.\n\nThe FIFA Confederations Cup is a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country. \n\nFIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such as futsal (FIFA Futsal World Cup) and beach soccer (FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although a FIFA Women's Club World Cup is planned for 2017.\n\nWhen the U-20 Women's World Cup is held the year before the Women's World Cup, both tournaments are awarded in a single bidding process. The U-20 tournament serves as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition, the same role as the Confederations Cup plays in the men's game.\n\nTrophy\n\nFrom 1930 to 1970, the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament. In 1970, Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. \n\nAfter 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm high, made of solid 18 carat (75%) gold and weighs . The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974. The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\" \n\nThis new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards.\n\nCurrently, all members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the 2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. \n\nFormat\n\nQualification\n\nSince the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams.\n\nThe qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup. From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify. Brazil, winners in 2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. \n\nFinal tournament\n\nThe current final tournament has been used since 1998 and features 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nation(s). There are two stages: the group stage followed by the knockout stage. \n\nIn the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings and/or performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups. The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. \n\nEach group plays a round-robin tournament, in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points).\n\nIf one considers all possible outcomes (win, draw, loss) for all six matches in a group, there are 729 (= 36) different outcome combinations possible. However a certain number (207) of these combinations lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined as follows: \n# Greatest combined goal difference in all group matches\n# Greatest combined number of goals scored in all group matches\n# If more than one team remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined as follows:\n## Greatest number of points in head-to-head matches among those teams\n## Greatest goal difference in head-to-head matches among those teams\n## Greatest number of goals scored in head-to-head matches among those teams\n# If any of the teams above remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined by the drawing of lots\n\nThe knockout stage is a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, the third-place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final.\n\nHosts\n\nSelection process\n\nEarly World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup. \n\nSince the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the only tournament with multiple hosts. South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010. The 2014 FIFA World Cup is hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since Argentina 1978, and is the first occasion where consecutive World Cups are held outside Europe.\n\nThe host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Executive Committee. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. However, there have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded to Russia and Qatar respectively.\n\nFor the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament is rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation will not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018. This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder.\n\nPerformances\n\nSix of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions being Brazil, who finished as runners-up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semifinal against Germany in 2014, and Spain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982. England (1966) and France (1998) won their only titles while playing as host nations. Uruguay (1930), Italy (1934) and Argentina (1978) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, while Germany (1974) won their second title on home soil.\n\nOther nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament. Switzerland (quarter-finals 1954), Sweden (runners-up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), South Korea (fourth place in 2002), and Mexico (quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts. So far, South Africa (2010) has been the only host nation to fail to advance beyond the first round.\n\nAttendance\n\nQF Quarter-Finals (top 8) ; Group \n did not advance beyond first round (group play)\n [Solna borders Stockholm, Pasadena borders Los Angeles and Saint-Denis is a suburb of Paris.]\nThe best-attended single match, shown in the last two columns, has been the final in only about half of the twenty World Cup series so far. Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1938, 1954, 1966–1982, 1990 and 2006.\n\nSource: FIFA \n\nBroadcasting and promotion\n\nThe World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26.29 billion. 715.1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament (a ninth of the entire population of the planet). The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers. The World Cup attracts many sponsors such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's and Adidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. It is predicted that Brazil will bring in more than $11 billion in revenue for the 2014 World Cup.\n\nEach FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo. World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot. Recent World Cups have also featured official match balls specially designed for each World Cup.\n\nThe World Cup even has a statistically significant effect on birth rates, the male/female sex ratio of newborns, and heart attacks in nations whose national teams are competing. Hosting the World Cup or a home team's win tends to increase male births and total birth rate, and heart attacks are more common when home teams are on the field.\n\nResults\n\na.e.t.: after extra time\np: after penalty shoot-out\n\n;Notes\n\nIn all, 77 nations have played in at least one World Cup. Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup, and they have added stars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. (Uruguay, however, choose to display four stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950.)\n\nWith five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup (20) to date. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8).\n\nTeams reaching the top four\n\n \n hosts\n^ \n includes results representing West Germany between 1954 and 1990\n# \n states that have since split into two or more independent nations\n\nBest performances by continental zones\n\nTo date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA (Europe) and CONMEBOL (South America) confederations. European nations have won eleven titles, while South American have won nine. Only two teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: USA (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930 and South Korea (Asia) in 2002. The best result of an African team is reaching the quarter-finals: Cameroon in 1990, Senegal in 2002 and Ghana in 2010. Only one Oceanian qualifier, Australia in 2006, has advanced to the second round. \n\nBrazil, Argentina, Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious in Europe (1958), North America (1970 and 1994) and Asia (2002), Argentina won a North American World Cup in 1986, while Spain won an Africa in 2010. Germany was the first European team to win in South America in 2014. Only on four occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent, and currently it is the first time with three champions in a row from the same continental confederation. Italy and Brazil successfully defended their titles in 1938 and 1962 respectively, while Italy's triumph in 2006 has been followed by Spain's in 2010 and Germany's in 2014. Currently, it is also the first time that one of the currently winning continents (Europe) is ahead of the other (South America) with two championships.\n\nAwards\n\nAt the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. There are currently six awards: \nThe Golden Ball for the best player, determined by a vote of media members (first awarded in 1982); the Silver Ball and the Bronze Ball are awarded to the players finishing second and third in the voting respectively; \nThe Golden Boot (sometimes called the Golden Shoe) for the top goalscorer (first awarded in 1982, but retrospectively applied to all tournaments from 1930); most recently, the Silver Boot and the Bronze Boot have been awarded to the second and third top goalscorers respectively; \nThe Golden Glove Award (formerly the Yashin Award) for the best goalkeeper, decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group (first awarded in 1994); \nThe Best Young Player Award for the best player aged 21 or younger at the start of the calendar year, decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group (first awarded in 2006);\nThe FIFA Fair Play Trophy for the team with the best record of fair play, according to the points system and criteria established by the FIFA Fair Play Committee (first awarded in 1978); \nThe Most Entertaining Team for the team that has entertained the public the most during the World Cup, determined by a poll of the general public (first awarded in 1994);\nAn All-Star Team consisting of the best players of the tournament has also been announced for each tournament since 1998.\n\nRecords and statistics\n\nTwo players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico's Antonio Carbajal (1950–1966) and Germany's Lothar Matthäus (1982–1998) both played in five tournaments. Matthäus has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 25 appearances. Brazil's Djalma Santos (1954–1962), West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer (1966–1974) and Germany's Philipp Lahm (2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three Finals All-Star Teams. \n\nMiroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the finals, with 16 goals. He broke Ronaldo of Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during 2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany's Gerd Müller (1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals. The fourth placed goalscorer, France's Just Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. \n\nIn November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. This made Brazil's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury), with 20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974 including Franz Beckenbauer, Jürgen Grabowski, Horst-Dieter Höttges, Sepp Maier and Wolfgang Overath (1966–1974), Italy's Franco Baresi (1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals.\n\nBrazil's Mário Zagallo and West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach. Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach. Italy's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938). All World Cup winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory.\n\nAmong the national teams, Germany has played the most World Cup matches (106) and appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), quarter-finals (16) as well as scoring the most World Cup goals (224), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (20). The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi-final.\n\nTop goalscorers\n\nAll-time table for champions" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Argentina 1978", "Argentina 78", "1978 Federation Internationale de Football Association World Cup", "WC 1978", "Argentina (1978)", "1978 FIFA World Cup", "1978 World Cup Finals", "Argentina '78", "Football World Cup 1978", "1978 Football World Cup", "1978 World Cup", "FIFA World Cup 1978", "World cup 1978", "1978 Fédération Internationale de Football Association World Cup", "World Cup 1978" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "football world cup 1978", "argentina 1978", "argentina 78", "fifa world cup 1978", "1978 federation internationale de football association world cup", "1978 world cup finals", "1978 fifa world cup", "1978 world cup", "1978 football world cup", "wc 1978", "world cup 1978", "1978 fédération internationale de football association world cup" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "argentina 1978", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Argentina (1978)" }
In Chaplin's The Great Dictator, which country did the dictator rule?	tc_1398	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Charlie_Chaplin.txt", "The_Great_Dictator.txt" ], "title": [ "Charlie Chaplin", "The Great Dictator" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sir Charles Spencer \"Charlie\" Chaplin, (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the silent era. Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona \"the Tramp\" and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.\n\nChaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine. When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian. At 19 he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, which took him to America. Chaplin was scouted for the film industry, and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base. Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage, and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations. By 1918, he was one of the best known figures in the world.\n\nIn 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length was The Kid (1921), followed by A Woman of Paris (1923), The Gold Rush (1925), and The Circus (1928). He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) without dialogue. Chaplin became increasingly political, and his next film, The Great Dictator (1940), satirised Adolf Hitler. The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly. He was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland. He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include Monsieur Verdoux (1947), Limelight (1952), A King in New York (1957), and A Countess from Hong Kong (1967).\n\nChaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films. He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity. Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. In 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work, Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\". He continues to be held in high regard, with The Gold Rush, City Lights, Modern Times, and The Great Dictator often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly years (1889–1913)\n\nBackground and childhood hardship\n\nCharles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr. There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London. His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John Hill. At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers. Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer. Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891. The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden. The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years. \n\nChaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson. Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support. As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to a workhouse when he was seven years old. The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \"a forlorn existence\". He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898. The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children. \n\nIn September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition. For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew. Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver. \n\nHannah entered a period of remission, but in May 1903 became ill again. Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill. He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned. Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905 her illness returned, this time permanently. \"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928. \n\nYoung performer\n\nBetween his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage. He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot. This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing. He later wrote: \"[she] imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\". Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900. Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act. \n\nIn the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school, but by age 13 he had abandoned education. He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor. At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End. The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in H. A. Saintsbury's Jim, a Romance of Cockayne. It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks. Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews. \n\nSaintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of Sherlock Holmes, where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours. His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes. \"It was like tidings from heaven\", Chaplin recalled. At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905. He completed one final tour of Sherlock Holmes in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years. \n\nStage comedy and vaudeville\n\nChaplin soon found work with a new company, and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called Repairs. In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act Casey's Circus, where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show. By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer. He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.\n\nMeanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906, and by 1908 he was one of their key performers. In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother. Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\" who \"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre.\" But the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract. Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909. In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, Jimmy the Fearless. It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention. \n\nKarno selected his new star to join the section of the company that toured North America's vaudeville circuit. The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\". His most successful role was a drunk called the \"Inebriate Swell\", which drew him significant recognition. The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912. Chaplin recalled that he \"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\", and was therefore delighted when a new tour began in October. \n\nEntering films (1914–1917)\n\nKeystone\n\nSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company. A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave. Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \"Besides, it would mean a new life.\" He met with the company, and signed a $150-per-week ($ in dollars) contract in September 1913. \n\nChaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913. His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young. He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking. The one-reeler Making a Living marked his film acting debut, and was released on 2 February 1914. Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \"a comedian of the first water\". For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified. He described the process in his autobiography:\n\nThe film was Mabel's Strange Predicament, but \"the Tramp\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in Kid Auto Races at Venice – shot later than Mabel's Strange Predicament but released two days earlier. Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona, and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in. These ideas were dismissed by his directors. During the filming of his eleventh picture, Mabel at the Wheel, he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract. Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films. Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself, after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful. \n\nCaught in the Rain, issued 4 May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful. Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career. Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base. In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, Tillie's Punctured Romance, directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity. When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week ($ in dollars) – an amount Sennett refused as too large. \n\nEssanay\n\nThe Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000. He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong. He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty. She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917. \n\nChaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures, and started to put more time and care into each film. There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, A Night Out, and his third, The Champion. The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace. Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \"mean, crude, and brutish\" nature. The character became more gentle and romantic; The Tramp (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development. The use of pathos was developed further with The Bank, in which Chaplin created a sad ending. Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work. At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world.\" \n\nDuring 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon. Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him. In July, a journalist for Motion Picture Magazine wrote that \"Chaplinitis\" had spread across America. As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star. When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio. He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week. \n\nMutual\n\nA contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world. The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press. John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.\" \n\nMutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916. He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: The Floorwalker, The Fireman, The Vagabond, One A.M. and The Count. For The Pawnshop he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years. Behind the Screen and The Rink completed Chaplin's releases for 1916. The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve. With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time. He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: Easy Street, The Cure, The Immigrant and The Adventurer. With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work. Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career. \n\nChaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War. He defended himself, revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country. Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide. Harper's Weekly reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \"a part of the common language of almost every country\", and that the Tramp image was \"universally familiar\". In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp. The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \"an American obsession\". The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\".\n\nFirst National (1918–1922)\n\nMutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably. His primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \"Charlie [must] be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing [films] the way he wants ... It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\" In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1 million. He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order. It was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures. \n\nA Dog's Life, released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract. In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction, and his treatment of the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\". The film was described by Louis Delluc as \"cinema's first total work of art\". Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War. He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called The Bond. Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for Shoulder Arms. Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\" He spent four months filming the 45-minute-long picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success. \n\nUnited Artists, Mildred Harris, and The Kid\n\nAfter the release of Shoulder Arms, Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused. Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players-Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists, established in January 1919. The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control.Robinson, p. 269. Chaplin was eager to start with the new company, and offered to buy out his contract with First National. They declined this, and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them. \n\nBefore the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time. The 17-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918 he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy. Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm. Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film Sunnyside. Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7 July 1919, gave birth to a son. Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed, and died three days later. The marriage eventually ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \"irreconcilably mismated\". \n\nLosing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin's work, as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy. For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \"make his mark on a changed world.\" Filming on The Kid began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star. It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project, so to placate First National, he halted production and quickly filmed A Day's Pleasure. The Kid was in production for nine months, until May 1920, and at 68 minutes it was Chaplin's longest picture to date. Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, The Kid is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama. It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and by 1924 had been screened in over 50 countries. \n\nChaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler The Idle Class. Following its September 1921 release, he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade. He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing Pay Day in February 1922. The Pilgrim – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio, and released a year later. \n\nSilent features (1923–1938)\n\nA Woman of Paris and The Gold Rush\n\nHaving fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer. In November 1922 he began filming A Woman of Paris, a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers. Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo. He wished for the film to have a realistic feel, and directed his cast to give restrained performances. In real life, he explained, \"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\". A Woman of Paris premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach, then an innovation. The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence, and it was a box-office disappointment. The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew A Woman of Paris from circulation as soon as he could. \n\nChaplin returned to comedy for his next project. Setting his standards high, he told himself: \"This next film must be an epic! The Greatest!\" Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–47, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter.\" In The Gold Rush, the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love. With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924. Its elaborate production, costing almost $1 million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects. The last scene was not shot until May 1925, after 15 months of filming. \n\nChaplin felt The Gold Rush was the best film he had made to that point. It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $5 million. The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \"Dance of the Rolls\". Macnab has called it \"the quintessential Chaplin film\".Kemp, p. 64. Chaplin stated, \"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\" at the time of the film's release. \n\nLita Grey and The Circus\n\nWhile making The Gold Rush, Chaplin married for the second time. Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage. She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law. He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924. Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr., was born on 5 May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926. \n\nIt was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife. In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home. A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \"perverted sexual desires\" – was leaked to the press. Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned. Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time. His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it. \n\nBefore the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, The Circus. He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus. Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production. Finally completed in October 1927, The Circus was released in January 1928 to a positive reception.Robinson, p. 382. At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing The Circus. Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted The Circus from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years. \n\nCity Lights\n\nBy the time The Circus was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films. Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \"talkies\" lacked the artistry of silent films. He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal. He therefore rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film. Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision, and remained so throughout the film's production.\n\nWhen filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year. City Lights followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation. It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\".Chaplin, p. 324. One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself. \n\nChaplin finished editing City Lights in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism. A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews. One journalist wrote, \"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it. He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\" Given its general release in January 1931, City Lights proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $3 million. The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\". City Lights became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life. \n\nTravels, Paulette Goddard, and Modern Times\n\nCity Lights had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue. He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned.\" In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931 the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months. In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\". He briefly considered the option of retiring and moving to China. \n\nChaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a successful relationship. He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focussed on writing a serial about his travels (published in Woman's Home Companion). The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs. The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels. It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film. \n\nModern Times was announced by Chaplin as \"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life.\" Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film. Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue, but changed his mind during rehearsals. Like its predecessor, Modern Times employed sound effects, but almost no speaking. Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film. After recording the music, Chaplin released Modern Times in February 1936. It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue. The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising. Today, Modern Times is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \"great features,\" while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy.\" \n\nFollowing the release of Modern Times, Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East. The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not. Some time later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip. By 1938 the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, The Great Dictator. She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year. \n\nControversies and fading popularity (1939–1952)\n\nThe Great Dictator\n\nThe 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States. The first of these was a new boldness in expressing his political beliefs. Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work. Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin. It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, The Great Dictator, which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism. \n\nChaplin spent two years developing the script, and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany. He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message. Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk. \"I was determined to go ahead,\" he later wrote, \"for Hitler must be laughed at.\" Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \"A Jewish Barber\", a reference to the Nazi party's belief that he was Jewish. In a dual performance he also played the dictator \"Adenoid Hynkel\", who parodied Hitler. \n\nThe Great Dictator spent a year in production, and was released in October 1940. The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for The New York Times calling it \"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era. The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy. Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism. Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from [his] star image\". The Great Dictator received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor. \n\nLegal troubles and Oona O'Neill\n\nIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image. The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942. Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child. As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.Maland (1989), pp. 198–201.\n\nThe director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him. As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case. Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes. The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an \"absurd prosecution\" of an \"ancient statute\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail. Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944. Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later. The case was frequently headline news, with Newsweek calling it the \"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921.\" \n\nBarry's child, Carole Ann, was born in October 1944, and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945. After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \"moral turpitude\", Chaplin was declared to be the father. Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21. Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI, as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light. \n\nThe controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when, two weeks after the paternity suit was filed, it was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O'Neill. Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier. In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \"the happiest event of my life\", and claimed to have found \"perfect love\". Chaplin's son, Charles Jr., reported that Oona \"worshipped\" his father. The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b. March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b. March 1949), Victoria (b. May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b. May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962). \n\nMonsieur Verdoux and communist accusations\n\nChaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \"crippled [his] creativeness\", and it was some time before he began working again. In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942. Monsieur Verdoux was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family. Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru. Chaplin decided that the concept would \"make a wonderful comedy\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea. \n\nChaplin again vocalised his political views in Monsieur Verdoux, criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction. Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott. Monsieur Verdoux was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States. It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards. He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \"Monsieur Verdoux is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.\" \n\nThe negative reaction to Monsieur Verdoux was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image. Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist. His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups. He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles. In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \"dangerously progressive and amoral.\" The FBI wanted him out of the country, and early in 1947 they launched an official investigation.Maland (1989), pp. 265–266.\n\nChaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \"peacemonger\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties. Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC, but was not called to testify. As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship. Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \"[Chaplin's] very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America. [If he is deported] ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth. He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.\" \n\nLimelight and banning from the United States\n\nAlthough Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of Monsieur Verdoux, his next film, about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes. Limelight was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States. The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.Maland (1989), p. 293.\n\nFilming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story. He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \"melancholy\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom. Limelight featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene. This marked the only time the comedians worked together. \n\nChaplin decided to hold the world premiere of Limelight in London, since it was the setting of the film. As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning. At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952.Maland (1989), p. 280. The next day, attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re-enter the US. Although McGranery told the press that he had \"a pretty good case against Chaplin\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry. It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it. However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:\n\nBecause all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press. The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe. In America the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, Limelight was subjected to a wide-scale boycott.Maland (1989), pp. 295–298; 307–311. Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \"unprecedented\" level of popularity, \"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\". \n\nEuropean years (1953–1977)\n\nMove to Switzerland and A King in New York\n\nChaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs. The couple decided to settle in Switzerland, and in January 1953 the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a 14 ha estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey.Robinson, pp. 580–581. Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April. The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen. Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s. \n\nChaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev. He began developing his first European film, A King in New York, in 1954. Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay. His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism. The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema. In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \"most bitter\" and \"most openly personal\" film.Robinson, pp. 587–589.\n\nChaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting. Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time. According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film. A King in New York was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews. Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première, and decided not to release the film in the United States. This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe. A King in New York was not shown in America until 1973. \n\nFinal works and renewed appreciation\n\nIn the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights.Maland (1989), p. 326. In an interview he granted in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\".Robinson, pp. 594–595. The first of these re-releases was The Chaplin Revue (1959), which included new versions of A Dog's Life, Shoulder Arms, and The Pilgrim.\n\nIn America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views. In July 1962, The New York Times published an editorial stating that \"we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\". The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham. In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including Monsieur Verdoux and Limelight, which gained excellent reviews from American critics. September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoirs, My Autobiography, which he had been working on since 1957. The 500-page book, which focused on his early years and personal life, became a worldwide best-seller, despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career. \n\nShortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on A Countess from Hong Kong (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s.Robinson, pp. 608–609. Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin. The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects. It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward. He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer. Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts. A Countess from Hong Kong premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure.Epstein, pp. 192–196. Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.\n\nChaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health.Robinson, p. 619. Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, The Freak, a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter Victoria. His fragile health prevented the project from being realised. In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including The Kid and The Circus. In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival.Robinson, p. 621. The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival. \n\nIn 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \"wanted to make amends\". Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting, but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years. The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage, and at the Academy Awards gala he was given a twelve-minute standing ovation, the longest in the Academy's history. Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\". \n\nAlthough Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail. He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair. His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, My Life in Pictures (1974) and scoring A Woman of Paris for re-release in 1976.Robinson, pp. 626–628. He also appeared in a documentary about his life, The Gentleman Tramp (1975), directed by Richard Patterson. In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair. \n\nDeath\n\nBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care.Robinson, p. 629. In the early morning of 25 December 1977, Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep. He was 88 years old. The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes. Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery. Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\"Robinson, p. 631. Actor Bob Hope declared, \"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\"Robinson, p. 632.\n\nOn 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants, Roman Wardas, from Poland, and Gantcho Ganev, from Bulgaria. The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin. The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville. It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete. \n\nFilmmaking\n\nInfluences\n\nChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\" Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno. Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker. Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \"training ground\", and it was here that Chaplin learnt to vary the pace of his comedy. The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags. From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired. In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common. \n\nMethod\n\nChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion. Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary Unknown Chaplin (1983) – has since revealed his unique working method. \n\nUntil he began making spoken dialogue films with The Great Dictator, Chaplin never shot from a completed script. Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example \"Charlie enters a health spa\" or \"Charlie works in a pawn shop.\" He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \"business\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film. As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story. From A Woman of Paris onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to Modern Times \"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form.\" \n\nProducing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time. If he was out of ideas he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned. Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism. According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \"nothing but perfection would be right\" for the filmmaker. Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished. The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in The Kid. For The Immigrant, a 20 minute-short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of film – enough for a feature-length. \n\nDescribing his working method as \"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture. Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \"to take precedence over everything and everyone else.\" The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew. \n\nChaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly. He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted. As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers. Chaplin did receive help, notably from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner. \n\nStyle and themes\n\nWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\". Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters. Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology. Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \"quirky mannerisms\" and \"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features. \n\nChaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world. The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman. As Chaplin said in 1925, \"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\" The Tramp defies authority figures and \"gives as good as he gets\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an \"everyman turned heroic saviour\". Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \"the homeless and lonely Tramp [walking] optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey\". \n\nThe infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \"[inducing] laughter and tears\". Sentimentality in his films come from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements.\" Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of The Gold Rush (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party. Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (The Gold Rush) and loss (The Kid). Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (The Immigrant, 1917); illegitimacy (The Kid, 1921); and drug use (Easy Street, 1917). He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering. \n\nSocial commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor. Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films. Modern Times (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, The Great Dictator (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, Monsieur Verdoux (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and A King in New York (1957) attacked McCarthyism. \n\nSeveral of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\". The Kid is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in Limelight (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and A King in New York references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States. Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up. Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.\n\nRegarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline. Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage. His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting. He believed that action is the main thing. The camera is there to photograph the actors\". In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \"Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant ... The camera should not intrude.\" This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \"old fashioned\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium. Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\". \n\nComposing\n\nChaplin developed a passion for music as a child, and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello. He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from A Woman of Paris onwards he took an increasing interest in this area. With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for City Lights (1931). He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films. \n\nAs Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores. Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksin – who worked with Chaplin on Modern Times – stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process. This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano. These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin. According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.\" \n\nChaplin's compositions produced three popular songs. \"Smile\", composed originally for Modern Times (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954. For Limelight, Chaplin composed \"Terry's Theme\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \"Eternally\" (1952). Finally, \"This Is My Song\", performed by Petula Clark for A Countess from Hong Kong (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts. Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the Limelight theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.\n\nLegacy\n\nIn 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\". He is described by the British Film Institute as \"a towering figure in world culture\", and was included in Time magazine's list of the \"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\" for the \"laughter [he brought] to millions\" and because he \"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\". \n\nThe image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown. The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \"unique\" and \"indelible\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \"worldwide impact\". Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\" in movie history. Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction. \n\nAs a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century. He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists. Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama. He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it. Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama A Woman of Paris (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film The Marriage Circle (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \"sophisticated comedy\". According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft.\" Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\"), Jacques Tati (\"Without him I would never have made a film\"), René Clair (\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough. Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt. The films he left behind can never grow old.\" \n\nChaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians. Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp. Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò. In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement. As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry. Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \"years ahead of its time\". \n\nIn the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made. The 2012 Sight & Sound poll, which compiles \"top ten\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,\nsaw City Lights rank among the critics' top 50, Modern Times inside the top 100, and The Great Dictator and The Gold Rush placed in the top 250. The top 100 films as voted on by directors included Modern Times at number 22, City Lights at number 30, and The Gold Rush at number 91. Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote. In 2007, the American Film Institute named City Lights the 11th greatest American film of all time, while The Gold Rush and Modern Times again ranked in the top 100. Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists. Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-Ray release. \n\nCommemoration and tributes\n\nSeveral memorials have been dedicated to Chaplin. In his home city, London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square.Robinson, p. 677. The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \"Charlie Chaplin Walk\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX. The former Museum of the Moving Image held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988. The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner, from 2010 until 2013. \n\nChaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, was converted into a museum and opened on 17 April 2016, exploring his life and career. The nearby town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982. In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey. Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s. A statue was erected in 1998, and since 2011 the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent. \n\nIn other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981 – is named after Chaplin. Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers. Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages. Many countries, spanning six continents, have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp. \n\nChaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris. The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \"to protect the name, image and moral rights\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name. Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna. The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland. The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005. \n\nCharacterisations\n\nChaplin is the subject of a biographical film, Chaplin (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey, Jr. in the title role. He is also a character in the period drama film The Cat's Meow (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie The Scarlett O'Hara War (1980), played by Clive Revill. A television series about Chaplin's childhood, Young Charlie Chaplin, ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program. \n\nChaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions. Two musicals, Little Tramp and Chaplin, were produced in the early 1990s. In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin, which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010. It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled Chaplin – A Musical. Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions. In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: Chaplin at the Svenska Teatern, and Kulkuri (The Tramp) at the Tampere Workers' Theatre. Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction, as the central character in Glen David Gold's Sunnyside (2009), a novel set in the First World War period. \n\nAwards and recognition\n\nChaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life. In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962. In 1965 he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and in 1971 he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government. \n\nFrom the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year. The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award. Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs. \n\nChaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing The Circus\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for Limelight (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell). He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for The Great Dictator, and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for Monsieur Verdoux. \n\nSix of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: The Immigrant (1917), The Kid (1921), The Gold Rush (1925), City Lights (1931), Modern Times (1936), and The Great Dictator (1940). \n\nFilmography\n\nDirected features:\n* The Kid (1921)\n* A Woman of Paris (1923)\n* The Gold Rush (1925)\n* The Circus (1928)\n* City Lights (1931)\n* Modern Times (1936)\n* The Great Dictator (1940)\n* Monsieur Verdoux (1947)\n* Limelight (1952)\n* A King in New York (1957)\n* A Countess from Hong Kong (1967)\n\nNotes", "The Great Dictator is a 1940 American political satire comedy-drama film written, directed, produced, scored by and starring Charlie Chaplin, following the tradition of many of his other films. Having been the only Hollywood film-maker to continue to make silent films well into the period of sound films, this was Chaplin's first true sound film.\n\nChaplin's film advanced a stirring, controversial condemnation of Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, fascism, antisemitism, and the Nazis. At the time of its first release, the United States was still formally at peace with Nazi Germany. Chaplin plays both leading roles: a ruthless fascist dictator, and a persecuted Jewish barber.\n\nThe Great Dictator was popular with audiences, becoming Chaplin's most commercially successful film. Modern critics have also praised it as a historically significant film and an important work of satire. The Great Dictator was nominated for five Academy Awards - Outstanding Production, Best Actor, Best Writing (Original Screenplay), Best Supporting Actor for Jack Oakie, and Best Music (Original Score).\n\nIn his 1964 autobiography, Chaplin stated that he could not have made the film if he had known about the true extent of the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps at the time. \n\nPlot\n\nThe action starts in 1918, with the collapse of the Tomainian (German) army. A Jewish barber saves the life of a wounded pilot, Schultz, but loses his own memory through concussion.\n\nTwenty years later, the barber has escaped from his care-home to return to the ghetto, now governed by Schultz, who has been promoted in the Tomainian regime under the ruthless dictator Adenoid Hynkel, who looks like an identical twin of the barber (both played by Chaplin).\n\nAs Hynkel orders a purge of the Jews, Schultz protests about this new policy, and is jailed. He escapes to hide in the ghetto with the barber and his girlfriend Hannah. Stormtroopers search the ghetto, arresting Schultz and the barber, while Hannah and her family escape to freedom in Osterlich (Austria). But after a failed attempt to ally with Napaloni (Mussolini), Hynkel invades Osterlich. The Jewish family is trapped under his regime.\n\nEscaping from the camp in stolen uniforms, Schultz and the barber, dressed as Hynkel, arrive at the Osterlich frontier, where a huge parade is waiting to be addressed by Hynkel. Hynkel is mistaken for the barber while out duck-shooting in civilian clothes, and is arrested. Schultz tells the barber to go up to the platform and pretend to be Hynkel, as the only way to save their lives once they reach Osterlich's capital.\n\nThe terrified barber mounts the steps, but is inspired to seize the initiative. Announcing that he (apparently Hynkel) has had a change of heart, he makes an impassioned plea for brotherhood and goodwill. He addresses a message of hope to Hannah, in case she can hear him. Look up, Hannah. The soul of man has been given wings, and at last he is beginning to fly. He is flying into the rainbow — into the light of hope, into the future, the glorious future that belongs to you, to me, and to all of us. \n\nHannah, who has escaped Osterlich and is now a farm laborer in a nearby land, hears the barber's voice on the radio. She turns her face, radiant with joy and hope, toward the sunlight, and says to her fellows, \"Listen.\"\n\nCast\n\nPeople of the Ghetto\nCharlie Chaplin as a Jewish barber in the ghetto, the protagonist. The Barber was a soldier during World War I and loses his memory for about 20 years. After having rescued Schultz during the war, he meets his friend again under radically changed circumstances.\nPaulette Goddard as Hannah, the Barber's neighbor. She lives in the ghetto next to the barber shop. She supports the Barber against the Tomainian Stormtroopers.\nMaurice Moscovitch as Mr. Jaeckel, an elderly Jew who befriends Hannah. Mr. Jaeckel is the renter of the barber salon.\nEmma Dunn as Mrs. Jaeckel, his wife\nBernard Gorcey as Mr. Mann\nPaul Weigel as Mr. Agar\nChester Conklin as Barber's Customer\nPeople of the Palace\nCharlie Chaplin as Adenoid Hynkel, the main antagonist. Hynkel is the Dictator of Tomainia (a parody of Germany and Adolf Hitler)[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243180/The-Great-Dictator \"The Great Dictator\"]. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 26, 2013. and attacks the Jews with his storm-troopers. He has Schultz arrested and has his storm-troopers hunt down the Barber. Hynkel is later arrested by his own soldiers, who mistake him for the Barber.\nJack Oakie as Benzino Napaloni, Dictator of Bacteria, a parody of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.\nReginald Gardiner as Commander Schultz, a Tomainian who fought in World War I, who commands soldiers in the 1930s. He has his troops abstain from attacking Jews, but is arrested by Hynkel, after which he becomes a loyal ally to the Barber. He later leads the invasion of Osterlich and helps the Barber to become Fuhrer.\nHenry Daniell as Garbitsch, a parody of Joseph Goebbels, and Hynkel's loyal Secretary of the Interior and Minister of Propaganda.\nBilly Gilbert as Herring, a parody of Hermann Göring, and Hynkel's Minister of War. He supervises demonstrations of newly developed weapons, which tend to fail and annoy Hynkel.\nGrace Hayle as Madame Napaloni, the wife of Benzino who later dances with Hynkel.\nCarter De Haven as Bacterian ambassador\nUncredited Cast\nStanley \"Tiny\" Sandford as a comrade soldier in 1918\nJoe Bordeaux as ghetto extra\nHank Mann as Storm Trooper stealing fruit\n\nProduction\n\nAccording to Jürgen Trimborn's biography of Nazi propaganda film-maker Leni Riefenstahl, both Chaplin and French film-maker René Clair viewed Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will together at a showing at the New York Museum of Modern Art. Film maker Luis Buñuel reports that Clair was horrified by the power of the film, crying out that this should never be shown or the West was lost. Chaplin, on the other hand, laughed uproariously at the film. He used it to inspire many elements of The Great Dictator, and by repeatedly viewing this film, Chaplin could closely mimic Hitler's mannerisms.\n\nTrimborn suggests that Chaplin decided to proceed with making The Great Dictator after viewing Riefenstahl's film. Hynkel's rally speech near the beginning of the film, delivered in German-sounding gibberish, is a caricature of Hitler's oratory style, which Chaplin also studied carefully in newsreels. \n\nThe film was directed by Chaplin (with his half-brother Wheeler Dryden as assistant director), and written and produced by Chaplin. The film was shot largely at the Charlie Chaplin Studios and other locations around Los Angeles. The elaborate World War I scenes were filmed in Laurel Canyon. Chaplin and Meredith Willson composed the music. Filming began in September 1939 (coincidentally soon after Germany invaded Poland, triggering World War II) and finished six months later.\n\nChaplin wanted to address the escalating violence and repression of Jews by the Nazis throughout the late 1930s, the magnitude of which was conveyed to him personally by his European Jewish friends and fellow artists. The Third Reich's repressive nature and militarist tendencies were well-known at the time. Ernst Lubitsch's 1942 To Be or Not To Be dealt with similar themes, and also used a mistaken-identity Hitler figure. But Chaplin later said that he would not have made the film had he known of the true extent of the Nazis' crimes. After the horror of the Holocaust became known, filmmakers struggled for nearly 20 years to find the right angle and tone to satirize the era. \n\nIn the period when Hitler and his Nazi Party rose to prominence, Chaplin was becoming internationally popular. He was mobbed by fans on a 1931 trip to Berlin, which annoyed the Nazis. Resenting his style of comedy, they published a book titled The Jews Are Looking at You (1934), describing the comedian as \"a disgusting Jewish acrobat\" (although Chaplin was not Jewish). Ivor Montagu, a close friend of Chaplin, relates that he sent the comedian a copy of the book and always believed that Chaplin decided to retaliate with making Dictator. \n\nIn the 1930s cartoonists and comedians often built on Hitler and Chaplin having similar mustaches. Chaplin also capitalized on this resemblance in order to give his Little Tramp character a \"reprieve\". \n\nIn his memoir My Father, Charlie Chaplin, Chaplin's son Charles Jr. described his father as being haunted by the similarities in background between him and Hitler; they were born four days apart in April 1889, and both had risen to their present heights from poverty. He wrote:\n\nTheir destinies were poles apart. One was to make millions weep, while the other was to set the whole world laughing. Dad could never think of Hitler without a shudder, half of horror, half of fascination. \"Just think\", he would say uneasily, \"he's the madman, I’m the comic. But it could have been the other way around.\" \n\nChaplin prepared the story throughout 1938 and 1939, and began filming in September 1939, one week after the beginning of World War II. He finished filming almost six months later. The 2002 TV documentary on the making of the film, The Tramp and the Dictator, presented newly discovered footage of the film production (shot by Chaplin's elder half-brother Sydney) which showed Chaplin's initial attempts at the film's ending, filmed before the fall of France.\n\nAccording to The Tramp and the Dictator, Chaplin arranged to send the film to Hitler, and an eyewitness confirmed he saw it. Hitler's architect and friend Albert Speer denied that the leader had ever seen it. Hitler's response to the film is not recorded, but another account tells that he viewed the film twice. \n\nSome of the signs in the shop windows of the ghetto in the film are written in Esperanto, a language which Hitler condemned as a Jewish plot to internationalize and destroy German culture, perhaps because its founder was a Polish Jew. \n\nChaplin's Tramp character and the Jewish barber\n\nThere is no critical consensus on the relationship between Chaplin's earlier Tramp character and the film's Jewish barber, but the trend is to view the barber as a variation on the theme. Famed French film director François Truffaut later noted that early in the production, Chaplin said he would not play The Tramp in a sound film, and he considers the barber an entirely different character. Turner Classic Movies says that years later, Chaplin acknowledged a connection between The Tramp and the barber. Specifically, \"There is some debate as to whether the unnamed Jewish barber is intended as the Tramp's final incarnation. Although his memoirs frequently refer to the barber as the Little Tramp, Chaplin said in 1937 that he would not play the Little Tramp in his sound pictures.\" In My Life, Chaplin would write, \"Of course! As Hitler I could harangue the crowds all I wished. And as the tramp, I could remain silent.\" In his review of the film years after its release, Roger Ebert says, \"Chaplin was technically not playing the Tramp.\" He also writes, \"He [Chaplin] put the Little Tramp and $1.5 million of his own money on the line to ridicule Hitler.\" \n\nCritics who view the barber as different include Stephen Weissman, whose book Chaplin: A Life speaks of Chaplin \"abandoning traditional pantomime technique and his little tramp character\". DVD reviewer Mark Bourne asserts Chaplin's stated position: \"Granted, the barber bears more than a passing resemblance to the Tramp, even affecting the familiar bowler hat and cane. But Chaplin was clear that the barber is not the Tramp and The Great Dictator is not a Tramp movie.\" The Scarecrow Movie Guide also views the barber as different. \n\nAnnette Insdorf, in her book Indelible Shadows: Film and the Holocaust (2003), writes that \"There was something curiously appropriate about the little tramp impersonating the dictator, for by 1939 Hitler and Chaplin were perhaps the two most famous men in the world. The tyrant and the tramp reverse roles in The Great Dictator, permitting the eternal outsider to address the masses...\" In The 50 Greatest Jewish Movies (1998), Kathryn Bernheimer writes, \"What he chose to say in The Great Dictator, however, was just what one might expect from the Little Tramp. Film scholars have often noted that the Little Tramp resembles a Jewish stock figure, the ostracized outcast, an outsider...\" \n\nSeveral reviewers of the late 20th century describe The Little Tramp as developing into the Jewish barber. In Boom and Bust: American Cinema in the 1940s, Thomas Schatz writes of \"Chaplin's Little Tramp transposed into a meek Jewish barber\", while, in Hollywood in Crisis: Cinema and American Society, 1929-1939, Colin Shindler writes, \"The universal Little Tramp is transmuted into a specifically Jewish barber whose country is about to be absorbed into the totalitarian empire of Adenoid Hynkel.\" Finally, in A Distant Technology: Science Fiction Film and the Machine Age, J. P. Telotte writes that \"The little tramp figure is here reincarnated as the Jewish barber\". \n\nA two-page discussion of the relationship between the barber and The Tramp appears in Eric L. Flom's book Chaplin in the Sound Era: An Analysis of the Seven Talkies. He concludes:\n\nReception\n\nChaplin's film was released nine months after Hollywood's first parody of Hitler, the short subject You Nazty Spy! by the Three Stooges, which premiered in January 1940. Chaplin had been planning his feature-length work for years. Hitler had been previously allegorically pilloried in the German film by Fritz Lang, The Testament of Dr. Mabuse.\n\nThe film was well received in the United States at the time of its release, and was popular with the American public. The film was also popular in the United Kingdom, drawing 9 million to the cinemas, despite Chaplin's fears that wartime audiences would dislike a comedy about a dictator. It was the second-most popular movie in the US in 1941. \n\nThe film was banned in several Latin American countries, where there were active movements of Nazi sympathizers. \n\nDuring the film's production, the British government had announced that it would prohibit its exhibition in the United Kingdom, in keeping with its appeasement policy concerning Nazi Germany. But by the time the film was released, the UK was at war with Germany and the film was welcomed in part for its obvious propaganda value. In 1941, London's Prince of Wales Theatre screened its UK premiere. The film had been banned in many parts of Europe, and the theatre's owner, Alfred Esdaile, was apparently fined for showing it.\n\nWhen the film was released in France in 1945, it became the most popular movie of the year, with admissions of 8,280,553. \n\nThe film was Chaplin's first true talking picture and helped shake off criticism of Luddism following his previous release, the mostly dialogue-free Modern Times (1936), after the silent era had all but ended in the late 1920s. The Great Dictator does feature several silent scenes more in keeping with Chaplin's previous films. Some audiences had come to expect Chaplin to make silent films even during the sound era.\n\nHonors\n\nIn 1997, The Great Dictator was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\". \n\nIn 2000, the American Film Institute ranked the film #37 in its \"100 Years... 100 Laughs\" list. \n\nThe film holds a 92% \"Fresh\" rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 37 reviews, three of which are negative. \n\nChaplin biographer Jeffrey Vance concludes his lengthy examination of the film, in his book Chaplin: Genius of the Cinema, by asserting the film's importance among the great celluloid satires. Vance writes, \"Chaplin's 'The Great Dictator' survives as a masterful integration of comedy, politics, and satire. It stands as Chaplin's most self-consciously political work and the cinema's first important satire.\" \n\nAwards\n\nThe film was nominated for five Academy Awards:\nOutstanding Production – United Artists (Charlie Chaplin, Producer)\nBest Actor – Charlie Chaplin\nBest Writing (Original Screenplay) – Charlie Chaplin\nBest Supporting Actor – Jack Oakie\nBest Music (Original Score) – Meredith Willson\n\nScore\n\nThe score was written and directed by Meredith Willson, later to become well known as composer and librettist of the 1957 musical comedy The Music Man.\n\nAccording to Willson, the scene in which Chaplin shaves a customer to Brahms' Hungarian Dance No. 5 had been filmed before he arrived, using a phonograph record for timing. Willson's task was to re-record it with the full studio orchestra, fitting the music to the action. They had planned to do it painstakingly, recording eight measures or less at a time, after running through the whole scene to get the overall idea. Chaplin decided to record the run-through in case anything was usable. Willson later wrote, \"by dumb luck we had managed to catch every movement, and that was the first and only 'take' made of the scene, the one used in the finished picture\".\n\nJames L. Neibaur has noted that among the many parallels that Chaplin noted between his own life and Hitler's was an affinity for Wagner's music. Chaplin's appreciation for Wagner has been noted in studies of the director's use of film music. Many commentators have noted Chaplin's use of Wagner's Lohengrin prelude when Hynckel dances with the globe-balloon. Chaplin repeated use of the Lohengrin prelude near the conclusion, when the exiled Hannah listens to the Jewish barber's speech celebrating democracy and freedom. The music is interrupted during the dictator's dance but it is heard to complete and climax in the barber's pro-democracy speech.\n\nCommenting on this, Lutz Peter Koepnick writes in 2002,\n\nPlagiarism lawsuit\n\nChaplin's half-brother Sydney directed and starred in a 1921 film called King, Queen, Joker in which, like Chaplin, he played the dual role of a barber and ruler of a country which is about to be overthrown. More than twenty years later, in 1947, Charles Chaplin was sued over alleged plagiarism with The Great Dictator. Yet, apparently, neither the suing party nor Chaplin himself brought up his own brother's King, Queen, Joker of the silent era. The case, Bercovici v. Chaplin, was settled, with Chaplin paying Konrad Bercovici $95,000. Bercovici claimed that he had created ideas such as Chaplin playing a dictator and a dance with a globe, and that Chaplin had discussed his five-page outline for a screenplay with him for several hours. But Chaplin insisted in his autobiography that he had been the sole writer of the movie's script. He agreed to a settlement, because of his \"unpopularity in the States at that moment and being under such court pressure, [he] was terrified, not knowing what to expect next.\" \n\nHome media\n\nA digitally restored version of the film was released on DVD and Blu-ray by The Criterion Collection in May 2011. The extras feature color production footage shot by Chaplin's half-brother Sydney, deleted barbershop sequence from Chaplin's 1919 film Sunnyside, barbershop sequence from Sydney Chaplin's 1921 film King, Queen, Joker, a visual essay by Chaplin biographer Jeffrey Vance titled \"The Clown Turns Prophet\", and The Tramp and the Dictator (2001), Kevin Brownlow and Michael Kloft's documentary exploring the lives of Chaplin and Hitler, including interviews with author Ray Bradbury, director Sidney Lumet, screenwriter Budd Schulberg, and others. It has a booklet featuring an essay by film critic Michael Wood, Chaplin's 1940 New York Times defense of his movie, a reprint from critic Jean Narboni on the film's final speech, and Al Hirschfeld's original press book illustrations." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Tomania", "Great Dictator", "Adenauer Hynkel", "Hynkel", "Adenoid Hinkel", "Benzino Napalani", "Tomainia", "The Great Dictator", "Hynckel", "Adenoid Hynkel" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "hynkel", "great dictator", "adenauer hynkel", "adenoid hinkel", "tomainia", "adenoid hynkel", "hynckel", "benzino napalani", "tomania" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "tomania", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Tomania" }
What was the Aristocrat record label renamed?	tc_1400	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Chess_Records.txt" ], "title": [ "Chess Records" ], "wiki_context": [ "Chess Records was an American record company, founded in 1950 in Chicago and specializing in blues and rhythm and blues. Over time it expanded into soul music, gospel music, early rock and roll, and occasional jazz and comedy recordings, released on the Chess, Checker, Argo, and Cadet labels. The Chess catalogue is currently owned by Universal Music Group and managed by Geffen Records.\n\nFounded and run by Polish immigrant brothers Leonard and Phil Chess, the company produced and released many singles and albums regarded as central to the rock music canon. The musician and critic Cub Koda described Chess as \"America's greatest blues label.\"[ Allmusic ((( Chess Blues > Overview )))]\n\nChess was based at several different locations on the south side of Chicago, initially at two different locations on South Cottage Grove Ave. The most famous location was 2120 S. Michigan Avenue from around 1956 to 1965, immortalized by British rock group the Rolling Stones in \"2120 South Michigan Avenue\", an instrumental recorded there during the group's first U.S. tour in 1964. The Stones recorded at Chess Studios on two more occasions. The building is now the home of Willie Dixon's Blues Heaven Foundation. In the mid-1960s, Chess re-located to a much larger building, at 320 E. 21st St., the label's final Chicago home.\n\nHistory\n\nChess brothers' company\n\nLeonard bought a stake in a record company called Aristocrat Records in 1947; in 1950, Leonard brought his brother, Phil into the operation and they became sole owners of the company. After bringing in the third partner, Evelyn Aron, they rename it to Chess Records in the same year.\n\nThe first release on Chess was the 78 RPM single \"My Foolish Heart\" b/w \"Bless You\" by Gene Ammons, which was released as Chess 1425 in June 1950, and became the label's biggest hit of the year. \n\nIn 1951, the Chess brothers began an association with Sam Phillips' Memphis Recording Service. One of the most important recordings that Phillips gave to Chess was \"Rocket 88\" by Jackie Brenston/Ike Turner and his Delta Cats which topped Billboard magazine's R&B Records chart and was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1998 because of its influence as a rock and roll single. One of the most important artists that came out of Memphis was Howlin' Wolf, who stayed with the label until his death in 1976. Many songs created by Chess artists were later reproduced by many famous Rock n' Roll bands and artists such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys and Eric Clapton. Some of the core riffs created by Bo Diddley, Willie Dixon, Chuck Berry, Howlin Wolf, Muddy Waters, Buddy Guy and others were the basis of a wide amount of Rock n' Roll.\n\nIn 1952, the brothers also started Checker Records as an alternative label for radio play (radio stations would only play a limited number of records from any one imprint). In December 1955, they launched a jazz and pop label called Marterry, a name created from the first names of Leonard and Phil's sons Marshall and Terry. This was quickly renamed Argo Records, but the name was changed again in 1965 to Cadet Records to end confusion with a British spoken word label.\n\nIn 1953, Leonard Chess and Gene Goodman set up Arc Music BMI, a publishing company that would publish songs by many rhythm and blues artists. \n\nIn the mid-1950s, the Chess brothers received two doo-wop groups by Alan Freed, the Coronets and the Moonglows; the former group was not very popular but the latter achieved several crossover hits including \"Sincerely\", which was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2002. Several of Chess's releases gave a writing credit to Alan Freed.\n\nDuring the 1950s, Leonard and Phil Chess handled most of the production. They brought in producer Ralph Bass in 1960 to handle the gospel output and some of the blues singers. Bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon was also heavily involved in organizing blues sessions for the label and is now credited retroactively as a producer on some re-releases. During the 1960s, the company's A&R manager and chief producer for soul/R&B recordings was Roquel \"Billy\" Davis, who had previously worked with Motown founder Berry Gordy on songs for Jackie Wilson, Etta James, Marv Johnson and on early Motown releases.\n\nIn 1958, Chess began producing their first LP records which included such albums as The Best of Muddy Waters, Best of Little Walter, and Bo Diddley.\n\nChess Records was also known for its regular band of session musicians who played on most of the company's Chicago soul recordings, such as drummer Maurice White and bassist Louis Satterfield, both of whom would later shape the funk group Earth, Wind, & Fire; guitarists Pete Cosey, Gerald Sims and Phil Upchurch; pianist Leonard Caston, later a producer with Motown; and organist Sonny Thompson. In 1962, Chess Records was sued by Peacock Records for recording their artists Reverend Robert Ballinger and the Five Blind Boys of Mississippi. \n\nIn 1969, Chess Records established a subsidiary label called Middle Earth Records in the U.K., which was distributed by Pye Records. The subsidiary specialized in Psychedelic rock and was a joint venture with the Middle Earth Club in London. The Middle Earth label released only 4 albums titles and about a dozen singles before it was closed in 1970. \n\nThe company was briefly run by Marshall Chess, son of Leonard, in his position as vice-president between January and October 1969, and then as president following its acquisition by GRT, before he went on to found Rolling Stones Records.\n\nUnder GRT and All Platinum\n\nIn 1969, the Chess brothers sold the label to General Recorded Tape (GRT) for $6.5 million. In October 1969, Leonard Chess died and by 1972, the only part of Chess Records still operating in Chicago was the recording studio, Ter-Mar Studios. Following the sale of Chess to GRT, Phil left the label to run WVON radio station. In the 1970s, Chess Records and its publishing arm Arc Music were successfully sued by Muddy Waters and Willie Dixon for non-payment of royalties owed to them.\n\nSome of the other artists who contributed to their legacy were The Flamingos, The Moonglows, Fontella Bass, Billy Stewart, The Dells and The Ramsey Lewis Trio.\n\nAlthough Chess had produced many R&B number ones and major pop hits over the years, it was in 1972 that the label finally reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 with Chuck Berry's \"My Ding-a-Ling\", a live recording from a concert in Coventry, England. However, this became the company's 'swansong' release. GRT had moved the label to New York City, operating it as a division of Janus Records. Under GRT, Chess effectively vanished as an important force in the recording industry. In August 1975, GRT sold the remnants of Chess Records to New Jersey-based All Platinum Records.\n\nLater incarnations\n\nIn the early 1980s, noticing that much of the Chess catalog was unavailable, Marshall Chess was able to convince Joe and Sylvia Robinson, who ran All Platinum, to re-issue the catalog themselves under his supervision (All Platinum had been licensing selected tracks out to other companies, which ultimately resulted in the disappearance of some original master tapes). The re-issued singles and LPs sold well, but by the mid-80s, All Platinum fell into financial difficulties and the Chess master recordings were acquired by MCA Records, which itself was later merged into Universal Music imprint, Geffen Records.\n\nIn February 1997, MCA started releasing eleven compilation albums for the 50th anniversary of Chess Records. \n\nIn the 1990s, MCA Records sued Charly Records for selling CDs which contained copyrighted material by Chess artists. \n\nIn the 2000s, Universal's limited-edition re-issue label, Hip-O Select began releasing a series of comprehensive box-sets devoted to such Chess artists as Muddy Waters, Little Walter, Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry.\n\nChess Records was the subject of two films produced in 2008, Cadillac Records and Who Do You Love?. In addition to the Chess brothers, both films feature portrayals of or based on Willie Dixon, Muddy Waters, Little Walter, Chuck Berry, Howlin' Wolf and Etta James. Cadillac Records was directed by Darnell Martin and features an ensemble cast including Adrien Brody, Mos Def, Beyoncé Knowles and Jeffrey Wright. Who Do You Love was directed by Tony Award winner Jerry Zaks and stars Alessandro Nivola playing Leonard Chess \"as a complicated, driven man, hard on both his musicians and his family, yet with a real love for some of America's greatest music.\" The latter film's world premiere was at the Toronto International Film Festival, September 11, 2008." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Chess match", "Šachmatai", "Sjakk", "Ajedrez", "Ahedres", "Ficheall", "Rank and file (chess)", "Chess Revers", "Chess", "Xadrez", "Chess publications", "Satranç", "Western chess", "Šachy", "Шахи", "Chess game", "European chess", "Chess psychology", "ChesS", "Ŝako", "ਸ਼ਤਰੰਜ", "Chess games", "शतरंज", "Play chess", "Skaak", "Western Chess", "Orthochess", "Chesss", "Game of chess", "Šach", "Echedoù", "Échecs", "שחמט", "Chesse", "Scacci", "Шахмат", "Escacs", "Cög", "Şah", "Cờ vua", "International Chess", "Chess board game", "Chess Board Game", "Шахматы", "Game of Chess", "Skak", "شطرنج", "Шатар", "Chess career", "Σκάκι", "Šahs", "Cheess", "Chess srategy and tactics", "Chess (game)", "Skák", "International chess" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "échecs", "chess revers", "chess psychology", "orthochess", "cheess", "chess career", "cờ vua", "international chess", "western chess", "skaak", "šahs", "skák", "cög", "game of chess", "scacci", "escacs", "chess match", "шахмат", "european chess", "šach", "šachy", "rank and file chess", "ficheall", "chesss", "شطرنج", "शतरंज", "şah", "chess publications", "שחמט", "ŝako", "skak", "echedoù", "шахматы", "chess game", "sjakk", "satranç", "ajedrez", "play chess", "chess board game", "xadrez", "шахи", "шатар", "ਸ਼ਤਰੰਜ", "chesse", "chess games", "šachmatai", "σκάκι", "chess", "ahedres", "chess srategy and tactics" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chess", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Chess" }
Which President wrote Why England Slept about the rise of Fascism?	tc_1401	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Why_England_Slept.txt", "John_F._Kennedy.txt" ], "title": [ "Why England Slept", "John F. Kennedy" ], "wiki_context": [ "Why England Slept is the published version of a thesis written by John F Kennedy while in his senior year at Harvard College. Its title was an allusion to Winston Churchill's 1938 book While England Slept, which also examined the buildup of German power. Published in 1940, the book examines the failures of the British government to take steps to prevent World War II and is notable for its uncommon stance of not castigating the appeasement policy of the British government at the time, instead suggesting that an earlier confrontation between the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany could well have been more disastrous in the long run.\n\nThe book was originally intended to be no more than a college thesis – it was rated as a magna cum laude by Professor Henry A. Yeomans and as a cum laude plus by Professor Carl J. Friedrich. Kennedy's father, Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., always keen to elevate his son's reputation, encouraged Kennedy to publish the book, enlisting Henry R. Luce to write the foreword, and his friend Arthur Krock, former bureau chief of the New York Times, to assist in redrafting Kennedy's college thesis into what became Why England Slept. Author Garry Wills claims that this assistance amounted to rewriting and retitling the manuscript, as well as finding an agent for its publication.\n\nAs ambassador to Britain, Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. supported Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement during the late 1930s. John F. Kennedy lived with his father in Britain at that time and later, during WWII, since 1940, witnessed the Luftwaffe's bombings of Britain first-hand.\n\nThe book's foreword was written by Henry R. Luce. Joseph Kennedy had initially approached Harold Laski to write the foreword but Laski declined, feeling that it was \"the book of an immature mind; that if it hadn't been written by the son of a very rich man, he wouldn't have found a publisher.\" \n\nRelease\n\nAfter publication in 1940, the book sold 80,000 copies in the United Kingdom and the United States, collecting US$40,000 in royalties for Kennedy; those from the British sales were donated to Plymouth, England, recently bombed by the Luftwaffe, while Kennedy bought a Buick convertible with the American income.", "John Fitzgerald \"Jack\" Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), commonly referred to by his initials JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35th President of the United States from January 1961 until his assassination in November 1963. The Cuban Missile Crisis, The Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, the establishment of the Peace Corps, developments in the Space Race, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Trade Expansion Act to lower tariffs, and the Civil Rights Movement all took place during his presidency. His New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy increased the number of American military advisors in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over Eisenhower, and tolerated a military coup against the country's president.\n\nKennedy's time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states, particularly Cuba. An attempt at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the country's dictator Fidel Castro in April 1961 was thwarted by Cuban armed forces within three days. Kennedy's administration subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain public approval for a war against Cuba. In October 1962, it was discovered Soviet ballistic missiles had been deployed in Cuba; the resulting period of unease, often termed the Cuban Missile Crisis, is seen by many historians as the closest the human race has ever come to war featuring the use of nuclear weapons by more than one side.\n\nAfter military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II, Kennedy represented Massachusetts's 11th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 as a Democrat. He was elected subsequently to the U.S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U.S. Presidential Election. At age 43, he became the youngest man elected president and the second-youngest president (after Theodore Roosevelt, who was 42 when he became president after the assassination of William McKinley). Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president. , Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize for his biography Profiles in Courage. \n\nKennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November 22, 1963. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby mortally wounded Oswald two days later in a jail corridor. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, but its report was sharply criticized. The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) agreed that Oswald fired the shots that killed the president, but also concluded that Kennedy was likely assassinated as the result of a conspiracy. The majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination: 52% to 29%, and continuing through 2013 (61% to 30%), believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. \n\nSince the 1960s, information concerning Kennedy's private life has come to light, including his health problems and allegations of infidelity. Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians' polls of U.S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallup's history of systematically measuring job approval. \n\nEarly life and education\n\nJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street in Brookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917, to businessman/politician Joseph Patrick \"Joe\" Kennedy, Sr. (1888–1969) and philanthropist/socialite Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald-Kennedy (1890–1995). His father was the oldest son of businessman/politician Patrick Joseph \"P. J.\" Kennedy (1858–1929) and Mary Augusta Hickey-Kennedy (1857–1923). His mother was the daughter of Boston Mayor John Francis \"Honey Fitz\" Fitzgerald (1863–1950) and Mary Josephine \"Josie\" Hannon-Fitzgerald (1865–1964). All of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants.\n\nHis brothers were Joseph Patrick \"Joe\" Kennedy, Jr. (1915–1944), Robert Francis \"Bobby\" Kennedy (1925–1968), and Edward Moore \"Ted\" Kennedy (1932–2009). Joseph Jr. was killed in action during World War II. Robert was JFK's attorney general and then a senator who was assassinated in 1968; Ted was a long-serving U.S. senator from 1962 until his death from brain cancer in 2009. His sisters were Rose Marie \"Rosemary\" Kennedy (1918–2005), Kathleen Agnes \"Kick\" Kennedy (1920–1948), Eunice Mary Kennedy (1921–2009), Patricia Helen \"Pat\" Kennedy (1924–2006), and Jean Ann Kennedy (born 1928).\n\nKennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue (across the street from Wave Hill) in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx, New York City. He attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the family moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York, where Kennedy was a member of Scout Troop 2. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, and Christmas and Easter holidays at their winter home in Palm Beach, Florida. In September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home.\n\nIn September 1931, Kennedy was sent to the The Choate School in Wallingford, Connecticut for 9th through 12th grade. His older brother had already been at Choate for two years as a football player and leading student. He spent his first years at Choate in his older brother's shadow, and compensated for this with rebellious behavior which attracted a coterie. Their most notorious stunt was to explode a toilet seat with a powerful firecracker. In the ensuing chapel assembly, the strict headmaster, George St. John, brandished the toilet seat and spoke of certain \"muckers\" who would \"spit in our sea.\" The defiant Kennedy took the cue and named his group \"The Muckers Club\", which included roommate and friend Kirk LeMoyne \"Lem\" Billings.\n\nDuring his Choate years, Kennedy was beset by health problems that culminated in 1934 with his emergency hospitalization at New Haven Hospital, where doctors thought he might have leukemia. In June 1934, he was admitted to the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, the ultimate diagnosis there was colitis. Kennedy graduated from Choate in June of the following year. For the school yearbook, of which he had been business manager, Kennedy was voted the \"most likely to succeed\".\n\nIn September 1935, he made his first trip abroad with his parents and his sister Kathleen to London intending to study under Harold Laski at the London School of Economics (LSE) as his older brother had done. Ill-health forced his return to America in October of that year, when he enrolled late and spent six weeks at Princeton University. He was then hospitalized for observation at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. He convalesced further at the Kennedy winter home in Palm Beach, then spent the spring of 1936 working as a ranch hand on the 40000 acre Jay Six cattle ranch outside Benson, Arizona. It is reported that ranchman Jack Speiden worked both brothers \"very hard\".\n\nIn September 1936, Kennedy enrolled at Harvard College, where he produced that year's annual \"Freshman Smoker\", called by a reviewer \"an elaborate entertainment, which included in its cast outstanding personalities of the radio, screen and sports world\". He tried out for the football, golf, and swimming teams and earned a spot on the varsity swimming team. Kennedy also sailed in the Star class and won the 1936 Nantucket Sound Star Championship. In July 1937, Kennedy sailed to France—taking his convertible—and spent ten weeks driving through Europe with Billings. In June 1938, Kennedy sailed overseas with his father and older brother to work at the American embassy in London, where his father was President Franklin D. Roosevelt's U.S. Ambassador to the Court of St. James's.\n\nIn 1939, Kennedy toured Europe, the Soviet Union, the Balkans, and the Middle East in preparation for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He then went to Czechoslovakia and Germany before returning to London on September 1, 1939, the day that Germany invaded Poland. Two days later, the family was in the House of Commons for speeches endorsing the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of the SS Athenia before flying back to the U.S. from Foynes, Ireland to Port Washington, New York on his first transatlantic flight.\n\nAs an upperclassman at Harvard, Kennedy became a more serious student and developed an interest in political philosophy. In his junior year, he made the Dean's List. In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, \"Appeasement in Munich\", about British participation in the Munich Agreement. The thesis became a bestseller under the title Why England Slept. He graduated from Harvard College cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts in government, concentrating on international affairs, that year. Kennedy enrolled in and audited classes at the Stanford Graduate School of Business that fall. In early 1941, Kennedy left and helped his father write a memoir of his three years as an American ambassador, and then traveled throughout South America; including Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.\n\nOn September 12, 1953, after a one-year courtship, Kennedy, then thirty-six, married 24-year-old Jacqueline Bouvier at St. Mary's Church in Newport, Rhode Island. \n\nU.S. Navy Reserve (1941–1945)\n\nKennedy attempted to enter the Army's Officer Candidate School in 1940, but was medically disqualified for his chronic lower back problems. On September 24, 1941, after exercising for months to strengthen his back, and with the help of the director of the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI), former naval attaché to Joseph Kennedy, he joined the United States Naval Reserve (U.S. Navy Reserve since 2005). He was commissioned an ensign on October 26, 1941, and joined the staff of the Office of Naval Intelligence in Washington, D.C. He attended the Naval Reserve Officer Training School at Northwestern University in Chicago, Illinois, from July 27 to September 27 and then voluntarily entered the Motor Torpedo Boat Squadrons Training Center in Melville, Rhode Island. On October 10, he was promoted to lieutenant junior grade. He completed his training on December 2 and was assigned to Motor Torpedo Squadron FOUR.\n\nHis first command was PT-101 from December 7, 1942, until February 23, 1943: It was a PT boat used for training while Kennedy was an instructor at Melville. He then led three Huckins PT boats—PT-98, PT-99, and PT-101, which were being relocated from MTBRON 4 in Melville, Rhode Island, back to Jacksonville, Florida and the new MTBRON 14 (formed February 17, 1943). During the trip south, he was hospitalized briefly in Jacksonville after diving into the cold water to unfoul a propeller. Thereafter, Kennedy was assigned duty in Panama and later in the Pacific theater, where he eventually commanded two more patrol torpedo (PT) boats. \n\nPT-109 and PT-59\n\nIn April 1943, he was assigned to Motor Torpedo Squadron TWO. On April 24, Kennedy took command of PT-109 which was based at Tulagi Island in the Solomon Islands. On the night of August 1–2, PT-109, on its 31st mission, was performing nighttime patrols near New Georgia in the Solomon Islands with PT-162 and PT-169. Kennedy spotted a Japanese destroyer nearby and attempted to turn to attack, when PT-109 was rammed suddenly at an angle and cut in half by the destroyer Amagiri, costing two PT-109 crew members their lives. Kennedy gathered his surviving ten crew members including those injured around the wreckage, to vote on whether to \"fight or surrender\". Kennedy stated: \"There's nothing in the book about a situation like this. A lot of you men have families and some of you have children. What do you want to do? I have nothing to lose.\" Shunning surrender, the men swam towards a small island three miles away. Despite re-injuring his back in the collision, Kennedy towed a badly burned crewman through the water with a life jacket strap clenched between his teeth to the island and later to a second island, where his crew was subsequently rescued on August 8. Kennedy and Ensign Leonard Thom, his executive officer on PT-109, were both later awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for heroism and the Purple Heart Medal for injuries. \n\nOn September 1, 1943, Kennedy returned to duty and took command of a PT boat converted into a gunboat, the PT-59. In October, Kennedy was promoted to lieutenant. On November 2, PT-59, which included three former PT-109 crew members, took part with another boat in the successful rescue of 87 marines stranded on two rescue landing craft on the Warrior River at Choiseul Island which was held by the Japanese. Kennedy was relieved of his command of PT-59 on November 18 under doctor's orders and returned to the United States in early January 1944. After receiving treatment for his back injury, he was released from active duty in late 1944. \nBeginning in January 1945, Kennedy spent three more months recovering from his back injury at Castle Hot Springs, a resort and temporary military hospital in Arizona. \n\nKennedy was in Chelsea Naval Hospital from May to December 1942. On June 12, he was presented the Navy and Marine Corps Medal (the Navy's highest noncombat decoration for heroism) for his heroic actions on August 1–2, 1943, and the Purple Heart Medal for his back injury on PT-109, on August 1, 1943 (injured on August 2). After the war, Kennedy felt that the medal he had received for heroism was not a combat award and asked that he be reconsidered for the Silver Star Medal for which had been recommended initially. (His father also requested the Silver Star, which is awarded for gallantry in action, for Kennedy). In 1950, The Department of the Navy offered Kennedy a Bronze Star Medal to recognize his meritorious service, however he would have to return his Navy and Marine Corps Medal in order to receive it. He declined the medal. In 1959, the Navy again offered him the Bronze Star. Kennedy responded, repeating his original request concerning the award. He received the same response from the Navy as he had in 1950. The Navy said his actions were a lifesaving case. Both of Kennedy's original medals are on display currently at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. \n\nOn August 12, 1944, his older brother, Joe Jr., a Navy pilot, was killed after volunteering for a special and hazardous air mission when his explosive-laden plane exploded over the English Channel. \n\nOn March 1, 1945, Kennedy was retired from the Navy Reserve on physical disability and honorably discharged with the full rank of lieutenant. When later asked later how he became a war hero, Kennedy joked: \"It was easy. They cut my PT boat in half.\"\n\nMilitary awards\n\nKennedy's military decorations and awards include the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, Purple Heart Medal, American Defense Service Medal, American Campaign Medal, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three \" bronze stars, and the World War II Victory Medal.\n\nNavy and Marine Corps Medal citation\n\n\"For heroism in the rescue of three men following the ramming and sinking of his motor torpedo boat while attempting a torpedo attack on a Japanese destroyer in the Solomon Islands area on the night of August 1–2, 1943. Lieutenant Kennedy, Captain of the boat, directed the rescue of the crew and personally rescued three men, one of whom was seriously injured. During the following six days, he succeeded in getting his crew ashore, and after swimming many hours attempting to secure aid and food, finally effected the rescue of the men. His courage, endurance, and excellent leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.\"\n\n W.F. Halsey, Admiral, U.S. Navy Temporary Citation\n\n\"For extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat 109 following the collision and sinking of that vessel in the Pacific War Theater on August 1–2, 1943. Unmindful of personal danger, Lieutenant (then Lieutenant, Junior Grade) Kennedy unhesitatingly braved the difficulties and hazards of darkness to direct rescue operations, swimming many hours to secure aid and food after he had succeeded in getting his crew ashore. His outstanding courage, endurance and leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.\"\n\n James Forrestal, Secretary of the Navy \n\nPost-naval service\n\nIn April 1945, Kennedy's father, who was a friend of William Randolph Hearst, arranged a position for his son as a special correspondent for Hearst Newspapers; the assignment kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and \"expose[d] him to journalism as a possible career.\" He worked as a correspondent that May, covering the Potsdam Conference and other events.\n\nCongressional career\n\nBecause his eldest brother had been the family's political standard-bearer, and tapped by his father to seek the Presidency, his death in 1944 changed that course and the task now fell to the younger Kennedy.\n\nU.S. House of Representatives (1947–1953)\n\nAt the urging of Kennedy's father, U.S. Representative James Michael Curley vacated his seat in the strongly Democratic 11th Congressional district in Massachusetts to become mayor of Boston in 1946. Kennedy ran for the seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin in November 1946. He served as a congressman for six years.\n\nU.S. Senate (1953–1960)\n\nIn the 1952 U.S. Senate election, Kennedy defeated incumbent Republican Henry Cabot Lodge II for the Senate seat. The following year, he married Jacqueline Bouvier.\n\nKennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absent from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholic last rites. During his convalescence in 1956, he published Profiles in Courage, a book about U.S. senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957. Rumors that this work was co-written by his close adviser and speechwriter, Ted Sorensen, were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography. \n\nAt the 1956 Democratic National Convention, Presidential nominee Adlai Stevenson let the convention select the Vice Presential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee. Kennedy received national exposure from that episode; his father thought it just as well that Kennedy lost, due to the potential political debility of his Catholicism and the strength of the Eisenhower ticket.\n\nOne of the matters demanding Kennedy's attention in the Senate was President Eisenhower's bill for the Civil Rights Act of 1957. Kennedy cast a procedural vote on this, which was considered by some as an appeasement of Southern Democratic opponents of the bill. Kennedy did vote for Title III of the act, which would have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson agreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure. Kennedy also voted for Title IV, termed the \"Jury Trial Amendment\". Many civil rights advocates at the time criticized that vote as one which would weaken the act. A final compromise bill, which Kennedy supported, was passed in September 1957.\n\nIn 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a wide margin. It was during his re-election campaign that Kennedy's press secretary at this time, Robert E. Thompson, put together a film entitled The U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy Story, which exhibited a day in the life of the Senator and showcased his family life as well as the inner workings of his office. It was the most comprehensive film produced about Kennedy up to that time. \n\nWhile Kennedy's father was a strong supporter of Senator Joseph McCarthy, McCarthy was also a friend of the Kennedy family. As well, Bobby Kennedy worked for McCarthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated Kennedy sister Patricia. In 1954, the Senate voted to censure McCarthy and Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the censure. The speech, however, was not delivered, because of Kennedy's hospitalization at the time. The speech had the potential of putting Kennedy in the position of participating procedurally by \"pairing\" his vote against that of another senator. Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damaged Kennedy's support among members of the liberal community, including Eleanor Roosevelt, in the 1956 and 1960 elections.\n\n1960 presidential election\n\nOn January 2, 1960, Kennedy initiated his campaign for president in the Democratic primary election, where he faced challenges from Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota and Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon. Kennedy defeated Humphrey in Wisconsin and West Virginia, Morse in Maryland and Oregon, as well as token opposition (often write-in candidates) in New Hampshire, Indiana, and Nebraska.\n\nKennedy visited a coal mine in West Virginia. Most miners and others in that predominantly conservative, Protestant state were quite wary of Kennedy's Roman Catholicism. His victory in West Virginia confirmed his broad popular appeal.\n\nAt the Democratic Convention, he gave his well-known \"New Frontier\" speech, saying: \"For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier.... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them.\" \n\nWith Humphrey and Morse eliminated, Kennedy's main opponent at the Los Angeles convention was Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Kennedy overcame this formal challenge as well as informal ones from Adlai Stevenson (the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956), Stuart Symington, and several favorite sons, and on July 13, the Democratic convention nominated Kennedy as its candidate. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his vice presidential candidate, despite opposition from many liberal delegates and Kennedy's own staff, including his brother Bobby. \n\nKennedy needed Johnson's strength in the South to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since 1916. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Roman Catholicism, Cuba, and whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, \"I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters – and the Church does not speak for me.\" Kennedy questioned rhetorically whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Catholic, and once stated that, \"No one asked me my religion [serving the Navy] in the South Pacific.\"\n\nIn September and October, Kennedy appeared with vice president and Republican candidate Richard Nixon in the first televised U.S. presidential debates in U.S. history. During these programs, Nixon, with a sore, injured leg and his \"five o'clock shadow\", was perspiring and looked tense and uncomfortable, while Kennedy, choosing to avail himself of makeup services, appeared relaxed, leading the huge television audience to favor Kennedy as the winner. Radio listeners either thought Nixon had won or that the debates were a draw. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in politics. \n\nKennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On November 8, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote, Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the Electoral College, he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win).\n\nFourteen electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy because of his support for the civil rights movement; they voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, as did an elector from Oklahoma. Kennedy was the youngest man elected president, succeeding Eisenhower, who was then the oldest (Ronald Reagan surpassed Eisenhower as the oldest president in 1981).\n\nPresidency (1961–1963)\n\nJohn F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying, \"Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.\" He asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the \"common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself\". \n\nHe added: \"All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.\" In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: \"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you.\"\n\nThe address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart an historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities at home and abroad would be one of the main tensions running through the early years of his administration.\n\nKennedy brought to the White House a contrast in organization compared to the decision-making structure of former-general Eisenhower; and he wasted no time in dismantling Eisenhower's methods. Kennedy preferred the organizational structure of a wheel, with all the spokes leading to the president. He was ready and willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment. He selected a mixture of experienced and inexperienced people to serve in his cabinet. \"We can learn our jobs together\", he stated.\n\nMuch to the chagrin of his economic advisors who wanted him to reduce taxes, Kennedy quickly agreed to a balanced budget pledge. This was needed in exchange for votes to expand the membership of the House Rules Committee in order to give the Democrats a majority in setting the legislative agenda. The president focused on immediate and specific issues facing the administration, and quickly voiced his impatience with pondering of deeper meanings. Deputy national security advisor Walt Whitman Rostow once began a diatribe about the growth of communism, and Kennedy abruptly cut him off, asking, \"What do you want me to do about that today?\"\n\nKennedy approved Defense secretary Robert McNamara's controversial decision to award the contract for the F-111 TFX (Tactical Fighter Experimental) fighter-bomber to General Dynamics (the choice of the civilian Defense department) over Boeing (the choice of the military). At the request of Senator Henry Jackson, Senator John McClellan held 46 days of mostly closed-door hearings before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations investigating the TFX contract from February to November 1963. \n\nForeign policy\n\nPresident Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests in the early stage of the Cold War. In 1961, Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. The president started off on the wrong foot by reacting aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961. The speech was intended for domestic audiences in the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpreted it as a personal challenge. His mistake helped raise tensions going into the Vienna Summit of June 1961.\n\nOn the way to the summit, Kennedy stopped in Paris to meet Charles de Gaulle, who advised Kennedy to ignore Khrushchev's abrasive style. The French president feared the United States' presumed influence in Europe. Nevertheless, de Gaulle was quite impressed with the young president and his family. Kennedy picked up on this in his speech in Paris, saying that he would be remembered as \"the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris.\"\n\nOn June 4, 1961, the president met with Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meetings angry and disappointed that he had allowed the Premier to bully him, despite the warnings he had received. Khrushchev, for his part, was impressed with the president's intelligence, but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khrushchev on the most sensitive issue before them, a proposed treaty between Moscow and East Berlin. He made it clear that any such treaty which interfered with U.S access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war.\n\nShortly after the president returned home, the U.S.S.R. announced its intention to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-party occupation rights in either sector of the city. Kennedy, depressed and angry, assumed that his only option was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he personally thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring.\n\nIn the weeks immediately after the Vienna summit, more than 20,000 people fled from East Berlin to the western sector in reaction to statements from the USSR. Kennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies. In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approval rating.\n\nThe following month, the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking any further passage of East Berliners into West Berlin and erected barbed wire fences across the city, which were quickly upgraded to the Berlin Wall. Kennedy's initial reaction was to ignore this, as long as free access from West to East Berlin continued. This course was altered when it was learned that the West Berliners had lost confidence in the defense of their position by the United States. Kennedy sent Vice President Johnson, along with a host of military personnel, in convoy through West Germany, including Soviet-armed checkpoints, to demonstrate the continued commitment of the U.S. to West Berlin.\n\nKennedy gave a speech at Saint Anselm College on May 5, 1960, regarding America's conduct in the emerging Cold War. The address detailed how American foreign policy should be conducted towards African nations, noting a hint of support for modern African nationalism by saying that \"For we, too, founded a new nation on revolt from colonial rule\". \n\nCuba and the Bay of Pigs Invasion\n\nThe prior Eisenhower administration had created a plan to overthrow the Fidel Castro regime in Cuba. The plan, led by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with help from the U.S. military, was for an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained anti-Castro Cuban exiles led by CIA paramilitary officers. The intention was to invade Cuba and instigate an uprising among the Cuban people in hopes of removing Castro from power.\n\nOn April 17, 1961, Kennedy ordered what became known as the \"Bay of Pigs Invasion\": 1,500 U.S.-trained Cubans, called \"Brigade 2506\", landed on the island. No U.S. air support was provided. Allen Dulles, director of the CIA, later stated that they thought the president would authorize any action required for success once the troops were on the ground.\n\nBy April 19, 1961, the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading exiles, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe another invasion would occur. \n\nAccording to biographer Richard Reeves, Kennedy primarily focused on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. When it failed, he was convinced that the plan was a setup to make him look bad. He took responsibility for the failure, saying, \"We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it.\"\n\nIn late 1961, the White House formed the \"Special Group (Augmented)\", headed by Robert Kennedy and including Edward Lansdale, Secretary Robert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued.\n\nCuban Missile Crisis\n\nOn October 14, 1962, CIA U-2 spy planes took photographs of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites being built in Cuba by the Soviets. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16; a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature and thus posed an immediate nuclear threat.\n\nKennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the U.S.S.R., but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons. The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after the Vienna summit.\n\nMore than a third of the members of the National Security Council (NSC) favored an unannounced air assault on the missile sites, but for some of them this conjured up an image of \"Pearl Harbor in reverse\". There was also some reaction from the international community (asked in confidence), that the assault plan was an overreaction in light of U.S. missiles that had been placed in Turkey by Eisenhower. There could also be no assurance that the assault would be 100% effective. In concurrence with a majority-vote of the NSC, Kennedy decided on a naval quarantine. On October 22 he dispatched a message to Khrushchev and announced the decision on TV.\n\nThe U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off Cuba, beginning October 24. The Organization of American States gave unanimous support to the removal of the missiles. The president exchanged two sets of letters with Khrushchev, to no avail. United Nations (UN) Secretary General U Thant requested that both parties reverse their decisions and enter a cooling-off period. Khrushchev said yes, but Kennedy said no.\n\nOne Soviet-flagged ship was stopped and boarded. On October 28 Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites, subject to UN inspections. The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its missiles in Turkey, which were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped with UGM-27 Polaris missiles.\n\nThis crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since. In the end, \"the humanity\" of the two men prevailed. The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter.\n\nLatin America and communism\n\nArguing that \"those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable,\" Kennedy sought to contain the perceived threat of communism in Latin America by establishing the Alliance for Progress, which sent aid to some countries and sought greater human rights standards in the region. He worked closely with Governor of Puerto Rico Luis Muñoz Marín for the development of the Alliance of Progress, and began working towards the autonomy of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.\n\nWhen the president took office, the Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, had begun formulating plans for the assassination of Castro in Cuba and Rafael Trujillo in the Dominican Republic. Kennedy privately instructed the CIA that any such planning must include plausible deniability by the U.S. His public position was in opposition. In June 1961 the Dominican Republic's leader was assassinated; in the days following the event, Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles led a cautious reaction by the nation. Robert Kennedy, who saw an opportunity for the U.S., called Bowles \"a gutless bastard\" to his face.\n\nPeace Corps\n\nAs one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy asked Congress to create the Peace Corps. His brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, was the first director. Through this program, Americans volunteer to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as education, farming, health care, and construction. The organization grew to 5,000 members by March 1963 and 10,000 the following year. Since 1961, over 200,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps, serving in 139 countries. \n\nSoutheast Asia\n\nWhen briefing Kennedy, Eisenhower emphasized that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority; Eisenhower considered Laos to be \"the cork in the bottle\" in regards to the regional threat. In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a \"free\" Laos to a \"neutral\" Laos, indicating privately that Vietnam, and not Laos, should be deemed America's tripwire for communism's spread in the area.\n\nIn May 1961 he dispatched Lyndon Johnson to meet with South Vietnam's President Ngo Dinh Diem. Johnson assured Diem more aid in molding a fighting force that could resist the communists. Kennedy announced a change of policy from support to partnership with Diem in defeat of communism in South Vietnam.\n\nDuring his administration, Kennedy continued policies that provided political and economic support and military advice and support to the South Vietnamese government. Late in 1961, the Viet Cong began assuming a predominant presence, initially seizing the provincial capital of Phuoc Vinh. Kennedy increased the number of military advisors and special forces U.S. Special Forces in the area, from 11,000 in 1962 to 16,000 by late 1963, but he was reluctant to order a full-scale deployment of troops. Before his assassination, Kennedy used almost exclusively military advisors and special forces in Vietnam. A year and one-half later, his successor, President Lyndon Johnson, committed the first combat troops to Vietnam and greatly escalated U.S. involvement, with forces reaching 184,000 that year and 536,000 in 1968.\n\nIn late 1961, President Kennedy sent Roger Hilsman, then director of the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research, to assess the situation in Vietnam. There, Hilsman met Sir Robert Thompson, head of the British Advisory Mission to South Vietnam and the concept of the Strategic Hamlet Program was formed. It was approved by Kennedy and South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem. It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from Communist insurgents. It was hoped these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. By November 1963 the program waned and officially ended in 1964.\n\nIn early 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the \"National Security Action Memorandum – Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)\". Secretary of State Dean Rusk voiced strong support for U.S. involvement. \"Operation Ranch Hand\", a large-scale aerial defoliation effort, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam.\n\nIn April 1963, Kennedy assessed the situation in Vietnam: \"We don't have a prayer of staying in Vietnam. Those people hate us. They are going to throw our asses out of there at any point. But I can't give up that territory to the communists and get the American people to re-elect me\". Kennedy faced a crisis in Vietnam by July; despite increased U.S. support, the South Vietnamese military was only marginally effective against pro-communist Viet Cong forces.\n\nOn August 21, just as the new U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. arrived, Diem and his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu ordered South Vietnam forces, funded and trained by the CIA, to quell Buddhist demonstrations. The crackdowns heightened expectations of a coup d'état to remove Diem with (or perhaps by) his brother, Nhu. Lodge was instructed to try to get Diem and Nhu to step down and leave the country. Diem would not listen to Lodge.\n\nCable 243 (DEPTEL 243), dated August 24, followed, declaring Washington would no longer tolerate Nhu's actions, and Lodge was ordered to pressure Diem to remove Nhu. If Diem refused, the Americans would explore alternative leadership. Lodge stated that the only workable option was to get the South Vietnamese generals to overthrow Diem and Nhu, as originally planned.\n\nAt week's end, Kennedy learned from Lodge that the Diem government might, due to France's assistance to Nhu, be dealing secretly with the communists—and might ask the Americans to leave; orders were sent to Saigon and throughout Washington to \"destroy all coup cables\". At the same time, the first formal anti-Vietnam war sentiment was expressed by U.S. clergy from the Ministers' Vietnam Committee.\n\nA White House meeting in September was indicative of the very different ongoing appraisals; the president was given updated assessments after personal inspections on the ground by the Department of Defense (General Victor Krulak) and the State Department (Joseph Mendenhall). Krulak said that the military fight against the communists was progressing and being won, while Mendenhall stated that the country was civilly being lost to any U.S. influence. Kennedy reacted, saying, \"Did you two gentlemen visit the same country?\" The president was unaware that the two men were at such odds that they had not spoken to each other on the return flight.\n\nIn October 1963, the president appointed Defense Secretary McNamara and General Maxwell D. Taylor to a Vietnam mission in another effort to synchronize the information and formulation of policy. The objective of the McNamara Taylor mission \"emphasized the importance of getting to the bottom of the differences in reporting from U.S. representatives in Vietnam\". In meetings with McNamara, Taylor, and Lodge, Diem again refused to agree to governing measures insisted upon by the U.S., helping to dispel McNamara's previous optimism about Diem.\n\nTaylor and McNamara were also enlightened by Vietnam's vice president, Nguyen Ngoc Tho (choice of many to succeed Diem should a coup occur), who in detailed terms obliterated Taylor's information that the military was succeeding in the countryside. At Kennedy's insistence, the mission report contained a recommended schedule for troop withdrawals: 1,000 by year's end and complete withdrawal in 1965, something the NSC considered a strategic fantasy. The final report declared that the military was making progress, that the increasingly unpopular Diem-led government was not vulnerable to a coup, and that an assassination of Diem or Nhu was a possibility.\n\nIn late October, intelligence wires again reported that a coup against the Diem government was afoot. The source, Vietnamese General Duong Van Minh (also known as \"Big Minh\"), wanted to know the U.S. position. Kennedy instructed Lodge to offer covert assistance to the coup, excluding assassination, and to ensure deniability by the U.S. Later that month, as the coup became imminent, Kennedy ordered all cables to be routed through him. A policy of \"control and cut out\" was initiated to insure presidential control of U.S. responses, while cutting him out of the paper trail.\n\nOn November 1, 1963, South Vietnamese generals, led by \"Big Minh\", overthrew the Diem government, arresting and then killing Diem and Nhu. Kennedy was shocked by the deaths. He found out afterwards that Minh had asked the CIA field office to secure safe-passage out of the country for Diem and Nhu, but was told that 24 hours were needed to procure a plane. Minh responded that he could not hold them that long.\n\nNews of the coup initially led to renewed confidence—both in America and in South Vietnam—that the war might be won. McGeorge Bundy drafted a National Security Action Memo to present to Kennedy upon his return from Dallas. It reiterated the resolve to fight communism in Vietnam, with increasing military and economic aid and expansion of operations into Laos and Cambodia. Before leaving for Dallas, Kennedy told Michael Forrestal that \"after the first of the year ... [he wanted] an in depth study of every possible option, including how to get out of there ... to review this whole thing from the bottom to the top\". When asked what he thought the president meant, Forrestal said, \"it was devil's advocate stuff.\"\n\nHistorians disagree on whether Vietnam would have escalated had Kennedy survived and been re-elected in 1964. Fueling the debate are statements made by Secretary of Defense McNamara in the film \"The Fog of War\" that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election. The film also contains a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson stating that Kennedy was planning to withdraw, a position that Johnson disagreed with. Kennedy had signed National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 263, dated October 11, which ordered the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year. Such an action would have been a policy reversal, but Kennedy was moving in a less hawkish direction since his acclaimed speech about world peace at American University on June 10, 1963. \n\nWhen Robert Kennedy was asked in 1964 what his brother would have done if the South Vietnamese had been on the brink of defeat, he replied, \"We'd face that when we came to it.\" At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision had been made as to Vietnam. In 2008, Theodore Sorensen wrote \"I would like to believe that Kennedy would have found a way to withdraw all American instructors and advisors [from Vietnam]. But even someone who knew JFK as well as I did can't be certain, because I do not believe he knew in his last weeks what he was going to do.\" Sorensen added that, in his opinion, Vietnam \"was the only foreign policy problem handed off by JFK to his successor in no better, and possibly worse, shape than it was when he inherited it.\" U.S. involvement in the region escalated until Lyndon Johnson, his successor, directly deployed regular U.S. military forces for fighting the Vietnam War. After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson passed NSAM 273 on November 26, 1963. It reversed Kennedy's decision to withdraw 1,000 troops, and reaffirmed the policy of assistance to the South Vietnamese. \n\nAmerican University speech\n\nOn June 10, 1963, Kennedy delivered at the high point of his rhetorical powers the commencement address at American University in Washington, D.C. Also known as \"Strategy of Peace\", Kennedy not only outlined a plan to curb nuclear arms, but also \"laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at a time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalating nuclear arms race.\" The President wished \"to discuss a topic on which too often ignorance abounds and the truth is too rarely perceived—yet it is the most important topic on earth: world peace ... I speak of peace because of the new face of war...in an age when a singular nuclear weapon contains ten times the explosive force delivered by all the allied forces in the Second World War ... an age when the deadly poisons produced by a nuclear exchange would be carried by wind and air and soil and seed to the far corners of the globe and to generations yet unborn ... I speak of peace, therefore, as the necessary rational end of rational men ... world peace, like community peace, does not require that each man love his neighbor—it requires only that they live together in mutual tolerance ... our problems are man-made—therefore they can be solved by man. And man can be as big as he wants.\" The president also made two announcements—that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty and that the U.S had postponed planned atmospheric tests.\n\nWest Berlin speech\n\nIn 1963, Germany was enduring a time of particular vulnerability due to Soviet aggression to the east and the impending retirement of West German Chancellor Adenauer. At the same time, French President Charles de Gaulle was trying to build a Franco-West German counterweight to the American and Soviet spheres of influence. To Kennedy's eyes, this Franco-German cooperation seemed directed against NATO's influence in Europe. \n\nOn June 26, President Kennedy gave a public speech in West Berlin reiterating the American commitment to Germany and criticizing communism. He was met with an ecstatic response from a massive audience.\n\nKennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: \"Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us.\" The speech is known for its famous phrase \"Ich bin ein Berliner\" (\"I am a citizen of Berlin\"). A million people were on the street for the speech. He remarked to Ted Sorensen afterwards: \"We'll never have another day like this one, as long as we live.\"\n\nIsrael\n\nIn 1960, Kennedy stated: \"Israel will endure and flourish. It is the child of hope and the home of the brave. It can neither be broken by adversity nor demoralized by success. It carries the shield of democracy and it honors the sword of freedom\". \n\nSubsequently as president, Kennedy initiated the creation of security ties with Israel, and he is credited as the founder of the US-Israeli military alliance (which would be continued under subsequent presidents). Kennedy ended the arms embargo that the Eisenhower and Truman administrations had enforced on Israel. Describing the protection of Israel as a moral and national commitment, he was the first to introduce the concept of a 'special relationship' (as he described it to Golda Meir) between the US and Israel. \n\nKennedy extended the first informal security guarantees to Israel in 1962 and, beginning in 1963, was the first US president to allow the sale to Israel of advanced US weaponry (the MIM-23 Hawk), as well as to provide diplomatic support for Israeli policies which were opposed by Arab neighbours; such as its water project on the Jordan River. \n\nAs result of this newly created security alliance, Kennedy also encountered tensions with the Israeli government regarding the production of nuclear materials in Dimona, which he believed could instigate a nuclear arms-race in the Middle East. After the existence of a nuclear plant was initially denied by the Israeli government, David Ben-Gurion stated in a speech to the Israeli Knesset on December 21, 1960, that the purpose of the nuclear plant at Beersheba was for \"research in problems of arid zones and desert flora and fauna\". When Ben-Gurion met with Kennedy in New York, he claimed that Dimona was being developed to provide nuclear power for desalinization and other peaceful purposes \"for the time being\".\n\nWhen Kennedy wrote that he was skeptical, and stated in a May 1963 letter to Ben-Gurion that American support to Israel could be in jeopardy if reliable information on the Israeli nuclear program was not forthcoming, Ben-Gurion repeated previous reassurances that Dimona was being developed for peaceful purposes. The Israeli government resisted American pressure to open its nuclear facilities to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspections. In 1962, the US and Israeli governments had agreed to an annual inspection regime. A science attaché at the embassy in Tel Aviv concluded that parts of the Dimona facility had been shut down temporarily to mislead American scientists when they visited.\n\nAccording to Seymour Hersh, the Israelis set up false control rooms to show the Americans. Israeli lobbyist Abe Feinberg stated, \"It was part of my job to tip them off that Kennedy was insisting on [an inspection].\" Hersh contends the inspections were conducted in such a way that it \"guaranteed that the whole procedure would be little more than a whitewash, as the president and his senior advisors had to understand: the American inspection team would have to schedule its visits well in advance, and with the full acquiescence of Israel.\". Marc Trachtenberg argued: \"Although well aware of what the Israelis were doing, Kennedy chose to take this as satisfactory evidence of Israeli compliance with America's non-proliferation policy.\" The American who led the inspection team stated that the essential goal of the inspections was to find \"ways to not reach the point of taking action against Israel's nuclear weapons program\". \n\nRodger Davies, the director of the State Department's Office of Near Eastern Affairs, concluded in March 1965 that Israel was developing nuclear weapons. He reported that Israel's target date for achieving nuclear capability was 1968–1969. On May 1, 1968, Undersecretary of State Nicholas Katzenbach told President Johnson that Dimona was producing enough plutonium to produce two bombs a year. The State Department argued that if Israel wanted arms, it should accept international supervision of its nuclear program. Dimona was never placed under IAEA safeguards. Attempts to write Israeli adherence to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) into contracts for the supply of U.S. weapons continued throughout 1968.\n\nIraq\n\nRelations between the United States and Iraq became strained following the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy on July 14, 1958, which resulted in the declaration of a republican government led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim. On June 25, 1961 Qasim mobilized troops along the border between Iraq and Kuwait, declaring the latter nation \"an indivisible part of Iraq\" and causing a short-lived \"Kuwait Crisis\". The United Kingdom—which had just granted Kuwait independence on June 19 and whose economy was heavily dependent on Kuwaiti oil—responded on July 1 by dispatching 5,000 troops to the country to deter an Iraqi invasion. At the same time, Kennedy dispatched a U.S. Navy task force to Bahrain, and the U.K. (at the urging of the Kennedy administration) brought the dispute to United Nations Security Council, where the proposed resolution was vetoed by the Soviet Union. The situation was resolved in October, when the British troops were withdrawn and replaced by a 4,000-strong Arab League force.\n\nIn December 1961, Qasim's government passed Public Law 80, which restricted the British- and American-owned Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC)'s concessionary holding to those areas in which oil was actually being produced, effectively expropriating 99.5% of the IPC concession. U.S. officials were alarmed by the expropriation as well as the recent Soviet veto of an Egyptian-sponsored UN resolution requesting the admittance of Kuwait as UN member state, which they believed to be connected. Senior National Security Council adviser Robert Komer worried that if the IPC ceased production in response, Qasim might \"grab Kuwait\" (thus achieving a \"stranglehold\" on Middle Eastern oil production) or \"throw himself into Russian arms\". Komer also made note of widespread rumors that a nationalist coup against Qasim could be imminent, and had the potential to \"get Iraq back on [a] more neutral keel\".\n\nIn April 1962, the State Department issued new guidelines on Iraq that were intended to increase American influence there. Meanwhile, Kennedy instructed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)—under the direction of Archie Roosevelt, Jr.—to begin making preparations for a military coup against Qasim.\n\nThe anti-imperialist and anti-communist Iraqi Ba'ath Party overthrew and executed Qasim in a violent coup on February 8, 1963. While there have been persistent rumors that the CIA orchestrated the coup, declassified documents and the testimony of former CIA officers indicate there was no direct American involvement, although the CIA was actively seeking to find a suitable replacement for Qasim within the Iraqi military and had been informed of an earlier Ba'athist coup plot. The Kennedy administration was pleased with the outcome and ultimately approved a $55 million arms deal for Iraq.\n\nIreland\n\nDuring his four-day visit to his ancestral home of Ireland in June 1963, Kennedy accepted a grant of armorial bearings from the Chief Herald of Ireland and received honorary degrees from the National University of Ireland and Trinity College, Dublin. He visited the cottage at Dunganstown, near New Ross, County Wexford where his ancestors had lived before emigrating to America. \n\nHe also became the first foreign leader to address the Houses of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament). On December 22, 2006, the Irish Department of Justice released declassified police documents indicating that security was heightened as Kennedy was the subject of three death threats during this visit. \n\nNuclear Test Ban Treaty\n\nTroubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign. In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began testing nuclear weapons that September. The United States responded by conducting tests five days later. Shortly thereafter, new U.S. satellites began delivering images which made it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U.S. in the arms race. Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the U.S.S.R. perceived themselves to be at parity.\n\nIn July 1963, Kennedy sent W. Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a treaty with the Soviets. The introductory sessions included Khrushchev, who later delegated Soviet representation to Andrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections that would verify compliance.\n\nUltimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate ratified this and Kennedy signed it into law in October 1963. France was quick to declare that it was free to continue developing and testing its nuclear defenses.\n\nDomestic policy\n\nKennedy called his domestic program the \"New Frontier\". It ambitiously promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly, economic aid to rural regions, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also promised an end to racial discrimination. \n\nIn his 1963 State of the Union address, he proposed substantial tax reform and a reduction in income tax rates from the current range of 20–90% to a range of 14–65%; he proposed a reduction in the corporate tax rates from 52 to 47%. Kennedy added that the top rate should be set at 70% if certain deductions were not eliminated for high income earners. Congress did not act until 1964, after his death, when the top individual rate was lowered to 70%, and the top corporate rate was set at 48% (see Revenue Act of 1964). \n\nTo the Economic Club of New York, he spoke in 1963 of \"... the paradoxical truth that tax rates are too high and revenues too low; and the soundest way to raise revenue in the long term is to lower rates now.\" Congress passed few of Kennedy's major programs during his lifetime, but did vote them through in 1964 and 1965 under his successor Johnson.\n\nEconomy\n\nKennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keep interest rates down and encourage growth of the economy. He presided over the first government budget to top the $100 billion mark, in 1962, and his first budget in 1961 led to the country's first non-war, non-recession deficit. The economy, which had been through two recessions in three years and was in one when Kennedy took office, accelerated notably during his presidency. Despite low inflation and interest rates, GDP had grown by an average of only 2.2% per annum during the Eisenhower presidency (scarcely more than population growth at the time), and had declined by 1% during Eisenhower's last twelve months in office. \n\nThe economy turned around and prospered during the Kennedy administration. GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963, while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased. Industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales rose by 40%. This rate of growth in GDP and industry continued until around 1969, and has yet to be repeated for such a sustained period of time.\n\nBobby Kennedy stated, \"We're going for broke..... their expense accounts, where they've been and what they've been doing..... the FBI is to interview them all..... we can't lose this.\"\n\nRobert took the position that the steel executives had illegally colluded to fix prices. The administration's actions influenced U.S. Steel to rescind the price increase. The Wall Street Journal wrote that the administration had acted \"by naked power, by threats, by agents of the state security police.\" Yale law professor Charles Reich opined in The New Republic that the administration had violated civil liberties by calling a grand jury to indict U.S. Steel for collusion so quickly.\n\nA New York Times editorial praised Kennedy's actions and said that the steel industry's price increase \"imperils the economic welfare of the country by inviting a tidal wave of inflation.\" Nevertheless, the administration's Bureau of Budget reported the price increase would have resulted in a net gain for GDP as well as a net budget surplus. The stock market, which had steadily declined since Kennedy's election, dropped 10% shortly after the administration's action on the steel industry.\n\nFederal and military death penalty\n\nAs president, Kennedy oversaw the last federal execution prior to Furman v. Georgia, a 1972 case that led to a moratorium on federal executions. Victor Feguer was sentenced to death by a federal court in Iowa and was executed on March 15, 1963. Kennedy commuted a death sentence imposed by a military court on seaman Jimmie Henderson on February 12, 1962, changing the penalty to life in prison. \n\nOn March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law HR5143 (PL87-423), abolishing the mandatory death penalty for first degree murder in the District of Columbia, the only remaining jurisdiction in the United States with such a penalty. The death penalty has not been applied in the District of Columbia since 1957, and has now been abolished. \n\nCivil rights\n\nKennedy in May 1961 appointed Thurgood Marshall to the federal bench.\nThe turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of the 1960s. Jim Crow segregation was the established law in the Deep South.Grantham (1988), The Life and Death of the Solid South: A Political History, p. 156 The Supreme Court of the United States had ruled in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Many schools, especially in southern states, did not obey the Supreme Court's decision. The Court also prohibited segregation at other public facilities (such as buses, restaurants, theaters, courtrooms, bathrooms, and beaches) but it continued nonetheless.\n\nKennedy verbally supported racial integration and civil rights; during the 1960 campaign he telephoned Coretta Scott King, wife of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., who had been jailed while trying to integrate a department store lunch counter. Robert Kennedy called Georgia governor Ernest Vandiver and obtained King's release from prison, which drew additional black support to his brother's candidacy. Upon taking office in 1961 Kennedy postponed promised civil rights legislation he made while campaigning in 1960 recognizing that conservative Southern Democrats controlled congressional legislation. Historian Carl M. Brauer concluded that passing any civil rights legislation in 1961 would have been futile. During his first year in office Kennedy appointed many blacks to office including his May appointment of civil rights attorney Thurgood Marshall to the federal bench. \n\nIn his first State of the Union Address in January 1961, President Kennedy said \"The denial of constitutional rights to some of our fellow Americans on account of race - at the ballot box and elsewhere - disturbs the national conscience, and subjects us to the charge of world opinion that our democracy is not equal to the high promise of our heritage.\" Kennedy believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would anger many Southern whites and make it more difficult to pass civil rights laws in Congress, including anti-poverty legislation, and he distanced himself from it.\n\nKennedy additionally was concerned by other issues early in his presidency, such as the Cold War, Bay of Pigs fiasco and the situation in Southeast Asia. As articulated by brother Robert, the administration's early priority was to \"keep the president out of this civil rights mess\". Civil rights movement participants, mainly those on the front line in the South, viewed Kennedy as lukewarm, especially concerning the Freedom Riders, who organized an integrated public transportation effort in the south, and who were repeatedly met with white mob violence, including law enforcement officers, both federal and state. Kennedy assigned federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders rather than using federal troops or uncooperative FBI agents. Robert Kennedy, speaking for the president, urged the Freedom Riders to \"get off the buses and leave the matter to peaceful settlement in the courts.\" Kennedy feared sending federal troops would stir up \"hated memories of Reconstrucion\" after the Civil War among conservative Southern whites.\n\nOn March 6, 1961, Kennedy signed Executive Order 10925 which required government contractors to \"take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.\" It established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. Displeased with the pace of Kennedy's addressing the issue of segregation, Martin Luther King, Jr. and his associates produced a document in 1962 calling on the president to follow in the footsteps of Abraham Lincoln and use an Executive Order to deliver a blow for Civil Rights as a kind of Second Emancipation Proclamation - Kennedy did not execute the order. \n\nIn September 1962, James Meredith enrolled at the University of Mississippi, but was prevented from entering. Attorney General Robert Kennedy responded by sending 400 federal marshals, while President Kennedy reluctantly sent 3,000 troops after the situation on campus turned violent. The Ole Miss riot of 1962 left two dead and dozens injured, but Meredith did finally enroll in his first class. Kennedy regretted not sending in troops earlier and he began to doubt whether the \"evils of Reconstruction\" of the 1860s and 1870s he had been taught or believed in were true. The instigating subculture at the Old Miss riot and at many other racially ignited events, was the Ku Klux Klan.Gitlin (2009), The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture, p. 29 On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signed Executive Order 11063, prohibiting racial discrimination in federally supported housing or \"related facilities\".\n\nIn early 1963, Kennedy related to Martin Luther King, Jr., about the prospects for civil rights legislation: \"If we get into a long fight over this in Congress, it will bottleneck everything else, and we will still get no bill.\" Civil rights clashes were on the rise that year. Brother Robert and Ted Sorenson pressed Kennedy to take more initiative on the legislative front.\n\nOn June 11, 1963, President Kennedy intervened when Alabama Governor George Wallace blocked the doorway to the University of Alabama to stop two African American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from attending. Wallace moved aside only after being confronted by Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and the Alabama National Guard, which had just been federalized by order of the president. That evening Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio, launching his initiative for civil rights legislation—to provide equal access to public schools and other facilities, and greater protection of voting rights. \n\nHis proposals became part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The day ended with the murder of a NAACP leader, Medgar Evers, in front of his home in Mississippi. As the president had predicted, the day after his TV speech, and in reaction to it, House Majority leader Carl Albert called to advise him that his two-year signature effort in Congress to combat poverty in Appalachia (Area Redevelopment Administration) had been defeated, primarily by the votes of Southern Democrats and Republicans.\n\nEarlier, Kennedy had signed the executive order creating the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women on December 14, 1961. Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt led the commission. The Commission statistics revealed that women were also experiencing discrimination; their final report documenting legal and cultural barriers was issued in October 1963. Further, on June 10, 1963, Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, a federal law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. \n\nOver a hundred thousand, predominantly African Americans, gathered in Washington for the civil rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963. Kennedy feared the March would have a negative effect on the prospects for the civil rights bills in Congress, and declined an invitation to speak. He turned over some of the details of the government's involvement to the Dept. of Justice, which channelled hundreds of thousands of dollars to the six sponsors of the March, including the N.A.A.C.P. and Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).\n\nTo ensure a peaceful demonstration, the organizers and the president personally edited speeches which were inflammatory and agreed the March would be held on a Wednesday and would be over at 4:00 pm. Thousands of troops were placed on standby. Kennedy watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. The March was considered a \"triumph of managed protest\", and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Afterwards, the March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with Kennedy and photos were taken. Kennedy felt the March was a victory for him as well and bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill.\n\nNevertheless, the struggle was far from over. Three weeks later, a bomb exploded on Sunday, September 15 at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham; by the end of the day, four African American children had died in the explosion and two other children shot to death in the aftermath. Due to this resurgent violence, the civil rights legislation underwent some drastic amendments that critically endangered any prospects for passage of the bill, to the outrage of the president. Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House and by the following day the original bill, without the additions, had enough votes to get it out of the House committee. Gaining Republican support, Senator Everett Dirksen promised the legislation would be brought to a vote preventing a Senate filibuster. The legislation was enacted by Kennedy's successor President Lyndon B. Johnson, prompted by Kennedy's memory after his assassination in November, enforcing voting rights, public accommodations, employment, education, and the administration of justice.\n\nCivil liberties\n\nIn 1963, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, who hated civil-rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and viewed him as an upstart troublemaker, presented the Kennedy Administration with allegations that some of King's close confidants and advisers were communists. Concerned that the allegations, if made public, would derail the Administration's civil rights initiatives, Robert Kennedy and the president both warned King to discontinue the suspect associations. After the associations continued, Robert Kennedy issued a written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King's civil rights organization.\n\nAlthough Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones \"on a trial basis, for a month or so\", Hoover extended the clearance so his men were \"unshackled\" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy. The wiretapping continued through June 1966 and was revealed in 1968. \n\nImmigration\n\nJohn F. Kennedy initially proposed an overhaul of American immigration policy that later was to become the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, sponsored by Kennedy's brother Senator Edward Kennedy. It dramatically shifted the source of immigration from Northern and Western European countries towards immigration from Latin America and Asia. The policy change also shifted the emphasis in the selection of immigrants in favor of family reunification. Kennedy wanted to dismantle the selection of immigrants based on country of origin and saw this as an extension of his civil rights policies. \n\nNative American relations\n\nConstruction of the Kinzua Dam flooded 10000 acres of Seneca nation land that they had occupied under the Treaty of 1794, and forced 600 Seneca to relocate to Salamanca, New York. Kennedy was asked by the American Civil Liberties Union to intervene and halt the project, but he declined, citing a critical need for flood control. He expressed concern about the plight of the Seneca, and directed government agencies to assist in obtaining more land, damages, and assistance to help mitigate their displacement. \n\nSpace policy\n\nThe Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during the Eisenhower administration, as a follow-up to Project Mercury, to be used as a shuttle to an Earth-orbital space station, flights around the Moon, or landing on it. While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo, funding for the program was far from certain, given Eisenhower's ambivalent attitude to manned spaceflight. As Senator, Kennedy had been opposed to the space program and wanted to terminate it.\n\nIn constructing his Presidential administration, Kennedy elected to retain Eisenhower's last science advisor Jerome Wiesner as head of the President's Science Advisory Committee. Wiesner was strongly opposed to manned space exploration, having issued a report highly critical of Project Mercury. Kennedy was turned down by seventeen candidates for NASA administrator before the post was accepted by James E. Webb, an experienced Washington insider who served President Harry S. Truman as budget director and undersecretary of State. Webb proved to be adept at obtaining the support of Congress, the President, and the American people. Kennedy also persuaded Congress to amend the National Aeronautics and Space Act to allow him to delegate his chairmanship of the National Aeronautics and Space Council to the Vice President,\n both because of the knowledge of the space program Johnson gained in the Senate working for the creation of NASA, and to help keep the politically savvy Johnson occupied.\n\nIn Kennedy's January 1961 State of the Union address, he had suggested international cooperation in space. Khrushchev declined, as the Soviets did not wish to reveal the status of their rocketry and space capabilities. Early in his presidency, Kennedy was poised to dismantle the manned space program, but postponed any decision out of deference to Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of the space program in the Senate. Kennedy's advisors speculated that a Moon flight would be prohibitively expensive, and he was considering plans to dismantle the Apollo program due to its cost. \n\nHowever, this quickly changed on April 12, 1961, when Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. Kennedy now became eager for the U.S. to take the lead in the Space Race, for reasons of strategy and prestige. On April 20, he sent a memo to Johnson, asking him to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. After consulting with Wernher von Braun, Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that \"we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership.\" His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first. Kennedy's advisor Ted Sorensen advised him to support the Moon landing, and on May 25, Kennedy announced the goal in a speech titled Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs: \"... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.\" \n\nAfter Congress authorized the funding, Webb began reorganizing NASA, increasing its staffing level, and building two new centers: a Launch Operations Center for the large Moon rocket northwest of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, and a Manned Spacecraft Center on land donated through Rice University in Houston, Texas. Kennedy took the latter occasion as an opportunity to deliver another speech at Rice to promote the space effort on September 12, 1962, in which he said:\n \"No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space. ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.\" \nOn November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with NASA administrator Webb and other officials, Kennedy explained that the Moon shot was important for reasons of international prestige, and that the expense was justified. Johnson assured him that lessons learned from the space program had military value as well. Costs for the Apollo program were expected to reach $40 billion.\n\nIn a September 1963 speech before the United Nations, Kennedy urged cooperation between the Soviets and Americans in space, specifically recommending that Apollo be switched to \"a joint expedition to the Moon\". Khrushchev again declined, and the Soviets did not commit to a manned Moon mission until 1964. On July 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death, Apollo 11 landed the first manned spacecraft on the Moon.\n\nAssassination\n\nPresident Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 pm Central Standard Time on Friday November 22, 1963, while on a political trip to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough (no relation) and conservative John Connally. Traveling in a presidential motorcade through downtown Dallas, he was shot once in the back, the bullet exiting via his throat, and once in the head.\n\nKennedy was taken to Parkland Hospital for emergency medical treatment, but pronounced dead at 1:00 pm. Only 46, President Kennedy died younger than any other U.S. president to date. Lee Harvey Oswald, an order filler at the Texas School Book Depository from which the shots were suspected to have been fired, was arrested for the murder of police officer J. D. Tippit, and was subsequently charged with the assassination of Kennedy. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a patsy, but was killed by Jack Ruby on November 24, before he could be prosecuted. Ruby was then arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully appealed his conviction and death sentence but became ill and died of cancer on January 3, 1967, while the date for his new trial was being set.\n\nPresident Johnson created the Warren Commission—chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren—to investigate the assassination, which concluded that Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy, and that Oswald was not part of any conspiracy. The results of this investigation are disputed by many. The assassination proved to be an important moment in U.S. history because of its impact on the nation and the ensuing political repercussions. A 2004 Fox News poll found that 66% of Americans thought there had been a conspiracy to kill President Kennedy, while 74% thought there had been a cover-up. A Gallup Poll in mid-November 2013, showed 61% believed in a conspiracy, and only 30% thought Oswald did it alone. In 1979, the U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded that it believed \"that Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. The committee was unable to identify the other gunmen or the extent of the conspiracy.\" In 2002, historian Carl M. Brauer concluded that the public's \"fascination with the assassination may indicate a psychological denial of Kennedy's death, a mass wish...to undo it.\"\n\nFuneral\n\nA Requiem Mass was held for Kennedy at the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle on November 25, 1963. Afterwards, Kennedy was interred in a small plot, (20 by 30 ft.), in Arlington National Cemetery. Over a period of three years (1964–1966), an estimated 16 million people had visited his grave. On March 14, 1967, Kennedy's remains were moved to a permanent burial plot and memorial at the cemetery. The funeral was officiated by Father John J. Cavanaugh. It was from this memorial that the graves of both Bobby and Ted were modeled.\n\nThe honor guard at Kennedy's graveside was the 37th Cadet Class of the Irish Army. Kennedy was greatly impressed by the Irish Cadets on his last official visit to Ireland, so much so that Jackie Kennedy requested the Irish Army to be the honor guard at her husband's funeral.\n\nKennedy's wife, Jacqueline and their two deceased minor children were buried with him later. His brother, Senator Robert Kennedy, was buried nearby in June 1968. In August 2009, his brother, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, was also buried near his two brothers. John F. Kennedy's grave is lit with an \"Eternal Flame\". Kennedy and William Howard Taft are the only two U.S. presidents buried at Arlington. According to the JFK Library, \"I Have a Rendezvous with Death\", by Alan Seeger \"was one of John F. Kennedy's favorite poems and he often asked his wife to recite it\". \n\nAdministration, Cabinet, and judicial appointments 1961–1963\n\nJudicial appointments\n\nSupreme Court\n\nKennedy appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:\n* Byron White – 1962\n* Arthur Goldberg – 1962\n\nOther courts\n\nIn addition to his two Supreme Court appointments, Kennedy appointed 21 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 102 judges to the United States district courts.\n\nPersonal life, family, and reputation\n\nKennedy met his future wife, Jacqueline Lee \"Jackie\" Bouvier (1929–1994), when he was a congressman. Charles L. Bartlett, a journalist, introduced the pair at a dinner party. They were married a year after he was elected senator, on September 12, 1953. The Kennedy family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a president, three senators, and multiple other Representatives, both on the federal and state level. Family patriarch, Joe Kennedy, was a prominent American businessman and political figure, serving in multiple roles, including Ambassador to the United Kingdom, from 1938 to 1940.\n\nIn October 1951, during his third term as Massachusetts's 11th district congressman, the then 34-year-old Kennedy embarked on a seven-week trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel with his then 25-year-old brother Bobby (who had just graduated from law school four months earlier) and his then 27-year-old sister Pat. Because they were several years apart in age, the brothers had previously seen little of each other. This 25000 mi trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends.\n\nBobby was campaign manager for Kennedy's successful 1952 Senate campaign and later, his successful 1960 presidential campaign. The two brothers worked closely together from 1957 to 1959 on the Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor and Management Field, when Robert was its chief counsel. During Kennedy's presidency, Robert served in his cabinet as Attorney General and was his closest advisor.\n\nKennedy was a life member of the National Rifle Association. Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mother Teresa) in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century. \n\nChildren\n\nCaroline Bouvier Kennedy was born in 1957 and is the only surviving member of JFK's immediate family. John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Jr., nicknamed \"John-John\" by the press as a child, was born in late November 1960, 17 days after his father was elected. John Jr., died in 1999 when the small plane he was piloting crashed en route to Martha's Vineyard. \n\nPopular image\n\nKennedy and his wife were younger in comparison to the presidents and first ladies who preceded them, and both were popular in the media culture in ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines. Although Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for television, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcast live and made good use of the medium. In 1961 the Radio-Television News Directors Association presented Kennedy with its highest honor, the Paul White Award, in recognition of his open relationship with the media. \n\nMrs. Kennedy brought new art and furniture to the White House, and directed its restoration. They invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to rounds of White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. On the White House lawn, the Kennedys established a swimming pool and tree house, while Caroline attended a preschool along with 10 other children inside the home.\n\nThe president was closely tied to popular culture, emphasized by songs such as \"Twisting at the White House\". Vaughn Meader's First Family comedy album, which parodied the president, the first lady, their family, and the administration, sold about four million copies. On May 19, 1962, Marilyn Monroe sang \"Happy Birthday, Mr. President\" at a large party in Madison Square Garden, celebrating Kennedy's upcoming forty-fifth birthday.\n\n\"Camelot Era\"\n\nThe term \"Camelot\" came to be used retrospectively as iconic of the Kennedy administration, and the charisma of him and his family. The term was first publicly used by his wife in a post-assassination Life magazine interview with Theodore H. White, in which she revealed his affection for the contemporary Broadway musical of the same name, particularly the closing lines of the title song: \n\nHealth\n\nIn 2002 Robert Dallek wrote an extensive history of Kennedy's health. Dallek was able to consult a collection of Kennedy-associated papers from the years 1955-1963 including x-rays and prescription records from the files of White House physician Dr. Janet Travell. According to Travell's records, during his Presidential years Kennedy suffered from: high fevers, stomach, colon, and prostate issues, abscesses, high cholesterol, and adrenal problems. Travell kept a \"Medicine Administration Record,\" cataloguing Kennedy's medications: \"injected and ingested corticosteroids for his adrenal insufficiency; procaine shots and ultrasound treatments and hot packs for his back; Lomotil, Metamucil, paregoric, phenobarbital, testosterone, and trasentine to control his diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and weight loss; penicillin and other antibiotics for his urinary-tract infections and an abscess; and Tuinal to help him sleep.\"\n\nYears after Kennedy's death, it was revealed that in September 1947, while Kennedy was 30 and in his first term in Congress, he was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at The London Clinic with Addison's disease, a rare endocrine disorder. In 1966 Dr. Travell revealed that Kennedy also had hypothyroidism. The presence of two endocrine diseases raises the possibility that Kennedy had autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2 (APS 2). \n\nKennedy also suffered from chronic and severe back pain, for which he had surgery and was written up in the American Medical Association's Archives of Surgery. Kennedy's condition may have had diplomatic repercussions, as he appears to have been taking a combination of drugs to treat severe back pain during the 1961 Vienna Summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. The combination included hormones, animal organ cells, steroids, vitamins, enzymes, and amphetamines, and possible potential side effects included hyperactivity, hypertension, impaired judgment, nervousness, and mood swings. Kennedy at one time was regularly seen by no fewer than three doctors, one of whom, Max Jacobson, was unknown to the other two, as his mode of treatment was controversial and used for the most severe bouts of back pain.\n\nThere were disagreements among his doctors, into late 1961, over the proper balance of medication and exercise, with the president preferring the former as he was short on time and desired immediate relief. During that timeframe the president's physician, George Burkley, did set up some gym equipment in the White House basement where Kennedy did stretching exercises for his back three times a week. Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclosed during Kennedy's lifetime. \n\nPersonal tragedies\n\nKennedy experienced many personal, family tragedies. His oldest sibling, Joe Jr., was killed in action in 1944 at age 29 over the English Channel during a first attack execution of Operation Aphrodite during World War II. Kennedy's younger sister Rose Marie \"Rosemary\" Kennedy was born in 1918 with intellectual disabilities and underwent a pre-frontal lobotomy at age 23, leaving her permanently incapacitated. His next youngest sister, Kathleen \"Kick\" Kennedy Cavendish, died in France as the result of a plane crash in 1948. His wife Jacqueline Kennedy suffered a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956: a daughter informally named Arabella. A son, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, died two days after birth in August 1963.\n\nAffairs and extramarital relationships\n\nAs a young single man in the 1940s, Kennedy had affairs with Danish journalist Inga Arvad, and actress Gene Tierney. Later in life, Kennedy reportedly had extramarital affairs with a number of women, including Marilyn Monroe, Gunilla von Post, Judith Campbell, Mary Pinchot Meyer, Marlene Dietrich, Mimi Alford, and his wife's press secretary, Pamela Turnure.\n\nThe extent of a relationship with Monroe will never be known, although it has been reported they spent a weekend together in March 1962 while Kennedy was staying at Bing Crosby's house. Furthermore, the White House switchboard noted calls from her during 1962. J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, received reports as to Kennedy's indiscretions.\n\nKennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team and his supporters. According to Reeves, this included \"the logistics of Kennedy's liaisons.....[which] required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energetic service demanded by successful politicians\". Kennedy believed that his friendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from revelations about his sex life.\n\nAncestry\n\nThe Kennedy family originally came from Dunganstown, County Wexford, Ireland. In 1848 Kennedy's patrilineal great-grandfather, Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858), left his farm and boarded a ship in New Ross bound for Liverpool on his way to Boston. Kennedy left Ireland at the height of the Great Famine. In Boston he met the woman he was to marry, Bridget Murphy (c. 1824–1888). Their son Patrick Joseph \"P. J.\" Kennedy was Kennedy's paternal grandfather and father of Joseph Kennedy.\n\nHistorical evaluations and legacy\n\nTelevision became the primary source by which people were kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination. In fact, television started to come of age before the assassination. On September 2, 1963, Kennedy helped inaugurate network television's first half-hour nightly evening newscast according to an interview with CBS Evening News anchor Walter Cronkite. \n\nNewspapers were kept as souvenirs rather than sources of updated information. In this sense it was the first major \"TV news event\" of its kind, the TV coverage uniting the nation, interpreting what went on and creating memories of this space in time. All three major U.S. television networks suspended their regular schedules and switched to all-news coverage from November 22 through November 25, 1963, being on the air for 70 hours, making it the longest uninterrupted news event on American TV until 9/11. \n\nKennedy's state funeral procession and the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. The state funeral was the first of three in a span of 12 months. The other two were for General Douglas MacArthur and President Herbert Clark Hoover. All three have two things in common: the commanding general of the Military District of Washington during those funerals was Army Major General Philip C. Wehle and the riderless horse was Black Jack, who also served in that role during Lyndon B. Johnson's funeral.\n\nThe assassination had an effect on many people, not only in the U.S. but around the world. Many vividly remember where they were when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated, as with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, before it and the September 11 attacks after it. UN Ambassador Adlai Stevenson said of the assassination: \"all of us..... will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours.\" Many people have also spoken of the shocking news, compounded by the pall of uncertainty about the identity of the assassin(s), the possible instigators and the causes of the killing as an end to innocence, and in retrospect it has been coalesced with other changes of the tumultuous decade of the 1960s, especially the Vietnam War.\n\nThe US Special Forces had a special bond with Kennedy. \"It was President Kennedy who was responsible for the rebuilding of the Special Forces and giving us back our Green Beret,\" said Forrest Lindley, a writer for the US military newspaper Stars and Stripes who served with Special Forces in Vietnam. This bond was shown at Kennedy's funeral. At the commemoration of the 25th anniversary of Kennedy's death, General Michael D. Healy, the last commander of Special Forces in Vietnam, spoke at Arlington Cemetery. Later, a wreath in the form of the Green Beret would be placed on the grave, continuing a tradition that began the day of his funeral when a sergeant in charge of a detail of Special Forces men guarding the grave placed his beret on the coffin.\n\nKennedy was the first of six presidents to have served in the U.S. Navy, and one of the enduring legacies of his administration was the creation in 1961 of another special forces command, the Navy SEALs, which Kennedy enthusiastically supported. \n\nUltimately, the death of President Kennedy and the ensuing confusion surrounding the facts of his assassination are of political and historical importance insofar as they marked a turning point and decline in the faith of the American people in the political establishment—a point made by commentators from Gore Vidal to Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. and implied by Oliver Stone in several of his films, such as his landmark 1991 JFK.\n\nAlthough President Kennedy opposed segregation and had shown support for the civil rights of African Americans, he originally believed in a more measured approach to legislation given the political realities he faced in Congress, especially with the Southern Conservatives. However, impelled by the civil rights demonstrations of Martin Luther King, Kennedy in 1963 proposed legislative action. In a radio and TV address to the nation in June 1963—a century after President Abraham Lincoln had signed the Emancipation Proclamation—Kennedy became the first president to call on all Americans to denounce racism as morally wrong. Kennedy's civil rights proposals led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964.\n\nPresident Lyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy's successor, took up the mantle and pushed the landmark Civil Rights Act through a bitterly divided Congress by invoking the slain president's memory. President Johnson then signed the Act into law on July 2, 1964. This civil rights law ended what was known as the \"Solid South\" and certain provisions were modeled after the Civil Rights Act of 1875, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant.\n\nKennedy's continuation of Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower's policies of giving economic and military aid to South Vietnam left the door open for President Johnson's escalation of the conflict. At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision had been made as to Vietnam, leading historians, cabinet members and writers to continue to disagree on whether the Vietnam conflict would have escalated to the point it did had he survived. His agreement to the NSAM 263 action of withdrawing 1,000 troops by the end of 1963, and his earlier 1963 speech at American University, suggested he was ready to end the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War contributed greatly to a decade of national difficulties, amid violent disappointment on the political landscape.\n\nMany of Kennedy's speeches (especially his inaugural address) are considered iconic; and despite his relatively short term in office and lack of major legislative changes coming to fruition during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best presidents, in the same league as Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Some excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on a plaque at his grave at Arlington.\n\nHe was posthumously awarded the Pacem in Terris Award. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of goodwill to secure peace among all nations. Pacem in terris is Latin for 'Peace on Earth'.\n\nPresident Kennedy is the only president to have predeceased both his mother and father. He is also the only president to have predeceased a grandparent. His maternal grandmother, Mary Josephine \"Josie\" Hannon, died in August 1964, nine months after his assassination.\n\nThroughout the English-speaking world, the given name Kennedy has sometimes been used in honor of President Kennedy, as well his brother Robert. \n\nEponyms\n\n* John F. Kennedy International Airport, American airport (renamed from Idlewild in December 1963) in New York City; nation's busiest international gateway\n* John F. Kennedy Memorial Airport American airport in Ashland County, Wisconsin, near the city of Ashland \n* John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge American seven-lane transportation hub across Ohio River; completed in late 1963, the bridge links Kentucky and Indiana\n* John F. Kennedy School of Government, American institution (renamed from Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration in 1966)\n* John F. Kennedy Space Center, U.S. government installation that manages and operates America's astronaut launch facilities in Titusville, near Cocoa Beach, FL\n* John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School—trains United States Army personnel for the United States Army Special Operations Command and Army Special Operation Forces at Fort Bragg outside Fayetteville, NC\n* John F. Kennedy University, American private educational institution founded in California in 1964; locations in Pleasant Hill, Campbell, Berkeley, and Santa Cruz\n* , U.S. Navy aircraft carrier ordered in April 1964, launched May 1967, decommissioned August 2007; nicknamed \"Big John\"\n* John F. Kennedy High School is the name of many secondary schools\n* , U.S. Navy aircraft carrier that began construction in 2011, and is scheduled to be placed in commission in 2020\n* John F Kennedy (horse), Irish-trained thoroughbred racehorse foaled in 2012\nJohn F. Kennedy Eternal Flame memorial\n\nMemorials\n\nCoat of arms\n\nIn 1961, Kennedy was presented with a grant of arms for all the descendants of Patrick Kennedy from the Chief Herald of Ireland. The design of the arms strongly alludes to symbols in the coats of arms of the O'Kennedys of Ormonde and the FitzGeralds of Desmond, from whom the family is believed to be descended. The crest is an armored hand holding four arrows between two olive branches, elements taken from the coat of arms of the United States of America and also symbolic of Kennedy and his brothers.\n\nKennedy received a signet ring engraved with his arms for his 44th birthday as a gift from his wife, and the arms were incorporated into the seal of the USS John F. Kennedy. Following his assassination, Kennedy was honored by the Canadian government by having a mountain, Mount Kennedy, named for him, which his brother, Robert Kennedy, climbed in 1965 to plant a banner of the arms at the summit. \n\nMedia" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "JFK", "J.F.K", "J.F.K. Administration", "Kennedy administration", "JFK (President)", "J.F. Kennedy", "J. F. Kennedy", "John f kennedy", "John fitzgerald kennady", "John Kennedy", "My God, I'm hit", "John F.Kennedy", "Kennedyesque", "JFK administration", "President John F. Kennedy", "Jack Kennedy", "John F Kennedy", "35th President of the United States", "JF Kennedy", "Kennedy Administration", "President John Kennedy", "John f kenedy", "John F. Kennedy", "J.F.K.", "JFK (president)", "Jfk", "Jhon F Kennedy", "John F. Kennedy and civil rights", "John f. kennedy", "J F Kennedy", "J. F. 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Queen Alia international airport is in which country?	tc_1403	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Queen_Alia_International_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Queen Alia International Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Queen Alia International Airport (; transliterated: Matar Al-Malikah Alia Ad-Dowali) is Jordan's main and largest airport and is located in Zizya 30 km south of the capital city, Amman. Named after Queen Alia, third wife to the late King Hussein of Jordan, the airport is home to the country's national flag carrier, Royal Jordanian Airlines and serves as a major hub for Jordan Aviation, Royal Falcon and Royal Wings.\n\nA state-of-the-art new terminal was inaugurated in March 2013 to replace the airport's older two passenger terminals and one cargo terminal. The three original terminals were made obsolete once the new terminal officially began operations. In 2014, the new airport received the \"Best Improvement by Region: Middle East\" and \"Best Airport by Region: Middle East\" awards by the Airport Council International, the awards are given to the airports which achieved the highest customer satisfaction in the ASQ Survey. \n\nHistory\n\nQueen Alia International Airport (QAIA) was built in 1983 in response to the growing airport traffic needs that Amman Civil Airport could not accommodate. At the time, passenger traffic was increasing above the international average, recording 25–30% growth per annum and placing considerable pressure on airport facilities despite continuous expansion and development. In 1981, the number of arriving, departing and transit passengers exceeded 2.3 million, while cargo traffic reached 62,000 tons and aircraft traffic topped 27,000 movements.\n\nThe Jordanian Ministry of Transport undertook to build a new international airport with sufficient capacity to cope with demand in the foreseeable future. QAIA was built at an estimated total cost of JOD 84 million. Passenger facilities were designed to serve 3.5 million passengers per annum.\n\nQAIA has since grown to become the kingdom's primary international gateway and a stop-over for international airlines in the Middle East. By 2012, QAIA was serving on average more than 6 million passengers and 40 airlines from around the world.\n\nIn 2007 the Government of Jordan selected Airport International Group (AIG) through an open tender to operate, rehabilitate and manage QAIA under a 25-year concession agreement. In response to the continual surge in passenger traffic at the time, AIG was also placed in charge of constructing a new terminal, one which not only would expand the airport's then insufficient annual capacity of 3.5 million passengers, but that would also introduce a \"unique travel experience\" to help advance QAIA's position as a niche transit hub in the region. \n\nAccordingly, AIG invested an estimated USD 750 million in the construction of the new terminal. \n\nThe new terminal is also equipped to accommodate rising annual passenger traffic, taking the original airport capacity from 3.5 million passengers per year to 7 million.\n\nInaugurated on 14 March 2013, by King Abdullah II, the new airport was officially launched following an overnight operational transfer. The last flight departed from the old terminal at 10:05 pm on 20 March 2013, upon which all operations were shifted to the new terminal, where its first flight departed at 2:30 am on 21 March 2013. \n\nOn 20 January 2014, AIG launched the second phase of QAIA's expansion, valued at a total cost of over USD 100 million. Scheduled to be completed in 2016, the second expansion phase will raise QAIA's annual passenger traffic capacity to up to 12 million, subsequently supporting the Jordan's national tourism strategy goals to serve as a regional transit hub for leisure and business travel. The aims to boost its capacity to 16 million passengers annually by the end of the concession time frame in 2032. \n\nTerminal\n\nQAIA's new design was created by architects Foster + Partners. Its main characteristic is the roof that was inspired by Bedouin tents and is composed of 127 concrete domes, each weighing up to 600 metric tonnes. \n\nThe airport has three lounges, one operated by Royal Jordanian for business and first class passengers, and one operated by Airport Hotel next to the North Concourse, and the last exclusively run by telecom operator Zain Jordan for its VIP customers. Retail space was expanded by 25% at the new terminal, covering more than 6000 sqm. The terminal houses several international food and beverage venues that include restaurants, supermarkets and a nuts roastery; a larger Duty Free area; a children's play area; additional shopping outlets; and internet connectivity.\n\nAirport management\n\nAirport International Group (AIG) is a Jordanian company formed to rehabilitate, expand and operate Queen Alia International Airport under a 25-year Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) concession agreement. The concession was awarded to AIG in 2007 by the Government of Jordan after an open international tender that was overseen by the International Finance Corporation (World Bank) within its capacity as advisor to the Government. AIG's shareholders include Jordanian, Persian Gulf, and European partners. Shareholders include Invest AD, Noor Financial Investments Co., Edgo Group, J&P (Overseas) Ltd., and Aeroports de Paris Management.\n\nThrough the BOT Public-Private Partnership framework, the Government retains ownership of the airport and receives 54.47% of the airport's gross revenues for the first six years, and 54.64% of the gross revenues for the remaining 19 years of the agreement's 25-year term. \n\nAs part of its public-private partnership (PPP) with the Government of Jordan, AIG closely collaborates with the Government on a day-to-day basis on all issues related to the airport. A dedicated project management unit (PMU) within the Jordanian Ministry of Transport oversees the project for the Government. The Ministry of Transport receives full annual financial statements as well as quarterly financial and operational reports.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nPassenger\n\n;Notes\n* Yemenia's flights operate via Bisha Domestic Airport. However, Yemenia does not have the traffic rights to transport passengers solely between Amman and Bisha.\n\nCargo\n\nStatistics \n\nAwards\n\nThe global Airport Service Quality (ASQ) Survey for Q1 2014 ranked QAIA at first place in 18 different service and facility categories from among 10 airports across the Middle East. QAIA also came in at 13th place from amongst 81 airports worldwide within the group of airports serving 5-15 million passengers and recorded an Overall Satisfaction Score of 4.42 out of a possible 5.0, an improvement compared to its 4.23 score in Q4 2013. With regards to luggage delivery speed, QAIA earned a 4.13 score, up from 3.99 during the previous quarter.\n\nQAIA also received two 2013 Airport Service Quality (ASQ) Awards in February 2014, ranking at 1st place in the category of \"Best Improvement by Region: Middle East\" and 5th in the category of \"Best Airport by Region: Middle East\". The ASQ Awards results are based on the ASQ Survey, an international airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program. In the 2014 version of the wards, QAIA again received the \"Best Improvement In the Middle east region\" award and leaped forward to become the best airport in the middle east, ahead of Abu Dhabi International Airport, Ben Gurion International Airport, Hamad International Airport and Dubai International Airport. \n\nIn March 2013, QAIA was named one of the world's top 40 Public–private partnership PPP projects, receiving Gold recognition as \"Best Emerging Market Infrastructure Project for Europe, Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa\" in Emerging Partnerships. The winning PPPs, selected from among projects nominated by governments, industry, NGOs, academia and other organizations following a global call for submissions, demonstrated best practices for governments working with the private sector to provide a wide range of public services and to spur economic development in their countries.\n\nIn June 2013, QAIA became the second airport in the Middle East to achieve the \"Mapping\" level of the Airport Carbon Accreditation program run by Airports Council International Europe. The 'Mapping' level recognizes the airport's commitment to determining its carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emission sources at its operational boundary, as well as to engaging a third party to verify the airport's annual carbon footprint.\n\nAccess\n\nThe airport is connected to Amman by Sariyah shuttle buses that ply back and forth around the clock between Amman and the airport every 30 minutes.\n\nAn airport taxi service is also available around the clock. A Rent-a-Car service is also available at the airport.\n\nQAIA's parking facilities are divided into three key areas:\nDeparture curbside area: Reserved for passenger drop-offs and pick-ups, drivers entering the departure curbside must purchase a ticket to enter. Drivers receive a 10-minute free-of-charge grace period.\nShort-term parking lot: Cars parked in this area are subject to an hourly parking fee.\n*Long-term parking lot: Designed for passengers who wish to leave their vehicles at the airport while travelling, the long-term lot charges drivers daily parking fees.\n\nA shuttle bus is available to transport passengers between the terminal and car park." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Jordan (country)", "Al-Urdunn", "أردنّ", "JOrdan", "Urdun", "Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan", "Urdunn", "The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan", "Administrative divisions of Jordan", "HKJ", "State of Jordan", "Jordan", "Jordanian Kingdom", "Languages of Jordan", "Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan", "Jordanie", "Al-Mamlakah al", "Al-'Urdun", "Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan", "ISO 3166-1:JO", "الأردن", "Kingdom of the Jordan", "Ottoman Jordon", "Al-Urdun", "H.K of Jordan", "Etymology of Jordan", "المملكة الأردنّيّة الهاشميّة", "Kingdom of Jordan" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "urdunn", "kingdom of jordan", "al mamlakah al", "languages of jordan", "h k of jordan", "jordanian kingdom", "administrative divisions of jordan", "jordanie", "state of jordan", "الأردن", "hashemite kingdom of transjordan", "أردنّ", "المملكة الأردنّيّة الهاشميّة", "jordan country", "urdun", "ottoman jordon", "iso 3166 1 jo", "al urdun", "jordan", "al urdunn", "etymology of jordan", "hkj", "hashemite kingdom of jordan" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "jordan", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Jordan" }
Which space probe sent pictures from Mars in 1965?	tc_1406	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mars.txt" ], "title": [ "Mars" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is often referred to as the \"Red Planet\" because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth.\n\nThe rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, as is the tilt that produces the seasons. Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet and may be a giant impact feature. Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Mars trojan.\n\nUntil the first successful Mars flyby in 1965 by Mariner 4, many speculated about the presence of liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observed periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which appeared to be seas and continents; long, dark striations were interpreted by some as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later explained as optical illusions, though geological evidence gathered by uncrewed missions suggests that Mars once had large-scale water coverage on its surface at an earlier stage of its existence. In 2005, radar data revealed the presence of large quantities of water ice at the poles and at mid-latitudes. The Mars rover Spirit sampled chemical compounds containing water molecules in March 2007. The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008. On September 28, 2015, NASA announced the presence of briny flowing salt water on the Martian surface. \n\nMars is host to seven functioning spacecraft: five in orbit—2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN and Mars Orbiter Mission—and two on the surface—Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity and the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity. Observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have revealed possible flowing water during the warmest months on Mars. In 2013, NASA's Curiosity rover discovered that Mars's soil contains between 1.5% and 3% water by mass (albeit attached to other compounds and thus not freely accessible).\n\nThere are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. In situ investigations have been performed by the Viking landers, Spirit and Opportunity rovers, Phoenix lander, and Curiosity rover. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers. \n\nMars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye, as can its reddish coloring. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91, which is surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, and the Sun. Optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 km across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth's atmosphere.\n\nPhysical characteristics \n\nMars is approximately half the diameter of Earth, and its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of Earth's mass, resulting in about 38% of Earth's surface gravity. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, or rust. It can look like butterscotch, and other common surface colors include golden, brown, tan, and greenish, depending on the minerals present.[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/multimedia/videos/index.cfm?v29&a\n2 NASA – Mars in a Minute: Is Mars Really Red?] ([http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/videos/movies/miam20111110/miam20111110.pdf Transcript])\n\nInternal structure \n\nLike Earth, Mars has differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core region about 1794 ± in radius, consisting primarily of iron and nickel with about 16–17% sulfur. This iron(II) sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earth's core. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but it appears to be dormant. Besides silicon and oxygen, the most abundant elements in the Martian crust are iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about , with a maximum thickness of . Earth's crust, averaging , is only one third as thick as Mars', in ratio to the sizes of the two planets.\n\nSurface geology \n\nMars is a terrestrial planet that consists of minerals containing silicon and oxygen, metals, and other elements that typically make up rock. The surface of Mars is primarily composed of tholeiitic basalt, although parts are more silica-rich than typical basalt and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth or silica glass. Regions of low albedo show concentrations of plagioclase feldspar, with northern low albedo regions displaying higher than normal concentrations of sheet silicates and high-silicon glass. Parts of the southern highlands include detectable amounts of high-calcium pyroxenes. Localized concentrations of hematite and olivine have been found. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron(III) oxide dust.\n\nAlthough Mars has no evidence of a structured global magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized, and that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals has properties that are similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars four billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and the planet's magnetic field faded away.\n\nDuring the Solar System's formation, Mars was created as the result of a stochastic process of run-away accretion out of the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun. Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System. Elements with comparatively low boiling points, such as chlorine, phosphorus, and sulphur, are much more common on Mars than Earth; these elements were probably removed from areas closer to the Sun by the young star's energetic solar wind.\n\nAfter the formation of the planets, all were subjected to the so-called \"Late Heavy Bombardment\". About 60% of the surface of Mars shows a record of impacts from that era, whereas much of the remaining surface is probably underlain by immense impact basins caused by those events. There is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars, spanning 10600 by, or roughly four times larger than the Moon's South Pole – Aitken basin, the largest impact basin yet discovered. This theory suggests that Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago. The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet.\n\nThe geological history of Mars can be split into many periods, but the following are the three primary periods:\n* Noachian period (named after Noachis Terra): Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 4.5 billion years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, a volcanic upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the period.\n* Hesperian period (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 2.9–3.3 billion years ago. The Hesperian period is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains.\n* Amazonian period (named after Amazonis Planitia): 2.9–3.3 billion years ago to present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters, but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period, along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars.\n\nGeological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows up to about 200 Mya. Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 Mya, indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions. On February 19, 2008, images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed evidence of an avalanche from a 700 m high cliff.\n\nSoil \n\nThe Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine. These nutrients are found in gardens on Earth, and they are necessary for growth of plants. Experiments performed by the lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic pH of 7.7, and contains 0.6% of the salt perchlorate. \n\nStreaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age. The streaks can start in a tiny area which then spread out for hundreds of metres. They have been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path. The commonly accepted theories include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils. Several explanations have been put forward, including those that involve water or even the growth of organisms.\n\nHydrology \n\nLiquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is about 100 times thinner than Earth's, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water. The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 m. A permafrost mantle stretches from the pole to latitudes of about 60°. Large quantities of water ice are thought to be trapped within the thick cryosphere of Mars. Radar data from Mars Express and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter show large quantities of water ice both at the poles (July 2005) and at middle latitudes (November 2008). The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008.\n\nLandforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across the surface in around 25 places. These are thought to record erosion which occurred during the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava. One of the larger examples, Ma'adim Vallis is 700 km long and much bigger than the Grand Canyon with a width of 20 km and a depth of 2 km in places. It is thought to have been carved by flowing water early in Mars's history. The youngest of these channels are thought to have formed as recently as only a few million years ago. Elsewhere, particularly on the oldest areas of the Martian surface, finer-scale, dendritic networks of valleys are spread across significant proportions of the landscape. Features of these valleys and their distribution strongly imply that they were carved by runoff resulting from rain or snow fall in early Mars history. Subsurface water flow and groundwater sapping may play important subsidiary roles in some networks, but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases.\n\nAlong crater and canyon walls, there are thousands of features that appear similar to terrestrial gullies. The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the southern hemisphere and to face the Equator; all are poleward of 30° latitude. A number of authors have suggested that their formation process involves liquid water, probably from melting ice, although others have argued for formation mechanisms involving carbon dioxide frost or the movement of dry dust. No partially degraded gullies have formed by weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed, indicating that these are young features, possibly still active. Other geological features, such as deltas and alluvial fans preserved in craters, are further evidence for warmer, wetter conditions at an interval or intervals in earlier Mars history. Such conditions necessarily require the widespread presence of crater lakes across a large proportion of the surface, for which there is independent mineralogical, sedimentological and geomorphological evidence.\n\nFurther evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. In 2004, Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. This forms only in the presence of acidic water, which demonstrates that water once existed on Mars. More recent evidence for liquid water comes from the finding of the mineral gypsum on the surface by NASA's Mars rover Opportunity in December 2011. The study leader Francis McCubbin, a planetary scientist at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque looking at hydroxals in crystalline minerals from Mars, states that the amount of water in the upper mantle of Mars is equal to or greater than that of Earth at 50–300 parts per million of water, which is enough to cover the entire planet to a depth of .\n\nOn March 18, 2013, NASA reported evidence from instruments on the Curiosity rover of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples including the broken fragments of \"Tintina\" rock and \"Sutton Inlier\" rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like \"Knorr\" rock and \"Wernicke\" rock. Analysis using the rover's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4% water content, down to a depth of 60 cm, in the rover's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain. On September 28, 2015, NASA announced that they had found conclusive evidence of hydrated brine flows on recurring slope lineae, based on spectrometer readings of the darkened areas of slopes. These observations provided confirmation of earlier hypotheses based on timing of formation and rate of growth that these dark streaks resulted from water flowing in the very shallow subsurface. The streaks contain hydrated salts, perchlorates, which have water molecules in their crystal structure. The streaks flow downhill in Martian summer, when the temperature is above –23 degrees Celsius, and freeze at lower temperatures. \n\nResearchers think that much of the low northern plains of the planet were covered with an ocean hundreds of meters deep, though this remains controversial. In March 2015, scientists stated that such an ocean might have been the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that this new study has not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water. \n\nPolar caps \n\nMars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness, chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25–30% of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice (dry ice). When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the frozen CO2 sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor, giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.\n\nThe polar caps at both poles consist primarily (70%) of water ice. Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only, whereas the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick. This permanent dry ice cover at the south pole is peppered by flat floored, shallow, roughly circular pits, which repeat imaging shows are expanding by meters per year; this suggests that the permanent CO2 cover over the south pole water ice is degrading over time. The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer, and contains about of ice, which, if spread evenly on the cap, would be 2 km thick. (This compares to a volume of for the Greenland ice sheet.) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km. The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km. Both polar caps show spiral troughs, which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect.\n\nThe seasonal frosting of areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1-metre-thick slabs of dry ice above the ground. With the arrival of spring, sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab, elevating and ultimately rupturing it. This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a rate of change rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spiderweb-like pattern of radial channels under the ice, the process being the inverted equivalent of an erosion network formed by water draining through a single plughole.\n\nGeography and naming of surface features \n\nAlthough better remembered for mapping the Moon, Johann Heinrich Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first \"areographers\". They began by establishing that most of Mars's surface features were permanent and by more precisely determining the planet's rotation period. In 1840, Mädler combined ten years of observations and drew the first map of Mars. Rather than giving names to the various markings, Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters; Meridian Bay (Sinus Meridiani) was thus feature \"a\".\n\nToday, features on Mars are named from a variety of sources. Albedo features are named for classical mythology. Craters larger than 60 km are named for deceased scientists and writers and others who have contributed to the study of Mars. Craters smaller than 60 km are named for towns and villages of the world with populations of less than 100,000. Large valleys are named for the word \"Mars\" or \"star\" in various languages; small valleys are named for rivers.\n\nLarge albedo features retain many of the older names, but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features. For example, Nix Olympica (the snows of Olympus) has become Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus). The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas, with differing albedo. The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian \"continents\" and given names like Arabia Terra (land of Arabia) or Amazonis Planitia (Amazonian plain). The dark features were thought to be seas, hence their names Mare Erythraeum, Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus. The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major Planum. The permanent northern polar ice cap is named Planum Boreum, whereas the southern cap is called Planum Australe.\n\nMars's equator is defined by its rotation, but the location of its Prime Meridian was specified, as was Earth's (at Greenwich), by choice of an arbitrary point; Mädler and Beer selected a line in 1830 for their first maps of Mars. After the spacecraft Mariner 9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972, a small crater (later called Airy-0), located in the Sinus Meridiani (\"Middle Bay\" or \"Meridian Bay\"), was chosen for the definition of 0.0° longitude to coincide with the original selection.\n\nBecause Mars has no oceans and hence no \"sea level\", a zero-elevation surface had to be selected as a reference level; this is called the areoid of Mars, analogous to the terrestrial geoid. Zero altitude was defined by the height at which there is of atmospheric pressure. This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water, and it is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth (0.006 atm). In practice, today this surface is defined directly from satellite gravity measurements.\n\nMap of quadrangles\n\nFor mapping purposes, the United States Geological Survey divides the surface of Mars into thirty \"quadrangles\", each named for a prominent physiographic feature within that quadrangle. The quadrangles can be seen and explored via the interactive image map below. \n\nImpact topography \n\nThe dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands, pitted and cratered by ancient impacts. Research in 2008 has presented evidence regarding a theory proposed in 1980 postulating that, four billion years ago, the northern hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one-tenth to two-thirds the size of Earth's Moon. If validated, this would make the northern hemisphere of Mars the site of an impact crater 10600 by in size, or roughly the area of Europe, Asia, and Australia combined, surpassing the South Pole–Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System.\n\nMars is scarred by a number of impact craters: a total of 43,000 craters with a diameter of 5 km or greater have been found. The largest confirmed of these is the Hellas impact basin, a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth. Due to the smaller mass of Mars, the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of Earth. Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is more likely to be struck by short-period comets, i.e., those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter. In spite of this, there are far fewer craters on Mars compared with the Moon, because the atmosphere of Mars provides protection against small meteors. Craters can have a morphology that suggests the ground became wet after the meteor impacted.\n\nVolcanoes \n\nThe shield volcano Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus) is an extinct volcano in the vast upland region Tharsis, which contains several other large volcanoes. Olympus Mons is roughly three times the height of Mount Everest, which in comparison stands at just over . It is either the tallest or second-tallest mountain in the Solar System, depending on how it is measured, with various sources giving figures ranging from about 21 to high. \n\nTectonic sites \n\nThe large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for \"Mariner Valleys\", also known as Agathadaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of 4000 km and a depth of up to 7 km. The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth is only long and nearly deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area, which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse. In 2012, it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a graben, but a plate boundary where 150 km of transverse motion has occurred, making Mars a planet with possibly a two-tectonic plate arrangement. \n\nHoles \n\nImages from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the volcano Arsia Mons. The caves, named after loved ones of their discoverers, are collectively known as the \"seven sisters\". Cave entrances measure from 100 to wide and they are estimated to be at least 73 to deep. Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves, it is possible that they extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the surface. \"Dena\" is the only exception; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 m deep. The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet's surface.\n\nAtmosphere \n\nMars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars, and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter. Compared to Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied. Atmospheric pressure on the surface today ranges from a low of on Olympus Mons to over in Hellas Planitia, with a mean pressure at the surface level of . The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that found above Earth's surface. The resulting mean surface pressure is only 0.6% of that of Earth (101.3 kPa). The scale height of the atmosphere is about , which is higher than Earth's () because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's, an effect offset by both the lower temperature and 50% higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of Mars.\n\nThe atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along with traces of oxygen and water. The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface. It may take on a pink hue due to iron oxide particles suspended in it.\n\nMethane has been detected in the Martian atmosphere with a mole fraction of about 30 ppb; it occurs in extended plumes, and the profiles imply that the methane was released from discrete regions. In northern midsummer, the principal plume contained 19,000 metric tons of methane, with an estimated source strength of 0.6 kilograms per second. The profiles suggest that there may be two local source regions, the first centered near and the second near . It is estimated that Mars must produce 270 tonnes per year of methane.\n\nMethane can exist in the Martian atmosphere for only a limited period before it is destroyed—estimates of its lifetime range from 0.6–4 years. Its presence despite this short lifetime indicates that an active source of the gas must be present. Volcanic activity, cometary impacts, and the presence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources. Methane could be produced by a non-biological process called serpentinization involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars.\n\nThe Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars in August 2012, is able to make measurements that distinguish between different isotopologues of methane, but even if the mission is to determine that microscopic Martian life is the source of the methane, the life forms likely reside far below the surface, outside of the rover's reach. The first measurements with the Tunable Laser Spectrometer (TLS) indicated that there is less than 5 ppb of methane at the landing site at the point of the measurement. On September 19, 2013, NASA scientists, from further measurements by Curiosity, reported no detection of atmospheric methane with a measured value of ppbv corresponding to an upper limit of only 1.3 ppbv (95% confidence limit) and, as a result, conclude that the probability of current methanogenic microbial activity on Mars is reduced. \n\nThe Mars Orbiter Mission by India is searching for methane in the atmosphere, while the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, planned to launch in 2016, would further study the methane as well as its decomposition products, such as formaldehyde and methanol.Mustard, Jack (July 9, 2009) [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/pss/july2009/presentations/05MEPAG.pdf MEPAG Report to the Planetary Science Subcommittee]. lpi.usra.edu. p. 3\n\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported the Curiosity rover detected a \"tenfold spike\", likely localized, in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere. Sample measurements taken \"a dozen times over 20 months\" showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging \"7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere.\" Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. \n\nAmmonia was tentatively detected on Mars by the Mars Express satellite, but with its relatively short lifetime, it is not clear what produced it. Ammonia is not stable in the Martian atmosphere and breaks down after a few hours. One possible source is volcanic activity.\n\nAurora \n\nIn 1994 the European Space Agency's Mars Express found an ultraviolet glow coming from \"magnetic umbrellas\" in the southern hemisphere. Mars does not have a global magnetic field which guides charged particles entering the atmosphere. Mars has multiple umbrella-shaped magnetic fields mainly in the southern hemisphere, which are remnants of a global field that decayed billions of years ago.\n\nIn late December 2014, NASA's MAVEN spacecraft detected evidence of widespread auroras in Mars's northern hemisphere and descended to approximately 20–30 degrees North latitude of Mars's equator. The particles causing the aurora penetrated into the Martian atmosphere, creating auroras below 100 km above the surface, Earth's auroras range from 100 km to 500 km above the surface. Magnetic fields in the solar wind drape over Mars, into the atmosphere, and the charged particles follow the solar wind magnetic field lines into the atmosphere, causing auroras to occur outside the magnetic umbrellas. \n\nOn March 18, 2015, NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars. \n\nClimate \n\nOf all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. The lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's because Mars's greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years long. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about at the winter polar caps to highs of up to 35 C in equatorial summer. The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil. The planet is 1.52 times as far from the Sun as Earth, resulting in just 43% of the amount of sunlight.\n\nIf Mars had an Earth-like orbit, its seasons would be similar to Earth's because its axial tilt is similar to Earth's. The comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the north, and near aphelion when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the north. As a result, the seasons in the southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in the northern are milder than would otherwise be the case. The summer temperatures in the south can be up to 30 K-change warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north.\n\nMars has the largest dust storms in the Solar System. These can vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, and have been shown to increase the global temperature.\n\nOrbit and rotation \n\nMars's average distance from the Sun is roughly 143000000 mi, and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours.\n\nThe axial tilt of Mars is 25.19 degrees relative to its orbital plane, which is similar to the axial tilt of Earth. As a result, Mars has seasons like Earth, though on Mars, they are nearly twice as long because its orbital period is that much longer. In the present day epoch, the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb. Mars passed an aphelion in March 2010 and its perihelion in March 2011. The next aphelion came in February 2012 and the next perihelion came in January 2013.\n\nMars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other planets in the Solar System, only Mercury has a larger orbital eccentricity. It is known that in the past, Mars has had a much more circular orbit. At one point, 1.35 million Earth years ago, Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002, much less than that of Earth today. Mars's cycle of eccentricity is 96,000 Earth years compared to Earth's cycle of 100,000 years. Mars has a much longer cycle of eccentricity with a period of 2.2 million Earth years, and this overshadows the 96,000-year cycle in the eccentricity graphs. For the last 35,000 years, the orbit of Mars has been getting slightly more eccentric because of the gravitational effects of the other planets. The closest distance between Earth and Mars will continue to mildly decrease for the next 25,000 years.\n\nHabitability and search for life\n\nSearch for life \n\nThe current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life—favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars. During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\n\nThe lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.\n\nEvidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results, including a temporary increase of CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. This sign of life was later disputed by scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life. A re-analysis of the Viking data, in light of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life, has suggested that the Viking tests were not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life. The tests could even have killed a (hypothetical) life form. Tests conducted by the Phoenix Mars lander have shown that the soil has a alkaline pH and it contains magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. The soil nutrients may be able to support life, but life would still have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light. A recent analysis of martian meteorite EETA79001 found 0.6 ppm ClO4−, 1.4 ppm ClO3−, and 16 ppm NO3−, most likely of martian origin. The ClO3− suggests presence of other highly oxidizing oxychlorines such as ClO2− or ClO, produced both by UV oxidation of Cl and X-ray radiolysis of ClO4−. Thus only highly refractory and/or well-protected (sub-surface) organics or life forms are likely to survive. \nA 2014 analysis of the Phoenix WCL showed that the Ca(ClO4)2 in the Phoenix soil has not interacted with liquid water of any form, perhaps for as long as 600 Myr. If it had, the highly soluble Ca(ClO4)2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO4. This suggests a severely arid environment, with minimal or no liquid water interaction. \n\nScientists have proposed that carbonate globules found in meteorite ALH84001, which is thought to have originated from Mars, could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars when the meteorite was blasted from the Martian surface by a meteor strike some 15 million years ago. This proposal has been met with skepticism, and an exclusively inorganic origin for the shapes has been proposed.\n\nSmall quantities of methane and formaldehyde detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be possible evidence for life, as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere. Alternatively, these compounds may instead be replenished by volcanic or other geological means, such as serpentinization.\n\nImpact glass, formed by the impact of meteors, which on Earth can preserve signs of life, has been found on the surface of the impact craters on Mars. Likewise, the glass in impact craters on Mars could have preserved signs of life if life existed at the site. \n\nMoons \n\nMars has two relatively small natural moons, Phobos (about 22 km in diameter) and Deimos (about 12 km in diameter), which orbit close to the planet. Asteroid capture is a long-favored theory, but their origin remains uncertain. Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall; they are named after the characters Phobos (panic/fear) and Deimos (terror/dread), who, in Greek mythology, accompanied their father Ares, god of war, into battle. Mars was the Roman counterpart of Ares. In modern Greek, though, the planet retains its ancient name Ares (Aris: Άρης).\n\nFrom the surface of Mars, the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear different from that of the Moon. Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in just 11 hours. Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbit – where the orbital period would match the planet's period of rotation – rises as expected in the east but slowly. Despite the 30-hour orbit of Deimos, 2.7 days elapse between its rise and set for an equatorial observer, as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars.\n\nBecause the orbit of Phobos is below synchronous altitude, the tidal forces from the planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years, it could either crash into Mars's surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.\n\nThe origin of the two moons is not well understood. Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids, supporting the capture theory. The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point towards a relatively recent capture. But both have circular orbits, near the equator, which is unusual for captured objects and the required capture dynamics are complex. Accretion early in the history of Mars is plausible, but would not account for a composition resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself, if that is confirmed.\n\nA third possibility is the involvement of a third body or a type of impact disruption. More-recent lines of evidence for Phobos having a highly porous interior, and suggesting a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates and other minerals known from Mars, point toward an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars that reaccreted in Martian orbit, similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth's moon. Although the VNIR spectra of the moons of Mars resemble those of outer-belt asteroids, the thermal infrared spectra of Phobos are reported to be inconsistent with chondrites of any class.\n\nMars may have moons smaller than 50 to in diameter, and a dust ring is predicted to exist between Phobos and Deimos.\n\nExploration \n\nDozens of crewless spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been sent to Mars by the Soviet Union, the United States, Europe, and India to study the planet's surface, climate, and geology. Presently, information is being relayed from seven active probes on or in-orbit around Mars, including five orbiters and two rovers. This includes 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), MAVEN, Mars Orbiter Mission, Opportunity, and Curiosity. The public can request MRO images of Mars via the HiWish program.\n\nThe Mars Science Laboratory, named Curiosity, launched on November 26, 2011, and reached Mars on August 6, 2012 UTC. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers, with a movement rate up to 90 m per hour. Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 7 m. On February 10, 2013, the Curiosity rover obtained the first deep rock samples ever taken from another planetary body, using its on-board drill. \n\nOn September 24, 2014, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation, reached Mars orbit. ISRO launched MOM on November 5, 2013, with the aim of analyzing the Martian atmosphere and topography. The Mars Orbiter Mission used a Hohmann transfer orbit to escape Earth's gravitational influence and catapult into a nine-month-long voyage to Mars. The mission is the first successful Asian interplanetary mission. \n\nFuture \n\nPlanned for March 2016 is the launch of the InSight lander, together with two identical CubeSats that will fly by Mars and provide landing telemetry. The lander and CubeSats are planned to arrive at Mars in September 2016. \n\nThe European Space Agency, in collaboration with Roscosmos, will deploy the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli lander in 2016, and the ExoMars rover in 2018. NASA plans to launch its Mars 2020 astrobiology rover in 2020.\n\nThe United Arab Emirates' Mars Hope orbiter is planned for launch in 2020, reaching Mars orbit in 2021. The probe will make a global study of the Martian atmosphere. \n\nSeveral plans for a human mission to Mars have been proposed throughout the 20th century and into the 21st century, but no active plan has an arrival date sooner than 2025.\n\nAstronomy on Mars \n\nWith the existence of various orbiters, landers, and rovers, it is possible to do astronomy from Mars. Although Mars's moon Phobos appears about one third the angular diameter of the full moon on Earth, Deimos appears more or less star-like and appears only slightly brighter than Venus does from Earth.\n\nThere are various phenomena, well-known on Earth, that have been observed on Mars, such as meteors and auroras. A transit of Earth as seen from Mars will occur on November 10, 2084. There are transits of Mercury and transits of Venus, and the moons Phobos and Deimos are of sufficiently small angular diameter that their partial \"eclipses\" of the Sun are best considered transits (see Transit of Deimos from Mars).\n\nOn October 19, 2014, Comet Siding Spring passed extremely close to Mars, so close that the coma may have enveloped Mars. \n\nViewing \n\nBecause the orbit of Mars is eccentric, its apparent magnitude at opposition from the Sun can range from −3.0 to −1.4. The minimum brightness is magnitude +1.6 when the planet is in conjunction with the Sun. Mars usually appears distinctly yellow, orange, or red; the actual color of Mars is closer to butterscotch, and the redness seen is just dust in the planet's atmosphere. NASA's Spirit rover has taken pictures of a greenish-brown, mud-colored landscape with blue-grey rocks and patches of light red sand. When farthest away from Earth, it is more than seven times farther away than when it is closest. When least favorably positioned, it can be lost in the Sun's glare for months at a time. At its most favorable times—at 15- or 17-year intervals, and always between late July and late September—a lot of surface detail can be seen with a telescope. Especially noticeable, even at low magnification, are the polar ice caps.\n\nAs Mars approaches opposition, it begins a period of retrograde motion, which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping motion with respect to the background stars. The duration of this retrograde motion lasts for about 72 days, and Mars reaches its peak luminosity in the middle of this motion.\n\nClosest approaches \n\nRelative \n\nThe point at which Mars's geocentric longitude is 180° different from the Sun's is known as opposition, which is near the time of closest approach to Earth. The time of opposition can occur as much as 8.5 days away from the closest approach. The distance at close approach varies between about 54 and about 103 million km due to the planets' elliptical orbits, which causes comparable variation in angular size. The last Mars opposition occurred on April 8, 2014 at a distance of about 93 million km. The next Mars opposition occurs on May 22, 2016 at a distance of 76 million km. The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars, its synodic period, is 780 days but the number of days between the dates of successive oppositions can range from 764 to 812.\n\nAs Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion, which makes it appear to move backwards in a looping motion relative to the background stars. The duration of this retrograde motion is about 72 days.\n\nAbsolute, around the present time \n\nMars made its closest approach to Earth and maximum apparent brightness in nearly 60,000 years, 55758006 km, magnitude −2.88, on August 27, 2003 at 9:51:13 UT. This occurred when Mars was one day from opposition and about three days from its perihelion, making it particularly easy to see from Earth. The last time it came so close is estimated to have been on September 12, 57 617 BC, the next time being in 2287. This record approach was only slightly closer than other recent close approaches. For instance, the minimum distance on August 22, 1924 was , and the minimum distance on August 24, 2208 will be .\n\nHistorical observations \n\nThe history of observations of Mars is marked by the oppositions of Mars, when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible, which occur every couple of years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars, which occur every 15 or 17 years and are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion, making it even closer to Earth.\n\nAncient and medieval observations \n\nThe existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by the ancient Egyptian astronomers and by 1534 BCE they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet. By the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Babylonian astronomers were making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of their behavior. For Mars, they knew that the planet made 37 synodic periods, or 42 circuits of the zodiac, every 79 years. They invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets.\n\nIn the fourth century BCE, Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation, indicating the planet was farther away. Ptolemy, a Greek living in Alexandria, attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection Almagest, which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries. Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE. In the fifth century CE, the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the diameter of Mars. In the East Asian cultures, Mars is traditionally referred to as the \"fire star\" (), based on the Five elements. \n\nDuring the seventeenth century, Tycho Brahe measured the diurnal parallax of Mars that Johannes Kepler used to make a preliminary calculation of the relative distance to the planet. When the telescope became available, the diurnal parallax of Mars was again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance. This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. The early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments. The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of October 13, 1590, seen by Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg. In 1610, Mars was viewed by Galileo Galilei, who was first to see it via telescope. The first person to draw a map of Mars that displayed any terrain features was the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens.\n\nMartian \"canals\" \n\nBy the 19th century, the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified. A perihelic opposition of Mars occurred on September 5, 1877. In that year, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22 cm telescope in Milan to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called canali, which were later shown to be an optical illusion. These canali were supposedly long, straight lines on the surface of Mars, to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term, which means \"channels\" or \"grooves\", was popularly mistranslated in English as \"canals\".\n\nInfluenced by the observations, the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatory which had 30 and telescopes. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public. The canali were independently found by other astronomers, like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon in Nice, using one of the largest telescopes of that time.\n\nThe seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summer) in combination with the canals lead to speculation about life on Mars, and it was a long-held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation. The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations. As bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed. During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with an 84 cm telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen.\n\nEven in the 1960s articles were published on Martian biology, putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. Detailed scenarios for the metabolism and chemical cycles for a functional ecosystem have been published.\n\nSpacecraft visitation \n\nOnce spacecraft visited the planet during NASA's Mariner missions in the 1960s and 70s these concepts were radically broken. The results of the Viking life-detection experiments aided an intermission in which the hypothesis of a hostile, dead planet was generally accepted.\n\nMariner 9 and Viking allowed better maps of Mars to be made using the data from these missions, and another major leap forward was the Mars Global Surveyor mission, launched in 1996 and operated until late 2006, that allowed complete, extremely detailed maps of the Martian topography, magnetic field and surface minerals to be obtained. These maps are available online; for example, at Google Mars. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars Express continued exploring with new instruments, and supporting lander missions. NASA provides two online tools: Mars Trek, which provides visualizations of the planet using data from 50 years of exploration, and Experience Curiosity, which simulates traveling on Mars in 3-D with Curiosity. \n\nIn culture \n\nMars is named after the Roman god of war. In different cultures, Mars represents masculinity and youth. Its symbol, a circle with an arrow pointing out to the upper right, is used as a symbol for the male gender.\n\nThe many failures in Mars exploration probes resulted in a satirical counter-culture blaming the failures on an Earth-Mars \"Bermuda Triangle\", a \"Mars Curse\", or a \"Great Galactic Ghoul\" that feeds on Martian spacecraft.\n\nIntelligent \"Martians\" \n\nThe fashionable idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians exploded in the late 19th century. Schiaparelli's \"canali\" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling, dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works.\n\nMany other observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been termed \"Mars Fever\". In 1899 while investigating atmospheric radio noise using his receivers in his Colorado Springs lab, inventor Nikola Tesla observed repetitive signals that he later surmised might have been radio communications coming from another planet, possibly Mars. In a 1901 interview Tesla said:\n\nIt was some time afterward when the thought flashed upon my mind that the disturbances I had observed might be due to an intelligent control. Although I could not decipher their meaning, it was impossible for me to think of them as having been entirely accidental. The feeling is constantly growing on me that I had been the first to hear the greeting of one planet to another.\n\nTesla's theories gained support from Lord Kelvin who, while visiting the United States in 1902, was reported to have said that he thought Tesla had picked up Martian signals being sent to the United States. Kelvin \"emphatically\" denied this report shortly before departing America: \"What I really said was that the inhabitants of Mars, if there are any, were doubtless able to see New York, particularly the glare of the electricity.\"\n\nIn a New York Times article in 1901, Edward Charles Pickering, director of the Harvard College Observatory, said that they had received a telegram from Lowell Observatory in Arizona that seemed to confirm that Mars was trying to communicate with Earth.\n\nEarly in December 1900, we received from Lowell Observatory in Arizona a telegram that a shaft of light had been seen to project from Mars (the Lowell observatory makes a specialty of Mars) lasting seventy minutes. I wired these facts to Europe and sent out neostyle copies through this country. The observer there is a careful, reliable man and there is no reason to doubt that the light existed. It was given as from a well-known geographical point on Mars. That was all. Now the story has gone the world over. In Europe it is stated that I have been in communication with Mars, and all sorts of exaggerations have spring up. Whatever the light was, we have no means of knowing. Whether it had intelligence or not, no one can say. It is absolutely inexplicable.\n\nPickering later proposed creating a set of mirrors in Texas, intended to signal Martians.\n\nIn recent decades, the high-resolution mapping of the surface of Mars, culminating in Mars Global Surveyor, revealed no artifacts of habitation by \"intelligent\" life, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars continues from commentators such as Richard C. Hoagland. Reminiscent of the canali controversy, these speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as 'pyramids' and the 'Face on Mars'. Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote:\nMars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears.\n\nThe depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by nineteenth century scientific speculations that its surface conditions might support not just life but intelligent life. Thus originated a large number of science fiction scenarios, among which is H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, published in 1898, in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth.\n\nInfluential works included Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles, in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization, Edgar Rice Burroughs' Barsoom series, C. S. Lewis' novel Out of the Silent Planet (1938), and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties.\n\nJonathan Swift made reference to the moons of Mars, about 150 years before their actual discovery by Asaph Hall, detailing reasonably accurate descriptions of their orbits, in the 19th chapter of his novel Gulliver's Travels. \n\nA comic figure of an intelligent Martian, Marvin the Martian, appeared on television in 1948 as a character in the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers, and has continued as part of popular culture to the present. In the 1950s, TV shows such as I Love Lucy made light of the popular belief in life on Mars; for example, when Lucy and Ethel were hired to portray Martians landing on the top of the Empire State Building as a publicity stunt for an upcoming movie.\n\nAfter the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is, an apparently lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned, and a vogue for accurate, realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed, the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy. Pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction, especially in film.\n\nThe theme of a Martian colony that fights for independence from Earth is a major plot element in the novels of Greg Bear as well as the movie Total Recall (based on a short story by Philip K. Dick) and the television series Babylon 5. Video games use this element, including Red Faction and the Zone of the Enders series. Mars (and its moons) were the setting for the popular Doom video game franchise and the later Martian Gothic." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mariner4", "Mariner 4", "Mariner IV", "1964-077A" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "mariner iv", "mariner4", "1964 077a", "mariner 4" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mariner 4", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mariner 4" }
Which villain was played by Burgess Meredith in the 1960s Batman TV series?	tc_1407	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Burgess_Meredith.txt", "Batman.txt", "Batman_(TV_series).txt" ], "title": [ "Burgess Meredith", "Batman", "Batman (TV series)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Oliver Burgess Meredith (November 16, 1907 – September 9, 1997), known professionally as Burgess Meredith, was an American actor, director, producer, and writer in theater, film, and television. Active for more than six decades, Meredith has been called \"a virtuosic actor\" and \"one of the most accomplished actors of the century\". A life member of the Actors Studio by invitation, he won several Emmys, was the first male actor to win the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor twice, and was nominated for two Academy Awards.\n\nMeredith was known later in his career for his appearances on The Twilight Zone, portraying arch-villain The Penguin on the 1960s TV series Batman, and boxing trainer Mickey Goldmill in the Rocky film series. \"Although those performances renewed his popularity,\" observed Mel Gussow in The New York Times, \"they represented only a small part of a richly varied career in which he played many of the more demanding roles in classical and contemporary theater—in plays by Shakespeare, O'Neill, Beckett and others.\"\n\nEarly life\n\nMeredith was born in 1907 in Cleveland, Ohio, the son of Ida Beth (née Burgess) and Dr. William George Meredith, a Canadian-born physician, of English descent. \n\nMeredith graduated from Hoosac School in 1926 and then attended Amherst College (class of 1931). He later served in the United States Army Air Forces in World War II, reaching the rank of Captain. He was discharged in 1944 to work on the movie The Story of G.I. Joe, in which he starred as the popular war correspondent Ernie Pyle. \n\nActing career\n\nTheatre\n\nIn 1929, he became a member of Eva Le Gallienne's Civic Repertory Theatre company in New York City. Although best known to the larger world audience for his film and television work, Meredith was an influential actor and director for the stage. He made his Broadway debut as Peter in Le Gallienne's production of Romeo and Juliet (1930) and became a star in Maxwell Anderson's Winterset (1935), which became his film debut the following year. His early life and theatre work were the subject of a New Yorker profile. \n\nHe garnered critical acclaim in the 1935 Broadway revival of The Barretts of Wimpole Street starring Katharine Cornell. She subsequently cast him in several of her later productions. Other Broadway roles included Van van Dorn in High Tor (1937), Liliom in Liliom (1940), Christy Mahon in The Playboy of the Western World (1946), and Adolphus Cusins Major Barbara (1957). He created the role of Erie Smith in the English-language premiere of Eugene O'Neill's Hughie at the Theater Royal in Bath, England in 1963. He played Hamlet in avant garde theatrical and radio productions of the play. \n\nA distinguished theatre director, he won a Tony Award nomination for his 1974 Broadway staging of Ulysses in Nighttown, a theatrical adaptation of the \"Nighttown\" section of James Joyce's Ulysses. Meredith also shared a Special Tony Award with James Thurber for their collaboration on A Thurber Carnival (1960). \n\nCinema\n\nEarly in his career, Meredith attracted favorable attention, especially for playing George in a 1939 adaptation of John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men and as war correspondent Ernie Pyle in The Story of G.I. Joe (1945). He was featured in many 1940s films, including three — Second Chorus (1940), Diary of a Chambermaid (1946), and On Our Merry Way (1948) — co-starring then-wife Paulette Goddard. He also played alongside Lana Turner in Madame X. As a result of the House Committee on Un-American Activities investigation, Meredith was placed on the Hollywood blacklist, and was largely absent from film for the next decade, though he remained involved in stage plays and radio during this time.\n\nMeredith was a favorite of director Otto Preminger, who cast him in Advise and Consent (1962), The Cardinal (1963), In Harm's Way (1965), Hurry Sundown (1967), Skidoo (1968), and Such Good Friends (1971). He was the Penguin in the Batman movie of 1966 based on the TV series, and in Stay Away Joe (1968) appeared as the father of Elvis Presley's character. In 1975, he received critical acclaim for his performance as Harry Greene in The Day of the Locust and received nominations for the BAFTA, Golden Globe, and Academy Award for best supporting actor. Meredith then played Rocky Balboa's trainer, Mickey Goldmill, in the first three Rocky films (1976, 1979, and 1982). Though his character died in the third Rocky film, he returned briefly in a flashback in the fifth film, Rocky V (1990). His portrayal in the first film earned him his second consecutive nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.\n\nMeredith played an old Korean War veteran Captain J.G. Williams in The Last Chase with Lee Majors. He appeared in Ray Harryhausen's last stop-motion feature Clash of the Titans (1981), in a supporting role. Meredith appeared in Santa Claus: The Movie (1985). In his last years, he played Jack Lemmon's character's sex-crazed 95-year-old father in Grumpy Old Men (1993) and its sequel, Grumpier Old Men (1995).\n\nMeredith directed the movie The Man on the Eiffel Tower (1949) starring Charles Laughton, which was produced by Irving Allen. Meredith also was billed in a supporting role in this film. In 1970, he directed (as well as co-wrote and played a supporting role in) The Yin and the Yang of Mr. Go, an espionage caper starring James Mason and Jeff Bridges.\n\nTelevision\n\nMeredith appeared in four different starring roles in the acclaimed anthology TV series The Twilight Zone, tying him with Jack Klugman for the most appearances on the show in a starring role.\n\nIn the 1961 episode \"Mr. Dingle, the Strong\", Meredith played the title character, a timid weakling who receives superhuman strength from an extraterrestrial experiment in human nature. In \"Time Enough at Last\" he portrayed a henpecked bookworm who finds himself the sole survivor of an unspecified apocalypse which leads him to contemplate suicide until he discovers the ruins of the library. \"Printer's Devil\", Meredith portrayed the Devil himself, and in \"The Obsolete Man\" he portrayed a librarian, sentenced to death in a dystopic totalitarian society. He would later play two more roles in Rod Serling's other anthology series, Night Gallery. Meredith was the narrator for Twilight Zone: The Movie in 1983.\n\nThe actor appeared in various other television programs, including the role of Chris, III, in the 1962 episode \"Hooray, Hooray, the Circus Is Coming to Town\" of the NBC medical drama about psychiatry, The Eleventh Hour starring Wendell Corey and Jack Ging. He also guest starred in the ABC drama about psychiatry, Breaking Point in the 1963 episode titled \"Heart of Marble, Body of Stone\".\n\nMeredith appeared in various western series, such as Rawhide (four times), The Virginian (twice), Wagon Train, Branded, The Wild Wild West, The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters, Laredo, Bonanza, and Daniel Boone. In 1963, he appeared as Vincent Marion in a five-part episode of the last season of the Warner Bros. ABC detective series 77 Sunset Strip. He starred three times in Burke's Law (1963–1964), starring Gene Barry.\n\nMeredith also played the Penguin in the television series Batman from 1966 to 1968. His role as the Penguin was so well-received, the show's writers always had a script featuring the Penguin ready whenever Meredith was available. He and Cesar Romero (the Joker) are tied for number of appearances on the show. \n\nFrom 1972–73, Meredith played V.C.R. Cameron, director of Probe Control, in the television movie/pilot Probe and then in Search, the subsequent TV series (the name was changed to avoid conflict with a program on PBS).\n\nHe won an Emmy Award as Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy or Drama Special for the 1977 television film Tail Gunner Joe, a fictitious study of U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, the anticommunist leader of the 1950s. He was cast as crusading lawyer Joseph Welch.\n\nIn 1992, Meredith narrated a television documentary entitled The Chaplin Puzzle which provided a rare insight into Charles Chaplin's early work circa 1914 at Keystone Studios and Essanay, which is where Chaplin developed his Tramp character. After extensive research,the documentary producers re-edited Chaplin's Police into a two-reeler, the way Chaplin had intended it to be. Essannay had cut it to half the intended length.\n\nOther work\n\nMeredith performed voiceover work. He provided the narration for A Walk in the Sun. As a nod to his longtime association with The Twilight Zone, he served as narrator for the 1983 film based on the series. He was the TV commercial voice for Bulova watches, Honda, Stokely-Van Camp, United Airlines, and Freakies breakfast cereal. \n\nHe supplied the narration for the 1974–75 ABC Saturday morning series Korg: 70,000 B.C. and was the voice of Puff in the series of animated adaptations of the Peter, Paul, and Mary song Puff, the Magic Dragon. In the mid-1950s, he was one of four narrators of the NBC and syndicated public affairs program, The Big Story (1949–58), which focused on courageous journalists. In 1991, he narrated a track on The Chieftains' album of traditional Christmas music and carols, The Bells of Dublin.\n\nHe acted in the Kenny G music video of \"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas\", which was released in 1997. He played the main character, a film operator at a movie theater. \n\nHis last role before his death was the portrayal of both Hamilton Wofford and Covington Wofford characters in the 1996 video game Ripper by Take-Two Interactive. Meredith was considered to play the Penguin's father in the 1992 Tim Burton film Batman Returns, but illness prevented him from it and that role was taken by Paul Reubens. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1994, Meredith published his autobiography, So Far, So Good. In the book he confessed that he suffered from violent mood swings caused by cyclothymia, a form of bipolar disorder.\n\nMeredith was married four times. His first wife, Helen Derby Merrien Burgess, was the daughter of Harry L. Derby, president of the American Cyanamid and Chemical Corporation; she took her life after their divorce. His next two wives were actresses, Margaret Perry and Paulette Goddard. Goddard suffered a miscarriage in 1944. His last marriage, to Kaja Sundsten, lasted 46 years and produced two children--Jonathon (a musician) and Tala (a painter).[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0580565/awards \"Burgess Meredith: Awards\"], Internet Movie Database. Retrieved July 1, 2014.\n\nMeredith won a Primetime Emmy Award for Supporting Actor in 1977 for Tail Gunner Joe, and was nominated for the same award the next year for The Last Hurrah. He was nominated for Best Supporting Actor by the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films three times, in 1978, 1979, and 1982, and won the last two times, for Magic and Clash of the Titans.\n\nIn 1962, Meredith won a Best Supporting Actor award from the National Board of Review, for Advise & Consent, and in 1985 he was nominated for a CableAce Award for his performance in Answers.\n\nFor his contributions to the motion picture industry, Meredith has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. For his onstage contributions, he was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. \n\nMeredith has a 21-acre park named for him in Pomona, New York. He provided the funding to incorporate the village. \n\nSelect filmography\n\nFilm\n\n* The Scoundrel – Flop House Bum (uncredited) (1935)\n* Winterset – Mio Romagna (1936)\n* There Goes the Groom – Dick Matthews (1937)\n* Spring Madness – The Lippencott (1938)\n* Idiot's Delight – Quillery (1939)\n* Of Mice and Men – George Milton (1939)\n* Castle on the Hudson – Steven Rockford (1940)\n* Second Chorus – Hank Taylor (1940)\n* The San Francisco Docks – Johnny Barnes (1940)\n* Tom, Dick and Harry – Harry (1941)\n* That Uncertain Feeling – Sebastian (1941)\n* The Forgotten Village – Narrator (1941)\n* Street of Chance – Frank Thompson/Danny Nearing (1942)\n* A Welcome to Britain – Himself (uncredited) (1943)\n* The Rear Gunner – Pvt. L.A. Pee Wee Williams (1943)\n* Our Country – Himself (1944)\n* Hymn of the Nations – Narrator (voice) (uncredited) (1944)\n* Salute to France – Joe – the American soldier (1944)\n* Tunisian Victory – American soldier (voice) (1944)\n* Attack! Battle of New Britain – Narrator (1944)\n* The Story of G.I. Joe – Ernie Pyle (1945)\n* A Walk in the Sun – Narrator (voice) (uncredited) (1945)\n* The Diary of a Chambermaid – Captain Mauger (1946)\n* Magnificent Doll – James Madison (1946)\n* Mine Own Executioner – Felix Milne (1947)\n* On Our Merry Way – Oliver M Pease (1948)\n* Jigsaw – Jack/Bartender (uncredited) (1949)\n* A Yank Comes Back (1949)\n* Golden Arrow – Dick (1949)\n* The Man on the Eiffel Tower – Joseph Heurtin (1949)\n* Works of Calder – Narrator (1950)\n* Screen Snapshots: Hollywood's Invisible Man – Himself (1954)\n* Joe Butterfly – Joe Butterfly (1957) \n* Albert Schweitzer – Narrator (voice) (1957)\n* The Kidnappers – Louis Halliburton (1958)\n* Sorcerer's Village – Narrator (voice) (1958)\n* America Pauses for Springtime – Himself (1959)\n* America Pauses for the Merry Month of May – Himself (1959)\n* Advise and Consent – Herbert Gelman (1962)\n* The Cardinal – Father Ned Halley (1963)\n* In Harm's Way – Commander Egan Powell (1965)\n* Madame X – Dan Sullivan (1966)\n* The Crazy Quilt – Narrator (voice) (1966)\n* Batman – The Penguin (1966)\n* A Big Hand for the Little Lady – Doc Scully (as Burgess Meridith) (1966)\n* Torture Garden – Dr. Diablo (1967)\n* Hurry Sundown – Judge Purcell (1967)\n* Skidoo – The Warden (1968)\n* Stay Away, Joe – Charlie Lightcloud (1968)\n* Dear Mr. Gable – Narrator (1968)\n* Debrief: Apollo 8 – Narrator (1968)\n* The Father – Captain Ned (1969)\n* The Reivers – Lucious/Narrator (1969)\n* Mackenna's Gold – The Store Keeper (1969)\n* Hard Contract – Ramsey Williams (1969)\n* Debrief: Apollo 8 (narrator, 1969)\n* There Was a Crooked Man... – The Missouri Kid (1970)\n* The Yin and the Yang of Mr. Go – The Dolphin (also director) (1970)\n* Such Good Friends – Kalman (1971)\n* Clay Pigeon – Freedom Lovelace (1971)\n* Beware! The Blob – Old Hobo (uncredited) (1972)\n* The Man – Senator Watson (1972)\n* A Fan's Notes – Mr. Blue (1972)\n* Garden Needles – Winters (1974)\n* The Master Gunfighter – Narrator (voice) (1975) \n* 92 in the Shade – Goldsboro (1975)\n* The Day of the Locust – Harry Greener (1975)\n* The Hindenburg – Emilio Pajetta (1975)\n* Hay que matar a B. – Hector (1975) \n* Rocky – Mickey Goldmill (1976)\n* Burnt Offerings – Arnold Allardyce (1976)\n* The Sentinel – Charles Chazen (1977)\n* Golden Rendezvous – Van Heurden (1977)\n* Foul Play – Mr. Hennessey (1978)\n* Magic – Ben Greene (1978)\n* The Manitou – Dr. Snow (1978)\n* The Great Bank Hoax – Jack Stutz (1978)\n* Rocky II – Mickey Goldmill (1979)\n* Final Assignment – Zak (1980)\n* When Time Ran Out – Rene Valdez (1980)\n* Clash of the Titans – Ammon (1981)\n* The Last Chase – Captain J.G. Williams (1981)\n* True Confessions – Msgr. Seamus Fargo (1981)\n* Rocky III – Mickey Goldmill (1982)\n* Twilight Zone: The Movie – Narrator (voice) (uncredited) (1983)\n* Wet Gold (1984) Made for TV\n* Santa Claus: The Movie – Ancient One (1985)\n* Rocky IV – Mickey Goldmill (archival footage) (uncredited) (1985)\n* G.I. Joe: The Movie – Golobulus (1987)\n* Full Moon in Blue Water – The General (1988)\n* Hot to Trot – Don's Dad (voice) (uncredited) (1988)\n* Rocky V – Mickey Goldmill (Flashback) (1990)\n* State of Grace – Finn (1990)\n* Grumpy Old Men – Grandpa Gustafson (1993)\n* Camp Nowhere – Fein (1994)\n* Tall Tale – Old Man (uncredited) (1995)\n* Grumpier Old Men – Grandpa Gustafson (1995)\n* Rocky Balboa – Mickey Goldmill (archival footage) (uncredited) (2006)\n\nTelevision\n\nTexaco Star Theatre – episode – #2.18 – Himself (1950)\nPerry Como's Kraft Music Hall – episode – #2.56 – Himself (1950)\nYour Show of Shows – 2 episodes – Himself (1950)\nRobert Montgomery Presents – episode – Ride the Pink Horse – Himself/Frank Hugo (1950)\nThe Name's the Same – episode – August 20, 1952 – Himself (1952)\nExcursion – 2 episodes – Opportunities for Youth & The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn – Himself (1953)\nWhat's My Line – episode – November 25, 1956 – Himself (1956)\nThe Big Story – 38 episodes – Narrator (1955–1958)\nThe Ben Hecht Show – episode – #1.56 – Himself – 1958 \nThe Jack Paar Tonight Show – episode – #2.244 – Himself (1959)\nThe Arthur Murray Party – episode – 9.14 – Himself (1959)\nWagon Train – episode – The Grover Allen Story – Grover Allen (1964) \nLaredo – episode – Lazyfoot, Where Are You? – Grubby Sully (1965) \nThe Wild Wild West – episode – The Night of the Human Trigger (1965)\nBatman – 21 episodes – The Penguin – (1966–1968)\nBonanza – episode – Six Black Horses – Owney Duggan (1967) \nThe Monkees – episode – Monkees Blow Their Minds – The Penguin (Cameo) (uncredited) (1968) \nThe Virginian – episode – The Orchard – Tim Bradbury (1968) \nDaniel Boone – episode – Three Score and Ten – Alex Hemming (1969) \nThe Bill Cosby Special, or? – TV Movie – Himself (1971)\nWalt Disney's Wonderful World of Color – episodes – Strange Monster of Strawberry Cove: Parts 1 & 2 – Henry Meade (1971) \nThe Virginian – episode – Flight from Memory – Muley (1971) \nMannix – episode – The Crimson Halo – Noah Otway (1972) \nMcCloud – episode – A Little Plot at Tranquil Valley – Marvin Sloan (1972) \nKorg: 70,000 B.C. – 16 episodes – Narrator (voice) (1974–1975)\nDinah! – Episode #2.111 – Himself (1976)\nThe 48th Annual Academy Awards – TV Special – Himself (Nominee: Best Actor in a Supporting Role) (1976) \nThe 49th Annual Academy Awards – TV Special – Himself (Best Actor in a Supporting Role) (1977) \nLincoln – TV Movie – Winfield Scott (voice) (1992)\nIn the Heat of the Night – episodes – Even Nice People, Lake Winahatchie, & Hatton's Turn: Part 2 – Judge Cully (1993)\nThe Great Battles of the Civil War – TV Mini-Series documentary – episode 6 – Gettysburg Star and Banner Columnist (voice) (1994)\nSearch as V. C. R. Cameron (1972–1973)\nThose Amazing Animals (co-host with Jim Stafford and Priscilla Presley)\nFaerie Tale Theatre: Thumbelina\nThe Twilight Zone (four episodes)\nTales of Tomorrow \"The Great Silence\" (1953)\nRawhide \"The Little Fishes\" (1961)\nNaked City \"Hold for Gloria Christmas\" (as Duncan Kleist, 1962)\nTwelve O'Clock High as (Radar Expert, 1966)\nThe Invaders – \"Wall of Crystal\" (1967)\nIronside \"S2-E11 The Macabre Mr. Micawber\" (as Carney, 1968)\nNight Gallery (as Dr. Fall, 1970)\nThe Return of Captain Nemo (as Prof. Waldo Cunningham 1976)\nPuff the Magic Dragon (voice of Puff, 1978–79, 1982)\nGloria (as Dr. Adams, Gloria Bunker Stivic's boss, 1982–1983)\n\nRadio appearances", "Batman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, and first appeared in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939). Originally named the \"Bat-Man\", the character is also referred to by such epithets as the Caped Crusader, the Dark Knight, and the World's Greatest Detective. \n\nBatman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, an American billionaire, playboy, philanthropist, and owner of Wayne Enterprises. After witnessing the murder of his parents Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne as a child, he swore revenge on criminals, an oath tempered by a sense of justice. Wayne trains himself physically and intellectually and crafts a bat-inspired persona to fight crime. Batman operates in the fictional Gotham City, with assistance from various supporting characters, including his butler Alfred, police commissioner Jim Gordon, and vigilante allies such as Robin. Unlike most superheroes, Batman does not possess any superpowers; rather, he relies on his genius intellect, physical prowess, martial arts abilities, detective skills, science and technology, vast wealth, intimidation, and indomitable will. A large assortment of villains make up Batman's rogues gallery, including his archenemy, the Joker.\n\nBatman became popular soon after his introduction in 1939 and gained his own comic book title, Batman, the following year. As the decades went on, differing interpretations of the character emerged. The late 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with the character for years after the show ended. Various creators worked to return the character to his dark roots, culminating in 1986 with The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller. The success of Warner Bros.' live-action Batman feature films have helped maintain public interest in the character. \n\nAn American cultural icon, Batman has been licensed and adapted into a variety of media, from radio to television and film, and appears on a variety of merchandise sold all over the world, such as toys and video games. The character has also intrigued psychiatrists, with many trying to understand the character's psyche. In May 2011, Batman placed second on IGN's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time, after Superman. Empire magazine listed him second in their 50 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time. Kevin Conroy, Bruce Greenwood, Peter Weller, and Jason O'Mara, among others, have provided the character's voice for animated adaptations. Batman has been portrayed in both film and television by Lewis Wilson, Robert Lowery, Adam West, Michael Keaton, Val Kilmer, George Clooney, Christian Bale, and Ben Affleck.\n\nPublication history\n\nCreation\n\nIn early 1939, the success of Superman in Action Comics prompted editors at National Comics Publications (the future DC Comics) to request more superheroes for its titles. In response, Bob Kane created \"the Bat-Man\". Collaborator Bill Finger recalled that \"Kane had an idea for a character called 'Batman,' and he'd like me to see the drawings. I went over to Kane's, and he had drawn a character who looked very much like Superman with kind of ... reddish tights, I believe, with boots ... no gloves, no gauntlets ... with a small domino mask, swinging on a rope. He had two stiff wings that were sticking out, looking like bat wings. And under it was a big sign ... BATMAN\". The bat-wing-like cape was suggested by Bob Kane, inspired by Leonardo Da Vinci's sketch of an ornithopter flying device as a child. \n\nFinger suggested giving the character a cowl instead of a simple domino mask, a cape instead of wings, and gloves; he also recommended removing the red sections from the original costume. Finger said he devised the name Bruce Wayne for the character's secret identity: \"Bruce Wayne's first name came from Robert Bruce, the Scottish patriot. Wayne, being a playboy, was a man of gentry. I searched for a name that would suggest colonialism. I tried Adams, Hancock ... then I thought of Mad Anthony Wayne.\" He later said his suggestions were influenced by Lee Falk's popular The Phantom, a syndicated newspaper comic-strip character with which Kane was also familiar. \n\nKane and Finger drew upon contemporary 1930s popular culture for inspiration regarding much of the Bat-Man's look, personality, methods, and weaponry. Details find predecessors in pulp fiction, comic strips, newspaper headlines, and autobiographical details referring to Kane himself. As an aristocratic hero with a double identity, the Bat-Man had predecessors in the Scarlet Pimpernel (created by Baroness Emmuska Orczy, 1903) and Zorro (created by Johnston McCulley, 1919). Like them, he performed his heroic deeds in secret, averted suspicion by playing the fool in public, and marked his work with a signature symbol. Kane noted the influence of the films The Mark of Zorro (1920) and The Bat Whispers (1930) in the creation of the character's iconography. Finger, drawing inspiration from pulp heroes like Doc Savage, The Shadow, Dick Tracy, and Sherlock Holmes, made the character a master sleuth. \n\nIn his 1989 autobiography, Kane detailed Finger's contributions to Batman's creation:\n\nGolden Age\n\nSubsequent creation credit\n\nKane signed away ownership in the character in exchange for, among other compensation, a mandatory byline on all Batman comics. This byline did not originally say \"Batman created by Bob Kane\"; his name was simply written on the title page of each story. The name disappeared from the comic book in the mid-1960s, replaced by credits for each story's actual writer and artists. In the late 1970s, when Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster began receiving a \"created by\" credit on the Superman titles, along with William Moulton Marston being given the byline for creating Wonder Woman, Batman stories began saying \"Created by Bob Kane\" in addition to the other credits.\n\nFinger did not receive the same recognition. While he had received credit for other DC work since the 1940s, he began, in the 1960s, to receive limited acknowledgment for his Batman writing; in the letters page of Batman #169 (February 1965) for example, editor Julius Schwartz names him as the creator of the Riddler, one of Batman's recurring villains. However, Finger's contract left him only with his writing page rate and no byline. Kane wrote, \"Bill was disheartened by the lack of major accomplishments in his career. He felt that he had not used his creative potential to its fullest and that success had passed him by.\" At the time of Finger's death in 1974, DC had not officially credited Finger as Batman co-creator.\n\nJerry Robinson, who also worked with Finger and Kane on the strip at this time, has criticized Kane for failing to share the credit. He recalled Finger resenting his position, stating in a 2005 interview with The Comics Journal:\n\nAlthough Kane initially rebutted Finger's claims at having created the character, writing in a 1965 open letter to fans that \"it seemed to me that Bill Finger has given out the impression that he and not myself created the Batman, t' as well as Robin and all the other leading villains and characters. This statement is fraudulent and entirely untrue.\" Kane himself also commented on Finger's lack of credit. \"The trouble with being a 'ghost' writer or artist is that you must remain rather anonymously without 'credit'. However, if one wants the 'credit', then one has to cease being a 'ghost' or follower and become a leader or innovator.\" \n\nIn 1989, Kane revisited Finger's situation, recalling in an interview: \n\nIn September 2015, DC Entertainment revealed that Finger would be receiving credit for his role in Batman's creation on the 2016 superhero film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and the second season of Gotham after a deal was worked out between the Finger family and DC. Finger received credit as a creator of Batman for the first time in a comic in October 2015 with Batman and Robin Eternal #3 and Batman: Arkham Knight Genesis #3. The updated acknowledgement for the character appeared as \"Batman created by Bob Kane with Bill Finger\".\n\nEarly years\n\nThe first Batman story, \"The Case of the Chemical Syndicate\", was published in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939). Finger said, \"Batman was originally written in the style of the pulps\", and this influence was evident with Batman showing little remorse over killing or maiming criminals. Batman proved a hit character, and he received his own solo title in 1940, while continuing to star in Detective Comics. By that time, National was the top-selling and most influential publisher in the industry; Batman and the company's other major hero, Superman, were the cornerstones of the company's success. The two characters were featured side-by-side as the stars of World's Finest Comics, which was originally titled World's Best Comics when it debuted in fall 1940. Creators including Jerry Robinson and Dick Sprang also worked on the strips during this period.\n\nOver the course of the first few Batman strips elements were added to the character and the artistic depiction of Batman evolved. Kane noted that within six issues he drew the character's jawline more pronounced, and lengthened the ears on the costume. \"About a year later he was almost the full figure, my mature Batman\", Kane said. Batman's characteristic utility belt was introduced in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939), followed by the boomerang-like batarang and the first bat-themed vehicle, the Batplane, in #31 (Sept. 1939). The character's origin was revealed in #33 (Nov. 1939), unfolding in a two-page story that establishes the brooding persona of Batman, a character driven by the death of his parents. Written by Finger, it depicts a young Bruce Wayne witnessing his parents' murder at the hands of a mugger. Days later, at their grave, the child vows that \"by the spirits of my parents [I will] avenge their deaths by spending the rest of my life warring on all criminals\". \n\nThe early, pulp-inflected portrayal of Batman started to soften in Detective Comics #38 (April 1940) with the introduction of Robin, Batman's junior counterpart.Wright, p. 17. Robin was introduced, based on Finger's suggestion, because Batman needed a \"Watson\" with whom Batman could talk. Sales nearly doubled, despite Kane's preference for a solo Batman, and it sparked a proliferation of \"kid sidekicks\". The first issue of the solo spin-off series Batman was notable not only for introducing two of his most persistent enemies, the Joker and Catwoman, but for a story in which Batman shoots some monstrous giants to death. That story prompted editor Whitney Ellsworth to decree that the character could no longer kill or use a gun. \n\nBy 1942, the writers and artists behind the Batman comics had established most of the basic elements of the Batman mythos.Boichel, p. 9. In the years following World War II, DC Comics \"adopted a postwar editorial direction that increasingly de-emphasized social commentary in favor of lighthearted juvenile fantasy\". The impact of this editorial approach was evident in Batman comics of the postwar period; removed from the \"bleak and menacing world\" of the strips of the early 1940s, Batman was instead portrayed as a respectable citizen and paternal figure that inhabited a \"bright and colorful\" environment. \n\nSilver and Bronze Age\n\n1950s and early 1960s\n\nBatman was one of the few superhero characters to be continuously published as interest in the genre waned during the 1950s. In the story \"The Mightiest Team in the World\" in Superman #76 (June 1952), Batman teams up with Superman for the first time and the pair discovers each other's secret identity. Following the success of this story, World's Finest Comics was revamped so it featured stories starring both heroes together, instead of the separate Batman and Superman features that had been running before. The team-up of the characters was \"a financial success in an era when those were few and far between\"; this series of stories ran until the book's cancellation in 1986.\n\nBatman comics were among those criticized when the comic book industry came under scrutiny with the publication of psychologist Fredric Wertham's book Seduction of the Innocent in 1954. Wertham's thesis was that children imitated crimes committed in comic books, and that these works corrupted the morals of the youth. Wertham criticized Batman comics for their supposed homosexual overtones and argued that Batman and Robin were portrayed as lovers. Wertham's criticisms raised a public outcry during the 1950s, eventually leading to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority, a code that is no longer in use by the comic book industry. The tendency towards a \"sunnier Batman\" in the postwar years intensified after the introduction of the Comics Code. Scholars have suggested that the characters of Batwoman (in 1956) and the pre-Barbara Gordon Bat-Girl (in 1961) were introduced in part to refute the allegation that Batman and Robin were gay, and the stories took on a campier, lighter feel. \n\nIn the late 1950s, Batman stories gradually became more science fiction-oriented, an attempt at mimicking the success of other DC characters that had dabbled in the genre. New characters such as Batwoman, Ace the Bat-Hound, and Bat-Mite were introduced. Batman's adventures often involved odd transformations or bizarre space aliens. In 1960, Batman debuted as a member of the Justice League of America in The Brave and the Bold #28 (Feb. 1960), and went on to appear in several Justice League comic series starting later that same year.\n\n\"New Look\" Batman and camp\n\nBy 1964, sales on Batman titles had fallen drastically. Bob Kane noted that, as a result, DC was \"planning to kill Batman off altogether\". In response to this, editor Julius Schwartz was assigned to the Batman titles. He presided over drastic changes, beginning with 1964's Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), which was cover-billed as the \"New Look\". Schwartz introduced changes designed to make Batman more contemporary, and to return him to more detective-oriented stories. He brought in artist Carmine Infantino to help overhaul the character. The Batmobile was redesigned, and Batman's costume was modified to incorporate a yellow ellipse behind the bat-insignia. The space aliens, time travel, and characters of the 1950s such as Batwoman, Ace, and Bat-Mite were retired. Batman's butler Alfred was killed off (though his death was quickly reversed) while a new female relative for the Wayne family, Aunt Harriet, came to live with Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson. \n\nThe debut of the Batman television series in 1966 had a profound influence on the character. The success of the series increased sales throughout the comic book industry, and Batman reached a circulation of close to 900,000 copies. Elements such as the character of Batgirl and the show's campy nature were introduced into the comics; the series also initiated the return of Alfred. Although both the comics and TV show were successful for a time, the camp approach eventually wore thin and the show was canceled in 1968. In the aftermath, the Batman comics themselves lost popularity once again. As Julius Schwartz noted, \"When the television show was a success, I was asked to be campy, and of course when the show faded, so did the comic books.\" \n\nStarting in 1969, writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams made a deliberate effort to distance Batman from the campy portrayal of the 1960s TV series and to return the character to his roots as a \"grim avenger of the night\". O'Neil said his idea was \"simply to take it back to where it started. I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories. I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after.\" \n\nO'Neil and Adams first collaborated on the story \"The Secret of the Waiting Graves\" (Detective Comics #395, January 1970). Few stories were true collaborations between O'Neil, Adams, Schwartz, and inker Dick Giordano, and in actuality these men were mixed and matched with various other creators during the 1970s; nevertheless the influence of their work was \"tremendous\". Giordano said: \"We went back to a grimmer, darker Batman, and I think that's why these stories did so well...\" While the work of O'Neil and Adams was popular with fans, the acclaim did little to improve declining sales; the same held true with a similarly acclaimed run by writer Steve Englehart and penciler Marshall Rogers in Detective Comics #471–476 (August 1977 – April 1978), which went on to influence the 1989 movie Batman and be adapted for Batman: The Animated Series, which debuted in 1992. Regardless, circulation continued to drop through the 1970s and 1980s, hitting an all-time low in 1985. \n\nModern Age\n\nThe Dark Knight Returns\n\nFrank Miller's limited series The Dark Knight Returns (February–June 1986), which tells the story of a 55-year-old Batman coming out of retirement in a possible future, reinvigorated the character. The Dark Knight Returns was a financial success and has since become one of the medium's most noted touchstones. The series also sparked a major resurgence in the character's popularity. \n\nThat year Dennis O'Neil took over as editor of the Batman titles and set the template for the portrayal of Batman following DC's status quo-altering miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths. O'Neil operated under the assumption that he was hired to revamp the character and as a result tried to instill a different tone in the books than had gone before. One outcome of this new approach was the \"Year One\" storyline in Batman #404–407 (February–May 1987), in which Frank Miller and artist David Mazzucchelli redefined the character's origins. Writer Alan Moore and artist Brian Bolland continued this dark trend with 1988's 48-page one-shot Batman: The Killing Joke, in which the Joker, attempting to drive Commissioner Gordon insane, cripples Gordon's daughter Barbara, and then kidnaps and tortures the commissioner, physically and psychologically.\n\nThe Batman comics garnered major attention in 1988 when DC Comics created a 900 number for readers to call to vote on whether Jason Todd, the second Robin, lived or died. Voters decided in favor of Jason's death by a narrow margin of 28 votes (see Batman: A Death in the Family). The following year saw the release of Tim Burton's Batman feature film, which firmly brought the character back to the public's attention, grossing millions of dollars at the box office, and millions more in merchandising. However, the three sequels, Tim Burton's Batman Returns and director Joel Schumacher's Batman Forever and Batman & Robin, did not perform as well at the box office. The fourth film in the series, the Schumacher-directed Batman & Robin, meanwhile, was a critical and commercial failure. The Batman movie franchise was rebooted with director and co-writer Christopher Nolan's Batman Begins in 2005, The Dark Knight in 2008 and The Dark Knight Rises in 2012. In 1989, the first issue of Legends of the Dark Knight, the first new solo Batman title in nearly 50 years, sold close to a million copies. \n\nThe 1993 \"Knightfall\" story arc introduced a new villain, Bane, who critically injures Batman after pushing him to the limits of his endurance. Jean-Paul Valley, known as Azrael, is called upon to wear the Batsuit during Bruce Wayne's convalescence. Writers Doug Moench, Chuck Dixon, and Alan Grant worked on the Batman titles during \"Knightfall\", and would also contribute to other Batman crossovers throughout the 1990s. 1998's \"Cataclysm\" storyline served as the precursor to 1999's \"No Man's Land\", a year-long storyline that ran through all the Batman-related titles dealing with the effects of an earthquake-ravaged Gotham City. At the conclusion of \"No Man's Land\", O'Neil stepped down as editor and was replaced by Bob Schreck.\n\nAnother writer who rose to prominence on the Batman comic series, was Jeph Loeb. Along with longtime collaborator Tim Sale, they wrote two miniseries (\"The Long Halloween\" and \"Dark Victory\") that pit an early in his career version of Batman against his entire rogues gallery (most notably Two-Face, whose origin was re-envisioned by Loeb) while dealing with various mysteries involving serial killers Holiday and the Hangman. In 2003, Loeb teamed with artist Jim Lee to work on another mystery arc: \"Batman: Hush\" for the main Batman book. The twelve–issue storyline has Batman and Catwoman teaming up against Batman's entire rogues gallery, including an apparently resurrected Jason Todd, while seeking to find the identity of the mysterious supervillain Hush. While the character of Hush failed to catch on with readers, the arc was a sales success for DC. As the storyline was Jim Lee's first regular comic book work in nearly a decade, the series became #1 on the Diamond Comic Distributors sales chart for the first time since Batman #500 (October 1993) and Jason Todd's appearance laid the groundwork for writer Judd Winick's subsequent run as writer on Batman, with another multi-issue epic, \"Under the Hood\", which ran from Batman #637–650.\n\nIn 2005, DC launched All-Star Batman and Robin, a stand-alone comic series set outside the existing DC Universe. Written by Frank Miller and drawn by Jim Lee, the series was a commercial success for DC Comics though widely panned by critics for its writing and strong depictions of violence. \n\nStarting in 2006, the regular writers on Batman and Detective Comics were Grant Morrison and Paul Dini, with Grant Morrison reincorporating controversial elements of Batman lore (most notably, the science fiction themed storylines of the 1950s Batman comics, which Morrison revised as hallucinations Batman suffered under the influence of various mind-bending gases and extensive sensory deprivation training) into the character. Morrison's run climaxed with \"Batman R.I.P.\", which brought Batman up against the villainous \"Black Glove\" organization, which sought to drive Batman into madness. \"Batman R.I.P.\" segued into Final Crisis (also written by Morrison), which saw the apparent death of Batman at the hands of Darkseid. In the 2009 miniseries Batman: Battle for the Cowl, Wayne's former protégé Dick Grayson becomes the new Batman, and Wayne's son Damian becomes the new Robin. In June 2009, Judd Winick returned to writing Batman, while Grant Morrison was given his own series, titled Batman and Robin. \n\nIn 2010, the storyline Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne saw Bruce travel through history, eventually returning to the present day. Although he reclaimed the mantle of Batman, he also allowed Grayson to continue being Batman as well. Bruce decided to take his war on crime globally, which is the central focus of Batman Incorporated. DC Comics would later announce that Grayson would be the main character in Batman, Detective Comics and Batman and Robin, while Wayne would be the main character in Batman Incorporated. Also, Bruce appeared in another ongoing series, Batman: The Dark Knight.\n\nThe New 52\n\nIn September 2011, DC Comics' entire line of superhero books, including its Batman franchise, was canceled and relaunched with new #1 issues as part of The New 52 reboot. Bruce Wayne is the only character to be identified as Batman and is featured in Batman, Detective Comics, Batman and Robin, and Batman: The Dark Knight. Dick Grayson returns to the mantle of Nightwing and appears in his own ongoing series. While many characters have their histories significantly altered to attract new readers, Batman's history remains mostly intact. Batman Incorporated was relaunched in 2012-2013 to complete the \"Leviathan\" storyline.\n\nSince the beginning of The New 52, Scott Snyder has been the writer of the flagship Batman title. His first major story arc was \"Night of the Owls\", where Batman confronts the Court of Owls, a secret society that has controlled Gotham for centuries. The second story arc was \"Death of the Family\", where the Joker returns to Gotham and simultaneously attacks each member of the Batman family. The third story arc was \"Batman: Zero Year\", which redefined Batman's origin in The New 52. It followed Batman #0, published in June 2012, which explored the character's early years. The final storyline before the Convergence (2015) event was Endgame, depicting the supposed final battle between Batman and the Joker when he unleashes the deadly Endgame virus onto Gotham City. The storyline ends with Batman and the Joker's supposed deaths. Starting with #41, Commissioner James Gordon takes over Bruce's mantle as a new, state-sanctioned, mecha Batman, debuting in the Free Comic Book Day special comic Divergence. However, Bruce Wayne is soon revealed to be alive, albeit now suffering almost total amnesia of his life as Batman and only remembering his life as Bruce Wayne through what he has learned from Alfred. Bruce Wayne finds happiness and proposes to his girlfriend, Julie, but Mr. Bloom heavily injures Jim Gordon and takes control of Gotham City and threatens to destroy the city by energizing a particle reactor to create a \"strange star\" to swallow the city. Bruce Wayne discovers the truth that he was Batman and after talking to a stranger who smiles a lot (it is heavily implied that this is the amnesic Joker) he forces Alfred to implant his memories as Batman, but at the cost of his memories as the reborn Bruce Wayne. He returns and helps Jim Gordon defeat Mr. Bloom and shut down the reactor. Gordon gets his job back as the commissioner, and the government Batman project is shuttered. \n\nIn 2015, DC Comics released The Dark Knight III: The Master Race, the sequel to Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns and The Dark Knight Strikes Again.[http://www.nytimes.com/2015/1.1/23/arts/dark-knight-iii-the-master-race-comic-book-prompts-reflection-and-a-look-ahead.html?smtyp\ncur The New York Times]\n\nDuring the Darkseid War Batman acquires the Mobius Chair and asks \"What's the Joker's real name?\" and the response causes him to say \"No that is not possible. At the end of the Darkseid War Batman reveals to Hal that the chair told him there were three Jokers and during DC Universe - Rebirth #1 Batman confirms the existence of at least two Jokers: one who was in Civic City killing people while the other Joker had been caught just outside Baltimore three hours ago and was still in transit to Arkham Asylum. \"(F)rom the looks of the artwork, it appears that the three jokers include the original, Jerry Robinson Joker; the Brian Bolland Killing Joke Joker; and the Scott Snyder/Greg Capullo \"New 52\" Joker.\" \n\nCharacterization\n\nBruce Wayne\n\nBatman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American business magnate who resides outside of Gotham City. As a child, Bruce witnessed the murder of his parents, Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne, which ultimately led him to craft the Batman persona and seek vengeance against criminals. Wayne averts suspicion by acting the part of a superficial playboy idly living off his family's fortune, which was amassed through investment in real estate before the city became a bustling metropolis, and the profits of Wayne Enterprises, his inherited conglomerate. He supports philanthropic causes through his nonprofit Wayne Foundation, but is more widely known as a celebrity socialite. In public, he appears frequently in the company of high-status women, which encourages tabloid gossip. Although he leads an active romantic life, crime-fighting accounts for most of his time. \n\nWriters of Batman and Superman stories have often compared and contrasted the two. Interpretations vary depending on the writer, the story, and the timing. Grant Morrison notes that both heroes \"believe in the same kind of things\" despite the day/night contrast their heroic roles display. He notes an equally stark contrast in their real identities. Bruce Wayne and Clark Kent belong to different social classes: \"Bruce has a butler, Clark has a boss.\" T. James Musler's book Unleashing the Superhero in Us All explores the extent to which Bruce Wayne's vast personal wealth is important in his life story, and the crucial role it plays in his crusade against crime. \n\nModern stories tend to portray the playboy image of Bruce Wayne as a facade (in counterpoint to the post-Crisis Superman, whose Clark Kent persona is the true identity, while the Superman persona is the facade). In Batman Unmasked, a television documentary about the psychology of the character, behavioral scientist Benjamin Karney notes that Batman's personality is driven by Bruce Wayne's inherent humanity; that \"Batman, for all its benefits and for all of the time Bruce Wayne devotes to it, is ultimately a tool for Bruce Wayne's efforts to make the world better\".\n\nWill Brooker notes in his book Batman Unmasked that \"the confirmation of the Batman's identity lies with the young audience...he doesn't have to be Bruce Wayne; he just needs the suit and gadgets, the abilities, and most importantly the morality, the humanity. There's just a sense about him: 'they trust him... and they're never wrong.\" \n\nDuring the character's creation, the name \"Bruce Wayne\" was chosen for certain connotations. According to co-creator Bill Finger, \"Bruce Wayne's first name came from Robert Bruce, the Scottish patriot. Wayne, being a playboy, was a man of gentry. I searched for a name that would suggest colonialism. I tried Adams, Hancock...then I thought of Mad Anthony Wayne.\" \n\nPersonality\n\nBatman's primary character traits can be summarized as \"wealth; physical prowess; deductive abilities and obsession\". The details and tone of Batman comic books have varied over the years due to different creative teams. Dennis O'Neil noted that character consistency was not a major concern during early editorial regimes: \"Julie Schwartz did a Batman in Batman and Detective and Murray Boltinoff did a Batman in the Brave and the Bold and apart from the costume they bore very little resemblance to each other. Julie and Murray did not want to coordinate their efforts, nor were they asked to do so. Continuity was not important in those days.\" \n\nThe driving force behind Bruce Wayne's character is his parents' murder and the absence of the father. Bob Kane and Bill Finger discussed Batman's background and decided that \"there's nothing more traumatic than having your parents murdered before your eyes\". Despite his trauma, he sets his mind on studying to become a scientist and to train his body into physical perfection to fight crime in Gotham City as Batman, an inspired idea from Wayne's insight into the criminal mind.\n\nAnother of Batman's characterizations is a vigilante; in order to stop evil that started with the death of his parents, he must sometimes break laws himself. Although manifested differently by being re-told by different artists, it is nevertheless that the details and the prime components of Batman's origin have never varied at all in the comic books, the \"reiteration of the basic origin events holds together otherwise divergent expressions\". The origin is the source of the character's traits and attributes, which play out in many of the character's adventures.\n\nBatman is often treated as a vigilante by other characters in his stories. Frank Miller views the character as \"a dionysian figure, a force for anarchy that imposes an individual order\". Dressed as a bat, Batman deliberately cultivates a frightening persona in order to aid him in crime-fighting, a fear that originates from the criminals' own guilty conscience. Miller is often credited with reintroducing anti-heroic traits into Batman's characterization, such as his brooding personality, willingness to use violence and torture, and increasingly alienated behavior. Batman's original character was changed when comic book codes went into place and DC editor Whitney Ellsworth reinvented Batman as having a stringent moral code which never allowed him to kill. Miller's Batman was closer to the original, Golden Age version, who was willing to kill criminals. \n\nOthers\n\nOn two occasions former Robin Dick Grayson has served as Batman. He served briefly while Wayne recovered from spinal injuries caused by Bane in the 1993 Knightfall storyline. He assumed the mantle again in a 2009 comic book while Wayne was believed dead, and served as a second Batman even after Wayne returned in 2010. As part of DC's 2011 editorial mandate, he returned to being Nightwing following the Flashpoint crossover event.\n\nIn an interview with IGN, Morrison details that having Dick Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as Robin represented a \"reverse\" of the normal dynamic between Batman and Robin, with, \"a more light-hearted and spontaneous Batman and a scowling, badass Robin\"\" Morrison explains his intentions for the new characterization of Batman: \"Dick Grayson is kind of this consummate superhero. The guy has been Batman's partner since he was a kid, he's led the Teen Titans, and he's trained with everybody in the DC Universe. So he's a very different kind of Batman. He's a lot easier; a lot looser and more relaxed.\"\n\nOver the years, there have been numerous others to assume the name of Batman, or to officially take over for Bruce during his leaves of absence. Jean Paul Valley, also known as Azrael, assumed the cowl after the events of the Knightfall saga. James Gordon, donned a mech-suit after the events of Batman: Endgame, and served as Batman in 2015 and 2016.\n\nAdditionally, members of the group Batman, Incorporated, Bruce Wayne's experiment at franchising his brand of vigilantism, have at times stood in as the official Batman in cities around the world. Various others have also taken up the role of Batman in stories set in alternative universes and possible futures, including, among them, various former proteges of Bruce Wayne.\n\nAbilities\n\nSkills and training\n\nBatman has no inherent superhuman powers; he relies on \"his own scientific knowledge, detective skills, and athletic prowess\". In the stories, Batman is regarded as one of the world's greatest detectives, if not the world's greatest crime solver. Batman has been repeatedly described as having a genius-level intellect, being one of the greatest martial artists in the DC Universe, and having peak human physical conditioning. He has traveled the world acquiring the skills needed to aid in his crusade against crime. As a polymath, his knowledge and expertise in almost every discipline is nearly unparalleled by any other character in the DC Universe. In the Superman: Doomed story arc, Superman considers Batman to be one of the most brilliant minds on the planet. Batman's inexhaustible wealth allows him access to advanced technology, and as a proficient scientist, he is able to use and modify these technologies to his advantage.\n\nBatman has trained extensively in various martial arts, mastering over 127 different types, making him one of the best hand-to-hand fighters in the DC Universe. Superman describes Batman as \"the most dangerous man on Earth\", able to defeat an entire team of superpowered extraterrestrials by himself in order to rescue his imprisoned teammates in Grant Morrison's first storyline in JLA.\n\nBatman has the ability to function under great physical pain and to withstand telepathy and mind control. He is a master of disguise, multilingual, and an expert in espionage, often gathering information under the identity of Matches Malone, a notorious gangster. He is a master of stealth and escapology, which allows him to appear and disappear at will and to break free of nearly inescapable deathtraps with little to no harm.\n\nBatman is an expert in interrogation techniques and often uses extreme methods to extract information from suspects, such as hanging a person over the edge of a building. His intimidating and frightening appearance alone is often all that is needed in getting information from suspects. Despite having the potential to harm his enemies, Batman's most defining characteristic is his strong commitment to justice and his unwillingness to take life, regardless of the situation he has faced. This unyielding moral rectitude has earned him the respect of several heroes in the DC Universe, most notably that of Superman and Wonder Woman.\n\nTechnology\n\nPersonal armor\n\nBatman's body armored costume incorporates the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals. The details of the Batman costume change repeatedly through various decades, stories, media and artists' interpretations, but the most distinctive elements remain consistent: a scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face; a pair of batlike ears; a stylized bat emblem on the chest; and the ever-present utility belt. The costumes' colors have traditionally been dark blue and grey, although this colorization arose due to the way comic book art was colored; the character is sometimes depicted in black and grey. Finger and Kane conceptualized Batman as having a black cape and cowl and grey suit, but conventions in coloring called for black to be highlighted with blue. In the Tim Burton's Batman and Batman Returns films, Batman has been depicted as completely black with a bat in the middle surrounded by a yellow background. Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy depicted Batman wearing high-tech gear painted completely black with a black bat in the middle.\n\nBatman's batsuit aids in his combat against enemies, having the properties of both Kevlar and Nomex. It protects him from gunfire and other significant impacts. His gloves typically feature three scallops that protrude from long, gauntlet-like cuffs, although in his earliest appearances he wore short, plain gloves without the scallops. The overall look of the character, particularly the length of the cowl's ears and of the cape, varies greatly depending on the artist. Dennis O'Neil said, \"We now say that Batman has two hundred suits hanging in the Batcave so they don't have to look the same . . . Everybody loves to draw Batman, and everybody wants to put their own spin on it.\" \n\n;Batmobile\n\nBatman's primary vehicle is the Batmobile, which is usually depicted as an imposing black car, often with tailfins that suggest a bat's wings. Batman also has an aircraft called the Batplane (later called the \"Batwing\"), along with various other means of transportation. In proper practice, the \"bat\" prefix (as in Batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, particularly after some portrayals (primarily the 1960s Batman live-action television show and the Super Friends animated series) stretched the practice to campy proportions. For example, the 1960s television show depicted a Batboat, Bat-Sub, and Batcycle, among other bat-themed vehicles. The 1960s television series Batman has an arsenal that includes such \"bat-\" names as the bat-computer, bat-scanner, bat-radar, bat-cuffs, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-camera with polarized bat-filter, bat-shark repellent bat-spray, and bat-rope. The storyline \"A Death in the Family\" suggests that given Batman's grim nature, he is unlikely to have adopted the \"bat\" prefix on his own. In The Dark Knight Returns, Batman tells Carrie Kelley that the original Robin came up with the name \"Batmobile\" when he was young, since that is what a kid would call Batman's vehicle. The Batmobile was redesigned in 2011 when DC Comics relaunched its entire line of comic books, with the batmobile being given heavier armor and new aesthetics.\n\n;Utility belt\n\nBatman keeps most of his field equipment in his utility belt. Over the years it has shown to contain an assortment of crime-fighting tools, weapons, and investigative and technological instruments. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in compartments, often as pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it. Batman is often depicted as carrying a projectile which shoots a retractable grappling hook attached to a cable. This allows him to attach to distant objects, be propelled into the air, and thus swing from the rooftops of Gotham City. An exception to the range of Batman's equipment are guns, which he refuses to use on principle, since a gun was used in his parents' murder.\n\n;Bat-Signal\n\nWhen Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a searchlight with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens called the Bat-Signal, which shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The origin of the signal varies, depending on the continuity and medium.\n\nIn various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV series, Commissioner Gordon also has a dedicated phone line, dubbed the Bat-Phone, connected to a bright red telephone (in the TV series) which sits on a wooden base and has a transparent cake cover on top. The line connects directly to Batman's residence, Wayne Manor, specifically both to a similar phone sitting on the desk in Bruce Wayne's study and the extension phone in the Batcave.\n\nBatcave\n\nThe Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of subterranean caves beneath his mansion, Wayne Manor. It serves as his command center for both local and global surveillance, as well as housing his vehicles and equipment for his war on crime. It also is a storeroom for Batman's memorabilia. In both the comic Batman: Shadow of the Bat (issue #45) and the 2005 film Batman Begins, the cave is said to have been part of the Underground Railroad.\n\nOther equipment\n\nBatman uses a large arsenal of specialized, high-tech vehicles and gadgets in his war against crime, the designs of which usually share a bat motif. Batman historian Les Daniels credits Gardner Fox with creating the concept of Batman's arsenal with the introduction of the utility belt in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939) and the first bat-themed weapons the batarang and the \"Batgyro\" in Detective Comics #31 and #32 (September; October 1939).\n\nSupporting characters\n\nBatman's interactions with both villains and cohorts have, over time, developed a strong supporting cast of characters.\n\nAdversaries\n\nBatman faces a variety of foes ranging from common criminals to outlandish supervillains. Many of them mirror aspects of the Batman's character and development, often having tragic origin stories that lead them to a life of crime. These foes are commonly referred to as Batman's \"rogues gallery\". Batman's \"most implacable foe\" is the Joker, a homicidal maniac with a clown-like appearance. The Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary, since he is the antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance; the Joker has a maniacal demeanor with a colorful appearance, while Batman has a serious and resolute demeanor with a dark appearance. As a \"personification of the irrational\", the Joker represents \"everything Batman [opposes]\". Other long time recurring foes that are part of Batman's rogues gallery include Catwoman (a cat burglar antiheroine who is an occasional ally), the Penguin, Ra's al Ghul, Two-Face, the Riddler, the Scarecrow, Mr. Freeze, Poison Ivy, Harley Quinn, Bane, Clayface, and Killer Croc among others.\n\nAllies\n\nAlfred\n\nBatman's butler, Alfred Pennyworth, first appeared in Batman #16 (1943). He serves as Bruce Wayne's loyal father figure and is one of the few persons to know his secret identity. Alfred raised Bruce after his parents' death and knows him on a very personal level. He is sometimes portrayed as a sidekick to Batman and the only other resident of Wayne Manor aside from Bruce. The character \"[lends] a homely touch to Batman's environs and [is] ever ready to provide a steadying and reassuring hand\" to the hero and his sidekick.Boichel, p. 8.\n\nBatman family\n\nThe term \"Batman family\" is the informal name for a group of characters closely associated with Batman, generally costumed vigilantes who either have been trained by Batman or operate in Gotham City with his tacit approval. They include Barbara Gordon, Commissioner Gordon's daughter, who has fought crime under the costumed identity of Batgirl and, during a period in which she was confined to a wheelchair due to a gunshot wound inflicted by the Joker, the computer hacker Oracle; Helena Bertinelli, the sole surviving member of a mob family turned vigilante who has worked with Batman on occasion, primarily as the Huntress and as Batgirl for a brief stint; Cassandra Cain, the daughter of professional assassins David Cain and Lady Shiva, who succeeded Bertinelli as Batgirl.\n\nCivilians\n\nLucius Fox, a technology specialist and Bruce Wayne's business manager who is well aware of his employer's clandestine vigilante activities; Dr. Leslie Thompkins, a family friend who like Alfred became a surrogate parental figure to Bruce Wayne after the deaths of his parents, and is also aware of his secret identity; Vicki Vale, an investigative journalist who often reports on Batman's activities for the Gotham Gazette; Ace the Bat-Hound, Batman's canine partner who was predominantly active in the 1950s and 1960s; and Bat-Mite, an extra-dimensional imp predominately active in the 1960s who idolizes Batman.\n\nGCPD\n\nCommissioner James \"Jim\" Gordon, Batman's ally in the Gotham City police, debuted along with Batman in Detective Comics #27. Gordon has been a consistent presence ever since. As a crime-fighting everyman, he shares the Batman's goals while offering, much as the character of Watson does in Sherlock Holmes stories, a normal person's perspective on the work of an extraordinary genius.\n\nJustice League\n\nBatman is at times a member of superhero teams such as the Justice League of America and the Outsiders. Batman has often been paired in adventures with his Justice League teammate Superman, notably as the co-stars of World's Finest and Superman/Batman series. In pre-Crisis continuity, the two are depicted as close friends; however, in current continuity, they have a mutually respectful but uneasy relationship, with an emphasis on their differing views on crime-fighting and justice. In Superman/Batman #3 (December 2003), Superman observes, \"Sometimes, I admit, I think of Bruce as a man in a costume. Then, with some gadget from his utility belt, he reminds me that he has an extraordinarily inventive mind. And how lucky I am to be able to call on him.\" \n\nRobin\n\nA widely recognized supporting character for many years has been Batman's junior counterpart Robin. Bill Finger stated that he wanted to include Robin because \"Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking.\" The first Robin, Dick Grayson, was introduced in 1940. In the 1970s he finally grew up, went off to college and became the hero Nightwing. A second Robin, Jason Todd, appeared in the 1980s. In the stories he was eventually badly beaten and then killed in an explosion set by the Joker, but was later revived. He used the Joker's old persona, the Red Hood, and became an antihero vigilante with no qualms about using firearms or deadly force. Carrie Kelly, the first female Robin to appear in Batman stories, was the final Robin in the continuity of Frank Miller's graphic novels The Dark Knight Returns and The Dark Knight Strikes Again, fighting alongside an aging Batman in stories set out of the mainstream continuity.\n\nThe third Robin in mainstream comics is Tim Drake, who first appeared in 1989. He went on to star in his own comic series, and currently goes by Red Robin, a variation on the traditional Robin persona. In the first decade of the new millennium, Stephanie Brown served as the fourth in-universe Robin between stints as her self-made costumed identity The Spoiler, and later as Batgirl. After Stephanie Brown's apparent death, Drake resumed the role of Robin for a time. The role eventually passed to Damian Wayne, the ten-year-old son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul, in the late 2000s. Damian's tenure as du jour Robin ended when the character was killed off in the pages of Batman Incorporated in 2013. Batman's next young sidekick is Harper Row, a streetwise young woman who avoids the name Robin but followed the ornithological theme nonetheless; she debuted the codename and identity of Bluebird in 2014. Unlike the Robins, Bluebird is willing and permitted to use a gun, albeit non-lethal; her weapon of choice is a modified rifle that fires taser rounds. In 2015, a new series titled We Are Robin will focus on a group of teenagers using the Robin persona to fight crime in Gotham City.\n\nWayne family\n\nHelena Wayne is the biological daughter of Bruce Wayne and Selina Kyle of an alternate universe established in the early 1960s (Multiverse) where the Golden Age stories took place.\n\nDamian Wayne is the biological son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul, and thus the grandson of Batman villain Ra's al Ghul.\n\nRomantic interests\n\nWriters have varied in the approach over the years to the \"playboy\" aspect of Bruce Wayne's persona. Some writers show his playboy reputation as a manufactured illusion to support his mission as Batman, while others have depicted Bruce Wayne as genuinely enjoying the benefits of being \"Gotham's most eligible bachelor\". Bruce Wayne has been portrayed as being romantically involved with many women throughout his various incarnations. The most significant relationships occurred with Selina Kyle and Talia al Ghul, as both women gave birth to his biological offsprings, Helena Wayne and Damien Wayne, respectively.\n\nSome of Batman's romantic interests have been women with a respected status in society, such as Julie Madison, Vicki Vale, and Silver St. Cloud. Batman has also been romantically involved with allies, such as Batwoman (Kathy Kane), Sasha Bordeaux, and Wonder Woman, and with villainesses, such as Catwoman, Jezebel Jet, and Talia al Ghul.\n\nCatwoman\n\nWhile most of Batman's romantic relationships tend to be short, the attraction between Batman and Catwoman is present in nearly every version and medium in which the characters appear. Although Catwoman has been historically portrayed as a supervillain, Batman and Catwoman have worked together in achieving common goals and are usually depicted as having a romantic relationship.\n\nAfter the introduction of DC Comics' multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman, a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman, Selina Kyle (as shown in Superman Family #211). They have a daughter named Helena Wayne, who, as the Huntress, becomes (along with Dick Grayson, the Earth-Two Robin) Gotham's protector once Wayne retires from the position to become police commissioner, a position he occupies until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman.\n\nIn an early 1980s storyline, Selina and Bruce develop a relationship, in which the closing panel of the final story shows her referring to Batman as \"Bruce\". However, a change in the editorial team brought a swift end to that storyline and, apparently, all that transpired during the story arc. Bruce Wayne and Selina Kyle (out of costume) develop a relationship during The Long Halloween. The story shows Selina saving Bruce from Poison Ivy. However, the relationship ends when Bruce rejects her advances twice; once as Bruce and once as Batman. In Batman: Dark Victory, he stands her up on two holidays, causing her to leave him for good and to leave Gotham City for a while. When the two meet at an opera many years later, during the events of the twelve-issue story arc called Hush, Bruce comments that the two no longer have a relationship as Bruce and Selina. However, Hush sees Batman and Catwoman allied against the entire rogues gallery and rekindling their romantic relationship. In Hush, Batman reveals his true identity to Catwoman.\n\nBatman and Catwoman are shown having a sexual encounter on a rooftop in Catwoman #1 (2011); the same issue implies that the two have had an ongoing sexual relationship. \n\nFictional character biography\n\nBatman's history has undergone various revisions, both minor and major. Few elements of the character's history have remained constant. Scholars William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson noted in the early 1990s, \"Unlike some fictional characters, the Batman has no primary urtext set in a specific period, but has rather existed in a plethora of equally valid texts constantly appearing over more than five decades.\" \n\n20th century\n\nOrigin\n\nThe central fixed event in the Batman stories is the character's origin story. As a young boy, Bruce Wayne was horrified and traumatized when he watched his parents, the physician Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, murdered by a mugger with a gun. Batman refuses to utilize any sort of gun on the principle that a gun was used to murder his parents. This event drove him to train his body to physical perfection and fight crime in Gotham City as Batman. Pearson and Uricchio also noted beyond the origin story and such events as the introduction of Robin, \"Until recently, the fixed and accruing and hence, canonized, events have been few in number\", a situation altered by an increased effort by later Batman editors such as Dennis O'Neil to ensure consistency and continuity between stories. \n\nGolden Age\n\nIn Batman's first appearance in Detective Comics #27, he is already operating as a crime-fighter. Batman's origin is first presented in Detective Comics #33 (November 1939) and is later expanded upon in Batman #47. As these comics state, Bruce Wayne is born to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two very wealthy and charitable Gotham City socialites. Bruce is brought up in Wayne Manor, and leads a happy and privileged existence until the age of eight, when his parents are killed by a small-time criminal named Joe Chill while on their way home from a movie theater. That night, Bruce Wayne swears an oath to spend his life fighting crime. He engages in intense intellectual and physical training; however, he realizes that these skills alone would not be enough. \"Criminals are a superstitious cowardly lot\", Wayne remarks, \"so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible...\" As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flies through the window, inspiring Bruce to take on the persona of Batman. \n\nIn early strips, Batman's career as a vigilante earns him the ire of the police. During this period, Bruce Wayne has a fiancée named Julie Madison. In Detective Comics #38, Wayne takes in an orphaned circus acrobat, Dick Grayson, who becomes his junior counterpart, Robin. Batman also becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America, although he, like Superman, is an honorary member, and thus only participates occasionally. Batman's relationship with the law thaws quickly, and he is made an honorary member of Gotham City's police department. During this time, Alfred Pennyworth arrives at Wayne Manor, and after deducing the Dynamic Duo's secret identities, joins their service as their butler. \n\nSilver Age\n\nThe Silver Age of Comic Books in DC Comics is sometimes held to have begun in 1956 when the publisher introduced Barry Allen as a new, updated version of The Flash. Batman is not significantly changed by the late 1950s for the continuity which would be later referred to as Earth-One. The lighter tone Batman had taken in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages led to the stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s that often feature many science-fiction elements, and Batman is not significantly updated in the manner of other characters until Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), in which Batman reverts to his detective roots, with most science-fiction elements jettisoned from the series.\n\nAfter the introduction of DC Comics' multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman, a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman, Selina Kyle (as shown in Superman Family #211). They have a daughter, Helena Wayne, who as the Huntress, becomes (along with Dick Grayson, the Earth-Two Robin) Gotham's protector once Wayne retires from the position to become police commissioner, a position he occupies until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman. Batman titles however often ignored that a distinction had been made between the pre-revamp and post-revamp Batmen (since unlike The Flash or Green Lantern, Batman comics had been published without interruption through the 1950s) and would occasionally make reference to stories from the Golden Age. Nevertheless, details of Batman's history were altered or expanded upon through the decades. Additions include meetings with a future Superman during his youth, his upbringing by his uncle Philip Wayne (introduced in Batman #208, January/February 1969) after his parents' death, and appearances of his father and himself as prototypical versions of Batman and Robin, respectively. In 1980 then-editor Paul Levitz commissioned the Untold Legend of the Batman limited series to thoroughly chronicle Batman's origin and history.\n\nBatman meets and regularly works with other heroes during the Silver Age, most notably Superman, whom he began regularly working alongside in a series of team-ups in World's Finest Comics, starting in 1954 and continuing through the series' cancellation in 1986. Batman and Superman are usually depicted as close friends. As a founding member of the Justice League of America, Batman appears in its first story, in 1960's Brave and the Bold #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, Brave and the Bold became a Batman title, in which Batman teams up with a different DC Universe superhero each month.\n\nBronze Age\n\nIn 1969, Dick Grayson attends college as part of DC Comics' effort to revise the Batman comics. Additionally, Batman also moves from his mansion, Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment atop the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City's crime. Batman spends the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional team-ups with Robin and/or Batgirl. Batman's adventures also become somewhat darker and more grim during this period, depicting increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of the Joker as a homicidal psychopath, and the arrival of Ra's al Ghul, a centuries-old terrorist who knows Batman's secret identity. In the 1980s, Dick Grayson becomes Nightwing.\n\nIn the final issue of Brave and the Bold in 1983, Batman quits the Justice League and forms a new group called the Outsiders. He serves as the team's leader until Batman and the Outsiders #32 (1986) and the comic subsequently changed its title.\n\nDetective Comics #439 (1974) depicts Bruce Wayne as a graduate of Yale Law School, in which the final page shows a Yale Law School diploma hanging in Bruce Wayne's office. \n\nModern Age\n\nAfter the 12-issue limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths, DC Comics retconned the histories of some major characters in an attempt at updating them for contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline \"Year One\" from Batman #404–407, which emphasizes a grittier tone in the character. Though the Earth-Two Batman is erased from history, many stories of Batman's Silver Age/Earth-One career (along with an amount of Golden Age ones) remain canonical in the post-Crisis universe, with his origins remaining the same in essence, despite alteration. For example, Gotham's police are mostly corrupt, setting up further need for Batman's existence. The guardian Phillip Wayne is removed leaving young Bruce to be raised by Alfred Pennyworth. Additionally, Batman is no longer a founding member of the Justice League of America, although he becomes leader for a short time of a new incarnation of the team launched in 1987. To help fill in the revised backstory for Batman following Crisis, DC launched a new Batman title called Legends of the Dark Knight in 1989 and has published various miniseries and one-shot stories since then that largely take place during the \"Year One\" period.\n\nSubsequently, Batman begins exhibiting an excessive, reckless approach to his crime-fighting, a result of the pain of losing Jason Todd. Batman works solo until the decade's close, when Tim Drake becomes the new Robin. \n\nMany of the major Batman storylines since the 1990s have been inter-title crossovers that run for a number of issues. In 1993, DC published \"Knightfall\". During the storyline's first phase, the new villain Bane paralyzes Batman, leading Wayne to ask Azrael to take on the role. After the end of \"Knightfall\", the storylines split in two directions, following both the Azrael-Batman's adventures, and Bruce Wayne's quest to become Batman once more. The story arcs realign in \"KnightsEnd\", as Azrael becomes increasingly violent and is defeated by a healed Bruce Wayne. Wayne hands the Batman mantle to Dick Grayson (then Nightwing) for an interim period, while Wayne trains for a return to the role. \n\nThe 1994 company-wide crossover storyline \"Zero Hour\" changes aspects of DC continuity again, including those of Batman. Noteworthy among these changes is that the general populace and the criminal element now considers Batman an urban legend rather than a known force.\n\nBatman once again becomes a member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's 1996 relaunch of the series, titled JLA. During this time, Gotham City faces catastrophe in the decade's closing crossover arc. In 1998's \"Cataclysm\" storyline, Gotham City is devastated by an earthquake and ultimately cut off from the United States. Deprived of many of his technological resources, Batman fights to reclaim the city from legions of gangs during 1999's \"No Man's Land\".\n\nMeanwhile, Batman's relationship with the Gotham City Police Department changed for the worse with the events of \"Batman: Officer Down\" and \"Batman: War Games/War Crimes\"; Batman's long-time law enforcement allies Commissioner Gordon and Harvey Bullock are forced out of the police department in \"Officer Down\", while \"War Games\" and \"War Crimes\" saw Batman become a wanted fugitive after a contingency plan of his to neutralize Gotham City's criminal underworld is accidentally triggered, resulting in a massive gang war that ends with the sadistic Black Mask the undisputed ruler of the city's criminal gangs. Lex Luthor arranges for the murder of Batman's on-again, off-again love interest Vesper (introduced in the mid-1990s) during the \"Bruce Wayne: Murderer?\" and \"Bruce Wayne: Fugitive\" story arcs. Though Batman is able to clear his name, he loses another ally in the form of his new bodyguard Sasha, who is recruited into the organization known as \"Checkmate\" while stuck in prison due to her refusal to turn state's evidence against her employer. While he was unable to prove that Luthor was behind the murder of Vesper, Batman does get his revenge with help from Talia al Ghul in Superman/Batman #1–6.\n\n21st century\n\nDC's 2005 limited series Identity Crisis reveals that JLA member Zatanna had altered Batman's memories to prevent him from stopping the League from lobotomizing Dr. Light after he sexually assaulted Sue Dibny. Batman later creates the Brother I satellite surveillance system to watch over and if necessary, kill the other heroes. The revelation of Batman's creation and his tacit responsibility for Blue Beetle's death becomes a driving force in the lead-up to the Infinite Crisis miniseries, which again restructures DC continuity. Batman and a team of superheroes destroy Brother Eye and the OMACs, though at the very end Batman reaches his apparent breaking point when Alexander Luthor Jr. seriously wounds Nightwing. Picking up a gun, Batman nearly shoots Luthor in order to avenge his former sidekick, until Wonder Woman convinces him to not pull the trigger.\n\nFollowing Infinite Crisis, Bruce Wayne, Dick Grayson (having recovered from his wounds), and Tim Drake retrace the steps Bruce had taken when he originally left Gotham City, to \"rebuild Batman\". In the Face the Face storyline, Batman and Robin return to Gotham City after their year-long absence. Part of this absence is captured during Week 30 of the 52 series, which shows Batman fighting his inner demons. Later on in 52, Batman is shown undergoing an intense meditation ritual in Nanda Parbat. This becomes an important part of the regular Batman title, which reveals that Batman is reborn as a more effective crime fighter while undergoing this ritual, having \"hunted down and ate\" the last traces of fear in his mind. At the end of the \"Face the Face\" story arc, Bruce officially adopts Tim (who had lost both of his parents at various points in the character's history) as his son. The follow-up story arc in Batman, Batman and Son, introduces Damian Wayne, who is Batman's son with Talia al Ghul. Although originally in Son of the Demon, Bruce's coupling with Talia was implied to be consensual, this arc ret-conned it into Talia forcing herself on Bruce.Batman issue 656 published October 2006:Bruce: \"I remember being drugged senseless and refusing to co-operate in some depraved eugenics experiment.\"Talia: \"Believe me, you cooperated... magnificently.\"\n\nBatman, along with Superman and Wonder Woman, reforms the Justice League in the new Justice League of America series, and is leading the newest incarnation of the Outsiders. \n\nGrant Morrison's 2008 storyline, \"Batman R.I.P.\" featured Batman being physically and mentally broken by the enigmatic villain Doctor Hurt and attracted news coverage in advance of its highly promoted conclusion, which would speculated to feature the death of Bruce Wayne. However, though Batman is shown to possibly perish at the end of the arc, the two-issue arc \"Last Rites\", which leads into the crossover storylines \"Final Crisis\", shows that Batman survives his helicopter crash into the Gotham City River and returns to the Batcave, only to be summoned to the Hall of Justice by the JLA to help investigate the New God Orion's death. The story ends with Batman retrieving the god-killing bullet used to kill Orion, setting up its use in \"Final Crisis\". In the pages of Final Crisis Batman is reduced to a charred skeleton. In Final Crisis #7 Wayne is shown witnessing the passing of the first man, Anthro. Wayne's \"death\" sets up the three-issue Battle for the Cowl miniseries in which Wayne's ex-proteges compete for the \"right\" to assume the role of Batman, which concludes with Grayson becoming Batman, while Tim Drake takes on the identity of Red Robin. Dick and Damian continue as Batman and Robin, and in the crossover storyline \"Blackest Night\", what appears to be Bruce's corpse is reanimated as a Black Lantern zombie, but is later shown that Bruce's corpse is one of Darkseid's failed Batman clones. Dick and Batman's other friends conclude that Bruce is alive. \n\nBruce subsequently returns in Morrison's miniseries Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne, which depicts his travels through time from prehistory to present-day Gotham. Bruce's return sets up Batman Incorporated, an ongoing series which focuses on Wayne franchising the Batman identity across the globe, allowing Dick and Damian to continue as Gotham's Dynamic Duo. Bruce publicly announces that Wayne Enterprises will aid Batman on his mission, known as \"Batman, Incorporated\". Due to rebooted continuity that occurred as part of DC's 2011 relaunch of all of its book, The New 52, however, Grayson is restored as Nightwing with Wayne serving as the sole Batman once again. The relaunch also interrupts the publication of Batman, Incorporated, which resumed its story in 2012-2013 with changes to suit the new status quo.\n\nCultural impact\n\nBatman has become a pop culture icon, recognized around the world. The character's presence has extended beyond his comic book origins; events such as the release of the 1989 Batman film and its accompanying merchandising \"brought the Batman to the forefront of public consciousness\". In an article commemorating the sixtieth anniversary of the character, The Guardian wrote, \"Batman is a figure blurred by the endless reinvention that is modern mass culture. He is at once an icon and a commodity: the perfect cultural artefact for the 21st century.\" \n\nIn addition, media outlets have often used the character in trivial and comprehensive surveys — Forbes magazine estimated Bruce Wayne to be the 8th-richest fictional character with his $6.9 billion fortune, several places after Iron Man, who is at 5. BusinessWeek listed the character as one of the ten most intelligent superheroes appearing in American comics. Entertainment Weekly named Batman as one of The 20 All Time Coolest Heroes in Pop Culture. Batman was placed on AFI's 100 Years…100 Heroes and Villains from the 1989 feature film by the American Film Institute. In 2013, ComicsAlliance ranked Batman's alter ego Bruce Wayne as #46 on their list of the \"50 Sexiest Male Characters in Comics\". The character was the focus of the 2008 non-fiction book Becoming Batman: The Possibility of a Superhero by E. Paul Zehr.\n\nIn other media\n\nThe character of Batman has appeared in various media aside from comic books, such as newspaper syndicated comic strips, books, radio dramas, television, a stage show, and several theatrical feature films. The first adaptation of Batman was as a daily newspaper comic strip which premiered on October 25, 1943. That same year the character was adapted in the 15-part serial Batman, with Lewis Wilson becoming the first actor to portray Batman on screen. While Batman never had a radio series of his own, the character made occasional guest appearances in The Adventures of Superman starting in 1945 on occasions when Superman voice actor Bud Collyer needed time off. A second movie serial, Batman and Robin, followed in 1949, with Robert Lowery taking over the role of Batman. The exposure provided by these adaptations during the 1940s \"helped make [Batman] a household name for millions who never bought a comic book\".\n\nIn the 1964 publication of Donald Barthelme's collection of short stories \"Come Back, Dr. Caligari\", Barthelme wrote \"The Joker's Greatest Triumph\". Batman is portrayed for purposes of spoof as a pretentious French-speaking rich man. \n\nIn television\n\nThe Batman television series, starring Adam West, premiered in January 1966 on the ABC television network. Inflected with a camp sense of humor, the show became a pop culture phenomenon. In his memoir, Back to the Batcave, West notes his dislike for the term 'camp' as it was applied to the 1960s series, opining that the show was instead a farce or lampoon, and a deliberate one, at that. The series ran for 120 episodes; ending in 1968. In between the first and second season of the Batman television series, the cast and crew made the theatrical film Batman (1966). The Kinks performed the theme song from the Batman show on their 1967 album Live at Kelvin Hall.\n\nThe popularity of the Batman TV series also resulted in the first animated adaptation of Batman in The Batman/Superman Hour; the Batman segments of the series were repackaged as The Adventures of Batman and Batman with Robin the Boy Wonder which produced thirty-three episodes between 1968 and 1977. From 1973 until 1986, Batman had a starring role in ABC's Super Friends series; which was animated by Hanna-Barbera. Olan Soule was the voice of Batman in all these shows, but was eventually replaced during Super Friends by Adam West, who also voiced the character in Filmation's 1977 series The New Adventures of Batman.\n\nIn 1992, the DC Animated Universe-contunuity premiered with Batman: The Animated Series on the Fox television network; produced by Warner Bros. Animation and featuring Kevin Conroy as the voice of Batman. The series received considerable acclaim for its darker tone, mature writing, stylistic design and thematic complexity compared to previous superhero cartoons, in addition to multiple Emmy Awards. The series' success led to the theatrical film Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993), as well as various spin-off TV series; including Superman: The Animated Series, The New Batman Adventures, Justice League and Justice League Unlimited (each of which also featured Conroy as Batman). The futuristic series Batman Beyond also took place in this same animated continuity and featured a newer, younger Batman voiced by Will Friedle, with the elderly Bruce Wayne (again voiced by Conroy) as a mentor.\n\nIn 2004, an unrelated animated series titled The Batman made its debut with Rino Romano as the title character. In 2008, this show was replaced by another animated series, Batman: The Brave and the Bold, featuring Diedrich Bader as Batman.\n\nIn 2013, a new CGI-animated series titled Beware the Batman made its debut, with Anthony Ruivivar as Batman. In 2014, the live-action TV series Gotham premiered on the Fox network; featuring David Mazouz as a 12-year-old Bruce Wayne.\n\nIn films\n\nThe initial Batman film-continuity began in 1989, when Warner Bros. released the live-action feature film Batman; directed by Tim Burton and starring Michael Keaton as the title character. The film was a huge success; not only was it the top-grossing film of the year, but at the time was the fifth highest-grossing film in history. The film also won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction. The film's success spawned three sequels: Batman Returns (1992), Batman Forever (1995) and Batman & Robin (1997); the latter two of which were directed by Joel Schumacher instead of Burton, and replaced Keaton as Batman with Val Kilmer and George Clooney, respectively. The second Schumacher film, while a box office success, failed to outgross any of its predecessors and was critically panned; causing Warner Bros. to cancel the planned fourth sequel, Batman Unchained, and place the film series on hiatus.\n\nThe Dark Knight Trilogy-continuity began in 2005, when Batman Begins was released by Warner Bros. as a reboot of the film series; directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Christian Bale as Batman. Its sequel, The Dark Knight (2008), set the record for the highest grossing opening weekend of all time in the U.S., earning approximately $158 million, and became the fastest film to reach the $400 million mark in the history of American cinema (eighteenth day of release). These record-breaking attendances saw The Dark Knight end its run as the second-highest domestic grossing film (at the time) with $533 million, bested then only by Titanic. The film also won two Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actor for the late Heath Ledger. It was eventually followed by another sequel, The Dark Knight Rises (2012), which served as a conclusion to Nolan's film series.\n\nThe DC Extended Universe-contunuity began in 2013, when Warner Bros. announced that Ben Affleck would be portraying Batman in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016). \n\nIn 2014, a short film based on Batman Beyond created by Darwyn Cooke aired on Cartoon Network's DC Nation block for Batman's 75th Anniversary. The short features the original voice cast of the show, as well as cameos of robotic batmen from The New Batman Adventures, Beware the Batman, The Batman, Batman: The Brave and the Bold, The Dark Knight Returns, Michael Keaton's Batman, Adam West's Batman, and the original comic book Batman from 1939. Another short film titled Batman: Strange Days directed by Bruce Timm (the co-creator of Batman: The Animated Series) also aired on the DC Nation block; based on the look of the original 1939 Batman comics. A Lego-themed version of Batman was also featured as one of the protagonists of the animated film The Lego Movie (2014); voiced by Will Arnett. \n\nSince 2008, Batman has also starred in various direct-to-video animated films under the DC Universe Animated Original Movies banner. Kevin Conroy has reprised his voice role of Batman for several of these films, while others have featured celebrity voice actors in the role; including Jeremy Sisto, William Baldwin, Bruce Greenwood, Ben McKenzie and Peter Weller. \n\nIn video games\n\nBatman has also starred in multiple video games, most of which were adaptations of the various cinematic or animated incarnations of the character. Among the most successful of these was the Batman: Arkham-continuity. The first installment, Batman: Arkham Asylum (2009), was released by Rocksteady Studios to critical acclaim; review aggregator Metacritic reports it as having received 92% positive reviews. It was followed by the sequel Batman: Arkham City (2011), which also received widespread acclaim and holds a Metacritic ranking of 94%. A prequel game titled Batman: Arkham Origins (2013) was later released by WB Games Montréal. More recently, a fourth game titled Batman: Arkham Knight (2015) has been released by Rocksteady. As with most animated Batman productions, Kevin Conroy has provided the voice of the character for these games; excluding Arkham Origins, in which the younger Batman is voiced by Roger Craig Smith.\n\nBatman impersonators\n\nThe Dark Knight inspired people around the world such as the American superhero, Leonard B. Robinson also known as \"the Baltimore Batman\". Robinson used the Batman image to bring joy and happiness to children in hospitals and schools in the Baltimore area. A video of Robinson being stopped by the police due to him having a Bat symbol for a license plate propelled his crusade to comfort sick children and attribute solidarity among the parents of those same children. On August 16, 2015, Robinson died when a motor vehicle struck him at a stop which caused many people in the Baltimore area such as the Baltimore Ravens's Ray Lewis to express their grief and loss over Robinson's death. \n\nGay interpretations\n\nGay interpretations of the character have been part of the academic study of Batman since psychologist Fredric Wertham asserted in Seduction of the Innocent in 1954 that \"Batman stories are psychologically homosexual ... The Batman type of story may stimulate children to homosexual fantasies, of the nature of which they may be unconscious.\"Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent. Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. pp. 189–90.For discussion of Wertham's impact see Brooker (2001). Andy Medhurst wrote in his 1991 essay \"Batman, Deviance, and Camp\" that Batman is interesting to gay audiences because \"he was one of the first fictional characters to be attacked on the grounds of his presumed homosexuality\". Professor of film and cultural studies Will Brooker argues the validity of a queer reading of Batman, and that gay readers would naturally find themselves drawn to the lifestyle depicted within, whether the character of Bruce Wayne himself were explicitly gay or not. He also identifies a homophobic element to the vigour with which mainstream fandom rejects the possibility of a gay reading of the character. \n\nCreators associated with the character have expressed their own opinions. Writer Alan Grant has stated, \"The Batman I wrote for 13 years isn't gay ... everybody's Batman all the way back to Bob Kane ... none of them wrote him as a gay character. Only Joel Schumacher might have had an opposing view.\" Frank Miller views the character as sublimating his sexual urges into crimefighting, concluding, \"He'd be much healthier if he were gay.\" Grant Morrison said that \"Gayness is built into Batman ... Obviously as a fictional character he's intended to be heterosexual, but the basis of the whole concept is utterly gay. I think that's why people like it. All these women fancy him and they all wear fetish clothes and jump around rooftops to get to him. He doesn't care—he's more interested in hanging out with the old guy and the kid.\" \n\nIn 2000, DC refused permission for the reprinting of four panels (from Batman #79, 92, 105 and 139) to illustrate Christopher York's paper All in the Family: Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s. In 2005, painter Mark Chamberlain displayed a number of watercolors depicting both Batman and Robin in suggestive and sexually explicit poses, prompting DC to threaten legal action. \n\nNotes", "Batman is a 1960s American live action television series, based on the DC comic book character of the same name. It stars Adam West as Batman and Burt Ward as Robin — two crime-fighting heroes who defend Gotham City from a variety of villains and their henchmen. It is known for its camp style, upbeat theme music and relatively simplistic youth-aimed moral lessons, including championing the importance of using seat belts, doing homework, eating vegetables and drinking milk. One hundred and twenty episodes aired on the ABC network for three seasons from January 12, 1966, to March 14, 1968, twice weekly for the first two and weekly for the third.\n\nFormat\n\nThe series focuses on the adventures of Batman and Robin; although the lives of their alter-egos, Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson are typically shown, it is usually only briefly in the context of their being called away on superhero business, or in circumstances where they need to employ their secret identities to assist in their crime-fighting. The \"Dynamic Duo\" typically come to the aid of the Gotham City Police upon the latter being stumped by a supervillain. Throughout the episodes, Batman and Robin have to deduce clues and discover the supervillain's plan, and also figure out how to thwart that plan and capture the criminal.\n\nFor the first two seasons, during which the series originally aired twice a week, every story is a two-parter except for two three-parters in the second season. The parts of each multi-part story had rhyming titles. For the third season, which originally aired once a week, a majority of the episodes were self-contained stories. The cliff-hangers between multiple parts of episodes typically consisted of the supervillain holding someone captive and the captive being imminently subjected to some form of harm which would inevitably be resolved early on the follow-up episode. The lone exception to this is King Tut's Coup/Batman's Waterloo, where Robin remains captive throughout almost all of part two.\n\nThe style of the series is campy and somewhat tongue-in-cheek. This increased as the series went on with the addition of more absurdity. The characters, however, always take the situations very seriously.\n\nTypical episode format and elements\n\nTeaser and exposition\n\nThe typical story begins with a villain's caper (such as stealing a fabulous treasure, kidnapping a prominent person, or attempting to take over Gotham City). In his office, Commissioner Gordon, along with Chief O'Hara, learn of the crime and the culprit. Helpless to stop the villain, they contact Batman via the Batphone - a bright red telephone that provides a direct phone link to Batman (be it at Wayne Manor, the batcave or the batmobile). At \"stately Wayne Manor\", Alfred (Wayne's butler) answers the Batphone and informs Bruce Wayne of the call. Frequently, Wayne and his ward, Dick Grayson, are found talking with Dick's aunt, Harriet Cooper, who is unaware of Bruce and Dick's secret identities. Alfred discreetly interrupts and they excuse themselves to go to the Batphone in Wayne's study. Upon learning the details from Gordon which arch-criminal he will potentially face, Wayne turns a switch concealed within a bust of Shakespeare that stands on his desk to reveal two fireman's poles hidden behind a sliding bookcase. \"To the Batpoles!\" Wayne exclaims, and he and Grayson slide down the poles that lead to the Batcave.\n\nThe title sequence features animated versions of Batman and Robin, drawn in the then-current style of the comic books, running towards camera and then fighting an assortment of villains, including several \"marquee\" villains such as the Joker and the Penguin.\n\nSimilar in style and content to the 1940s serials, Batman and Robin would arrive at the bottom of the Batpoles in the Batcave in full costume (reference is made later in the series to some sort of costuming device that functions on the way down the poles). They then jump into the Batmobile. Robin checks the gauges and reports, \"Atomic batteries to power...turbines to speed.\" Batman responds, \"Roger, ready to move out.\" With that, after fastening their seat belts, the two would drive out of the cave at high speed. As the Batmobile approached the mouth of the cave (actually a tunnel entrance in Los Angeles's Bronson Canyon), a camouflaged door would swing open and a hinged barrier outside the Batcave would drop down to allow the car to exit onto the road. The Duo then drives to police headquarters to meet with Gordon and be briefed on the criminal they must thwart. Most of the footage following the opening title sequence from Batman and Robin sliding down the Batpoles through their arrival at police headquarters was reused in most episodes.\n\nInvestigation\n\nThe initial discussion of the crime usually leads to Batman and Robin conducting their investigation alone, although the police are often used for assistance and to implement plans or traps that Batman devises to catch the villain. Typically Batman and Robin must use deduction from the clues left by the villain to determine elements such as the villain's identity, plan, target, and/or location. This usually results in a meeting with the villain, with the heroes engaging in a fistfight with the villain's henchmen, and the villain getting away, leaving a further series of unlikely clues for the Duo to investigate. Later, they would face the villain's henchmen again, and he or she would capture one or both of the heroes and place them in a deathtrap leading to a cliffhanger ending, which was usually resolved in the first few minutes of the next episode.\n\nAfter the cliffhanger\n\nThe latter part(s) of multi-episode stories begins with a brief recap of the first part(s). After the opening credits and the theme music, the cliffhanger is resolved.\n\nThe same general plot pattern of investigation and confrontation repeats in the following episode(s) until the villain is defeated in a major brawl, mostly resulting in Batman resolving into tricking the villain by convincing them into believing he is following their plan, or the use of his utility belt and wits (with sometimes both scenarios being intertwined into one).\n\nOther recurring elements\n\nThe series used a narrator (producer William Dozier, uncredited) who parodied both the breathless narration style of the 1940s serials and Walter Winchell's bombastic narration of The Untouchables. He would end many of the cliffhanger episodes by intoning, \"Tune in tomorrow — same Bat-time, same Bat-channel!\" In the episodes following cliffhangers, the recaps of the previous episode consisted of a series of short phrases from Dozier (rather than a lengthy explanation) accompanying short clips of the prior episode(s) without their original sound, and usually ending in a freeze-frame. In the third season, when single-episode stories were introduced, the narrator would end single-episodes by encouraging viewers to tune in the following week.\n\nDuring the climactic fistfights in each episode, the punches and other impacts were punctuated by onomatopoeia superimposed in bright colours on the screen, as in comic-book fight scenes (\"POW!\", \"BAM!\", \"ZONK!\", etc.).\n\nDespite the regular fighting on the show, Batman and Robin typically use non-lethal force; only three criminal characters die during the series: the Riddler's moll Molly (played by Jill St. John in episode two), who accidentally falls into the Batcave's atomic reactor, and two out-of-town gunmen who shoot at Batman and Robin, but kill each other instead, toward the end of \"Zelda The Great/A Death Worse Than Fate\". Twice, the Catwoman (Julie Newmar) appears to fall to her death (into a bottomless pit and from a high building into a river), but since she returned in later episodes, as a \"cat\", she presumably has nine lives, thus has several more left. In \"Instant Freeze\", Mr. Freeze freezes a butler solid and knocks him over, and sound-effects suggest that he is shattered into pieces. A later reference suggests the butler survived. In \"Green Ice\", Mr. Freeze freezes a policeman solid; it is left unclear whether he survived. In \"The Penguin's Nest\", a policeman suffers an electric shock at the hands of the Penguin's accomplices, but he is presumed to survive, as he appears in some later episodes\n\nA catch-phrase popularized by the series was Robin's saying \"Holy [subject], Batman!\" whenever he encountered something startling. This phrase was parodied in the 1995 film Batman Forever.\n\nIn many episodes, Batman and Robin must get to a high point of a building or other structure. They do this via the Batrope which is thrown and anchored above the high point, and which Batman and Robin climb by walking up the side of the structure with the aid of the rope. The climbing sequences were filmed by rotating the camera 90 degrees and building a set for the \"side\" of the structure along the studio floor. The heroes' capes were pulled back (to replicate the pull of gravity) with invisible lines. In many episodes, celebrities made cameo appearances by popping their heads out of windows along these climbs to speak to the heroes.\n\nThe villains commonly have henchmen whose names are somehow associated with the villain's identity; for example, Catwoman's henchmen have cat-related names. Characters commonly use alliterations. Examples include Batman referring to the Joker as a \"hateful harlequin\" and the Penguin calling Catwoman a \"feline floozy\".\n\nOnly two of the show's guest villains ever discovered Batman's true identity: Egghead by deductive reasoning, and King Tut on two occasions — the first time with a bug on the Batmobile and the second time by accidentally mining into the Batcave. Egghead was tricked into disbelieving his discovery, though, as was Tut in the episode when he bugged the Batmobile. In the episode when Tut tunneled into the Batcave, he was hit on the head by a rock, which made him forget his discovery and jarred him back into his identity as a mild-mannered professor of Egyptology at Yale University. While under the spell of the Siren (Joan Collins), Commissioner Gordon found the Batcave beneath Wayne Manor and deduced Batman's true identity, but Alfred gassed him to prevent his informing her, the memory of the discovery gone after leaving the Siren's spell.\n\nThe show's campiness was played up in elements, including the design of the villains, dialogue and in signs appearing on various props. Batman would frequently reveal one of his many crime-fighting gadgets, which were usually given a ridiculous-sounding name that somehow incorporated the word \"bat\" — often simply by adding the word \"bat\" to an otherwise normal descriptor, such as Shark Repellant Bat-Spray, Bat-Computer, Extra-Strong Bat-Knockout Gas, etc. Most of Batman's items in the Batcave, bat-vehicles and on the utility belt were given superfluous and simplistic block-letter labels, even though Batman, Robin and Alfred, the only people anticipated to use the equipment, clearly knew what all of it was.\n\nCast\n\nRegular cast\n\n Adam West as Bruce Wayne / Batman: a millionaire whose parents were murdered by criminals, he now secretly uses his vast fortune to fight crime as Batman. Producer William Dozier cast Adam West in the role after seeing him perform as the James Bond-like spy Captain Q in a Nestlé Quik television ad. Lyle Waggoner had screen tested for the role, though West ultimately won the role because, it was said, he was the only person who could deliver the lines with a straight face. West later voiced an animated version of the title character on The New Adventures of Batman and well as Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show and The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians. \n* Burt Ward as Dick Grayson / Robin: Batman's faithful partner and \"boy wonder\", noted for his recurring interjections in the form of \"Holy ________, Batman!\" (The series avoided referencing Robin's origins as Bruce Wayne's fellow \"crime orphan\", as whose legal guardian the courts appoint Bruce.) Ward voiced an animated version of this character on The New Adventures of Batman.\n* Alan Napier as Alfred: Batman's loyal butler and Batgirl's discreet confidant.\n* Neil Hamilton as Commissioner Gordon: The Commissioner of the Gotham City Police Department and one of Batman's two major police contacts.\n* Stafford Repp as Chief O'Hara: Gotham City's Chief of Police, and Batman's other major police contact. (The character was created by Semple for the series, as someone for Gordon to talk to, and later briefly added to the comics.)\n* Madge Blake as Harriet Cooper: Dick Grayson's maternal aunt. (She first appeared in the comics, two years before the series premiered, to give Bruce and Dick a reason to be secretive about their dual identities).\n* Yvonne Craig as Barbara Gordon / Batgirl: Commissioner Gordon's daughter and crime fighting partner for Batman and Robin for the third season. Occasionally this threesome was nicknamed the \"Terrific Trio\" (or the \"Troublesome Trio\" by Catwoman and the \"Tiresome Trio\" by Dr. Cassandra).\n* William Dozier - executive producer, creator, and narrator (uncredited).\n\nAccording to Adam West's memoir, Back to the Batcave, his first exposure to the series concept was through reading a sample script in which Batman enters a nightclub in his complete costume and requests a booth near the wall, as he \"shouldn't wish to attract attention\"; it was the scrupulously formal dialogue, and the way that Batman appeared to earnestly believe he could somehow avoid attracting attention while wearing a skintight blue-and-grey costume, that convinced West of the character's comic potential.\n\nRecurring villains\n\nProduction\n\nIn the early 1960s, Ed Graham Productions optioned the television rights to the comic strip Batman and planned a straightforward juvenile adventure show, much like Adventures of Superman and The Lone Ranger, to air on CBS on Saturday mornings.\n\nFormer American football linebacker and actor Mike Henry was originally set to star as Batman in a more dramatic interpretation of the character. Henry reportedly posed for publicity photographs in costume, but he was not signed for the role. East coast ABC executive Yale Udoff, a Batman fan in his childhood, contacted ABC executives Harve Bennett and Edgar J. Scherick, who were already considering developing a television series based on a comic-strip action hero, to suggest a prime-time Batman series in the hip and fun style of The Man from U.N.C.L.E. When negotiations between CBS and Graham stalled, DC Comics quickly reobtained rights and made the deal with ABC, which farmed the rights out to 20th Century Fox to produce the series. \n\nIn turn, 20th Century Fox handed the project to William Dozier and his production company, Greenway Productions. ABC and Fox were expecting a hip and fun—yet still serious—adventure show. However, Dozier, who had never before read comic books, concluded, after reading several Batman comics for research, that the only way to make the show work was to do it as a pop-art campy comedy. Originally, espionage novelist Eric Ambler was to have scripted a TV movie that would launch the television series, but he dropped out after learning of Dozier's campy comedy approach. Eventually, two sets of screen tests were filmed, one with Adam West and Burt Ward and the other with Lyle Waggoner and Peter Deyell, with West and Ward winning the roles.\n\nBy that time, ABC had pushed up the debut date to January 1966. Lorenzo Semple, Jr. had signed on as head script writer. He wrote the pilot script, and generally wrote in a pop-art adventure style. Stanley Ralph Ross, Stanford Sherman, and Charles Hoffman were script writers who generally leaned more toward campy comedy, and in Ross's case, sometimes outright slapstick and satire. Originally intended as a one-hour show, ABC only had two early-evening time slots available, so the show was split into two parts, to air twice a week in half-hour installments with a cliffhanger, originally to last only through a station break, connecting the two episodes, echoing the old movie serials.\n\nThe Joker, the Penguin, the Riddler, Catwoman, Mr. Freeze, and the Mad Hatter, villains who originated in the comic books, all appeared in the series, the plots for which were deliberately villain-driven as well as action-comedy heavy.\n\nFilm version and season 2\n\nA film based on the television show, Batman, was released in 1966. The film was originally intended to be produced before the series as a way to introduce the series to the public. However, the series' premiere was moved up and the film was forced to wait until the summer hiatus after the first season. The film was produced quickly to get into theatres prior to the start of season two of the television series.\n\nThe film did not initially perform well at the cinema. Originally, the movie had been conceived to help sell the television series abroad, but the success of the series in America was sufficient publicity. The film was shot after season one was filmed. The movie's budget allowed for producers to build the Batboat and Batcopter, which were used in the second and third seasons of the television show. Numerous films featuring Batman have since been produced, but with no relationship to the TV show.\n\nSemple's participation in the series decreased in the second season. Adam West explained to Jeff Rovin in his autobiography, Back to the Batcave, that when beginning work on the second season following the completion of the feature film, Dozier, his immediate deputy Howie Horwitz, and the rest of the cast and crew rushed their preparation for the second season, failing to give themselves enough time to determine what they wanted to do with the series during that season.\n\nSeason 3\n\nBy season three, ratings were falling and the future of the series seemed uncertain. To attract new viewers, Dozier opted to introduce a female character. He came up with the idea of using Batgirl, who in her civilian identity would be Commissioner Gordon's daughter, Barbara, and asked the editor of the Batman comics to further develop the character (who had made her debut in a 1966 issue of Detective Comics). To convince ABC executives to introduce Batgirl as a regular on the show, a promotional short featuring Yvonne Craig as Batgirl and Tim Herbert as Killer Moth was produced. The show was reduced to once a week, with mostly self-contained episodes, although the following week's villain would be introduced in a tag at the end of each episode, similar to a soap opera. Accordingly, the narrator's cliffhanger phrases were mostly eliminated, with most of the episodes ending with him saying something to encourage viewers to watch the next episode.Adam West, dictating Back to the Batcave to Jeff Rovin, admitted to having resented the development; in his words, \"...We were now calculating and titillating. These kinds of things are always short-term solutions to problems....\"\n\nAunt Harriet was reduced to just two cameo appearances during the third season, due to Madge Blake's poor health. Another cast change for the final season had Julie Newmar, who had been a popular recurring guest villain as the Catwoman for the first two seasons, being replaced by singer-actress Eartha Kitt for season three, as Newmar was working on the film Mackenna's Gold at that time, and was unable to appear. In America, Kitt's performance in the series marked the second mainstream television success of a black female, following Nichelle Nichols as Lt. Uhura in Star Trek and continued breaking the racial boundaries of the time. Kitt even flirted with West's character on screen. Kitt's performance as Catwoman would also, later, inspire Halle Berry's portrayal of the character in the 2004 film Catwoman, in which Berry would mimic Kitt's famous purrs. Frank Gorshin, the original actor to play the Riddler, returned for a single appearance after a one-season hiatus, during which John Astin made one appearance in the role.\n\nThe nature of the scripts and acting started to enter into the realm of surrealism. For example, the set's backgrounds became mere two-dimensional cut-outs against a stark black stage. In addition, the third season was much more topical, with references to hippies, mods, and distinctive 1960s slang, which the previous two seasons had avoided.\n\nCancellation\n\nNear the end of the third season, ratings had dropped significantly, and ABC cancelled the show. But NBC had agreed to take over the series and was ready to continue. Before that could happen, it was discovered that someone had destroyed the Batman sets which cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to build, and the deal with NBC was lost. Reruns of the series have been seen on a regular basis in the United States. They are currently shown on the classic TV network Me-TV on Saturday nights, as well as Saturday mornings on IFC. \n\nTie-in music\n\nSeveral cast members recorded music tied in to the series. Adam West released a single titled \"Miranda\", a country-tinged pop song that he actually performed in costume during live appearances in the 1960s. Frank Gorshin released a song titled \"The Riddler\", which was composed and arranged by Mel Tormé. Burgess Meredith recorded a spoken-word single called \"The Escape\" backed with \"The Capture\", which consisted of the Penguin narrating his recent crime spree to a jazz beat. Burt Ward recorded a song called \"Boy Wonder, I Love You\", written and arranged by Frank Zappa.\n\nEpisodes\n\nAdaptations\n\nThe show featured numerous adaptations of various Batman comics stories - particularly in its first season. These first-season episodes were adaptations:\n\n* The episodes \"Hi Diddle Riddle\" and \"Smack in the Middle\" were adaptations of \"Remarkable Ruse of the Riddler\" from Batman #171 (May 1965), written by Gardner Fox; in it, the Riddler, jealous of the attention Batman is giving the Mole Hill Mob, arranges a trap so Batman will apprehend the gang and give the Riddler the Caped Crusader's undivided attention.\n* The episodes \"Fine Feathered Finks\" and \"The Penguin's a Jinx\" are based on \"Partners in Plunder!\" from Batman #169 (February 1965), written by France Eddie Herron; the only difference is the Penguin steals the jeweled meteorite (which was mentioned in the comic), instead of kidnapping Dawn Robbins (who did not appear in the comic).\n* Many events of the episodes \"The Joker Is Wild\" and \"Batman Is Riled\" are based on the silver age comic book story \"Joker's Utility Belt\" from Batman #73 (October 1952) by David Vern Reed.\n* The episodes \"Instant Freeze\" and \"Rats Like Cheese\" were inspired by \"The Ice Crimes of Mr. Zero\" from Batman #121 (February 1959) by Dave Wood and Sheldon Moldoff.\n* The episodes \"Zelda The Great\" and \"A Death Worse Than Fate\" are based on \"Batman's Inescapable Doom-Trap!\" from Detective Comics #346 (December 1965) by John Broome. Although the evil character Eivol Ekdol appeared in the story, Zelda did not; instead, the magician was a man named Carnado.\n* The episodes \"The Thirteenth Hat\" and \"Batman Stands Pat\" borrow several elements from several comic book stories such as \"The Mad Hatter of Gotham City\" by Bill Finger and Sheldon Moldoff, from Detective Comics #230 (April 1956), and \"The New Crimes of the Mad Hatter\" by Dave Wood and Sheldon Moldoff from Batman #161 (February 1964). Also the Mad Hatter's plan of impersonating the sculptor working on a Batman statue for the city (for which Batman himself is, of course, posing) in an attempt to steal Batman's cowl comes from the Batman #49 story \"The Scoop of the Century!\" (October 1948) by Bill Finger.\n* The episodes \"The Penguin Goes Straight\" and \"Not Yet, He Ain't\" have a plot point of the Penguin framing Batman for a theft actually comes from Detective Comics #58 (December 1941) by Bill Finger, which is ironic as it was to be the issue in which the Penguin first appeared.\n* The episodes \"The Joker Trumps an Ace\" and \"Batman Sets the Pace\" have several plot points similar to the comic story \"A Hairpin, a Hoe, a Hacksaw, a Hole In the Ground!\" by Bill Finger, from Batman #53 (June 1949).\n* The episodes \"Death in Slow Motion\" and \"The Riddler's False Notion\" used a few elements from \"The Joker's Comedy Capers\" by Gardner Fox, from Detective #341 (July 1965), only replacing the main villain of the Joker with the Riddler.\n\nCrossover with The Green Hornet TV series \n\nThe Green Hornet and Kato on Batman\n\nVan Williams and Bruce Lee made a cameo appearance as the Green Hornet and Kato in \"window cameos\" while the Batman and Robin scaled a building. This was in part one of a two-part second season episode of the Batman TV series: \"The Spell of Tut\", which aired on September 28, 1966. \n\nLater that same season, the Green Hornet and Kato appeared in the two-part second season episodes \"A Piece of the Action\" and \"Batman's Satisfaction\", which aired on March 1–2, 1967. In the two episodes, the Green Hornet and Kato are in Gotham City to bust a counterfeit stamp ring run by Colonel Gumm (portrayed by Roger C. Carmel). The \"Batman's Satisfaction\" episode leads up to a mixed fight with both Batman & Robin and The Green Hornet & Kato fighting Colonel Gumm and his gang. Once Gumm's crew was defeated, Batman and Robin squared off against The Green Hornet and Kato, resulting in a stand-off that was interrupted by the police. In this episode, Batman, Robin and the police consider the Green Hornet and Kato as criminals, though Batman and Robin were cordial to the duo in the earlier window.\n\nBatman and Robin on The Green Hornet\n\nIn the February 3, 1967 Green Hornet episode \"Ace in the Hole\" (which aired in between the September 1966 and March 1967 Batman appearances mentioned above), an unidentified episode of Batman is seen playing on a television set, showing Batman and Robin climbing a building.\n\nReception\n\nThe live action television show was extraordinarily popular, called \"the biggest TV phenomenon of the mid-1960s\". At the height of its popularity, it was the only prime-time television show other than Peyton Place to be broadcast twice in one week as part of its regular schedule, airing at 7:30 pm Wednesdays and Thursdays. Episodes of the show were filmed as two-part cliffhangers, with each storyline beginning on Wednesday and ending on the Thursday episode. (In the second season, a pair of three-parters was also seen; at the very end of the Thursday night segment, a brief tag featuring the next week's villain would be shown, such as, \"Next week: Batman jousts with The Joker again!\" This started on the third week of the series' run and continued until the end of season two. The first episode of a storyline would typically end with Batman and Robin being in a deathtrap, while the narrator (Dozier) would tell viewers to watch the next night with the repeated phrase: \"Tune in tomorrow—same Bat-time, same Bat-channel!\" Even many years after the show ceased production, this catch-phrase still remains a long-running punchline in popular culture.\n\nThe \"Captain Crocodile\" episode of the TV series The Monkees featured a parody segment devoted to \"Frogman\" and \"Reuben the Tadpole\" (played, respectively, by Peter Tork and Davy Jones) combating the criminal forces of Michael Nesmith and Micky Dolenz. \n\nIn 1997, TV Guide ranked the episodes \"The Purr-fect Crime\" and \"Better Luck Next Time\" #86 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes. In 2009, \"Better Luck Next Time\" was ranked #72. \n\nAfter the series run\n\nBatman and Robin, along with other characters, started having animated television appearances on Filmation's series The Batman/Superman Hour six months after the live-action Batman series ended its production. Four years later, the Dynamic Duo appeared in two episodes of The New Scooby-Doo Movies which were \"The Dynamic Scooby-Doo Affair\" and \"The Caped Crusader Caper\".\n\nReunions\n\n* In 1972, Burt Ward and Yvonne Craig reunited as Robin and Batgirl for an 'Equal Pay' public service announcement. Dick Gautier played Batman because Adam West was, at the time, trying to distance himself from the role. It was narrated by William Dozier. \n* In 1977, Adam West and Burt Ward returned as voice actors for the second Filmation-produced animated series, The New Adventures of Batman.\n* In 1979, West, Ward, and Frank Gorshin reunited and reprised their respective roles on NBC for Hanna-Barbera's two Legends of the Superheroes television specials. \n* In the 1980s, several cast members teamed up for a series of celebrity editions of Family Feud.\n* In 1984 West would once again reprise his role as Batman in animated form when he succeeded Olan Soule in the final two seasons of Super Friends.\n* In 2003, West and Ward reunited for a tongue-in-cheek television movie titled Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt which combined dramatized recreations of the filming of the original series (with younger actors standing in for the stars), with modern footage of West and Ward searching for a stolen Batmobile. The film included cameo appearances by Newmar, Gorshin, and Lee Meriwether, as well as Lyle Waggoner, who had been an early candidate for the role of Batman. Yvonne Craig did not appear in the movie — she reportedly disliked the script. The movie was released on DVD in May 2005.\n\nLegacy\n\nThe series' stars, Adam West and Burt Ward, were typecast for decades afterwards, with West especially finding himself unable to escape the reputation of a hammy, camp actor. However, years after the series' impact faded, an episode of Batman: The Animated Series paid tribute to West with an episode titled \"Beware The Gray Ghost\". In this episode, West himself provided the voice of an aging star of a superhero television series Bruce Wayne had watched as a child and from which he later found inspiration. This gave West new popularity with the next generation of fans. He also played Gotham City's Mayor Grange as a somewhat recurring role in The Batman. In addition, West played the voice of Thomas Wayne, Bruce Wayne's father in the episode \"Chill of the Night\" from the series Batman: The Brave and the Bold.\n\nReferences In Animation\n\nThe animated television series Batman: The Brave and the Bold is influenced by the 1960s television series. The opening credits feature Batman rope-climbing up a building, something that Adam West and Burt Ward often did in the show. Several villains from the 1960s show including King Tut, Egghead, Mad Hatter, Archer, Bookworm, False Face, Black Widow, Siren, Marsha Queen of Diamonds, Louie the Lilac, Ma Parker, and Shame make cameo appearances as prisoners at Iron Heights prison in the episode \"Day of the Dark Knight!\" They are all captured by Batman and Green Arrow during a mass escape attempt. The episode \"Game Over for Owlman!\" shows a room in the Batcave containing \"souvenirs\" of deathtraps that the Joker employed in the 1960s series, with accompanying flashbacks: the giant key from the \"Human Key Duplicator\" from \"The Impractical Joker\", the slot machine-controlled electric chair from \"The Joker Goes to School\", and the giant clam from \"The Joker's Hard Times\". The episode \"The Color of Revenge!\" begins with a flashback to the time of the 1960s television series, using attributes such as the red Batphone, the Shakespeare bust, the sliding bookcase, the Batpoles, Robin in his old television-series costume, and the shot of Batman and Robin fastening their seat belts in the Batmobile. Additionally, the Adam West Batman briefly appears in \"Night of the Batmen!\" as part of an army of Batmen gathered across the Multiverse.\n\nThe Young Justice episode \"Schooled\" briefly references the show, as well, by featuring a Shakespeare bust in Bruce's office at the Waynetech building in Metropolis. As a further homage to the series, Bruce is shown accessing an emergency Batsuit hidden in his desk by flipping a switch concealed within the bust.\n\nBatmobile\n\nThe original Batmobile from the 1960s TV series was auctioned on January 19, 2013, at the Barrett-Jackson auction house in Scottsdale, Arizona. It was sold for $4.2 million. \n\nIn the Sierra on-line PC game Kings Quest 4 Perils of Rosells (1991), this car was seen coming out of a bat cave. The scene is reproduced in the KQ2 remake Romancing the Stones, by AGD Interactive.\n\nBatman Forever\n\nA line spoken by Robin (Chris O'Donnell) in Batman Forever is a homage to the television Robin's catch-phrase exclamations that started \"Holy\" and sometimes ended \"Batman!\" - for instance \"Holy bargain basements, Batman!\" (from the television series' first season) and \"Holy flypaper, Batman!\" (from the television series' second season). During the movie, Robin says \"Holy rusted metal, Batman!\" after the duo climbs onto twisted metal girders beside some water. This catchphrase also appeared for a time in Batman comic books.\n\nBatman '66 comic\n\nIn 2013, DC began publication of Batman '66, a comic book series telling all-new stories set in the world of the 1966–68 TV series. Jeff Parker writes the series, which features cover art by Mike Allred and interior art by different artists each issue. In the course of this series, the Bookworm, the Minstrel, Sandman, Olga Queen of the Cossacks, Zelda The Great, Shame, and Marsha Queen of Diamonds all have their first appearance in Batman comics. Penguin, Joker, Riddler, Catwoman and Mr. Freeze also appear in the series. Issue #3 of Batman '66 introduced the Red Hood and Dr. Quinn into the series continuity. In issue #7, Batman used a new vehicle, the Bat-Jet, to follow False-Face to Mount Rushmore. The series was to have introduced Killer Croc into the continuity, as well as a new villainess named Cleopatra. In April 2014, the first five issues were compiled into the Batman '66 Vol. 1 trade paperback. Kevin Smith and Ralph Garman likewise worked on a Batman and Green Hornet crossover, titled Batman '66 meets The Green Hornet. Jeff Parker wrote a Batman and The Man from U.N.C.L.E. team-up titled Batman '66 meets The Man from U.N.C.L.E. The six-issue mini-series began publication in June 2014. Whether Batman '66 is represented in one of the current New 52 DC Multiverse alternate Earths is uncertain. Thus far, this has not been the case, although several such alternate Earths inhabitants and representative metahumans remain undisclosed \n\nOther comics\n\nBluewater Comics has released a series of comics that take their cue from the TV show. They are The Mis-Adventures of Adam West, The Secret Lives of Julie Newmar, and Burt Ward, Boy Wonder and are similar in tone to the TV series. The Mis-Adventures of Adam West had a four-issue miniseries, and a regular series that ran nine issues. The Secret Lives of Julie Newmar was a four-issue miniseries and Burt Ward, Boy Wonder was going to be a four-issue miniseries, but has not yet been published.\n\nBatman: Arkham\n\n* In the Batman: Arkham Origins video game, exclusive DLC for the PlayStation 3 includes a Batman skin based on the Batman TV series.\n* In Batman: Arkham Knight, the stone bust containing a hidden button used in the TV series as the secret entrance lever to the Batcave appears as one of the game's Easter Eggs. The stone bust concealing a button can be seen and interacted with in the Clock Tower and Wayne Office areas of the game. The Batman skin is also featured as DLC in with the 1960s series Robin and Catwoman skins, as well as the Batmobile.\n\nLego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham\n\nIn Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, an extra level is based on the 1966 Batman TV series, along with characters including: 1966 Batman, 1966 Robin; 1966 Batgirl, 1966 Joker, 1966 Catwoman, 1966 Riddler, and 1966 Penguin. Also, Adam West is a playable character. The 1966 Batmobile is also included as a drivable vehicle. The end credits sequence remakes the Batclimb window cameos.\n\nRobot Chicken\n\nAdam West and Burt Ward lend their voices and likeness to the third DC Comics Special on Robot Chicken. In the plot, when Batman brings over a Superman from another dimension to make him jealous, Superman retaliates by bringing the Adam West Batman, who trumps the Robot Chicken Batman by addressing the glucose issue of muffins and dancing. He is later seen battling the Arkham versions of Batman's villains and is killed by Penguin's anthrax gas. Burt Ward kidnaps him as well as the Robot Chicken Robin and takes them to the Lazarus Pit, where he resurrects West's Batman and makes himself younger to relive the glory days. He only kidnapped Robot Chicken Robin so he could have his outfit.\n\nAnimated movies\n\nWest and Ward announced at the Mad Monster Party that one or two Batman animated movies will be released in 2016 with the two doing voiced roles as their characters for the show's 50th anniversary along with Julie Newmar returning. \n\nDVD, digital media and Blu-ray release\n\nIn January 2014, Conan O'Brien posted on his Twitter account, and Warner Bros. later confirmed, that Warner Bros. would release an official DVD and Blu-ray boxed set of the complete series sometime in 2014.\n\nOn April 10, 2014, the website tvshowsondvd.com quoted Burt Ward in saying that Warner Bros. would release the complete series on November 11, 2014, in time for the holiday season from 20th Century Fox Television, and that Adam West and he were doing special features for the release.\n\nPrior to the announcement, multiple conflicting reports were given for the reason the series had not been released officially. These included:\n* Disagreement between DC Comics, owners of the Batman character, after DC's sister/parent company Warner Bros. took over DC in 1969. Warner Bros. could also be involved, as well as 20th Century Fox, owners of the program itself.From \n* Fox (which owns the footage) and DC Comics (owner of the characters, and sister company of Warner Bros.) are still deep in the process of sorting out the legalities and licensing situations for this release. Other license issues may be involved, as well, such as music.\n\n* Greenway/ABC/Fox rights issues: The Batman series was conceived as an equal partnership between William Dozier's Greenway Productions and Fox in 1964, before Fox entered into a separate agreement with ABC to produce the series in 1965. With three companies involved almost from the outset, some speculation indicates 'these rights' are tangled even before the DC Comics character ownership rights are to be considered. Moreover:\n** In 2006, Deborah Dozier Potter, \"the successor-in-interest to Greenway Productions\" sued Fox for allegedly withholding monies under the Fox/ABC agreement. Dozier Potter further claimed that this came to her attention when, in March 2005, \"she considered releasing the series on DVD\", implying that (from her perspective at least) Greenway/Dozier Potter has some say in the matter of potential DVD release of the series. The case was resolved/dismissed in November 2007. In February 2005, John Stacks had approached Deborah Dozier Potter to market the series on DVD. There were many offers and lots of interest in the release of the series, as can be read in Joel Eisner's The Official Batbook Revised Bat Edition 2008.The relevant passage reads: \"The lawsuit filed by Debra Dozier Potter was dismissed with prejudice on 11/26/07. Furthermore, a notice of unconditional settlement was filed by the Plaintff on 11/19/07. The case is DEBORAH DOZIER POTTER VS TWENTIETH CENTURY FOX FILM CORPORATION Case No BC357067.\"\n* Other complications/rights issues:\n Christopher D. Heer, writing at the \"1966 Batman Message Board\", clarified a quote by moderator Lee Kirkham, noting that there will likely be the need for complicated deals regarding cameos, since \"...at least some of the cameos were done as uncredited, unpaid walk-ons – which means that Fox does NOT have home video clearances for them. Either those scenes would have to be cut or an agreement reached with the actors.\" \n Kirkham's initial quote also noted that, alongside music clearance issues, there could also be problems over some of the costumes, and the original Batmobile:\n:\"It may surprise you, but then there are also rights issues concerning the design of the unique Batmobile design used in the show, and possibly a separate issue regarding some of the costumes as well!\" \n\nThe series, under the Fox/ABC deal, is still in syndication, and regularly shown on a number of channels around the world, currently appearing in the United States on Me-TV and IFC as of July 4, 2014. Until 2014, only the 1966 feature film was available on DVD from 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment for nonbroadcast viewing in North America. This affected the 2003 television movie reunion Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt, also released to DVD, which was able to make use of footage only from the 1966 movie.\n\nWith Batman being unavailable for home-video release until 2014, an unusual situation occurred in which material that would be considered DVD featurettes was released separately. In 2004, Image Entertainment released Holy Batmania, a two-DVD set that included documentaries on the making of the series, as well as rare footage such as the original screen tests of the cast and Lyle Waggoner. In 2008, Adam West released a privately issued DVD with the tongue-in-cheek title Adam West Naked for which he recorded anecdotes regarding all 120 episodes of the series. In 2013 PBS aired an episode of Pioneers of Television called \"Superheroes\" that featured interviews with Adam West and Burt Ward, and talked about the 1960s TV series. It was released on DVD March 11, 2013.\n\nAlso in 2013, PBS produced and transmitted a documentary titled Superheroes: A Never-Ending Battle. This documentary talked a little bit about the series and included an interview with Adam West.\n\nIn November 2014, Warner Bros. released the full 120-episode Batman collection on Blu-ray and DVD with a variety of extras including a miniature Batmobile, a 32-page episode guide, and Adam West Scrapbook. A second box released on Warner Bros.' own batmanondvd website replaces the Batmobile and the trading cards with a script from the episode \"The Joker is Wild\" and a bonus box containing the movie and the \"Adam West Naked\" documentary. This series is also available at the iTunes Store for Apple mobile device owners who are fans of the series to download their favorite episodes or the entire series on to their Apple Watch, iPhone, iPod, iPod Touch, iPad and Apple TV devices after purchases.\n\nCollectibles\n\nStarting in 1966, an enormous amount of Batman merchandise was manufactured and marketed to cash-in on the TV show's vast popularity. This includes trading cards, scale model kits of the Batmobile, coloring books, and board games. Items from this particular era have gained substantial collector appeal with their remarkable variety, scarcity, and style.\n\nOne of the most desired collectibles involves the episodes introducing Catwoman (\"The Purr-fect Crime\" / \"Better Luck Next Time\"), which were the subject of a View-Master reel & booklet set in 1966 (Sawyers Packet # B492). While the series was first-run on ABC, packet cover indicia reflected the \"Bat Craze\" cultural phenomenon by referring to the booklet as a Batbooklet, Dynamically illustrated. By the time the television series was cancelled in 1968 and GAF had taken over the View-Master product, Batbooklet was removed in favor of then-standard View-Master packaging for all future releases in the decades to follow, right up the period when the standard packet line was discontinued. The first season's superimposed fight onomatopoeias were not used for the View-Master's scenes of fights. Instead, black-lined \"blast\" balloons (transparent inside), and series-like onomatopoeias were illustrated and superimposed over fight images.\n\nThe popularity of the TV series has carried several decades after its debut; toy company Mattel has made the 1966 Batmobile in various scales for the Hot Wheels product line. The Batmobile with Batboat were also produced under the Matchbox and Corgi names in the UK, during this period.\n\nWarner Bros. acquired merchandising rights to the series in 2012,[http://www.deadline.com/2012/06/warner-bros-launches-merchandise-campaign-for-1960s-batman-tv-series/] and in 2013 Mattel released an action figure line based on the television series. To date only a single series of figures have been produced: Batman, the Riddler, the Joker, the Penguin, Catwoman and exclusive to a boxset Robin. Two Batman variants were also produced a limited SDCC exclusive figure with an action feature that replicates the famous Batusi dance and a Surf's Up Batman figure complete with surfboard and trunks. Each figure has the likeness of their respective actor (with Catwoman resembling Newmar and the Riddler resembling Gorshin) and came packaged with a display base and collector card. A Batmobile was also sold to retail making this the first time the classic model has been produced for action figures in the 6-inch scale.\n\nIn 2013, Hong Kong–based entertainment collectible manufacturer Hot Toys produced scale versions of West's Batman and Ward's Robin.\n\nNotes\n\nBroadcast history\n\nUSA broadcasting\n\nABC (January 12, 1966 – March 14, 1968)\n\nInternational: UK broadcasting\n\nChannel 4 (1993–1996) (Channel 4 started running the series in 1993 at the rate of one episode a week. – ITV4 started running the series in 2011 (itv : ITV4) at the rate a one episode a week. - 18 years : 1993–2011)\nITV4 (2011–2014) (preview of christopher rogers (born date : 21 November 1990 (lives in skewen)) Year 1: 1991-1996 - \"date : 1st january 1991 until 31st january 1996\" will watching TV : preview of Channel 4 started running the series in 1993 at the rate of one episode a week. - \"in-the-Year: 1993\" - Year 3: 1993 - next of christopher rogers (born date : 21 November 1990 (lives in skewen)) Year 2: 1997–2014 - \"date : 1st january 1997 until 31st january 2014\" will watching TV: ITV4 started running the series in 2011 at the rate of one episode a week. - \"in-the-Year: 2011\" – 18 Years : 1993–2011. – preview channel UK: channel 4 (1993–1996) and ITV4 (2011–2014) – 18 Years: 1993–2011.)\n The Family Channel/The Children's Channel/Trouble (1993–1998)\n** Bravo (2001–2003)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Penguin (comics)", "The Penguin (comics)", "Oswald Chesterfield Cobblepot", "Actors to portray the Penguin", "Cobblepot", "Oswald Cobblepot", "The penguin", "The Penguin", "Penguin (Oswald Chesterfield Cobblepot)", "Penguin (character)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "actors to portray penguin", "penguin comics", "oswald cobblepot", "oswald chesterfield cobblepot", "penguin oswald chesterfield cobblepot", "cobblepot", "penguin", "penguin character" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "penguin", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Penguin" }
In what year did regular Boeing 707 flights begin across he Atlantic?	tc_1409	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Boeing_707.txt" ], "title": [ "Boeing 707" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Boeing 707 is a mid-sized, long-range, narrow-body, four-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1958 to 1979. Its name is commonly pronounced as \"seven oh seven\". Versions of the aircraft have a capacity from 140 to 219 passengers and a range of 2500 to. \n\nDeveloped as Boeing's first jet airliner, the 707 is a swept-wing design with podded engines. Although it was not the first jetliner in service, the 707 was the first to be commercially successful. Dominating passenger air transport in the 1960s and remaining common through the 1970s, the 707 is generally credited with ushering in the Jet Age. It established Boeing as one of the largest manufacturers of passenger aircraft, and led to the later series of airliners with \"7x7\" designations. The later 720, 727, 737, and 757 share elements of the 707's fuselage design.\n\nThe 707 was developed from the Boeing 367-80, a prototype jet first flown in 1954. A larger fuselage cross-section and other modifications resulted in the initial-production 707-120, powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines, which first flew on December 20, 1957. Pan American World Airways began regular 707 service on October 26, 1958. Later derivatives included the shortened long-range 707-138 and the stretched 707-320, both of which entered service in 1959. A smaller short-range variant, the 720, was introduced in 1960. The 707-420, a version of the stretched 707 with Rolls-Royce Conway turbofans, debuted in 1960, while Pratt & Whitney JT3D turbofans debuted on the 707-120B and 707-320B models in 1961 and 1962, respectively.\n\nThe 707 has been used on domestic, transcontinental, and transatlantic flights, and for cargo and military applications. A convertible passenger-freighter model, the 707-320C, entered service in 1963, and passenger 707s have been modified to freighter configurations. Military derivatives include the E-3 Sentry airborne reconnaissance aircraft and the C-137 Stratoliner VIP transports. Boeing produced and delivered 1,011 airliners including the smaller 720 series; over 800 military versions were also produced. Ten Boeing 707s were in commercial service in July 2013.\n\nDevelopment\n\nModel 367-80 origins\n\nDuring and after World War II, Boeing was known for its military aircraft. The company had produced innovative and important bombers, from the B-17 Flying Fortress and B-29 Superfortress, to the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress. The company's civil aviation department lagged far behind Douglas and other competitors, the only noteworthy airliners being the Boeing 314 Clipper and 307 Stratoliner. During 1949–1950, Boeing embarked on studies for a new jet transport, realizing that any design must be aimed at both the military and civilian markets. At the time, aerial refueling was becoming a standard technique for military aircraft, with over 800 KC-97 Stratofreighters on order. With the advent of the Jet Age, a new tanker was required to meet the USAF's fleet of jet-powered bombers; this was where Boeing's new design would potentially win military orders. \n\nBoeing studied numerous wing and engine layouts for its new transport/tanker, some of which were based on the B-47 and C-97, before settling on 367–80. The \"Dash 80\" took less than two years from project launch in 1952 to rollout on May 14, 1954, then first flew on July 15, 1954. It was powered by the Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engine, which was the civilian version of the J57 used on many military aircraft of the day, including the F-100 Super Sabre fighter and the B-52 bomber. The prototype was a proof-of-concept aircraft for both military and civilian use. The United States Air Force was the first customer, using it as the basis for the KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling platform.\n\nWhether the passenger 707 would be profitable was far from certain. At the time, Boeing was making nearly all of its money from military contracts: Its last passenger transport, the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, had netted the company a $15 million loss before it was purchased by the Air Force as the KC-97 Stratofreighter. In a demonstration flight over Lake Washington outside Seattle, on August 7, 1955, test pilot Tex Johnston performed a barrel roll in the 367-80 prototype. \n\nThe 132-inch (3.35 m) wide fuselage of the Dash 80 was large enough for four-abreast (two-plus-two) seating like the Stratocruiser. Answering customers' demands and under Douglas competition, Boeing soon realized this would not provide a viable payload, so it widened the fuselage to 144 in to allow five-abreast seating and use of the KC-135's tooling. Douglas Aircraft had launched its DC-8 with a fuselage width of 147 in. The airlines liked the extra space and six-abreast seating, so Boeing increased the 707's width again to compete, this time to 148 in. \n\nProduction and testing\n\nThe first flight of the first-production 707-120 took place on December 20, 1957, and FAA certification followed on September 18, 1958. Both test pilots Joseph John \"Tym\" Tymczyszyn and James R. Gannett were awarded the first Iven C. Kincheloe Award for the test flights that led to certification. A number of changes were incorporated into the production models from the prototype. A Krueger flap was installed along the leading edge between the inner and outer engines on early 707-120 and −320 models. \n\nFurther developments\n\nThe initial standard model was the 707-120 with JT3C turbojet engines. Qantas ordered a shorter-bodied version called the 707-138, which was a −120 with six fuselage frames removed, three in front of the wings, and three aft. The frames in the 707 were each 20 in (500 mm) apart, so this resulted in a net shortening of 10 ft (3 m) to 134 ft. Because the maximum takeoff weight remained the same, 247,000 lb (112 t), as that of the −120, the −138 was able to fly the longer routes that Qantas needed. Braniff International Airways ordered the higher-thrust version with Pratt & Whitney JT4A engines, the 707-220. The final major derivative was the 707-320, which featured an extended-span wing and JT4A engines, while the 707-420 was the same as the −320, but with Conway turbofan engines. British certification requirements relating to engine-out go-arounds also forced Boeing to increase the height of the tail fin on all 707 variants, as well as add a ventral fin, which was retrofitted on earlier −120 and −220 aircraft. These modifications also aided in the mitigation of Dutch roll by providing more stability in yaw.\n\nThough initially fitted with turbojet engines, the dominant engine for the Boeing 707 family was the Pratt & Whitney JT3D, a turbofan variant of the JT3C with lower fuel consumption and higher thrust. JT3D-engined 707s and 720s were denoted with a \"B\" suffix. While many 707-120Bs and -720Bs were conversions of existing JT3C-powered machines, 707-320Bs were available only as newly built aircraft, as they had a stronger structure to support a maximum takeoff weight increased by 19000 lb, along with modifications to the wing. The 707-320B series enabled nonstop westbound flights from Europe to the US West Coast and from the US to Japan.\n\nThe final 707 variant was the 707-320C, (C for \"Convertible\"), which had a large fuselage door for cargo. It had a revised wing with three-sectioned leading-edge flaps, improving takeoff and landing performance and allowing the ventral fin to be removed (although the taller fin was retained). The 707-320Bs built after 1963 used the same wing as the −320C and were known as 707-320B Advanced aircraft.\n\nProduction of the passenger 707 ended in 1978. In total, 1,010 707s were built for civilian use, though many of these found their way to military service. The 707 production line remained open for purpose-built military variants until 1991, with the last new-build 707 airframes built as E-3 and E-6 aircraft.\n\nTraces of the 707 are still found in the 737, which uses a modified version of the 707's fuselage, as well as the same external nose and cockpit configurations as the those of the 707. These were also used on the previous 727, while the 757 also used the 707 fuselage cross-section.\n\nDesign\n\nWings\n\nThe 707's wings are swept back at 35°, and like all swept-wing aircraft, display an undesirable \"dutch roll\" flying characteristic that manifests itself as an alternating yawing and rolling motion. Boeing already had considerable experience with this on the B-47 and B-52, and had developed the yaw damper system on the B-47 that would be applied to later swept-wing configurations like the 707. However, many novice 707 pilots had no experience with this phenomenon, as they were transitioning from straight-wing propeller-driven aircraft such as the Douglas DC-7 and Lockheed Constellation.\n\nOn one customer-acceptance flight, where the yaw damper was turned off to familiarize the new pilots with flying techniques, a trainee pilot's actions violently exacerbated the Dutch roll motion and caused three of the four engines to be torn from the wings. The plane, a brand new 707-227, N7071, destined for Braniff, crash-landed on a river bed north of Seattle at Arlington, Washington, killing four of the eight occupants. \n\nIn his autobiography, test pilot Johnston describes a Dutch roll incident he experienced as a passenger on an early commercial 707 flight. As the aircraft's movements did not cease and most of the passengers became ill, he suspected a misrigging of the directional autopilot (yaw damper). He went to the cockpit and found the crew unable to understand and resolve the situation. He introduced himself and relieved the ashen-faced captain who immediately left the cockpit feeling ill. Johnston disconnected the faulty autopilot and manually stabilized the plane \"with two slight control movements\". \n\nEngines\n\nThe 707 uses engine-driven turbocompressors to supply pressurized air for cabin pressurization. On many commercial 707s, the outer port (number 1) engine mount is distinctly different from the other three, as this engine is not fitted with a turbocompressor. Later-model 707s typically had this configuration, although American Airlines had turbocompressors on engines 2 and 3 only. Early 707 models often had turbocompressor fairings on all four engines, but with only two or three compressors installed. \n\nThe JT3D-3B engines are readily identifiable by the large gray secondary air inlet doors in the nose cowl. These doors are fully open (sucked in at the rear) during takeoff to provide additional air. When the engines are throttled back to cruise, the doors are shut.\n\nThe 707 was the first commercial jet aircraft to be fitted with clamshell-type thrust reversers on each of the four engines. \n\nUpgraded engines\n\nPratt & Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven (SQS) and Omega Air, has selected the JT8D-219 as a re-engine powerplant for Boeing 707-based aircraft, calling their modified configuration a 707RE.[http://www.flug-revue.rotor.com/FRNews1/FRNews02/FR020512.htm \"Boeing 707.\"] Flug Revue, May 12, 2002. Retrieved December 27, 2009. Northrop Grumman has selected the −219 to re-engine the United States Air Force's fleet of 19 E-8 Joint STARS aircraft, which will allow the J-STARS more time on station due to the engine's greater fuel efficiency. NATO also plans to re-engine their fleet of E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft. The −219 is publicized as being half the cost of the competing 707 re-engine powerplant, the CFM International CFM56, and is 40 dB quieter than JT3D engines that are being replaced.\n\nOperational history\n\nThe first commercial orders for the 707 came on October 13, 1955, when Pan Am committed to 20 707s and 25 Douglas DC-8s, a dramatic increase in passenger capacity over its existing fleet of propeller aircraft. The competition between the 707 and Douglas DC-8 was fierce. Several major airlines committed only to the DC-8, as Douglas Aircraft was a more established maker of passenger aircraft at the time. To stay competitive, Boeing made a late and costly decision to redesign and enlarge the 707's wing to help increase range and payload. The new version was numbered 707-320.\n\nPan Am was the first airline to operate the 707; the carrier inaugurated 707 service with a christening at National Airport on October 17, 1958, attended by President Eisenhower, followed by a transatlantic flight for VIPs (personal guests of founder Juan Trippe) from Baltimore's Friendship International Airport to Paris. The aircraft's first commercial flight was from Idlewild Airport, New York, to Le Bourget, Paris, on October 26, 1958, with a fuel stop in Gander, Newfoundland. In December, National Airlines operated the first U.S. domestic jet airline flights between New York/Idlewild and Miami, using 707s leased from Pan Am; American Airlines was the first domestic airline to fly its own jets, on January 25, 1959. TWA started domestic 707-131 flights in March and Continental Airlines started 707-124 flights in June; airlines that had ordered only the DC-8, such as United, Delta, and Eastern, were left without jets until September and lost market share on transcontinental flights. Qantas was the first non-US airline to use the 707s, starting in 1959.\n\nThe 707 quickly became the most popular jetliner of its time. Its popularity led to rapid developments in airport terminals, runways, airline catering, baggage handling, reservations systems, and other air transport infrastructure. The advent of the 707 also led to the upgrading of air traffic control systems to prevent interference with military jet operations. \n\nAs the 1960s drew to a close, the exponential growth in air travel led to the 707 being a victim of its own success. The 707 was now too small to handle the increased passenger densities on the routes for which it was designed. Stretching the fuselage was not a viable option because the installation of larger, more powerful engines would, in turn, need a larger undercarriage, which was not feasible given the design's limited ground clearance. Boeing's answer to the problem was the first twin-aisle airliner—the Boeing 747. The 707's first-generation engine technology was also rapidly becoming obsolete in the areas of noise and fuel economy, especially after the 1973 oil crisis.\n\nIn 1982, during the Falklands War, the Argentine Air Force extensively used 707s for long-range maritime patrol, with some of them being intercepted and shepherded away by Royal Navy Sea Harriers, it also led to the conversion of British Nimrods to carry Sidewinder air-to-air missiles after a casual encounter.\n\nTrans World Airlines flew the last scheduled 707 flight for passengers by a US carrier on October 30, 1983, although 707s remained in scheduled service by airlines from other nations for much longer. Middle East Airlines of Lebanon flew 707s and 720s in front-line passenger service until the end of the 1990s. Since LADE of Argentina took its 707-320Bs from regular service in 2007, Saha Airlines of Iran was the last airline to keep 707s in scheduled passenger service until April 2013. \n\nOperations of the 707 were threatened by the enactment of international noise regulations in 1985. Shannon Engineering of Seattle developed a hush kit with funding from Tracor, Inc, of Austin, Texas. By the late 1980s, 172 Boeing 707s had been equipped with the Quiet 707 package. Boeing acknowledged that more 707s were in service then than before the hush kit was available. Most remaining 707s are in freighter form, or as business jets. \n\nVariants\n\nAlthough certified as Series 100s, 200s, 300s, etc., the different 707 variants are more commonly known as Series 120s, 220s, 320s, and so on, where the \"20\" part of the designation is Boeing's \"customer number\" for its development aircraft.\n\n707-020\n\nThe 707-020 was the original designation for what ultimately became the Boeing 720. Launch customer United Air Lines was a Douglas DC-8 customer and preferred not to be seen as buying the competing 707, hence the 720 designation. American Airlines always referred to its 720s as 707s.\n\n707-120\n\nThe 707-120 was the first production 707 variant, with a longer, wider fuselage, and greater wingspan than the Dash 80. The cabin had a full set of rectangular windows and could seat up to 189 passengers. It was designed for transcontinental routes, and often required a refueling stop when flying across the North Atlantic. It had four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-6 turbojets, civilian versions of the military J57, initially producing 13,000 lb (57.8 kN) with water injection. Maximum takeoff weight was 247,000 lb and first flight was on December 20, 1957. Major orders were the launch order for 20 707-121 aircraft by Pan Am and an American Airlines order for 30 707-123 aircraft. The first revenue flight was on October 26, 1958; 56 were built, plus seven short-bodied −138s; the last −120 was delivered to Western in May 1960.\n\nThe 707-138 was a −120 with a fuselage 10 ft shorter than the others, with 5 ft (three frames) removed ahead and behind the wing, giving increased range. Maximum takeoff weight was the same 247,000 lb as the standard version. It was a variant for Qantas, thus had its customer number 38. The seven −138s were delivered to Qantas June–September 1959 and first carried passengers that July.\n\nThe 707-120B had Pratt & Whitney JT3D-1 turbofan engines, which were quieter, more powerful, and more fuel-efficient, producing 17000 lbf each, with the later JT3D-3 version giving 18000 lbf. (This thrust did not require water injection, eliminating both the system and 5000–6000 lb of water.) The −120B had the wing modifications introduced on the 720 and a longer tailplane; a total of 72 were built, 31 for American and 41 for TWA, plus six short-bodied −138Bs for Qantas. American had its 23 surviving −123s converted to 123Bs, but TWA did not convert its 15 -131s. The only other conversions were Pan American's five surviving −121s and one surviving −139, the three aircraft delivered to the USAF as −153s and the seven short-bodied Qantas −138s. The first flight of the −120B was on June 22, 1960, and American carried the first passengers in March 1961; the last delivery was to American in April 1969. Maximum weight was 258,000 lb (117,025 kg) for both the long- and short-bodied versions.\n\n707-220\n\nThe 707-220 was designed for hot and high operations with more powerful 15,800 lb (70.3 kN) Pratt & Whitney JT4A-3 turbojets. Five of these were produced, but only four were ultimately delivered, with one being lost during a test flight. All were for Braniff International Airways and carried the model number 707-227; the first entered service in December 1959. This version was made obsolete by the arrival of the turbofan-powered 707-120B.\n\n707-320\n\nThe 707-320 Intercontinental is a stretched version of the turbojet-powered 707-120, initially powered by JT4A-3 or JT4A-5 turbojets producing 15,800 lb (70.3 kN) each (most eventually got 17,500 lb (78.4 kN) JT4A-11s). The interior allowed up to 189 passengers, the same as the -120 and -220 series, but improved two-class capacity due to an 80-in fuselage stretch ahead of the wing (from 138 ft to 145 ft ), with extensions to the fin and horizontal stabilizer extending the aircraft's length further. The longer wing carried more fuel, increasing range by 1600 mi and allowing the aircraft to operate as true transoceanic aircraft. The wing modifications included outboard and inboard inserts, as well as a kink in the trailing edge to add area inboard. Takeoff weight was increased to 302000 lb initially and to 312000 lb with the higher-rated JT4As and center section tanks. Its first flight was on January 11, 1958; 69 turbojet 707-320s were delivered through January 1963, the first passengers being carried (by Pan Am) in August 1959.\n\n707-420\n\nThe 707-420 was identical to the −320, but fitted with Rolls-Royce Conway 508 (RCo.12) turbofans (or by-pass turbojets as Rolls-Royce called them) of 18,000 lb (79 kN) thrust each. The first announced customer was Lufthansa. BOAC's controversial order was announced six months later, but the British carrier got the first service-ready aircraft off the production line. The British Air Registration Board refused to give the aircraft a certificate of airworthiness, citing insufficient lateral control, excessive rudder forces, and the ability to over-rotate on takeoff, stalling the wing on the ground (a fault of the de Havilland Comet 1). Boeing responded by adding 40 in to the vertical tail, applying full instead of partial rudder boost, and fitting an underfin to prevent over-rotation. These modifications except to the fin under the tail became standard on all 707 variants and were retrofitted to all earlier 707s. The 37 -420s were delivered to BOAC, Lufthansa, Air-India, El Al, and Varig through November 1963; Lufthansa was the first to carry passengers, in March 1960.\n\n707-320B\n\nThe 707-320B had the application of the JT3D turbofan to the Intercontinental, but with aerodynamic refinements. The wing was modified from the −320 by adding a second inboard kink, a dog-toothed leading edge, and curved low-drag wingtips instead of the earlier blunt ones. These wingtips increased overall wingspan by 3.0 ft. Takeoff gross weight was increased to 328000 lb. The 175 707-320B aircraft were all new-build; no original −320 models were converted to fan engines in civilian use. First service was June 1962, with Pan Am.\n\nThe 707-320B Advanced is an improved version of the −320B, adding the three-section leading-edge flaps already seen on the −320C. These reduced takeoff and landing speeds and altered the lift distribution of the wing, allowing the ventral fin found on earlier 707s to be deleted. From 1965, -320Bs had the uprated −320C undercarriage allowing the same 335000 lb MTOW. These were often identified as 707-320BA-H.\n\n707-320C\n\nThe 707-320C has a convertible passenger–freight configuration, which became the most widely produced variant of the 707. The 707-320C added a strengthened floor and a new cargo door to the −320B model. The wing was fitted with three-section leading-edge flaps which allowed the deletion of the underfin. Three hundred and thirty-five of these variants were built, including a small number with JT3D-7 engines (19,000 lb or 84.6 kN takeoff thrust) and a takeoff gross weight of 335000 lb. Ironically, most −320Cs were delivered as passenger aircraft, airlines hoping that the cargo door would increase second-hand values. The addition of two additional emergency exits, one on either side aft of the wing raised the maximum passenger capacity to a theoretical 219. Only a few aircraft were delivered as pure freighters. One of the final orders was by the Iranian Government for 14 707-3J9C aircraft capable of VIP transportation, communication, and in-flight refuelling tasks.\n\n707-700\n\nThe 707-700 was a test aircraft used to study the feasibility of using CFM International CFM56 engines on a 707 airframe and possibly retrofitting existing aircraft with the engine. After testing in 1979, N707QT, the last commercial 707 airframe, was restored to 707-320C configuration and delivered to the Moroccan Air Force as a tanker aircraft via a \"civilian\" order. Boeing abandoned the retrofit program, since it felt it would be a threat to the Boeing 757 program. The information gathered from testing led to the eventual retrofitting of CFM56 engines to the USAF C-135/KC-135R models, and some military versions of the 707 also used the CFM56. The Douglas DC-8 \"Super 70\" series with CFM56 engines was developed and extended the DC-8's life in a stricter noise regulatory environment. So, more DC-8s than 707s are in service now.\n\nOther variants\n\nThe 707-620 was a proposed domestic range-stretched variant of the 707-320B. The 707-620 was to carry around 200 passengers while retaining several aspects of the 707-320B. It would have been delivered around 1968 and would have also been Boeing's answer to the stretched Douglas DC-8 Series 60. Had the 707-620 been built, it would have cost around US$8,000,000. However, engineers discovered that a longer fuselage and wing meant a painstaking redesign of the wing and landing-gear structures. Rather than spend money on upgrading the 707, engineer Joe Sutter stated the company \"decided spending money on the 707 wasn't worth it\". The project was cancelled in 1966 in favor of the newer Boeing 747. \n\nThe 707-820 was a proposed intercontinental stretched variant of the 707-320B. It was to be powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT3D-15 turbofan engines and would have had a 10 ft extension in wingspan. Two variations were proposed, the 707-820(505) model and the 707-820(506) model. The 505 model would have had a fuselage 45 ft longer than the 707-320B and would have carried 209 passengers in mixed-class configuration and 260 passengers in all-economy configuration. The 506 model would have had a fuselage 55 ft longer than the 707-320B and would have carried 225 passengers in mixed class configuration and 279 passengers in all economy configuration. Like the 707-620, the 707-820 was also set to compete with the stretched DC-8s. The design was being pitched to American, TWA, BOAC, and Pan Am at the time of its proposal in early 1965. The 707-820 would have cost US$10,000,000. Like the 707-620, the 707-820 would have required a massive structural redesign to the wing and gear structures. The 707-820 was also cancelled in 1966 in favor of the 747.\n\nMilitary\n\nThe militaries of the US and other countries have used the civilian 707 aircraft in a variety of roles, and under different designations. (The 707 and U.S. Air Force's KC-135 were developed in parallel from the Boeing 367–80 prototype.)\n\nThe Boeing E-3 Sentry is a US military airborne warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft based on the Boeing 707 that provides all-weather surveillance, command, control, and communications.\n\nThe VC-137C variant of the Stratoliner was a special-purpose design meant to serve as Air Force One, the secure transport for the President of the United States. These models were in operational use from 1962 to 1990. The two aircraft remain on display: SAM 26000 is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio and SAM 27000 is at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California.\n\nThe Canadian Forces also operated the Boeing 707 with the designation CC-137 Husky (707-347C) from 1971 to 1997.\n\n717\n\nBoeing 717 was the company designation for C-135 Stratolifter and KC-135 Stratotanker derivatives of the 367-80. The designation was later reused in renaming the McDonnell Douglas MD-95 to Boeing 717 after the company was merged with Boeing.\n\nOperators\n\nBoeing's customer codes used to identify specific options and livery specified by customers was started with the 707, and has been maintained through all Boeing's models. In essence the same system as used on the earlier Boeing 377, the code consisted of two digits affixed to the model number to identify the specific aircraft version. For example, Pan American World Airways was assigned code \"21\". Thus, a 707-320B sold to Pan Am had the model number 707-321B. The number remained constant as further aircraft were purchased; thus, when Pan American purchased the 747-100, it had the model number 747-121.\n\nIn the 1980s, the USAF acquired around 250 used 707s to provide replacement turbofan engines for the KC-135E Stratotanker program. \n\nThe 707 is no longer operated by major airlines. A total of 10 aircraft were in commercial service with Saha Airlines (three), Hewa Bora Airways (two), and operators with one aircraft as of July 2013.\"World Airliner Census\". Flightglobal Insight, August 16–22, 2013. American actor John Travolta owns an ex-Qantas 707-138B, registration N707JT; he is also qualified to fly it as second in command. Meraj Airlines has two Boeing 707s in their fleet as VIP aircraft.\n\nOrders and deliveries\n\nDeliveries\n\n707 Model summary\n\nBoeing \n\nAccidents and incidents\n\nAs of September 2015, the 707 has been in a total of 246 major aviation occurrences and, 172 hull-loss occurrences with 3,022 fatalities. \n\nAircraft on display\n\n* VH-XBA model 707-138B (number 29) is one of the first 707s exported, and the first civilian jet registered in Australia (to airline Qantas in 1959); it is on display at the Qantas Founders Outback Museum in Longreach, Queensland, Australia. \n* 4X-BYD model 707-131(F), (number 34), an ex-Israeli Air Force and TWA aircraft, is on display at the Israeli Air Force Museum near Hatzerim, Israel. \n* 4X-JYW model 707-328 (msn. 173617, number 110), is a former Air France (F-BHSE) aircraft sold to the Israeli Air Force; it is on display at the Israeli Air Force Museum, Beersheba – Hatzerim (LLHB). \n* G-APFJ model 707-436 (msn. 17711, number 163) is a forward fuselage on display at the National Museum of Flight, East Fortune, in BOAC livery. \n* D-ABOB model 707-430 (msn. 17720, number 115) is a former Lufthansa airliner on display at Hamburg Airport (HAM/EDDH); it was originally registered as D-ABOD. \nD-ABOF model 707-430 (msn. 17721, number 162), was formerly operated by Lufthansa. Its nose section is preserved at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. \n N130KR model 707-458 (msn. 18071, number 216) is a former El Al (4X-ATB) aircraft restored in 1960s Lufthansa markings with fictitious registration D-ABOC previously displayed at Berlin – Tegel (TXL/EDDT); it is now parked at the edge of the airfield. \n* CC-CCG model 707-330B (msn. 18642, number 233), an ex-Lufthansa and LAN Chile craft, is undergoing restoration at Santiago – Los Cerillos, Chile (ULC/SCTI) and will be repainted in the Chilean airline's 1960s scheme. \n* F-BLCD model 707-328B (number 471) is on display at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Paris, France. \n* EP-IRJ model 707-321B (msn. 18958, number 475), a former Iran Air aircraft, was originally delivered to Pan American as N416PA, and is currently the Air Restaurant at Mehrabad Airport, Tehran. \n* A20-627 model 707-338C (msn. 19627, number 707) flew with the RAAF. Originally delivered to Qantas as VH-EAG, its forward fuselage is preserved at the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society, Albion Park Rail, New South Wales, Australia. \n* 1419 model 707-328C (msn. 19917, number 763), an ex-SAAF aircraft, is on display at the South African Air Force Museum – Swartkop Air Force Base, Pretoria. \n* N893PA model 707-321B (msn. 20030, number 791), a former CAAC aircraft originally delivered to Pan American, is preserved at Tianjin, China. \n* HZ-HM2 Model 707-386C (msn. 21081, number 903) is a Saudi Air Force VIP aircraft painted in the current Saudia color scheme; delivered in 1975, it is registered as HZ-HM1 and preserved at the Saudi Air Force Museum, Riyadh. \n\nSpecifications\n\nSources:[http://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/707.htm \"707 Airplane Characteristics: Airport Planning.\"] The Boeing Company, May 2001. Retrieved October 12, 2012. \n \n\nNotable appearances in media\n\nThe 707 is mentioned in the songs \"Boeing Boeing 707\", written and performed by Roger Miller, \"Jet Airliner\", written by Paul Pena and performed by the Steve Miller Band, and \"Early Morning Rain\", written by Gordon Lightfoot and popularized by artists such as Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, and Peter, Paul and Mary.\n\nThe aircraft has had major roles in the Airport and Airplane films, and has been alluded to in both television and theatrical movies. In 2011, the American television series Pan Am took place in the early and mid-1960s and featured interior sets and exterior CGI representations of the 707 on the ground and in flight; it was Pan Am's frontline airliner during that time. Additional footage of John Travolta's Boeing 707 in Pan Am livery has also been used in the TV series. \n\nThe episode \"The Odyssey of Flight 33\" of television series The Twilight Zone takes place on a Boeing 707 with the aircraft traveling through various periods of history." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1958", "one thousand, nine hundred and fifty-eight" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1958", "one thousand nine hundred and fifty eight" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1958", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1958" }
Who became Queen of the Netherlands in 1980?	tc_1412	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Beatrix_of_the_Netherlands.txt", "Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands.txt" ], "title": [ "Beatrix of the Netherlands", "Monarchy of the Netherlands" ], "wiki_context": [ "Beatrix (Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard,; born 31 January 1938) reigned as Queen of the Netherlands from 1980 until her abdication in 2013, after a reign of exactly 33 years. She is the eldest daughter of Queen Juliana and her husband, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. Upon her mother's accession in 1948, she became heir presumptive. When her mother abdicated on 30 April 1980, Beatrix succeeded her as queen.\n\nBeatrix attended a public primary school in Canada during World War II, and then finished her primary and secondary education in the Netherlands in the post war period. In 1961, she received her law degree from Leiden University. In 1966, Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg, a German diplomat, with whom she had three children: Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands (b. 1967), Prince Friso (1968-2013) and Prince Constantijn (b. 1969). Prince Claus died in 2002. At the time of her abdication, Beatrix was the oldest reigning monarch of the Netherlands. \n\nBeatrix's reign saw the country's Caribbean possessions reshaped with Aruba's secession and becoming its own constituent country within the Kingdom in 1986 as well as the subsequent Antillean Dissolution in 2010, which created the new special municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba, and the two new constituent countries of Curaçao and Sint Maarten.\n\nOn Koninginnedag (Queen's Day), 30 April 2013, Beatrix abdicated in favour of her eldest son, Willem-Alexander, and resumed the title of princess. \n\nEarly life\n\nBeatrix was born Princess Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld, on 31 January 1938 at the Soestdijk Palace in Baarn, Netherlands. She is the first child of Princess Juliana of the Netherlands and German aristocrat Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. Beatrix was baptized on 12 May 1938 in the Great Church in The Hague. Her five godparents were King Leopold III of the Belgians; Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone; Elisabeth, Princess of Erbach-Schönberg; Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg; and Countess Allene de Kotzebue. Beatrix's middle names are the first names of her maternal grandmother, the then reigning Queen Wilhelmina, and her paternal grandmother, Armgard of Sierstorpff-Cramm.\n\nWhen Beatrix was one year old, in 1939, her younger sister Princess Irene was born.\n\nWorld War II broke out in the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 (Westfeldzug). On 13 May, the Dutch Royal Family evacuated to London, United Kingdom. One month later, Beatrix went to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, with her mother Juliana and her sister Irene, while her father Bernhard and maternal grandmother Queen Wilhelmina remained in London. The family lived at the Stornoway residence (now the residence of the Leader of the Opposition in the Parliament of Canada). With bodyguards and ladies in waiting, the family summered at Bigwin Inn on Lake of Bays, Ontario where four private stone cottages of the resort served as their retreat. While on Bigwin Island, the constitution of the Netherlands was stored in the cast iron safe of Bigwin Inn's Rotunda building. Princess Juliana and her Family were remembered for their \"down to earth\" friendliness, general gratefulness and great reverence for their homeland and people, to whom they paid homage by refraining from all luxuries offered to guests at the resort that was once billed as the largest and most luxurious summer resort in Canada. In order to provide them with a greater sense of security, culinary chefs and staff catered to personal orders at meal time. Upon their departure, the hotel musicians of the Bigwin Inn Orchestra assembled dockside; and at every public performance afterward through to the end of World War II, the Wilhelmus was played. In the years following the shuttering and neglect of the island resort, the \"Juliana\" cottages were well maintained and preserved in an informal tribute to Princess Juliana and her family. In thanks for the protection of her and her daughters, Princess Juliana established the custom of the delivery to the Canadian government every spring of tulips, which are the centrepiece of the Canadian Tulip Festival.\n\nThe second sister of Beatrix, Princess Margriet, was born in Ottawa in 1943. During their exile in Canada, Beatrix attended nursery and Rockcliffe Park Public School, a primary school where she was known as \"Trixie Orange\". \n\nOn 5 May 1945, the German troops in the Netherlands surrendered. The family returned to the Netherlands on 2 August 1945. Beatrix went to the progressive primary school De Werkplaats in Bilthoven. Her third sister Princess Christina was born in 1947. On 6 September 1948, her mother Juliana succeeded her grandmother Wilhelmina as Queen of the Netherlands, and Beatrix became the heiress presumptive to the throne of the Netherlands at the age of ten.\n\nEducation\n\nIn April 1950, Princess Beatrix entered the Incrementum, a part of Baarnsch Lyceum, where, in 1956, she passed her school-graduation examinations in the subjects of arts and classics.\n\nIn 1954, Princess Beatrix served as bridesmaid at the wedding of Baroness van Randwijck and Mr T Boey. \n\nOn 31 January 1956 Princess Beatrix celebrated her 18th birthday. From that date, under the Constitution of the Netherlands, she was entitled to assume the Royal Prerogative. At that time, her mother installed her in the Council of State.\n\nThe same year her studies at Leiden University began. In her first years at the university, she studied sociology, jurisprudence, economics, parliamentary history and constitutional law. In the course of her studies she also attended lectures on the cultures of Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, international affairs, international law, history and European law.\n\nThe princess also visited various European and international organisations in Geneva, Strasbourg, Paris, and Brussels. She was also an active member of the VVSL (Female Union for Students in Leiden), now called L.S.V. Minerva, after it had merged with the Leidsch Studenten Corps (which before then was male-only). In the summer of 1959, she passed her preliminary examination in law, and she obtained her law degree in July 1961.\n\nPolitical involvement\n\nHer appearance on the political scene was almost immediately marked by controversy. In 1965, Princess Beatrix became engaged to the German aristocrat Claus von Amsberg, a diplomat working for the German Foreign Office. Their marriage caused a massive protest during the wedding day in Amsterdam on 10 March 1966. Prince Claus had served in the Hitler Youth and the Wehrmacht and was, therefore, associated by a part of the Dutch population with German Nazism. Protests included such memorable slogans as \"Claus 'raus!\" (Claus out!) and \"Mijn fiets terug\" (\"Return my bicycle\" – a reference to occupying German soldiers confiscating Dutch bicycles during WWII). A smoke bomb was thrown at the Golden Coach by a group of Provos causing a violent street battle with the police. As time went on, however, Prince Claus became one of the most popular members of the Dutch monarchy and his 2002 death was widely mourned.\n\nOn 25 November 1975, Beatrix and Prince Claus attended in representation of her mother, the Queen, the independence ceremony of Suriname, held in the new nation's capital, Paramaribo.\n\nAn even more violent riot occurred on 30 April 1980, during the investiture (sovereigns of the Netherlands are not crowned as such) of Queen Beatrix. Some people, including socialist squatters, used the occasion to protest against poor housing conditions in the Netherlands and against the monarchy in general, using the also memorable slogan \"Geen woning; geen Kroning\" (No home, no coronation). Violent clashes with the police and security forces took place. The latter event is reflected in contemporary Dutch literature in the books of A.F.Th. van der Heijden.\n\nAs monarch, Beatrix had weekly meetings with the prime minister. She signed all new Acts of Parliament and royal decrees, and until a constitutional change late in her reign, appointed the public servant who assisted in brokering the formation of new governments. At the state opening of parliament each September, she delivered the Speech from the Throne, in which the government announces its plans for the coming parliamentary year. As Queen, she was president of the Council of State. Her role was largely ceremonial and as a focus of national unity; she did not make legislative or executive decisions.\n\nBeatrix is a member of the Bilderberg Group, a secretive, invitation-only annual conference co-founded by her father which first met in Hotel de Bilderberg in Oosterbeek.\n\nMarriage and children\n\nOn 28 June 1965, the engagement of Princess Beatrix to the German diplomat Claus von Amsberg was announced. Claus and Beatrix had met at the wedding-eve party of Princess Tatjana of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and Moritz, Landgrave of Hesse, in summer 1964. (In fact they had already met once before, on New Year's Eve 1962 in Bad Driburg at a dinner hosted by the count von Oeynhausen-Sierstorpff who was a distant relative of both of them.) Following the consent of Parliament to the marriage, Claus von Amsberg became a Dutch citizen, and upon his marriage became Prince Claus of the Netherlands, Jonkheer van Amsberg.\n\nPrincess Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg on 10 March 1966 in civil and religious ceremonies. The bride wore a traditional gown with train in duchesse silk satin, designed by Caroline Bergé-Farwick of Maison Linette, in Den Bosch, and the Württemberg Ornate Pearl Tiara. The senior bridesmaids were the bride’s youngest sister, Princess Christina of the Netherlands; Princess Christina of Sweden, Lady Elisabeth Anson, Joanna Roëll, Eugénie Loudon and the bridegroom’s sister, Christina von Amsberg. The junior bridesmaids were Daphne Stewart Clark and Carolijn Alting von Geusau, with page boys Joachim Jencquel and Markus von Oeynhausen-Sierstorpff. \n\nThe royal couple travelled to the ceremony together in the gold state carriage. The civil ceremony was conducted by the Mayor of Amsterdam, Gijsbert van Hall, at Amsterdam City Hall. The marriage blessing took place in the Westerkerk, conducted by Rev. Hendrik Jan Kater, with a sermon by Rev. Johannes Hendrik Sillevis Smitt. \n\nPrincess Beatrix and Prince Claus have three sons:\n#King Willem-Alexander (b. 1967)\n#Prince Johan Friso, known as \"Friso\" (1968–2013) \n#Prince Constantijn (b. 1969).\n\nThe royal couple lived at Drakensteyn Castle in Lage Vuursche with their children until Beatrix ascended the throne. In 1981, they moved into Huis ten Bosch Palace in The Hague.\n\nReign\n\nOn 30 April 1980, Beatrix became the monarch when her mother abdicated.\n\nBy longstanding convention, Beatrix had to sign every piece of legislation before it becomes law. As Queen, her main tasks were to represent the Kingdom abroad and to be a unifying figurehead at home. She received foreign ambassadors and awarded honours and medals. She performed the latter task by accepting invitations to open exhibitions, attending anniversaries, inaugurating bridges, etc. Beatrix was rarely quoted directly in the press during her reign since the government information service (Rijksvoorlichtingsdienst) made it a condition of interviews that she may not be quoted. This policy was introduced shortly after her inauguration, reportedly to protect her from political complications that may arise from \"off-the-cuff\" remarks. It did not apply to her son Prince Willem-Alexander.\n\nThroughout much of her reign Beatrix had a considerable role in the cabinet formation process; notably she appointed the informateur, the person who leads the negotiations that ultimately lead to the formation of a government. However, this was changed in 2012, and now the largest party in the States General appoints a \"scout\" who then appoints an informateur.\n\nOn 1 January 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles and became a separate constituent country in the Dutch Kingdom.\n\nOn 6 October 2002, the Queen's husband, Prince Claus, died after a long illness. A year and a half later her mother died after long suffering from senile dementia, while her father succumbed to cancer in December 2004.\n\nOn 8 February 2005, Queen Beatrix received a rare honorary doctorate from Leiden University, an honour the Queen does not usually accept. In her acceptance speech she reflected on the monarchy and her own 25 years as Queen. The speech was broadcast live. \n\nOn 29 and 30 April 2005, she celebrated the 25th anniversary of her reign. She was interviewed on Dutch television, was offered a concert on Dam Square in Amsterdam, and a celebration took place in The Hague, the country's seat of government.\n\nOn 31 May 2006 the 6th Polish Air Assault Brigade would receive the Militaire Willemsorde der 4e klasse in The Hague. Queen Beatrix was to tie the prestigious medal to the standard of the incumbents of the 1st Independent Polish Parachute Brigade. \n\nOn 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were formally dissolved. The new municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba and the new constituent countries of Curaçao and Sint Maarten were established in its place. The dissolution ceremony in the Netherlands Antilles' capital, Willemstad, was attended by the then-Prince and Princess of Orange, Willem-Alexander and his wife Máxima, representing the Queen.\n\nAttack on the Royal Family\n\nOn 30 April 2009, the Queen and other members of the royal family were targeted in a car attack by a man named Karst Tates. Tates crashed his car into a parade in Apeldoorn, narrowly missing a bus carrying the Queen. Five people were killed instantly and two victims and the assailant Tates died later. Other victims of the crash were critically hurt. One week after the attack another victim succumbed to the injuries he had sustained. The royal party were unharmed, but the Queen and members of her family saw the crash at close range. Within hours, Queen Beatrix made a rare televised address to express her shock and condolences. The man reportedly told police he was deliberately targeting the royal family.\n\nAbdication\n\nIn a broadcast on national media on 28 January 2013 Beatrix announced her intention to abdicate on 30 April (Queen's Day), when she would have been on the throne for exactly 33 years. Beatrix stated that it was time to \"place the responsibility for the country in the hands of a new generation.\" Her heir apparent was her eldest son, Prince Willem-Alexander. She was the third successive Dutch monarch to abdicate, following her grandmother and her mother. The broadcast was followed by a statement from Prime Minister Mark Rutte who paid tribute to Beatrix, saying \"Since her investiture in 1980 she has applied herself heart and soul to Dutch society.\"\n\nThe official programme for the abdication and investiture took place on 30 April 2013. The Queen signed the Instrument of Abdication in the Vroedschapkamer (also known as Mozeszaal) in the Royal Palace, Amsterdam at 10:07 a.m. local time. With the completion of her signature she was no longer monarch. The investiture of Willem-Alexander as King took place in the afternoon in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. \n\nPersonal wealth\n\nIn 2009, Forbes estimated her wealth at US$300 million. \n\nPost-abdication\n\nPrincess Beatrix continues to undertake some royal duties and is patron of many organisations. She now lives in the small moated Drakensteyn Castle near the village of Lage Vuursche.\n\nCultural impact\n\nQueen Beatrix has given her name to a number of facilities in the Netherlands and beyond. These include:\n* Streekziekenhuis Koningin Beatrix, regional hospital in Beatrixpark, Winterswijk. \nQueen Beatrix International Airport in Aruba.\n Reina Beatrix School in Aruba. \n* Queen Beatrix Hospital Medical Center, Sint Eustatius. \n* Queen Beatrix Chair in Dutch Studies at UC Berkeley \n* Queen Beatrix Nursing Home, Albion Park Rail, NSW, Australia. \n\nA few parks in the country also bear her name:\n* Beatrixpark in the Oud-Zuid neighbourhood in Amsterdam.\n* Beatrixpark in Almere.\n* Beatrixpark in 's-Hertogenbosch. \n* Beatrixpark in Utrecht. \n* Beatrixpark in Schiedam.\n\nTitles, styles, honours and arms\n\nPrincess Beatrix has held titles throughout her life, as a granddaughter or daughter of a monarch, and eventually as the Sovereign. Queen Beatrix's official title was Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, etc., etc., etc.[http://www.parlement.com/9353000/1f/j9vvhy5i95k8zxl/vg09llxoh0r1 H.M. (koningin Beatrix) Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard] (Parlement.nl) The triple 'etc.' refers to the monarch's many dormant titles. She signed official documents with only \"Beatrix\". In common parlance she was referred to as The Queen (de koningin or de vorstin) or Her Majesty (Hare Majesteit). But when in conversation with the queen the practice was to initially address her as \"Your Majesty\" or in Dutch as \"Uwe Majesteit\" and thereafter as \"Mevrouw\" (ma'am).\n\nBeatrix has received honours and awards from countries around the world, both during her life as a princess and as a monarch. In her capacity as the Sovereign she was Grand Master of the Military Order of William (Militaire Willemsorde) and the other Dutch orders of merit. She is a Stranger Lady of the Most Noble Order of the Garter and the 1,187th Dame of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain, and she has received numerous other medals and decorations.\n\nFrom birth till her inauguration as queen she had the following name and titles, to which she reverted after her abdication: Her Royal Highness Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld. \n\nArms\n\nIssue \n\nAncestry\n\nPrime Ministers during the Queen's reign", "The Monarchy of the Netherlands is constitutional and as such, the role and position of the monarch are defined and limited by the constitution of the Netherlands. Consequently, a fairly large portion of the Dutch constitution is devoted to the monarch; roughly a third of the constitution describes the succession, mechanisms of accession and abdication to the throne, the roles and responsibilities of the monarch and the formalities of communication between the States-General of the Netherlands and the role of the monarch in the creation of laws.\n\nThe Kingdom of the Netherlands has been an independent monarchy since 16 March 1815, but its one time sovereign provinces have intermittently been \"governed\" by members of the House of Orange-Nassau and the House of Nassau from 1559 to 1747, since Philip II of Spain appointed William of Orange as stadtholder. William became the leader of the Dutch Revolt and the independent Dutch Republic. As stadtholder, he was followed by several of his descendants. In 1747, the function of stadtholder became a hereditary position in all Provinces of the thus \"crowned\" Dutch Republic. The last stadtholder was William V. His son William I, became the first king.\n\nConstitutional role and position of the monarch\n\nThe cycle of monarchs is described in the first section of Chapter 2 of the constitution, which is dedicated to the government of the Netherlands.\n\nSuccession\n\nThe monarchy of the Netherlands passes by right of succession to the heirs of William I. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 24 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) The heir is determined through two mechanisms: absolute cognatic primogeniture and proximity of blood. The Netherlands established absolute cognatic primogeniture instead of male preference primogeniture by law in 1983. Proximity of blood limits accession to the throne to a person who is related to the current monarch within three degrees of kinship. For example, the grandchildren of Princess Margriet of the Netherlands (sister of Princess Beatrix), have no succession rights because their kinship with Beatrix when she was queen was of the fourth degree (that is, Princess Beatrix is their parent's parent's parents' daughter). Also, succession is limited to legitimate heirs, precluding a claim to the throne by children born out of wedlock. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 25 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) A special case arises if the king dies while his wife is pregnant: the unborn child is considered the heir at that point, unless stillborn — the child is then considered never to have existed. So, if the old king dies while his wife is pregnant with their first child, the unborn child is immediately considered born and immediately becomes the new king. If the pregnancy ends in stillbirth, his or her reign is expunged (otherwise the existence of the stillborn king would add a degree of separation for other family members to the throne and might suddenly exclude the next person in line for the throne). Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 26 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nIf the monarch is a minor, a regent is appointed and serves until the monarch comes of age. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 33 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 37 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) The regent is customarily the surviving parent of the monarch but the constitution stipulates that custody and parental authority of the minor monarch will be determined by law; any person might be appointed as regent, as legal guardian or both. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 34 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nThere are also a number of special cases within the constitution. First, if there is no heir when the monarch dies the States-General may appoint a successor upon the suggestion of the government. This suggestion may be made before the death of the reigning monarch, even by the monarch himself (in case it is clear that the monarch will die without leaving an heir). Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 30 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\nSecond, some people are excluded from the line of succession. They are:\n\n* Any heir who marries without the permission of the States-General loses the right of succession. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 28 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n* A person who is or has become truly undesirable or unfit as monarch can be removed from the line of succession by an act of the States-General, upon suggestion of the reigning monarch. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 29 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) This clause has never been executed and is considered an \"emergency exit\". An example would be an heir apparent who commits treason or suffers a serious accident.\n\nAccession\n\nAs with most monarchies, the Netherlands cannot be without a monarch — the constitution of the Netherlands does not recognize a situation in which there is no monarch. This is because there must be a head of state in order for the government to function, i.e. there must be someone who carries out the tasks of the constitutional role of the King. For this reason the new monarch assumes his role the moment the previous monarch ceases to hold the throne. The only exception is if there is no heir at all, in which case the Council of State assumes the role of the monarch pending the appointment of a monarch or regent. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Chapter 2: Government (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nThe monarch is expected to execute his duties and responsibilities for the good of the nation. He must therefore swear to uphold the constitution and execute his office faithfully. He must be sworn in as soon as possible after the monarch assumes the throne during a joint session of the States-General held in Amsterdam. Article 32 of the Dutch constitution describes a swearing-in in \"the capital Amsterdam\", which incidentally is the only phrase in the constitution that names Amsterdam as the capital of the Kingdom. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 32 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) The ceremony is called the inauguration (inhuldiging).\n\nThe Dutch monarch is not crowned; the monarch's swearing of the oath constitutes his acceptance of the throne. Also note that this ceremony does not equal accession to the throne; this would imply a vacancy of the throne between monarchs which is not allowed. The monarch ascends immediately after the previous monarch ceases to reign; the swearing-in only constitutes acceptance in public.\n\nThe end of a reign\n\nThe monarch’s reign can end in two ways:\n\n;Death: (William II, William III)\n;Abdication: The monarch willingly steps down. (William I, Wilhelmina, Juliana, Beatrix)\n\nBoth these events cause the regular mechanisms of succession to go into effect. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 27 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) While the constitution mentions neither possibility explicitly, it does describe what happens after the monarch dies or abdicates. Abdication is a prerogative of the monarch, but it is also irreversible—the person abdicating cannot return to the throne, nor can a child born to a former monarch after an abdication has occurred have a claim to the throne.\n\nThe abdicated monarch is legally a Prince or Princess of the Netherlands as well as Prince or Princess of Orange-Nassau. After his or her death, legally the deceased monarch (abdicated or not) has no titles. However, after death, the abdicated monarch is traditionally referred to as king or queen again. For example, Queen Juliana became queen on 4 September 1948 and princess again on 30 April 1980 following her abdication, but has been referred to as Queen Juliana since her death on 20 March 2004.\n\nTemporary loss of royal authority\n\nThere are two ways in which the monarch, without ceasing to be monarch, can be stripped of his or her royal authority:\n\n;Voluntary suspension of royal authority: The monarch temporarily ceases execution of his or her office.\n;Removal from royal authority: The government strips the monarch of his or her royal authority, as he or she is deemed unfit for their tasks.\n\nThese cases are both temporary (even if the monarch dies while not executing his office it still counts as temporary) and are described in detail in the constitution. A monarch can temporarily cease to reign for any reason. This can be at his own request or because the Council of Ministers deems the monarch unfit for office. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 35 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 36 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) Although there can be any reason for the monarch to cede royal authority or be removed from it, both monarch and council are deemed to act responsibly and not leave the execution of the office vacant unnecessarily. Both cases are intended to deal with emergency situations such as physical or mental inability to execute the office of monarch.\n\nIn both cases an act of the joint States-General is needed to strip the monarch of authority. In the case of the monarch ceding royal authority, the required act is a law. In case of removal, it is a declaration by the States-General. Formally, both require the normal procedure for passing a new law in the Netherlands. The former case is signed into law by the monarch himself, the latter is not, so technically it is not a law (this is allowed explicitly in the constitution, since the monarch who is being stripped of his authority will probably not agree to signing the act of his removal).\n\nSince neither ceding nor removal is permanent, neither triggers succession. Instead the States-General appoint a regent. This must be the heir apparent if he or she is old enough. In order for the monarch to resume his duties, a law (which is signed by the regent) must be passed to that effect. The monarch resumes the throne the moment the law of his return is made public.\n\nPolitical role\n\nThe monarch and the government\n\nAlthough the monarch has roles and duties in all parts of the government and in several important places in the rest of society, the primary role of the monarch is within the executive branch of the Dutch government: the monarch is part of the government of the Netherlands.\n\nThe role of the monarch within the government of the Netherlands is described in Article 42 of the constitution: Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 42 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nThis article is the basis of the full power and influence of the monarch and makes him beyond reproach before the law, but also limits his practical power, as he can take no responsibility for it.\n\nThe first paragraph of Article 42 determines that the government of the Netherlands consists of the monarch and his ministers. The monarch is according to this article not the head of government, the ministers are not answerable to the monarch within the government. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 46 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 45 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) There is no distinction, no dichotomy, no segregation or separation: the monarch and his ministers are the government and the government is one.\n\nThis fact has practical consequences, in that it is not possible for the monarch and the ministers to be in disagreement. The government speaks with one voice and makes decisions as a united body. When the monarch acts in an executive capacity, he does so as representative of the united government. And when the government decides, the monarch is in agreement (even if the monarch personally disagrees). As an ultimate consequence of this, it is not possible for the monarch to refuse to sign into law a proposal of law that has been agreed to and signed by the responsible minister. Such a disagreement between the monarch and his minister is a situation not covered by the constitution and is automatically a constitutional crisis.\n\nThe second paragraph of the article, though, is what really renders the monarch powerless. This paragraph states that the monarch is inviolate. He is beyond any reproach, beyond the grasp of any prosecution (criminal or otherwise) for any acts committed or actions taken as monarch. If anything goes wrong, the minister responsible for the topic at hand is responsible for the failings of the monarch. This sounds like it makes the monarch an absolute tyrant, but in fact the opposite is true: since the ministers are responsible, they also have the authority to make the decisions. The ministers set the course of the government and the country, the ministers make executive decisions and run the affairs of state. And since the government is one, the monarch abides by the decision of the ministers. In fact the monarchs of the Netherlands rarely make any executive decisions at all and practically never speak in public on any subject other than to read a statement prepared by the Prime Minister (since an unfortunate off-the-cuff remark could get a minister into trouble). The practical consequence of this limit on the power of the monarch is that the monarch never makes a decision on his own. Every decision, every decree must be countersigned by the responsible minister(s).\n\nThe monarch and the law of the land\n\nTechnically, the monarch has a lot of practical power. For instance, no proposal of law actually becomes a law until signed by the monarch — and there is no legal requirement for the monarch to sign. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 87 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) In practice, the monarch will always give assent since most proposals of law are made by the government \"by or on behalf of the King\". Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 82 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) And while proposals of law must be approved by the States-General, a lot of the practical running of the country is done by royal decree (in Dutch: Koninklijk Besluit). These royal decrees are used for all sorts of things, ranging from appointments of civil servants and military officers to clarifications of how public policy is to be executed to filling in the details of certain laws. Royal decrees create ministries, Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 44 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) dissolve the houses of the States-General, Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 64 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) and appoint and fire ministers. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 43 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nHowever, since the ministers are responsible, royal decrees are in fact made by the responsible minister. And while the monarch must sign laws and royal decrees before they come into effect, the constitution determines that the responsible ministers and state secretaries must countersign. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 47 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) That, given the fact that the ministers have the authority, really means that they decide and it is the monarch who countersigns, and even that is a formality. Also, while the monarch may technically propose laws (\"by or on behalf of the King\"), ministerial responsibility means that he never does. And even though the government may refuse to sign a States-General approved proposal into law, this is practically unheard of and the monarch refusing to sign on his own is even rarer (and would cause a constitutional crisis).\n\nThere is one special case in which the monarch has, if possible, even less power than normal: the appointment of his ministers. Ministers are appointed by royal decree, which of course have to be countersigned by the responsible minister. The royal decree to appoint a minister, however, is countersigned by two responsible ministers rather than one: the outgoing minister responsible for the ministry and the Prime Minister. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 48 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nFormation of the government\n\nGiven the discussion above, it is a valid question whether the position of monarch of the Netherlands is entirely ceremonial. The answer is \"no\". Despite all appearances the monarch does have some actual power, relating to the formation of a new government after parliamentary elections. And, even more interestingly, this power is traditional and is not described in the constitution.\n\nAfter the parliamentary election there follows a period of time in which the leaders of the political parties in the parliament seek to form a coalition of parties that can command a majority of the newly elected parliament. The current nationwide party-list system, combined with a low threshold for getting a seat (two-third percent of the vote) makes it all but impossible for one party to win an outright majority. Thus, the bargaining required to put together a governing coalition is as important as the election itself.\n\nThis process of negotiations, which can last anywhere from two to four months (more on occasion...), is coordinated in the initial stages by one or more informateurs, whose duty it is to investigate and report upon viable coalitions. After a likely combination is found, a formateur is appointed to conduct the formal coalition negotiations and form a new Council of Ministers (of which the formateur himself usually becomes the Prime Minister). If the negotiations fail, the cycle starts over. The informateurs and formateur in question are all appointed to this task by the monarch. The monarch makes his own decision in this, based on advice from the leaders of the different parties in parliament, as well as other important figures (the speakers of the new parliament and the senate are among them).\n\nThere is usually some popular discussion in the Netherlands around the time of these negotiations about whether the authority of the monarch in this matter should not be limited and whether or not the newly elected parliament should not make the appointments that the monarch makes. These discussions usually turn (to varying degrees) on the argument that decision by a monarch is undemocratic and there is no parliamentary oversight over the decision and the monarch might make use of this to push for a government of his or her liking.\n\nOn the other hand, it is somewhat questionable that the monarch really has much opportunity here to exert any influence. The informateur is there to investigate possible coalititions and report on them. He could technically seek \"favorable\" coalitions, but the political parties involved are usually quite clear on what they want and don't want and the first choice for coalition almost always is the coalition of preference of the largest party in the new parliament. Besides, the monarchs and (particularly) the queens have traditionally known better than to appoint controversial informateurs, usually settling for well-established yet fairly neutral people in the political arena (the deputy chairman of the Dutch Council of State is a common choice). Once a potential coalition has been identified the monarch technically has a free rein in selecting a formateur. However, the formateur almost always become the next Prime Minister, and in any case it is a strong convention that a government must command the support of a majority of the House of Representatives in order to stay in office. These considerations mean that the selected formateur is always the party leader of the largest party in the potential coalition.\n\nHowever, in March 2012 the States-General altered its own procedures, such that any subsequent government formation is done without the monarch's influence. No more than a month later, and the government coalition collapsed, triggering early elections in September 2012. As no formal procedures had been outlined as to how a government formation without monarch should take place, it was initially feared the subsequent government formation would be chaotic. However, a new government coalition was formed within 54 days - surprisingly early for Dutch standards. Instead of the monarch, the Speaker of the House of Representatives appointed the informateur - whose function was renamed to 'scout'. After the negotiations, the installation ceremony of ministers - the only duty still left at the monarch - was held in public for the first time in history.\n\nThe monarch and the States-General\n\nThe one branch of government in which the monarch has no direct part is the legislative branch, formed by the States-General of the Netherlands. This parliamentary body consists of two chambers, the House of Representatives (also commonly referred to as Parliament) and the Senate. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 51 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nAs in most parliamentary democracies the States-General are dually responsible for overseeing the government in its executive duties as well as approving proposals of law before they can become actual laws. In this respect, it is of course vital for the government to maintain good relations with the States-General and technically the monarch shares that effort (although the monarch never officially speaks to members of the States-General on policy matters due to ministerial responsibility).\n\nConstitutionally, the monarch deals with the States-General in three areas: lawmaking, policy outlining at the opening of the parliamentary year and dissolution.\n\nOf the three, policy outlining is the most straightforward. The parliamentary year is opened on the third Tuesday of September with a joint session of both houses. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 65 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) At this occasion the monarch addresses the joint states in a speech in which he sets forth the outlines for his government's policies for the coming year (the speech itself is of course prepared by the ministers, their ministries and finally crafted and approved by the Prime Minister). This event is mandated by the constitution in Article 65. Tradition has made more of this occasion than a policy speech though, and the event known as Prinsjesdag has become a large affair with much pomp and circumstance, in which the States-General and other major bodies of government assemble in the Ridderzaal to hear the King deliver the speech from the throne after having arrived from the Noordeinde Palace in his golden carriage. Both in constitutional aspects and in ceremony the event has much in common with both the British State Opening of Parliament and the American State of the Union.\n\nLawmaking is the area in which the monarch has the most frequent involvement with the States-General (although in fact he has very little to do with it in practice). Laws in the Netherlands are primarily proposed by the government and can be proposed \"by or on behalf of\" the monarch (this phrase is repeated often in the constitution). Technically this means that the monarch may propose laws in person, hearkening back to the days of the first monarchs of the Netherlands when the monarchs really could and did propose laws. However, this possibility is at odds with ministerial responsibility and the queens have always avoided the issue by never proposing laws in person. The monarch must still sign proposals into law though, a historical deference to the fact that the law of the land is decreed by the monarch.\n\nWhile the monarch has no practical involvement anymore in lawmaking other than a signature at the end, one might get a different impression from reading the communication between the government and the States-General regarding proposals of law and the laws themselves. All communication from the States-General to the government is addressed to the monarch and communication in the opposite direction formally is from the monarch (it is also signed by the monarch, without a ministerial countersignature – such communication is not a decision or decree, so does not require a countersignature). The formal language still shows deference to the position of the monarch, with a refusal of the States-General to approve a proposal of law for example becoming \"a request to the King to reconsider the proposal\". The constitution prescribes a number of the forms used: Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article XIX (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\n* If the government accepts a proposal of law and signs it into law, the language is that \"The King accedes to the proposal\".\n* If the government refuses a proposal of law, the language is that \"The King shall keep the proposal under advisement\".\n\nA law, once passed, is formulated in such a way as to be decreed by the monarch.\n\nThe final involvement of the monarch with the States is dissolution. Constitutionally, the government is empowered to dissolve either house of the states by royal decree. Of course, this means that a minister (usually the Prime Minister) makes the decision and the monarch countersigns. The signing of such a royal decree constitutionally implies new elections for the house in question and the formation of a new house within three months of dissolution.\n\nThe constitution prescribes a number of cases in which one or more houses of the States are dissolved (particularly for changes to the constitution); this is always done by royal decree. In addition, traditionally a collapse of the government is followed by dissolution of the House of Representatives and general elections. Before World War II, before it became common to form new governments with each new parliament, it would happen from time to time that a Council of Ministers found itself suddenly facing a new and unfriendly parliament. When the inevitable clash came, it was an established political trick for the Prime Minister to attempt to resolve the problem by dissolving the parliament in name of the monarch in the hope that new elections brought a more favorable parliament (but it was also possible for the trick to backfire, in which case the new, equally hostile and far more angry parliament would suspend the budget to force the resignation of the government).\n\nEven though the monarch never speaks with members of the States-General formally, it was tradition up to 1999 that the queen would invite the members of parliament over once a year for informal talks about the general state of affairs in the country. These conversations were held in the strictest confidence due to ministerial responsibility. The tradition was suspended after 1999 though, after repeated incidents in which MPs divulged the contents of the conversations, despite agreeing not to (and embarrassing the Prime Minister in doing so). In 2009, an attempt was made to resume the tradition, but this failed when Arend Jan Boekestijn resumed the tradition of revealing the contents of his conversation with queen Beatrix anyway.\n\nOther functions of the monarch\n\nThe monarch has several functions in addition to the duties and responsibilities described in previous sections. Some of these are (partly) constitutional; others are more traditional in nature.\n\nAlthough the constitution does not say so, the monarch is the head of state of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As such, the monarch is the face of the kingdom toward the world: ambassadors of the Netherlands are emissaries of the monarch, foreign ambassadors represent foreign heads of state to the monarch. And even though head-of-government responsibility lies with the Prime Minister, it is the monarch that makes state visits to foreign heads of state as representative of the Netherlands. It is also the monarch whose face is shown on Dutch stamps and Dutch euro coins.\n\nConstitutionally, the monarch is the head of the Dutch Council of State. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 74 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) The council is a constitutional body of the Netherlands that serves two purposes. First, it is an advisory council to the government which advises on the desirability, practicability and constitutionality of new proposals of law. Second, it is the Supreme Court for the Netherlands in matters of administrative law. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 73 (Dutch edition of WikiSource) The position of the monarch as constitutional head of this Council means two things for the constitutional position of the monarch:\n\n# The monarch is constitutionally directly involved with practically all aspects of lawmaking except approval by the States-General (the representative of the electorate). From inception of the law through proposal to the States to finally signing into law, the monarch is involved. This involvement is derived from the days when the monarch was an absolute ruler and really made law. Originally, with the creation of the first constitutions, the monarchs strove to maintain power by maximum involvement with all aspects of lawmaking. Over time this has grown into a more advisory role.\n# The monarch is constitutionally involved with at least part of the judicial branch of government as well.\n\nOf course, the role played by the monarch in the Council is largely theoretical due to ministerial responsibility. While the monarch is officially head of the Council, in practice the king never votes in Council meetings and always turns over his responsibility as chair of the meetings to the deputy head of the Council. He is presumed to be part of the discussions though.\n\nDespite the limitations on the role the monarch may play in the Council, his involvement is seen as valuable due to the experience and knowledge that a monarch accrues over the years. Reciprocally, being part of the Council deliberations is considered invaluable training and preparation for the role of monarch, which is why the heir-apparent is constitutionally an observer-member of the Council from the time he comes of age.\n\nThe monarch is also the Grand Master of the Dutch orders of knighthoods: the Order of Orange-Nassau, [http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001859/geldigheidsdatum_09-09-2010 Wet instelling van de Orde van Oranje-Nassau], law regarding the Order of Orange-Nassau, Article 3 the Order of the Netherlands Lion [http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001823/geldigheidsdatum_09-09-2010 Wet instelling van de Orde van de Nederlandse Leeuw], law regarding the Order of the Dutch Lion, Article 3, par. 1 and the Military William Order. [http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002001/geldigheidsdatum_09-09-2010 Wet instelling Militaire Willems-Orde], law regarding the Military William Order, Article 3\n\nLastly, the monarch plays a very large but completely unofficial role in the running of the country as advisor and confidant to the government. This duty traditionally takes the form of a weekly meeting between the Prime Minister and the monarch in which they discuss the affairs of the week, the plans of the cabinet and so on. It is assumed that the monarch exerts most of his influence (as such) in these meetings, in that he can bring his knowledge and experience to bear in what he tells the Prime Minister. In the case of Queen Beatrix, several former Prime Ministers have remarked that her case knowledge of each and every dossier is extensive and that she makes sure to be fully aware of all the details surrounding everything that lands on her desk.\n\nPerhaps somewhat surprisingly for a monarchy, the monarch is not formally the commander-in-chief of the military of the Netherlands. He was until 1983, but a large overhaul of the constitution that year shifted supreme command of the armed forces to the government as a whole. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 97 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nRemuneration and privileges\n\nStipend\n\nArticle 40 of the constitution states that the monarch is to receive an annual stipend from the kingdom (in other words wages, except that it cannot be called that since the monarch is not employed by the country but rather the other way around). The exact rules surrounding these stipends are to be determined by law, as is the list of members of the royal house who also receive them. Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Article 40 (Dutch edition of WikiSource)\n\nUnder current Dutch law the monarch receives an annual stipend which is part of the annual budget, as do the heir-apparent, the consort of the monarch and the consort of the heir-apparent. [http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002845/geldigheidsdatum_09-09-2010 Wet financieel statuut van het Koninklijk Huis] Law on the financial statute of the royal house The monarch receives this stipend constitutionally, the others because they are not allowed to work for anybody due to their positions. For example, the recipients of royal stipends in 2009 were Queen Beatrix (€813,000), Prince Willem-Alexander (the heir-apparent; €241,000) and Princess Máxima (wife of Prince Willem-Alexander; €241,000)).[http://www.rijksbegroting.nl/2009/voorbereiding/begroting,kst119595b.html Vaststelling begroting Huis der Koningin (I) voor het jaar 2009 31700 I 2 Memorie van toelichting] Argumentation for the law setting the royal house budget for the year 2009\n\nThis stipend is linked to the development of the wages of Dutch civil servants. At the beginning of 2009 there was some upset in the parliament about the cost of the royal house and the lack of insight into the structure of those costs. At the insistence of the parliament the development of the stipends of the royal house members was then linked to the development of the salaries of the Dutch civil servants. During 2009 it was agreed collectively that the civil servants would receive a pay increase of 1%. In September 2009, at the first budget debate in parliament during the economic crisis, it was pointed out to the parliament that their earlier decision meant that the stipend to the queen would now also increase. This in turn was reason for the parliament to be displeased again.\n\nRoyal privileges\n\nUnder the constitution, royal house members receiving a stipend are exempt from income tax over that stipend. They are also exempt from all personal taxes over assets and possessions that they use or need in the execution of their functions for the kingdom. The monarch and the heir-apparent are exempt from inheritance tax on inheritances received from members of the royal house.\n\nThe monarch has the use of Huis ten Bosch as a residence and Noordeinde Palace as a work palace. In addition the Royal Palace of Amsterdam is also at the disposal of the monarch (although it is only used for state visits and is open to the public when not in use for that purpose), as is Soestdijk Palace (which is open to the public and not in official use at all at this time).[http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002752/tekst_bevat_Soestdijk/geldigheidsdatum_09-09-2010 Wet op het Kroondomein]\n\nThe monarch has the use of an airplane and a train for state visits (although the airplane is not exclusively reserved for the monarch anymore and the train spends most of its time on display at the Dutch Railway Museum). The monarch also has a small fleet of cars available, on which he may display the royal standard.\n\nThe monarch is protected by law against Lese-majesty. This is actively enforced, although the sentences tend to be light.\n\nPositions of other members of the royal house and royal family\n\nThe royal family has become quite extensive since the birth of Queen Juliana's children. By consequence so has the Dutch royal house (nominally the collection of persons in line for the throne and their spouses), to the extent that membership of the royal house was limited by a change in the law in 2002. [http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0013729/geldigheidsdatum_09-09-2010 Wet lidmaatschap koninklijk huis] Law on membership and titles of the Dutch Royal House\n\nDespite being a large clan, the family as a whole has very little to do officially with Dutch government or the running of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, an important role is played by the monarch. The heir-apparent is deemed to be preparing for his eventual ascent to the throne, so he has some limited tasks and a number of limits on her person (particularly he cannot hold a paying job, since this might lead to entanglements later on). Since neither king nor heir-apparent may hold jobs, they receive a stipend from the government. Their spouses are similarly forbidden from earning an income and receive a stipend as well. But constitutionally that is the whole of the involvement of the royal family with the Dutch government.\n\nIn particular (even though it is a common mistake to believe otherwise), members of the royal house other than the king and the heir-apparent have no official tasks within the Dutch government and do not receive stipends. They are responsible for their own conduct and their own income. They may of course be asked to stand in from time to time (for instance to accompany the King on a state visit if the consort is ill), but this is always a personal favor and not an official duty. In addition, they are not exempt from taxation.\n\nMany members of the royal family do hold (or have held) significant positions within civil society, usually functioning as head or spokesperson of one or more charitable organizations, patron of the arts and similar endeavors. Some members of the royal family are also (or have been) avid supporters of some personal cause; Prince Bernhard for instance was always passionate about the treatment of World War II veterans and Princess Margriet (who was born in Canada) has a special relationship with Canadian veterans specifically. As a rule of thumb, the members of the royal family who are contemporaries of Princess Beatrix tend to hold civil society positions as a primary occupation whereas younger family members hold these positions in conjunction with a regular, paying job. A notable exception to this rule is Pieter van Vollenhoven (husband to Princess Margriet), who was chairman of the Dutch Safety Board until his retirement.\n\nAs noted before, the spouses of the monarch and the heir-apparent are forbidden from holding paying jobs or government responsibilities. This is to prevent any monetary entanglements or undue influences involving the (future) king. These legal limits were not a great problem when they were instituted in the 19th century; The Netherlands had kings and it was considered normal for a married woman to tend the household, raise the family and not to hold any position outside the home. The limits have been more problematic since the early 20th century, when the monarchy of the Netherlands passed to a series of queens and the consorts became men (starting with Prince Hendrik in 1901). The male consorts since then have all either been raised with an expectation of government responsibility (such as Prince Hendrik), or had established careers of their own before marrying the future queen (Prince Bernhard and Prince Claus). Upon marrying into the Dutch royal family they all found themselves severely restricted in their freedom to act and make use of their abilities. All of the male consorts have been involved in some form of difficulty or another (scandals involving infidelity and finances in the cases of Hendrik and Bernhard, deep depression in the case of Claus) and it has been widely speculated (and even generally accepted) that sheer boredom played at least a part in all of these difficulties.\n\nOver time the restrictions on royal consorts have eased somewhat. Prince Hendrik was allowed no part or role in the Netherlands whatsoever. Due to his war efforts, Prince Bernhard was made Inspector General of the Dutch armed forces (although that role was created for him) and was an unofficial ambassador for the Netherlands who leveraged his wartime contacts to help Dutch industry. All that came to a halt in 1976 however, after the Lockheed bribery scandals. Prince Claus was allowed more leeway still after having established himself in Dutch society (he was unpopular at first, being a German marrying into the royal family after World War II); he was eventually given an advisorship within the Ministry for Development Cooperation pertaining to Africa, where he made good use of his experiences as a German diplomat in that continent. Nevertheless, neither Bernhard nor Claus ever fully got over the restrictive nature of their marriages and at the time of the royal wedding in 2002 it was broadly agreed in government circles that Queen Máxima (who had a career in banking before marrying King Willem-Alexander) should be allowed far more leeway if she desires.\n\nDeceased members of the Dutch Royal Family since William I\n\nDowager Hereditary Princess Louise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (sister of William I, died in 1819);\nPrincess Dowager Wilhelmina of Orange (mother of William I, died in 1820);\nPrince Ernest Casimir of the Netherlands (fourth son of William II. died in 1822);\nPrince Frederik Nicholaas of the Netherlands (eldest son of Prince Frederick, son of William I, died in 1834);\nQueen Wilhelmine (first wife of William I, died in 1837);\nKing William I, Count of Nassau (eldest son of Prince William V of Orange, died in 1843);\nPrince Willem Frederik of the Netherlands (youngest son of Prince Frederick, son of William I, died in 1846);\nPrince Alexander of the Netherlands (second son of William II, died in 1848);\nKing William II (eldest son of William I, died in 1849);\nPrince Maurice of the Netherlands (second son of William III, died in 1850);\nPrincess Henrietta, Countess of Nassau (widow of William I, died in 1864);\nQueen Dowager Anna (widow of William II, died in 1865);\nPrincess Louise of the Netherlands (wife of Prince Frederick, son of William I, died in 1870);\nQueen Louise of Sweden and Norway (eldest daughter of Prince Frederick, son of William I, died in 1871);\nPrincess Amalia of the Netherlands (first wife of Prince Henry, son of William II, died in 1872);\nPrince Albert of Prussia (husband of Princess Mariane, daughter of William I, died in 1872);\nQueen Sophie (first wife of William III, died in 1877);\nPrince Henry of the Netherlands (third son of William II,died in 1879);\nPrince William, Prince of Orange (eldest son of William III, died in 1879);\nPrince Frederick of the Netherlands (second son of William I, died in 1881);\nPrincess Marianne of Prussia (youngest daughter of William I, died in 1883);\nPrince Alexander, Prince of Orange (third son of William III, died in 1884);\nPrincess Marie of the Netherlands (widow of Prince Henry, son of William II, died in 1888);\nKing William III (eldest son of William II, died in 1890);\nHereditary Grand Duke Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (son of Princess Sopie, daughter of William II, died in 1894)\nGrand Duchess Sophie of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (only daughter of William II, died in 1897);\nGrand Duke Charles of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (widower of Princess Sophie, daughter of William II, died in 1901);\nDowager Hereditary Grand Duchess Pauline of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (widow daughter-in-law of Princess Sophie, daughter of William II, died in 1904)\nPrincess Marie of Wied (youngest daughter of Prince Frederick, son of William I, died in 1910);\nGrand Duke William of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (grandson of Princess Sophie, daughter of William II, died in 1923);\nQueen Mother Emma (widow of William III and mother of Wilhelmina, died in 1934);\nPrince Consort Henry (husband of Wilhelmina, died in 1934);\nQueen Wilhelmina (only daughter of William III, died in 1962);\nPrince Consort Claus (husband of Beatrix, died in 2002);\nQueen Juliana (only daughter of Wilhelmina, died in 2004);\nPrince Consort Bernhard (widower of Juliana, died in 2004);\nPrince Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma and Piacenza (husband of Princess Irene, daughter of Juliana, died in 2010);\nPrince Friso of Orange-Nassau (second son of Beatrix, died in 2013);\n\nDeath and burial\n\nAlthough Dutch lawmakers have historically favored being very conservative about creating special legal positions for members of the royal house or the royal family, there is one area in which the rules for members of the royal house are very different from those for other Dutch citizens: the area of death and burial. More specifically, there is only one rule that pertains to members of the royal house in this area and that is that there are no rules.\n\nFor Dutch citizens, the rules surrounding death and burial are laid out by the Funeral Services Law (Dutch: Wet op de Lijkbezorging).[http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0005009/geldigheidsdatum_09-09-2010 Wet op de lijkbezorging] Funeral Services law, article 87 However, article 87 of this law states that the entire law is not applicable to members of the royal house and that the Minister of Internal Affairs can also waive the law for other relatives of the king. The reason for this exceptional position of members of the royal house is traditional. Ever since the burial of William the Silent in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft, members of the Orange-Nassau family have favored burial in the same crypt where William was entombed (some members of the family buried elsewhere were even moved there later). However, for health and hygiene reasons, burial in churches was forbidden in the Netherlands by decree of William I in 1829 (the practice had been banned before under French occupation of the country, but returned after 1815). In order to allow entombing of members of the Royal family, all Dutch laws pertaining to burial have made an exception for the royal house ever since the 1829 decree.\n\nBurial of members of the royal house is completely a matter of tradition, circumstance, practicality and spirit of the times (this due to the lack of any formal rules whatsoever). As a rule of thumb, the body of a deceased member of the royal house is placed on display for a few days in one of the palaces, to allow the family to say goodbye. Depending on the identity of the deceased (a deceased monarch, for instance), there may also be a viewing for the public. Then, on the burial day, the body is transported to Delft in a special horse-drawn carriage. Current protocol specifies eight horses for a deceased monarch and six for a deceased royal consort (which is relatively new, since Prince Hendrik was borne to Delft by eight horses). The current carriage is purple with white trim (this has also changed since the burial of Queen Wilhelmina in 1962, when the carriage was white). Currently, the route to Delft is lined by members of the Dutch armed forces (which is also new since the burial of Prince Hendrik, which was a very quiet affair).\n\nOnce in Delft, the body is entombed in the family crypt after a short service. Only members of the family are allowed into the crypt, through the main entrance in the church which is only opened for royal funerals (the mayor of Delft has a key to a separate service entrance, which is only opened in the presence of two military police officers and two members of the Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service for maintenance).\n\nThe monarchy in Dutch society\n\nImportance and position within Dutch society\n\nThe importance and position of the monarchy within Dutch society has changed over time, together with changes in the constitutional position of the monarchy.\n\nThe monarchy of the Netherlands was established in 1815 as a reaction to the decline and eventual fall of the Dutch Republic. It was observed at the time that a large part of the decline of the republic was due to a lack of a strong, central government in the face of strong, centrally led competitor nations such as Great Britain and the French kingdom. After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1813 and the resurrection of the Netherlands, it was decided to reform the republic in the Kingdom of the Netherlands with a monarchy rather than the old stadtholder system.\n\nThe original monarchy was absolute in nature, with the States-General serving as more of an advisory board without the power to do much against the king. This state of affairs allowed the king great freedom to determine the course of the nation and indeed William I was able to push through many changes that set the nation on the course towards industrialization and wealth. He also established the first Dutch railway system and the Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij, which would later evolve into the ABN Amro bank. On the other hand, his policies caused great discord with the Southern Netherlands, leading to the Belgian Revolution and a years-long war. A backlash against these policies plus rising fear of early Marxism led to acceptance by William II of a series of reforms, starting with a new constitution in 1848 (which was the start of a continuing series of limitations on royal power).\n\nDirect political power and influence of the king continued until 1890, although it slowly declined in the meantime. Both William I and William II proved quite conservative rulers (although William II was less inclined to interfere with policy than his father was), William I resisted major reforms until eventually conflict with the States-General and his own government forced his abdication. William III's reign was a continuous saga of power struggles between the monarch and the parliamentary government (which he forced out a couple of times), plus major international crises due to the same stubbornness (including the Luxembourg Crisis). As a result, the Dutch government used the succession of William III by a female regent as an opportunity to make a power play and establish government authority over royal authority.\n\nQueen Wilhelmina was not happy with the new situation and made several half-hearted attempts during her reign to reassert authority. She was partly successful in certain areas (being able to push for military rearmament before World War I) but she never succeeded in restoring royal power. She did introduce a new concept to Dutch royalty though: the popular monarch. Establishing her popularity in military circles through her support of Dutch military prior to 1917, she was able to wield her personal popularity to uphold the government against a socialist revolution in 1917.\n\nRoyal power continued to decline until the start of World War II. Forced to flee to London, Queen Wilhelmina established the position of \"mother of the Dutch state\" through her radio broadcasts into the occupied Netherlands and her support for other Dutchmen evading the Germans and fighting from England. She tried to position her family into more influence by giving Prince Bernhard an important position in the military, but was still relegated to a position of constitutional monarchy after the war.\n\nFollowing Wilhelmina's abdication in 1948, the Orange family seems to have settled for a position of unofficial influence behind the scenes coupled with a role as \"popular monarchs\" in public. As such the monarchs are practically never seen in public doing their official work (except news footage of state visits and the reading of the government plans on Prinsjesdag) and instead their relationship with the public has become more of a popular and romanticized notion of royalty. Queens Juliana and Beatrix were popularly perceived to have a figurehead role, serving to some extent as \"mother of the nation\" in times of crises and disasters (such as the 1953 floods). In addition, there is a public holiday called Koningsdag (before 2014: Koninginnedag), during which the royal family pays a visit somewhere in the country and participates in local activities and traditions in order to get closer to the people.\n\nPopularity of the monarchy\n\nThe popularity of the monarchy has changed over time, with constitutional influence, circumstance and economic tides.\n\nWhen the monarchy was established in 1815, popularity was not a major concern. Still, the Orange family held popular support in around 60% percent of the population following the fall of the French. This changed drastically over the following years as William I's policies alienated the Southern Netherlands, drew the country into civil war and established industries that favored the rich Protestants and not the general populace.\n\nRoyal popularity remained relatively low throughout the reign of the kings. William II was conservative, but on the whole did as little to lose popularity as he did to gain it. Economic decline drove most of his popular decline, although popular support for the monarch was still not considered of much import then. William III was unpopular under a wide section of the public, earning himself the nickname \"King Gorilla\" for his boorish way of behaving.\n\nRoyal popularity started to increase with Wilhelmina's ascent to the throne. She pushed for national reforms, was a huge supporter of the armed forces and strove for renewed industrialization. Around 1917 the country was generally divided into two camps: socialists in the cities, royalists elsewhere. This showed in the dividing lines during the failed Troelstra revolution, where Troelstra gained popular support in the larger cities but the countryside flocked to the queen. Wilhelmina was able to muster popular support with a countryside \"publicity tour\" together with her daughter — this showing of popular support for the queen was instrumental in halting the revolution and stabilizing the government. Still, Wilhelmina remained deeply unpopular in the cities throughout the 1920s and 1930s.\n\nNationwide support came for Wilhelmina and the monarchy during World War II. Wilhelmina was forced to retreat to London, but refused evacuation all the way to Canada (although princess Juliana was sent there with her children). Wilhelmina regularly held radio broadcasts into the occupied Netherlands and staunchly supported the Dutch troops in exile. She became the symbol for Dutch resistance against the Germans, leading to the term \"WOZO\" (Wilhelmina, Oranje Zal Overwinnen, or Wilhelmina, Orange Shall Be Victorious) being graffitied over all manner of Dutch walls as a sign of resistance. Wilhelmina established popular support for the monarchy that essentially holds to this day.\n\nAlthough a completely different type of queen than Wilhelmina, Juliana gained enormous popular support in her own right. Starting with her public appearances after the 1953 floods, Juliana established herself as a \"mother of the nation\" type of queen. A far more homey, down-to-earth character than Wilhelmina, Queen Juliana reigned with a \"neighbour and housewife\" air about her in a time when the Netherlands went through a period of social relaxation in the 1960s and 1970s (shrugging off the more rigid nature of previous Dutch society). Juliana was also a pacifist at heart at a time when Vietnam was an unpopular war and opposition to nuclear weapons was on the rise. Amid all this, Queen Juliana's alleged socialist views and unassuming nature (she had a popular image of being a queen who prepared her own Brussels sprouts) made her the \"right queen for the time\" and she maintained and increased the popular support she had inherited from her mother, even in the face of different scandals surrounding her husband.\n\nPopular support waned for a time in the early 1980s, during the start of Queen Beatrix' reign. She adopted a style of government more like that of Queen Wilhelmina and was perceived as cold and distant in a country used to Queen Juliana being everybody's grandmother. Over time the country has got used to her style though and acceptance has grown. This was also aided by the public image of Prince Claus, who came to be perceived as charming and funny during her reign. Particularly his public love declaration for Beatrix a few years before the end of his life endeared him to many people. Popular support for the monarchy (which was only measured regularly since Beatrix' reign) has consistently been above 85% since the mid-1990s and reached a peak with the marriage of Prince Willem-Alexander to Princess Máxima in 2002.\n\nPopular support has become more volatile over the last few years though, in the face of seeming improprieties by Prince Willem-Alexander and other members of the royal family during the economic crisis. Prince Willem-Alexander always had a reputation for being a \"naughty boy\" (he became popularly known as \"Prins Pils\" (\"Prince Lager\") after being photographed drinking beer as a student and once drove his car into a ditch while in university as well). Despite ongoing efforts to prepare for being king (including internships throughout society, military service and a very public interest in water management), he has made some clumsy choices from time to time that have negatively impacted his popularity. When he became engaged to Máxima Zorreguieta (daughter of Argentine junta member Jorge Zorreguieta), he publicly defended her by citing a letter describing her father's actions as harmless — the letter turned out to have been written by Jorge Rafael Videla. The matter was set aside when princess Máxima described her future husband's actions as \"een beetje dom\" (\"a little bit dumb\") in fluent Dutch during her first press conference (this also established her reputation as a charming young lady in the Netherlands). In 2009 Willem-Alexander and Máxima were in the news again for investing in a vacation resort in Mozambique. Even though there were good reasons to believe the project would have benefited the local populace greatly, the expenditure of money abroad during a crisis in a project involving some shady brokers did not sit well with the Dutch public. Also a purchase of an alternative vacation home in Argentina the same year was unpopular.\n\nIn and of themselves the incidents were not terrible, but they became public knowledge around the same time that other questions were being raised about the family finances of the Oranges. Even though the incidents caused only a slight drop in overall popular support (down to about 83%), they led to an increased support for moving to a fully ceremonial monarchy (around 43%), a freezing of the royal stipends (around 66%) or even a lowering of the stipends (about 33%) and removing the royal exemption on taxation (also around 40%).\n\nHistory\n\nFor rulers of the Netherlands before 1795, see Stadtholder of the Netherlands and List of rulers of the Netherlands\n\nPrior to the Batavian Revolution of 1795, the semi-independent provinces of the Netherlands had chief-executives called stadtholders, who were all drawn from the House of Orange or the House of Nassau by primogeniture. After 1747 the office became formally hereditary in all seven provinces in the House of Orange-Nassau.\n\nThe House of Orange-Nassau came from Dietz, Germany, seat of one of the Nassau counties. Their title 'Prince of Orange' was acquired through inheritance of the Principality of Orange in southern France, in 1544. William of Orange (also known as William the Silent) was the first Orange stadtholder (ironically, appointed by Philip II of Spain). From 1568 to his death in 1584, he led the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain. His younger brother, John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Stadtholder of Utrecht, was the direct male line ancestor of the later Stadtholders of Friesland and Groningen, the later hereditary stadtholders and the first King of the Netherlands.\n\nThe Netherlands remained, formally, a confederated republic, even when in 1747 the office of stadtholder was centralized (one stadtholder for all provinces) and became formally hereditary under the House of Orange-Nassau.\n\nThe present monarchy was founded in 1813, when the French were driven out. The new regime was headed by Prince William Frederick of Orange, the son of the last stadtholder. He originally reigned over only the territory of the old republic as \"sovereign prince\". In 1815, after Napoleon escaped from Elba, William Frederick raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself King William I. As part of the rearrangement of Europe at the Congress of Vienna, the House of Orange-Nassau was confirmed as rulers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, enlarged with what are now Belgium and Luxembourg. At the same time, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for ceding his family's hereditary lands in Germany to Nassau-Weilburg and Prussia. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was a part of the Netherlands (until 1839) while at the same time a member state of the German Confederation. It became fully independent in 1839, but remained in a personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1890. \n\nAbdication of the throne has become a de facto tradition in the Dutch monarchy. Queen Wilhelmina and Queen Juliana both abdicated in favour of their daughters and William I abdicated in favor of his eldest son, William II. The only Dutch monarchs to die on the throne were William II and William III.\n\nOn April 30, 2013 Queen Beatrix, abdicated in favour of Crown Prince Willem-Alexander.\n\nList of hereditary heads of state\n\nSee List of monarchs of the Netherlands.\n\nRoyal finances\n\nThe royal palaces are the property of the Dutch state and given for the use of the reigning monarch; While the House of Orange-Nassau possesses a large number of personal belongings, items such as paintings, historical artifacts and jewellery are usually associated with the performance of royal duties and/or the decoration of royal residences. As such, these items have a cultural significance beyond that of simple artworks and jewellery, and have therefore been placed in the hands of trusts: the House of Orange-Nassau Archives Trust and the House of Orange-Nassau Historic Collections Trust. Part of the collection is on permanent loan to Het Loo Palace Museum in Apeldoorn and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Queen Juliana had sold the remaining royal palaces and had put the cultural assets (paintings, antiques, books, etc.) into non-personal trusts.\n\nThe crown jewels, comprising the crown, orb and sceptre, Sword of State, royal banner, and ermine mantle have been placed in the Crown Property Trust. The trust also holds the items used on ceremonial occasions, such as the carriages, table silver, and dinner services. Placing these goods in the hands of a trust ensures that they will remain at the disposal of the monarch in perpetuity. \nThe Royal Archives house the personal archives of the royal family. This includes books, photographs, and artworks, as well as the books of the House of Orange-Nassau and the music library. The library was begun in 1813, following the return of the Orange-Nassaus to the Netherlands. King William I allowed the Stadtholder's library to remain part of the Royal Library in The Hague. The library houses a collection of some 70,000 books, journals and brochures. The music library has 6,000 scores, going back to the mid 18th century.\n\nThe Royal House Finances Act (1972) as amended in 2008 sets allowances for the King (or Queen Regnant), the Heir to the Throne, and the former sovereign who has abdicated. Provision is also made for their spouses (and in the case of death, for the surviving spouse). The allowances have two components: income (A-component) and personnel and materials (B-component). Annual increases or decreases are provided for: the A component is linked to changes in the annual salary of the Vice-President of the Council of State; the B-component is linked to changes in civil service pay and the cost of living.\n\nIn 2009, the government decided that the annual State Budget of the Netherlands should show in a transparent way all the costs of the Royal House, some of which had previously been borne by various Government Ministries. Three sets of costs are now separately allocated in the annual budget for the Royal House (Budget I of the annual State Budget). These are: \nAllowances paid under the Royal House Finances Act. They comprise the income and personnel and materials components mentioned above.\nExpenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They include costs which had been previously been borne by the budgets of three Government Ministries (Interior, Transport and Water Management, Health and Welfare) and which are now attributed to the Royal budget in the interest of transparency. They also include the costs relating to royal flights and the royal yacht, Groene Draeck.\nOther expenses relating to the management of the royal house. They relate to expenses for the Government Information Service (AZ/RVD) in connection with the royal house, the cost of the Royal Military Household, the Queen's Cabinet and the travel and other costs incurred by royal visits to overseas provinces and countries within the Dutch Kingdom (formerNetherlands Antilles and Aruba).\n\nCosts relating to the security of members of the royal house, state visits, and the maintenance and upkeep of the royal palaces (which are considered to be national monuments) continue to be funded by the budgets of the appropriate Government Ministries and are not included in the budget for the Royal House. \n\nAccording to the State Budget for 2010, the budgetary allocation for the royal house in 2010 is €39.643 million. There are the following categories of expenditure:\nAllowances paid to the queen, the Prince of Orange and Princess Máxima under the Royal House Finances Act. They total some €7.102 million in 2010.\nExpenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They total some €26.818 million in 2010.\nOther expenses relating to the management of the royal house. They total some €5.723 million in 2010.\n\nMonarchs of the Netherlands\n\nImageSize = width:850 height:120\nPlotArea = width:750 height:90 left:65 bottom:20\nAlignBars = justify\n\nColors =\n id:orange value:rgb(1,0.5,0) # oranje\n id:yellow value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # light yellow\n id:lorange value:rgb(1,0.7,0) # light orange\n id:black value:black\n id:grey value:rgb(0.7,0.7,0.7)\n id:white value:rgb(1,1,1)\n\nPeriod = from:1810 till:2020\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1810\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:2 start:1810\n\nPlotData=\n align:center textcolor:black fontsize:9 mark:(line, white) width:50 shift:(0,5)\n\n bar:yellow color:yellow\n\n from: 1813.9 till: 1840.8 color:orange text:~William I\n from: 1840.8 till: 1849.2 color:orange text:~William II\n from: 1849.2 till: 1890.9 color:orange text:~William III\n from: 1890.9 till: 1948.7 color:orange text:~Wilhelmina\n from: 1948.7 till: 1980.3 color:orange text:~Juliana\n from: 1980.3 till: 2013.4 color:orange text:~Beatrix\n from: 2013.4 till: 2016.2 color:orange text:~ Willem-Alexander\n\nWilhelmina (1890–1948)\n\nWhen Wilhelmina came to the Dutch throne in 1890 at age 10, the throne of Luxembourg went to her very distant agnate (but incidentally also her maternal granduncle), Adolf, former Duke of Nassau. Thus ended the personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg.\n\nThe 58-year reign of Queen Wilhelmina was dominated by the two World Wars. She married a German prince, Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who was not happy with his unrewarding role of husband-to-the-queen. Wilhelmina's strong personality and unrelenting passion to fulfill her inherited task overpowered many men in position of authority, including ministers, Prime Ministers and her own husband. She is mostly remembered for her role during World War II. The initial disappointment of many Dutch people because of her quick withdrawal to London faded (though it was never forgotten and by some was never forgiven) when she proved to be of great moral support to the people and the resistance in her occupied country. Hendrik and Wilhelmina had one daughter, Juliana, who came to the throne in 1948. They lived in The Hague and in Palace 't Loo (Paleis 't Loo) in Apeldoorn.\nShe died in 1962.\nFor her early reign and character, the letters of Queen Victoria give a good perspective..\n\nJuliana (1948–1980)\n\nJuliana reigned from 1948 until 1980, and whereas Wilhelmina reigned like a general, Juliana expressed a more motherly character. One of her first official acts was to sign the treaty of independence of the Dutch colony Indonesia. She became involved in two major crises: the Greet Hofmans affair and the Lockheed bribery scandals, both of which directly threatened the credibility of the throne. She married a German of noble descent, Prince Bernard von Lippe-Biesterfeld. Together they had four daughters, Beatrix, Irene, Margriet and Christina. After their return from Ottawa, Canada in 1945 (where Margriet was born), they lived in the Soestdijk Palace (Paleis Soestdijk) in Soestdijk, about 20 km north-east of Utrecht. She died on 20 March 2004. Her husband Bernhard died on 1 December 2004.\n\nBeatrix (1980–2013)\n\nThe Dutch royal family today is much larger than it has ever been. Former Queen Beatrix and her husband, Prince Claus, had three sons, Willem-Alexander (married to Queen Máxima), Friso (whose widow is Princess Mabel) and Constantijn (married to Princess Laurentien). Her sister Margriet and her spouse Pieter van Vollenhoven have four sons: Maurits, Bernhard, Pieter-Christiaan and Floris. Four of these seven princes as well as princess Margriet, are all (potentially) legal heirs to the throne, although the first right goes to the crown prince, and after him his daughters Catharina-Amalia, Alexia, Ariane, and then his brother Constantijn. Prince Friso lost his right to the throne because no approval was asked for his marriage to Mabel Wisse Smit to the States-General. The two other sisters of Beatrix, Irene and Christina, have lost their rights to the throne because their marriages were not approved by the States-General. They both married Roman Catholics and Irene herself converted to Roman Catholicism, which at that time (the 1960s) was still politically problematic for an heir to the throne. An additional complication which the government wanted to avoid, was that Irene's husband, Prince Carlos-Hugo of Bourbon-Parma (whom she later divorced), was a member of a deposed Italian dynasty who claimed rights to the Spanish throne. Traditionally, Dutch monarchs have always been members of the Dutch Reformed Church although this was never constitutionally required. This tradition is embedded in the history of the Netherlands.\n\nOn 28 January 2013, the Queen announced that she would be abdicating on 30 April 2013 in favour of her eldest son.\n\nWillem-Alexander (2013–present)\n\nThe current monarch is King Willem-Alexander (born 1967), who has been on the Throne since 30 April 2013. He studied history at the University of Leiden and became actively involved in water management. His wife is Queen Máxima (née Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti), an economics major, whose father was a minister of agriculture in the dictatorial regime under General Videla in Argentina. Because of that their relationship was accompanied by fierce public debate and only officially sanctioned after quiet diplomacy, resulting in Máxima's father agreeing not to be present on their wedding day (2 February 2002). Former minister Max van der Stoel and Prime Minister Wim Kok seem to have played a crucial role in this process.\n\nOn 7 December 2003 Princess Máxima gave birth to a daughter: Princess Catharina-Amalia. On 26 June 2005 another daughter was born: Princess Alexia. On 10 April 2007 a third daughter was born, Princess Ariane. They are first, second and third in line to the Dutch throne.\n\nHis mother, Princess Beatrix announced that she would be abdicating the Throne on 30 April 2013. On that day, Willem-Alexander became the new King and was sworn in and inaugurated in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam, in a session of the States-General.\n\nHeir apparent\n\nAs of 30 April 2013, the heir apparent to the Dutch throne is Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange.\n\nFull title\n\nMost members of the Dutch royal family, in addition to other titles hold (or held) the princely title Prince of Orange-Nassau. The children of Prince Friso and Prince Constantijn are instead counts and countesses of Orange-Nassau. In addition to the titles King/Prince of the Netherlands and Prince of Orange-Nassau, daughters of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld hold another princely title - Princesses of Lippe-Biesterfeld. The children of Queen Beatrix and their male-line descendants, except for the children of King Willem-Alexander, also carry the appellative Honourable (Jonkheer/Jonkvrouw) in combination with the name 'Van Amsberg'.\n\nQueen Juliana, the only child of Queen Wilhelmina and Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was also a Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Since the title can pass only through the male line, Queen Juliana's descendants do not carry the title of Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.\n\nThe title Prince of the Netherlands is the prerogative of the most important members of the royal house (children of the monarch and of the heir apparent), which is smaller than the royal family. Members of the royal house can lose their membership when they enter into marriage without asking (and receiving) consent from Parliament.\n\nIn addition to this, the Dutch Monarch carries a number of subsidiary titles, of more historical than practical note, that have been passed down through the House of Orange-Nassau and represent the accretion of lands and influence by their ancestors:\n\nDuke of Limburg, Count of Katzenelnbogen, Vianden, Diez, Spiegelberg, Buren, Leerdam and Culemborg, Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen, Baron of Breda, Diest, Beilstein, the town of Grave and the lands of Cuyk, IJsselstein, Cranendonk, Eindhoven and Liesveld, Hereditary Lord and Seigneur of Ameland, Lord of Borculo, Bredevoort, Lichtenvoorde, 't Loo, Geertruidenberg, Klundert, Zevenbergen, Hoge and Lage Zwaluwe, Naaldwijk, Polanen, St Maartensdijk, Soest, Baarn and Ter Eem, Willemstad, Steenbergen, Montfort, St Vith, Bütgenbach and Dasburg, Viscount of Antwerp. \n\nProbably the most important of these was the Barony of Breda, which formed the core of the Nassau lands in the Netherlands (Brabant) even before they inherited the Principality of Orange in what is now southern France. This was probably followed by the Viscountship/Burgravate of Antwerp, which allowed William the Silent to control a large amount of the politics in that then very important city, followed by the Marquisate of Veere, which allowed William the Silent and his descendants to control the votes of the province of Zeeland. \n \n \n. \n\nThe Royal Family and the Royal House\n\nA distinction is made in the Netherlands between the royal family and the Royal House.\n\nThe royal family includes people born into the family (and legally recognised as such) or who have married into the family. However, not every member of the royal family is a member of the Royal House.\n\nBy Act of Parliament, the members of the Royal House are: \n\n* the monarch (King or Queen);\n* the former monarch (on abdication);\n* the members of the royal family in the line of succession to the throne who are not further removed to the monarch than the second degree of consanguinity;\n* Princess Margriet of the Netherlands\n* the spouses of the above.\n\nMembers of the Royal House can lose their membership and designation as prince or princess of the Netherlands if they marry without the consent of the Dutch Parliament. This happened to Prince Friso when he married Mabel Wisse Smit. This is written down explicitly in the part of the constitution of the Netherlands that controls the Monarchy of the Netherlands.\n\nFamily tree of current members\n\n \n \n\n;Notes\n* Member of the Dutch royal house\n\n** Member of the Royal Family\n\n^ Member of the extended royal family\n\nMembers of the Royal House\n\nAccording to the official website the members of the Royal House are currently: \nHM King Willem-Alexander, The King of the Netherlands (the sovereign)\nHM Queen Maxima, The Queen of the Netherlands (the king's wife)\nHRH Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands (the king's mother and predecessor)\nHRH Princess Catharina-Amalia, The Princess of Orange (the king's first daughter and heir)\nHRH Princess Alexia of the Netherlands (the king's second daughter)\nHRH Princess Ariane of the Netherlands (the king's third daughter)\nHRH Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands (the king's brother)\nHRH Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands (the king's sister-in-law)\nHRH Princess Margriet of the Netherlands (the king's aunt)\nProf. Pieter van Vollenhoven (the king's uncle)\n\nMembers of the Royal Family\n\nAccording to the official website the Royal Family consists of the members of the Royal House plus other legitimate descendants of Queen Juliana: \nDescendants of Princess Beatrix\nHRH Princess Mabel of Orange-Nassau\nCountess Luana of Orange-Nassau\nCountess Zaria of Orange-Nassau\nCountess Eloise of Orange-Nassau\nCount Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau\n*Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau\nDescendants of Princess Margriet\nHH Prince Maurits of Orange-Nassau \nHH Princess Marilène of Orange-Nassau\n*Miss Anna van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven \nMr Lucas van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven \nMiss Felicia van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven \nHH Prince Bernhard of Orange-Nassau\nHH Princess Annette of Orange-Nassau\nMiss Isabella van Vollenhoven \nMr Samuel van Vollenhoven \nMr Benjamin van Vollenhoven \nHH Prince Pieter-Christiaan of Orange-Nassau\nHH Princess Anita of Orange-Nassau\nMiss Emma van Vollenhoven\nMiss Pieter van Vollenhoven \nHH Prince Floris of Orange-Nassau\nHH Princess Aimée of Orange-Nassau\nMiss Magali van Vollenhoven \nMiss Eliane van Vollenhoven \n*Mr Willem van Vollenhoven \nHRH Princess Irene of the Netherlands\nHRH Prince Carlos, The Duke of Parma\nHRH Princess Annemarie, The Duchess of Parma\n*HRH Princess Luisa of Bourbon-Parma\nHRH Princess Cecilia of Bourbon-Parma\nHRH Princess Margarita, The Countess of Colorno\nMr Tjalling ten Cate\nMiss Julia ten Cate\nMiss Paola ten Cate\nHRH Prince Jaime, The Count of Bardi\nHRH Princess Viktória, The Countess of Bardi \nHRH Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma\nHRH Princess Carolina, The Marchioness of Sala\nMr Albert Brenninkmeijer\nMiss Alaïa-Maria Brenninkmeijer\nHRH Princess Christina of the Netherlands\nMr Bernardo Guillermo\nMrs Eva Guillermo\n*Miss Isabel Guillermo\nMr Julián Guillermo \nMr Nicolás Guillermo\nMiss Juliana Guillermo\n\nStandards\n\nThe Dutch Royal Family also makes extensive use of royal standards that are based on their coats of arms, but not identical to them (as the British Royal Family does). Some examples from the Royal Family's website are:\n\nThe standards of the ruling king or queen:\n\nFile:Royal Flag of the Netherlands until 1908.png\|Royal Flag of the Netherlands until 1908\nFile:Royal Standard of the Netherlands.svg\|Current Royal Standard of the Netherlands\n\nThe standards of the current sons of Princess Beatrix and their wives, and the Princess' husband:\n\nFile:Royal Standard of a Prince of the Netherlands (Sons of Beatrix).svg\|Royal Standard of the Princes of the Netherlands (Sons of Queen Beatrix)\nFile:Standard of Claus von Amsberg as Royal consort of the Netherlands.png\|Standard of Claus von Amsberg as Royal consort of the Netherlands\nFile:Standard of Princess Maxima of the Netherlands.png\|Standard of Princess Máxima of the Netherlands\nFile:Royal Standard of Laurentien of Orange-Nassau.svg\|Standard of Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands\n\nThe standards of the sisters of Princess Beatrix and their children:\n\nFile:Standard of the Princesses of the Netherlands (Daughters of Queen Juliana).png\|Standard of the Princesses of the Netherlands (Daughters of Queen Juliana)\nFile:Standard of the Princes of the Nethelands (Sons of Princess Margriet ).png\|Standard of the Princes of Oranje-Nassau (Sons of Princess Margriet )\n\nThe standards of former members of the Royal Family:\n\nFile:Standard of Juliana of the Netherlans as Princess.png\|Standard of Juliana of the Netherlands as Princess\nFile:Standard of Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld as Royal consort of the Netherlands.png\|Standard of Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld as Royal consort of the Netherlands\nFile:Standard of Hendrik of Mecklenburg-Schwerin as Royal consort of the Netherlands.png\|Standard of Hendrik of Mecklenburg-Schwerin as Royal consort of the Netherlands\nFile:Standard of Queen Mother Emma of the Netherlands.png\|Standard of Queen Mother Emma of the Netherlands\nFile:Standard of Marie von Wied, Princess of the Netherlands.png\|Standard of Marie of Wied, Princess of the Netherlands\n\nMonograms\n\nAs most Royal Families, the Dutch Royal Family also makes use of royal monograms. Some examples from the Royal Family's website are:\n\nThe monograms of the ruling kings or queens:\n\nFile:Royal Monogram of Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands.svg\|King Willem-Alexander \nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Beatrix \nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Juliana\nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands, Variant.svg\|Queen Juliana, Variant\nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Wilhelmina \nFile:Royal Monogram of William I-III of the Netherlands and Luxembourg.svg\|William I-III \nFile:Royal Monogram of King Willem I of the Netherlands.svg\|William I\n\n*The monograms of some members of the Royal Family;\n\nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Anna Pavlovna of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Anna Pavlovna \nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Sophie of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Sophie \nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Emma of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Emma \nFile:Royal Monogram of Queen Emma of the Netherlands, Variant.svg\|Queen Emma, Variant \nFile:Royal Monogram of Prince Henry of the Netherlands.svg\|Prince Henry \nFile:Royal Monogram of Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands.svg\|Prince Bernhard \nFile:Dual Cypher of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard \nFile:Royal Monogram of Prince Claus of the Netherlands.svg\|Prince Claus\nFile:Royal Monogram of Princess Maxima of the Netherlands.svg\|Queen Máxima \nFile:Dual Cypher of Willem and Maxima of the Netherlands.svg\|Willem-Alexander and Máxima \nFile:Royal Monogram of Prince Johan Friso of the Netherlands.svg\|Prince Friso\nFile:Dual Cypher of Prince Friso and Princess Mabel of the Netherlands.svg\| Prince Friso and Princess Mabel \nFile:Royal Monogram of Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands.svg\|Prince Constantijn \nFile:Royal Monogram of Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands.svg\|Princess Laurentien \nFile:Dual Cypher of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands.svg\|Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Beatrix (disambiguation)", "Beatrix", "Viatrix", "Trixi" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "viatrix", "trixi", "beatrix", "beatrix disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "beatrix", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Beatrix" }
How many Billboard solo NO 1's did ex-Beatle Ringo Starr have?	tc_1413	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Billboard_(magazine).txt", "The_Beatles.txt", "Ringo_Starr.txt", "John_Lennon.txt", "Paul_McCartney.txt" ], "title": [ "Billboard (magazine)", "The Beatles", "Ringo Starr", "John Lennon", "Paul McCartney" ], "wiki_context": [ "Billboard is an entertainment media brand owned by The Hollywood Reporter-Billboard Media Group. It publishes news, video, opinion, reviews, events and style. It is known for music charts, including the Billboard Hot 100 and Billboard 200, tracking the most popular songs and albums in different genres. It also hosts events, owns a publishing firm, and operates several TV shows.\n\nBillboard was founded in 1894 by William Donaldson and James Hennegan as a trade publication for bill posters. Donaldson later acquired Hennegen's interest in 1900 for $500. In the 1900s, it covered the entertainment industry, such as circuses, fairs and burlesque shows. It also created a mail service for travelling entertainers. Billboard began focusing more on the music industry as the jukebox, phonograph and radio became commonplace. Many topics it covered were spun-off into different magazines, including Amusement Business in 1961 to cover outdoor entertainment, so that it could focus on music.\n\nAfter Donaldson died in 1925, Billboard was passed down to his children and their children, until it was sold to private investors in 1985. The magazine continued to change hands to Affiliated Publications (1987), VNU/Nielsen (1994) and its current owner, Prometheus Global Media (2009). As of 2016, it has been shifting to more of a consumer focus.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nThe first issue of Billboard was published in Cincinnati, Ohio, on November 1, 1894 by William Donaldson and James Hennegan. Initially, it covered the advertising and bill posting industry and was called Billboard Advertising. At the time, billboards, posters and paper advertisements placed in public spaces were the primary means of advertising. Donaldson handled editorial and advertising, while Hennegan, who owned Hennegan Printing Co., managed magazine production. The first issues were just eight pages long. The paper had columns like \"The Bill Room Gossip\" and \"The Indefatigable and Tireless Industry of the Bill Poster.\" A department for agricultural fairs was established in 1896. It was shortened to The Billboard in 1897. \n\nAfter a brief departure over editorial differences, Donaldson purchased Hennegan's interest in the business in 1900 for $500, to save it from bankruptcy. That May, Donaldson changed it from a monthly to a weekly paper with a greater emphasis on breaking news. He improved editorial quality and opened new offices in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, London and Paris. He also re-focused the magazine on outdoor entertainment like fairs, carnivals, circuses, vaudeville and burlesque shows. A section devoted to circuses was introduced in 1900, followed by more prominent coverage of outdoor events in 1901. These types of events were the antecedents to the modern entertainment industry. Billboard covered topics including regulation, a lack of professionalism, economics and new shows. It had a \"stage gossip\" column covering the private lives of entertainers, a \"tent show\" section covering traveling shows and a sub-section called \"Freaks to order.\" According to The Seattle Times, Donaldson also published news articles \"attacking censorship, praising productions exhibiting 'good taste' and fighting yellow journalism.\"\n\nAs railroads became more developed, Billboard set up a mail forwarding system for traveling entertainers. The location of an entertainer was tracked in the paper's Routes Ahead column, then Billboard would receive mail on the star's behalf and publish a notice in its \"Letter-Box\" column that it has mail for them. This service was first introduced in 1904. It became one of Billboards largest sources of profit and celebrity connections. By 1914, there were 42,000 people using the service. It was also used as the official address of traveling entertainers for draft letters during World War I. In the 1960s, when it was discontinued, Billboard was still processing 1,500 letters per week.\n\nIn 1920, Donaldson made a then-controversial move by hiring an African-American journalist James Albert Jackson to write a weekly column devoted to African-American performers. According to The Business of Culture: Strategic Perspectives on Entertainment and Media, the column identified discrimination against black performers and helped validate their careers. Jackson was the first black critic at a national magazine with a predominantly white audience. According to his grandson, Donaldson also established a policy against identifying performers by their race. Donaldson died in 1925.\n\nFocus on music\n\nBillboards editorial changed focus as technology in recording and playback developed. It covered \"marvels of modern technology\" like the phonograph, record players and wireless radios. It began covering coin operated entertainment machines in 1899 and created a dedicated section for them called \"Amusement Machines\" in March 1932. Billboard began covering the motion picture industry in 1907, but ended up focusing on music due to competition from Variety. It created a Billboard radio broadcasting station in the 1920s.\n\nThe jukebox industry continued to grow through the Great Depression and advertised heavily in Billboard. This led to even more editorial focus on music. The proliferation of the phonograph and radio also contributed to its growing music emphasis. Billboard introduced a \"Record Buying Guide\" in January 1939. In 1940, it introduced \"Chart Line\", which tracks the best-selling records. This was followed by a chart for jukebox records in 1944 called Music BoxMachine charts. By the 1940s, Billboard was more of a music industry specialist publication. The number of charts it published grew after World War II, due to a growing variety of music interests and genres. It had eight charts by 1987, covering different genres and formats, and 28 charts by 1994.\n\nBy 1943, it had about 100 employees. The magazine's offices moved to Brighton, Ohio in 1946, then to New York City in 1948. A five-column tabloid format was adopted in November 1950 and coated paper was first used in Billboards print issues in January 1963, allowing for photojournalism. Billboard Publications Inc. acquired a monthly trade magazine for candy and cigarette machine vendors called Vend and, in the 1950s, acquired an advertising trade publication called Tide. By 1969, Billboard Publications Inc. owned eleven trade and consumer publications, a publisher called Guptill Publications, a set of self-study cassette tapes and four television franchises. It also acquired Photo Weekly that year.\n\nOver time, the subjects Billboard still covered outside of music were spun-off into separate publications. Funspot magazine was created in 1957 to cover amusement parks and Amusement Business was created in 1961 to cover outdoor entertainment. In January 1961, Billboard was renamed to Billboard Music Week to emphasize its new exclusive interest in music. Two years later, it was renamed to just Billboard. According to The New Business Journalism, by 1984, Billboard Publications was a \"prosperous\" conglomerate of trade magazines and Billboard had become the \"undisputed leader\" in music industry news. In the early 1990s, Billboard introduced Billboard Airplay Monitors, a publication for disc jockeys and music programmers. By the end of the 1990s, Billboard dubbed itself the \"bible\" of the recording industry. \n\nChanges in ownership\n\nBillboard struggled after its founder William Donaldson died in 1925 and within three years was once again heading towards bankruptcy. Donaldson's son-in-law Roger Littleford took over in 1928 and \"nursed the publication back to health.\" His sons, Bill and Roger, became co-publishers in 1946 and inherited the publication in the late 1970s after Roger Littleford's death. They sold it to private investors in 1985 for an estimated $40 million. The investors cut costs and acquired a trade publication for the Broadway theatre industry called Backstage.\n\nIn 1987, Billboard was sold again to Affiliated Publications for $100 million. Billboard Publications Inc. became a subsidiary of Affiliated Publications called BPI Communications. As BPI Communications, it acquired The Hollywood Reporter, Adweek, Marketing Week and Mediaweek. It purchased Broadcast Data Systems, which is a high-tech firm for tracking music airtime. Private investors from Boston Ventures and BPI executives re-purchased a two-thirds interest in Billboard Publications for $100 million and more acquisitions followed. In 1993, it created a division called Billboard Music Group for music-related publications.\n\nIn 1994, Billboard Publications was sold to a Dutch media conglomerate, Verenigde Nederlandse Uitgeverijen (VNU), for $220 million. VNU acquired the Clio Awards in advertising and the National Research Group in 1997, as well as Editor & Publisher in 1999. In July 2000, it paid $650 million for the publisher Miller Freeman. BPI was combined with other entities in VNU in 2000 to form Bill Communications Inc. By time CEO Gerald Hobbs retired in 2003, VNU had grown substantially larger, but it had a large amount of debt from the acquisitions. An attempted $7 billion acquisition of IMS Health in 2005 prompted protests from shareholders that halted the deal. It eventually agreed to an $11 billion takeover bid from investors in 2006.\n\nVNU then changed its name to Nielsen in 2007, the namesake of a company it acquired for $2.5 billion in 1999. New CEO Robert Krakoff divested some of the previously owned publications, restructured the organization, and planned some acquisitions before dying suddenly in 2007 to be replaced by Greg Farrar.\n\nNielsen owned Billboard until 2009, when it was one of eight publications sold to e5 Global Media Holdings. e5 was formed by investment firms Pluribus Capital Management and Guggenheim Partners for the purpose of the acquisition. The following year, the new parent company was renamed to Prometheus Global Media. Three years later, Guggenheim Partners acquired Pluribus' share of Prometheus and became the sole owner of Billboard. In December 2015, Guggenheim Digital Media sold several media brands, including Billboard, to its own executive, Todd Boehly. He formed The Hollywood Reporter-Billboard Media Group, which owns both Billboard and The Hollywood Reporter. \n\n1990s–present\n\nTimothy White was appointed Editor in Chief in 1991, a position he held until his unexpected death in 2002. White wrote a weekly column promoting music with \"artistic merit,\" while criticizing music with violent or misogynistic themes. He reworked the publication's music charts. Rather than rely on data from music retailers, new charts used data from store checkout scanners obtained from Nielsen SoundScan. He also wrote in-depth profiles on musicians. The website, Billboard.com, was launched in 1995. Keith Girard replaced White before being fired in May 2004. He and a female employee filed a $29 million lawsuit alleging Billboard fired them unfairly with an intent to damage their reputations. The lawsuit claimed they experienced sexual harassment, a hostile work environment and a financially motivated lack of editorial integrity. Email evidence suggested human resources were given special instructions to watch minority employees. The case was settled out-of-court in 2006 for a non-disclosed sum. \n\nIn the 2000s, economic decline in the music industry dramatically reduced readership and advertising from Billboards traditional audience. Circulation declined from 40,000 in circulation in the 1990s to less than 17,000 by 2014. The publication's staff and ownership were also undergoing frequent changes. In 2005 Billboard expanded its editorial outside the music industry into other areas of digital and mobile entertainment.\n\nBill Werde was named editorial director in 2008, and was followed by Janice Min in January 2014, who is also responsible for editorial at The Hollywood Reporter. The magazine has since been making changes to make it more of a general interest music news source, as opposed to solely an industry trade. It started covering more celebrity, fashion, and gossip. Min hired Tony Gervino as the publication's editor, which was different than Billboard's historical appointments, in that he did not have a background in the music industry. Tony Gervino was appointed Editor in Chief in April 2014. An article in NPR covered a leaked version of Billboards annual survey, which it said had more gossip and focused on less professional topics than prior surveys. For example, it polled readers on a lawsuit pop-star Kesha filed against her producer alleging sexual abuse.\n\nNews publishing\n\nBillboard publishes a news website and weekly magazine that cover music, video and home entertainment. Most of the paper's stories are written by staff writers, while some are written by industry experts. It covers news, gossip, opinion, and music reviews, but its \"most enduring and influential creation\" is the Billboard charts. The charts track music sales, radio airtime and other data about the most popular songs and albums. The Billboard Hot 100 chart of the top-selling songs was introduced in 1955. Since then, the Billboard 200, which tracks the top-selling albums, has become more popular as an indicator of commercial success. Billboard has also published books in collaboration with Watson-Guptill and a radio and television series called American Top Forty, based on Billboard charts. A daily Billboard Bulletin was introduced in February 1997 and Billboard hosts about 20 industry events each year.\n\nBillboard is considered one of the most reputable sources of music industry news. It has a print circulation of 17,000 and an online readership of 1.2 million unique monthly views. The website includes the Billboard Charts, news separated by music genre, videos, and a separate website. It also compiles lists, hosts a fashion website called Pret-a-Reporter, and publishes eight different newsletters. The print magazine's regular sections include:\n* Hot 100: A chart of the top 100 most popular songs that week\n* Topline: News from the week\n* The Beat: Hitmaker interviews, gossip and trends in the music industry\n* Style: Fashion and accessories\n* Features: In-depth interviews, profiles and photography\n* Reviews: Reviews of new albums and songs\n* Backstage pass: information about events and concerts\n* Charts and CODA: More information about current and historical Billboard Charts\n\nArchives \n\nThe scanning project by Google Books, in partnership with major libraries, includes back-issues of Billboard. Aspects of the project were challenged in the 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals (Authors Guild vs. Google, et al.; 2005). The upshot is that Google prevailed under the Fair Use doctrine.\n\n; Selected Billboard digital archives\n* [https://books.google.com/books/about/Billboard.html?id=pBQEAAAAMBAJ 1940–2010] archived online by Google Books\n* [http://www.billboard.com/magazine-archive 2005–2009] archived online by Billboard\n* [http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Billboard-Magazine.htm 1938–2009] (missing issues), archived by American Radio History (online: ), maintained by David Gleason (né David Frackelton Gleason; born 1946) of La Quinta, California", "The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they became widely regarded as the foremost and most influential act of the rock era. Rooted in skiffle, beat, and 1950s rock and roll, the Beatles later experimented with several musical styles, ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock, often incorporating classical elements in innovative ways. In the early 1960s, their enormous popularity first emerged as \"Beatlemania\", but as the group's music grew in sophistication, led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, they came to be perceived as an embodiment of the ideals shared by the counterculture of the 1960s.\n\nThe Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers, most notably Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their popularity in the United Kingdom after their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in late 1962. They acquired the nickname \"the Fab Four\" as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year, and by early 1964 became international stars, leading the \"British Invasion\" of the United States pop market. From 1965 onwards, the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the widely influential albums Rubber Soul (1965), Revolver (1966), Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), The Beatles (commonly known as the White Album, 1968) and Abbey Road (1969).\n\nAfter their break-up in 1970, they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths. McCartney and Starr, the surviving members, remain musically active. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of lung cancer in November 2001.\n\nAccording to the RIAA, the Beatles are the best-selling music artists in the United States, with 178 million certified units. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazine's list of the all-time most successful \"Hot 100\" artists; , they hold the record for most number-one hits on the Hot 100 chart with twenty. They have received ten Grammy Awards, an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. Collectively included in Time magazine's compilation of the twentieth century's 100 most influential people, they are the best-selling band in history, with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, and all four were inducted individually from 1994 to 2015.\n\nHistory \n\n 1957–62: Formation, Hamburg, and UK popularity \n\nIn March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a skiffle group with several friends from Quarry Bank school. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a respected local group was already using the other name. Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he and Lennon met that July. In February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fourteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young to join them. After a month of Harrison's persistence, they enlisted him as their lead guitarist. By January 1959, Lennon's Quarry Bank friends had left the group, and he began studies at the Liverpool College of Art. The three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. Lennon's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe, who had recently sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar, joined in January 1960, and it was he who suggested changing the band's name to Beatals, as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets. They used the name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle. By early July, they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles and by the middle of August to the Beatles.\n\nAllan Williams, the Beatles' unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960. The band, now a five-piece, left four days later, contracted to club owner Bruno Koschmider for what would be a 3½-month residency. Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes: \"They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on 17 August, the time when the red-light area comes to life ... flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer, while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities.\"\n\nKoschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the district into music venues, and he initially placed the Beatles at the Indra Club. After closing the Indra due to noise complaints, he moved them to the Kaiserkeller in October. When he learned they had been performing at the rival Top Ten Club in breach of their contract, he gave the band one month's termination notice, and reported the underage Harrison, who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age. The authorities arranged for Harrison's deportation in late November. One week later, Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor; the authorities deported them. Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December, while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg through late February with his German fiancée Astrid Kirchherr, who took the first semi-professional photos of the Beatles.\n\nDuring the next two years, the Beatles were resident for periods in Hamburg, where they used Preludin both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all-night performances. In 1961, during their second Hamburg engagement, Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe's hair in the \"exi\" (existentialist) style, later adopted by the other Beatles. When Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany, McCartney took up the bass. Producer Bert Kaempfert contracted what was now a four-piece group through June 1962, and he used them as Tony Sheridan's backing band on a series of recordings for Polydor Records. As part of the sessions, the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one year. Credited to \"Tony Sheridan & the Beat Brothers\", the single \"My Bonnie\", recorded in June 1961 and released four months later, reached number 32 on the Musikmarkt chart.\n\nAfter the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency, they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement. However, they were also growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night. In November 1961, during one of the group's frequent performances at the Cavern Club, they encountered Brian Epstein, a local record-store owner and music columnist. He later recalled: \"I immediately liked what I heard. They were fresh, and they were honest, and they had what I thought was a sort of presence ... [a] star quality.\" Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months, and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962. Throughout early and mid-1962, Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions. He eventually negotiated a one-month-early release from their contract in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg. Tragedy greeted them on their return to Germany in April, when a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe's death the previous day from what would later be determined to have been a brain hemorrhage. Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract. In order to secure a UK record contract, Epstein negotiated an early end to the band's contract with Polydor, in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan. After a New Year's Day audition, Decca Records rejected the band with the comment \"Guitar groups are on the way out, Mr. Epstein.\" However, three months later, producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI's Parlophone label.\n\nMartin's first recording session with the Beatles took place at EMI's Abbey Road Studios in London on 6 June 1962. Martin immediately complained to Epstein about Best's poor drumming and suggested they use a session drummer in his place. Already contemplating Best's dismissal, the Beatles replaced him in mid-August with Ringo Starr, who left Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to join them. A 4 September session at EMI yielded a recording of \"Love Me Do\" featuring Starr on drums, but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer Andy White for the band's third session a week later, which produced recordings of \"Love Me Do\", \"Please Please Me\" and \"P.S. I Love You\". Martin initially selected the Starr version of \"Love Me Do\" for the band's first single, though subsequent re-pressings featured the White version, with Starr on tambourine. Released in early October, \"Love Me Do\" peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart. Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme People and Places. After Martin suggested rerecording \"Please Please Me\" at a faster tempo, a studio session in late November yielded that recording, of which Martin accurately predicted, \"You've just made your first No.1.\"\n\nIn December 1962, the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency. By 1963, they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums – including Starr, despite his restricted vocal range, to validate his standing in the group. Lennon and McCartney had established a songwriting partnership, and as the band's success grew, their dominant collaboration limited Harrison's opportunities as a lead vocalist. Epstein, in an effort to maximise the Beatles' commercial potential, encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing. Lennon recalled him saying, \"Look, if you really want to get in these bigger places, you're going to have to change – stop eating on stage, stop swearing, stop smoking ...\" Lennon said: \"We used to dress how we liked, on and off stage. He'd tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers, but he didn't want us suddenly looking square. He'd let us have our own sense of individuality.\"\n\n1963–66: Beatlemania and touring years \n\nPlease Please Me and With the Beatles \n\nOn 11 February 1963, the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP, Please Please Me. The album was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles. Martin originally considered recording the Beatles' debut LP live at the Cavern Club, but after deciding that the building's acoustics were inadequate, he elected to simulate a \"live\" album with minimal production in \"a single marathon session at Abbey Road\". After the moderate success of \"Love Me Do\", the single \"Please Please Me\" met with a more emphatic reception. Released in January 1963, two months ahead of the album of the same name, the song reached number one on every chart in London except Record Retailer, where it stalled at number two. Recalling how the Beatles \"rushed to deliver a debut album, bashing out Please Please Me in a day\", AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments, \"Decades after its release, the album still sounds fresh, precisely because of its intense origins.\" Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time; he and McCartney were \"just writing songs à la Everly Brothers, à la Buddy Holly, pop songs with no more thought of them than that – to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant.\"\n\nReleased in March 1963, the album initiated a run during which eleven of their twelve studio albums released in the United Kingdom through 1970 reached number one. The band's third single, \"From Me to You\", came out in April and was also a chart-topping hit, starting an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number-one singles for the Beatles, including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years. Issued in August, the band's fourth single, \"She Loves You\", achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time, selling three-quarters of a million copies in under four weeks. It became their first single to sell a million copies, and remained the biggest-selling record in the UK until 1978, when \"Mull of Kintyre\", by McCartney's post-Beatles band Wings, surpassed it in sales. Their commercial success brought increased media exposure, to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time, inspiring even more interest. The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year: a four-week tour that began in February, the Beatles's first nationwide, preceded three-week tours in March and May–June. As their popularity spread, a frenzied adulation of the group took hold. Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans, the press dubbed the phenomenon \"Beatlemania\". Although not billed as tour leaders, the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing \"by audience demand\", something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US. A similar situation arose during their May–June tour with Roy Orbison.\n\nIn late October, the Beatles began a five-day tour of Sweden, their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December 1962. On their return to the UK on 31 October, according to Lewisohn, \"several hundred screaming fans\" greeted them in heavy rain at Heathrow Airport. Around 50 to 100 journalists and photographers as well as representatives from the BBC also joined the airport reception, the first of more than 100 such events. The next day, the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months, this one scheduled for six weeks. In mid-November, as Beatlemania intensified, police resorted to using high-pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth.\n\nPlease Please Me maintained the top position on the Record Retailer chart for 30 weeks, only to be displaced by its follow-up, With the Beatles. On 22 November EMI released With the Beatles to record advance orders of 270,000 copies, and the LP topped a half-million albums sold in one week. Recorded between July and October, With the Beatles made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor. It held the top spot for 21 weeks with a chart life of 40 weeks. Erlewine described the LP as \"a sequel of the highest order – one that betters the original\". In a reversal of then standard practice, EMI released the album ahead of the impending single \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\", with the song excluded to maximise the single's sales. The album caught the attention of music critic William Mann of The Times, who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were \"the outstanding English composers of 1963\". The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music, lending it respectability. With the Beatles became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies, a figure previously reached only by the 1958 South Pacific soundtrack. When writing the sleeve notes for the album, the band's press officer, Tony Barrow, used the superlative the \"fabulous foursome\", which the media widely adopted as \"the Fab Four\".\n\n\"British Invasion\" \n\nEMI's American subsidiary, Capitol Records, hindered the Beatles' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music, including their first three singles. Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee-Jay led to the release of some of the songs in 1963, but not all. Vee-Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing... The Beatles, culled from most of the songs of Parlophone's Please Please Me, but a management shake-up led to the album not being released. Then when it surfaced that the label did not report royalties on their sales, the licence Vee-Jay signed with EMI was voided. A new licence was granted to the Swan label for the single \"She Loves You\", but legal issues with royalties and publishing rights proved an obstacle to the successful marketing of the group in the US. American chart success began after Epstein arranged for a $40,000 US marketing campaign and secured the support of disc jockey Carrol James, who first played the band's records in mid-December 1963. Late that same month, the Beatles were introduced in the Tidewater area of Virginia by Gene Loving of radio station WGH, accompanied by a full marketing campaign, including Beatles shirt giveaways. Within days, almost every other song played on the station was a Beatles recording. It was not until the end of first week of January 1964 that their records were played in New York City (also accompanied by a major marketing campaign and with similar play frequency), and then the rest of the country, initiating their music's spread across US radio. This caused an increase in demand, leading Capitol to rush-release \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" later that month. Issued on 26 December 1963, with the band's previously scheduled debut there just weeks away, \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" sold a million copies, becoming a number-one hit in the US by mid-January. In its wake, Vee-Jay released Introducing... The Beatles to go along with Capitol's debut album, Meet the Beatles!, while Swan reactivated production of \"She Loves You\".\n\nOn 7 February 1964, the Beatles left the United Kingdom with an estimated 4000 fans gathered at Heathrow, waving and screaming as the aircraft took off. Upon landing at New York's John F. Kennedy Airport, an uproarious crowd estimated at 3000 greeted them. They gave their first live US television performance two days later on The Ed Sullivan Show, watched by approximately 73 million viewers in over 23 million households, or 34 per cent of the American population. Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that, according to the Nielsen rating service, it was \"the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television \". The next morning, the Beatles awoke to a negative critical consensus in the US, but a day later their first US concert saw Beatlemania erupt at Washington Coliseum. Back in New York the following day, the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall. The band then flew to Florida and appeared on the weekly Ed Sullivan Show a second time, before another 70 million viewers, before returning to the UK on 22 February.\n\nA Hard Day's Night \n\nCapitol Records' lack of interest throughout 1963 had not gone unnoticed, and a competitor, United Artists Records, encouraged their film division to offer the group a three-motion-picture deal, primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks. Directed by Richard Lester, A Hard Day's Night involved the band for six weeks in March–April 1964 as they played themselves in a mock-documentary. The film premiered in London and New York in July and August, respectively, and was an international success, with some critics drawing comparison with the Marx Brothers. According to Erlewine, the accompanying soundtrack album, A Hard Day's Night, saw them \"truly coming into their own as a band. All of the disparate influences on their first two albums had coalesced into a bright, joyous, original sound, filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies.\" That \"ringing guitar\" sound was primarily the product of Harrison's 12-string electric Rickenbacker, a prototype given to him by the manufacturer, which made its debut on the record.\n\nDuring the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, including the top five. Their popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music, and a number of other UK acts subsequently made their own American debuts, successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion. Their hairstyle, unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults, became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture.\n\nTouring internationally in June and July, the Beatles staged 37 shows over 27 days in Denmark, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand. In August they returned to the US, with a 30-concert tour of 23 cities. Generating intense interest once again, the month-long tour attracted between 10,000 and 20,000 fans to each 30-minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York.\n\nIn August, journalist Al Aronowitz arranged for the Beatles to meet Bob Dylan. Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite, Dylan introduced them to cannabis. Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting, before which the musicians' respective fanbases were \"perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds\": Dylan's audience of \"college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings, a dawning political and social idealism, and a mildly bohemian style\" contrasted with their fans, \"veritable 'teenyboppers' – kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television, radio, pop records, fan magazines, and teen fashion. They were seen as idolaters, not idealists.\" Within six months of the meeting, Gould writes, \"Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan's nasal drone, brittle strum, and introspective vocal persona\". Within a year, Dylan would \"proceed, with the help of a five-piece group and a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar, to shake the monkey of folk authenticity permanently off his back ... the distinctions between the folk and rock audiences would have nearly evaporated [and the group's] audience ... [was] showing signs of growing up.\"\n\nBeatles for Sale, Help! and Rubber Soul \n\nAccording to Gould, Beatles for Sale, the Beatles' fourth studio LP, evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions. They had intended the album, recorded between August and October 1964, to continue the format established by A Hard Day's Night which, unlike the group's first two LPs, contained only original songs. The band had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album, however, and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts, Lennon admitted, \"Material's becoming a hell of a problem\". As a result, six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album. Released in early December, its eight original compositions stood out, demonstrating the growing maturity of the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership.\n\nIn early 1965, while they were his guests for dinner, Lennon and Harrison's dentist secretly added LSD to their coffee. Lennon described the experience: \"It was just terrifying, but it was fantastic. I was pretty stunned for a month or two.\" He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug, joined by Starr on at least one occasion. McCartney was initially reluctant to try it, but eventually did so in late 1966. He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly, declaring in a magazine interview that \"it opened my eyes\" and \"made me a better, more honest, more tolerant member of society\".\n\nControversy erupted in June 1965 when Queen Elizabeth II appointed all four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) after Prime Minister Harold Wilson nominated them for the award. In protest – the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders – some conservative MBE recipients returned their own insignia.\n\nReleased in July, the Beatles' second film, Help!, was again directed by Lester. Described as \"mainly a relentless spoof of Bond\", it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band. McCartney said: \"Help! was great but it wasn't our film – we were sort of guest stars. It was fun, but basically, as an idea for a film, it was a bit wrong.\" The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon, who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs, including the two singles: \"Help!\" and \"Ticket to Ride\". The accompanying album, the group's fifth studio LP, contained all original material save for two covers, \"Act Naturally\" and \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\"; they were the last covers the band would include on an album, with the exception of Let It Be's brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song \"Maggie Mae\". The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on Help! and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements, notably a string quartet on the pop ballad \"Yesterday\". Composed by McCartney, \"Yesterday\" would inspire the most recorded cover versions of any song ever written.\n\nThe group's third US tour opened with a performance before a world-record crowd of 55,600 at New York's Shea Stadium on 15 August 1965 – \"perhaps the most famous of all Beatles' concerts\", in Lewisohn's description. A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities. At a show in Atlanta, the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on-stage monitor speakers. Towards the end of the tour, they met with Elvis Presley, a foundational musical influence on the band, who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills. September saw the launch of an American Saturday-morning cartoon series, The Beatles, that echoed A Hard Day's Night slapstick antics over its two-year original run. The series was a historical milestone as the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real, living people. \n\nIn mid-October 1965, the Beatles entered the recording studio; for the first time when making an album, they had an extended period without other major commitments. Until this time, according to George Martin, \"we had been making albums rather like a collection of singles. Now we were really beginning to think about albums as a bit of art on their own.\" Released in December, Rubber Soul has been hailed by critics as a major step forward in the maturity and complexity of the band's music. Their thematic reach was beginning to expand as they embraced deeper aspects of romance and philosophy. Biographers Peter Brown and Steven Gaines attribute the new musical direction to \"the Beatles' now habitual use of marijuana\", an assertion confirmed by the band – Lennon referred to it as \"the pot album\", and Starr said: \"Grass was really influential in a lot of our changes, especially with the writers. And because they were writing different material, we were playing differently.\" After Help!s foray into the world of classical music with flutes and strings, Harrison's introduction of a sitar on \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\" marked a further progression outside the traditional boundaries of popular music. As their lyrics grew more artful, fans began to study them for deeper meaning. Of \"Norwegian Wood\" Lennon commented: \"I was trying to be sophisticated in writing about an affair ... but in such a smokescreen way that you couldn't tell.\"\n\nWhile many of Rubber Souls more notable songs were the product of Lennon and McCartney's collaborative songwriting, it also featured distinct compositions from each, though they continued to share official credit. The song \"In My Life\", of which each later claimed lead authorship, is considered a highlight of the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue. Harrison called Rubber Soul his \"favourite album\" and Starr referred to it as \"the departure record\". McCartney has said, \"We'd had our cute period, and now it was time to expand.\" However, recording engineer Norman Smith later stated that the studio sessions revealed signs of growing conflict within the group – \"the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious\", he wrote, and \"as far as Paul was concerned, George could do no right\". In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Rubber Soul fifth among \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\", and AllMusic's Richie Unterberger describes it as \"one of the classic folk-rock records\".\n\n1966–70: Controversy, studio years and break-up \n\nEvents leading up to final tour \n\nCapitol Records, from December 1963 when it began issuing Beatles recordings for the US market, exercised complete control over format, compiling distinct US albums from the band's recordings and issuing songs of their choosing as singles. It was not until Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967 that a Beatles album was released with identical track listings in both the UK and the US. In June 1966, Yesterday and Today, one of Capitol's compilation albums, caused an uproar with its cover, which portrayed the grinning Beatles dressed in butcher's overalls, accompanied by raw meat and mutilated plastic baby dolls. It has been incorrectly suggested that this was meant as a satirical response to the way Capitol had \"butchered\" the US versions of their albums. Thousands of copies of the LP had a new cover pasted over the original; an unpeeled \"first-state\" copy fetched $10,500 at a December 2005 auction. In England, meanwhile, Harrison met sitar maestro Ravi Shankar, who agreed to train him on the instrument.\n\nDuring a tour of the Philippines the month after the Yesterday and Today furore, the Beatles unintentionally snubbed the nation's first lady, Imelda Marcos, who had expected them to attend a breakfast reception at the Presidential Palace. When presented with the invitation, Epstein politely declined on the band members' behalf, as it had never been his policy to accept such official invitations. They soon found that the Marcos regime was unaccustomed to taking no for an answer. The resulting riots endangered the group and they escaped the country with difficulty. Immediately afterwards, the band members visited India for the first time.\n\nAlmost as soon as they returned home, the Beatles faced a fierce backlash from US religious and social conservatives (as well as the Ku Klux Klan) over a comment Lennon had made in a March interview with British reporter Maureen Cleave. \"Christianity will go,\" Lennon had said. \"It will vanish and shrink. I needn't argue about that; I'm right and I will be proved right. We're more popular than Jesus now; I don't know which will go first, rock 'n' roll or Christianity. Jesus was alright but his disciples were thick and ordinary. It's them twisting it that ruins it for me.\" The comment went virtually unnoticed in England, but when US teenage fan magazine Datebook printed it five months later – on the eve of the group's August US tour – it sparked a controversy with Christians in the American \"Bible Belt\". The Vatican issued a protest, and bans on Beatles' records were imposed by Spanish and Dutch stations and South Africa's national broadcasting service. Epstein accused Datebook of having taken Lennon's words out of context; at a press conference Lennon pointed out, \"If I'd said television was more popular than Jesus, I might have got away with it.\" Lennon claimed that he was referring to how other people viewed their success, but at the prompting of reporters, he concluded: \"If you want me to apologise, if that will make you happy, then okay, I'm sorry.\"\n\nAs preparations were made for the US tour, the Beatles knew that their music would hardly be heard. Having originally used Vox AC30 amplifiers, they later acquired more powerful 100-watt amplifiers, specially designed by Vox for them as they moved into larger venues in 1964, but these were still inadequate. Struggling to compete with the volume of sound generated by screaming fans, the band had grown increasingly bored with the routine of performing live. Recognising that their shows were no longer about the music, they decided to make the August tour their last.\n\nRevolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band \n\nRubber Soul had marked a major step forward; Revolver, released in August 1966 a week before the Beatles' final tour, marked another. Pitchfork's Scott Plagenhoef identifies it as \"the sound of a band growing into supreme confidence\" and \"redefining what was expected from popular music\". Revolver featured sophisticated songwriting, studio experimentation, and a greatly expanded repertoire of musical styles, ranging from innovative classical string arrangements to psychedelic rock. Abandoning the customary group photograph, its cover – designed by Klaus Voormann, a friend of the band since their Hamburg days – \"was a stark, arty, black-and-white collage that caricatured the Beatles in a pen-and-ink style beholden to Aubrey Beardsley\", in Gould's description. The album was preceded by the single \"Paperback Writer\", backed by \"Rain\". Short promotional films were made for both songs; described by cultural historian Saul Austerlitz as \"among the first true music videos\", they aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966.\n\nAmong the experimental songs that Revolver featured was \"Tomorrow Never Knows\", the lyrics for which Lennon drew from Timothy Leary's The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Its creation involved eight tape decks distributed about the EMI building, each staffed by an engineer or band member, who randomly varied the movement of a tape loop while Martin created a composite recording by sampling the incoming data. McCartney's \"Eleanor Rigby\" made prominent use of a string octet; Gould describes it as \"a true hybrid, conforming to no recognisable style or genre of song\". Harrison was developing as a songwriter, and three of his compositions earned a place on the record. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Revolver as the third greatest album of all time. During the US tour that followed its release, however, the band performed none of its songs. As Chris Ingham writes, they were very much \"studio creations ... and there was no way a four-piece rock 'n' roll group could do them justice, particularly through the desensitising wall of the fans' screams. 'Live Beatles' and 'Studio Beatles' had become entirely different beasts.\" The band's final concert at San Francisco's Candlestick Park on 29 August was their last commercial concert. It marked the end of a four-year period dominated by almost nonstop touring that included over 1,400 concert appearances internationally.\n\nFreed from the burden of touring, the Beatles embraced an increasingly experimental approach as they recorded Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, beginning in late November 1966. According to engineer Geoff Emerick, the album's recording took over 700 hours. He recalled the band's insistence \"that everything on Sgt. Pepper had to be different. We had microphones right down in the bells of brass instruments and headphones turned into microphones attached to violins. We used giant primitive oscillators to vary the speed of instruments and vocals and we had tapes chopped to pieces and stuck together upside down and the wrong way around.\" Parts of \"A Day in the Life\" featured a 40-piece orchestra. The sessions initially yielded the non-album double A-side single \"Strawberry Fields Forever\"/\"Penny Lane\" in February 1967; the Sgt. Pepper LP followed in June.\n\nThe musical complexity of the records, created using relatively primitive four-track recording technology, astounded contemporary artists. For Beach Boys leader Brian Wilson, then in the midst of a personal crisis and struggling at the time to complete the ambitious Smile, hearing \"Strawberry Fields\" was reported as one of many elements that contributed to the project's collapse. Among music critics, acclaim for the album was virtually universal. Gould writes:\n\nSgt. Pepper was the first major pop/rock LP to include its complete lyrics, which appeared on the back cover. Those lyrics were the subject of critical analysis; for instance, in late 1967 the album was the subject of a scholarly inquiry by American literary critic and professor of English Richard Poirier, who observed that his students were \"listening to the group's music with a degree of engagement that he, as a teacher of literature, could only envy\". Poirier identified what he termed its \"mixed allusiveness\": \"It's unwise ever to assume that they're doing only one thing or expressing themselves in only one style ... one kind of feeling about a subject isn't enough ... any single induced feeling must often exist within the context of seemingly contradictory alternatives.\" McCartney said at the time: \"We write songs. We know what we mean by them. But in a week someone else says something about it, and you can't deny it. ... You put your own meaning at your own level to our songs.\" In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it number one on its list of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\".\n\nSgt. Peppers elaborate cover also attracted considerable interest and study. A collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth, it depicted the group as the fictional band referred to in the album's title track standing in front of a crowd of famous people. The heavy moustaches worn by the group reflected the growing influence of hippie style, while cultural historian Jonathan Harris describes their \"brightly coloured parodies of military uniforms\" as a knowingly \"anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment\" display.\n\nOn 25 June 1967, the Beatles performed their forthcoming single, \"All You Need Is Love\", to an estimated 350 million viewers on Our World, the first live global television link. Released a week later, during the Summer of Love, the song was adopted as a flower power anthem. Two months later, the group suffered a loss that threw their career into turmoil. Having been introduced to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi only the previous night in London, on 25 August they travelled to Bangor for his Transcendental Meditation retreat. Two days later, their manager's assistant, Peter Brown, phoned to inform them that Epstein had died. The coroner ruled the death an accidental carbitol overdose, although it was widely rumoured to be a suicide. Epstein had been in a fragile emotional state, stressed by personal issues and concern that the band might not renew his management contract, due to expire in October, over discontent with his supervision of business matters, particularly regarding Seltaeb, the company that handled their US merchandising rights. His death left the group disoriented and fearful about the future. Lennon recalled: \"We collapsed. I knew that we were in trouble then. I didn't really have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music, and I was scared. I thought, 'We've had it now.'\"\n\nMagical Mystery Tour, the White Album and Yellow Submarine \n\nMagical Mystery Tour, the soundtrack to a forthcoming Beatles television film, was released in the UK as a six-track double extended play disc (EP) in early December 1967. In the United States, the six songs were issued on an identically titled LP that also included five tracks from the band's recent singles. Unterberger says of the US Magical Mystery Tour, \"the psychedelic sound is very much in the vein of Sgt. Pepper, and even spacier in parts (especially the sound collages of 'I Am the Walrus')\" and he calls its five songs culled from the band's 1967 singles \"huge, glorious, and innovative\". In its first three weeks, the album set a record for the highest initial sales of any Capitol LP, and it is the only Capitol compilation later to be adopted in the band's official canon of studio albums. First aired on Boxing Day, the Magical Mystery Tour film, largely directed by McCartney, brought the group their first major negative UK press. It was dismissed as \"blatant rubbish\" by the Daily Express; the Daily Mail called it \"a colossal conceit\"; and The Guardian labelled the film \"a kind of fantasy morality play about the grossness and warmth and stupidity of the audience\". Gould describes it as \"a great deal of raw footage showing a group of people getting on, getting off, and riding on a bus\". Although the viewership figures were respectable, its slating in the press led US television networks to lose interest in broadcasting the film.\n\nIn January 1968, the Beatles filmed a cameo for the animated movie Yellow Submarine, which featured cartoon versions of the band members and a soundtrack with eleven of their songs, including four unreleased studio recordings that made their debut in the film. Released in June 1968, the film was praised by critics for its music, humour and innovative visual style. It would be seven months, however, before the film's soundtrack album appeared.\n\nIn the interim came The Beatles, a double LP commonly known as the White Album for its virtually featureless cover. Creative inspiration for the album came from a new direction: without Epstein's guiding presence, the group had briefly turned to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as their guru. At his ashram in Rishikesh, India, a \"Guide Course\" scheduled for three months marked one of their most prolific periods, yielding numerous songs including a majority of the 30 included on the album. However, Starr left after only ten days, likening it to Butlins, and McCartney eventually grew bored and departed a month later. For Lennon and Harrison, creativity turned to questioning when an electronics technician known as Magic Alex suggested that the Maharishi was attempting to manipulate them. When he alleged that the Maharishi had made sexual advances to women attendees, a persuaded Lennon left abruptly just two months into the course, bringing an unconvinced Harrison and the remainder of the group's entourage with him. In anger, Lennon wrote a scathing song titled \"Maharishi\", renamed \"Sexy Sadie\" to avoid potential legal issues. McCartney said, \"We made a mistake. We thought there was more to him than there was.\"\n\nDuring recording sessions for the White Album, which stretched from late May to mid-October 1968, relations between the Beatles grew openly divisive. Starr quit for two weeks, and McCartney took over the drum kit for \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" (on which Harrison and Lennon drummed as well) and \"Dear Prudence\". Lennon had lost interest in collaborating with McCartney, whose contribution \"Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da\" he scorned as \"granny music shit\". Tensions were further aggravated by Lennon's romantic preoccupation with avant-garde artist Yoko Ono, whom he insisted on bringing to the sessions despite the group's well-established understanding that girlfriends were not allowed in the studio. Describing the double album, Lennon later said: \"Every track is an individual track; there isn't any Beatle music on it. [It's] John and the band, Paul and the band, George and the band.\" McCartney has recalled that the album \"wasn't a pleasant one to make\". Both he and Lennon identified the sessions as the start of the band's break-up.\n\nIssued in November, the White Album was the band's first Apple Records album release, although EMI continued to own their recordings. The new label was a subsidiary of Apple Corps, which Epstein had formed as part of his plan to create a tax-effective business structure. The record attracted more than 2 million advance orders, selling nearly 4 million copies in the US in little over a month, and its tracks dominated the playlists of American radio stations. Despite its popularity, it did not receive flattering reviews at the time. According to Gould:\n\nGeneral critical opinion eventually turned in favour of the White Album, and in 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it as the tenth greatest album of all time. Pitchfork's Mark Richardson describes it as \"large and sprawling, overflowing with ideas but also with indulgences, and filled with a hugely variable array of material ... its failings are as essential to its character as its triumphs.\" Erlewine comments: \"The [band's] two main songwriting forces were no longer on the same page, but neither were George and Ringo\", yet \"Lennon turns in two of his best ballads\", McCartney's songs are \"stunning\", Harrison had become \"a songwriter who deserved wider exposure\", and Starr's composition was \"a delight\".\n\nThe Yellow Submarine LP, issued in January 1969, contained only the four previously unreleased songs that had debuted in the film, along with the title track (already issued on Revolver), \"All You Need Is Love\" (already issued as a single and on the US Magical Mystery Tour LP) and seven instrumental pieces composed by Martin. Because of the paucity of new Beatles music, AllMusic's Unterberger and Bruce Eder suggest the album might be \"inessential\" but for Harrison's \"It's All Too Much\": \"the jewel of the new songs ... resplendent in swirling Mellotron, larger-than-life percussion, and tidal waves of feedback guitar ... a virtuoso excursion into otherwise hazy psychedelia\".\n\nAbbey Road, Let It Be, and break-up \n\nAlthough Let It Be was the Beatles' final album release, it was largely recorded before Abbey Road. The project's impetus came from an idea Martin attributes to McCartney, who suggested they \"record an album of new material and rehearse it, then perform it before a live audience for the very first time – on record and on film\". Originally intended for a one-hour television programme to be called Beatles at Work, much of the album's content came from extensive rehearsals filmed by director Michael Lindsay-Hogg at Twickenham Film Studios, beginning in January 1969. Martin has said that the project was \"not at all a happy recording experience. It was a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb.\" Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as \"hell ... the most miserable ... on Earth\", and Harrison, \"the low of all-time\". Irritated by both McCartney and Lennon, Harrison walked out for five days. Upon returning, he threatened to leave the band unless they \"abandon[ed] all talk of live performance\" and instead focused on finishing a new album, initially titled Get Back, using songs recorded for the TV special. He also demanded they cease work at Twickenham and relocate to the newly finished Apple Studio. The other band members agreed, and the idea came about to salvage the footage shot for the TV production for use in a feature film.\n\nIn an effort to alleviate tensions within the band and improve the quality of their live sound, Harrison invited keyboardist Billy Preston to participate in the last nine days of sessions. Preston received label billing on the \"Get Back\" single – the only musician ever to receive that acknowledgment on an official Beatles release. At the conclusion of the rehearsals, the band could not agree on a location to film a concert, rejecting several ideas, including a boat at sea, a lunatic asylum, the Tunisian desert, and the Colosseum. Ultimately, what would be their final live performance was filmed on the rooftop of the Apple Corps building at 3 Savile Row, London, on 30 January 1969. Five weeks later, engineer Glyn Johns, whom Lewisohn describes as Get Backs \"uncredited producer\", began work assembling an album, given \"free rein\" as the band \"all but washed their hands of the entire project\".\n\nNew strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser, the need for which had become evident without Epstein to manage business affairs. Lennon, Harrison and Starr favoured Allen Klein, who had managed the Rolling Stones and Sam Cooke; McCartney wanted Lee and John Eastman – father and brother, respectively, of Linda Eastman, whom McCartney married on 12 March. Agreement could not be reached, so both Klein and the Eastmans were temporarily appointed: Klein as the Beatles' business manager and the Eastmans as their lawyers. Further conflict ensued, however, and financial opportunities were lost. On 8 May, Klein was named sole manager of the band, the Eastmans having previously been dismissed as the Beatles' attorneys. McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein, but he was out-voted by the other Beatles.\n\nMartin stated that he was surprised when McCartney asked him to produce another album, as the Get Back sessions had been \"a miserable experience\" and he had \"thought it was the end of the road for all of us\". The primary recording sessions for Abbey Road began on 2 July 1969. Lennon, who rejected Martin's proposed format of a \"continuously moving piece of music\", wanted his and McCartney's songs to occupy separate sides of the album. The eventual format, with individually composed songs on the first side and the second consisting largely of a medley, was McCartney's suggested compromise. On 4 July, the first solo single by a Beatle was released: Lennon's \"Give Peace a Chance\", credited to the Plastic Ono Band. The completion and mixing of \"I Want You (She's So Heavy)\" on 20 August 1969 was the last occasion on which all four Beatles were together in the same studio. Lennon announced his departure to the rest of the group on 20 September, but agreed to withhold a public announcement to avoid undermining sales of the forthcoming album.\n\nReleased six days after Lennon's declaration, Abbey Road sold 4 million copies within three months and topped the UK charts for a total of seventeen weeks. Its second track, the ballad \"Something\", was issued as a single – the only Harrison composition ever to appear as a Beatles A-side. Abbey Road received mixed reviews, although the medley met with general acclaim. Unterberger considers it \"a fitting swan song for the group\", containing \"some of the greatest harmonies to be heard on any rock record\". Musicologist and author Ian MacDonald calls the album \"erratic and often hollow\", despite the \"semblance of unity and coherence\" offered by the medley. Martin has singled it out as his personal favourite of all the band's albums; Lennon said it was \"competent\" but had \"no life in it\". Recording engineer Emerick notes that the replacement of the studio's valve mixing console with a transistorised one yielded a less punchy sound, leaving the group frustrated at the thinner tone and lack of impact and contributing to its \"kinder, gentler\" feel relative to their previous albums.\n\nFor the still unfinished Get Back album, one last song, Harrison's \"I Me Mine\", was recorded on 3 January 1970. Lennon, in Denmark at the time, did not participate. In March, rejecting the work Johns had done on the project, now retitled Let It Be, Klein gave the session tapes to American producer Phil Spector, who had recently produced Lennon's solo single \"Instant Karma!\" In addition to remixing the material, Spector edited, spliced and overdubbed several of the recordings that had been intended as \"live\". McCartney was unhappy with the producer's approach and particularly dissatisfied with the lavish orchestration on \"The Long and Winding Road\", which involved a fourteen-voice choir and 36-piece instrumental ensemble. McCartney's demands that the alterations to the song be reverted were ignored, and he publicly announced his departure from the band on 10 April 1970, a week before the release of his first, self-titled solo album.\n\nOn 8 May, the Spector-produced Let It Be was released. Its accompanying single, \"The Long and Winding Road\", was the Beatles' last; it was released in the United States, but not Britain. The Let It Be documentary film followed later that month, and would win the 1970 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score. Sunday Telegraph critic Penelope Gilliatt called it \"a very bad film and a touching one ... about the breaking apart of this reassuring, geometrically perfect, once apparently ageless family of siblings\". Several reviewers stated that some of the performances in the film sounded better than their analogous album tracks. Describing Let It Be as the \"only Beatles album to occasion negative, even hostile reviews\", Unterberger calls it \"on the whole underrated\"; he singles out \"some good moments of straight hard rock in 'I've Got a Feeling' and 'Dig a Pony'\", and praises \"Let It Be\", \"Get Back\", and \"the folky 'Two of Us', with John and Paul harmonising together\". McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970. Legal disputes continued long after their break-up, and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974.\n\n1970–present: After the break-up \n\n1970s \n\nLennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr all released solo albums in 1970. Their solo records sometimes involved one or more of the others; Starr's Ringo (1973) was the only album to include compositions and performances by all four ex-Beatles, albeit on separate songs. With Starr's participation, Harrison staged the Concert for Bangladesh in New York City in August 1971. Other than an unreleased jam session in 1974, later bootlegged as A Toot and a Snore in '74, Lennon and McCartney never recorded together again.\n\nTwo double-LP sets of the Beatles' greatest hits, compiled by Klein, 1962–1966 and 1967–1970, were released in 1973, at first under the Apple Records imprint. Commonly known as the Red Album and Blue Album, respectively, each have earned a Multi-Platinum certification in the United States and a Platinum certification in the United Kingdom. Between 1976 and 1982, EMI/Capitol released a wave of compilation albums without input from the ex-Beatles, starting with the double-disc compilation Rock 'n' Roll Music. The only one to feature previously unreleased material was The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl (1977); the first officially issued concert recordings by the group, it contained selections from two shows they played during their 1964 and 1965 US tours.\n\nThe music and enduring fame of the Beatles has been commercially exploited in various other ways, again often outside their creative control. In April 1974, the musical John, Paul, George, Ringo … and Bert, written by Willy Russell and featuring singer Barbara Dickson, opened in London. It included, with permission from Northern Songs, eleven Lennon-McCartney compositions and one by Harrison, \"Here Comes the Sun\". Displeased with the production's use of his song, Harrison withdrew his permission to use it. Later that year, the off-Broadway musical Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road opened. All This and World War II (1976) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from Elton John and Keith Moon to the London Symphony Orchestra. The Broadway musical Beatlemania, an unauthorised nostalgia revue, opened in early 1977 and proved popular, spinning off five separate touring productions. In 1979, the band sued the producers, settling for several million dollars in damages. Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978), a musical film starring the Bee Gees and Peter Frampton, was a commercial failure and an \"artistic fiasco\", according to Ingham.\n\n1980s \n\nAfter the December 1980 murder of Lennon, Harrison rewrote the lyrics to his song \"All Those Years Ago\" in Lennon's honour. With Starr on drums and McCartney and his wife, Linda, contributing backing vocals, the song was released as a single in May 1981. McCartney's own tribute, \"Here Today\", appeared on his Tug of War album in April 1982. In 1987, Harrison's Cloud Nine album included \"When We Was Fab\", a song about the Beatlemania era.\n\nWhen the Beatles' studio albums were released on CD by EMI and Apple Corps in 1987, their catalogue was standardised throughout the world, establishing a canon of the twelve original studio LPs as issued in the UK plus the US LP version of Magical Mystery Tour (1967). All the remaining material from the singles and EPs which had not appeared on the original studio albums was gathered on the two-volume compilation Past Masters (1988). Except for the Red and Blue albums, EMI deleted all its other Beatles compilations – including the Hollywood Bowl record – from its catalogue.\n\nIn 1988, the Beatles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, their first year of eligibility. Harrison and Starr attended the ceremony with Lennon's widow, Yoko Ono, and his two sons, Julian and Sean. McCartney declined to attend, citing unresolved \"business differences\" that would make him \"feel like a complete hypocrite waving and smiling with them at a fake reunion\". The following year, EMI/Capitol settled a decade-long lawsuit filed by the band over royalties, clearing the way to commercially package previously unreleased material.\n\n1990s \n\nLive at the BBC, the first official release of unissued Beatles performances in seventeen years, appeared in 1994. That same year McCartney, Harrison and Starr collaborated on the Anthology project. Anthology was the culmination of work begun in 1970, when Apple Corps director Neil Aspinall, their former road manager and personal assistant, had started to gather material for a documentary with the working title The Long and Winding Road. Documenting their history in the band's own words, the Anthology project included the release of several unissued Beatles recordings. McCartney, Harrison and Starr also added new instrumental and vocal parts to two songs recorded as demos by Lennon in the late 1970s.\n\nDuring 1995–96, the project yielded a television miniseries, an eight-volume video set, and three two-CD/three-LP box sets featuring artwork by Klaus Voormann. The two songs based on Lennon demos, \"Free as a Bird\" and \"Real Love\", were issued as new Beatles singles. The releases were commercially successful and the television series was viewed by an estimated 400 million people. In 1999, to coincide with the re-release of the 1968 film Yellow Submarine, a new soundtrack compilation CD/LP, Yellow Submarine Songtrack, was issued.\n\n2000s \n\nThe Beatles' 1, a compilation album of the band's British and American number-one hits, was released on 13 November 2000. It became the fastest-selling album of all time, with 3.6 million sold in its first week and 13 million within a month. It topped albums charts in at least 28 countries, including the UK and US. , the compilation had sold 31 million copies globally, and was the best-selling album of the decade in the United States.\n\nHarrison died from metastatic lung cancer in November 2001. McCartney and Starr were among the musicians who performed at the Concert for George, organised by Eric Clapton and Harrison's widow, Olivia. The tribute event took place at the Royal Albert Hall on the first anniversary of Harrison's death. In addition to songs he composed for the group and during his solo career, the concert included a celebration of Indian classical music, which had significantly influenced Harrison.\n\nIn 2003, Let It Be... Naked, a reconceived version of the Let It Be album, with McCartney supervising production, was released. One of the main differences with the Spector-produced version was the omission of the original string arrangements. It was a top ten hit in both Britain and America. The US album configurations from 1964–65 were released as box sets in 2004 and 2006 – The Capitol Albums, Volume 1 and Volume 2 included both stereo and mono versions based on the mixes that were prepared for vinyl at the time of the music's original American release.\n\nAs a soundtrack for Cirque du Soleil's Las Vegas Beatles stage revue, Love, George Martin and his son Giles remixed and blended 130 of the band's recordings to create what Martin called \"a way of re-living the whole Beatles musical lifespan in a very condensed period\". The show premiered in June 2006, and the Love album was released that November when McCartney discussed his hope that \"Carnival of Light\", a fourteen-minute experimental recording made at Abbey Road in 1967, would receive an official release. A rare live performance involving two ex-Beatles took place in April 2009 at a benefit concert organised by McCartney at New York's Radio City Music Hall, where he was joined by Starr for three songs.\n\nOn 9 September 2009, the Beatles' entire back catalogue was reissued following an extensive digital remastering process that lasted four years. Stereo editions of all twelve original UK studio albums, along with Magical Mystery Tour and the Past Masters compilation, were released on compact disc both individually and as a box set. Comparing the new releases with the 1987 CDs, which had been widely criticised for their lack of clarity and dynamism, Mojo's Danny Eccleston wrote, \"the remastered vocals are purer, more natural-sounding and give the illusion of sitting slightly higher in the mix.\" A second collection, The Beatles in Mono, included remastered versions of every Beatles album released in true mono along with the original 1965 stereo mixes of Help! and Rubber Soul (which Martin had remixed for the 1987 editions). The Beatles: Rock Band, a music video game in the Rock Band series, was issued on the same day. In December 2009, the band's catalogue was officially released in FLAC and MP3 format in a limited edition of 30,000 USB flash drives.\n\n2010s \n\nOwing to a long-running royalty disagreement, the Beatles were among the last major artists to sign deals with online music services. Residual disagreement emanating from Apple Corps' dispute with Apple, Inc., iTunes' owners, over the use of the name \"Apple\" was also partly responsible for the delay, although in 2008, McCartney stated that the main obstacle to making the Beatles' catalogue available online was that EMI \"want[s] something we're not prepared to give them\". In 2010, the official canon of thirteen Beatles studio albums, Past Masters, and the Red and Blue greatest-hits albums were made available on iTunes.\n\nIn 2012, EMI's recorded music operations were sold to Universal Music Group. In order for Universal Music to acquire EMI, the European Union, for antitrust reasons, forced EMI to spin off assets including Parlophone. Universal was allowed to keep the Beatles' recorded music catalogue, managed by Capitol Records under its Capitol Music Group division. Also in 2012, the entire original Beatles album catalogue was reissued on vinyl, available either individually or as a box set.\n\nIn 2013, a second volume of BBC recordings entitled On Air – Live at the BBC Volume 2 was released. December of that year saw the release of another 59 Beatles recordings on iTunes. The set, titled The Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963, had the opportunity to gain a 70-year copyright extension conditional on the songs being published at least once before the end of 2013. Apple Records released the recordings on 17 December to prevent them from going into the public domain and had them taken down from iTunes later that same day. Fan reactions to the release were mixed, with one blogger saying \"the hardcore Beatles collectors who are trying to obtain everything will already have these.\" \n\nOn 26 January 2014, Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr performed McCartney's \"Queenie Eye\" in Los Angeles at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. The following day, The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles television special was taped in the Los Angeles Convention Center's West Hall. It aired on 9 February, the exact date of – and at the same time, and on the same network as – the original broadcast of the Beatles' first US television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show, 50 years earlier. The special included performances of Beatles songs by current artists as well as by McCartney and Starr, archival footage, and Paul and Ringo being interviewed by David Letterman at the Ed Sullivan Theater, site of The Ed Sullivan Show. \n\nIn December 2015 the Beatles released their catalogue for streaming on various streaming music services. \n\nMusical style and development \n\nIn Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever, Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz describe the Beatles' musical evolution:\n\nIn The Beatles as Musicians, Walter Everett describes Lennon and McCartney's contrasting motivations and approaches to composition: \"McCartney may be said to have constantly developed – as a means to entertain – a focused musical talent with an ear for counterpoint and other aspects of craft in the demonstration of a universally agreed-upon common language that he did much to enrich. Conversely, Lennon's mature music is best appreciated as the daring product of a largely unconscious, searching but undisciplined artistic sensibility.\"\n\nIan MacDonald describes McCartney as \"a natural melodist – a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony\". His melody lines are characterised as primarily \"vertical\", employing wide, consonant intervals which express his \"extrovert energy and optimism\". Conversely, Lennon's \"sedentary, ironic personality\" is reflected in a \"horizontal\" approach featuring minimal, dissonant intervals and repetitive melodies which rely on their harmonic accompaniment for interest: \"Basically a realist, he instinctively kept his melodies close to the rhythms and cadences of speech, colouring his lyrics with bluesy tone and harmony rather than creating tunes that made striking shapes of their own.\" MacDonald praises Harrison's lead guitar work for the role his \"characterful lines and textural colourings\" play in supporting Lennon and McCartney's parts, and describes Starr as \"the father of modern pop/rock drumming\".\n\nInfluences \n\nThe band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. During the Beatles' co-residency with Little Richard at the Star-Club in Hamburg, from April to May 1962, he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs. Of Presley, Lennon said, \"Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there hadn't been Elvis, there would not have been the Beatles.\"\n\nOther early influences include Buddy Holly, Eddie Cochran, Roy Orbison and the Everly Brothers. The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album Pet Sounds amazed and inspired McCartney. Referring to the Beach Boys' creative leader, Martin later stated: \"No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [Wilson].\" Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band's later years.\n\nGenres \n\nOriginating as a skiffle group, the Beatles quickly embraced 1950s rock and roll and helped pioneer the Merseybeat genre, and their repertoire ultimately expanded to include a broad variety of pop music. Reflecting the range of styles they explored, Lennon said of Beatles for Sale, \"You could call our new one a Beatles country-and-western LP\", while Gould credits Rubber Soul as \"the instrument by which legions of folk-music enthusiasts were coaxed into the camp of pop\".\n\nAlthough the 1965 song \"Yesterday\" was not the first pop record to employ orchestral strings, it marked the group's first recorded use of classical music elements. Gould observes: \"The more traditional sound of strings allowed for a fresh appreciation of their talent as composers by listeners who were otherwise allergic to the din of drums and electric guitars.\" They continued to experiment with string arrangements to various effect; Sgt. Peppers \"She's Leaving Home\", for instance, is \"cast in the of a sentimental Victorian ballad\", Gould writes, \"its words and music filled with the clichés of musical melodrama\".\n\nThe band's stylistic range expanded in another direction with their 1966 B-side \"Rain\", described by Martin Strong as \"the first overtly psychedelic Beatles record\". Other psychedelic numbers followed, such as \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" (recorded before \"Rain\"), \"Strawberry Fields Forever\", \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" and \"I Am the Walrus\". The influence of Indian classical music was evident in Harrison's \"The Inner Light\", \"Love You To\" and \"Within You Without You\" – Gould describes the latter two as attempts \"to replicate the raga form in miniature\".\n\nInnovation was the most striking feature of their creative evolution, according to music historian and pianist Michael Campbell: \"'A Day in the Life' encapsulates the art and achievement of the Beatles as well as any single track can. It highlights key features of their music: the sound imagination, the persistence of tuneful melody, and the close coordination between words and music. It represents a new category of song – more sophisticated than pop ... and uniquely innovative. There literally had never before been a song – classical or vernacular – that had blended so many disparate elements so imaginatively.\" Philosophy professor Bruce Ellis Benson agrees: \"the Beatles ... give us a wonderful example of how such far-ranging influences as Celtic music, rhythm and blues, and country and western could be put together in a new way.\"\n\nAuthor Dominic Pedler describes the way they crossed musical styles: \"Far from moving sequentially from one genre to another (as is sometimes conveniently suggested) the group maintained in parallel their mastery of the traditional, catchy chart hit while simultaneously forging rock and dabbling with a wide range of peripheral influences from country to vaudeville. One of these threads was their take on folk music, which would form such essential groundwork for their later collisions with Indian music and philosophy.\" As the personal relationships between the band members grew increasingly strained, their individual tastes became more apparent. The minimalistic cover artwork for the White Album contrasted with the complexity and diversity of its music, which encompassed Lennon's \"Revolution 9\", whose musique concrète approach was influenced by Yoko Ono; Starr's country song \"Don't Pass Me By\"; Harrison's rock ballad \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\"; and the \"proto-metal roar\" of McCartney's \"Helter Skelter\".\n\nContribution of George Martin \n\nGeorge Martin's close involvement in his role as producer made him one of the leading candidates for the informal title of the \"fifth Beatle\". He applied his classical musical training in various ways, and functioned as \"an informal music teacher\" to the progressing songwriters, according to Gould. Martin suggested to a sceptical McCartney that the arrangement of \"Yesterday\" should feature a string quartet accompaniment, thereby introducing the Beatles to a \"hitherto unsuspected world of classical instrumental colour\", in MacDonald's description. Their creative development was also facilitated by Martin's willingness to experiment in response to their suggestions, such as adding \"something baroque\" to a particular recording. In addition to scoring orchestral arrangements for recordings, Martin often performed on them, playing instruments including piano, organ and brass.\n\nCollaborating with Lennon and McCartney required Martin to adapt to their different approaches to songwriting and recording. MacDonald comments, \"while [he] worked more naturally with the conventionally articulate McCartney, the challenge of catering to Lennon's intuitive approach generally spurred him to his more original arrangements, of which 'Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!' is an outstanding example.\" Martin said of the two composers' distinct songwriting styles and his own stabilising influence:\n\nHarrison echoed Martin's description of his stabilising role: \"I think we just grew through those years together, him as the straight man and us as the loonies; but he was always there for us to interpret our madness – we used to be slightly avant-garde on certain days of the week, and he would be there as the anchor person, to communicate that through the engineers and on to the tape.\"\n\nIn the studio \n\nMaking innovative use of technology while expanding the possibilities of recorded music, the Beatles urged experimentation by Martin and his recording engineers. Seeking ways to put chance occurrences to creative use, accidental guitar feedback, a resonating glass bottle, a tape loaded the wrong way round so that it played backwards – any of these might be incorporated into their music. Their desire to create new sounds on every new recording, combined with Martin's arranging abilities and the studio expertise of EMI staff engineers Norman Smith, Ken Townsend and Geoff Emerick, all contributed significantly to their records from Rubber Soul and, especially, Revolver onwards. Along with innovative studio techniques such as sound effects, unconventional microphone placements, tape loops, double tracking and vari-speed recording, the Beatles augmented their songs with instruments that were unconventional in rock music at the time. These included string and brass ensembles as well as Indian instruments such as the sitar in \"Norwegian Wood\" and the swarmandal in \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". They also used early electronic instruments such as the Mellotron, with which McCartney supplied the flute voices on the \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" intro, and the clavioline, an electronic keyboard that created the unusual oboe-like sound on \"Baby, You're a Rich Man\".\n\nLegacy \n\nFormer Rolling Stone associate editor Robert Greenfield compared the Beatles to Picasso, as \"artists who broke through the constraints of their time period to come up with something that was unique and original ... [I]n the form of popular music, no one will ever be more revolutionary, more creative and more distinctive ...\" The British poet Philip Larkin described their work as \"an enchanting and intoxicating hybrid of Negro rock-and-roĺl with their own adolescent romanticism\", and \"the first advance in popular music since the War\". They not only sparked the British Invasion of the US, they became a globally influential phenomenon as well. From the 1920s, the United States had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via Hollywood movies, jazz, the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley and, later, the rock and roll that first emerged in Memphis, Tennessee.\n\nTheir musical innovations and commercial success inspired musicians worldwide. Many artists have acknowledged the Beatles' influence and enjoyed chart success with covers of their songs. On radio, their arrival marked the beginning of a new era; in 1968 the programme director of New York's WABC radio station forbade his DJs from playing any \"pre-Beatles\" music, marking the defining line of what would be considered oldies on American radio. They helped to redefine the album as something more than just a few hits padded out with \"filler\", and they were primary innovators of the modern music video. The Shea Stadium show with which they opened their 1965 North American tour attracted an estimated 55,600 people, then the largest audience in concert history; Spitz describes the event as a \"major breakthrough ... a giant step toward reshaping the concert business\". Emulation of their clothing and especially their hairstyles, which became a mark of rebellion, had a global impact on fashion.\n\nAccording to Gould, the Beatles changed the way people listened to popular music and experienced its role in their lives. From what began as the Beatlemania fad, the group's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade. As icons of the 1960s counterculture, Gould continues, they became a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as women's liberation, gay liberation and environmentalism. According to Peter Lavezzoli, after the \"more popular than Jesus\" controversy in 1966, the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and \"began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness\".\n\nAwards and achievements \n\nIn 1965, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). The film Let It Be (1970) won the 1971 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score. The recipients of seven Grammy Awards and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards, the Beatles have been awarded six Diamond albums, as well as 24 Multi-Platinum albums, 39 Platinum albums and 45 Gold albums in the United States. In the UK, the Beatles have four Multi-Platinum albums, four Platinum albums, eight Gold albums and one Silver album. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.\n\nThe best-selling band in history, the Beatles have sold between 600 million and (at EMI estimates) over 1 billion units worldwide. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts, fifteen, and sold more singles in the UK, 21.9 million, than any other act. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Beatles as the best artist of all time. They ranked number one on Billboard magazine's list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, released in 2008 to celebrate the US singles chart's 50th anniversary. , they hold the record for most number-one hits on the Billboard Hot 100, with twenty. The Recording Industry Association of America certifies that the Beatles have sold 178 million units in the US, more than any other artist. They were collectively included in Time magazine's compilation of the twentieth century's 100 most influential people. In 2014, they received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. \n\nMembers \n\nPrincipal members\n* John Lennon – vocals, guitar, keyboards, harmonica (1960–1969)\n* Paul McCartney – vocals, bass guitar, guitar, keyboards, drums (1960–1970)\n* George Harrison – guitar, vocals, sitar (1960–1970)\n* Ringo Starr – drums, percussion, vocals (1962–1970)\n\nEarly members\n* Pete Best – drums, vocals (1960–1962)\n* Stuart Sutcliffe – bass guitar, vocals (1960–1961)\n* Chas Newby – bass guitar (1960–1961)\n* Norman Chapman – drums (1960)\n* Tommy Moore – drums (1960)\n\nTouring musician\n* Jimmie Nicol – drums (1964)\n\nTimeline\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:20\nPlotArea = left:100 bottom:90 top:0 right:50\nAlignbars = justify\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nPeriod = from:01/01/1960 till:01/12/1970\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy\n\nColors =\n id:voc value:red legend:Vocals\n id:rguitar value:brightgreen legend:Rhythm_guitar\n id:lguitar value:green legend:Lead_guitar\n id:bass value:blue legend:Bass\n id:drums value:orange legend:Drums\n id:piano value:yellow legend:Piano\n id:album value:black legend:Studio_album\n\n \nLegend = position:bottom columns:3\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1 start:1960\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1960\n\nBarData =\n\n bar:John text:\"John Lennon\"\n bar:Paul text:\"Paul McCartney\"\n bar:George text:\"George Harrison\"\n bar:Stu text:\"Stuart Sutcliffe\"\n bar:Tom text:\"Tommy Moore\"\n bar:Norman text:\"Norman Chapman\"\n bar:Chas text:\"Chas Newby\"\n bar:Best text:\"Pete Best\"\n bar:Ringo text:\"Ringo Starr\"\n bar:Jimmy text:\"Jimmie Nicol\"\n\nPlotData=\n width:11\n bar:John from:27/03/1960 till:21/09/1969 color:rguitar \n bar:John from:27/03/1960 till:21/09/1969 color:voc width:3\n \n bar:Paul from:27/03/1960 till:14/07/1960 color:rguitar \n bar:Paul from:27/03/1960 till:14/07/1960 color:voc width:3\n bar:Paul from:15/07/1960 till:12/08/1960 color:drums\n bar:Paul from:12/08/1960 till:31/03/1961 color:rguitar \n bar:Paul from:01/04/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:piano\n bar:Paul from:12/08/1960 till:10/04/1970 color:voc width:3\n bar:Paul from:02/07/1961 till:10/04/1970 color:bass\n\n bar:George from:27/03/1960 till:10/01/1969 color:lguitar \n bar:George from:27/03/1960 till:10/01/1969 color:voc width:3\n bar:George from:21/01/1969 till:10/04/1970 color:lguitar \n bar:George from:21/01/1969 till:10/04/1970 color:voc width:3\n\n bar:Tom from:10/05/1960 till:11/06/1960 color:drums\n bar:Norman from:25/06/1960 till:14/07/1960 color:drums\n bar:Best from:12/08/1960 till:17/08/1962 color:drums\n bar:Best from:12/08/1960 till:17/08/1962 color:voc width:3\n bar:Ringo from:18/08/1962 till:02/06/1964 color:drums \n bar:Ringo from:18/08/1962 till:02/06/1964 color:voc width:3\n bar:Jimmy from:03/06/1964 till:13/06/1964 color:drums\n bar:Ringo from:14/06/1964 till:22/08/1968 color:drums\n bar:Ringo from:14/06/1964 till:22/08/1968 color:voc width:3\n bar:Ringo from:05/09/1968 till:10/04/1970 color:drums \n bar:Ringo from:05/09/1968 till:10/04/1970 color:voc width:3\n\n bar:Stu from:27/03/1960 till:01/12/1960 color:bass\n bar:Stu from:12/08/1960 till:01/12/1960 color:voc width:3\n bar:Stu from:15/01/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:bass\n bar:Stu from:15/01/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:voc width:3\n bar:Stu from:15/01/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:bass\n bar:Chas from:17/12/1960 till:15/01/1961 color:bass\n\nLineData =\n layer:back\n color:album \n at:22/03/1963\n at:22/11/1963\n at:26/06/1964\n at:04/12/1964\n at:06/08/1965\n at:03/12/1965\n at:05/08/1966\n at:01/06/1967\n at:22/11/1968\n at:13/01/1969\n at:26/09/1969\n at:08/05/1970\n\n \n\nDiscography\n\nOriginal UK LPs\n* Please Please Me (1963)\n* With the Beatles (1963)\n* A Hard Day's Night (1964)\n* Beatles for Sale (1964)\n* Help! (1965)\n* Rubber Soul (1965)\n* Revolver (1966)\n* Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967)\n* The Beatles (\"The White Album\", 1968)\n* Yellow Submarine (1969)\n* Abbey Road (1969)\n* Let It Be (1970)\n\nWhen the above albums were reissued on CDs in 1988, the American Magical Mystery Tour album (1967) and the double-CD compilation set Past Masters were included so the full set would contain every track commercially released in the band's lifetime.\n\nSee also\n* John Lennon discography\n* Paul McCartney discography\n* George Harrison discography\n* Ringo Starr discography\n* Collaborations between ex-Beatles\n\nSong catalogue \n\nThrough 1969, the Beatles' catalogue was published almost exclusively by Northern Songs Ltd., a company formed in February 1963 by music publisher Dick James specifically for Lennon and McCartney, though it later acquired songs by other artists. The company was organised with James and his partner, Emmanuel Silver, owning a controlling interest, variously described as 51% or 50% plus one share. McCartney had 20%. Reports again vary concerning Lennon's portion – 19 or 20% – and Brian Epstein's – 9 or 10% – which he received in lieu of a 25% band management fee.\n\nIn 1965, the company went public. Five million shares were created, of which the original principals retained 3.75 million. James and Silver each received 937,500 shares (18.75% of 5 million); Lennon and McCartney each received 750,000 shares (15%); and Epstein's management company, NEMS Enterprises, received 375,000 shares (7.5%). Of the 1.25 million shares put up for sale, Harrison and Starr each acquired 40,000. At the time of the stock offering, Lennon and McCartney renewed their three-year publishing contracts, binding them to Northern Songs until 1973.\n\nHarrison created Harrisongs to represent his Beatles compositions, but signed a three-year contract with Northern Songs that gave it the copyright to his work through March 1968, which included \"Taxman\" and \"Within You Without You\". The songs on which Starr received co-writing credit before 1968, such as \"What Goes On\" and \"Flying\", were also Northern Songs copyrights. Harrison did not renew his contract with Northern Songs when it ended, signing instead with Apple Publishing while retaining the copyright to his work from that point on. Harrisongs thus owns the rights to his later Beatles songs such as \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" and \"Something\". That year, as well, Starr created Startling Music, which holds the rights to his Beatles compositions, \"Don't Pass Me By\" and \"Octopus's Garden\".\n\nIn March 1969, James arranged to sell his and his partner's shares of Northern Songs to the British broadcasting company Associated Television (ATV), founded by impresario Lew Grade, without first informing the Beatles. The band then made a bid to gain controlling interest by attempting to work out a deal with a consortium of London brokerage firms that had accumulated a 14% holding. The deal collapsed over the objections of Lennon, who declared, \"I'm sick of being fucked about by men in suits sitting on their fat arses in the City.\" By the end of May, ATV had acquired a majority stake in Northern Songs, controlling nearly the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue, as well as any future material until 1973. In frustration, Lennon and McCartney sold their shares to ATV in late October 1969.\n\nIn 1981, financial losses by ATV's parent company, ACC, led it to attempt to sell its music division. According to authors Brian Southall and Rupert Perry, Grade contacted McCartney, offering ATV Music and Northern Songs for $30 million. According to an account McCartney gave in 1995, he met with Grade and explained he was interested solely in the Northern Songs catalogue, if Grade were ever willing to \"separate off\" that portion of ATV Music. Soon afterwards, Grade offered to sell him Northern Songs for £20 million, giving the ex-Beatle \"a week or so\" to decide. By McCartney's account, he and Ono countered with a £5 million bid that was rejected. According to reports at the time, Grade refused to separate Northern Songs, and turned down an offer of £21–25 million from McCartney and Ono for ATV Music. In 1982, ACC as a whole was sold to Australian business magnate Robert Holmes à Court for £60 million.\n\nThree years later, Michael Jackson purchased ATV for a reported $47.5 million. The acquisition gave him control over the publishing rights to more than 200 Beatles songs, as well as 40,000 other copyrights. In 1995, in a deal that earned him a reported $110 million, Jackson merged his music publishing business with Sony, creating a new company, Sony/ATV Music Publishing, in which he held a 50% stake. The merger made the new company, then valued at over half a billion dollars, the third largest music publisher in the world.\n\nDespite the lack of publishing rights to most of their songs, Lennon's estate and McCartney continue to receive their respective shares of the writers' royalties, which together are 33⅓% of total commercial proceeds in the US and which vary elsewhere around the world between 50 and 55%. Two of Lennon and McCartney's earliest songs – \"Love Me Do\" and \"P.S. I Love You\" – were published by an EMI subsidiary, Ardmore & Beechwood, before they signed with James. McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore in the mid-1980s, and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by McCartney's company MPL Communications.\n\nNotes \n\nCitations \n\nSources \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "Richard Starkey, (born 7 July 1940), known professionally as Ringo Starr, is an English musician, singer, songwriter and actor who gained worldwide fame as the drummer for the Beatles. He occasionally sang lead vocals, usually for one song on an album, including \"With a Little Help from My Friends\", \"Yellow Submarine\" and their cover of \"Act Naturally\". He also wrote the Beatles' songs \"Don't Pass Me By\" and \"Octopus's Garden\", and is credited as a co-writer of others, including \"What Goes On\" and \"Flying\".\n\nStarr was twice afflicted by life-threatening illnesses during childhood, and as a result of prolonged hospitalisations fell behind in school. In 1955, he entered the workforce and briefly held a position with British Rail before securing an apprenticeship at a Liverpool equipment manufacturer. Soon afterwards, he became interested in the UK skiffle craze, developing a fervent admiration for the genre. In 1957, he cofounded his first band, the Eddie Clayton Skiffle Group, which earned several prestigious local bookings before the fad succumbed to American rock and roll by early 1958.\n\nWhen the Beatles formed in 1960, Starr was a member of another Liverpool group, Rory Storm and the Hurricanes. After achieving moderate success with that band in the UK and Hamburg, he quit the Hurricanes and joined the Beatles in August 1962, replacing Pete Best. Starr played key roles in the Beatles' films and appeared in numerous others. After the band's break-up in 1970, he released several successful singles including the US number four hit \"It Don't Come Easy\", and number ones \"Photograph\" and \"You're Sixteen\". In 1972, he released his most successful UK single, \"Back Off Boogaloo\", which peaked at number two. He achieved commercial and critical success with his 1973 album Ringo, which was a top ten release in both the UK and the US. He has been featured in a number of documentaries and hosted television shows. He also narrated the first two series of the children's television programme Thomas & Friends and portrayed \"Mr Conductor\" during the first season of the PBS children's television series Shining Time Station. Since 1989, he has toured with twelve variations of Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band.\n\nStarr's creative contribution to music has received praise from drummers such as Phil Collins, who described him as \"a great musician\", and Steve Smith, who commented: \"Before Ringo, drum stars were measured by their soloing ability and virtuosity. Ringo's popularity brought forth a new paradigm ... we started to see the drummer as an equal participant in the compositional aspect ... His parts are so signature to the songs that you can listen to a Ringo drum part without the rest of the music and still identify the song.\" He was inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1998. In 2011, Rolling Stone readers named Starr the fifth-greatest drummer of all time. Starr, who was previously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a Beatle in 1988, was inducted for his solo career in 2015, making him one of 21 performers inducted more than once. \n\n1940–56: Early life \n\nRichard Starkey was born on 7 July 1940, at 9 Madryn Street, in Dingle, Liverpool. He is the only child of confectioners Elsie (née Gleave) and Richard Starkey. Elsie enjoyed singing and dancing, a hobby that she shared with her husband, an avid fan of swing. Prior to the birth of their son, whom they nicknamed \"Ritchie\", the couple had spent much of their free time on the local ballroom circuit, but soon after his birth their regular outings ended. Elsie adopted an overprotective approach to raising her son that bordered on fixation. Subsequently, \"Big Ritchie\", as Starkey's father became known, lost interest in his family, choosing instead to spend long hours drinking and dancing in pubs, sometimes for several consecutive days.\n\nIn 1944, in an effort to reduce their housing costs, his family moved to another neighbourhood in the Dingle, 10 Admiral Grove; soon afterwards, his parents separated, and they divorced within the year. Starkey later stated that he has \"no real memories\" of his father, who made little effort to bond with him, visiting as few as three times thereafter. Elsie found it difficult to survive on her ex-husband's support payments of thirty shillings a week, so she took on several menial jobs cleaning houses before securing a position as a local barmaid, an occupation that she held for twelve years.\n\nAt age six Starkey developed appendicitis. Following a routine appendectomy he contracted peritonitis, causing him to fall into a coma that lasted for days. His recovery spanned twelve months, which he spent away from his family at Liverpool's Myrtle Street children's hospital. Upon his discharge in May 1948, his mother allowed him to stay home, causing him to miss school. At age eight, he remained illiterate, with a poor grasp of mathematics. His lack of education contributed to a feeling of alienation at school, which resulted in him regularly playing truant at Sefton Park. After several years of twice-weekly tutoring from his surrogate sister and neighbour, Marie Maguire Crawford, Starkey had nearly caught up to his peers academically, but in 1953, he contracted tuberculosis and was admitted to a sanatorium, where he remained for two years. During his stay the medical staff made an effort to stimulate motor activity and relieve boredom by encouraging their patients to join the hospital band, leading to his first exposure to a percussion instrument: a makeshift mallet made from a cotton bobbin that he used to strike the cabinets next to his bed. Soon afterwards, he grew increasingly interested in drumming, receiving a copy of the Alyn Ainsworth song \"Bedtime for Drums\" as a convalescence gift from Crawford. Starkey commented: \"I was in the hospital band ... That's where I really started playing. I never wanted anything else from there on ... My grandparents gave me a mandolin and a banjo, but I didn't want them. My grandfather gave me a harmonica ... we had a piano – nothing. Only the drums.\"\n\nStarkey attended St Silas, a Church of England primary school near his house where his classmates nicknamed him \"Lazarus\", and later Dingle Vale Secondary modern school, where he showed an aptitude for art and drama, as well as practical subjects including mechanics. As a result of the prolonged hospitalisations, he fell behind his peers scholastically and was ineligible for the 11-plus qualifying examination required for attendance at a grammar school. On 17 April 1953, Starkey's mother married Harry Graves, an ex-Londoner who had moved to Liverpool following the failure of his first marriage. Graves, an impassioned fan of big band music and their vocalists, introduced Starkey to recordings by Dinah Shore, Sarah Vaughan and Billy Daniels. Graves stated that he and \"Ritchie\" never had an unpleasant exchange between them; Starkey later commented: \"He was great ... I learned gentleness from Harry.\" After the extended hospital stay following Starkey's recovery from tuberculosis, he did not return to school, preferring instead to stay at home and listen to music while playing along by beating biscuit tins with sticks.\n\nBeatles biographer Bob Spitz described Starkey's upbringing as \"a Dickensian chronicle of misfortune\". Houses in the area were \"poorly ventilated, postage-stamp-sized ... patched together by crumbling plaster walls, with a rear door that opened onto an outhouse.\" Crawford commented: \"Like all of the families who lived in the Dingle, he was part of an ongoing struggle to survive.\" The children who lived there spent much of their time at Princes Park, escaping the soot-filled air of their coal-fuelled neighbourhood. Adding to their difficult circumstances, violent crime was an almost constant concern for people living in one of the oldest and poorest inner-city districts in Liverpool. Starkey later commented: \"You kept your head down, your eyes open, and you didn't get in anybody's way.\"\n\nAfter his return home from the sanatorium in late 1955, Starkey entered the workforce but was lacking in motivation and discipline; his initial attempts at gainful employment proved unsuccessful. In an effort to secure himself some warm clothes, he briefly held a railway worker's job, which came with an employer-issued suit. He was supplied with a hat but no uniform and, unable to pass the physical examination, he was laid off and granted unemployment benefits. He then found work as a waiter serving drinks on a day boat that travelled from Liverpool to North Wales, but his fear of conscription into military service led him to quit the job, not wanting to give the Royal Navy the impression that he was suitable for seafaring work. In mid-1956, Graves secured Starkey a position as an apprentice machinist at a Liverpool equipment manufacturer. While working at the facility Starkey befriended Roy Trafford, and the two bonded over their shared interest in music. Trafford introduced Starkey to skiffle, and he quickly became a fervent admirer.\n\n1957–61: First bands \n\nSoon after Trafford piqued Starkey's interest in skiffle, the two began rehearsing songs in the manufacturing plant's cellar during their lunch breaks. Trafford recalled: \"I played a guitar, and [Ritchie] just made a noise on a box ... Sometimes, he just slapped a biscuit tin with some keys, or banged on the backs of chairs.\" The pair were joined by Starkey's neighbour and co-worker, the guitarist Eddie Miles, forming the Eddie Miles Band, later renamed Eddie Clayton and the Clayton Squares after a Liverpool landmark. The band performed popular skiffle songs such as \"Rock Island Line\" and \"Walking Cane\", with Starkey raking a thimble across a washboard, creating primitive, driving rhythms. Starkey enjoyed dancing as his parents had years earlier, and he and Trafford briefly took dance lessons at two schools. Though the lessons were short-lived, they provided Starkey and Trafford with an introduction that allowed them to dance competently while enjoying nights out on the town.\n\nOn Christmas Day 1957, Graves gave Starkey a second-hand drum kit consisting of a snare drum, bass drum and a makeshift cymbal fashioned from an old rubbish bin lid. Although basic and crude, the kit facilitated his progression as a musician while increasing the commercial potential of the Eddie Clayton band, who went on to book several prestigious local gigs before the skiffle craze faded in early 1958 as American rock and roll became popular in the UK. \n\nIn November 1959, Starkey joined Al Caldwell's Texans, a skiffle group who were looking for someone with a proper drum kit so that the group could transition from one of Liverpool's best-known skiffle acts to a full-fledged rock and roll band. They had begun playing local clubs as the Raging Texans, then Jet Storm and the Raging Texans before settling on Rory Storm and the Hurricanes soon before recruiting Starkey. About this time he adopted the stage name Ringo Starr; derived from the rings he wore and also because it implied a country and western influence. His drum solos were billed as Starr Time. \n\nBy early 1960 the Hurricanes had become one of Liverpool's leading bands. In May, they were offered a three-month residency at a Butlins holiday camp in Wales. Although initially reluctant to accept the residency and end his five-year machinist apprenticeship that he had begun four years earlier, Starr eventually agreed to the arrangement. The Butlins gig led to other opportunities for the band, including an unpleasant tour of US Air Force bases in France about which Starr commented: \"The French don't like the British; at least I didn't like them.\" The Hurricanes became so successful that when initially offered a highly coveted residency in Hamburg, they turned it down because of their prior commitment with Butlins. They eventually accepted, joining the Beatles at Bruno Koschmiders Kaiserkeller on 1 October 1960, where Starr first met the band. Storm's Hurricanes were given top-billing over the Beatles, who also received less pay. Starr performed with the Beatles during a few stand-in engagements while in Hamburg. On 15 October 1960, he drummed with John Lennon, Paul McCartney and George Harrison, recording with them for the first time while backing Hurricanes singer Lu Walters on the George Gershwin aria \"Summertime\". During Starr's first stay in Hamburg he also met Tony Sheridan, who valued his drumming abilities to the point of asking Starr to leave the Hurricanes and join his band. \n\n1962–70: The Beatles \n\nStarr quit Rory Storm and the Hurricanes in January 1962 and briefly joined Sheridan in Hamburg before returning to the Hurricanes for a third season at Butlins. On 14 August, Lennon asked Starr to join the Beatles; he accepted. On 16 August, Beatles manager Brian Epstein fired their drummer, Pete Best, who recalled: \"He said 'I've got some bad news for you. The boys want you out and Ringo in.' He said [Beatles producer] George Martin wasn't too pleased with my playing [and] the boys thought I didn't fit in.\" Starr first performed as a member of the band on 18 August 1962, at a horticultural society dance at Port Sunlight. After his appearance at the Cavern Club the following day, Best fans, upset by his firing, held vigils outside his house and at the club shouting \"Pete forever! Ringo never!\" Harrison received a black eye from one of the upset fans, and Epstein, whose car tyres they had flattened in anger, temporarily hired a bodyguard to ensure his safety. \n\nStarr's first recording session as a member of the Beatles took place on 4 September 1962. He stated that Martin had thought that he \"was crazy and couldn't play ... because I was trying to play the percussion and the drums at the same time, we were just a four piece band\". For their second recording session with Starr, which took place on 11 September 1962, Martin replaced him with session drummer Andy White while recording takes for what would be the two sides of the Beatles' first single, \"Love Me Do\", backed with \"P.S. I Love You\". Starr played tambourine on \"Love Me Do\" and maracas on \"P.S. I Love You\". Concerned about his status in the Beatles, he thought: \"That's the end, they're doing a Pete Best on me.\" Martin later clarified: \"I simply didn't know what Ringo was like and I wasn't prepared to take any risks.\"\n\nBy November 1962 Starr had been accepted by Beatles fans, who were now calling for him to sing songs. Soon afterwards, he began receiving an amount of fan mail equal to that of the others, which helped to secure his position within the band. Starr considered himself fortunate to be on the same \"wavelength\" as the other Beatles: \"I had to be, or I wouldn't have lasted. I had to join them as people [sic] as well as [as] a drummer.\" He was given a small percentage of Lennon and McCartney's publishing company, Northern Songs, but he derived his primary income during this period from a one-quarter share of Beatles Ltd, a corporation financed by the band's net concert earnings. He commented on the nature of his lifestyle after having achieved success with the Beatles: \"I lived in nightclubs for three years. It used to be a non-stop party.\" Like his father Starr became well known for his late-night dancing and he received considerable praise for his skills.\n\nDuring 1963, the Beatles enjoyed increasing popularity in Britain. In January, their second single, \"Please Please Me\", followed \"Love Me Do\" into the UK charts and a successful television appearance on Thank Your Lucky Stars earned them favourable reviews, leading to a boost in sales and radio play. By the end of the year, the phenomenon known as Beatlemania had spread throughout the country, and by February 1964 the Beatles had become an international success, performing on The Ed Sullivan Show to a record 73 million viewers. Starr commented: \"In the states I know I went over well. It knocked me out to see and hear the kids waving for me. I'd made it as a personality ... Our appeal ... is that we're ordinary lads.\" He was a source of inspiration for several songs written at the time, including Penny Valentine's \"I Want to Kiss Ringo Goodbye\" and Rolf Harris's \"Ringo for President\". In 1964, \"I love Ringo\" lapel pins outsold all other Beatles merchandising. During live performances, the Beatles continued the Starr Time routine that had been popular among his fans: Lennon would place a microphone in front of Starr's kit in preparation for his spotlight moment and audiences would erupt in screams. When the Beatles made their film debut in A Hard Day's Night, Starr garnered much praise from critics, who considered both his delivery of deadpan one-liners and his non-speaking scenes highlights of the movie. The extended non-speaking sequences had to be arranged by director Richard Lester because of Starr's lack of sleep the previous night, Starr commented: \"Because I'd been drinking all night I was incapable of saying a line.\" Epstein attributed Starr's acclaim to \"the little man's quaintness\". After the release of the Beatles' second feature film, Help! (1965), Starr won a Melody Maker poll against his fellow Beatles for his performance as the central character in the film.\n\nDuring an interview with Playboy in 1964, Lennon explained that Starr had filled in with the Beatles when Best was ill; Starr replied: \"[Best] took little pills to make him ill\". Soon after Starr made the comment, a provoked Best filed a libel suit against him that lasted for four years before the court reached an undisclosed settlement in Best's favour. In June, the Beatles were scheduled to tour Denmark, the Netherlands, Asia, Australia and New Zealand, but Starr became ill the day before the start of the tour. Stricken with a high-grade fever, pharyngitis and tonsillitis, he was admitted to a local hospital where he briefly stayed followed by several days of recuperation at home. During this time, Starr was temporarily replaced for five concert dates by 24-year-old session drummer Jimmie Nicol. Starr was discharged from the hospital, and he rejoined the band in Melbourne on 15 June. He later admitted that he feared he would be permanently replaced during his illness. In August, when the Beatles were introduced to Bob Dylan, Starr was the first to try a cannabis cigarette offered to the band by Dylan, whereas Lennon, McCartney and Harrison were hesitant. \n\nOn 11 February 1965, Starr married Maureen Cox, whom he had first met in 1962. By this time the stress and pressure that went along with Beatlemania had reached a peak for him. He received a telephoned death threat before a show in Montreal, and resorted to positioning his cymbals vertically in an attempt to provide protection from would-be assassins. The constant pressure of the Beatles' fame affected their live performances; Starr commented: \"We were turning into such bad musicians ... there was no groove to it.\" He was also feeling increasingly isolated from the musical activities of his bandmates, who were moving past the traditional boundaries of rock music into territory that often did not require his accompaniment; during recording sessions he spent countless hours playing cards with their road manager Neil Aspinall and roadie Mal Evans while the other Beatles perfected tracks without him. In a letter published in Melody Maker, a fan asked the Beatles to let Starr sing more; he replied: \"[I am] quite happy with my one little track on each album\".\n\nIn August 1966, the Beatles released Revolver, their seventh UK LP. The album included the song \"Yellow Submarine\", which was the only British number one single with Starr as the lead singer. Later that month and owing to the increasing pressures of touring, the Beatles gave their final concert, a 30-minute performance at San Francisco Candlestick Park. Starr commented: \"We gave up touring at the right time. Four years of Beatlemania were enough for anyone.\" By December, he had moved into an upscale estate on three acres in Saint George's Hill called Sunny Heights. Although he had equipped the house with many luxury items, including numerous televisions, light machines, film projectors and stereo equipment, a billiard table, go-kart track and a bar named the Flying Cow, he did not include a drum kit, he explained: \"When we don't record, I don't play\".\n\nFor the Beatles' seminal 1967 album, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, Starr sang lead vocals on the Lennon–McCartney composition \"With a Little Help from My Friends\". Although the Beatles had enjoyed widespread commercial and critical success with Sgt. Pepper, the long hours they spent recording the LP contributed to Starr's increased feeling of alienation within the band, he commented: \"[It] wasn't our best album. That was the peak for everyone else, but for me it was a bit like being a session musician ... They more or less direct me in the style I can play.\" His inability to compose new material led to his input being minimised during recording sessions; he often found himself relegated to adding minor percussion effects to songs by McCartney, Lennon and Harrison. During his down-time Starr worked on his guitar playing; he commented: \"I jump into chords that no one seems to get into. Most of the stuff I write is twelve-bar\".\n\nEpstein's death in August 1967 left the Beatles without management; Starr remarked: \"[It was] a strange time for us, when it's someone who've relied on in the business, where we never got involved.\" Soon afterwards, the band began an ill-fated film project, Magical Mystery Tour. Starr's growing interest in photography at the time led to his billing as the movie's Director of Photography, and his participation in the film's editing was matched only by McCartney.\n\nIn February 1968, Starr became the first Beatle to sing during another artist's show without the other three present. He sang the Buck Owens hit \"Act Naturally\", and performed a duet with Cilla Black, \"Do You Like Me Just a Little Bit?\" on her BBC One television programme, Cilla. Later that year Apple Records released The Beatles, commonly known as the \"White Album\". Creative inspiration for the double LP came in part from the band's recent interactions with the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. While attending an intermediate course at his ashram in Rishikesh, India, they enjoyed one of their most prolific writing periods, composing most of the album's songs there. Despite leaving after 10 days, Starr completed his first recorded Beatles song, \"Don't Pass Me By\", while in India. During the recording of the White Album, relations within the band became openly divisive. As the sessions progressed, their collective group dynamic began to decay; at times only one or two Beatles were involved in the recording for a track. Starr had grown weary of McCartney's increasingly overbearing approach and Lennon's passive-aggressive behaviour, which was exacerbated by Starr's resentment of Yoko Ono near-constant presence. After one particularly difficult session during which McCartney had harshly criticised his drumming, Starr quit the band for two weeks, taking a holiday with his family in Sardinia on a boat loaned by Peter Sellers. During a lunch break the chef served octopus, which Starr refused to eat. A subsequent conversation with the ship's captain regarding the behaviours of the animal served as the inspiration for his Abbey Road composition, \"Octopus's Garden\", which Starr wrote on guitar during the trip. He returned to the studio two weeks later, to find that Harrison had covered his drum kit in flowers as a welcome-back gesture.\n\nDespite a temporary return to congenial relations during the completion of the White Album, production of the Beatles' fourth feature film, Let It Be, and its accompanying LP, strained the already tenuous cohesion within the band. On 20 August 1969, the Beatles gathered for the final time at Abbey Road Studios for a mixing session for \"I Want You\". Following a business meeting on 20 September, Lennon told the others that he had quit the Beatles. \n\nSolo career \n\n1970s \n\nOn 10 April 1970, McCartney publicly announced that he had quit the Beatles. Shortly before this, he and Starr fell out due to McCartney's refusal to cede the release date of his eponymous solo album to allow for Starr's debut, Sentimental Journey, and the Beatles' Let It Be. Starr's album – composed of renditions of pre-rock standards that included musical arrangements by Quincy Jones, Maurice Gibb, George Martin and McCartney – peaked at number seven in the UK and number 22 in the US. Starr followed Sentimental Journey with the country-inspired Beaucoups of Blues, engineered by Scotty Moore and featuring renowned Nashville session musician Pete Drake. Despite receiving some favourable reviews, the album failed to meet with commercial success. Starr subsequently combined his musical activities with developing a career as a film actor.\n\nStarr played drums on Lennon's John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band (1970), Ono's Yoko Ono/Plastic Ono Band (1970), and on Harrison's albums All Things Must Pass (1970), Living in the Material World (1973) and Dark Horse (1974). In 1971, Starr participated in the Concert for Bangladesh, organised by Harrison, and with him co-wrote the hit single \"It Don't Come Easy\", which reached number four in both the US and the UK. The following year he released his most successful UK hit, \"Back Off Boogaloo\" (again produced and co-written by Harrison), which peaked at number two (US number nine). Having become friends with the English singer Marc Bolan, Starr made his directorial debut with the 1972 T. Rex documentary Born to Boogie.\n\nIn 1973, Starr earned two number one hits in the US: \"Photograph\", a UK number eight hit that he co-wrote with Harrison, and \"You're Sixteen\", written by the Sherman Brothers. Starr's third million-selling single, \"You're Sixteen\" was released in the UK in February 1974 where it peaked at number four in the charts. Both songs appeared on Starr's debut rock album, Ringo, which was produced by Richard Perry and featured writing and musical contributions from Lennon and McCartney, as well as Harrison. A commercial and critical success, the LP also included \"Oh My My\", a US number five. The album reached number seven in the UK and number two in the US. Author Peter Doggett describes Ringo as a template for Starr's solo career, saying that, as a musician first rather than a songwriter, \"he would rely on his friends and his charm, and if both were on tap, then the results were usually appealing.\"\n\nGoodnight Vienna followed in 1974 and was also successful, reaching number eight in the US and number 30 in the UK. Featuring musical contributions from Lennon, Elton John and Harry Nilsson, the album included a cover of the Platters' \"Only You (And You Alone)\", which peaked at number six in the US and number 28 in the UK, and Hoyt Axton's \"No No Song\", which was a US number three and Starr's seventh consecutive top-ten hit. The John-written \"Snookeroo\" failed to chart in the UK, however, when issued there as the second single from the album. During this period Starr became romantically involved with Lynsey de Paul. He played tambourine on a song she wrote and produced for Vera Lynn, \"Don't You Remember When\", and he inspired another De Paul song, \"If I Don't Get You the Next One Will\", which she described as being about revenge after he missed a dinner appointment with her because he was asleep in his office.\n\nStarr founded the record label Ring O'Records in 1975. The company signed eleven artists and released fifteen singles and five albums between 1975 and 1978, including works by David Hentschel, Graham Bonnet and Rab Noakes. The commercial impact of Starr's own career diminished over the same period, however, although he continued to record and remained a familiar celebrity presence. Speaking in 2001, he attributed this downward turn to his \"[not] taking enough interest\" in music, saying of himself and friends such as Nilsson and Keith Moon: \"We weren't musicians dabbling in drugs and alcohol; now we were junkies dabbling in music.\" Starr and Moon were members of a drinking club, The Hollywood Vampires. \n\nIn November 1976 Starr appeared as a guest at the Band's farewell concert, featured in the 1978 Martin Scorsese documentary The Last Waltz. Also in 1976, Starr issued Ringo's Rotogravure, the first release under his new contract with Atlantic Records for the North American market and Polydor for all other territories. The album was produced by Arif Mardin and featured compositions by Lennon, McCartney and Harrison. Starr promoted the release heavily, yet Rotogravure and its accompanying singles failed to chart in the UK. In America, the LP produced two minor hits, \"A Dose of Rock 'n' Roll\" (number 26) and a cover of \"Hey! Baby\" (number 74), and achieved moderate sales, reaching a chart position of 28. Its disappointing performance inspired Atlantic to revamp Starr's formula; the result was a curious blend of disco and 1970s pop, titled Ringo the 4th (1977). The album was a commercial disaster, failing to chart in the UK and peaking at number 162 in the US. In 1978 Starr released Bad Boy, which reached a disappointing number 129 in the US and again failed to place on the UK albums chart. \n\n1980s \n\nFollowing Lennon's murder in December 1980, Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had originally written for Starr, \"All Those Years Ago\", as a tribute to their former bandmate. Released as a Harrison single in 1981, the track, which included Starr's drum part and overdubbed backing vocals by Paul and Linda McCartney, peaked at number two in the US charts and number 13 in the UK. Later that year, Starr released Stop and Smell the Roses, featuring songs produced by Nilsson, McCartney, Harrison, Ronnie Wood and Stephen Stills. The album's lead single, the Harrison-composed \"Wrack My Brain\", reached number 38 in the US charts, but failed to chart in the UK. Lennon had offered a pair of songs for inclusion on the album – \"Nobody Told Me\" and \"Life Begins at 40\" – but following his death, Starr did not feel comfortable recording them. Soon after the murder, Starr and his girlfriend Barbara Bach flew to New York City to be with Lennon's widow Yoko Ono.\n\nFollowing Stop and Smell the Roses, Starr's recording projects were beset with problems. After completing Old Wave in 1982 with producer Joe Walsh, he was unable to find a record company willing to release the album in the UK or the US. In 1987 he abandoned sessions in Memphis for a planned country album, produced by Chips Moman, after which Moman was blocked by a court injunction from issuing the recordings. Starr nevertheless maintained a high public profile through his narration over 1984–86 of the popular children's series Thomas & Friends, a Britt Allcroft production based on the books by the Reverend W. Awdry. For a single season in 1989, Starr also portrayed the character Mr. Conductor in the programme's American spin-off, Shining Time Station.\n\nIn 1985, Starr performed with his son Zak as part of Artists United Against Apartheid on the recording \"Sun City\", and, with Harrison and Eric Clapton, was among the special guests on Carl Perkins' TV special Blue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session. In 1987 he played drums on Harrison's Beatles pastiche \"When We Was Fab\" and also appeared in Godley & Creme's innovative video clip for the song. The same year, Starr joined Harrison, Clapton, Jeff Lynne and Elton John in a performance at London's Wembley Arena for the Prince's Trust charity. In January 1988, he attended the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremony in New York, with Harrison and Ono (the latter representing Lennon), to accept the Beatles' induction into the Hall of Fame.\n\nDuring October and November 1988, Starr and Bach attended a detox clinic in Tucson, Arizona, each receiving a six-week treatment for alcoholism. He later commented on his longstanding addiction: \"Years I've lost, absolute years … I've no idea what happened. I lived in a blackout.\" Having embraced sobriety, Starr focused on re-establishing his career by making a return to touring. On 23 July 1989, Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band gave their first performance to an audience of ten thousand in Dallas, Texas. Setting a pattern that would continue over the following decades, the band consisted of Starr and an assortment of musicians who had been successful in their own right with popular songs at different times. The concerts interchanged Starr's singing, including selections of his Beatles and solo songs, with performances of each of the other artists' well-known material, the latter incorporating either Starr or another musician as drummer.\n\n1990s \n\nThe first All-Starr excursion led to the release of Ringo Starr and His All-Starr Band (1990), a compilation of live performances from the 1989 tour. Also in 1990, Starr recorded a version of the song \"I Call Your Name\" for a television special marking the 10th anniversary of John Lennon's death and the 50th anniversary of Lennon's birth. The track, produced by Lynne, features a supergroup composed of Lynne, Tom Petty, Joe Walsh and Jim Keltner.\n\nThe following year, Starr made a cameo appearance on The Simpsons episode \"Brush with Greatness\" and contributed an original song, \"You Never Know\", to the soundtrack of the John Hughes film Curly Sue. In 1992, Starr released his first studio album in nine years, Time Takes Time, which was produced by Phil Ramone, Don Was, Lynne and Peter Asher and featured guest appearances by various stars including Brian Wilson and Harry Nilsson. The album failed to achieve commercial success, although the single \"Weight of the World\" peaked at number 74 in the UK, marking Starr's first appearance on the singles chart there since \"Only You\" in 1974. \n\nIn 1994, Starr began a collaboration with the surviving former Beatles for the Beatles Anthology project. They recorded two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by Lennon and gave lengthy interviews about the Beatles' career. Released in December 1995, \"Free as a Bird\" was the first new Beatles single since 1970. In March 1996, they released a second single, \"Real Love\". The temporary reunion ended when Harrison refused to participate in the completion of a third song. Starr then played drums on McCartney's 1997 album Flaming Pie. Among the tracks to which he contributed, \"Little Willow\" was a song McCartney wrote about Starr's ex-wife Maureen, who died in 1994, while \"Really Love You\" was the first official release ever credited to McCartney–Starkey.\n\nIn 1998, Starr released two albums on the Mercury label. The studio album Vertical Man marked the beginning of a nine-year partnership with Mark Hudson, who produced the album and, with his band the Roundheads, formed the core of the backing group on the recordings. In addition, many famous guests joined on various tracks, including Martin, Petty, McCartney and, in his final appearance on a Starr album, Harrison. Most of the songs were written by Starr and the band. Joe Walsh and the Roundheads joined Starr for his appearance on VH1 Storytellers, which was released as an album under the same name. During the show, he performed greatest hits and new songs and told anecdotes relating to them. Starr's final release for Mercury was the 1999 Christmas-themed I Wanna Be Santa Claus. The album was a commercial failure, although the record company chose not to issue it in Britain.\n\n2000s \n\nStarr was inducted into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in 2002, joining an elite group including Buddy Rich, William F. Ludwig, Sr., and William F. Ludwig, Jr. On 29 November 2002 (the first anniversary of Harrison's death), he performed \"Photograph\" and a cover of Carl Perkins' \"Honey Don't\" at the Concert for George held in the Royal Albert Hall, London. Early the following year, Starr released the album Ringo Rama, which contained a song he co-wrote as a tribute to Harrison, \"Never Without You\". Also in 2003, Starr formed Pumkinhead Records with All-Starr Band member Mark Hudson. The label was not prolific, but their first signing was Liam Lynch, who produced a 2003 LP entitled Fake Songs.\n\nStarr served as an honorary Santa Tracker and voice-over personality in 2003 and 2004 during the London stop in Father Christmas's annual Christmas Eve journey, as depicted in the annual NORAD tracks Santa program. According to NORAD officials, he was \"a Starr in the east\" who helped guide North American Aerospace Defense Command's Santa-tracking tradition. \n\nStarr's 2005 release Choose Love eschewed the star-guests approach of his last two studio albums but failed to chart in the UK or the US. That same year, Liverpool's City Council announced plans to demolish Starr's birthplace, 9Madryn Street, stating that it had \"no historical significance\". The LCC later announced that the building would be taken apart brick by brick and preserved. \n\nStarr released the album Liverpool 8 in January 2008, coinciding with the start of Liverpool's year as the European Capital of Culture. Hudson was the initial producer of the recordings, but after a falling out with Starr, he was replaced by David A. Stewart. Starr performed the title track at the opening ceremony for Liverpool's appointment, but thereafter attracted controversy over his seemingly unflattering comments about his city of birth. Later that year, he was the object of further criticism in the press for posting a video on his website in which he harangued fans and autograph hunters for sending him items to sign.\n\nIn April 2009, Starr reunited with McCartney at the David Lynch Foundation's \"Change Begins Within\" benefit concert, held at New York's Radio City Music Hall. Having played his own set beforehand, Starr joined McCartney for the finale and performed \"With a Little Help from My Friends\", among other songs. Starr also appeared on-stage during Microsoft's June 2009 E3 press conference with Yoko Ono, McCartney and Olivia Harrison to promote The Beatles: Rock Band video game. In November 2009, Starr once again performed the voice of Thomas the Tank Engine for \"The Official BBC Children in Need Medley\". \n\n2010s \n\nIn 2010 Starr self-produced and released his fifteenth studio album, Y Not, which included the track \"Walk with You\" and featured a vocal contribution from McCartney. Later that year, he appeared during Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief as a celebrity phone operator. On 7 July 2010, Starr celebrated his 70th birthday at Radio City Music Hall with another All-Starr Band concert, topped with friends and family joining him on stage including Ono, his son Zak, and McCartney. \n\nStarr recorded a cover of Buddy Holly's \"Think It Over\" for the 2011 tribute album Listen to Me: Buddy Holly. In January 2012, he released the album Ringo 2012. Later that year, Starr announced that his All-Starr Band would tour the Pacific Rim during 2013 with select dates in New Zealand, Australia and Japan; it was his first performance in Japan since 1996, and his debut in both New Zealand and Australia. \n\nIn January 2014, Starr joined McCartney for a special performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles, where they performed the song \"Queenie Eye\". That summer Starr toured Canada and the US with an updated version of the Twelfth All-Starr Band, featuring multi-instrumentalist Warren Ham instead of saxophonist Mark Rivera. In July, Starr became involved in \"#peacerocks\", an anti-violence campaign started by fashion designer John Varvatos, in conjunction with the David Lynch Foundation. In September 2014, Starr won at the GQ Men of the Year Awards for his humanitarian work with the David Lynch Foundation. \n\nIn January 2015 Starr tweeted the title of his new 11-track studio album, Postcards from Paradise. The album came just weeks in advance of Starr's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and was released on 31 March 2015 to mixed to positive reviews. \n\nLater that month, Ringo and his band announced an upcoming summer tour of the US. Full production will begin in June in Syracuse. \n\nMusicianship \n\nInfluences \n\nDuring his youth, Starr had been a devoted fan of skiffle and blues music, but by the time he joined the Texans in 1958, he had developed a preference for rock and roll. He was also influenced by country artists, including Hank Williams, Buck Owens and Hank Snow, and jazz drummers such as Chico Hamilton and Yusef Lateef, whose compositional style inspired Starr's fluid and energetic drum fills and grooves. While reflecting on Buddy Rich, Starr commented: \"He does things with one hand that I can't do with nine, but that's technique. Everyone I talk to says 'What about Buddy Rich?' Well, what about him? Because he doesn't turn me on.\" He stated that he \"was never really into drummers\", but identified Cozy Cole 1958 cover of Benny Goodman \"Topsy Part Two\" as \"the one drum record\" he bought. \n\nStarr's first musical hero was Gene Autry, about whom he commented: \"I remember getting shivers up my back when he sang, 'South of the Border'\". By the early 1960s he had become an ardent fan of Lee Dorsey. In November 1964, Starr told Melody Maker: \"Our music is second-hand versions of negro music ... Ninety per cent of the music I like is coloured.\"\n\nDrums \n\nThe overall effect of Starr's drumming for the Beatles has received high praise from notable drummers. Starr commented: \"I'm no good on the technical things ... I'm your basic offbeat drummer with funny fills ... because I'm really left-handed playing a right-handed kit. I can't roll around the drums because of that.\" Beatles producer George Martin stated: \"Ringo hit good and hard and used the tom-tom well, even though he couldn't do a roll to save his life\", although Martin later added, \"He's got tremendous feel. He always helped us to hit the right tempo for a song, and gave it that support – that rock-solid back-beat – that made the recording of all the Beatles' songs that much easier.\" Starr commented: \"I've always believed that the drummer is not there to interpret the song\"; comparing his drumming to painting, he stated: \"I am the foundation, and then I put a bit of glow here and there ... If there's a gap, I want to be good enough to fill it.\"\n\nIn 2011, readers of Rolling Stone magazine voted Starr as the fifth-greatest drummer of all time. Journalist Robyn Flans, writing for the Percussive Arts Society, stated: \"I cannot count the number of drummers who have told me that Ringo inspired their passion for drums\". Drummer Steve Smith commented on Starr's musical contribution:\n\nStarr has said that his favourite drummer is Jim Keltner, with whom he first played at the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971. The pair subsequently played together as a double-drumming team on some of Harrison's recordings during the 1970s, on Ringo and other albums by Starr, and on the early All-Starr Band tours. For Ringo's Rotogravure in 1976, Starr coined a term to describe their percussive combination, crediting himself as \"Thunder\" and Keltner as \"Lightnin'\".\n\nStarr influenced Phil Collins, the drummer for Genesis, who said: \"I think he's vastly underrated, Ringo. The drum fills on 'A Day in the Life' are very, very complex things. You could take a great drummer from today and say, 'I want it like that', and they really wouldn't know what to do.\" In September 1980, Lennon told Rolling Stone:\n\nIn his extensive survey of the Beatles' recording sessions, historian Mark Lewisohn confirmed that Starr was both proficient and remarkably reliable and consistent. According to Lewisohn, there were fewer than a dozen occasions in the Beatles' eight-year recording career where session breakdowns were caused by Starr making a mistake, while the vast majority of takes were stopped owing to mistakes by the other three Beatles. Starr is considered to have influenced various modern drumming techniques, such as the matched grip, tuning the drums lower, and using muffling devices on tonal rings, as well as placing the drums on high risers for visibility as part of the band. According to Ken Micallef and Donnie Marshall, co-authors of Classic Rock Drummers: \"Ringo's fat tom sounds and delicate cymbal work were imitated by thousands of drummers.\" \n\nVocals \n\nStarr sang lead vocals for a song on most of the Beatles' studio albums as part of an attempt to establish a vocal personality for each band member. In many cases, Lennon or McCartney wrote the lyrics and melody especially for him, as they did for \"Yellow Submarine\" from Revolver and \"With a Little Help from My Friends\" on Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. These melodies were tailored to Starr's limited baritone vocal range. Because of his distinctive voice, Starr rarely performed backing vocals during his time with the Beatles, but they can be heard on songs such as \"Maxwell's Silver Hammer\" and \"Carry That Weight\". He is also the lead vocalist on his compositions \"Don't Pass Me By\" and \"Octopus's Garden\". In addition, he sang lead on \"I Wanna Be Your Man\", \"Boys\", \"Matchbox\", \"Honey Don't\", \"Act Naturally\", \"Good Night\" and \"What Goes On\". \n\nSongwriting \n\nStarr's idiosyncratic turns of phrase, or Ringoisms as they became known, such as a hard day's night and tomorrow never knows, were used as song titles by the Beatles, particularly by Lennon. McCartney commented: \"Ringo would do these little malapropisms, he would say things slightly wrong, like people do, but his were always wonderful, very lyrical ... they were sort of magic\". As well as inspiring his bandmates' creativity in this way, Starr occasionally contributed lyrics to unfinished Lennon–McCartney songs, such as the line \"darning his socks in the night when there's nobody there\" from \"Eleanor Rigby\". \n\nStarr is credited as the sole composer of two Beatles songs: \"Octopus's Garden\" and \"Don't Pass Me By\". Starr is credited as a co-writer of \"What Goes On\", \"Flying\" and \"Dig It\". On material issued after the break-up, Starr received a writing credit for \"Taking a Trip to Carolina\" and received joint songwriting credits with the other three Beatles for \"12-Bar Original\", \"Los Paranoias\", \"Christmas Time (Is Here Again)\", \"Suzy Parker\", heard in the Let It Be film, and \"Jessie's Dream\" from the Magical Mystery Tour film.\n\nPersonal life \n\nWhen Starr married Maureen Cox in 1965, Beatles manager Brian Epstein served as best man, with Starr's stepfather Harry Graves and fellow Beatle George Harrison as witnesses. Soon afterwards, the couple's matrimony became the subject of a US novelty song, \"Treat Him Tender, Maureen\", by the Chicklettes. Starr and Maureen had three children together: Zak (born 13 September 1965), Jason (born 19 August 1967) and Lee (born 11 November 1970). In 1971, Starr purchased Lennon's former home, Tittenhurst Park at Sunninghill in Berkshire and moved his family there. Following Starr's repeated infidelities, the couple divorced in 1975. Maureen died from leukaemia at age 48 in 1994.\n\nIn 1980, while on the set of the film Caveman, Starr met actress Barbara Bach; they were married on 27 April 1981. In 1985, he was the first of the Beatles to become a grandfather upon the birth of Zak's daughter, Tatia Jayne Starkey. Zak Starkey is also a drummer, and during his father's regular absences, he spent time with The Who's Keith Moon. Zak has performed with his father during some All-Starr Band tours. In total, Ringo Starr has seven grandchildren – one from Zak, three from Jason and three from Lee. \n\nStarr and Bach split their time between homes in Cranleigh, Surrey; Los Angeles; and Monte Carlo. In the Sunday Times Rich List 2011, Starr was listed at number 56 in the UK with an estimated personal wealth of £150 million. In 2012, Starr was estimated to be the wealthiest drummer in the world. In 2014 Starr announced that his 200-acre Surrey estate at Rydinghurst, with its Grade II-listed Jacobean house, was for sale. However, he retains a property in the London district of Chelsea off King's Road, and he and Bach continue to divide their time between London and Los Angeles. \n\nIn December 2015, Starr and Bach auctioned some of their personal and professional items to the public via Julien's Auctions in Los Angeles. Highlights of the collection included Starr's first Ludwig Black Oyster Pearl drum kit; instruments gifted to him by Harrison, Lennon and Marc Bolan; and a first-pressing copy of the Beatles' White Album numbered \"0000001\". The auction raised over $9 million, a portion of which was set aside for the Lotus Foundation, a charity founded by Starr and Bach. \n\nAwards and honours \n\nDuring the 1965 Birthday Honours for Queen Elizabeth II, Starr and the other Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE); they received their insignia from the Queen at an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October. He and the other Beatles were cumulatively nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Newcomer for their performances in the 1964 film A Hard Day's Night. In 1971, the Beatles received an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score for the film Let It Be. The minor planet 4150 Starr, discovered on 31 August 1984 by Brian A. Skiff at the Anderson Mesa Station of the Lowell Observatory, was named in Starr's honour. Starr was nominated for a 1989 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in a Children's Series for his role as Mr. Conductor in the television series Shining Time Station.\n\nIn 2015, twenty-three years after he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the Beatles, Starr became the last Beatle to be inducted for their solo career. During the 50th Grammy Awards, Starr, George Martin and his son Giles accepted the Best Compilation Soundtrack award for Love. On 9 November 2008, Starr accepted a Diamond Award on behalf of the Beatles during the 2008 World Music Awards ceremony in Monaco. On 8 February 2010, he was honoured with the 2,401st star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. It is located at 1750 North Vine Street, in front of the Capitol Records building, as are the stars for Lennon, McCartney and Harrison. \n\nFilm career \n\nStarr has received praise from critics and movie industry professionals regarding his acting; director and producer Walter Shenson called him \"a superb actor, an absolute natural\". By the mid-1960s, Starr had become a connoisseur of film. In addition to his roles in A Hard Day's Night (1964), Help! (1965), Magical Mystery Tour (1967), and Let It Be (1970), Starr also acted in Candy (1968), The Magic Christian (1969), Blindman (1971), Son of Dracula (1974) and Caveman (1981). In 1971, he starred as Larry the Dwarf in Frank Zappa's 200 Motels and was featured in Harry Nilsson's animated film The Point! He co-starred in That'll Be the Day (1973) as a Teddy Boy and appeared in The Last Waltz, the Martin Scorsese documentary film about the 1976 farewell concert of the Band.\n\nStarr played the Pope in Ken Russell's Lisztomania (1975), and a fictionalised version of himself in McCartney's Give My Regards to Broad Street in 1984. Starr appeared as himself and a downtrodden alter-ego Ognir Rrats in Ringo (1978), an American-made television comedy film based loosely on The Prince and the Pauper. For the 1979 documentary film on the Who, The Kids Are Alright, Starr appeared in interview segments with fellow drummer Keith Moon. \n\nDiscography \n\nSince the breakup of the Beatles, Starr has released 18 solo studio albums: \n\n Sentimental Journey (1970)\n* Beaucoups of Blues (1970)\n* Ringo (1973)\n* Goodnight Vienna (1974)\n* Ringo's Rotogravure (1976)\n* Ringo the 4th (1977)\n* Bad Boy (1978)\n* Stop and Smell the Roses (1981)\n* Old Wave (1983)\n\n* Time Takes Time (1992)\n* Vertical Man (1998)\n* I Wanna Be Santa Claus (1999)\n* Ringo Rama (2003)\n* Choose Love (2005)\n* Liverpool 8 (2008)\n* Y Not (2010)\n* Ringo 2012 (2012)\n* Postcards from Paradise (2015)\n\nBooks \n\nPostcards From the Boys (2004)\nOctopus's Garden (2014)\nPhotograph (2015)\n\nNotes \n\nCitations \n\nSources \n\n \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "John Winston Ono Lennon, (born John Winston Lennon; 9 October 19408 December 1980) was an English singer and songwriter who co-founded the Beatles, the most commercially successful band in the history of popular music. With fellow member Paul McCartney, he formed a lucrative songwriting partnership.\n\nBorn and raised in Liverpool, Lennon became involved in the skiffle craze as a teenager; his first band, the Quarrymen, evolved into the Beatles in 1960. When the group disbanded in 1970, Lennon embarked on a solo career that produced the albums John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band and Imagine, and songs such as \"Give Peace a Chance\", \"Working Class Hero\", and \"Imagine\". After his marriage to Yoko Ono in 1969, he changed his name to John Ono Lennon. Lennon disengaged himself from the music business in 1975 to raise his infant son Sean, but re-emerged with Ono in 1980 with the new album Double Fantasy. He was murdered three weeks after its release.\n\nLennon revealed a rebellious nature and acerbic wit in his music, writing, drawings, on film and in interviews. Controversial through his political and peace activism, he moved to Manhattan in 1971, where his criticism of the Vietnam War resulted in a lengthy attempt by Richard Nixon's administration to deport him, while some of his songs were adopted as anthems by the anti-war movement and the larger counterculture.\n\nAs of 2012, Lennon's solo album sales in the United States exceeded 14 million and, as writer, co-writer, or performer, he is responsible for 25 number-one singles on the US Hot 100 chart. In 2002, a BBC poll on the 100 Greatest Britons voted him eighth and, in 2008, Rolling Stone ranked him the fifth-greatest singer of all time. He was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987, and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice, as a member of the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 1994. \n\nBiography\n\n194057: Early years\n\nLennon was born in war-time England, on 9 October 1940 at Liverpool Maternity Hospital, to Julia (née Stanley) and Alfred Lennon, a merchant seaman of Irish descent, who was away at the time of his son's birth. His parents named him John Winston Lennon after his paternal grandfather, John \"Jack\" Lennon, and then-Prime Minister Winston Churchill. His father was often away from home but sent regular pay cheques to 9Newcastle Road, Liverpool, where Lennon lived with his mother; the cheques stopped when he went absent without leave in February 1944. When he eventually came home six months later, he offered to look after the family, but Julia—by then pregnant with another man's child—rejected the idea. After her sister, Mimi Smith, twice complained to Liverpool's Social Services, Julia handed the care of Lennon over to her. In July 1946 Lennon's father visited Smith and took his son to Blackpool, secretly intending to emigrate to New Zealand with him. Julia followed them—with her partner at the time, 'Bobby' Dykins—and after a heated argument his father forced the five-year-old to choose between them. Lennon twice chose his father, but as his mother walked away, he began to cry and followed her. It would be 20 years before he had contact with his father again.\n\nThroughout the rest of his childhood and adolescence he lived with his aunt and uncle, Mimi and George Smith, who had no children of their own, at Mendips, 251Menlove Avenue, Woolton. His aunt purchased volumes of short stories for him, and his uncle, a dairyman at his family's farm, bought him a mouth organ and engaged him in solving puzzles. Julia visited Mendips on a regular basis, and when John was 11 years old he often visited her at 1 Blomfield Road, Liverpool, where she played him Elvis Presley records, taught him the banjo, and showed him how to play \"Ain't That a Shame\" by Fats Domino. In September 1980, Lennon commented about his family and his rebellious nature:\n\nHe regularly visited his cousin, Stanley Parkes, who lived in Fleetwood. Seven years Lennon's senior, Parkes took him on trips and to local cinemas. During the school holidays, Parkes often visited Lennon with Leila Harvey, another cousin, often travelling to Blackpool two or three times a week to watch shows. They would visit the Blackpool Tower Circus and see artists such as Dickie Valentine, Arthur Askey, Max Bygraves and Joe Loss, with Parkes recalling that Lennon particularly liked George Formby. After Parkes's family moved to Scotland, the three cousins often spent their school holidays together there. Parkes recalled, \"John, cousin Leila and I were very close. From Edinburgh we would drive up to the family croft at Durness, which was from about the time John was nine years old until he was about 16.\" He was 14 years old when his uncle George died of a liver haemorrhage on 5 June 1955 (aged 52).\n\nLennon was raised as an Anglican and attended Dovedale Primary School. From September 1952 to 1957, after passing his Eleven-Plus exam, he attended Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool, and was described by Harvey at the time as, \"A happy-go-lucky, good-humoured, easy going, lively lad.\" He often drew comical cartoons which appeared in his own self-made school magazine called The Daily Howl, but despite his artistic talent, his school reports were damning: \"Certainly on the road to failure ... hopeless ... rather a clown in class ... wasting other pupils' time.\"\n\nHis mother bought him his first guitar in 1956, an inexpensive Gallotone Champion acoustic for which she \"lent\" her son five pounds and ten shillings on the condition that the guitar be delivered to her own house, and not Mimi's, knowing well that her sister was not supportive of her son's musical aspirations. As Mimi was sceptical of his claim that he would be famous one day, she hoped he would grow bored with music, often telling him, \"The guitar's all very well, John, but you'll never make a living out of it\". On 15 July 1958, when Lennon was 17 years old, his mother, walking home after visiting the Smiths' house, was struck by a car and killed.\n\nLennon failed all his GCE O-level examinations, and was accepted into the Liverpool College of Art only after his aunt and headmaster intervened. Once at the college, he started wearing Teddy Boy clothes and acquired a reputation for disrupting classes and ridiculing teachers. As a result, he was excluded from the painting class, then the graphic arts course, and was threatened with expulsion for his behaviour, which included sitting on a nude model's lap during a life drawing class. He failed an annual exam, despite help from fellow student and future wife Cynthia Powell, and was \"thrown out of the college before his final year\".\n\n195770: The Quarrymen to the Beatles\n\n195766: Formation, commercial break-out and touring years\n\nAt age 15, Lennon formed the skiffle group, the Quarrymen. Named after Quarry Bank High School, the group was established by him in September 1956. By the summer of 1957, the Quarrymen played a \"spirited set of songs\" made up of half skiffle and half rock and roll. Lennon first met Paul McCartney at the Quarrymen's second performance, held in Woolton on 6 July at the St. Peter's Church garden fête, after which he asked McCartney to join the band.\n\nMcCartney says that Aunt Mimi \"was very aware that John's friends were lower class\", and would often patronise him when he arrived to visit Lennon. According to Paul's brother Mike, McCartney's father was also disapproving, declaring Lennon would get his son \"into trouble\", although he later allowed the fledgling band to rehearse in the McCartneys' front room at 20Forthlin Road. During this time, the 18-year-old Lennon wrote his first song, \"Hello Little Girl\", a UK top 10 hit for The Fourmost nearly five years later.\n\nMcCartney suggested his friend George Harrison as the lead guitarist. Lennon thought Harrison (then 14 years old) was too young. McCartney engineered an audition on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus, where Harrison played \"Raunchy\" for Lennon and was asked to join. Stuart Sutcliffe, Lennon's friend from art school, later joined as bassist. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Sutcliffe became \"The Beatles\" in early 1960. In August that year, the Beatles engaged for a 48-night residency in Hamburg, Germany, and desperately in need of a drummer, asked Pete Best to join them. Lennon was now 19, and his aunt, horrified when he told her about the trip, pleaded with him to continue his art studies instead. After the first Hamburg residency, the band accepted another in April 1961, and a third in April 1962. Like the other band members, Lennon was introduced to Preludin while in Hamburg, and regularly took the drug, as well as amphetamines, as a stimulant during their long, overnight performances.\n\nBrian Epstein, the Beatles' manager from 1962, had no prior experience of artist management, but had a strong influence on their early dress code and attitude on stage. Lennon initially resisted his attempts to encourage the band to present a professional appearance, but eventually complied, saying, \"I'll wear a bloody balloon if somebody's going to pay me\". McCartney took over on bass after Sutcliffe decided to stay in Hamburg, and drummer Ringo Starr replaced Best, completing the four-piece line-up that would endure until the group's break-up in 1970. The band's first single, \"Love Me Do\", was released in October 1962 and reached No. 17 on the British charts. They recorded their debut album, Please Please Me, in under 10 hours on 11 February 1963, a day when Lennon was suffering the effects of a cold, which is evident in the vocal on the last song to be recorded that day, \"Twist and Shout\". The Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership yielded eight of its fourteen tracks. With few exceptions—one being the album title itself—Lennon had yet to bring his love of wordplay to bear on his song lyrics, saying: \"We were just writing songs... pop songs with no more thought of them than that—to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant\". In a 1987 interview, McCartney said that the other Beatles idolised John: \"He was like our own little Elvis... We all looked up to John. He was older and he was very much the leader; he was the quickest wit and the smartest.\"\n\nThe Beatles achieved mainstream success in the UK during the beginning of 1963. Lennon was on tour when his first son, Julian, was born in April. During their Royal Variety Show performance, attended by the Queen Mother and other British royalty, Lennon poked fun at his audience: \"For our next song, I'd like to ask for your help. For the people in the cheaper seats, clap your hands... and the rest of you, if you'll just rattle your jewellery.\" After a year of Beatlemania in the UK, the group's historic February 1964 US debut appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show marked their breakthrough to international stardom. A two-year period of constant touring, moviemaking, and songwriting followed, during which Lennon wrote two books, In His Own Write and A Spaniard in the Works. The Beatles received recognition from the British Establishment when they were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 1965 Queen's Birthday Honours.\n\nLennon grew concerned that fans attending Beatles concerts were unable to hear the music above the screaming of fans, and that the band's musicianship was beginning to suffer as a result. Lennon's \"Help!\" expressed his own feelings in 1965: \"I meant it... It was me singing 'help'\". He had put on weight (he would later refer to this as his \"Fat Elvis\" period), and felt he was subconsciously seeking change. In March that year he was unknowingly introduced to LSD when a dentist, hosting a dinner party attended by Lennon, Harrison and their wives, spiked the guests' coffee with the drug. When they wanted to leave, their host revealed what they had taken, and strongly advised them not to leave the house because of the likely effects. Later, in an elevator at a nightclub, they all believed it was on fire: \"We were all screaming... hot and hysterical.\"\n In March 1966, during an interview with Evening Standard reporter Maureen Cleave, Lennon remarked, \"Christianity will go. It will vanish and shrink... We're more popular than Jesus now—I don't know which will go first, rock and roll or Christianity.\" The comment went virtually unnoticed in England but caused great offence in the US when quoted by a magazine there five months later. The furore that followed—burning of Beatles records, Ku Klux Klan activity and threats against Lennon—contributed to the band's decision to stop touring.\n\n196770: Studio years, break-up and solo work\n\nDeprived of the routine of live performances after their final commercial concert on 29 August 1966, Lennon felt lost and considered leaving the band. Since his involuntary introduction to LSD, he had made increasing use of the drug, and was almost constantly under its influence for much of 1967. According to biographer Ian MacDonald, Lennon's continuous experience with LSD during the year brought him \"close to erasing his identity\". 1967 saw the release of \"Strawberry Fields Forever\", hailed by Time magazine for its \"astonishing inventiveness\", and the group's landmark album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, which revealed Lennon's lyrics contrasting strongly with the simple love songs of the Lennon–McCartney's early years.\n\nIn August, after having been introduced to the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the group attended a weekend of personal instruction at his Transcendental Meditation seminar in Bangor, Wales, and were informed of Epstein's death during the seminar. \"I knew we were in trouble then\", Lennon said later. \"I didn't have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music, and I was scared\". Led primarily by Harrison and Lennon's interest in Eastern religion, the Beatles later travelled to Maharishi's ashram in India for further guidance. While there, they composed most of the songs for The Beatles and Abbey Road.\n\nThe anti-war, black comedy How I Won the War, featuring Lennon's only appearance in a non–Beatles full-length film, was shown in cinemas in October 1967. McCartney organised the group's first post-Epstein project, the self-written, -produced and -directed television film Magical Mystery Tour, released in December that year. While the film itself proved to be their first critical flop, its soundtrack release, featuring Lennon's acclaimed, Lewis Carroll-inspired \"I Am the Walrus\", was a success. With Epstein gone, the band members became increasingly involved in business activities, and in February 1968 they formed Apple Corps, a multimedia corporation composed of Apple Records and several other subsidiary companies. Lennon described the venture as an attempt to achieve, \"artistic freedom within a business structure\", but his increased drug experimentation and growing preoccupation with Yoko Ono, and McCartney's own marriage plans, left Apple in need of professional management. Lennon asked Lord Beeching to take on the role, but he declined, advising Lennon to go back to making records. Lennon approached Allen Klein, who had managed The Rolling Stones and other bands during the British Invasion. Klein was appointed as Apple's chief executive by Lennon, Harrison and Starr, but McCartney never signed the management contract.\n\nAt the end of 1968, Lennon was featured in the film The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus (not released until 1996) in the role of a Dirty Mac band member. The supergroup, composed of Lennon, Eric Clapton, Keith Richards and Mitch Mitchell, also backed a vocal performance by Ono in the film. Lennon and Ono were married on 20 March 1969, and soon released a series of 14 lithographs called \"Bag One\" depicting scenes from their honeymoon, eight of which were deemed indecent and most of which were banned and confiscated. Lennon's creative focus continued to move beyond the Beatles and between 1968 and 1969 he and Ono recorded three albums of experimental music together: Unfinished Music No.1: Two Virgins (known more for its cover than for its music), Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions and Wedding Album. In 1969, they formed the Plastic Ono Band, releasing Live Peace in Toronto 1969. Between 1969 and 1970, Lennon released the singles \"Give Peace a Chance\" (widely adopted as an anti-Vietnam-War anthem in 1969), \"Cold Turkey\" (documenting his withdrawal symptoms after he became addicted to heroin) and \"Instant Karma!\" In protest at Britain's involvement in the Nigerian Civil War, its support of America in the Vietnam war and (perhaps jokingly) against \"Cold Turkey\" slipping down the charts, Lennon returned his MBE medal to the Queen, though this had no effect on his MBE status, which could not be renounced.\n\nLennon left the Beatles in September 1969, and agreed not to inform the media while the group renegotiated their recording contract, but he was outraged that McCartney publicised his own departure on releasing his debut solo album in April 1970. Lennon's reaction was, \"Jesus Christ! He gets all the credit for it!\" He later wrote, \"I started the band. I disbanded it. It's as simple as that.\" In later interviews with Rolling Stone magazine, he revealed his bitterness towards McCartney, saying, \"I was a fool not to do what Paul did, which was use it to sell a record.\" He spoke too of the hostility he perceived the other members had towards Ono, and of how he, Harrison, and Starr \"got fed up with being sidemen for Paul ... After Brian Epstein died we collapsed. Paul took over and supposedly led us. But what is leading us when we went round in circles?\"\n\n197080: Solo career\n\n197072: Initial solo success and activism\n\nIn 1970, Lennon and Ono went through primal therapy with Arthur Janov in Los Angeles, California. Designed to release emotional pain from early childhood, the therapy entailed two half-days a week with Janov for four months; he had wanted to treat the couple for longer, but they felt no need to continue and returned to London. Lennon's emotional debut solo album, John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band (1970), was received with high praise. Critic Greil Marcus remarked, \"John's singing in the last verse of 'God' may be the finest in all of rock.\" The album featured the songs \"Mother\", in which Lennon confronted his feelings of childhood rejection, and the Dylanesque \"Working Class Hero\", a bitter attack against the bourgeois social system which, due to the lyric \"you're still fucking peasants\", fell foul of broadcasters. The same year, Tariq Ali's revolutionary political views, expressed when he interviewed Lennon, inspired the singer to write \"Power to the People\". Lennon also became involved with Ali during a protest against Oz magazine's prosecution for alleged obscenity. Lennon denounced the proceedings as \"disgusting fascism\", and he and Ono (as Elastic Oz Band) released the single \"God Save Us/Do the Oz\" and joined marches in support of the magazine.\n\nWith Lennon's next album, Imagine (1971), critical response was more guarded. Rolling Stone reported that \"it contains a substantial portion of good music\" but warned of the possibility that \"his posturings will soon seem not merely dull but irrelevant\". The album's title track would become an anthem for anti-war movements, while another, \"How Do You Sleep?\", was a musical attack on McCartney in response to lyrics from Ram that Lennon felt, and McCartney later confirmed, were directed at him and Ono. However, Lennon softened his stance in the mid-1970s and said he had written \"How Do You Sleep?\" about himself. He said in 1980: \"I used my resentment against Paul… to create a song… not a terrible vicious horrible vendetta[…] I used my resentment and withdrawing from Paul and the Beatles, and the relationship with Paul, to write 'How Do You Sleep'. I don't really go 'round with those thoughts in my head all the time.\"\n\nLennon and Ono moved to New York in August 1971, and in December released \"Happy Xmas (War Is Over)\". The new year saw the Nixon administration take what it called a \"strategic counter-measure\" against Lennon's anti-war and anti-Nixon propaganda, embarking on what would be a four-year attempt to deport him. In 1972, Lennon and Ono attended a post-election wake held in the New York home of activist Jerry Rubin after McGovern lost to Nixon. Embroiled in a continuing legal battle with the immigration authorities, Lennon was denied permanent residency in the US (which wouldn't be resolved until 1976). Depressed, Lennon got intoxicated and had sex with a female guest, leaving Ono embarrassed. Her song \"Death of Samantha\" was inspired by the incident. \n\nRecorded as a collaboration with Ono and with backing from the New York band Elephant's Memory, Some Time in New York City was released in 1972. Containing songs about women's rights, race relations, Britain's role in Northern Ireland and Lennon's problems obtaining a green card, the album was poorly received—unlistenable, according to one critic. \"Woman Is the Nigger of the World\", released as a US single from the album the same year, was televised on 11 May, on The Dick Cavett Show. Many radio stations refused to broadcast the song because of the word \"nigger\". Lennon and Ono gave two benefit concerts with Elephant's Memory and guests in New York in aid of patients at the Willowbrook State School mental facility. Staged at Madison Square Garden on 30 August 1972, they were his last full-length concert appearances.\n\n197375: \"Lost weekend\"\n\nWhile Lennon was recording Mind Games (1973), he and Ono decided to separate. The ensuing 18-month period apart, which he later called his \"lost weekend\", was spent in Los Angeles and New York in the company of May Pang. Mind Games, credited to the \"Plastic U.F.Ono Band\", was released in November 1973. Lennon also contributed \"I'm the Greatest\" to Starr's album Ringo (1973), released the same month (an alternate take, from the same 1973 Ringo sessions, with Lennon providing a guide vocal, appears on John Lennon Anthology).\n\nIn early 1974, Lennon was drinking heavily and his alcohol-fuelled antics with Harry Nilsson made headlines. Two widely publicised incidents occurred at The Troubadour club in March, the first when Lennon placed a menstrual pad on his forehead and scuffled with a waitress, and the second, two weeks later, when Lennon and Nilsson were ejected from the same club after heckling the Smothers Brothers. Lennon decided to produce Nilsson's album Pussy Cats and Pang rented a Los Angeles beach house for all the musicians but after a month of further debauchery, with the recording sessions in chaos, Lennon moved to New York with Pang to finish work on the album. In April, Lennon had produced the Mick Jagger song \"Too Many Cooks (Spoil the Soup)\" which was, for contractual reasons, to remain unreleased for more than 30 years. Pang supplied the recording for its eventual inclusion on The Very Best of Mick Jagger (2007). \n\nSettled back in New York, Lennon recorded the album Walls and Bridges. Released in October 1974, it included \"Whatever Gets You thru the Night\", which featured Elton John on backing vocals and piano, and became Lennon's only single as a solo artist to top the US Billboard Hot 100 chart during his lifetime. A second single from the album, \"#9 Dream\", followed before the end of the year. Starr's Goodnight Vienna (1974) again saw assistance from Lennon, who wrote the title track and played piano. On 28 November, Lennon made a surprise guest appearance at Elton John's Thanksgiving concert at Madison Square Garden, in fulfilment of his promise to join the singer in a live show if \"Whatever Gets You thru the Night\"—a song whose commercial potential Lennon had doubted—reached number one. Lennon performed the song along with \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" and \"I Saw Her Standing There\", which he introduced as \"a song by an old estranged fiancée of mine called Paul\".\n\nLennon co-wrote \"Fame\", David Bowie's first US number one, and provided guitar and backing vocals for the January 1975 recording. The same month, Elton John topped the charts with his cover of \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", featuring Lennon on guitar and back-up vocals (Lennon is credited on the single under the moniker of \"Dr. Winston O'Boogie\"). He and Ono were reunited shortly afterwards. Lennon released Rock 'n' Roll (1975), an album of cover songs, in February. \"Stand by Me\", taken from the album and a US and UK hit, became his last single for five years. He made what would be his final stage appearance in the ATV special A Salute to Lew Grade, recorded on 18 April and televised in June. Playing acoustic guitar and backed by an eight-piece band, Lennon performed two songs from Rock 'n' Roll (\"Stand by Me\", which was not broadcast, and \"Slippin' and Slidin'\") followed by \"Imagine\". The band, known as Etc., wore masks behind their heads, a dig by Lennon who thought Grade was two-faced. \n\n197580: Retirement and return\n\nWith the birth of his second son Sean on 9 October 1975, Lennon took on the role of househusband, beginning what would be a five-year hiatus from the music industry during which he gave all his attention to his family. Within the month, he fulfilled his contractual obligation to EMI/Capitol for one more album by releasing Shaved Fish, a compilation album of previously recorded tracks. He devoted himself to Sean, rising at 6am daily to plan and prepare his meals and to spend time with him. He wrote \"Cookin' (In the Kitchen of Love)\" for Starr's Ringo's Rotogravure (1976), performing on the track in June in what would be his last recording session until 1980. He formally announced his break from music in Tokyo in 1977, saying, \"we have basically decided, without any great decision, to be with our baby as much as we can until we feel we can take time off to indulge ourselves in creating things outside of the family.\" During his career break he created several series of drawings, and drafted a book containing a mix of autobiographical material and what he termed \"mad stuff\", all of which would be published posthumously.\n\nLennon emerged from retirement in October 1980 with the single \"(Just Like) Starting Over\", followed the next month by the album Double Fantasy, which contained songs written during a journey to Bermuda on a 43-foot sailing boat the previous June, that reflected his fulfilment in his new-found stable family life. Sufficient additional material was recorded for a planned follow-up album Milk and Honey (released posthumously in 1984). Released jointly by Lennon and Ono, Double Fantasy was not well received, drawing comments such as Melody Makers \"indulgent sterility... a godawful yawn\".\n\n8 December 1980: Death\n\nAt around 10:50p.m. (EST) on 8 December 1980, as Lennon and Ono returned to their New York apartment in the Dakota, Mark David Chapman shot Lennon in the back four times at the entrance to the building. Lennon was taken to the emergency room of nearby Roosevelt Hospital and was pronounced dead on arrival at 11:00p.m. (EST). Earlier that evening, Lennon had autographed a copy of Double Fantasy for Chapman.\n\nOno issued a statement the next day, saying \"There is no funeral for John\", ending it with the words, \"John loved and prayed for the human race. Please pray the same for him.\" His body was cremated at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. Ono scattered his ashes in New York's Central Park, where the Strawberry Fields memorial was later created. Chapman pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and was sentenced to 20-years-to-life. , he remains in prison, having been denied parole eight times. \n\nPersonal relationships\n\nCynthia Lennon\n\nLennon and Cynthia Powell (19392015) met in 1957 as fellow students at the Liverpool College of Art. Although being scared of Lennon's attitude and appearance, she heard that he was obsessed with French actress Brigitte Bardot, so she dyed her hair blonde. Lennon asked her out, but when she said that she was engaged, he screamed out, \"I didn't ask you to fuckin' marry me, did I?\" She often accompanied him to Quarrymen gigs and travelled to Hamburg with McCartney's girlfriend at the time to visit him. Lennon, jealous by nature, eventually grew possessive and often terrified Powell with his anger and physical violence. Lennon later said that until he met Ono, he had never questioned his chauvinistic attitude to women. The Beatles song \"Getting Better\", he said, told his own story, \"I used to be cruel to my woman, and physically—any woman. I was a hitter. I couldn't express myself and I hit. I fought men and I hit women. That is why I am always on about peace\".\n\nRecalling his reaction in July 1962 on learning that Cynthia was pregnant, Lennon said, \"There's only one thing for it Cyn. We'll have to get married.\" The couple were married on 23 August at the Mount Pleasant Register Office in Liverpool. His marriage began just as Beatlemania took hold across the UK. He performed on the evening of his wedding day, and would continue to do so almost daily from then on. Epstein, fearing that fans would be alienated by the idea of a married Beatle, asked the Lennons to keep their marriage secret. Julian was born on 8 April 1963; Lennon was on tour at the time and did not see his son until three days later.\n\nCynthia attributed the start of the marriage breakdown to LSD, and as a result, she felt that he slowly lost interest in her. When the group travelled by train to Bangor, Wales, in 1967, for the Maharishi Yogi's Transcendental Meditation seminar, a policeman did not recognise her and stopped her from boarding. She later recalled how the incident seemed to symbolise the ending of their marriage. After arriving home at Kenwood, and finding Lennon with Ono, Cynthia left the house to stay with friends. Alexis Mardas later claimed to have slept with her that night, and a few weeks later he informed her that Lennon was seeking a divorce and custody of Julian on grounds of her adultery with him. After negotiations, Lennon capitulated and agreed to her divorcing him on the same grounds. The case was settled out of court in November 1968, with Lennon giving her £100,000 ($240,000 in US dollars at the time), a small annual payment and custody of Julian.\n\nBrian Epstein\n\nThe Beatles were performing at Liverpool's Cavern Club in November 1961, when they were introduced to Epstein after a midday concert. Epstein was homosexual. According to biographer Philip Norman, one of his reasons for wanting to manage the group was that he was physically attracted to Lennon. Almost as soon as Julian was born, Lennon went on holiday to Spain with Epstein, leading to speculation about their relationship. Questioned about it later, Lennon said, \"Well, it was almost a love affair, but not quite. It was never consummated. But it was a pretty intense relationship. It was my first experience with a homosexual that I was conscious was homosexual. We used to sit in a café in Torremolinos looking at all the boys and I'd say, 'Do you like that one? Do you like this one?' I was rather enjoying the experience, thinking like a writer all the time: I am experiencing this.\" Soon after their return from Spain, at McCartney's twenty-first birthday party in June 1963, Lennon physically attacked Cavern Club MC Bob Wooler for saying \"How was your honeymoon, John?\" The MC, known for his wordplay and affectionate but cutting remarks, was making a joke, but ten months had passed since Lennon's marriage, and the honeymoon, deferred, was still two months in the future. To Lennon, who was intoxicated with alcohol at the time, the matter was simple: \"He called me a queer so I battered his bloody ribs in\".\n\nLennon delighted in mocking Epstein for his homosexuality and for the fact that he was Jewish. When Epstein invited suggestions for the title of his autobiography, Lennon offered Queer Jew; on learning of the eventual title, A Cellarful of Noise, he parodied, \"More like A Cellarful of Boys\". He demanded of a visitor to Epstein's flat, \"Have you come to blackmail him? If not, you're the only bugger in London who hasn't.\" During the recording of \"Baby, You're a Rich Man\", he sang altered choruses of \"Baby, you're a rich fag Jew\".\n\nJulian Lennon\n\nLennon's first son, Julian, was born as his commitments with the Beatles intensified at the height of Beatlemania during his marriage to Cynthia. Lennon was touring with the Beatles when Julian was born on 8 April 1963. Julian's birth, like his mother Cynthia's marriage to Lennon, was kept secret because Epstein was convinced public knowledge of such things would threaten the Beatles' commercial success. Julian recalls how some four years later, as a small child in Weybridge, \"I was trundled home from school and came walking up with one of my watercolour paintings. It was just a bunch of stars and this blonde girl I knew at school. And Dad said, 'What's this?' I said, 'It's Lucy in the sky with diamonds.'\" Lennon used it as the title of a Beatles song, and though it was later reported to have been derived from the initials LSD, Lennon insisted, \"It's not an acid song.\" McCartney corroborated Lennon's explanation that Julian innocently came up with the name. Lennon was distant from Julian, who felt closer to McCartney than to his father. During a car journey to visit Cynthia and Julian during Lennon's divorce, McCartney composed a song, \"Hey Jules\", to comfort him. It would evolve into the Beatles song \"Hey Jude\". Lennon later said, \"That's his best song. It started off as a song about my son Julian... he turned it into 'Hey Jude'. I always thought it was about me and Yoko but he said it wasn't.\"\n\nLennon's relationship with Julian was already strained, and after Lennon and Ono's 1971 move to New York, Julian would not see his father again until 1973. With Pang's encouragement, it was arranged for him (and his mother) to visit Lennon in Los Angeles, where they went to Disneyland. Julian started to see his father regularly, and Lennon gave him a drumming part on a Walls and Bridges track. He bought Julian a Gibson Les Paul guitar and other instruments, and encouraged his interest in music by demonstrating guitar chord techniques. Julian recalls that he and his father \"got on a great deal better\" during the time he spent in New York: \"We had a lot of fun, laughed a lot and had a great time in general.\"\n\nIn a Playboy interview with David Sheff shortly before his death, Lennon said, \"Sean was a planned child, and therein lies the difference. I don't love Julian any less as a child. He's still my son, whether he came from a bottle of whiskey or because they didn't have pills in those days. He's here, he belongs to me, and he always will.\" He said he was trying to re-establish a connection with the then 17-year-old, and confidently predicted, \"Julian and I will have a relationship in the future.\" After his death it was revealed that he had left Julian very little in his will.\n\nYoko Ono\n\nTwo versions exist of how Lennon met Ono. According to the first, told by the Lennons, on 9 November 1966 Lennon went to the Indica Gallery in London, where Ono was preparing her conceptual art exhibit, and they were introduced by gallery owner John Dunbar. Lennon was intrigued by Ono's \"Hammer A Nail\": patrons hammered a nail into a wooden board, creating the art piece. Although the exhibition had not yet begun, Lennon wanted to hammer a nail into the clean board, but Ono stopped him. Dunbar asked her, \"Don't you know who this is? He's a millionaire! He might buy it.\" Ono had supposedly not heard of the Beatles, but relented on condition that Lennon pay her five shillings, to which Lennon replied, \"I'll give you an imaginary five shillings and hammer an imaginary nail in.\" The second version, told by McCartney, is that in late 1965, Ono was in London compiling original musical scores for a book John Cage was working on, Notations, but McCartney declined to give her any of his own manuscripts for the book, suggesting that Lennon might oblige. When asked, Lennon gave Ono the original handwritten lyrics to \"The Word\".\n\nOno began visiting and telephoning Lennon's home and, when his wife asked for an explanation, Lennon explained that Ono was only trying to obtain money for her \"avant-garde bullshit\". In May 1968, while his wife was on holiday in Greece, Lennon invited Ono to visit. They spent the night recording what would become the Two Virgins album, after which, he said, they \"made love at dawn.\" When Lennon's wife returned home she found Ono wearing her bathrobe and drinking tea with Lennon who simply said, \"Oh, hi.\" Ono became pregnant in 1968 and miscarried a male child they named John Ono LennonII on 21 November 1968, a few weeks after Lennon's divorce from Cynthia was granted.\n\nDuring Lennon's last two years in the Beatles, he and Ono began public protests against the Vietnam War. They were married in Gibraltar on 20 March 1969, and spent their honeymoon at the Hilton Amsterdam campaigning with a week-long Bed-In for Peace. They planned another Bed-In in the United States, but were denied entry, so held one instead at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal, where they recorded \"Give Peace a Chance\". They often combined advocacy with performance art, as in their \"Bagism\", first introduced during a Vienna press conference. Lennon detailed this period in the Beatles song \"The Ballad of John and Yoko\". Lennon changed his name by deed poll on 22 April 1969, adding \"Ono\" as a middle name. The brief ceremony took place on the roof of the Apple Corps building, made famous three months earlier by the Beatles' Let It Be rooftop concert. Although he used the name John Ono Lennon thereafter, official documents referred to him as John Winston Ono Lennon, since he was not permitted to revoke a name given at birth. The couple settled at Tittenhurst Park at Sunninghill in Berkshire. After Ono was injured in a car accident, Lennon arranged for a king-sized bed to be brought to the recording studio as he worked on the Beatles' last album, Abbey Road. To escape the acrimony of the band's break-up, Ono suggested they move permanently to New York, which they did on 31 August 1971.\n\nThey first lived in The St. Regis Hotel on 5th Avenue, East 55th Street, then moved to a street-level flat at 105 Bank Street, Greenwich Village, on 16 October 1971. After a robbery, they relocated to the more secure Dakota at 1West72nd Street, in 1973. \n\nMay Pang\n\nABKCO Industries, formed in 1968 by Allen Klein as an umbrella company to ABKCO Records, recruited May Pang as a receptionist in 1969. Through involvement in a project with ABKCO, Lennon and Ono met her the following year. She became their personal assistant. After she had been working with the couple for three years, Ono confided that she and Lennon were becoming estranged from one another. She went on to suggest that Pang should begin a physical relationship with Lennon, telling her, \"He likes you a lot.\" Pang, 22, astounded by Ono's proposition, eventually agreed to become Lennon's companion. The pair soon moved to California, beginning an 18-month period he later called his \"lost weekend\". In Los Angeles, Pang encouraged Lennon to develop regular contact with Julian, whom he had not seen for two years. He also rekindled friendships with Starr, McCartney, Beatles roadie Mal Evans, and Harry Nilsson. Whilst drinking with Nilsson, after misunderstanding something Pang said, Lennon attempted to strangle her, relenting only when physically restrained by Nilsson.\n\nUpon returning to New York, they prepared a spare room in their newly rented apartment for Julian to visit. Lennon, hitherto inhibited by Ono in this regard, began to reestablish contact with other relatives and friends. By December he and Pang were considering a house purchase, and he was refusing to accept Ono's telephone calls. In January 1975, he agreed to meet Ono who claimed to have found a cure for smoking. But after the meeting he failed to return home or call Pang. When Pang telephoned the next day, Ono told her Lennon was unavailable, being exhausted after a hypnotherapy session. Two days later, Lennon reappeared at a joint dental appointment, stupefied and confused to such an extent that Pang believed he had been brainwashed. He told her his separation from Ono was now over, though Ono would allow him to continue seeing her as his mistress.\n\nSean Lennon\n\nWhen Lennon and Ono were reunited, she became pregnant, but having previously suffered three miscarriages in her attempt to have a child with Lennon, she said she wanted an abortion. She agreed to allow the pregnancy to continue on condition that Lennon adopt the role of househusband; this he agreed to do. Sean was born on 9 October 1975, Lennon's 35th birthday, delivered by Caesarean section. Lennon's subsequent career break would span five years. He had a photographer take pictures of Sean every day of his first year, and created numerous drawings for him, posthumously published as Real Love: The Drawings for Sean. Lennon later proudly declared, \"He didn't come out of my belly but, by God, I made his bones, because I've attended to every meal, and to how he sleeps, and to the fact that he swims like a fish.\"\n\nFormer Beatles\n\nAlthough his friendship with Starr remained consistently friendly during the years following the Beatles' break-up in 1970, Lennon's relationships with McCartney and Harrison varied. He was close to Harrison initially, but the two drifted apart after Lennon moved to America. When Harrison was in New York for his December 1974 Dark Horse tour, Lennon agreed to join him on stage, but failed to appear after an argument over Lennon's refusal to sign an agreement that would finally dissolve the Beatles' legal partnership. (Lennon eventually signed the papers while holidaying in Florida with Pang and Julian.) Harrison offended Lennon in 1980, when he published an autobiography that made little mention of him. Lennon told Playboy, \"I was hurt by it. By glaring omission... my influence on his life is absolutely zilch... he remembers every two-bit sax player or guitarist he met in subsequent years. I'm not in the book.\"\n\nLennon's most intense feelings were reserved for McCartney. In addition to attacking him through the lyrics of \"How Do You Sleep?\", Lennon argued with him through the press for three years after the group split. The two later began to reestablish something of the close friendship they had once known, and in 1974, they even played music together again before eventually growing apart once more. Lennon said that during McCartney's final visit, in April 1976, they watched the episode of Saturday Night Live in which Lorne Michaels made a $3,000 cash offer to get the Beatles to reunite on the show. The pair considered going to the studio to make a joke appearance, attempting to claim their share of the money, but were too tired. Lennon summarised his feelings towards McCartney in an interview three days before his death: \"Throughout my career, I've selected to work with... only two people: Paul McCartney and Yoko Ono... That ain't bad picking.\"\n\nAlong with his estrangement from McCartney, Lennon always felt a musical competitiveness with him and kept an ear on his music. During his five-year career break he was content to sit back so long as McCartney was producing what Lennon saw as mediocre material. When McCartney released \"Coming Up\", in 1980, the year Lennon returned to the studio and the last year of his life, he took notice. \"It's driving me crackers!\" he jokingly complained, because he could not get the tune out of his head. Asked the same year whether the group were dreaded enemies or the best of friends, he replied that they were neither, and that he had not seen any of them in a long time. But he also said, \"I still love those guys. The Beatles are over, but John, Paul, George and Ringo go on.\"\n\nPolitical activism\n\nLennon and Ono used their honeymoon as what they termed a \"Bed-In for Peace\" at the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel; the March 1969 event attracted worldwide media ridicule. At a second Bed-In three months later at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal Lennon wrote and recorded \"Give Peace a Chance\". Released as a single, it was quickly taken up as an anti-war anthem and sung by a quarter of a million demonstrators against the Vietnam War in Washington, DC, on 15 November, the second Vietnam Moratorium Day. In December, they paid for billboards in 10 cities around the world which declared, in the national language, \"War Is Over! If You Want It\". \n\nLater that year, Lennon and Ono supported efforts by the family of James Hanratty, hanged for murder in 1962, to prove his innocence. Those who had condemned Hanratty were, according to Lennon, \"the same people who are running guns to South Africa and killing blacks in the streets. ... The same bastards are in control, the same people are running everything, it's the whole bullshit bourgeois scene.\" In London, Lennon and Ono staged a \"Britain Murdered Hanratty\" banner march and a \"Silent Protest For James Hanratty\", and produced a 40-minute documentary on the case. At an appeal hearing years later, Hanratty's conviction was upheld after DNA evidence matched. His family continued to appeal in 2010. \n\nLennon and Ono showed their solidarity with the Clydeside UCS workers' work-in of 1971 by sending a bouquet of red roses and a cheque for £5,000. On moving to New York City in August that year, they befriended two of the Chicago Seven, Yippie peace activists Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman. Another political activist, John Sinclair, poet and co-founder of the White Panther Party, was serving ten years in prison for selling two joints of marijuana after previous convictions for possession of the drug. In December 1971 at Ann Arbor, Michigan, 15,000 people attended the \"John Sinclair Freedom Rally\", a protest and benefit concert with contributions from Lennon, Stevie Wonder, Bob Seger, Bobby Seale of the Black Panther Party, and others. Lennon and Ono, backed by David Peel and Rubin, performed an acoustic set of four songs from their forthcoming Some Time in New York City album including \"John Sinclair\", whose lyrics called for his release. The day before the rally, the Michigan Senate passed a bill that significantly reduced the penalties for possession of marijuana and four days later Sinclair was released on an appeal bond. The performance was recorded and two of the tracks later appeared on John Lennon Anthology (1998).\n\nFollowing the Bloody Sunday incident in Northern Ireland in 1972, in which 14 unarmed civil rights protesters were shot dead by the British Army, Lennon said that given the choice between the army and the IRA (who were not involved in the incident) he would side with the latter. Lennon and Ono wrote two songs protesting British presence and actions in Ireland for their Some Time in New York City album: \"Luck of the Irish\" and \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\". In 2000, David Shayler, a former member of Britain's domestic security service MI5, suggested that Lennon had given money to the IRA, though this was swiftly denied by Ono. Biographer Bill Harry records that following Bloody Sunday, Lennon and Ono financially supported the production of the film The Irish Tapes, a political documentary with a Republican slant.\n\nAccording to FBI surveillance reports (and confirmed by Tariq Ali in 2006) Lennon was sympathetic to the International Marxist Group, a Trotskyist group formed in Britain in 1968. However, the FBI considered Lennon to have limited effectiveness as a revolutionary since he was \"constantly under the influence of narcotics\".\n\nIn 1973, Lennon contributed a limerick called \"Why Make It Sad To Be Gay?\" to Len Richmond's The Gay Liberation Book. \n\nLennon's last act of political activism was a statement in support of the striking minority sanitation workers in San Francisco on 5 December 1980. He and Ono planned to join the workers' protest on 14 December. By this time, however, Lennon had also quietly renounced the counterculture views which he had helped promote during the 1960s and 1970s and became more aligned with conservatism, though whether he had actually aligned to a more conservative world view is disputed. \n\nDeportation attempt\n\nFollowing the impact of \"Give Peace a Chance\" and \"Happy Xmas (War Is Over)\", both strongly associated with the anti–Vietnam War movement, the Nixon administration, hearing rumours of Lennon's involvement in a concert to be held in San Diego at the same time as the Republican National Convention, tried to have him deported. Nixon believed that Lennon's anti-war activities could cost him his re-election; Republican Senator Strom Thurmond suggested in a February 1972 memo that \"deportation would be a strategic counter-measure\" against Lennon. The next month the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) began deportation proceedings, arguing that his 1968 misdemeanor conviction for cannabis possession in London had made him ineligible for admission to the United States. Lennon spent the next three and a half years in and out of deportation hearings until 8 October 1975, when a court of appeals barred the deportation attempt, stating \"... the courts will not condone selective deportation based upon secret political grounds.\" While the legal battle continued, Lennon attended rallies and made television appearances. Lennon and Ono co-hosted The Mike Douglas Show for a week in February 1972, introducing guests such as Jerry Rubin and Bobby Seale to mid-America. In 1972, Bob Dylan wrote a letter to the INS defending Lennon, stating:\n\nJohn and Yoko add a great voice and drive to the country's so-called art institution. They inspire and transcend and stimulate and by doing so, only help others to see pure light and in doing that, put an end to this dull taste of petty commercialism which is being passed off as Artist Art by the overpowering mass media. Hurray for John and Yoko. Let them stay and live here and breathe. The country's got plenty of room and space. Let John and Yoko stay! \n\nOn 23 March 1973, Lennon was ordered to leave the US within 60 days. Ono, meanwhile, was granted permanent residence. In response, Lennon and Ono held a press conference on 1 April 1973 at the New York City Bar Association, where they announced the formation of the state of Nutopia; a place with \"no land, no boundaries, no passports, only people\". Waving the white flag of Nutopia (two handkerchiefs), they asked for political asylum in the US. The press conference was filmed, and would later appear in the 2006 documentary The US vs. John Lennon. Lennon's Mind Games (1973) included the track \"Nutopian International Anthem\", which comprised three seconds of silence. Soon after the press conference, Nixon's involvement in a political scandal came to light, and in June the Watergate hearings began in Washington, DC. They led to the president's resignation 14 months later. Nixon's successor, Gerald Ford, showed little interest in continuing the battle against Lennon, and the deportation order was overturned in 1975. The following year, his US immigration status finally resolved, Lennon received his \"green card\" certifying his permanent residency, and when Jimmy Carter was inaugurated as president in January 1977, Lennon and Ono attended the Inaugural Ball.\n\nFBI surveillance and declassified documents\n\nAfter Lennon's death, historian Jon Wiener filed a Freedom of Information Act request for FBI files documenting the Bureau's role in the deportation attempt. The FBI admitted it had 281 pages of files on Lennon, but refused to release most of them on the grounds that they contained national security information. In 1983, Wiener sued the FBI with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California. It took 14 years of litigation to force the FBI to release the withheld pages. The ACLU, representing Wiener, won a favourable decision in their suit against the FBI in the Ninth Circuit in 1991. The Justice Department appealed the decision to the Supreme Court in April 1992, but the court declined to review the case. In 1997, respecting President Bill Clinton's newly instigated rule that documents should be withheld only if releasing them would involve \"foreseeable harm\", the Justice Department settled most of the outstanding issues outside court by releasing all but 10 of the contested documents.\n\nWiener published the results of his 14-year campaign in January 2000. Gimme Some Truth: The John Lennon FBI Files contained facsimiles of the documents, including \"lengthy reports by confidential informants detailing the daily lives of anti-war activists, memos to the White House, transcripts of TV shows on which Lennon appeared, and a proposal that Lennon be arrested by local police on drug charges\". The story is told in the documentary The US vs. John Lennon. The final 10 documents in Lennon's FBI file, which reported on his ties with London anti-war activists in 1971 and had been withheld as containing \"national security information provided by a foreign government under an explicit promise of confidentiality\", were released in December 2006. They contained no indication that the British government had regarded Lennon as a serious threat; one example of the released material was a report that two prominent British leftists had hoped Lennon would finance a left-wing bookshop and reading room.\n\nWriting and art\n\nBeatles biographer Bill Harry writes that Lennon began drawing and writing creatively at an early age with the encouragement of his uncle. He collected his stories, poetry, cartoons and caricatures in a Quarry Bank High School exercise book that he called the Daily Howl. The drawings were often of crippled people, and the writings satirical, and throughout the book was an abundance of wordplay. According to classmate Bill Turner, Lennon created the Daily Howl to amuse his best friend and later Quarrymen bandmate Pete Shotton, to whom he would show his work before he let anyone else see it. Turner said that Lennon \"had an obsession for Wigan Pier. It kept cropping up\", and in Lennon's story A Carrot in a Potato Mine, \"the mine was at the end of Wigan Pier.\" Turner described how one of Lennon's cartoons depicted a bus stop sign annotated with the question, \"Why?\". Above was a flying pancake, and below, \"a blind man wearing glasses leading along a blind dog—also wearing glasses\".\n\nLennon's love of wordplay and nonsense with a twist found a wider audience when he was 24. Harry writes that In His Own Write (1964) was published after \"Some journalist who was hanging around the Beatles came to me and I ended up showing him the stuff. They said, 'Write a book' and that's how the first one came about\". Like the Daily Howl it contained a mix of formats including short stories, poetry, plays and drawings. One story, \"Good Dog Nigel\", tells the tale of \"a happy dog, urinating on a lamp post, barking, wagging his tail—until he suddenly hears a message that he will be killed at three o'clock\". The Times Literary Supplement considered the poems and stories \"remarkable ... also very funny ... the nonsense runs on, words and images prompting one another in a chain of pure fantasy\". Book Week reported, \"This is nonsense writing, but one has only to review the literature of nonsense to see how well Lennon has brought it off. While some of his homonyms are gratuitous word play, many others have not only double meaning but a double edge.\" Lennon was not only surprised by the positive reception, but that the book was reviewed at all, and suggested that readers \"took the book more seriously than I did myself. It just began as a laugh for me\".\n\nIn combination with A Spaniard in the Works (1965), In His Own Write formed the basis of the stage play The John Lennon Play: In His Own Write, co-adapted by Victor Spinetti and Adrienne Kennedy. After negotiations between Lennon, Spinetti and the artistic director of the National Theatre, Sir Laurence Olivier, the play opened at The Old Vic in 1968. Lennon and Ono attended the opening night performance, their second public appearance together. In 1969, Lennon wrote \"Four in Hand\"a skit based on his teenaged experiences of group masturbationfor Kenneth Tynan's play Oh! Calcutta!. After Lennon's death, further works were published, including Skywriting by Word of Mouth (1986); Ai: Japan Through John Lennon's Eyes: A Personal Sketchbook (1992), with Lennon's illustrations of the definitions of Japanese words; and Real Love: The Drawings for Sean (1999). The Beatles Anthology (2000) also presented examples of his writings and drawings.\n\nMusicianship\n\nInstruments played\n\nLennon's playing of a mouth organ during a bus journey to visit his cousin in Scotland caught the driver's ear. Impressed, the driver told Lennon of a harmonica he could have if he came to Edinburgh the following day, where one had been stored in the bus depot since a passenger left it on a bus. The professional instrument quickly replaced Lennon's toy. He would continue to play harmonica, often using the instrument during the Beatles' Hamburg years, and it became a signature sound in the group's early recordings. His mother taught him how to play the banjo, later buying him an acoustic guitar. At 16, he played rhythm guitar with the Quarrymen.\n\nAs his career progressed, he played a variety of electric guitars, predominantly the Rickenbacker 325, Epiphone Casino and Gibson J-160E, and, from the start of his solo career, the Gibson Les Paul Junior. Double Fantasy producer Jack Douglas claimed that since his Beatle days Lennon habitually tuned his D-string slightly flat, so his Aunt Mimi could tell which guitar was his on recordings. Occasionally he played a six-string bass guitar, the Fender Bass VI, providing bass on some Beatles numbers (\"Back in the U.S.S.R.\", \"The Long and Winding Road\", \"Helter Skelter\") that occupied McCartney with another instrument. His other instrument of choice was the piano, on which he composed many songs, including \"Imagine\", described as his best-known solo work. His jamming on a piano with McCartney in 1963 led to the creation of the Beatles' first US number one, \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\". In 1964, he became one of the first British musicians to acquire a Mellotron keyboard, though it was not heard on a Beatles recording until \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" in 1967.\n\nVocal style\n\nWhen the Beatles recorded \"Twist and Shout\", the final track during the mammoth one-day session that produced the band's 1963 debut album, Please Please Me, Lennon's voice, already compromised by a cold, came close to giving out. Lennon said, \"I couldn't sing the damn thing, I was just screaming.\" In the words of biographer Barry Miles, \"Lennon simply shredded his vocal cords in the interests of rock 'n' roll.\" The Beatles' producer, George Martin, tells how Lennon \"had an inborn dislike of his own voice which I could never understand. He was always saying to me: 'DO something with my voice!... put something on it... Make it different.'\" Martin obliged, often using double-tracking and other techniques.\n\nAs his Beatles era segued into his solo career, his singing voice found a widening range of expression. Biographer Chris Gregory writes of Lennon \"tentatively beginning to expose his insecurities in a number of acoustic-led 'confessional' ballads, so beginning the process of 'public therapy' that will eventually culminate in the primal screams of \"Cold Turkey\" and the cathartic John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band.\" Music critic Robert Christgau calls this Lennon's \"greatest vocal performance... from scream to whine, is modulated electronically... echoed, filtered, and double tracked.\" David Stuart Ryan notes Lennon's vocal delivery to range from \"extreme vulnerability, sensitivity and even naivety\" to a hard \"rasping\" style. Wiener too describes contrasts, saying the singer's voice can be \"at first subdued; soon it almost cracks with despair\". Music historian Ben Urish recalls hearing the Beatles' Ed Sullivan Show performance of \"This Boy\" played on the radio a few days after Lennon's murder: \"As Lennon's vocals reached their peak... it hurt too much to hear him scream with such anguish and emotion. But it was my emotions I heard in his voice. Just like I always had.\"\n\nLegacy\n\nMusic historians Schinder and Schwartz, writing of the transformation in popular music styles that took place between the 1950s and the 1960s, say that the Beatles' influence cannot be overstated: having \"revolutionised the sound, style, and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts\", the group then \"spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock's stylistic frontiers\". Liam Gallagher, his group Oasis among the many who acknowledge the band's influence, identifies Lennon as a hero; in 1999 he named his first child Lennon Gallagher in tribute. On National Poetry Day in 1999, after conducting a poll to identify the UK's favourite song lyric, the BBC announced \"Imagine\" the winner.\n\nIn a 2006 Guardian article, Jon Wiener wrote: \"For young people in 1972, it was thrilling to see Lennon's courage in standing up to [US President] Nixon. That willingness to take risks with his career, and his life, is one reason why people still admire him today.\" For music historians Urish and Bielen, Lennon's most significant effort was \"the self-portraits ... in his songs [which] spoke to, for, and about, the human condition.\"\n\nIn 2013, Downtown Music Publishing signed a publishing administration agreement for the US with Lenono Music and Ono Music, home to the song catalogues of John Lennon and Yoko Ono respectively. Under the terms of the agreement, Downtown represents Lennon's solo works – including \"Imagine\", \"Instant Karma (We All Shine On)\", \"Power to the People\", \"Happy X-Mas (War Is Over)\", \"Jealous Guy\", \"(Just Like) Starting Over\" and others. \n\nLennon continues to be mourned throughout the world and has been the subject of numerous memorials and tributes. In 2002, the airport in Lennon's home town was renamed the Liverpool John Lennon Airport. In 2010, on what would have been Lennon's 70th birthday, the John Lennon Peace Monument was unveiled in Chavasse Park, Liverpool, by Cynthia and Julian Lennon. The sculpture entitled 'Peace & Harmony' exhibits peace symbols and carries the inscription \"Peace on Earth for the Conservation of Life · In Honour of John Lennon 1940–1980\". \n\nIn December 2013 the International Astronomical Union named one of the craters on Mercury after Lennon. \n\nAwards and sales\n\nThe Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership is regarded as one of the most influential and successful of the 20th century. As performer, writer or co-writer Lennon has had 25 number one singles on the US Hot 100 chart. His album sales in the US stand at 14 million units. Double Fantasy was his best-selling solo album, at three million shipments in the US; Released shortly before his death, it won the 1981 Grammy Award for Album of the Year. The following year, the BRIT Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music went to Lennon.\n\nParticipants in a 2002 BBC poll voted him eighth of \"100 Greatest Britons\". Between 2003 and 2008, Rolling Stone recognised Lennon in several reviews of artists and music, ranking him fifth of \"100 Greatest Singers of All Time\" and 38th of \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\", and his albums John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band and Imagine, 22nd and 76th respectively of \"Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\". He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) with the other Beatles in 1965 (returned in 1969 ). Lennon was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987 and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994.\n\nDiscography\n\n Unfinished Music No. 1: Two Virgins (with Yoko Ono) (1968)\n* Unfinished Music No. 2: Life with the Lions (with Yoko Ono) (1969)\n* Wedding Album (with Yoko Ono) (1969)\n* John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band (1970)\n* Imagine (1971)\n* Some Time in New York City (with Yoko Ono) (1972)\n* Mind Games (1973)\n* Walls and Bridges (1974)\n* Rock 'n' Roll (1975)\n* Double Fantasy (with Yoko Ono) (1980)\n* Milk and Honey (with Yoko Ono) (1984)\n\nFilmography \n\nFilm \n\nTelevision \n\nBibliography\n\n* In His Own Write (1964)\n* A Spaniard in the Works (1965)\n* Skywriting by Word of Mouth (1986)", "Sir James Paul McCartney, (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and composer. With John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, he gained worldwide fame with the rock band the Beatles, one of the most popular and influential groups in the history of pop music. His songwriting partnership with Lennon is one of the most celebrated of the 20th century. After the band's break-up, he pursued a solo career and formed Wings with his first wife, Linda, and Denny Laine.\n\nMcCartney has been recognised as one of the most successful composers and performers of all time. More than 2,200 artists have covered his Beatles song \"Yesterday\", more than any other copyrighted song in history. Wings' 1977 release \"Mull of Kintyre\" is one of the all-time best-selling singles in the UK. A two-time inductee into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (as a member of the Beatles in 1988, and as a solo artist in 1999), and a 21-time Grammy Award winner, McCartney has written, or co-written, 32 songs that have reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100, and he has 25.5 million RIAA-certified units in the United States. McCartney, Lennon, Harrison and Starr received MBEs in 1965, and in 1997, McCartney was knighted for services to music.\n\nMcCartney has released an extensive catalogue of songs as a solo artist and has composed classical and electronic music. He has taken part in projects to promote international charities related to such subjects as animal rights, seal hunting, land mines, vegetarianism, poverty, and music education. He has married three times and is the father of five children.\n\nEarly life\n\nJames Paul McCartney was born on 18 June 1942 in Walton Hospital, Liverpool, England, where his mother, Mary Patricia (née Mohin; 1909–1956), had qualified to practise as a nurse. His father, James (\"Jim\") McCartney (1902–1976), was absent from his son's birth due to his work as a volunteer firefighter during World War II. Paul has one younger brother, Michael (born 7 January 1944). Though the children were baptised in their mother's Catholic faith, their father was a former Protestant turned agnostic, and religion was not emphasised in the household. \n\nMcCartney attended Stockton Wood Road Primary School in Speke from 1947 until 1949, when he transferred to Joseph Williams Junior School in Belle Vale because of overcrowding at Stockton. In 1953, with only three others out of ninety examinees, he passed the 11-Plus exam, meaning he could attend the Liverpool Institute, a grammar school rather than a secondary modern school. In 1954, he met schoolmate George Harrison on the bus from his suburban home in Speke. The two quickly became friends; McCartney later admitted: \"I tended to talk down to him because he was a year younger.\" \n\nMcCartney's mother Mary was a midwife and the family's primary wage earner; her earnings enabled them to move into 20 Forthlin Road in Allerton, where they lived until 1964. She rode a bicycle to her patients; McCartney described an early memory of her leaving at \"about three in the morning [the] streets ... thick with snow\". On 31 October 1956, when McCartney was fourteen, his mother died of an embolism. McCartney's loss later became a point of connection with John Lennon, whose mother, Julia, had died when he was seventeen.\n\nMcCartney's father was a trumpet player and pianist, who had led Jim Mac's Jazz Band in the 1920s. He kept an upright piano in the front room, encouraged his sons to be musical and advised Paul to take piano lessons, but Paul preferred to learn by ear. He gave Paul a nickel-plated trumpet for his fourteenth birthday, but when rock and roll became popular on Radio Luxembourg, McCartney traded it for a £15 Framus Zenith (model 17) acoustic guitar, since he wanted to be able to sing while playing. He found it difficult to play guitar right-handed, but after noticing a poster advertising a Slim Whitman concert and realising that Whitman played left-handed, he reversed the order of the strings. McCartney wrote his first song, \"I Lost My Little Girl\", on the Zenith, and composed another early tune that would become \"When I'm Sixty-Four\" on the piano. American rhythm and blues influenced him, and Little Richard was his schoolboy idol; \"Long Tall Sally\" was the first song McCartney performed in public, at a Butlins holiday camp talent competition. \n\nCareer\n\n1957–60: The Quarrymen \n\nAt the age of fifteen, McCartney met Lennon and his band, the Quarrymen, at the St Peter's Church Hall fête in Woolton on 6 July 1957. The Quarrymen played a mix of rock and roll and skiffle, a type of popular music with jazz, blues and folk influences. The band invited McCartney to join soon afterwards as a rhythm guitarist, and he formed a close working relationship with Lennon. Harrison joined in 1958 as lead guitarist, followed by Lennon's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe on bass, in 1960. By May 1960 the band had tried several names, including Beatals, Johnny and the Moondogs and the Silver Beetles. They adopted the name the Beatles in August 1960 and recruited drummer Pete Best shortly before a five-engagement residency in Hamburg.\n\n1960–70: The Beatles\n\nInformally represented by Allan Williams, the Beatles' first booking was for a residency in Hamburg, starting in 1960. In 1961, Sutcliffe left the band and McCartney reluctantly became their bass player. They recorded professionally for the first time while in Hamburg, credited as the Beat Brothers, as the backing band for English singer Tony Sheridan on the single \"My Bonnie\". This brought them to the attention of Brian Epstein, a key figure in their subsequent development and success. He became their manager in January 1962. Ringo Starr replaced Best in August, and the band had their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in October, becoming popular in the UK in 1963, and in the US a year later. Their fans' hysteria became known as \"Beatlemania\", and the press sometimes referred to McCartney as the \"cute Beatle\". \n\nIn August 1965, the Beatles released the McCartney composition \"Yesterday\", featuring a string quartet. Included on the Help! LP, the song was the group's first recorded use of classical music elements and their first recording that involved only a single band member. \"Yesterday\" became the most covered song in popular music history. Later that year, during recording sessions for the album Rubber Soul, McCartney began to supplant Lennon as the dominant musical force in the band. Musicologist Ian MacDonald wrote, \"from [1965] ... [McCartney] would be in the ascendant not only as a songwriter, but also as instrumentalist, arranger, producer, and de facto musical director of the Beatles.\" Critics described Rubber Soul as a significant advance in the refinement and profundity of the band's music and lyrics. Considered a high point in the Beatles catalogue, both Lennon and McCartney said they had written the music for the song \"In My Life\". McCartney said of the album, \"we'd had our cute period, and now it was time to expand.\" Recording engineer Norman Smith stated that the Rubber Soul sessions exposed indications of increasing contention within the band: \"the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious ... [and] as far as Paul was concerned, George [Harrison] could do no right—Paul was absolutely finicky.\"\n\nIn 1966, the Beatles released the album Revolver. Featuring sophisticated lyrics, studio experimentation, and an expanded repertoire of musical genres ranging from innovative string arrangements to psychedelic rock, the album marked an artistic leap for the Beatles. The first of three consecutive McCartney A-sides, the single \"Paperback Writer\" preceded the LP's release. The Beatles produced a short promotional film for the song, and another for its B-side, \"Rain\". The films, described by Harrison as \"the forerunner of videos\", aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966. Revolver also included McCartney's \"Eleanor Rigby\", which featured a string octet. According to Gould, the song is \"a neoclassical tour de force ... a true hybrid, conforming to no recognizable style or genre of song\". Except for some backing vocals, the song included only McCartney's lead vocal and the strings arranged by producer George Martin.\n\nThe band gave their final commercial concert at the end of their 1966 US tour. Later that year, McCartney completed his first musical project apart from the group—a film score for the UK production The Family Way. The score was a collaboration with Martin, who used two McCartney themes to write thirteen variations. The soundtrack failed to chart, but it won McCartney an Ivor Novello Award for Best Instrumental Theme.\n\nUpon the end of the Beatles' performing career, McCartney sensed unease in the band and wanted them to maintain creative productivity. He pressed them to start a new project, which became Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, widely regarded as rock's first concept album. Inspired to create a new persona for the group, to serve as a vehicle for experimentation and to demonstrate to their fans that they had musically matured, McCartney invented the fictional band of the album's title track. As McCartney explained, \"We were fed up with being the Beatles. We really hated that fucking four little mop-top approach. We were not boys we were men ... and [we] thought of ourselves as artists rather than just performers.\"\n\nStarting in November 1966, the band adopted an experimental attitude during recording sessions for the album. According to engineer Geoff Emerick, \"the Beatles were looking to go out on a limb, both musically and sonically ... we were utilising a lot of tape varispeeding and other manipulation techniques ... limiters and ... effects like flanging and ADT.\" Their recording of \"A Day in the Life\" required a forty-piece orchestra, which Martin and McCartney took turns conducting. The sessions produced the double A-side single \"Strawberry Fields Forever\"/\"Penny Lane\" in February 1967, and the LP followed in June. McCartney's \"She's Leaving Home\" was an orchestral pop song. MacDonald described the track as \"[among] the finest work on Sgt. Pepper—imperishable popular art of its time\". Based on an ink drawing by McCartney, the LP's cover included a collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth, featuring the Beatles in costume as the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, standing with a host of celebrities. The heavy moustaches worn by the Beatles reflected the growing influence of hippie style trends on the band, while their clothing \"spoofed the vogue in Britain for military fashions\", wrote Gould. Scholar David Scott Kastan described Sgt. Pepper as \"the most important and influential rock-and-roll album ever recorded\".\n\nEpstein's death in August 1967 created a void, which left the Beatles perplexed and concerned about their future. McCartney, stepping in to fill that void, gradually became the de facto leader and business manager of the group Lennon had once led. His first creative suggestion after this change of leadership was to propose that the band move forward on their plans to produce a film for television, which was to become Magical Mystery Tour. The project was \"an administrative nightmare throughout\", according to Beatles' historian Mark Lewisohn. McCartney largely directed the film, which brought the group their first unfavourable critical response. However, the film's soundtrack was more successful. It was released in the UK as a six-track double extended play disc (EP), and as an identically titled LP in the US, filled out with five songs from the band's recent singles. The only Capitol compilation later included in the group's official canon of studio albums, the Magical Mystery Tour LP achieved $8 million in sales within three weeks of its release, higher initial sales than any other Capitol LP up to that point.\n\nIn January 1968, EMI filmed the Beatles for a promotional trailer intended to advertise the animated film Yellow Submarine, loosely based on the imaginary world evoked by McCartney's 1966 composition. Though critics admired the film for its visual style, humour and music, the soundtrack album issued seven months later received a less enthusiastic response. By late 1968, relations within the band were deteriorating. The tension grew during the recording of their self-titled double album, also known as the \"White Album\". Matters worsened the following year during the Let It Be sessions, when a camera crew filmed McCartney lecturing the group: \"We've been very negative since Mr. Epstein passed away ... we were always fighting [his] discipline a bit, but it's silly to fight that discipline if it's our own\". \n\nIn March 1969, McCartney married Linda Eastman, and in August, the couple had their first child, Mary, named after his late mother. For Abbey Road, the band's last recorded album, Martin suggested \"a continuously moving piece of music\", urging the group to think symphonically. McCartney agreed, but Lennon did not. They eventually compromised, agreeing to McCartney's suggestion: an LP featuring individual songs on side one, and a long medley on side two. In October 1969, a rumour surfaced that McCartney had died in a car crash in 1966 and been replaced by a lookalike, but this was quickly refuted when a November Life magazine cover featured him and his family, accompanied by the caption \"Paul is still with us\".\n\nOn 10 April 1970, in the midst of business disagreements with his bandmates, McCartney announced his departure from the group. He filed suit for the band's formal dissolution on 31 December 1970. More legal disputes followed as McCartney's attorneys, his in-laws John and Lee Eastman, fought Lennon's, Harrison's, and Starr's business manager, Allen Klein, over royalties and creative control. An English court legally dissolved the Beatles on 9 January 1975, though sporadic lawsuits against their record company EMI, Klein, and each other persisted until 1989. They are widely regarded as one of the most popular and influential acts in the history of rock music. \n\nPrior to, and for a while after leaving the group, McCartney suffered from a deep depression as a result of the band's break-up. He spent days in bed and drank excessively: \"I nearly had a breakdown,\" he said. \"I was going crazy.\" Biographer Howard Sounes writes that \"McCartney sank into whisky-soaked oblivion, [and] only Linda knew how to save him.\"Sounes, Howard. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1303629/Strangers-said-abrasive-gauche-Paul-McCartney-sank-whisky-soaked-oblivion-Linda-knew-save-him.html \"Strangers said she was abrasive and gauche, but as Paul McCartney sank into whisky-soaked oblivion, only Linda knew how to save him\"], Daily Mail, 17 August 2010 She helped him pull out of that emotional crisis by praising his work as a songwriter and convincing him to continue writing and recording. In her honor, he later wrote \"Maybe I'm Amazed\", explaining that with the Beatles breaking up, \"that was my feeling: Maybe I'm amazed at what's going on... Maybe I'm a man and maybe you're the only woman who could ever help me; Baby won't you help me understand... Maybe I'm amazed at the way you pulled me out of time, hung me on the line, Maybe I'm amazed at the way I really need you.\" He added that \"every love song I write is for Linda.\" \n\n1970–81: Wings \n\nAfter the Beatles' break-up in 1970, McCartney continued his musical career with his first solo release, McCartney, a US number-one album. Apart from some vocal contributions from Linda, McCartney is a one-man album, with Paul providing compositions, instrumentation and vocals. In 1971, he collaborated with Linda and drummer Denny Seiwell on a second album, Ram. A UK number one and a US top five, Ram included the co-written US number-one hit single \"Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey\". Later that year, ex-Moody Blues guitarist Denny Laine joined the McCartneys and Seiwell to form the band Wings. McCartney had this to say on the group's formation: \"Wings were always a difficult idea ... any group having to follow [the Beatles'] success would have a hard job ... I found myself in that very position. However, it was a choice between going on or finishing, and I loved music too much to think of stopping.\" In September 1971, the McCartneys' daughter Stella was born, named in honour of Linda's grandmothers, both of whom were named Stella. \n\nFollowing the addition of guitarist Henry McCullough, Wings' first concert tour began in 1972 with a debut performance in front of an audience of seven hundred at the University of Nottingham. Ten more gigs followed as they travelled across the UK in a van during an unannounced tour of universities, during which the band stayed in modest accommodation and received pay in coinage collected from students, while avoiding Beatles songs during their performances. A seven-week, 25-show tour of Europe followed, during which the band played solely Wings and McCartney solo material except for a few covers, including the Little Richard hit \"Long Tall Sally\", the only song McCartney played during the tour that had previously been recorded by the Beatles. McCartney wanted the tour to avoid large venues; most of the small halls they played had capacities of fewer than 3,000 people. Of his first two post-Beatles tours, McCartney said, \"The main thing I didn't want was to come on stage, faced with the whole torment of five rows of press people with little pads, all looking at me and saying, 'Oh well, he is not as good as he was.' So we decided to go out on that university tour which made me less nervous ... by the end of that tour I felt ready for something else, so we went into Europe.\"\n\nIn March 1973, Wings achieved their first US number-one single, \"My Love\", included on their second LP, Red Rose Speedway, a US number one and UK top five. Paul's collaboration with Linda and former Beatles producer Martin resulted in the song \"Live and Let Die\", which was the theme song for the James Bond film of the same name. Nominated for an Academy Award, the song reached number two in the US and number nine in the UK. It also earned Martin a Grammy for his orchestral arrangement. Music professor and author Vincent Benitez described the track as \"symphonic rock at its best\". \n\nAfter the departure of McCullough and Seiwell in 1973, the McCartneys and Laine recorded Band on the Run. The album was the first of seven platinum Wings LPs. It was a US and UK number one, the band's first to top the charts in both countries and the first ever to reach Billboard magazine's charts on three separate occasions. One of the best-selling releases of the decade, it remained on the UK charts for 124 weeks. Rolling Stone named it Album of the Year for 1974, and in 1975 it won Grammy Awards for Best Contemporary/Pop Vocal and Best Engineered Album. In 1974, Wings achieved a second US number-one single with the title track. The album also included the top-ten hits \"Jet\" and \"Helen Wheels\", and earned the 413th spot on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. \n\nWings followed Band on the Run with the chart-topping albums Venus and Mars (1975) and Wings at the Speed of Sound (1976). In 1975, they began the fourteen-month Wings Over the World Tour, which included stops in the UK, Australia, Europe and the US. The tour marked the first time McCartney performed Beatles songs live with Wings, with five in the two-hour set list: \"I've Just Seen a Face\", \"Yesterday\", \"Blackbird\", \"Lady Madonna\" and \"The Long and Winding Road\". Following the second European leg of the tour and extensive rehearsals in London, the group undertook an ambitious US arena tour that yielded the US number-one live triple LP Wings over America. \n\nIn September 1977, the McCartneys had a third child, a son they named James. In November, the Wings song \"Mull of Kintyre\", co-written with Laine, was quickly becoming one of the best-selling singles in UK chart history. The most successful single of McCartney's solo career, it achieved double the sales of the previous record holder, \"She Loves You\", and went on to sell 2.5 million copies and hold the UK sales record until the 1984 charity single, \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" \n\nLondon Town (1978) spawned a US number-one single (\"With a Little Luck\"), and was Wings' best-selling LP since Band on the Run, making the top five in both the US and the UK. Critical reception was unfavourable, and McCartney expressed disappointment with the album. Back to the Egg (1979) featured McCartney's collaboration with a rock supergroup dubbed \"the Rockestra\". Credited to Wings, the band included Pete Townshend, David Gilmour, Gary Brooker, John Paul Jones and John Bonham. Though certified platinum, critics panned the album. Wings completed their final concert tour in 1979, with twenty shows in the UK that included the live debut of the Beatles songs \"Got to Get You into My Life\", \"The Fool on the Hill\" and \"Let it Be\". \n\nIn 1980, McCartney released his second solo LP, the self-produced McCartney II, which peaked at number one in the UK and number three in the US. As with his first album, he composed and performed it alone. The album contained the song \"Coming Up\", the live version of which, recorded in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1979 by Wings, became the group's last number-one hit. By 1981, McCartney felt he had accomplished all he could creatively with Wings and decided he needed a change. The group disbanded in April 1981 following disagreements over royalties and salaries.\n\n1982–90 \n\nIn 1982 McCartney collaborated with Stevie Wonder on the Martin-produced number-one hit \"Ebony and Ivory\", included on McCartney's Tug of War LP, and with Michael Jackson on \"The Girl Is Mine\" from Thriller. \"Ebony and Ivory\" was McCartney's record 28th single to hit number one on the Billboard 100. The following year, he and Jackson worked on \"Say Say Say\", McCartney's most recent US number one . McCartney earned his latest UK number one with the title track of his LP release that year, \"Pipes of Peace\". \n\nIn 1984, McCartney starred in the musical Give My Regards to Broad Street, a feature film he also wrote and produced which included Starr in an acting role. Disparaged by critics, Variety described the film as \"characterless, bloodless, and pointless\". Roger Ebert awarded it a single star and wrote, \"you can safely skip the movie and proceed directly to the soundtrack\". The album fared much better, reaching number one in the UK and producing the US top-ten hit single \"No More Lonely Nights\", featuring David Gilmour on lead guitar. In 1985, Warner Brothers commissioned McCartney to write a song for the comedic feature film Spies Like Us. He composed and recorded the track in four days, with Phil Ramone co-producing. McCartney participated in Live Aid, performing \"Let it Be\", but technical difficulties rendered his vocals and piano barely audible for the first two verses, punctuated by squeals of feedback. Equipment technicians resolved the problems and David Bowie, Alison Moyet, Pete Townshend and Bob Geldof joined McCartney on stage, receiving an enthusiastic crowd reaction.\n\nMcCartney collaborated with Eric Stewart on Press to Play (1986), with Stewart co-writing more than half the songs on the LP. In 1988, McCartney released Choba B CCCP, released only in the Soviet Union, which contained eighteen covers; recorded over the course of two days. In 1989, he joined forces with fellow Merseysiders Gerry Marsden and Holly Johnson to record an updated version of \"Ferry Cross the Mersey\", for the Hillsborough disaster appeal fund. That same year, he released Flowers in the Dirt; a collaborative effort with Elvis Costello that included musical contributions from Gilmour and Nicky Hopkins. \nMcCartney then formed a band consisting of himself and Linda, with Hamish Stuart and Robbie McIntosh on guitars, Paul \"Wix\" Wickens on keyboards and Chris Whitten on drums. In September 1989, they launched the Paul McCartney World Tour, his first in over a decade. The following year, he released the triple album, Tripping the Live Fantastic, which contained select performances from the tour. In 1990, the US publication Amusement Business presented McCartney with an award for the highest grossing show of the year; his two performances at Berkeley earned over $3.5 million. He performed for the largest paying stadium audience in history on 21 April 1990, when 184,000 people attended his concert at Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.\n\n1991–2000 \n\nMcCartney ventured into orchestral music in 1991, when the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Society commissioned a musical piece by him to celebrate its sesquicentennial. He collaborated with composer Carl Davis, producing Liverpool Oratorio. The performance featured opera singers Kiri Te Kanawa, Sally Burgess, Jerry Hadley and Willard White, with the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra and the choir of Liverpool Cathedral. Reviews were negative. The Guardian was especially critical, describing the music as \"afraid of anything approaching a fast tempo\", and adding that the piece has \"little awareness of the need for recurrent ideas that will bind the work into a whole\". The paper published a letter McCartney submitted in response in which he noted several of the work's faster tempos and added, \"happily, history shows that many good pieces of music were not liked by the critics of the time so I am content to ... let people judge for themselves the merits of the work.\" The New York Times was slightly more generous, stating, \"There are moments of beauty and pleasure in this dramatic miscellany ... the music's innocent sincerity makes it difficult to be put off by its ambitions\". Performed around the world after its London premiere, the Liverpool Oratorio reached number one on the UK classical chart, Music Week. \n\nIn 1991, McCartney performed a selection of acoustic-only songs on MTV Unplugged and released a live album of the performance titled Unplugged (The Official Bootleg). During the 1990s, McCartney collaborated twice with Youth of Killing Joke as the musical duo \"the Fireman\". The two released their first electronica album together, Strawberries Oceans Ships Forest, in 1993. McCartney released the rock album Off the Ground in 1993. The subsequent New World Tour followed, which led to the release of the Paul Is Live album later that year. \n\nStarting in 1994, McCartney took a four-year break from his solo career to work on Apple's Beatles Anthology project with Harrison, Starr and Martin. He recorded a radio series called Oobu Joobu in 1995 for the American network Westwood One, which he described as \"widescreen radio\". Also in 1995, Prince Charles presented him with an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal College of Music—\"kind of amazing for somebody who doesn't read a note of music\", commented McCartney. \n\nIn 1997, McCartney released the rock album Flaming Pie. Starr appeared on drums and backing vocals in \"Beautiful Night\". Later that year, he released the classical work Standing Stone, which topped the UK and US classical charts. In 1998, he released Rushes, the second electronica album by the Fireman. In 1999, McCartney released Run Devil Run. Recorded in one week, and featuring Ian Paice and David Gilmour, it was primarily an album of covers with three McCartney originals. He had been planning such an album for years, having been previously encouraged to do so by Linda, who had died of cancer in April 1998. \n\nHe did an unannounced performance at the benefit tribute, \"Concert for Linda,\" his wife of 29 years who died a year earlier. It was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 10 April 1999, and was organised by two of her close friends, Chrissie Hynde and Carla Lane. Also during 1999, he continued his experimentation with orchestral music on Working Classical. In 2000, he released the electronica album Liverpool Sound Collage with Super Furry Animals and Youth, using the sound collage and musique concrète techniques that had fascinated him in the mid-1960s. He contributed the song \"Nova\" to a tribute album of classical, choral music called A Garland for Linda (2000), dedicated to his late wife. \n\n2000–10 \n\nHaving witnessed the 11 September 2001 attacks from the JFK airport tarmac, McCartney was inspired to take a leading role in organising the Concert for New York City. His studio album release in November that year, Driving Rain, included the song \"Freedom\", written in response to the attacks. The following year, McCartney went out on tour with a band that included guitarists Rusty Anderson and Brian Ray, accompanied by Paul \"Wix\" Wickens on keyboards and Abe Laboriel, Jr. on drums. They began the Driving World Tour in April 2002, which included stops in the US, Mexico and Japan. The tour resulted in the double live album Back in the US, released internationally in 2003 as Back in the World. The tour earned a reported $126.2 million, an average of over $2 million per night, and Billboard named it the top tour of the year. \n\nIn July 2002, McCartney married Heather Mills. In November, on the first anniversary of George Harrison's death, McCartney performed at the Concert for George. He participated in the National Football League's Super Bowl, performing \"Freedom\" during the pre-game show for Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002 and headlining the halftime show at Super Bowl XXXIX in 2005. The English College of Arms honoured McCartney in 2002 by granting him a coat of arms. His crest, featuring a Liver bird holding an acoustic guitar in its claw, reflects his background in Liverpool and his musical career. The shield includes four curved emblems which resemble beetles' backs. The arms' motto is Ecce Cor Meum, Latin for \"Behold My Heart\". In 2003, the McCartneys had a child, Beatrice Milly.\n\nIn July 2005, he performed at the Live 8 event in Hyde Park, London, opening the show with \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" (with U2) and closing it with \"Drive My Car\" (with George Michael), \"Helter Skelter\", and \"The Long and Winding Road\". In September, he released the rock album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard, for which he provided most of the instrumentation. In 2006, McCartney released the classical work Ecce Cor Meum. The rock album Memory Almost Full followed in 2007. In 2008, he released his third Fireman album, Electric Arguments. Also in 2008, he performed at a concert in Liverpool to celebrate the city's year as European Capital of Culture. In 2009, after a four-year break, he returned to touring and has since performed over 80 shows. More than forty-five years after the Beatles first appeared on American television during The Ed Sullivan Show, he returned to the same New York theatre to perform on Late Show with David Letterman. On 9 September 2009, EMI reissued the Beatles catalogue following a four-year digital remastering effort, releasing a music video game called The Beatles: Rock Band the same day. \n\nMcCartney's enduring fame has made him a popular choice to open new venues. In 2009, he played three sold-out concerts at the newly built Citi Field—a venue constructed to replace Shea Stadium in Queens, New York. These performances yielded the double live album Good Evening New York City later that year. In 2010, McCartney opened the Consol Energy Center in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. \n\n2011–present \n\nIn July 2011, McCartney played two sold-out concerts at the new Yankee Stadium. A New York Times review of the first concert reported that McCartney was \"not saying goodbye but touring stadiums and playing marathon concerts.\" In September 2011, having been commissioned by the New York City Ballet, McCartney released his first score for dance, a collaboration with Peter Martins called Ocean's Kingdom. Also in 2011, McCartney married Nancy Shevell. He released Kisses on the Bottom, a collection of standards, in February 2012; that same month the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences honoured him as the MusiCares Person of the Year, two days prior to his performance at the 54th Grammy Awards. \n\nMcCartney remains one of the world's top draws. He played to over 100,000 people total during two performances in Mexico City in May, the shows grossing nearly $6 million. In June 2012, McCartney closed Queen Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee Concert held outside Buckingham Palace, performing a set that included \"Let It Be\" and \"Live and Let Die\". He closed the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London on 27 July, singing \"The End\" and \"Hey Jude\" and inviting the audience to join in on the coda. Having donated his time, he received £1 from the Olympic organisers. \n\nOn 12 December, McCartney performed with three former members of Nirvana (Krist Novoselic, Dave Grohl, and Pat Smear) during the closing act of 12-12-12: The Concert for Sandy Relief, seen by approximately two billion people worldwide. On 28 August 2013, McCartney released the title track of his upcoming studio album New, which came out in October 2013. \n\nA primetime entertainment special celebrating the legacy of seven-time Grammy-winning group the Beatles and their groundbreaking first performance on The Ed Sullivan Show, featuring Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr, was taped 27 January 2014 at the Ed Sullivan Theater with a 9 February 2014 CBS airing. The show, titled The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles, featured 22 classic Beatles songs as performed by various artists, including McCartney and Starr. \n\nOn 19 May 2014, it was reported that McCartney had been bedridden by an unspecified virus on doctor's orders, and had to cancel a sold-out concert tour of Japan scheduled to begin later in the week. The tour would have included a stop at the famed Budokan Hall. McCartney also had to push his June US dates to October, as part of his doctor's order to take it easy to make a full recovery. However, he resumed the tour with a high-energy three hour appearance in Albany, New York, on 5 July 2014. On 14 August 2014, McCartney performed the final concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California before its demolition. It was the same venue that the Beatles played their final concert in 1966. \n\nIn 2014, McCartney wrote and performed \"Hope for the Future,\" the ending song for the video game Destiny. In November 2014, a 42-song tribute album titled The Art of McCartney was released, which features a wide range of artists covering McCartney's solo and Beatles work. Also that year, McCartney collaborated with American recording artist Kanye West on the single \"Only One\", released on 31 December. \n\nIn January 2015, McCartney collaborated with Kanye West and Barbadian singer Rihanna on the single \"FourFiveSeconds\". They released a music video for the song in January and performed it live at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards on 8 February 2015. McCartney is a featured guest on West's 2015 single \"All Day\", which also features Theophilus London and Allan Kingdom. \n\nOn 15 February 2015, McCartney appeared and performed with Paul Simon for the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special. McCartney and Simon performed the first verse of \"I've Just Seen a Face\" on acoustic guitars, and McCartney later performed \"Maybe I'm Amazed.\" McCartney shared lead vocals on the Alice Cooper-led Hollywood Vampires supergroup's cover of his song \"Come and Get It\" which appears on their debut album, released 11 September 2015. \n\nOn 31 March 2016, McCartney announced the upcoming release, on 10 June, of his career-spanning collection Pure McCartney. The set includes songs from throughout McCartney's solo career and his work with Wings and the Fireman, and will be available in three different formats (2-CD, 4-CD, 4-LP and Digital). The 4-CD version will include 67 tracks, the majority of which were top 40 hits. \n\nIn 2017, McCartney will appear in the movie Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales. \n\nMusicianship \n\nLargely a self-taught musician, McCartney's approach was described by musicologist Ian MacDonald as \"by nature drawn to music's formal aspects yet wholly untutored ... [he] produced technically 'finished' work almost entirely by instinct, his harmonic judgement based mainly on perfect pitch and an acute pair of ears ... [A] natural melodist—a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony\". McCartney commented, \"I prefer to think of my approach to music as ... rather like the primitive cave artists, who drew without training.\"\n\nBass guitar \n\nMcCartney's skill as a bass player has been acknowledged by other bassists, including Sting, Dr. Dre bassist Mike Elizondo, and Colin Moulding of XTC. Best known for primarily using a plectrum or pick, McCartney occasionally plays fingerstyle. He does not use slapping or muting techniques. He was strongly influenced by Motown artists, in particular James Jamerson, who McCartney called a hero for his melodic style. He was also influenced by Brian Wilson, as he commented: \"because he went to very unusual places\". Another favourite bassist of his is Stanley Clarke. \n\nDuring McCartney's early years with the Beatles, he primarily used a Höfner 500/1 bass, though in 1965, he began sporadically using a Rickenbacker 4001S for recording. While typically using Vox amplifiers, by 1967 he had also begun using a Fender Bassman for amplification. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, he used a Wal 5-String, which he said made him play more thick-sounding basslines, in contrast to the much lighter Höfner, which inspired him to play more sensitively, something he considers fundamental to his playing style. He changed back to the Höfner around 1990 for that reason. He uses Mesa Boogie bass amplifiers while performing live.\n\nMacDonald identified \"She's a Woman\" as the turning point when McCartney's bass playing began to evolve dramatically, and Beatles biographer Chris Ingham singled out Rubber Soul as the moment when McCartney's playing exhibited significant progress, particularly on \"The Word\". Bacon and Morgan agreed, calling McCartney's groove on the track \"a high point in pop bass playing and ... the first proof on a recording of his serious technical ability on the instrument.\" MacDonald inferred the influence of James Brown's \"Papa's Got a Brand New Bag\" and Wilson Pickett's \"In the Midnight Hour\", American soul tracks from which McCartney absorbed elements and drew inspiration as he \"delivered his most spontaneous bass-part to date\".\n\nBacon and Morgan described his bassline for the Beatles song \"Rain\" as \"an astonishing piece of playing ... [McCartney] thinking in terms of both rhythm and 'lead bass' ... [choosing] the area of the neck ... he correctly perceives will give him clarity for melody without rendering his sound too thin for groove.\" MacDonald considered the track the Beatles' best B-side, stating that its \"clangorously saturated texture resonates around McCartney's [bassline]\", which MacDonald described as \"so inventive that it threatens to overwhelm the track\". MacDonald also indicated the influence of Indian classical music in \"exotic melismas in the bass part\". McCartney identified Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band as containing his strongest and most inventive bass playing, particularly on \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\".\n\nAcoustic guitar \n\nMcCartney primarily flatpicks while playing acoustic guitar, though he also uses elements of fingerpicking. Examples of his acoustic guitar playing on Beatles tracks include \"Yesterday\", \"I'm Looking Through You\", \"Michelle\", \"Blackbird\", \"I Will\", \"Mother Nature's Son\" and \"Rocky Raccoon\". McCartney singled out \"Blackbird\" as a personal favourite and described his technique for the guitar part in the following way: \"I got my own little sort of cheating way of [fingerpicking] ... I'm actually sort of pulling two strings at a time ... I was trying to emulate those folk players.\" He employed a similar technique for \"Jenny Wren\". He played an Epiphone Texan on many of his acoustic recordings, but also used a Martin D-28. \n\nElectric guitar \n\nMcCartney played lead guitar on several Beatles recordings, including what MacDonald described as a \"fiercely angular slide guitar solo\" on \"Drive My Car\", which McCartney played on an Epiphone Casino. McCartney said of the instrument, \"if I had to pick one electric guitar it would be this.\" He contributed what MacDonald described as \"a startling guitar solo\" on the Harrison composition \"Taxman\" and the \"shrieking\" guitar on \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" and \"Helter Skelter\". MacDonald also praised McCartney's \"coruscating pseudo-Indian\" guitar solo on \"Good Morning Good Morning\". McCartney also played lead guitar on \"Another Girl\". While in Wings, McCartney tended to leave electric guitar work to other group members, though he played most of the lead guitar on Band on the Run. In 1990, when asked who his favourite guitar players were he included Eddie Van Halen, Eric Clapton and David Gilmour, stating, \"but I still like Hendrix the best\". He has primarily used a Gibson Les Paul for electric work, particularly during live performances.\n\nVocals \n\nOften renowned as one of the greatest singers in pop music, McCartney was ranked the 11th greatest singer of all time by The Rolling Stone, voted the 8th greatest singer ever by the NME readers and number 10 by the Music Radar readers in the list of 'the 30 greatest lead singers of all time'. He is known for his belting power, versatility and wide tenor vocal range, spanning over four octaves. Heavily influenced by Little Richard, McCartney's vocals would cross several musical genres throughout his career. On \"Call Me Back Again\", according to Benitez, \"McCartney shines as a bluesy solo vocalist\" while MacDonald called \"I'm Down\" \"a rock-and-roll classic\" that \"illustrates McCartney's vocal and stylistic versatility\". MacDonald described \"Helter Skelter\" as an early attempt at heavy metal, and \"Hey Jude\" as a \"pop/rock hybrid\", pointing out McCartney's \"use of gospel-style melismas\" in the song and his \"pseudo-soul shrieking in the fade-out\". Benitez identified \"Hope of Deliverance\" and \"Put It There\" as examples of McCartney's folk music efforts while musicologist Walter Everett considered \"When I'm Sixty-Four\" and \"Honey Pie\" attempts at vaudeville. MacDonald praised the \"swinging beat\" of the Beatles' twenty-four bar blues song, \"She's a Woman\" as \"the most extreme sound they had manufactured to date\", with McCartney's voice \"at the edge, squeezed to the upper limit of his chest register and threatening to crack at any moment.\" MacDonald described \"I've Got a Feeling\" as a \"raunchy, mid-tempo rocker\" with a \"robust and soulful\" vocal performance and \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" as \"the last of [the Beatles'] up-tempo rockers\", McCartney's \"belting\" vocals among his best since \"Drive My Car\", recorded three years earlier. McCartney also teasingly tried out classical singing, namely singing various renditions of \"Besame Mucho\" with the rest of The Beatles. He'd continue wildly experimenting with various musical and vocal styles throughout his post-Beatles career as a solo artist, \"Monkberry Moon Delight\" being named by Pitchfork's Jayson Greene as \"an absolutely unhinged vocal take, Paul gulping and sobbing right next to your inner ear\", adding that \"it could be a latter-day Tom Waits performance\". \n\nOver the years, McCartney has been named a significant vocal influence by a number of renowned artists, including Chris Cornell, Billy Joel, Steven Tyler, Brad Delp and Axl Rose. \n\nKeyboards \n\nMcCartney played piano on several Beatles songs, including \"Every Little Thing\", \"She's a Woman\", \"For No One\", \"A Day in the Life\", \"Hello, Goodbye\", \"Hey Jude\", \"Lady Madonna\", \"Let It Be\" and \"The Long and Winding Road\". MacDonald considered the piano part in \"Lady Madonna\" as reminiscent of Fats Domino, and \"Let It Be\" as having a gospel rhythm. MacDonald called McCartney's Mellotron intro on \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" an integral feature of the song's character. McCartney played a Moog synthesizer on the Beatles song \"Maxwell's Silver Hammer\" and the Wings track \"Loup (1st Indian on the Moon)\". Ingham described the Wings songs \"With a Little Luck\" and \"London Town\" as \"full of the most sensitive pop synthesizer touches\". \n\nDrums \n\nMcCartney played drums on the Beatles' songs \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\", \"Dear Prudence\", \"Martha My Dear\", \"Wild Honey Pie\" and \"The Ballad of John and Yoko\". He also played all the drum parts on his first and second solo albums McCartney and McCartney II, as well as on the Wings album Band on the Run and most of the drums on his solo LP Chaos and Creation in the Backyard. McCartney also played drums on Paul Jones' rendition of \"And the Sun Will Shine\" in 1968. Using the pseudonym Paul Ramon, which he had first used during the Beatles first tour in Scotland in 1960, McCartney played drums on Steve Miller Band's 1969 tracks \"Celebration Song\" and \"My Dark Hour\". \n\nTape loops \n\nIn the mid-1960s, when visiting artist friend John Dunbar's flat in London, McCartney brought tapes he had compiled at then-girlfriend Jane Asher's home. They included mixes of various songs, musical pieces and comments made by McCartney that Dick James made into a demo for him. Heavily influenced by American avant-garde musician John Cage, McCartney made tape loops by recording voices, guitars and bongos on a Brenell tape recorder and splicing the various loops. He referred to the finished product as \"electronic symphonies\". He reversed the tapes, speeded them up, and slowed them down to create the desired effects, some of which the Beatles later used on the songs \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" and \"The Fool on the Hill\". \n\nEarly influences \n\nMcCartney's earliest musical influences include Little Richard, Elvis Presley, Buddy Holly, Carl Perkins, and Chuck Berry. When asked why the Beatles did not include Presley on the Sgt. Pepper cover, McCartney replied, \"Elvis was too important and too far above the rest even to mention ... so we didn't put him on the list because he was more than merely a ... pop singer, he was Elvis the King.\" McCartney stated that for his bassline for \"I Saw Her Standing There\", he directly quoted Berry's \"I'm Talking About You\". \n\nMcCartney called Little Richard an idol, whose falsetto vocalisations inspired McCartney's own vocal technique. McCartney said he wrote \"I'm Down\" as a vehicle for his Little Richard impersonation. In 1971, McCartney bought the publishing rights to Holly's catalogue, and in 1976, on the fortieth anniversary of Holly's birth, McCartney inaugurated the annual \"Buddy Holly Week\" in England. The festival has included guest performances by famous musicians, songwriting competitions, drawing contests and special events featuring performances by the Crickets. \n\nLifestyle \n\nCreative outlets \n\nWhile at school during the 1950s, McCartney thrived at art assignments, often earning top accolades for his visual work. However, his lack of discipline negatively affected his academic grades, preventing him from earning admission to art college. During the 1960s, he delved into the visual arts, explored experimental cinema, and regularly attended film, theatrical and classical music performances. His first contact with the London avant-garde scene was through artist John Dunbar, who introduced McCartney to art dealer Robert Fraser. At Fraser's flat he first learned about art appreciation and met Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, Peter Blake, and Richard Hamilton. McCartney later purchased works by Magritte, using his painting of an apple for the Apple Records logo. McCartney became involved in the renovation and publicising of the Indica Gallery in Mason's Yard, London, which Barry Miles had co-founded and where Lennon first met Yoko Ono. Miles also co-founded International Times, an underground paper that McCartney helped to start with direct financial support and by providing interviews to attract advertiser income. Miles later wrote McCartney's official biography, Many Years From Now (1997). \n\nMcCartney became interested in painting after watching artist Willem de Kooning work in de Kooning's Long Island studio. McCartney took up painting in 1983, and he first exhibited his work in Siegen, Germany, in 1999. The 70-painting show featured portraits of Lennon, Andy Warhol and David Bowie. Though initially reluctant to display his paintings publicly, McCartney chose the gallery because events organiser Wolfgang Suttner showed genuine interest in McCartney's art. In September 2000, the first UK exhibition of McCartney's paintings opened, featuring 500 canvases at the Arnolfini Gallery in Bristol, England. In October 2000, McCartney's art debuted in his hometown of Liverpool. McCartney said, \"I've been offered an exhibition of my paintings at the Walker Art Gallery ... where John and I used to spend many a pleasant afternoon. So I'm really excited about it. I didn't tell anybody I painted for 15 years but now I'm out of the closet\". McCartney is lead patron of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts, a school in the building formerly occupied by the Liverpool Institute for Boys.\n\nWhen McCartney was a child, his mother read him poems and encouraged him to read books. His father invited Paul and his brother Michael to solve crosswords with him, to increase their \"word power\", as McCartney said. In 2001, McCartney published Blackbird Singing, a volume of poems and lyrics to his songs for which he gave readings in Liverpool and New York City. In the foreword of the book, he explains: \"When I was a teenager ... I had an overwhelming desire to have a poem published in the school magazine. I wrote something deep and meaningful—which was promptly rejected—and I suppose I have been trying to get my own back ever since\". His first children's book was published by Faber & Faber in 2005, High in the Clouds: An Urban Furry Tail, a collaboration with writer Philip Ardagh and animator Geoff Dunbar. Featuring a squirrel whose woodland home is razed by developers, it had been scripted and sketched by McCartney and Dunbar over several years, as an animated film. The Observer labelled it an \"anti-capitalist children's book\". \n\nIn 1981, McCartney asked Geoff Dunbar to direct a short animated film called Rupert and the Frog Song; McCartney was the writer and producer, and he also added some of the character voices. In 1992, he worked with Dunbar on an animated film about the work of French artist Honoré Daumier, which won them a BAFTA award. In 2004, they worked together on the animated short film Tropic Island Hum. The accompanying single, \"Tropic Island Hum\"/\"We All Stand Together\", reached number 21 in the UK.\n\nMcCartney also produced and hosted The Real Buddy Holly Story, a 1985 documentary featuring interviews with Keith Richards, Phil and Don Everly, the Holly family, and others. In 1995, he made a guest appearance on the Simpsons episode \"Lisa the Vegetarian\" and directed a short documentary about the Grateful Dead.\n\nIn 2015, it was revealed that McCartney turned down an offer to play the role of father to Helen Baxendale's character Emily in Friends. \n\nBusiness \n\nSince the Rich List began in 1989, McCartney has been the UK's wealthiest musician, with an estimated fortune of £730 million in 2015. In addition to an interest in Apple Corps and MPL Communications, an umbrella company for his business interests, he owns a significant music publishing catalogue, with access to over 25,000 copyrights, including the publishing rights to the musicals Guys and Dolls, A Chorus Line, Annie and Grease. He earned £40 million in 2003, the highest income that year within media professions in the UK. This rose to £48.5 million by 2005. McCartney's 18-date On the Run Tour grossed £37 million in 2012. \n\nMcCartney signed his first recording contract, as a member of the Beatles, with Parlophone Records, an EMI subsidiary, in June 1962. In the United States, the Beatles recordings were distributed by EMI subsidiary Capitol Records. The Beatles re-signed with EMI for another nine years in 1967. After forming their own record label, Apple Records, in 1968, the Beatles' recordings would be released through Apple although the masters were still owned by EMI. Following the break-up of the Beatles, McCartney's music continued to be released by Apple Records under the Beatles' 1967 recording contract with EMI which ran until 1976. Following the formal dissolution of the Beatles' partnership in 1975, McCartney re-signed with EMI worldwide and Capitol in the US, Canada and Japan, acquiring ownership of his solo catalogue from EMI as part of the deal. In 1979, McCartney signed with Columbia Records in the US and Canada—reportedly receiving the industry's most lucrative recording contract to date, while remaining with EMI for distribution throughout the rest of the world. McCartney returned to Capitol in the US in 1985, remaining with EMI until 2006. In 2007, McCartney signed with Hear Music, becoming the label's first artist. He remains there 's Kisses on the Bottom. \n\nIn 1963, Dick James established Northern Songs to publish the songs of Lennon–McCartney. McCartney initially owned 20% of Northern Songs, which became 15% after a public stock offering in 1965. In 1969, James sold a controlling interest in Northern Songs to Lew Grade's Associated Television (ATV) after which McCartney and John Lennon sold their remaining shares although they remained under contract to ATV until 1973. In 1972, McCartney re-signed with ATV for seven years in a joint publishing agreement between ATV and McCartney Music. Since 1979, MPL Communications has published McCartney's songs. McCartney and Yoko Ono attempted to purchase the Northern Songs catalogue in 1981, but Grade declined their offer and decided to sell ATV in its entirety to businessman Robert Holmes à Court. Michael Jackson subsequently purchased ATV in 1985. In 1995, Jackson merged his catalogue with Sony for a reported £59,052,000 ($95 million), establishing Sony/ATV Music Publishing, in which he retained half-ownership. McCartney has criticised Jackson's purchase and handling of Northern Songs over the years. Now formally dissolved, in 1995 it became absorbed in the Sony/ATV catalogue. McCartney receives writers' royalties which together are 33⅓ percent of total commercial proceeds in the US, and which vary elsewhere between 50 and 55 percent. Two of the Beatles' earliest songs—\"Love Me Do\" and \"P.S. I Love You\"—were published by an EMI subsidiary, Ardmore & Beechwood, before signing with James. McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore in the mid-1980s, and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by MPL Communications. \n\nDrugs \n\nMcCartney first used drugs in the Beatles' Hamburg days, when they often used Preludin to maintain their energy while performing for long periods. Bob Dylan introduced them to marijuana in a New York hotel room in 1964; McCartney recalls getting \"very high\" and \"giggling uncontrollably\". His use of the drug soon became habitual, and according to Miles, McCartney wrote the lyrics \"another kind of mind\" in \"Got to Get You into My Life\" specifically as a reference to cannabis. During the filming of Help!, McCartney occasionally smoked a joint in the car on the way to the studio during filming, and often forgot his lines. Director Richard Lester overheard two physically attractive women trying to persuade McCartney to use heroin, but he refused. Introduced to cocaine by Robert Fraser, McCartney used the drug regularly during the recording of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and for about a year total but stopped because of his dislike of the unpleasant melancholy he felt afterwards. \n\nInitially reluctant to try LSD, McCartney eventually did so in late 1966, and took his second \"acid trip\" in March 1967, with Lennon, after a Sgt. Pepper studio session. He later became the first Beatle to discuss the drug publicly, declaring, \"It opened my eyes ... [and] made me a better, more honest, more tolerant member of society.\" He made his attitude about cannabis public in 1967, when he, along with the other Beatles and Epstein, added his name to a July advertisement in The Times, which called for its legalisation, the release of those imprisoned for possession, and research into marijuana's medical uses.\n\nIn 1972, a Swedish court fined McCartney £1,000 for cannabis possession. Soon after, Scottish police found marijuana plants growing on his farm, leading to his 1973 conviction for illegal cultivation and a £100 fine. As a result of his drug convictions, the US government repeatedly denied him a visa until December 1973. Arrested again for marijuana possession in 1975, in Los Angeles, Linda took the blame, and the court soon dismissed the charges. In January 1980, when Wings flew to Tokyo for a tour of Japan, customs officials found approximately 8 ounces (200 g) of cannabis in his luggage. They arrested McCartney and brought him to a local jail while the Japanese government decided what to do. After ten days, they released and deported him without charge. In 1984, while McCartney was on holiday in Barbados, authorities arrested him for possession of marijuana and fined him $200. Upon his return to England, he stated: \"cannabis is ... less harmful than rum punch, whiskey, nicotine and glue, all of which are perfectly legal ... I don't think ... I was doing anyone any harm whatsoever.\" In 1997, he spoke out in support of decriminalisation of the drug: \"People are smoking pot anyway and to make them criminals is wrong.\" He did however, decide to quit cannabis in 2015, citing a desire to set a good example for his grandchildren. \n\nVegetarianism and activism \n\nSince 1975, McCartney has been a vegetarian; he and his wife Linda were vegetarians for most of their 30-year marriage. They decided to stop consuming meat after Paul saw lambs in a field as they were eating a meal of lamb. Soon after, the couple became outspoken animal rights activists. In his first interview after Linda's death, he promised to continue working for animal rights, and in 1999 he spent £3,000,000 to ensure Linda McCartney Foods remained free of genetically engineered ingredients. In 1995, he narrated the documentary Devour the Earth, written by Tony Wardle. McCartney is a supporter of the animal-rights organisation People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. He has appeared in the group's campaigns and, in 2009, he narrated a short factory farm exposé titled \"Glass Walls\". McCartney has also supported campaigns headed by the Humane Society of the United States, Humane Society International, World Animal Protection, and the David Shepherd Wildlife Foundation. As of 2013, McCartney is vegan. \n\nFollowing McCartney's marriage to Mills, he joined her in a campaign against land mines, becoming a patron of Adopt-A-Minefield. He wore an anti-landmines T-shirt during some of the Back in the World tour shows. In 2006, the McCartneys travelled to Prince Edward Island to raise international awareness of seal hunting. The couple debated with Danny Williams, Newfoundland's then Premier, on Larry King Live, stating that fishermen should stop hunting seals and start seal-watching businesses instead. McCartney also supports the Make Poverty History campaign. \n\nMcCartney has participated in several charity recordings and performances, including the Concerts for the People of Kampuchea, Ferry Aid, Band Aid, Live Aid, Live 8, and the recording of \"Ferry Cross the Mersey\". In 2004, he donated a song to an album to aid the \"US Campaign for Burma\", in support of Burmese Nobel Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi. In 2008, he donated a song to Aid Still Required's CD, organised as an effort to raise funds to assist with the recovery from the devastation caused in Southeast Asia by the 2004 tsunami. \n\nIn 2009, McCartney wrote to Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, asking him why he was not a vegetarian. As McCartney explained, \"He wrote back very kindly, saying, 'my doctors tell me that I must eat meat'. And I wrote back again, saying, you know, I don't think that's right ... I think he's now being told ... that he can get his protein somewhere else ... It just doesn't seem right—the Dalai Lama, on the one hand, saying, 'Hey guys, don't harm sentient beings ... Oh, and by the way, I'm having a steak.'\" \n\nIn 2012, McCartney joined the anti-fracking campaign Artists Against Fracking. \n\nSave the Arctic is a campaign to protect the Arctic and an international outcry and a renewed focus concern on oil development in the Arctic, attracting the support of more than five million people. This includes McCartney, Archbishop Desmond Tutu and 11 Nobel Peace Prize winners. \n\nIn 2014, McCartney narrated a video for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, titled \"Glass Walls\", which was harshly critical of slaughterhouses, the meat industry, and their effect on animal welfare. \n\nIn 2015, following British prime minister David Cameron's decision to give Members of Parliament a free vote on amending the law against fox hunting, McCartney was quoted: \"The people of Britain are behind this Tory government on many things but the vast majority of us will be against them if hunting is reintroduced. It is cruel and unnecessary and will lose them support from ordinary people and animal lovers like myself.\" \n\nMeditation \n\nIn August 1967, McCartney met the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at the London Hilton and later went to Bangor in North Wales to attend a weekend initiation conference, where he and the other Beatles learned the basics of Transcendental Meditation. He said, \"The whole meditation experience was very good and I still use the mantra ... I find it soothing.\" In 2009, McCartney and Starr headlined a benefit concert at Radio City Music Hall, raising three million dollars for the David Lynch Foundation to fund instruction in Transcendental Meditation for at-risk youth. \n\nFootball \n\nMcCartney has publicly professed support for Everton, and also shown favour for Liverpool. In 2008, he ended speculation about his allegiance when he said, \"Here's the deal: my father was born in Everton, my family are officially Evertonians, so if it comes down to a derby match or an FA Cup final between the two, I would have to support Everton. But after a concert at Wembley Arena I got a bit of a friendship with Kenny Dalglish, who had been to the gig and I thought 'You know what? I am just going to support them both because it's all Liverpool.'\" \n\nPersonal relationships \n\nGirlfriends \n\nDot Rhone \n\nMcCartney's first serious girlfriend in Liverpool was Dot Rhone, whom he met at the Casbah club in 1959. According to Spitz, Rhone felt that McCartney had a compulsion to control situations. He often chose clothes and make-up for her, encouraging her to grow her hair out like Brigitte Bardot's, and at least once insisting she have it re-styled, to disappointing effect. When McCartney first went to Hamburg with the Beatles, he wrote to Rhone regularly, and she accompanied Cynthia Lennon to Hamburg when they played there again in 1962. The couple had a two-and-a-half-year relationship, and were due to marry until Rhone's miscarriage; according to Spitz, McCartney, now \"free of obligation\", ended the engagement.\n\nJane Asher \n\nMcCartney first met British actress Jane Asher on 18 April 1963, when a photographer asked them to pose at a Beatles performance at the Royal Albert Hall in London. The two began a relationship, and in November of that year he took up residence with Asher at her parents' home at 57 Wimpole Street, London. They had lived there for more than two years before the couple moved to McCartney's own home in St. John's Wood, in March 1966. He wrote several songs while living at the Ashers', including \"Yesterday\", \"And I Love Her\", \"You Won't See Me\" and \"I'm Looking Through You\", the latter three having been inspired by their romance. They had a five-year relationship and planned to marry, but Asher broke off the engagement after she discovered he had become involved with Francie Schwartz. \n\nWives \n\nLinda Eastman \n\nLinda Eastman was a music fan who once commented, \"all my teen years were spent with an ear to the radio.\" At times, she skipped school to see artists such as Fabian, Bobby Darin and Chuck Berry. She became a popular photographer with several rock groups, including the Jimi Hendrix Experience, the Grateful Dead, the Doors and the Beatles, whom she first met at Shea Stadium in 1966. She commented, \"It was John who interested me at the start. He was my Beatle hero. But when I met him the fascination faded fast, and I found it was Paul I liked.\" The pair first properly met in 1967 at a Georgie Fame concert at The Bag O'Nails club, during her UK assignment to photograph rock musicians in London. As Paul remembers, \"The night Linda and I met, I spotted her across a crowded club, and although I would normally have been nervous chatting her up, I realised I had to ... Pushiness worked for me that night!\" Linda said this about their meeting: \"I was quite shameless really. I was with somebody else [that night] ... and I saw Paul at the other side of the room. He looked so beautiful that I made up my mind I would have to pick him up.\" The pair married in 1969. About their relationship, Paul said, \"We had a lot of fun together ... just the nature of how we are, our favourite thing really is to just hang, to have fun. And Linda's very big on just following the moment.\" He added, \"We were crazy. We had a big argument the night before we got married, and it was nearly called off ... [it's] miraculous that we made it. But we did.\"\n\nThe two collaborated musically after the Beatles' break-up, forming Wings in 1971. They faced derision from some fans and critics, who questioned her inclusion. She was nervous about performing with Paul, who explained, \"she conquered those nerves, got on with it and was really gutsy.\" Paul defended her musical ability: \"I taught Linda the basics of the keyboard ... She took a couple of lessons and learned some bluesy things ... she did very well and made it look easier than it was ... The critics would say, 'She's not really playing' or 'Look at her—she's playing with one finger.' But what they didn't know is that sometimes she was playing a thing called a Minimoog, which could only be played with one finger. It was monophonic.\" He went on to say, \"We thought we were in it for the fun ... it was just something we wanted to do, so if we got it wrong—big deal. We didn't have to justify ourselves.\" Former Wings guitarist McCullough said of collaborating with Linda, \"trying to get things together with a learner in the group didn't work as far as I was concerned.\"\n\nThey had four children—Linda's daughter Heather (legally adopted by Paul), Mary, Stella and James—and remained married until Linda's death from breast cancer at age 56 in 1998. After her death, Paul stated in the Daily Mail, \"I got a counsellor because I knew that I would need some help. He was great, particularly in helping me get rid of my guilt [about wishing I'd been] perfect all the time ... a real bugger. But then I thought, hang on a minute. We're just human. That was the beautiful thing about our marriage. We were just a boyfriend and girlfriend having babies.\"\n\nHeather Mills \n\nIn 2002, McCartney married Heather Mills, a former model and anti-landmines campaigner. In 2003, the couple had a child, Beatrice Milly, named in honour of Mills' late mother, and one of McCartney's aunts. They separated in April 2006 and divorced acrimoniously in March 2008. In 2004, he commented on media animosity toward his partners: \"[the British public] didn't like me giving up on Jane Asher ... I married [Linda], a New York divorcee with a child, and at the time they didn't like that\". \n\nNancy Shevell \n\nMcCartney married New Yorker Nancy Shevell in a civil ceremony at Old Marylebone Town Hall, London, on 9 October 2011. The wedding was a modest event attended by a group of about 30 relatives and friends. The couple had been dating since November 2007. Shevell is vice-president of a family-owned transportation conglomerate which owns New England Motor Freight. She is a former member of the board of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority. \n\nBeatles \n\nJohn Lennon \n\nThough McCartney had a strained relationship with Lennon, they briefly became close again in early 1974, and played music together on one occasion. In later years, the two grew apart. While McCartney would often phone Lennon, he was apprehensive about the reception he would receive. During one call, Lennon told him, \"You're all pizza and fairytales!\" In an effort to avoid talking only about business, they often spoke of cats, babies or baking bread.\n\nOn 24 April 1976, the two were watching an episode of Saturday Night Live together at Lennon's home in the Dakota, during which Lorne Michaels made a $3,000 cash offer for the Beatles to reunite. While they seriously considered going to the SNL studio a few blocks away, they decided it was too late. This was their last time together. VH1 fictionalised this event in the 2000 television film Two of Us. McCartney's last telephone call to Lennon, days before Lennon and Ono released Double Fantasy, was friendly; he said this about the call: \"[It is] a consoling factor for me, because I do feel it was sad that we never actually sat down and straightened our differences out. But fortunately for me, the last phone conversation I ever had with him was really great, and we didn't have any kind of blow-up.\" \n\nReaction to Lennon's murder \n\nOn 9 December 1980, McCartney followed the news that Lennon had been murdered the previous night, his death creating a media frenzy around the surviving members of the band. That evening, as he was leaving an Oxford Street recording studio surrounded by reporters who asked him for his reaction, he responded: \"It's a drag\". The press quickly criticised him for what appeared to be a superficial response. He later explained, \"When John was killed somebody stuck a microphone at me and said: 'What do you think about it?' I said, 'It's a dra-a-ag' and meant it with every inch of melancholy I could muster. When you put that in print it says, 'McCartney in London today when asked for a comment on his dead friend said, \"It's a drag\".' It seemed a very flippant comment to make.\" He described his first exchange with Ono after the murder, and his last conversation with Lennon:\n\nI talked to Yoko the day after he was killed, and the first thing she said was, \"John was really fond of you.\" The last telephone conversation I had with him we were still the best of mates. He was always a very warm guy, John. His bluff was all on the surface. He used to take his glasses down, those granny glasses, and say, \"it's only me.\" They were like a wall you know? A shield. Those are the moments I treasure.\n\nIn 1983, McCartney said, \"I would not have been as typically human and standoffish as I was if I knew John was going to die. I would have made more of an effort to try and get behind his \"mask\" and have a better relationship with him.\" He said that he went home that night, watched the news on television with his children and cried most of the evening. In 1997, he admitted the ex-Beatles were nervous at the time that they might also be murdered. He told Mojo magazine in 2002 that Lennon was his greatest hero. In 1981, McCartney sang backup on Harrison's tribute to their ex-bandmate, \"All Those Years Ago\", which featured Starr on drums. McCartney released \"Here Today\" in 1982, a song Everett described as \"a haunting tribute\" to McCartney's friendship with Lennon.\n\nGeorge Harrison \n\nDiscussing his relationship with McCartney, Harrison said, \"Paul would always help along when you'd done his ten songs—then when he got 'round to doing one of my songs, he would help. It was silly. It was very selfish, actually ... There were a lot of tracks, though, where I played bass ... because what Paul would do—if he'd written a song, he'd learn all the parts for Paul and then come in the studio and say (sometimes he was very difficult): 'Do this'. He'd never give you the opportunity to come out with something.\" \n\nAfter Harrison's death in November 2001, McCartney issued a statement outside his home in St. John's Wood, calling him \"a lovely guy and a very brave man who had a wonderful sense of humour\". He went on to say, \"We grew up together and we just had so many beautiful times together – that's what I am going to remember. I'll always love him, he's my baby brother.\" On the first anniversary of his death, McCartney played Harrison's \"Something\" on a ukulele at the Concert for George. He also performed \"For You Blue\" and \"All Things Must Pass\", and played the piano on Eric Clapton's rendition of \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\".\n\nRingo Starr \n\nStarr once described McCartney as \"pleasantly insincere\", though the two generally enjoy each other's company, and at least once went on holiday together in Greece. Starr recalled, \"We couldn't understand a word of the songs the hotel band were playing, so on the last night Paul and I did a few rockers like \"What'd I Say\". There was at times discord between them as well, particularly during sessions for the White Album. As Apple's Peter Brown recalled, \"it was a poorly kept secret among Beatle intimates that after Ringo left the studio Paul would often dub in the drum tracks himself ... [Starr] would pretend not to notice\". In August 1968, the two got into an argument over McCartney's critique of Starr's drum part for \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\", which contributed to Starr temporarily leaving the band. Starr later commented on working with McCartney: \"Paul is the greatest bass player in the world. But he is also very determined ... [to] get his own way ... [thus] musical disagreements inevitably arose from time to time.\"\n\nMcCartney and Starr collaborated on several post-Beatles projects starting in 1973, when McCartney contributed instrumentation and backing vocals for \"Six O'Clock\", a song McCartney wrote for Starr's album Ringo. McCartney played a kazoo solo on another track from the album, \"You're Sixteen\". Starr appeared (as a fictional version of himself) in McCartney's 1984 film Give My Regards to Broad Street, and played drums on most tracks of the soundtrack album, which includes re-recordings of several McCartney-penned Beatles songs. Starr played drums and sang backing vocals on \"Beautiful Night\" from McCartney's 1997 album, Flaming Pie. The pair collaborated again in 1998, on Starr's Vertical Man, which featured McCartney's backing vocals on three songs, and instrumentation on one. In 2009, the pair performed \"With a Little Help from My Friends\" at a benefit concert for the David Lynch Foundation. They collaborated on Starr's album Y Not in 2010. McCartney played bass on \"Peace Dream\", and sang a duet with Starr on \"Walk with You\". On 7 July 2010, Starr was performing at Radio City Music Hall in New York with his All-Starr Band in a concert celebrating his seventieth birthday. After the encores, McCartney made a surprise last-minute appearance, coming out and performing the Beatles' song \"Birthday\" backed by members of Starr's band. On 26 January 2014 McCartney and Starr performed \"Queenie Eye\" from McCartney's new album New at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. \n\nLegacy \n\nAchievements \n\nMcCartney was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 as a member of the Beatles and again as a solo artist in 1999. In 1979, the Guinness Book of World Records recognised McCartney as the \"most honored composer and performer in music\", with 60 gold discs (43 with the Beatles, 17 with Wings) and, as a member of the Beatles, sales of over 100 million singles and 100 million albums, and as the \"most successful song writer\", he wrote jointly or solo 43 songs which sold one million or more records between 1962 and 1978. In 2009, Guinness World Records again recognised McCartney as the \"most successful songwriter\" having written or co-written 188 charted records in the United Kingdom, of which 91 reached the top 10 and 33 made it to number one. \n\nMcCartney has written, or co-written 32 number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100: twenty with the Beatles; seven solo or with Wings; one as a co-writer of \"A World Without Love\", a number-one single for Peter and Gordon; one as a co-writer on Elton John's cover of \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\"; one as a co-writer on Stars on 45's \"Medley\"; one as a co-writer with Michael Jackson on \"Say Say Say\"; and one as a co-writer with Stevie Wonder on \"Ebony and Ivory\". , he has 15.5 million RIAA certified units in the United States as a solo artist plus another 10 million with Wings. \n\nCredited with more number ones in the UK than any other artist, McCartney has participated in twenty-four chart topping singles: seventeen with the Beatles, one solo, and one each with Wings, Stevie Wonder, Ferry Aid, Band Aid, Band Aid 20 and \"The Christians et al.\" He is the only artist to reach the UK number one as a soloist (\"Pipes of Peace\"), duo (\"Ebony and Ivory\" with Wonder), trio (\"Mull of Kintyre\", Wings), quartet (\"She Loves You\", the Beatles), quintet (\"Get Back\", the Beatles with Billy Preston) and as part of a musical ensemble for charity (Ferry Aid).\n\n\"Yesterday\" is the most covered song in history with more than 2,200 recorded versions, and according to the BBC, \"the track is the only one by a UK writer to have been aired more than seven million times on American TV and radio and is third in the all-time list ... [and] is the most played song by a British writer [last] century in the US\". His 1968 Beatles composition, \"Hey Jude\", is also a career highlight. It achieved the highest sales in the UK that year, topping the US charts for nine weeks, longer than any other Beatles single. It was also the longest single released by the band, and at seven minutes eleven seconds, the longest ever number one to that point. \"Hey Jude\" is the best-selling Beatles single, achieving sales of over five million copies soon after its release.\n\nIn July 2005, McCartney's performance of \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" with U2 at Live 8 became the fastest-released single in history. Available within forty-five minutes of its recording, hours later it had achieved number one on the UK Official Download Chart.\n\nAwards and honours \n\nMcCartney receiving the 2010 Gershwin Prize from US President Barack Obama.\n\n1971 Academy Award winner (as a member of the Beatles)\n21-time Grammy Award winner:\n12 as a member of the Beatles\nSix as a solo artist\nTwo as a member of Wings\nOne as part of a joint collaboration\nTwo-time inductee – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame:\nClass of 1988 as a member of the Beatles\nClass of 1999 as a solo artist\nMember of the Order of the British Empire.\nPlanet 4148 named \"McCartney\" (International Astronomical Union's Minor Planet Center). \n1997: Knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for services to music.\n2000: Fellowship into the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors.\n2008: BRIT Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music\n2008: Honorary Doctor of Music degree from Yale University. \n2010: Gershwin Prize for his contributions to popular music. \n2010: Kennedy Center Honors. \n2012: Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. \n2012: Légion d'Honneur for his services to music. \n2012: MusiCares Person of the Year\n\nDiscography \n\n: Solo\n* McCartney (1970)\n* Ram (1971) (Paul & Linda McCartney)\n* McCartney II (1980)\n* Tug of War (1982)\n* Pipes of Peace (1983)\n* Give My Regards to Broad Street (1984)\n* Press to Play (1986)\n* Снова В СССР (1988) (covers album)\n* Flowers in the Dirt (1989)\n* Off the Ground (1993)\n* Flaming Pie (1997)\n* Run Devil Run (1999) (covers album)\n* Driving Rain (2001)\n* Chaos and Creation in the Backyard (2005)\n* Memory Almost Full (2007)\n* Kisses on the Bottom (2012) (covers album)\n* New (2013)\n\n:Wings\n* Wild Life (1971)\n* Red Rose Speedway (1973)\n* Band on the Run (1973)\n* Venus and Mars (1975)\n* Wings at the Speed of Sound (1976)\n* London Town (1978)\n* Back to the Egg (1979)\n\n:Classical\n* Paul McCartney's Liverpool Oratorio (1991)(with Carl Davis)\n* Standing Stone (1997)\n* Working Classical (1999)\n* Ecce Cor Meum (2006)\n* Ocean's Kingdom (2011)(dance score with Peter Martins)\n\n:Other albums\n* The Family Way (1966)(film score with George Martin)\n* Thrillington (1977)(Percy \"Thrills\" Thrillington)\n* Strawberries Oceans Ships Forest (1993)(the Fireman)\n* Rushes (1998)(the Fireman)\n* Liverpool Sound Collage (2000)(re-mix album)\n* Twin Freaks (2005)(with the Freelance Hellraiser)\n* Electric Arguments (2008)(the Fireman)\n\nTours \n\n;Wings \n* Wings University Tour – 11 shows in the UK, 1972\n* Wings Over Europe Tour – 25 shows, 1972\n* Wings 1973 UK Tour – 21 shows, 1973\n* Wings Over the World tour – 66 shows, 1975–1976\n* Wings UK Tour 1979 – 20 shows, 1979\n\n;Solo \n* The Paul McCartney World Tour – 104 shows, 1989–1990\n* Unplugged Tour – 6 shows in Europe, 1991\n* The New World Tour – 79 shows, 1993\n* Driving World Tour – 58 shows, 2002\n* Back in the World tour – 33 shows, 2003\n* '04 Summer Tour – 14 shows worldwide, 2004\n* The 'US' Tour – 37 shows, 2005\n* Secret Tour 2007 – 6 shows in Europe and the US, 2007\n* Summer Live '09 – 10 shows in North America, 2009\n* Good Evening Europe Tour – 8 shows, 2009\n* Up and Coming Tour – 38 shows worldwide, 2010–2011\n* On the Run Tour – 38 shows worldwide, 2011–2012\n* Out There! Tour – 91 shows worldwide, 2013–2015\n* One on One – yet 39 shows worldwide, 2016" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "2", "Two", "two" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "2", "two" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "two", "type": "Numerical", "value": "Two" }
In what year did the New York subway open?	tc_1414	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "New_York_City.txt" ], "title": [ "New York City" ], "wiki_context": [ "The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of the state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. With a U.S. Census Bureau-estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over a land area of just 305 sqmi, New York is also the most densely populated major city in the United States. A global power city, New York City exerts a significant impact upon commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and entertainment, its fast pace defining the term New York minute. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has been described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. \n\nSituated on one of the world's largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, each of which is a separate county of New York State. The five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. The city and its metropolitan area constitute the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States, and as many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. By 2015 estimates, the New York City metropolitan region remains by a significant margin the most populous in the United States, as defined by both the Metropolitan Statistical Area (20.2 million residents) and the Combined Statistical Area (23.7 million residents). In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of nearly US$1.39 trillion, while in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion, both ranking first nationally by a wide margin and behind the GDP of only twelve and eleven countries, respectively. \n\nNew York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664. New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the country's largest city since 1790. The Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance, and environmental sustainability.\n\nMany districts and landmarks in New York City have become well known, and the city received a record of nearly 60 million tourists in 2015, hosting three of the world's ten most visited tourist attractions in 2013. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world. Times Square, iconic as the world's \"heart\" and its \"Crossroads\", is the brightly illuminated hub of the Broadway Theater District, one of the world's busiest pedestrian intersections, and a major center of the world's entertainment industry. The names of many of the city's bridges, skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world, and the city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization, the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ. Manhattan's real estate market is among the most expensive in the world. Manhattan's Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with stations in operation. New York City's higher education network comprises over 120 colleges and universities, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world. \n\nHistory\n\nEtymology and early history\n\nDuring the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the geologic foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. \n\nIn the precolonial era, the area of present-day New York City was inhabited by various bands of Algonquian tribes of Native Americans, including the Lenape, whose homeland, known as Lenapehoking, included Staten Island; the western portion of Long Island, including the area that would become Brooklyn and Queens; Manhattan; the Bronx; and the Lower Hudson Valley. \n\nThe first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown, who sailed his ship La Dauphine into New York Harbor. He claimed the area for France and named it \"Nouvelle Angoulême\" (New Angoulême). \n\nA Spanish expedition led by captain Estêvão Gomes, a Portuguese sailing for Emperor Charles V, arrived in New York Harbor in January 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel La Anunciada and charted the mouth of the Hudson River, which he named Rio de San Antonio. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August. The Padrón Real of 1527, the first scientific map to show North America's east coast continuously, was informed by Gomes' expedition and labeled the Northeastern U.S. as Tierra de Esteban Gómez in his honor. \n\nIn 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson re-discovered the region when he sailed his ship the Halve Maen (\"Half Moon\" in Dutch) into New York Harbor while searching for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company. He proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River (now the Hudson River), named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange. Hudson's first mate described the harbor as \"a very good Harbour for all windes\" and the river as \"a mile broad\" and \"full of fish.\" Hudson sailed roughly 150 miles north, past the site of the present-day Albany, in the belief that it might be an oceanic tributary before the river became to shallow to continue. He made a ten-day exploration of the area and claimed the region for the Dutch East India Company. In 1614, the area between Cape Cod and Delaware Bay would be claimed by the Netherlands and called Nieuw-Nederland (New Netherland).\n\nThe first non-Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City was Dominican trader Juan Rodriguez (transliterated to Dutch as Jan Rodrigues). Born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent, he arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–1614, trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch. Broadway, from 159th Street to 218th Street, is named Juan Rodriguez Way in his honor. \n\nA permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 – making New York the 12th oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States – with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on a citadel and Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam (Nieuw Amsterdam). [http://tolerancepark.org/_wsn/page5.html Tolerance Park Historic New Amsterdam on Governors Island], Tolerance Park. Accessed May 12, 2007. See Legislative Resolutions Senate No. 5476 and Assembly No. 2708. The colony of New Amsterdam was centered at the site which would eventually become Lower Manhattan. In 1626, the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit, acting as charged by the Dutch West India Company, purchased the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie, a small Lenape band, for 60 guilders (about $1,000 in 2006). A disproved legend claims that Manhattan was purchased for $24 worth of glass beads. \n\nFollowing the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly. To attract settlers, the Dutch instituted the patroon system in 1628, whereby wealthy Dutchmen (\"patroons\", or patrons) who brought 50 colonists to New Netherland would be awarded swathes of land in New Netherland, along with local political autonomy and rights to participate in the lucrative fur trade. This program had little success.\n\nSince 1621, the Dutch West India Company had operated as a monopoly in New Netherland, on authority granted by the Dutch States General. In 1639–1640, in an effort to bolster economy growth, the Dutch West India Company relinquished its monopoly over the fur trade in New Netherland, leading to growth in the production and trade of food, timber, tobacco, and slaves (particularly with the Dutch West Indies).\n\nIn 1647, Peter Stuyvesant began his tenure as the last Director-General of New Netherland. Over his term, the population of New Amsterdam grew from 2,000 to 8,000, and Stuyvesant has been credited with improving law and order in the colony. However, Stuyvesant also earned a reputation as a despotic leader. He instituted regulations on liquor sales, attempted to assert control over the Dutch Reformed Church, and blocked other religious groups (including Quakers, Jews, and Lutherans) from establishing houses of worship. The Dutch West India Company would eventually attempt to ease tensions between Stuyvesant and residents of New Amsterdam.\n\nIn 1664, unable to summon any significant resistance, Stuyvesant surrendered New Amsterdam to English troops led by Colonel Richard Nicolls without bloodshed. The terms of the surrender permitted Dutch residents to remain in the colony and allowed for religious freedom. The English promptly renamed the fledgling city \"New York\" after the Duke of York (the future King James II of England). The transfer was confirmed in 1667 by the Treaty of Breda, which concluded the Second Anglo-Dutch War. \n\nOn August 24, 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, Dutch captain Anthony Colve seized the colony of New York from England at the behest of Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and rechristened it \"New Orange\" after William III, the Prince of Orange. However, the Dutch would soon return the island to England under the Treaty of Westminster of November 1674. \n\nSeveral intertribal wars among the Native Americans and some epidemics brought on by contact with the Europeans caused sizable population losses for the Lenape between the years 1660 and 1670. By 1700, the Lenape population had diminished to 200. \n\nNew York experienced several yellow fever epidemics in the 18th century, losing ten percent of its population to the disease in 1702. \n\nNew York grew in importance as a trading port while under British rule in the early 1700s. It also became a center of slavery, with 42% of households holding slaves by 1730, more than any other city other than Charleston, South Carolina. Most slaveholders held a few or several domestic slaves, but others hired them out to work at labor. Slavery became integrally tied to New York's economy through the labor of slaves throughout the port, and the banks and shipping tied to the American South. Discovery of the African Burying Ground in the 1990s, during construction of a new federal courthouse near Foley Square, revealed that tens of thousands of Africans had been buried in the area in the colonial years.\n\nThe 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger, who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby, helped to establish the freedom of the press in North America. In 1754, Columbia University was founded under charter by King George II as King's College in Lower Manhattan. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765 as the Sons of Liberty organized in the city, skirmishing over the next ten years with British troops stationed there.\n\nThe Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War, was fought in August 1776 entirely within the modern-day borough of Brooklyn. After the battle, in which the Americans were defeated, the British made the city their military and political base of operations in North America. The city was a haven for Loyalist refugees, as well as escaped slaves who joined the British lines for freedom newly promised by the Crown for all fighters. As many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the British occupation. When the British forces evacuated at the close of the war in 1783, they transported 3,000 freedmen for resettlement in Nova Scotia. They resettled other freedmen in England and the Caribbean.\n\nThe only attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the Conference House on Staten Island between American delegates, including Benjamin Franklin, and British general Lord Howe on September 11, 1776. Shortly after the British occupation began, the Great Fire of New York occurred, a large conflagration on the West Side of Lower Manhattan, which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city, including Trinity Church. \n\nIn 1785, the assembly of the Congress of the Confederation made New York the national capital shortly after the war. New York was the last capital of the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation and the first capital under the Constitution of the United States. In 1789, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was inaugurated; the first United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States each assembled for the first time, and the United States Bill of Rights was drafted, all at Federal Hall on Wall Street. By 1790, New York had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States.\n\nUnder New York State's gradual abolition act of 1799, children of slave mothers were born to be eventually liberated but were held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties. Together with slaves freed by their masters after the Revolutionary War and escaped slaves, a significant free-black population gradually developed in Manhattan. Under such influential United States founders as Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, the New York Manumission Society worked for abolition and established the African Free School to educate black children. It was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state, and free blacks struggled afterward with discrimination. New York interracial abolitionist activism continued; among its leaders were graduates of the African Free School. The city's black population reached more than 16,000 in 1840. \n\nIn the 19th century, the city was transformed by development relating to its status as a trading center, as well as by European immigration. The city adopted the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of Manhattan. The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal through central New York connected the Atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the North American interior via the Hudson River and the Great Lakes. Local politics became dominated by Tammany Hall, a political machine supported by Irish and German immigrants. \n\nSeveral prominent American literary figures lived in New York during the 1830s and 1840s, including William Cullen Bryant, Washington Irving, Herman Melville, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, John Keese, Nathaniel Parker Willis, and Edgar Allan Poe. Public-minded members of the contemporaneous business elite lobbied for the establishment of Central Park, which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an American city.\n\nModern history\n\nThe Great Irish Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants. Over 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, upwards of a quarter of the city's population. There was also extensive immigration from the German provinces, where revolutions had disrupted societies, and Germans comprised another 25% of New York's population by 1860. \n\nDemocratic Party candidates were consistently elected to local office, increasing the city's ties to the South and its dominant party. In 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood called on the aldermen to declare independence from Albany and the United States after the South seceded, but his proposal was not acted on. Anger at new military conscription laws during the American Civil War (1861–1865), which spared wealthier men who could afford to pay a $300 () commutation fee to hire a substitute, led to the Draft Riots of 1863, whose most visible participants were ethnic Irish working class. The situation deteriorated into attacks on New York's elite, followed by attacks on black New Yorkers and their property after fierce competition for a decade between Irish immigrants and blacks for work. Rioters burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground, but more than 200 children escaped harm due to efforts of the New York City Police Department, which was mainly made up of Irish immigrants. According to historian James M. McPherson (2001), at least 120 people were killed. In all, eleven black men were lynched over five days, and the riots forced hundreds of blacks to flee the city for Williamsburg, Brooklyn, as well as New Jersey; the black population in Manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865, which it had last been in 1820. The white working class had established dominance. Violence by longshoremen against black men was especially fierce in the docks area. It was one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history. \n\nIn 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then a separate city), the County of New York (which then included parts of the Bronx), the County of Richmond, and the western portion of the County of Queens. The opening of the subway in 1904, first built as separate private systems, helped bind the new city together. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication.\n\nIn 1904, the steamship General Slocum caught fire in the East River, killing 1,021 people on board. In 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, the city's worst industrial disaster, took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and major improvements in factory safety standards. \n\nNew York's non-white population was 36,620 in 1890. New York City was a prime destination in the early twentieth century for African Americans during the Great Migration from the American South, and by 1916, New York City was home to the largest urban African diaspora in North America. The Harlem Renaissance of literary and cultural life flourished during the era of Prohibition. The larger economic boom generated construction of skyscrapers competing in height and creating an identifiable skyline.\n\nNew York became the most populous urbanized area in the world in the early 1920s, overtaking London. The metropolitan area surpassed the 10 million mark in the early 1930s, becoming the first megacity in human history. The difficult years of the Great Depression saw the election of reformer Fiorello La Guardia as mayor and the fall of Tammany Hall after eighty years of political dominance. \n\nReturning World War II veterans created a post-war economic boom and the development of large housing tracts in eastern Queens. New York emerged from the war unscathed as the leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading America's place as the world's dominant economic power. The United Nations Headquarters was completed in 1952, solidifying New York's global geopolitical influence, and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated New York's displacement of Paris as the center of the art world. \n\nThe Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan. They are widely considered to constitute the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States. \n\nIn the 1970s, job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates. While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city's economic health in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into the beginning of the 1990s. By the mid 1990s, crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies, improving economic opportunities, gentrification, and new residents, both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America. Important new sectors, such as Silicon Alley, emerged in the city's economy. New York's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 Census and then again in the 2010 Census.\n\nThe city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with Al-Qaeda piloted American Airlines Flight 11 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and United Airlines Flight 175 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, and later destroyed them, killing 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area. The rebuilding of the area, has created a new One World Trade Center, and a 9/11 memorial and museum along with other new buildings and infrastructure. The World Trade Center PATH station, which opened on July 19, 1909 as the Hudson Terminal, was also destroyed in the attack. A temporary station was built and opened on November 23, 2003. A permanent station, the World Trade Center Transportation Hub, is currently under construction. The new One World Trade Center is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere and the fourth-tallest building in the world by pinnacle height, with its spire reaching a symbolic 1776 ft in reference to the year of American independence. \n\nThe Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17, 2011, receiving global attention and spawning the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide. \n\nGeography\n\nNew York City is situated in the Northeastern United States, in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston. The location at the mouth of the Hudson River, which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the Atlantic Ocean, has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port. Most of New York City is built on the three islands of Long Island, Manhattan, and Staten Island.\n\nThe Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay. Between New York City and Troy, New York, the river is an estuary. The Hudson River separates the city from the U.S. state of New Jersey. The East River—a tidal strait—flows from Long Island Sound and separates the Bronx and Manhattan from Long Island. The Harlem River, another tidal strait between the East and Hudson Rivers, separates most of Manhattan from the Bronx. The Bronx River, which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County, is the only entirely fresh water river in the city.\n\nThe city's land has been altered substantially by human intervention, with considerable land reclamation along the waterfronts since Dutch colonial times; reclamation is most prominent in Lower Manhattan, with developments such as Battery Park City in the 1970s and 1980s. Some of the natural relief in topography has been evened out, especially in Manhattan. \n\nThe city's total area is . of this is water and is land. \nThe highest point in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island, which, at above sea level, is the highest point on the Eastern Seaboard south of Maine. The summit of the ridge is mostly covered in woodlands as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt. \n\nCityscape\n\nArchitecture\n\nNew York has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods, from the saltbox style Pieter Claesen Wyckoff House in Brooklyn, the oldest section of which dates to 1656, to the modern One World Trade Center, the skyscraper at Ground Zero in Lower Manhattan and the most expensive office tower in the world by construction cost. \n\nManhattan's skyline, with its many skyscrapers, is universally recognized, and the city has been home to several of the tallest buildings in the world. , New York City had 5,937 high-rise buildings, of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 ft high, both second in the world after Hong Kong, with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 ft. These include the Woolworth Building (1913), an early gothic revival skyscraper built with massively scaled gothic detailing.\n\nThe 1916 Zoning Resolution required setbacks in new buildings and restricted towers to a percentage of the lot size, to allow sunlight to reach the streets below. The Art Deco style of the Chrysler Building (1930) and Empire State Building (1931), with their tapered tops and steel spires, reflected the zoning requirements. The buildings have distinctive ornamentation, such as the eagles at the corners of the 61st floor on the Chrysler Building, and are considered some of the finest examples of the Art Deco style. A highly influential example of the international style in the United States is the Seagram Building (1957), distinctive for its façade using visible bronze-toned I-beams to evoke the building's structure. The Condé Nast Building (2000) is a prominent example of green design in American skyscrapers and has received an award from the American Institute of Architects as well as AIA New York State for its design.\n\nThe character of New York's large residential districts is often defined by the elegant brownstone rowhouses and townhouses and shabby tenements that were built during a period of rapid expansion from 1870 to 1930. In contrast, New York City also has neighborhoods that are less densely populated and feature free-standing dwellings. In neighborhoods such as Riverdale (in the Bronx), Ditmas Park (in Brooklyn), and Douglaston (in Queens), large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as Tudor Revival and Victorian. \n\nStone and brick became the city's building materials of choice after the construction of wood-frame houses was limited in the aftermath of the Great Fire of 1835. A distinctive feature of many of the city's buildings is the wooden roof-mounted water towers. In the 1800s, the city required their installation on buildings higher than six stories to prevent the need for excessively high water pressures at lower elevations, which could break municipal water pipes. Garden apartments became popular during the 1920s in outlying areas, such as Jackson Heights. \n\nAccording to the United States Geological Survey, an updated analysis of seismic hazard in July 2014 revealed a \"slightly lower hazard for tall buildings\" in New York City than previously assessed. Scientists estimated this lessened risk based upon a lower likelihood than previously thought of slow shaking near the city, which would be more likely to cause damage to taller structures from an earthquake in the vicinity of the city. \n\nBoroughs\n\nNew York City is often referred to collectively as the five boroughs, and in turn, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the boroughs, many with a definable history and character to call their own. If the boroughs were each independent cities, four of the boroughs (Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, and the Bronx) would be among the ten most populous cities in the United States (Staten island would be ranked 37th) ; these same boroughs are coterminous with the four most densely populated counties in the United States (New York [Manhattan], Kings [Brooklyn], Bronx, and Queens).\n\n* Manhattan (New York County) is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the city's skyscrapers. Manhattan's (New York County's) population density of 72,033 people per square mile (27,812/km²) in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States and higher than the density of any individual American city. Manhattan is the cultural, administrative, and financial center of New York City and contains the headquarters of many major multinational corporations, the United Nations Headquarters, Wall Street, and a number of important universities. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world. Most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Several small islands are also part of the borough of Manhattan, including Randall's Island, Wards Island, and Roosevelt Island in the East River, and Governors Island and Liberty Island to the south in New York Harbor. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions. Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a small neighborhood on the United States mainland, called Marble Hill, which is contiguous with The Bronx. New York City's remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs.\n* Brooklyn (Kings County), on the western tip of Long Island, is the city's most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, and a distinctive architectural heritage. Downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country. Marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn.\n* Queens (Queens County), on Long Island north and east of Brooklyn, is geographically the largest borough, the most ethnically diverse county in the United States, as well as the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world. Historically a collection of small towns and villages founded by the Dutch, the borough has since developed both commercial and residential prominence. Queens is the site of Citi Field, the baseball stadium of the New York Mets, and hosts the annual U.S. Open tennis tournament at Flushing Meadows-Corona Park. Additionally, two of the three busiest airports serving the New York metropolitan area, John F. Kennedy International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, are located in Queens. (The third is Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey.)\n* Staten Island (Richmond County) is the most suburban in character of the five boroughs. Staten Island is connected to Brooklyn by the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge and to Manhattan by way of the free Staten Island Ferry, a daily commuter ferry and popular tourist attraction which provides unobstructed views of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, and Lower Manhattan. In central Staten Island, the Staten Island Greenbelt spans approximately 2500 acres, including 28 mi of walking trails and one of the last undisturbed forests in the city. Designated in 1984 to protect the island's natural lands, the Greenbelt comprises seven city parks.\n* The Bronx (Bronx County) is New York City's northernmost borough and the only New York City borough with a majority of it a part of the mainland United States. It is the location of Yankee Stadium, the baseball park of the New York Yankees, and home to the largest cooperatively owned housing complex in the United States, Co-op City. It is also home to the Bronx Zoo, the world's largest metropolitan zoo, which spans 265 acre and houses over 6,000 animals. The Bronx is also the birthplace of rap and hip hop culture. Pelham Bay Park is the largest park in New York City, at .\n\nClimate\n\nUnder the Köppen climate classification, New York City features a humid subtropical climate (Cfa), and is thus the northernmost major city on the North American continent with this categorization. The suburbs to the immediate north and west lie in the transitional zone between humid subtropical and humid continental climates. The city averages 234 days with at least some sunshine annually, and averages 57% of possible sunshine annually, accumulating 2,535 hours of sunshine per annum. The city lies in the USDA 7b plant hardiness zone. \n\nWinters are cold and damp, and prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the moderating effects of the Atlantic Ocean; yet the Atlantic and the partial shielding from colder air by the Appalachians keep the city warmer in the winter than inland North American cities at similar or lesser latitudes such as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis. The daily mean temperature in January, the area's coldest month, is ; however, temperatures usually drop to 10 °F several times per winter, and reach 60 °F several days in the coldest winter month. Spring and autumn are unpredictable and can range from chilly to warm, although they are usually mild with low humidity. Summers are typically warm to hot and humid, with a daily mean temperature of in July. Nighttime conditions are often exacerbated by the urban heat island phenomenon, while daytime temperatures exceed 90 °F on average of 17 days each summer and in some years exceed 100 °F. Extreme temperatures have ranged from , recorded on February 9, 1934, up to 106 °F on July 9, 1936.\n\nThe city receives of precipitation annually, which is fairly spread throughout the year.\nAverage winter snowfall between 1981 and 2010 has been , but this varies considerably from year to year. Hurricanes and tropical storms are rare in the New York area, but are not unheard of and always have the potential to strike the area. Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York City on the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels, and subway lines in Lower Manhattan and other areas of the city and cutting off electricity in many parts of the city and its suburbs. The storm and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of the city and the metropolitan area to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future. \n\nParks\n\nThe City of New York has a complex park system, with various lands operated by the National Park Service, the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, and the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation.\n\nIn its 2013 ParkScore ranking, the Trust for Public Land reported that the park system in New York City was the second best park system among the 50 most populous US cities, behind the park system of Minneapolis. ParkScore ranks urban park systems by a formula that analyzes median park size, park acres as percent of city area, the percent of city residents within a half-mile of a park, spending of park services per resident, and the number of playgrounds per 10,000 residents.\n\nNational parks\n\nGateway National Recreation Area contains over 26000 acres in total, most of it surrounded by New York City, including the Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge. In Brooklyn and Queens, the park contains over 9000 acre of salt marsh, wetlands, islands, and water, including most of Jamaica Bay. Also in Queens, the park includes a significant portion of the western Rockaway Peninsula, most notably Jacob Riis Park and Fort Tilden. In Staten Island, Gateway National Recreation Area includes Fort Wadsworth, with historic pre-Civil War era Battery Weed and Fort Tompkins, and Great Kills Park, with beaches, trails, and a marina.\n\nThe Statue of Liberty National Monument and Ellis Island Immigration Museum are managed by the National Park Service and are in both the states of New York and New Jersey. They are joined in the harbor by Governors Island National Monument, in New York. Historic sites under federal management on Manhattan Island include Castle Clinton National Monument; Federal Hall National Memorial; Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site; General Grant National Memorial (\"Grant's Tomb\"); African Burial Ground National Monument; and Hamilton Grange National Memorial. Hundreds of private properties are listed on the National Register of Historic Places or as a National Historic Landmark such as, for example, the Stonewall Inn, part of the Stonewall National Monument in Greenwich Village, as the catalyst of the modern gay rights movement. \|\n\nState parks\n\nThere are seven state parks within the confines of New York City, including Clay Pit Ponds State Park Preserve, a natural area that includes extensive riding trails, and Riverbank State Park, a 28 acre facility that rises 69 ft over the Hudson River. \n\nCity parks\n\nNew York City has over 28000 acre of municipal parkland and 14 mi of public beaches. The largest municipal park in the city is Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx, with 2765 acres. \n* Central Park, an 883 acre park in middle-upper Manhattan, is the most visited urban park in the United States as well as one of the most filmed locations in the world, with 40 million visitors in 2013. The park contains a myriad of attractions; there are several lakes and ponds, two ice-skating rinks, the Central Park Zoo, the Central Park Conservatory Garden, and the 106 acre Jackie Onassis Reservoir. Indoor attractions include Belvedere Castle with its nature center, the Swedish Cottage Marionette Theater, and the historic Carousel. On October 23, 2012, hedge fund manager John A. Paulson announced a $100 million gift to the Central Park Conservancy, the largest ever monetary donation to New York City's park system. \n* Washington Square Park is a prominent landmark in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan. The Washington Square Arch at the northern gateway to the park is an iconic symbol of both New York University and Greenwich Village.\n* Prospect Park in Brooklyn has a 90 acre meadow, a lake, and extensive woodlands. Within the park is the historic Battle Pass, prominent in the Battle of Long Island. \n* Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens, the city's third largest park, was the setting for the 1939 World's Fair and the 1964 World's Fair and is host to the annual United States Open Tennis Championships tournament.\n* Over a fifth of the Bronx's area, 7000 acre, is given over to open space and parks, including Pelham Bay Park, Van Cortlandt Park, the Bronx Zoo, and the New York Botanical Gardens. \n* In Staten Island, the Conference House Park contains the historic Conference House, site of the only attempt of a peaceful resolution to the American Revolution, attended by Benjamin Franklin representing the Americans and Lord Howe representing the British Crown. The historic Burial Ridge, the largest Native American burial ground within New York City, is within the park.\n\nMilitary installations\n\nNew York City is home to Fort Hamilton, the U.S. military's only active duty installation within the city. Established in 1825 in Brooklyn on the site of a small battery utilized during the American Revolution, it is one of America's longest serving military forts. Today Fort Hamilton serves as the headquarters of the North Atlantic Division of the United States Army Corps of Engineers as well as for the New York City Recruiting Battalion. It also houses the 1179th Transportation Brigade, the 722nd Aeromedical Staging Squadron, and a military entrance processing station. Other formerly active military reservations still utilized for National Guard and military training or reserve operations in the city include Fort Wadsworth in Staten Island and Fort Totten in Queens.\n\nDemographics\n\nNew York City is the most-populous city in the United States, with an estimated record high of 8,550,405 residents , incorporating more immigration into the city than outmigration since the 2010 United States Census. More than twice as many people live in New York City as in the second-most populous U.S. city (Los Angeles), and within a smaller area. New York City gained more residents between April 2010 and July 2014 (316,000) than any other U.S. city. New York City's population amounts to about 40% of New York State's population and a similar percentage of the New York metropolitan area population.\n\nPopulation density\n\nIn 2015, the city had an estimated population density of 28,053 people per square mile (10,756/km²), rendering it the most densely populated of all municipalities housing over 100,000 residents in the United States; however, several small cities (of fewer than 100,000) in adjacent Hudson County, New Jersey are more dense overall, as per the 2000 Census. Geographically co-extensive with New York County, the borough of Manhattan's 2015 population density of 72,033 people per square mile (27,812/km²) makes it the highest of any county in the United States and higher than the density of any individual American city. \n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nThe city's population in 2010 was 44% white (33.3% non-Hispanic white), 25.5% black (23% non-Hispanic black), 0.7% Native American, and 12.7% Asian. Hispanics of any race represented 28.6% of the population, while Asians constituted the fastest-growing segment of the city's population between 2000 and 2010; the non-Hispanic white population declined 3 percent, the smallest recorded decline in decades; and for the first time since the Civil War, the number of blacks declined over a decade. \n\nThroughout its history, the city has been a major port of entry for immigrants into the United States; more than 12 million European immigrants were received at Ellis Island between 1892 and 1924. The term \"melting pot\" was first coined to describe densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side. By 1900, Germans constituted the largest immigrant group, followed by the Irish, Jews, and Italians. In 1940, whites represented 92% of the city's population. \n\nApproximately 37% of the city's population is foreign born. In New York, no single country or region of origin dominates. The ten largest sources of foreign-born individuals in the city were the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico, Guyana, Jamaica, Ecuador, Haiti, India, Russia, and Trinidad and Tobago, while the Bangladeshi immigrant population has since become one of the fastest growing in the city, counting over 74,000 by 2013. \n\nAsian Americans in New York City, according to the 2010 Census, number more than one million, greater than the combined totals of San Francisco and Los Angeles. New York contains the highest total Asian population of any U.S. city proper. The New York City borough of Queens is home to the state's largest Asian American population and the largest Andean (Colombian, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, and Bolivian) populations in the United States, and is also the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world. The Chinese population constitutes the fastest-growing nationality in New York State; multiple satellites of the original Manhattan Chinatown (紐約華埠), in Brooklyn (布鲁克林華埠), and around Flushing, Queens (法拉盛華埠), are thriving as traditionally urban enclaves, while also expanding rapidly eastward into suburban Nassau County (拿騷縣) on Long Island (長島), as the New York metropolitan region and New York State have become the top destinations for new Chinese immigrants, respectively, and large-scale Chinese immigration continues into New York City and surrounding areas. In 2012, 6.3% of New York City was of Chinese ethnicity, with nearly three-fourths living in either Queens or Brooklyn, geographically on Long Island. A community numbering 20,000 Korean-Chinese (Chaoxianzu (Chinese: 朝鲜族) or Joseonjok (Hangul: 조선족)) is centered in Flushing, Queens, while New York City is also home to the largest Tibetan population outside China, India, and Nepal, also centered in Queens. Koreans made up 1.2% of the city's population, and Japanese 0.3%. Filipinos were the largest Southeast Asian ethnic group at 0.8%, followed by Vietnamese, who made up 0.2% of New York City's population in 2010. Indians are the largest South Asian group, comprising 2.4% of the city's population, with Bangladeshis and Pakistanis at 0.7% and 0.5%, respectively. Queens is the preferred borough of settlement for Asian Indians, Koreans, and Filipinos, as well as Malaysians and other Southeast Asians; while Brooklyn is receiving large numbers of both West Indian as well as Asian Indian immigrants.\n\nNew York City has the largest European and non-Hispanic white population of any American city. At 2.7 million in 2012, New York's non-Hispanic white population is larger than the non-Hispanic white populations of Los Angeles (1.1 million), Chicago (865,000), and Houston (550,000) combined. The European diaspora residing in the city is very diverse. According to 2012 Census estimates, there were roughly 560,000 Italian Americans, 385,000 Irish Americans, 253,000 German Americans, 223,000 Russian Americans, 201,000 Polish Americans, and 137,000 English Americans. Additionally, Greek and French Americans numbered 65,000 each, with those of Hungarian descent estimated at 60,000 people. Ukrainian and Scottish Americans numbered 55,000 and 35,000, respectively. People identifying ancestry from Spain numbered 30,838 total in 2010. People of Norwegian and Swedish descent both stood at about 20,000 each, while people of Czech, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Scotch-Irish, and Welsh descent all numbered between 12,000–14,000 people. Arab Americans number over 160,000 in New York City, with the highest concentration in Brooklyn. Central Asians, primarily Uzbek Americans, are a rapidly growing segment of the city's non-Hispanic white population, enumerating over 30,000, and including over half of all Central Asian immigrants to the United States, most settling in Queens or Brooklyn. Albanian Americans are most highly concentrated in the Bronx. \n\nThe wider New York City metropolitan statistical area, with over 20 million people, about 50% greater than the second-place Los Angeles metropolitan area in the United States, is also ethnically diverse, with the largest foreign-born population of any metropolitan region in the world. The New York region continues to be by far the leading metropolitan gateway for legal immigrants admitted into the United States, substantially exceeding the combined totals of Los Angeles and Miami, the next most popular gateway regions. It is home to the largest Jewish as well as Israeli communities outside Israel, with the Jewish population in the region numbering over 1.5 million in 2012 and including many diverse Jewish sects from around the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The metropolitan area is also home to 20% of the nation's Indian Americans and at least 20 Little India enclaves, as well as 15% of all Korean Americans and four Koreatowns; the largest Asian Indian population in the Western Hemisphere; the largest Russian American, Italian American, and African American populations; the largest Dominican American, Puerto Rican American, and South American and second-largest overall Hispanic population in the United States, numbering 4.8 million; and includes at least 6 established Chinatowns within New York City alone, with the urban agglomeration comprising a population of 779,269 overseas Chinese Census estimates, the largest outside of Asia.\n\nEcuador, Colombia, Guyana, Peru, and Brazil were the top source countries from South America for legal immigrants to the New York City region in 2013; the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Haiti, and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean; Egypt, Ghana, and Nigeria from Africa; and El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala in Central America. Amidst a resurgence of Puerto Rican migration to New York City, this population had increased to approximately 1.3 million in the metropolitan area .\n\nSexual and gender orientation\n\nThe New York metropolitan area is home to a self-identifying gay and bisexual community estimated at nearly 570,000 individuals, the largest in the United States and one of the world's largest. Same-sex marriages in New York were legalized on June 24, 2011 and were authorized to take place beginning 30 days thereafter. New York City is also home to the largest transgender population in the United States, estimated at 25,000 in 2016. \n\nReligion\n\nChristianity (59%), made up of Roman Catholicism (33%), Protestantism (23%), and other Christians (3%), was the most prevalently practiced religion in New York ,[http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/07/29/major-u-s-metropolitan-areas-differ-in-their-religious-profiles/ Major U.S. metropolitan areas differ in their religious profiles], Pew Research Center, Accessed July 30, 2015. followed by Judaism, with approximately 1.1 million Jews in New York City, over half living in Brooklyn. Islam ranks third in New York City, with official estimates ranging between 600,000 and 1,000,000 observers and including 10% of the city's public schoolchildren, followed by Hinduism, Buddhism, and a variety of other religions, as well as atheism. In 2014, 24% self-identified with no organized religious affiliation.\n\nIncome\n\nNew York City has a high degree of income disparity as indicated by its Gini Coefficient of 0.5 for the city overall and 0.6 for Manhattan. The disparity is driven by wage growth in high-income brackets, while wages have stagnated for middle and lower-income brackets. In the first quarter of 2014, the average weekly wage in New York County (Manhattan) was $2,749, representing the highest total among large counties in the United States. In 2016, Beijing overtook New York City to become the city with the most billionaires in the world, 100 to 95, including former Mayor Michael Bloomberg. New York also had the highest density of millionaires per capita among major U.S. cities in 2014, at 4.6% of residents. Lower Manhattan has been experiencing a baby boom, with the area south of Canal Street witnessing 1,086 births in 2010, 12% greater than 2009 and over twice the number born in 2001. \n\nEconomy\n\nOverview of New York City's economy\n\nNew York is a global hub of international business and commerce. In 2012, New York City topped the first Global Economic Power Index, published by The Atlantic (to be differentiated from a namesake list published by the Martin Prosperity Institute), with cities ranked according to criteria reflecting their presence on similar lists as published by other entities. The city is a major center for banking and finance, retailing, world trade, transportation, tourism, real estate, new media as well as traditional media, advertising, legal services, accountancy, insurance, theater, fashion, and the arts in the United States; while Silicon Alley, metonymous for New York's broad-spectrum high technology sphere, continues to expand. The Port of New York and New Jersey is also a major economic engine, handling record cargo volume in the first half of 2014. \n\nMany Fortune 500 corporations are headquartered in New York City, as are a large number of foreign corporations. One out of ten private sector jobs in the city is with a foreign company. New York City has been ranked first among cities across the globe in attracting capital, business, and tourists. This ability to attract foreign investment helped New York City top the FDi Magazine American Cities of the Future ranking for 2013. \n\nReal estate is a major force in the city's economy, as the total value of all New York City property was assessed at US$914.8 billion for the 2015 fiscal year. The Time Warner Center is the property with the highest-listed market value in the city, at US$1.1 billion in 2006. New York City is home to some of the nation's—and the world's—most valuable real estate. 450 Park Avenue was sold on July 2, 2007 for US$510 million, about $1,589 per square foot ($17,104/m²), breaking the barely month-old record for an American office building of $1,476 per square foot ($15,887/m²) set in the June 2007 sale of 660 Madison Avenue. According to Forbes, in 2014, Manhattan was home to six of the top ten zip codes in the United States by median housing price. \n\n, the global advertising agencies of Omnicom Group and Interpublic Group, both based in Manhattan, had combined annual revenues of approximately US$21 billion, reflecting New York City's role as the top global center for the advertising industry, which is metonymously referred to as \"Madison Avenue\". The city's fashion industry provides approximately 180,000 employees with $11 billion in annual wages. \n\nOther important sectors include medical research and technology, non-profit institutions, and universities. Manufacturing accounts for a significant but declining share of employment, although the city's garment industry is showing a resurgence in Brooklyn. Food processing is a US$5 billion industry that employs more than 19,000 residents.\n\nChocolate is New York City's leading specialty-food export, with up to US$234 million worth of exports each year. Entrepreneurs were forming a \"Chocolate District\" in Brooklyn , while Godiva, one of the world's largest chocolatiers, continues to be headquartered in Manhattan. \n\nWall Street\n\nNew York City's most important economic sector lies in its role as the headquarters for the U.S.financial industry, metonymously known as Wall Street. The city's securities industry, enumerating 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to form the largest segment of the city's financial sector and an important economic engine, accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of the city's private sector jobs, 8.5 percent (US$3.8 billion) of its tax revenue, and 22 percent of the city's total wages, including an average salary of US$360,700. Many large financial companies are headquartered in New York City, and the city is also home to a burgeoning number of financial startup companies.\n\nLower Manhattan is the third-largest central business district in the United States and is home to the New York Stock Exchange, on Wall Street, and the NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's largest and second largest stock exchanges, respectively, when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013. Investment banking fees on Wall Street totaled approximately $40 billion in 2012, while in 2013, senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as $324,000 annually. In fiscal year 2013–14, Wall Street's securities industry generated 19% of New York State's tax revenue. New York City remains the largest global center for trading in public equity and debt capital markets, driven in part by the size and financial development of the U.S. economy. In July 2013, NYSE Euronext, the operator of the New York Stock Exchange, took over the administration of the London interbank offered rate from the British Bankers Association. New York also leads in hedge fund management; private equity; and the monetary volume of mergers and acquisitions. Several investment banks and investment mangers headquartered in Manhattan are important participants in other global financial centers. New York is also the principal commercial banking center of the United States. \n\nMany of the world's largest media conglomerates are also based in the city. Manhattan contained over 500 million square feet (46.5 million m2) of office space in 2015, making it the largest office market in the United States, while Midtown Manhattan, with nearly 400 million square feet (37.2 million m2) in 2015, is the largest central business district in the world. \n\nSilicon Alley\n\nSilicon Alley, centered in Manhattan, has evolved into a metonym for the sphere encompassing the New York City metropolitan region's high technology industries involving the Internet, new media, telecommunications, digital media, software development, biotechnology, game design, financial technology (\"fintech\"), and other fields within information technology that are supported by its entrepreneurship ecosystem and venture capital investments. In 2015, Silicon Alley generated over US$7.3 billion in venture capital investment across a broad spectrum of high technology enterprises, most based in Manhattan, with others in Brooklyn, Queens, and elsewhere in the region. High technology startup companies and employment are growing in New York City and the region, bolstered by the city's position in North America as the leading Internet hub and telecommunications center, including its vicinity to several transatlantic fiber optic trunk lines, New York's intellectual capital, and its extensive outdoor wireless connectivity. Verizon Communications, headquartered at 140 West Street in Lower Manhattan, was at the final stages in 2014 of completing a US$3 billion fiberoptic telecommunications upgrade throughout New York City. , New York City hosted 300,000 employees in the tech sector. \n\nThe biotechnology sector is also growing in New York City, based upon the city's strength in academic scientific research and public and commercial financial support. On December 19, 2011, then Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg announced his choice of Cornell University and Technion-Israel Institute of Technology to build a US$2 billion graduate school of applied sciences called Cornell Tech on Roosevelt Island with the goal of transforming New York City into the world's premier technology capital. By mid-2014, Accelerator, a biotech investment firm, had raised more than US$30 million from investors, including Eli Lilly and Company, Pfizer, and Johnson & Johnson, for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the Alexandria Center for Life Science, which encompasses more than on East 29th Street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic, medical, and research institutions. The New York City Economic Development Corporation's Early Stage Life Sciences Funding Initiative and venture capital partners, including Celgene, General Electric Ventures, and Eli Lilly, committed a minimum of US$100 million to help launch 15 to 20 ventures in life sciences and biotechnology. \n\nTourism\n\nTourism is a vital industry for New York City, which has witnessed a growing combined volume of international and domestic tourists, receiving a sixth consecutive record of nearly 60 million visitors in 2015. Tourism had generated an all-time high US$61.3 billion in overall economic impact for New York City in 2014, pending 2015 statistics. Approximately 12 million visitors to New York City were from outside the United States, with the highest numbers from the United Kingdom, Canada, Brazil, and China. New York is the most popular destination in the United States for international travelers.\n\nI Love New York (stylized I ❤ NY) is both a logo and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign and have been used since 1977 to promote tourism in New York City, and later to promote New York State as well. The trademarked logo, owned by New York State Empire State Development, appears in souvenir shops and brochures throughout the city and state, some licensed, many not. The song is the state song of New York.\n\nMajor tourist destinations include Times Square; Broadway theater productions; the Empire State Building; the Statue of Liberty; Ellis Island; the United Nations Headquarters; museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art; greenspaces such as Central Park and Washington Square Park; Rockefeller Center; the Manhattan Chinatown; luxury shopping along Fifth and Madison Avenues; and events such as the Halloween Parade in Greenwich Village; the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade; the lighting of the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree; the St. Patrick's Day parade; seasonal activities such as ice skating in Central Park in the wintertime; the Tribeca Film Festival; and free performances in Central Park at Summerstage. Major attractions in the boroughs outside Manhattan include Flushing Meadows-Corona Park and the Unisphere in Queens; the Bronx Zoo; Coney Island, Brooklyn; and the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx. The New York Wheel, a 630-foot ferris wheel, was under construction at the northern shore of Staten Island in 2015, overlooking the Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor, and the Lower Manhattan skyline. \n\nManhattan was on track to have an estimated 90,000 hotel rooms at the end of 2014, a 10% increase from 2013. In October 2014, the Anbang Insurance Group, based in China, purchased the Waldorf Astoria New York for US$1.95 billion, making it the world's most expensive hotel ever sold. \n\nMedia and entertainment\n\nNew York is a prominent location for the American entertainment industry, with many films, television series, books, and other media being set there. , New York City was the second largest center for filmmaking and television production in the United States, producing about 200 feature films annually, employing 130,000 individuals; the filmed entertainment industry has been growing in New York, contributing nearly US$9 billion to the New York City economy alone as of 2015, and by volume, New York is the world leader in independent film production – one-third of all American independent films are produced in New York City. The Association of Independent Commercial Producers is also based in New York. In the first five months of 2014 alone, location filming for television pilots in New York City exceeded the record production levels for all of 2013, with New York surpassing Los Angeles as the top North American city for the same distinction during the 2013/2014 cycle. \n\nNew York City is additionally a center for the advertising, music, newspaper, digital media, and publishing industries and is also the largest media market in North America. Some of the city's media conglomerates and institutions include Time Warner, the Thomson Reuters Corporation, the Associated Press, Bloomberg L.P., the News Corporation, The New York Times Company, NBCUniversal, the Hearst Corporation, AOL, and Viacom. Seven of the world's top eight global advertising agency networks have their headquarters in New York. Two of the top three record labels' headquarters are in New York: Sony Music Entertainment and Warner Music Group. Universal Music Group also has offices in New York. New media enterprises are contributing an increasingly important component to the city's central role in the media sphere.\n\nMore than 200 newspapers and 350 consumer magazines have an office in the city, and the publishing industry employs about 25,000 people. Two of the three national daily newspapers in the United States are New York papers: The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times, which has won the most Pulitzer Prizes for journalism. Major tabloid newspapers in the city include: The New York Daily News, which was founded in 1919 by Joseph Medill Patterson and The New York Post, founded in 1801 by Alexander Hamilton. The city also has a comprehensive ethnic press, with 270 newspapers and magazines published in more than 40 languages. El Diario La Prensa is New York's largest Spanish-language daily and the oldest in the nation. The New York Amsterdam News, published in Harlem, is a prominent African American newspaper.\nThe Village Voice is the largest alternative newspaper.\n\nThe television industry developed in New York and is a significant employer in the city's economy. The three major American broadcast networks are all headquartered in New York: ABC, CBS, and NBC. Many cable networks are based in the city as well, including MTV, Fox News, HBO, Showtime, Bravo, Food Network, AMC, and Comedy Central. The City of New York operates a public broadcast service, NYCTV, that has produced several original Emmy Award-winning shows covering music and culture in city neighborhoods and city government.\n\nNew York is also a major center for non-commercial educational media. The oldest public-access television channel in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network, founded in 1971. WNET is the city's major public television station and a primary source of national Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) television programming. WNYC, a public radio station owned by the city until 1997, has the largest public radio audience in the United States. \n\nHuman resources\n\nEducation and scholarly activity\n\nPrimary and secondary education\n\nThe New York City Public Schools system, managed by the New York City Department of Education, is the largest public school system in the United States, serving about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 separate primary and secondary schools. The city's public school system includes nine specialized high schools to serve academically and artistically gifted students. The city government pays the Pelham Public Schools to educate a very small, detached section of the Bronx. \n\nThe New York City Charter School Center assists the setup of new charter schools. There are approximately 900 additional privately run secular and religious schools in the city. \n\nHigher education and research\n\nOver 600,000 students are enrolled in New York City's over 120 higher education institutions, the highest number of any city in the United States, including over half million in the City University of New York (CUNY) system alone in 2014. In 2005, three out of five Manhattan residents were college graduates, and one out of four had a postgraduate degree, forming one of the highest concentrations of highly educated people in any American city. New York City is home to such notable private universities as Barnard College, Columbia University, Cooper Union, Fordham University, New York University, New York Institute of Technology, Pace University, and Yeshiva University. The public CUNY system is one of the largest universities in the nation, comprising 24 institutions across all five boroughs: senior colleges, community colleges, and other graduate/professional schools. The public State University of New York (SUNY) system also serves New York City, as well as the rest of the state. The city also has other smaller private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions, such as St. John's University, The Juilliard School, Manhattan College, The College of Mount Saint Vincent, The New School, Pratt Institute, The School of Visual Arts, The King's College, and Wagner College.\n\nMuch of the scientific research in the city is done in medicine and the life sciences. New York City has the most post-graduate life sciences degrees awarded annually in the United States, with 127 Nobel laureates having roots in local institutions ; while in 2012, 43,523 licensed physicians were practicing in New York City. Major biomedical research institutions include Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center, Rockefeller University, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, and Weill Cornell Medical College, being joined by the Cornell University/Technion-Israel Institute of Technology venture on Roosevelt Island.\n\nPublic library system\n\nThe New York Public Library, which has the largest collection of any public library system in the United States, serves Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island. Queens is served by the Queens Borough Public Library, the nation's second largest public library system, while the Brooklyn Public Library serves Brooklyn.\n\nPublic health\n\nThe New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation (HHC) operates the public hospitals and clinics in New York City. A public benefit corporation with $6.7 billion in annual revenues, HHC is the largest municipal healthcare system in the United States serving 1.4 million patients, including more than 475,000 uninsured city residents. HHC was created in 1969 by the New York State Legislature as a public benefit corporation (Chapter 1016 of the Laws 1969). It is similar to a municipal agency but has a Board of Directors. HHC operates 11 acute care hospitals, five nursing homes, six diagnostic and treatment centers, and more than 70 community-based primary care sites, serving primarily the poor and working class. HHC's MetroPlus Health Plan is one of the New York area's largest providers of government-sponsored health insurance and is the plan of choice for nearly half million New Yorkers. \n\nEach year HHC's facilities provide about 225,000 admissions, one million emergency room visits and five million clinic visits to New Yorkers. HHC facilities treat nearly one-fifth of all general hospital discharges and more than one third of emergency room and hospital-based clinic visits in New York City. \n\nThe most well-known hospital in the HHC system is Bellevue Hospital, the oldest public hospital in the United States. Bellevue is the designated hospital for treatment of the President of the United States and other world leaders if they become sick or injured while in New York City. The president of HHC is Ramanathan Raju, MD, a surgeon and former CEO of the Cook County health system in Illinois. \n\nPublic safety\n\nPolice and law enforcement\n\nThe New York City Police Department (NYPD) has been the largest police force in the United States by a significant margin, with over 35,000 sworn officers. Members of the NYPD are frequently referred to by politicians, the media, and their own police cars by the nickname, New York's Finest.\n\nIn 2012, New York City had the lowest overall crime rate and the second lowest murder rate among the largest U.S. cities, having become significantly safer after a spike in crime in the 1970s through 1990s. Violent crime in New York City decreased more than 75% from 1993 to 2005, and continued decreasing during periods when the nation as a whole saw increases. By 2002, New York City's crime rate was similar to that of Provo, Utah, and was ranked 197th in crime among the 216 U.S. cities with populations greater than 100,000. In 2005 the homicide rate was at its lowest level since 1966, and in 2007 the city recorded fewer than 500 homicides for the first time ever since crime statistics were first published in 1963. In the first six months of 2010, 95.1% of all murder victims and 95.9% of all shooting victims in New York City were black or Hispanic; additionally, 90.2 percent of those arrested for murder and 96.7 percent of those arrested for shooting someone were black or Hispanic. New York experienced a record low of 328 homicides in 2014 and has a far lower murder rate than other major American cities. \n\nSociologists and criminologists have not reached consensus on the explanation for the dramatic decrease in the city's crime rate. Some attribute the phenomenon to new tactics used by the NYPD, including its use of CompStat and the broken windows theory. Others cite the end of the crack epidemic and demographic changes, including from immigration. Another theory is that widespread exposure to lead pollution from automobile exhaust, which can lower intelligence and increase aggression levels, incited the initial crime wave in the mid-20th century, most acutely affecting heavily trafficked cities like New York. A strong correlation was found demonstrating that violent crime rates in New York and other big cities began to fall after lead was removed from American gasoline in the 1970s. Another theory cited to explain New York City's falling homicide rate is the inverse correlation between the number of murders and the increasingly wetter climate in the city. \n\nIn 2012 the NYPD came under scrutiny for its use of a stop-and-frisk program. \n\nOrganized crime has long been associated with New York City, beginning with the Forty Thieves and the Roach Guards in the Five Points in the 1820s. The 20th century saw a rise in the Mafia, dominated by the Five Families, as well as in gangs, including the Black Spades. The Mafia presence has declined in the city in the 21st century. \n\nFirefighting\n\nThe New York City Fire Department (FDNY), provides fire protection, technical rescue, primary response to biological, chemical, and radioactive hazards, and emergency medical services for the five boroughs of New York City. The New York City Fire Department is the largest municipal fire department in the United States and the second largest in the world after the Tokyo Fire Department. The FDNY employs approximately 11,080 uniformed firefighters and over 3,300 uniformed EMTs and paramedics. The FDNY's motto is New York's Bravest.\n\nThe New York City Fire Department faces highly multifaceted firefighting challenges in many ways unique to New York. In addition to responding to building types that range from wood-frame single family homes to high-rise structures, there are many secluded bridges and tunnels, as well as large parks and wooded areas that can give rise to brush fires. New York is also home to one of the largest subway systems in the world, consisting of hundreds of miles of tunnel with electrified track.\n\nThe FDNY headquarters is located at 9 MetroTech Center in Downtown Brooklyn, and the FDNY Fire Academy is located on Randalls Island. There are three Bureau of Fire Communications alarm offices which receive and dispatch alarms to appropriate units. One office, at 11 Metrotech Center in Brooklyn, houses Manhattan/Citywide, Brooklyn, and Staten Island Fire Communications. The Bronx and Queens offices are in separate buildings.\n\nCulture and contemporary life\n\nNew York City has been described as the cultural capital of the world by the diplomatic consulates of Iceland and Latvia and by New York's Baruch College. A book containing a series of essays titled New York, Culture Capital of the World, 1940–1965 has also been published as showcased by the National Library of Australia. In describing New York, author Tom Wolfe said, \"Culture just seems to be in the air, like part of the weather.\" \n\nNumerous major American cultural movements began in the city, such as the Harlem Renaissance, which established the African-American literary canon in the United States. The city was a center of jazz in the 1940s, abstract expressionism in the 1950s, and the birthplace of hip hop in the 1970s. The city's punk and hardcore scenes were influential in the 1970s and 1980s. New York has long had a flourishing scene for Jewish American literature.\n\nThe city is the birthplace of many cultural movements, including the Harlem Renaissance in literature and visual art; abstract expressionism (also known as the New York School) in painting; and hip hop, punk, salsa, disco, freestyle, Tin Pan Alley, and jazz in music. New York City has been considered the dance capital of the world. The city is also widely celebrated in popular lore, frequently the setting for books, movies (see List of films set in New York City), and television programs. New York Fashion Week is one of the world's preeminent fashion events and is afforded extensive coverage by the media. \nNew York has also frequently been ranked the top fashion capital of the world on the annual list compiled by the Global Language Monitor. \n\nArts\n\nNew York City has more than 2,000 arts and cultural organizations and more than 500 art galleries of all sizes. The city government funds the arts with a larger annual budget than the National Endowment for the Arts. Wealthy business magnates in the 19th century built a network of major cultural institutions, such as the famed Carnegie Hall and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, that would become internationally established. The advent of electric lighting led to elaborate theater productions, and in the 1880s, New York City theaters on Broadway and along 42nd Street began featuring a new stage form that became known as the Broadway musical. Strongly influenced by the city's immigrants, productions such as those of Harrigan and Hart, George M. Cohan, and others used song in narratives that often reflected themes of hope and ambition.\n\nPerforming arts\n\nForty of the city's theaters, with more than 500 seats each, are collectively known as Broadway, after the major thoroughfare that crosses the Times Square Theater District, sometimes referred to as \"The Great White Way\". According to The Broadway League, Broadway shows sold approximately US$1.27 billion worth of tickets in the 2013–2014 season, an 11.4% increase from US$1.139 billion in the 2012–2013 season. Attendance in 2013–2014 stood at 12.21 million, representing a 5.5% increase from the 2012–2013 season's 11.57 million.\n\nLincoln Center for the Performing Arts, anchoring Lincoln Square on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, is home to numerous influential arts organizations, including the Metropolitan Opera, New York City Opera, New York Philharmonic, and New York City Ballet, as well as the Vivian Beaumont Theater, the Juilliard School, Jazz at Lincoln Center, and Alice Tully Hall. The Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute is in Union Square, and Tisch School of the Arts is based at New York University, while Central Park SummerStage presents performances of free plays and music in Central Park. \n\nIn April 2015, New York hosted the annual Cardistry-Con, a three-day cardistry convention and interactive conference for cardists all over the world. \n\nVisual arts\n\nNew York City is home to hundreds of cultural institutions and historic sites, many of which are internationally known.\nMuseum Mile is the name for a section of Fifth Avenue running from 82nd to 105th streets on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, in an area sometimes called Upper Carnegie Hill. The Mile, which contains one of the densest displays of culture in the world, is actually three blocks longer than one mile (1.6 km). Ten museums occupy the length of this section of Fifth Avenue. The tenth museum, the Museum for African Art, joined the ensemble in 2009, although its museum at 110th Street, the first new museum constructed on the Mile since the Guggenheim in 1959, opened in late 2012. In addition to other programming, the museums collaborate for the annual Museum Mile Festival, held each year in June, to promote the museums and increase visitation. Many of the world's most lucrative art auctions are held in New York City.\n\nCuisine\n\nNew York City's food culture includes a variety of international cuisines influenced by the city's immigrant history. Central European and Italian immigrants originally made the city famous for bagels, cheesecake, and New York-style pizza, while Chinese and other Asian restaurants, sandwich joints, trattorias, diners, and coffeehouses have become ubiquitous. Some 4,000 mobile food vendors licensed by the city, many immigrant-owned, have made Middle Eastern foods such as falafel and kebabs popular examples of modern New York street food. The city is also home to nearly one thousand of the finest and most diverse haute cuisine restaurants in the world, according to Michelin. The New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene assigns letter grades to the city's 24,000 restaurants based upon their inspection results. \n\nAccent and dialect\n\nThe New York area is home to a distinctive regional speech pattern called the New York dialect, alternatively known as Brooklynese or New Yorkese. It has generally been considered one of the most recognizable accents within American English. The classic version of this dialect is centered on middle and working-class people of European descent. However, the influx of non-European immigrants in recent decades has led to changes in this distinctive dialect, and the traditional form of this speech pattern is no longer as prevalent among general New Yorkers as in the past.\n\nThe traditional New York area accent is characterized as non-rhotic, so that the sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant; hence the pronunciation of the city name as \"New Yawk.\" There is no in words like park or (with vowel backed and diphthongized due to the low-back chain shift), butter, or here. In another feature called the low back chain shift, the vowel sound of words like talk, law, cross, chocolate, and coffee and the often homophonous in core and more are tensed and usually raised more than in General American. In the most old-fashioned and extreme versions of the New York dialect, the vowel sounds of words like \"girl\" and of words like \"oil\" became a diphthong. This would often be misperceived by speakers of other accents as a reversal of the er and oy sounds, so that girl is pronounced \"goil\" and oil is pronounced \"erl\"; this leads to the caricature of New Yorkers saying things like \"Joizey\" (Jersey), \"Toidy-Toid Street\" (33rd St.) and \"terlet\" (toilet). The character Archie Bunker from the 1970s sitcom All in the Family (played by Carroll O'Connor) was a notable example of having used this pattern of speech, which continues to fade in its overall presence.\n\nSports\n\nNew York City is home to the headquarters of the National Football League, Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League, and Major League Soccer. The New York metropolitan area hosts the most sports teams in these five professional leagues. Participation in professional sports in the city predates all professional leagues, and the city has been continuously hosting professional sports since the birth of the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1882. The city has played host to over forty major professional teams in the five sports and their respective competing leagues, both current and historic. Four of the ten most expensive stadiums ever built worldwide (MetLife Stadium, the new Yankee Stadium, Madison Square Garden, and Citi Field) are located in the New York metropolitan area. Madison Square Garden, its predecessor, as well as the original Yankee Stadium and Ebbets Field, are some of the most famous sporting venues in the world, the latter two having been commemorated on U.S. postage stamps.\n\nNew York has been described as the \"Capital of Baseball\". There have been 35 Major League Baseball World Series and 73 pennants won by New York teams. It is one of only five metro areas (Los Angeles, Chicago, Baltimore–Washington, and the San Francisco Bay Area being the others) to have two baseball teams. Additionally, there have been 14 World Series in which two New York City teams played each other, known as a Subway Series and occurring most recently in . No other metropolitan area has had this happen more than once (Chicago in , St. Louis in , and the San Francisco Bay Area in ). The city's two current Major League Baseball teams are the New York Mets, who play at Citi Field in Queens, and the New York Yankees, who play at Yankee Stadium in the Bronx. who compete in six games of interleague play every regular season that has also come to be called the Subway Series. The Yankees have won a record 27 championships, while the Mets have won the World Series twice. The city also was once home to the Brooklyn Dodgers (now the Los Angeles Dodgers), who won the World Series once, and the New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants), who won the World Series five times. Both teams moved to California in 1958. There are also two Minor League Baseball teams in the city, the Brooklyn Cyclones and Staten Island Yankees. \n\nThe city is represented in the National Football League by the New York Giants and the New York Jets, although both teams play their home games at MetLife Stadium in nearby East Rutherford, New Jersey, which hosted Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014. \n\nThe New York Islanders and the New York Rangers represent the city in the National Hockey League. Also within the metropolitan area are the New Jersey Devils, who play in nearby Newark, New Jersey. \n\nThe city's National Basketball Association teams are the Brooklyn Nets and the New York Knicks, while the New York Liberty is the city's Women's National Basketball Association. The first national college-level basketball championship, the National Invitation Tournament, was held in New York in 1938 and remains in the city. The city is well known for its links to basketball, which is played in nearly every park in the city by local youth, many of whom have gone on to play for major college programs and in the NBA.\n\nIn soccer, New York City is represented by New York City FC of Major League Soccer, who play their home games at Yankee Stadium. The New York Red Bulls play their home games at Red Bull Arena in nearby Harrison, New Jersey. Historically, the city is known for the New York Cosmos, the highly successful former professional soccer team which was the American home of Pelé, one of the world's most famous soccer players. A new version of the New York Cosmos was formed in 2010, and began play in the second division North American Soccer League in 2013. The Cosmos play their home games at James M. Shuart Stadium on the campus of Hofstra University, just outside the New York City limits in Hempstead, New York.\n\nThe annual United States Open Tennis Championships is one of the world's four Grand Slam tennis tournaments and is held at the National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows-Corona Park, Queens. The New York Marathon is one of the world's largest, and the 2004–2006 events hold the top three places in the marathons with the largest number of finishers, including 37,866 finishers in 2006.[http://www.aims-association.org/statistics/World's_Largest_Marathons.html World's Largest Marathons], Association of International Marathons and Road Races (AIMS). Retrieved June 28, 2007. The Millrose Games is an annual track and field meet whose featured event is the Wanamaker Mile. Boxing is also a prominent part of the city's sporting scene, with events like the Amateur Boxing Golden Gloves being held at Madison Square Garden each year. The city is also considered the host of the Belmont Stakes, the last, longest and oldest of horse racing's Triple Crown races, held just over the city's border at Belmont Park on the first or second Sunday of June. The city also hosted the 1932 U.S. Open golf tournament and the 1930 and 1939 PGA Championships, and has been host city for both events several times, most notably for nearby Winged Foot Golf Club.\n\nMany sports are associated with New York's immigrant communities. Stickball, a street version of baseball, was popularized by youths in the 1930s, and a street in the Bronx was renamed Stickball Boulevard in the late 2000s to memorialize this. \n\nTransportation\n\nNew York City's comprehensive transportation system is both complex and extensive.\n\nRapid transit\n\nMass transit in New York City, most of which runs 24 hours a day, accounts for one in every three users of mass transit in the United States, and two-thirds of the nation's rail riders live in the New York City Metropolitan Area. \n\nRail\n\nThe iconic New York City Subway system is the largest rapid transit system in the world when measured by stations in operation, with , and by length of routes. New York's subway is notable for nearly the entire system remaining open 24 hours a day, in contrast to the overnight shutdown common to systems in most cities, including Hong Kong, London, Paris, Seoul, and Tokyo. The New York City Subway is also the busiest metropolitan rail transit system in the Western Hemisphere, with 1.76 billion passenger rides in 2015, while Grand Central Terminal, also popularly referred to as \"Grand Central Station\", is the world's largest railway station by number of train platforms.\n\nPublic transport is essential in New York City. 54.6% of New Yorkers commuted to work in 2005 using mass transit. This is in contrast to the rest of the United States, where about 90% of commuters drive automobiles to their workplace. According to the New York City Comptroller, workers in New York City area spend an average of 6 hours and 18 minutes getting to work each week, the longest commute time in the nation among large cities. New York is the only US city in which a majority (52%) of households do not have a car; only 22% of Manhattanites own a car. Due to their high usage of mass transit, New Yorkers spend less of their household income on transportation than the national average, saving $19 billion annually on transportation compared to other urban Americans. \n\nNew York City's commuter rail network is the largest in North America. The rail network, connecting New York City to its suburbs, consists of the Long Island Rail Road, Metro-North Railroad, and New Jersey Transit. The combined systems converge at Grand Central Terminal and Pennsylvania Station and contain more than 250 stations and 20 rail lines. In Queens, the elevated AirTrain people mover system connects JFK International Airport to the New York City Subway and the Long Island Rail Road; a separate AirTrain system is planned alongside the Grand Central Parkway to connect LaGuardia Airport to these transit systems. For intercity rail, New York City is served by Amtrak, whose busiest station by a significant margin is Pennsylvania Station on the West Side of Manhattan, from which Amtrak provides connections to Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. along the Northeast Corridor, as well as long-distance train service to other North American cities. \n\nThe Staten Island Railway rapid transit system solely serves Staten Island, operating 24 hours a day. The Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH train) links Midtown and Lower Manhattan to northeastern New Jersey, primarily Hoboken, Jersey City, and Newark. Like the New York City Subway, the PATH operates 24 hours a day; meaning three of the six rapid transit systems in the world which operate on 24-hour schedules are wholly or partly in New York (the others are a portion of the Chicago 'L', the PATCO Speedline serving Philadelphia, and the Copenhagen Metro).\n\nMultibillion US$ heavy-rail transit projects under construction in New York City include the Second Avenue Subway, the East Side Access project, and the 7 Subway Extension. \n\nBuses\n\nNew York City's public bus fleet is the largest in North America, and the Port Authority Bus Terminal, the main intercity bus terminal of the city, serves 7,000 buses and 200,000 commuters daily, making it the busiest bus station in the world.\n\nAviation\n\nNew York's airspace is the busiest in the United States and one of the world's busiest air transportation corridors. The three busiest airports in the New York metropolitan area include John F. Kennedy International Airport, Newark Liberty International Airport, and LaGuardia Airport; 109 million travelers used these three airports in 2012, and the city's airspace is the busiest in the nation. JFK and Newark Liberty were the busiest and fourth busiest U.S. gateways for international air passengers, respectively, in 2012; , JFK was the busiest airport for international passengers in North America. Plans have advanced to expand passenger volume at a fourth airport, Stewart International Airport near Newburgh, New York, by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Plans were announced in July 2015 to entirely rebuild LaGuardia Airport in a multibillion-dollar project to replace its aging facilities. \n\nFerries\n\nThe Staten Island Ferry is the world's busiest ferry route, carrying approximately 20 million passengers per year on the route between Staten Island and Lower Manhattan and running 24 hours a day. Other ferry systems shuttle commuters between Manhattan and other locales within the city and the metropolitan area.\n\nTaxis, transport startups, and trams\n\nOther features of the city's transportation infrastructure encompass more than 12,000 yellow taxicabs; various competing startup transportation network companies; and an aerial tramway that transports commuters between Roosevelt Island and Manhattan Island.\n\nStreets and highways\n\nDespite New York's heavy reliance on its vast public transit system, streets are a defining feature of the city. Manhattan's street grid plan greatly influenced the city's physical development. Several of the city's streets and avenues, like Broadway, Wall Street, Madison Avenue, and Seventh Avenue are also used as metonyms for national industries there: the theater, finance, advertising, and fashion organizations, respectively.\n\nNew York City also has an extensive web of expressways and parkways, which link the city's boroughs to each other as well as to northern New Jersey, Westchester County, Long Island, and southwestern Connecticut through various bridges and tunnels. Because these highways serve millions of outer borough and suburban residents who commute into Manhattan, it is quite common for motorists to be stranded for hours in traffic jams that are a daily occurrence, particularly during rush hour. \n\nRiver crossings\n\nNew York City is located on one of the world's largest natural harbors, and the boroughs of Manhattan and Staten Island are (primarily) coterminous with islands of the same names, while Queens and Brooklyn are located at the west end of the larger Long Island, and The Bronx is located at the southern tip of New York State's mainland. This situation of boroughs separated by water led to the development of an extensive infrastructure of bridges and tunnels. Nearly all of the city's major bridges and tunnels are notable, and several have broken or set records.\n\nThe George Washington Bridge is the world's busiest motor vehicle bridge, connecting Manhattan to Bergen County, New Jersey. The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge is the longest suspension bridge in the Americas and one of the world's longest. The Brooklyn Bridge is an icon of the city itself. The towers of the Brooklyn Bridge are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement, and their architectural style is neo-Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches above the passageways through the stone towers. This bridge was also the longest suspension bridge in the world from its opening until 1903, and is the first steel-wire suspension bridge. The Queensboro Bridge is an important piece of cantilever architecture. The Manhattan Bridge, opened in 1909, is considered to be the forerunner of modern suspension bridges, and its design served as the model for many of the long-span suspension bridges around the world; the Manhattan Bridge, Throgs Neck Bridge, Triborough Bridge, and Verrazano-Narrows Bridge are all examples of Structural Expressionism. \n\nManhattan Island is linked to New York City's outer boroughs and New Jersey by several tunnels as well. The Lincoln Tunnel, which carries 120,000 vehicles a day under the Hudson River between New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan, is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world. The tunnel was built instead of a bridge to allow unfettered passage of large passenger and cargo ships that sailed through New York Harbor and up the Hudson River to Manhattan's piers. The Holland Tunnel, connecting Lower Manhattan to Jersey City, New Jersey, was the world's first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel when it opened in 1927. The Queens-Midtown Tunnel, built to relieve congestion on the bridges connecting Manhattan with Queens and Brooklyn, was the largest non-federal project in its time when it was completed in 1940. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first person to drive through it. The Hugh L. Carey Tunnel runs underneath Battery Park and connects the Financial District at the southern tip of Manhattan to Red Hook in Brooklyn.\n\nEnvironment\n\nEnvironmental impact reduction\n\nNew York City has focused on reducing its environmental impact and carbon footprint. Mass transit use in New York City is the highest in the United States. Also, by 2010, the city had 3,715 hybrid taxis and other clean diesel vehicles, representing around 28% of New York's taxi fleet in service, the most of any city in North America.\n\nNew York's high rate of public transit use, over 200,000 daily cyclists , and many pedestrian commuters make it the most energy-efficient major city in the United States. Walk and bicycle modes of travel account for 21% of all modes for trips in the city; nationally the rate for metro regions is about 8%. In both its 2011 and 2015 rankings, Walk Score named New York City the most walkable large city in the United States. Citibank sponsored the introduction of 10,000 public bicycles for the city's bike-share project in the summer of 2013. Research conducted by Quinnipiac University showed that a majority of New Yorkers support the initiative. New York City's numerical \"in-season cycling indicator\" of bicycling in the city hit an all-time high in 2013. \n\nThe city government was a petitioner in the landmark Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency Supreme Court case forcing the EPA to regulate greenhouse gases as pollutants. The city is also a leader in the construction of energy-efficient green office buildings, including the Hearst Tower among others. Mayor Bill de Blasio has committed to an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions between 2014 and 2050 to reduce the city's contributions to climate change, beginning with a comprehensive \"Green Buildings\" plan.\n\nWater purity and availability\n\nNew York City is supplied with drinking water by the protected Catskill Mountains watershed. As a result of the watershed's integrity and undisturbed natural water filtration system, New York is one of only four major cities in the United States the majority of whose drinking water is pure enough not to require purification by water treatment plants. The Croton Watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant to augment New York City's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily, representing a greater than 20% addition to the city's current availability of water. The ongoing expansion of New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, an integral part of the New York City water supply system, is the largest capital construction project in the city's history, with segments serving Manhattan and The Bronx completed, and with segments serving Brooklyn and Queens planned for construction in 2020. \n\nEnvironmental revitalization\n\nNewtown Creek, a a long estuary that forms part of the border between the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, has been designated a Superfund site for environmental clean-up and remediation of the waterway's recreational and economic resources for many communities. One of the most heavily used bodies of water in the Port of New York and New Jersey, it had been one of the most contaminated industrial sites in the country, containing years of discarded toxins, an estimated 30 e6USgal of spilled oil, including the Greenpoint oil spill, raw sewage from New York City's sewer system, and other accumulation.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nGovernment\n\nNew York City has been a metropolitan municipality with a mayor–council form of government since its consolidation in 1898. The government of New York is more centralized than that of most other U.S. cities. In New York City, the city government is responsible for public education, correctional institutions, public safety, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply, and welfare services.\n\nThe Mayor and council members are elected to four-year terms. The City Council is a unicameral body consisting of 51 council members whose districts are defined by geographic population boundaries. Each term for the mayor and council members lasts four years and has a three consecutive-term limit, but can resume after a four-year break. The New York City Administrative Code, the New York City Rules, and the City Record are the code of local laws, compilation of regulations, and official journal, respectively. \n\nEach borough is coextensive with a judicial district of the state Unified Court System, of which the Criminal Court and the Civil Court are the local courts, while the New York Supreme Court conducts major trials and appeals. Manhattan hosts the First Department of the Supreme Court, Appellate Division while Brooklyn hosts the Second Department. There are also several extrajudicial administrative courts, which are executive agencies and not part of the state Unified Court System.\n\nUniquely among major American cities, New York is divided between, and is host to the main branches of, two different US district courts: the District Court for the Southern District of New York, whose main courthouse is on Foley Square near City Hall in Manhattan and whose jurisdiction includes Manhattan and the Bronx, and the District Court for the Eastern District of New York, whose main courthouse is in Brooklyn and whose jurisdiction includes Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. The US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and US Court of International Trade are also based in New York, also on Foley Square in Manhattan.\n\nPolitics\n\nThe present mayor is Bill de Blasio, a Democrat elected in 2013 with over 73% of the vote, who assumed office on January 1, 2014.\n\nThe Democratic Party holds the majority of public offices. As of April 2016, 69% of registered voters in the city are Democrats and 10% are Republicans. New York City has not been carried by a Republican in a statewide or presidential election since President Calvin Coolidge won the five boroughs in 1924. In 2012, Democrat Barack Obama became the first presidential candidate of any party to receive more than 80% of the overall vote in New York City, sweeping all five boroughs. Party platforms center on affordable housing, education, and economic development, and labor politics are of importance in the city.\n\nNew York is the most important source of political fundraising in the United States, as four of the top five ZIP codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan. The top ZIP code, 10021 on the Upper East Side, generated the most money for the 2004 presidential campaigns of George W. Bush and John Kerry. The city has a strong imbalance of payments with the national and state governments. It receives 83 cents in services for every $1 it sends to the federal government in taxes (or annually sends $11.4 billion more than it receives back). City residents and businesses also spent an additional $4.1 billion in the 2009-2010 fiscal year to the state of New York than the city received in return. \n\nNotable people\n\nGlobal outreach\n\nIn 2006, the Sister City Program of the City of New York, Inc. was restructured and renamed New York City Global Partners. New York City has expanded its international outreach via this program to a network of cities worldwide, promoting the exchange of ideas and innovation between their citizenry and policymakers, according to the city's website. New York's historic sister cities are denoted below by the year they joined New York City's partnership network. \n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1903", "one thousand, nine hundred and three" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1903", "one thousand nine hundred and three" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1903", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1903" }
Which country does the airline Aero Lloyd come from?	tc_1415	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Airline.txt", "Aero_Lloyd.txt" ], "title": [ "Airline", "Aero Lloyd" ], "wiki_context": [ "An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body.\n\nAirlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group.\n\nHistory\n\nThe first airlines\n\nDELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, Florida. The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).\n\nEuropean airline industry\n\nBeginnings\n\nThe earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.\n\nOn 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force. \n\nOther British competitors were quick to follow - Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service.\n\nThe first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille. \n\nThe first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.\n\nThe Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.\n\nIn Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.\n\nEarly European airlines tend to favour comfort - the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors - over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.\n\nRationalization\n\nBy the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration. \n\nThe first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.\n\nTwo French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 7 October 1933.\n\nGermany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.\n\nGlobal expansion\n\nIn 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and was extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.\n\nImperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich - only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research. \n\nLike Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.\n\nAlthough Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937.\n\nFrom February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean. \n\nBy the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.\n\nEU airline deregulation\n\nDeregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.\n\nThere has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered - particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.\n\nU.S. airline industry\n\nEarly development\n\nTony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 ft above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008. \n\nFollowing World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.\n\nService during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.\n\nAt the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.\n\nWith the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.\n\nDevelopment since 1945\n\nAs governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom; U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been. This preference for \"open skies\" operating regimes continues, with limitations, to this day.\n\nWorld War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.\n\nIn the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.\n\nThe next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody (\"jumbo jet\") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.\n\nUS airline deregulation\n\nThe 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid off staff from other airlines.\n\nMajor airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.\n\nIn many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.\n\nBy the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.\n\nToward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called \"legacy airlines\", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.\n\nIncreasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.\n\nThus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:\n\n\"Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake. \"\n\nThe airline industry bailout\n\nCongress passed the [http://ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/stabilizationact.pdf Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act] (P.L. 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off. \n\nIn recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General. \n\nUltimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the US Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees. \n\nAsian airline industry\n\nAlthough Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.\n\nIndia was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first West Asian airline companies was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government. \n\nWith the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.\n\nOn July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.\n\nDuring the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1948, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.\n\nLatin American airline industry\n\nAmong the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca, Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LAN Airlines), Brazil with Varig, Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II.\n\nThe air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.\n\nThese airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.\n\nOnly three airlines: Avianca, LAN, and TAM Airlines have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LAN with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Argentina and some operations in the Dominican Republic. The recently formed AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal. And TAM with its Mercosur base in Asuncion, Paraguay. As of 2010, talks of uniting LAN and TAM have strongly developed to create a joint airline named LATAM.\n\nRegulatory considerations\n\nNational\n\nMany countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.\n\nThe United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have \"deregulated\" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.\n\nThe entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.\n\nAs a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.\n\nIn the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers. \n\nInternational\n\nGroups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.\n\nBilateral agreements are based on the \"freedoms of the air\", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.\n\nIn the 1990s, \"open skies\" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.\n\nEconomic considerations\n\nHistorically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction. \n\nOne argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world.\n\nAlthough many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.\n\nTop airline groups by revenue \n\nfor 2010, source : Airline Business August 2011, Flightglobal Data Research\n\nTicket revenue\n\nAirlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.\n\nBecause of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n\nMost airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.\n\nA complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (\"O&D control\"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.\n\nThe advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).\n\nThe intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term \"fare war\" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.\n\nThe extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.\n\nComputers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for \"no-shows,\" but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand. \n\nOperating costs\n\nFull-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.\n\nMoreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.\n\nAnalysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)\n\nThe widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle.\n\nAs a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of \"undead\" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups.\n\nWhere an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or \"hub\") for its scheduled flights.\n\nAssets and financing\n\nAirline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.\n\nA second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.\n\nIn view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.\n\nIf a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.\n\nOther factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.\n\nAirline partnerships\n\nCodesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.\n\nSince airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.\n\nA more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.\n\nOften the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.\n\nFuel hedging\n\nFuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. \n\nSouthwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.\n\nEnvironmental impacts\n\nAircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.\n\nGrowth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.\n\nDomestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from \"green activists\", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005. \n\nDespite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use. \n\nCO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3200 km airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3200 km airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet). \n\nIn the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. \n\nThe airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel: \n\n* Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.\n* Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative. \n* KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.\n\nThere are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.\n\nCall signs\n\nEach operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax.\n\nAirline personnel\n\nThe various types of airline personnel include:\nFlight operations personnel including flight safety personnel.\n* Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:\n Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator)\n Flight attendants, (led by a purser on larger aircraft)\n** In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)\n* Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:\n Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance\n* Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance\n*Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance\n Airframe and powerplant technicians\n Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems\nAvionics technicians, responsible for maintenance of avionics\n Flight dispatchers\n Baggage handlers\n Ramp Agents\n Remote centralised weight and balancing \n Gate agents\n Ticket agents\n Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees)\n Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport.\n** Crew schedulers\nAirlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations(including flight safety),\nand passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the\nairline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.\n\nIndustry trends\n\nThe pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. \n\nThe overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the 1950s and 1960s, annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the 1980s and 1990s. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett once said that despite all the money that has been invested in all airlines, the net profit is less than zero. He believes it is one of the hardest businesses to manage. \n\nAs in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.", "Aero Lloyd Flugreisen GmbH & Co, operated as Aero Lloyd, was a German charter airline based in Oberursel, Germany. It was headquartered in Building 182 at Frankfurt Airport in Frankfurt before it was moved to Oberursel. \n\nHistory \n\nEarly years\n\nAero Lloyd was founded on 20 December 1980 and launched operations in March 1981 with three Sud Aviation Caravelle's. By 1982, the airline received 3 ex-Garuda Indonesia Douglas DC-9-32 aircraft.\n\nIn 1986, the airline began to receive McDonnell Douglas MD-80 aircraft to allow it to expand to further destinations. In 1988, Aero Lloyd launched scheduled services to London in the United Kingdom, Paris in France, and Zurich in Switzerland with the newly acquired aircraft. However, by 1992, Aero Lloyd dropped scheduled operations after realising it was not a good move for the airline.\n\nCollapse\n\nThe airline ceased operations at 06:00 local time on 16 October 2003 after shareholders refused to continue funding the airline. The collapse left 4,000 passengers stuck at German airports and 4,500 stuck overseas. Its assets were acquired by Aero Lloyd founder, Bogomir Gradisnik. Under the management of Gradisnik's associate, Miso Aksmanovic, the company was reshaped into a smaller charter operation named Aero Flight which was established in March 2004 and started operations on 26 March 2004. Aero Flight ceased operations in October 2005.\n\nDestinations \n\nFleet \n\nDuring operations, Aero Lloyd used many different aircraft's consisting of Airbus, Boeing, Douglas, McDonnell Douglas and Sud Aviation.\n\nThe Aero Lloyd fleet consisted of the following aircraft throughout operations: \n\nIncidents and accidents\n\n* On 1 September 2001, an Aero Lloyd Airbus A321, operating a charter flight from Catania-Fontanarossa Airport, Italy to Berlin Tegel Airport, Germany, had an attempted hijacking shortly after take off. The plane was diverted to Naples Airport in Italy where it made an emergency landing and the hijacker was arrested. There is a mix of reports ranging from the man using wax candles as dynamite and that of a panic attack. No body was injured in the incident. \n* On July 1, 2002 an Aero Lloyd Airbus A320 was late, this caused the controller, Peter Nielsen to constantly switch from the flight to Bashkirian Airlines Flight 2937 and DHL Flight 611 to the flight. This may caused the Überlingen mid-air collision." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "United States of Germany", "Tyskland", "Nimska", "Bundesdeutsch", "Vokietija", "Deuchland", "Germny", "GermanY", "FR Germany", "Almanya", "Federal Republic of Germany", "Jermany", "Geramny", "Etymology of Germany", "Nemska", "Germany", "Niemcy", "GERMANY", "ISO 3166-1:DE", "Land der Dichter und Denker", "Federal Republic Of Germany", "F.R. 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How many prisoners were left in Alcatraz just before it closed?	tc_1417	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Alcatraz_Federal_Penitentiary.txt" ], "title": [ "Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary or United States Penitentiary, Alcatraz Island (often just referred to as Alcatraz) was a maximum high-security federal prison on Alcatraz Island, off the coast of San Francisco, California, USA, which operated from 1934 to 1963.\n\nThe main prison building was built in 1910–12 during its time as a United States Army military prison; Alcatraz had been the site of a citadel since the 1860s. The United States Disciplinary Barracks, Pacific Branch on Alcatraz was acquired by the United States Department of Justice on October 12, 1933, and the island became a prison of the Federal Bureau of Prisons in August 1934 after the buildings were modernized to meet the requirements of a top-notch security prison. Given this high security and the location of Alcatraz in the cold waters and strong currents of San Francisco Bay, the prison operators believed Alcatraz to be escape-proof and America's strongest prison.\n\nAlcatraz was designed to hold prisoners who continuously caused trouble at other federal prisons. One of the world's most notorious and best known prisons over the years, Alcatraz housed some 1,576 of America's most ruthless criminals including Al Capone, Robert Franklin Stroud (the \"Birdman of Alcatraz\"), George \"Machine Gun\" Kelly, Bumpy Johnson, Rafael Cancel Miranda, Mickey Cohen, Arthur R. \"Doc\" Barker, and Alvin \"Creepy\" Karpis (who served more time at Alcatraz than any other inmate). It also provided housing for the Bureau of Prisons staff and their families. A total of 36 prisoners made 14 escape attempts during the 29 years of the prison's existence, the most notable of which were the violent escape attempt of May 1946 known as the \"Battle of Alcatraz\", and the arguably successful \"Escape from Alcatraz\" by Frank Morris, John Anglin, and Clarence Anglin in June 1962 in one of the most intricate escapes ever devised. Faced with high maintenance costs and a poor reputation, Alcatraz closed on March 21, 1963.\n\nThe three-story cellhouse included the main four blocks of the jail, A-Block, B-Block, C-Block, and D-Block, the warden's office, visitation room, the library, and the barber shop. The prison cells typically measured 9 ft by 5 ft and 7 ft high. The cells were primitive and lacked privacy, with a bed, a desk and a washbasin and toilet on the back wall, with few furnishings except a blanket. African-Americans were segregated from the rest in cell designation due to racial abuse being prevalent. D-Block housed the worst inmates and five cells at the end of it were designated as \"The Hole\", where badly behaving prisoners would be sent for periods of punishment, often brutally so. The dining hall and kitchen lay off the main building in an extended part where both prisoners and staff would eat three meals a day together. The Alcatraz Hospital was above the dining hall.\n\nCorridors of the prison were named after major American streets such as Broadway and Michigan Avenue. Working at the prison was considered a privilege for inmates and many of the better inmates were employed in the Model Industries Building and New Industries Building during the day, actively involved in providing for the military in jobs such as sewing and woodwork and performing various maintenance and laundry chores.\n\nToday the penitentiary is a public museum and one of San Francisco's major tourist attractions, attracting some 1.5 million visitors annually. The former prison is now operated by the National Park Service's Golden Gate National Recreation Area, and the badly eroding buildings of the former prison have been subject to restoration works in recent times and maintained.\n\nHistory\n\nConstruction\n\nThe main cellhouse was originally the location of the cellhouse for the military citadel and prison which existed on Alcatraz from the 1860s. A new cellhouse was built in 1910–12 on a budget of $250,000 and upon completion, the 500 ft long concrete building was reputedly the longest concrete building in the world at the time. In 1933–34 this building remained, but was modernized and became the main cellhouse of the Federal Penitentiary until it was closed in 1963. When the new concrete prison was built in 1910–12, many materials were reused in its construction. Iron staircases in the interior and the cellhouse door near the barber's shop at the end of A-Block were retained from the old citadel and massive granite blocks originally used as gun mounts were reused as the wharf's bulkheads and retaining walls. Many of the old cell bars were used to reinforce the walls, causing structural problems later due to the fact that many placed near the edge were subject to erosion from the salt air and wind over the years.\n\nAfter the U.S. Army's use of the island for over 80 years (1850–1933), the island came under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Justice for use by the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The purpose of this transfer was to punish those involved in the rampant crime which prevailed in the country in the 1920s and 1930s. The United States Disciplinary Barracks on Alcatraz was acquired by the United States Department of Justice on October 12, 1933, and the island became a Federal Bureau of Prisons federal prison in August 1934. The $260,000 conversion to the federal prison took place from January 1934. Dr. George Hess of the United States Public Health Service was appointed the chief medical officer of the prison and Dr. Edward W. Twitchell became a consultant in psychiatry for Alcatraz in January 1934. The hospital facilities were checked by three officials from the Marine Hospital of San Francisco. The Bureau of Prisons personnel arrived on Alcatraz in early February; among them was Loring O. Mills, acting chief clerk. In April 1934, the old material was removed from the prison, holes were cut in the concrete and 269 cell fronts were installed, built using four carloads of steel ordered from the Stewart Iron Works. A legend at the works is that a shipment of cells and iron accidentally fell into San Francisco Bay during transportation from San Francisco Dock to Alcatraz and were never recovered, thus had to be reordered. Two of four new stairways were built, as were 12 doors to the utility corridors and gratings at the top of the cells. On April 26, an accidental small fire broke out on the roof and an electrician injured his foot by dropping a manhole cover on it. Fencing around Alcatraz was added by the Anchor Post Fence Company and emergency lighting in the morgue and switchboard operations were added by the Enterprise Electric Works. In June 1934, the Teletouch Corporation of New York began the installation of an \"electro-magnetic gun or metal detecting system\" at Alcatraz; detectors were added on the wharf, at the front entrance into the cellblock, and at the rear entrance gate. The correctional officers were instructed how to operate the new locking devices on July 30, 1934, and the new radio equipment was tested by both the United States Coast Guard and the San Francisco Police Department on the same day. Final checks and assessments were made on the first two days of August.\n\nEarly history\n\nAlcatraz was designed to hold prisoners who continuously caused trouble at other federal prisons, a \"last resort prison\" to hold the worst of the worst criminals who had no hope of rehabilitation. At 9:40 am on August 11, 1934, the first batch of 137 prisoners arrived at Alcatraz, arriving by railroad from the United States Penitentiary in Leavenworth, Kansas at Santa Venetia, California, before being escorted to Alcatraz, handcuffed in high security coaches and guarded by some 60 FBI Special Agents, U.S. Marshals, and railway security officials. Some 32 detainees from the original military prison were reported to have been amongst the first inmates. Most of the prisoners were notorious bank robbers and counterfeiters, murderers, or sodomites. Amongst the first inmates were also 14 men from McNeil Island, Washington. On August 22, 43 prisoners arrived from Atlanta Penitentiary and 10 from North Eastern Penitentiary, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. On September 1, one prisoner arrived from Washington Asylum and Jail and seven from the District of Columbia Reformatory in Virginia, and on September 4, another batch of 103 prisoners arrived by train from Leavenworth. Prisoners continued to arrive, mainly from Leavenworth and Atlanta in 1935 and by June 30, 1935, the penitentiary had a population of 242 prisoners, although some prisoners such as Verrill Rapp had already been transferred from Alcatraz some months earlier. On the first anniversary as a federal penitentiary, on June 30, 1935, the Bureau of Prisons observed that: \"The establishment of this institution not only provided a secure place for the detention of the more difficult type of criminal but has had a good effect upon discipline in our other penitentiaries also. No serious disturbance of any kind has been reported during the year.\" The metal detectors initially caused a problem by overheating and often had to be turned off. After the failure of the Teletouch Corporation to amend the problem, in 1937 their contract was terminated and they were charged over $200 for three new detectors supplied by Federal Laboratories.\n\nOn January 10, 1935, a severe storm caused a landslide on Alcatraz, causing the Model Industries Building to slide. This marked the start of a series of changes to the structures on the island. A riprap was built around it and it was strengthened and a guard tower added to the roof in June 1936, and the same month the barracks building was remodeled into 11 new apartments and nine single rooms for bachelors; by this time there were 52 families living on Alcatraz Island, including 126 women and children. The problems with the industries building and continuing utility problems with some of the old buildings and systems led to extensive updates in 1937, including new tool-proof grills on the ventilators on the roof of the cell house, two new boilers installed in the power house and a new pump for salt water sanitation and guardrails added to stairways. In 1939–40, a $1.1 million redevelopment was under swing, including construction of the New Industries Building, a complete overhaul of the power house with a new diesel engine, the building of a new water tower to solve the water storage problem, new apartment blocks for officers, improvements to the dock, and the conversion of D-block into isolation cells. The changes were completed in July 1941. The workshops of the New Industries Building became highly productive in the making of army uniforms and cargo nets and other items which were in high demand during World War II and in June 1945 it was reported that the federal penitentiaries had made 60,000 nets.\n\nNotoriety\n\nAlcatraz gained notoriety from its inception as the toughest prison in America and considered by many to be the world's most fearsome prison of the time, and former prisoners would frequently report acts of brutality and inhumane conditions which severely tested their sanity. Ed Wutke was the first prisoner to commit suicide in Alcatraz. Rufe Persful chopped off his fingers after grabbing an axe from the firetruck, begging another inmate to do the same to his other hand. One writer described Alcatraz as \"the great garbage can of San Francisco Bay, into which every federal prison dumped its most rotten apples.\" In 1939 the new U.S. Attorney General Frank Murphy attacked the penitentiary, saying \"The whole institution is conductive to psychology that builds up a sinister ambitious attitude among prisoners.\" The reputation of the prison was not helped by the arrival of more of America's most dangerous crooks including Robert Stroud, the \"Birdman of Alcatraz\", in 1942, who spent 17 years at Alcatraz. Like a songbird’s call, Stroud was complex. He was also a pimp, a raging psychopath and impulsive murderer whose hazard reduced only with age. He entered the prison system at age 19, and never left. Stroud killed a guard, tangled with other inmates and spent 42 of his 54 years in prison in solitary confinement.\n\nWhile Stroud was a “birdman,” his scientific inquiry all took place at Fort Leavenworth, not Alcatraz as the myth goes. Ironically, he wasn’t allowed to pursue avian science, or even harbor birds, at the timeless bird habitat that is Alcatraz Island. \n\nHowever, somewhat contradicting its reputation and the fact that many former inmates named it \"Hellcatraz\" based on its horrors, some prisoners reported that the living conditions in Alcatraz were much better than most other prisons in the country, especially the food, and many volunteered to come to Alcatraz.\n\nOn December 3, 1940, Henri Young murdered fellow inmate Rufus McCain by running downstairs from the Furniture Shop to the Tailor's Shop where McCain worked and violently stabbing McCain in the neck; McCain died five hours later. Young had been sentenced to Alcatraz for murder in 1933 and he was involved in an escape attempt at Alcatraz during which famous gangster Doc Barker was shot to death. He spent nearly twenty-two months in solitary confinement as a result but later earned a right to work in the Furniture Shop. He went on trial in 1941, which brought Alcatraz into further disrepute as Young's attorneys claimed he could not be held responsible for his murder as he had endured a \"cruel and unusual punishment\" prior to it in torment by the prison guards. Young was convicted of manslaughter and his prison sentence only extended by a few years.\n\nFinal years\n\nBy the 1950s, the prison conditions had improved and prisoners were gradually permitted more privileges such as the playing of musical instruments, watching movies at weekends, painting, and radio use; the strict code of silence became more relaxed and prisoners were permitted to talk quietly. However, the prison continued to be unpopular on the mainland into the 1950s; it was by far the most expensive prison institution in the United States and continued to be perceived by many as America's most extreme jail. In his annual report for 1952, Director James V. Bennett called for a more centralized institution to replace Alcatraz. A 1959 report indicated that Alcatraz was more than three times more expensive to run than the average US prison; $10 per prisoner per day compared to $3 in most other prisons. The problem of Alcatraz was exacerbated by the fact that the prison had seriously deteriorated structurally in exposure to the salt air and wind and would need $5 million to deal with it. Major repairs began in 1958 but by 1961 the prison was evaluated by engineers to be a lost cause and Robert F. Kennedy submitted plans for a new maximum-security institution at Marion, Illinois. After the escape from Alcatraz in June 1962, the prison was the subject of heated investigations, and with the major structural problems and ongoing expense, the prison finally closed on 21 March 1963. The final Bureau of Prisons report said of Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary: \"The institution served an important purpose in taking the strain off the older and greatly overcrowded institutions in Atlanta, Leavenworth and McNeil Island since it enabled us to move to the smaller, closely guarded institution for the escape artists, the big-time racketeers, the inveterate connivers and those who needed protection from other groups.\"\n\nToday the penitentiary is a museum and one of San Francisco's major tourist attractions, attracting some 1.5 million visitors annually. Visitors arrive by boat at the port, and are given a tour of the cellhouse and island, and are given a slide show and audio narration with anecdotes from former inmates, guards and rangers on Alcatraz. The atmosphere of the former penitentiary is still considered to be \"eerie\" , \"ghostly\" and \"chilling\". Protected by the National Park Service and the National Register of Historic Places, the badly eroding buildings of the former prison have been subject to restoration works in recent times and maintained. \n\nEscape attempts\n\nAccording to the Correctional Officers, once a convict arrived on the Alcatraz wharf, his first thoughts were on how to leave. During its 29 years of operation, the penitentiary claimed that no prisoner successfully escaped. A total of 36 prisoners made 14 escape attempts, two men trying twice; 23 were caught, six were shot and killed during their escape, two drowned, and five are listed as \"missing and presumed drowned\". \n\nThe first unsuccessful attempt to escape the prison was made on April 27, 1936 by Joseph Bowers, who was assigned the duty of burning trash at the incinerator. He tried to escape during duty hours by scaling a chain link fence at the edge of the island. When he was caught in this act and refused orders of the correctional officer located at the West road guard tower to come down he was shot. He was seriously injured in the fall from over 15 m (50 ft) and consequently died.\n\nThe first escape attempt to shatter Alcatraz's reputation as an \"escape-proof\" prison was made on December 16, 1937 by Theodore Cole and Ralph Roe. During their work assignment in one of the workshops they cut the flat iron bars of the window and climbed into the bay waters to escape. It was a stormy day and the bay water was highly turbulent. As the escapees were not found, they were declared drowned by the Prison authorities as it was conjectured that they drowned in the bay and their bodies swept out into the sea due to the turbulent bay currents.\n\nBattle of Alcatraz\n\nThe most violent escape attempt occurred on May 2–4, 1946, when a failed attempt by six prisoners led to the Battle of Alcatraz, also known as the \"Alcatraz Blastout\". It was carried out by six prisoners; Bernard Coy, Joseph Cretzer, Sam Shockley, Clarence Carnes, Marvin Hubbard and Miran Thompson. They daringly took control of the cell house by overpowering Correctional officers and captured the weapons room and keys to the recreation yard door. Their aim was to escape by boat from the dock, but when they failed to obtain the keys to the outside door, they decided to battle it out. In the fight that ensued they managed to hold two correctional officers hostage whom they eventually killed after two days. Prompted by Shockley and Thompson, Cretzer shot the hostages at very close range. One of the guards, William Miller, succumbed to his injuries while the second guard, Harold Stites, was also killed at the cellhouse. Although Shockley, Thompson, and Carnes returned to their cells, the other three, Coy, Cretzer and Hubbard, persisted with their fight. The U.S. Marines intervened to help the correctional officers and killed the three prisoners. In this battle, apart from the guards and prisoners killed, 17 other guards and one prisoner were also injured. Shockley, Thompson, and Carnes were tried for the killing of the correctional officers. Shockley and Thompson were sentenced to death through the gas chamber, which was carried out at San Quentin in December 1948. However, Carnes, who was only 19 years of age, was given a second life sentence.\n\n\"Escape from Alcatraz\"\n\nOn June 11, 1962, Frank Morris, John Anglin, and Clarence Anglin carried out one of the most intricate escapes ever devised. Behind the prisoners' cells in Cell Block B (where the escapees were interned) was an unguarded 3 ft wide utility corridor. The prisoners chiselled away the moisture-damaged concrete from around an air vent leading to this corridor, using tools such as a metal spoon soldered with silver from a dime and an electric drill improvised from a stolen vacuum cleaner motor. The noise was disguised by accordions played during music hour, and the progress was concealed by false walls which, in the dark recesses of the cells, fooled the guards.\n\nThe escape route led up through a fan vent; the prisoners removed the fan and motor, replacing them with a steel grill and leaving a shaft large enough for a prisoner to enter. Stealing a carborundum abrasive cord from the prison workshop, the prisoners removed the rivets from the grill. In their beds, they placed papier-mâché dummies made with human hair stolen from the barbershop. The escapees also constructed an inflatable raft over many weeks from over 50 stolen raincoats, which they prepared on the top of the cellblock, concealed from the guards by sheets which had been put up over the sides. They escaped through a vent in the roof and departed Alcatraz.\n\nThe official investigation by the FBI was aided by another prisoner, Allen West, who was part of the escapees' group but was left behind. West's false wall kept slipping so he held it in place with cement, which set. When Morris and the Anglins accelerated the schedule, West desperately chipped away at the wall, but by the time he got out, his companions were gone. Articles belonging to the prisoners, including plywood paddles and parts of the raincoat raft were discovered on nearby Angel Island. The FBI's investigation from 1962 to December 1979 was finally treated as closed. The official report on the escape concludes that the prisoners drowned in the cold waters of the bay while trying to reach the mainland, it being unlikely that they made it the 1.25 miles to shore due to the strong ocean currents and the cold sea water temperatures ranging between 50 and 55 degrees Fahrenheit.\n\nHowever, [http://www.usmarshals.gov/news/chron/2012/060712a.htm The U.S. Marshals Service] still list the Anglins and Morris as wanted fugitives and have Wanted Posters for each man. A 2014 study of the ocean currents by scientists at Delft University and the research institute Deltares indicates that a craft leaving Alcatraz at 11:30pm on June 11, 1962, would most likely have landed just north of the Golden Gate Bridge and indicate that debris would have washed up on Angel Island, consistent with where it was actually found. A 2015 History Channel documentary presented further circumstantial evidence gathered over the years by the Anglin brothers' family, including Christmas cards allegedly sent by the brothers for three years after their escape. It featured an interview with family friend Fred Brizzi, who claimed to have met the brothers in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1975. To support his story, he offered a photograph of two men resembling John and Clarence Anglin, taken, he said, during the encounter. A facial recognition analyst who had examined the photo asserted that the two men were \"more than likely\" the Anglins. The film also presented an alternate escape theory, involving the use of an electrical cord, which was reported missing from the prison's dock, tied to a passenger ferry that left the island just after midnight on the night of the men's escape. \n\nThe 1979 film Escape from Alcatraz depicts the escape. It stars Clint Eastwood, Fred Ward, and Jack Thibeau as Frank Morris, John Anglin, and Clarence Anglin, respectively. Allen West was played by Larry Hankin; his character's name was changed to Charley Butts. The film implied that the escape had been successful. \n\nAdministration\n\nThe prison initially had a staff of 155, including the first warden James A. Johnston and associate warden Cecil J. Shuttleworth, both considered to be \"iron men\". None of the staff were trained in rehabilitation but highly trained in security. The guards and staff of Alcatraz were subject to varying salaries. A new guard arriving in December 1948 was offered $3024.96 per annum, but there was a 6% deduction for retirement taxes a year amounting to $181.50. The guards typically worked 40-hour weeks; five 8-hour shifts. Guards who worked between 6 pm and 6 am were given a 10% increase and guards doing overtime had to be reported and authorized by the warden. Officers generally had to pay 25 cents for meals and were charged $10 to rent an apartment on the island, to include laundry service, although larger families were charged anything from $20–43 a month for larger quarters and charged additional for laundry. In 1960, a Bureau of Prisons booklet revealed that the average prison population between 1935 and 1960 was 263; the highest recorded was 302 in 1937 and the lowest recorded was 222 in 1947. \n\nThe main centre for administration was at the entrance to the prison, which included the warden's office. The office contained a desk with radio and telegraph equipment, typewriter, and a telephone. The administrative office section also had the offices of the associate warden and secretary, mail desk, captain's desk, a business office, a clerk's office, an accounting office, a control room which was added with modern technology in 1961, the officer's lounge, armory and vault, and a visitation centre and restrooms.\n\nThe basement of Alcatraz prison contained dungeons and the showers. The main stairway to the dungeon lay along Sunrise Alley at the side of A-Block, but the dungeons were also accessible by a staircase in a trapdoor along the corridor of D-Block. All visits to Alcatraz required prior written approval from the warden.\n\nA hospital had originally been installed at Alcatraz during its time as a military prison in the late 19th century. During its time as a Federal Penitentiary it was located above the dining hall on the second floor. Hospital staff were U.S. Public Health Service employees assigned to the Federal Prison Service at Alcatraz. Doctors often lasted fewer than several days or months at Alcatraz, due to the fact that few of them could tolerate the violent inmates who would often terrify them if they failed to be given certain drugs. Prisoners in ill health were often kept in the hospital, most famously, Stroud and Al Capone, who spent years in it.\n\nSecurity\n\nWith the Bureau of Prisons taking over the Alcatraz Island Federal Penitentiary on January 1, 1934, it marked the beginning of a series of measures to strengthen the security of the prison cells to make Alcatraz an \"escape-proof\" maximum security prison, and also improving the living conditions for the operation and maintenance staff and officers, apart from the prisoners. Modern technological innovations available at the time for enhancing security and comfort were built into the buildings. Security guard towers were built outside at four strategic locations, cells were rebuilt and fitted with \"tool-proof steel cell fronts and locking devices operated from control boxes\", and windows were made secure with iron grills. Electromagnetic metal detectors placed in the entrance of the dining hall and workshops, with remote controlled tear gas canisters at appropriate locations, remote controlled gun galleries with machine gun armed guards were installed to patrol along the corridors. Improvements were made to the toilet and electricity facilities, old tunnels were sealed up with concrete to avoid hiding and escape by prisoners, and substantial changes and improvements were made to the housing facilities of guards, wardens and Captain to live with their families, with quality relative to rank. Homer Cummings, U.S. Attorney General, Sanford Bates, first Director of the Bureau of Prisons, and Warden Johnston collaborated very closely to create \"a legendary prison\" suited to the times, which resulted in the Alcatraz Island Federal Penitentiary being nicknamed \"Uncle Sam's Devil's Island.\"\n\nDespite Alcatraz being designed to house the \"worst of the worst\" of criminals who caused problems at other prisons, under the guidelines and regulations set by the strict prison administrators, courts could not direct a prisoner to be directly sent to Alcatraz, however notorious they were for misbehavior and attempted escape from other prisons. Prisoners entering Alcatraz would undergo vigorous research and assessments prior to their arrival. Security in the prison was very tight, with the constant checking of bars, doors, locks, electrical fixtures etc., to ensure that security hadn't been broken. During a standard day the prisoners would be counted 13 times, and the ratio of prisoners to guards was the lowest of any American prison of the time. The front door was made of solid steel, virtually impossible for any prisoners to escape through. The island had many guard towers, most of which have since been demolished, which were heavily guarded at various points in the day at times when security may have been breached; for instance there were guard towers on each of the industry buildings to ensure that inmates didn't attempt to escape during the work day shifts. The recreation yard and other parts of the prison had a 25 ft fence around it topped with barbed wire, should any inmates attempt to escape during exercise. One former employee of the jail likened his prison job to being a zoo keeper or his old farm job, due to the fact that prisoners were not to be rehabilitated or educated and treated like animals, sending them out to \"plough the fields\" when some of them worked during the day, and then counting them up and feeding them and so on. He referred to those 4 years of his life working in the prison as a \"total waste of his life\". The corridors were regularly patrolled by the guards, with passing gates along them; the most heavily trafficked was \"Broadway\" between B and C Block, due to its being the central corridor of the prison and passed not only by guards but other prison workers.\n\nAt the end of each 20 minute meal in the dining hall, the forks, spoons and knives were laid out on the table and carefully counted to ensure that nothing had been taken as a potential weapon. In the earlier years as a prison, prisoners were forbidden from talking while eating, but this was later relaxed, provided that the prisoners communicated quietly. \n\nThe gun gallery was situated in the Recreation Yard and mounted on one of the dining hall's exterior walls. There was a metal detector outside of the dining hall for security purposes. The dining hall had tear-gas canisters attached to the rafters of the ceiling which could be activated by remote control, should prisoners riot or attempt to escape. The first warden, James A. Johnston, always entered the dining hall alone and unarmed, due to heavy guarding around him. Several riots did break out in the dining hall during Alcatraz's history. Those prisoners who were not involved in the fighting hid under the dining hall tables to escape possible gunfire.\n\nWardens\n\nPrison life and the cells\n\nAn inmate register reveals that there were 1,576 prisoners in total held at Alcatraz during its time as a Federal Penitentiary, although figures reported have varied and some have stated 1557. The prison cells, purposefully designed so that none adjoined an outside wall, typically measured 9 ft by 5 ft and 7 ft high. The cells were primitive with a bed, a desk and a washbasin and toilet on the back wall and few furnishings except a blanket. An air vent, measuring 6 in by 9 in, covered by a metal grill, lay at the back of the cells which led into the utility corridors. Prisoners had no privacy in going to the toilet and the toilets would emit a strong stench because they were flushed with salt water. Hot water faucets were not installed until the early 1960s, shortly before closure.\n\nThe penitentiary established a very strict regimen of rules and regulations under the title \"the Rules and Regulations for the Government and Discipline of the United States Penal and Correctional Institutions\" and also a \"Daily Routine of Work and Counts\" to be followed by the prisoners and also the guards; copies of these were provided to the prisoners to read and follow. Inmates were basically entitled to food, clothing, shelter, and medical attention. Anything else was seen as a privilege. Inmates were given a blue shirt, grey pants (blue and white in later years ), cotton long underwear, socks and a blue handkerchief; the wearing of caps was forbidden in the cellhouse. Cells were expected to be kept tidy and in good order. Any dangerous article found in the cells or on inmates such as money, narcotics, intoxicating substances or tools which had the potential to inflict injury or assist in an escape attempt was considered contraband and made the prisoners eligible for disciplinary action. It was compulsory for prisoners to shave in their cells three times a week. Attempting to bribe, intimidate, or assault prison officers was seen as a very serious offense. African-Americans were segregated from the rest in cell designation due to racial abuse being prevalent. Toilet paper, matches, soap, and cleanser were issued to the cells on Tuesdays and Saturdays, and inmates could request hot water and a mop to clean their cells. The bars, windows and floors of the prison were cleaned on a daily basis. In earlier years there was a strict code of silence but by the 1950s this had relaxed and talking was permitted in the cellhouse and dining hall provided conversations were quiet and there was no shouting, loud talking, whistling or singing.\n\nPrisoners would be woken at 6:30 am, and sent to breakfast at 6:55. After returning to the cell, inmates then had to tidy their cell and place the waste basket outside. At 7:30 work started in the shifts for those privileged enough to do so, punctuated by a whistle, and prisoners would have to go through a metal detector during work shifts. If assigned a job, prisoners had to accept that line of work; prisoners were not permitted to have money in their possessions but earnings went into a prisoner's Trust Fund. Some of the prisoners were assigned duties with the guards and foremen in the Laundry, Tailor Shop, Cobblers Shop, Model Shop etc. and in gardening and labor. Smoking, a privilege, was permitted in the workplace providing there wasn't any hazardous condition, but inmates were not permitted to smoke between the recreation yard and work. Lunch was served at 11:20, followed by a 30-minute rest in the cell, before returning to work until 16:15. Dinner was served at 16:25 and the prisoners would then retire to their cells to be locked in for the night at 16:50, and lights went off at 21:30. After being locked in for the night, 6 guards usually patrolled the four cell blocks. Many prisoners have compared their duration at Alcatraz to hell and would have preferred death to continued incarceration.\n\nAlcatraz Library was located at the end of D-Block. Upon entering Alcatraz, every inmate was given a library card and a catalog of books found in the library; inmates could place orders by putting a slip with their card in a box at the entrance to the dining hall before breakfast, and the books would be delivered to and from their cell by a librarian. The library, which utilized a closed-stack paging system, had a collection of 10,000 to 15,000 books, mainly left over from the army days. Inmates were permitted a maximum of three books in addition to up to 12 text books, a Bible, and a dictionary. They were permitted to subscribe to magazines but crime-related pages were torn out and newspapers were prohibited. Sex, crime and violence were censored from all books and magazines, and the library was governed by a chaplain who regulated the censorship and the nature of the reading material to ensure that the material was wholesome. Failure to return books by the date given made the inmate liable to removal of privileges. The average prisoner read 75 to 100 books a year. Every evening, inmates would generally read books loaned from the library and usually an hour or 75 minutes was allocated to the practicing of musical instruments, from the guitar to the accordion. A prison band often practiced in the dining room or auditorium above it; Al Capone famously practiced the banjo in the shower block, although most prisoners were limited to playing in their cells alone.\n\nCorridors\n\nAlcatraz cellhouse had a corridor naming system named after major American streets and landmarks. Michigan Avenue was the corridor to the side of A-Block, and Broadway was the central corridor in which the inmates would assemble as they massed through Times Square (an area with a clock on the wall), before entering the dining hall for their meals. Broadway separated Block-B and Block-C and prisoners kept along it had the least privacy in the prison. The corridor between Block-C and the library was called Park Avenue. The corridor in D-Block was named Sunset Strip. Gun galleries lay at the end of each block, including the West and East Gun Galleries.\n\nA-Block\n\nDue to the fact that during the time as a federal penitentiary no inmates were ever permanently held here, A-Block was never modernized, so retained its \"flat strap-iron bars, key locks and spiral staircases\" from the original military prison. Several inmates, however, were held briefly in A-Block before a hearing or transfer. In the later years of the state penitentiary, the A-Block was mainly used for extra storage and a law library was installed here at one point and it was a place where inmates could type legal documents.\nA small barber's shop was located at the end of A-block where inmates would have a monthly haircut.\n\nB-Block\n\nThe majority of the new inmates in Alcatraz were assigned to the second tier of B-Block. They had \"quarantine status\" for their first three months in confinement in Alcatraz, and were not permitted visitors for a minimum of 90 days. Inmates were permitted one visitor a month, although anybody likely to cause trouble such as registered criminals were barred from visiting. Letters received by inmates were checked by prison staff first, to see if they could decipher any secret messages. Frank Morris and his fellow escapees escaped Alcatraz during the June 1962 escape from Alcatraz by entering a utility corridor behind B-Block.\n\nD-Block\n\nD-Block gained notoriety as a \"Treatment block\" for some of the worst inmates, with varying degrees of punishment, including Isolation, Solitary and Strip. Prisoners usually spent anything from 3 to 19 days in Solitary. Prisoners held here would be given their meals in their cells and not permitted to work and only shower twice a week. After a 1939 escape attempt in which Arthur \"Doc\" Barker was killed, the Bureau of Prisons tightened security in the D-Block. The Birdman of Alcatraz inhabited cell 42 in D-Block in solitary confinement for 6 years.\n\nThe worst cells for confinement as a punishment for inmates who stepped out of line were located at the end of D-Block in cells 9–14, known as \"The Hole\". The cells were devoid of light and colder than the rest of the prison, and prisoners sent here were regularly stripped, beaten, and tortured and often starved, forced to sleep on the cold concrete floor wearing nothing but light underwear. In turn, guards were abused, and often had faeces, urine or food thrown at them or were spat at. Inmates held in the hole were limited to just one 10-minute shower and an hour of exercise in the yard a week. The five cells of \"The Hole\" had nothing but a sink and toilet and the very worst cell was nicknamed \"The Oriental\" or \"Strip Cell\", the final cell of the block with nothing but a hole in the floor as a toilet, in which prisoners would often be confined naked with nothing else for two days. The guards controlled the flushing of the toilet in that cell. A hatchway in the floor on D-Block also led to the dungeon in the basement which contained several cells. The worst behaved inmates would be locked inside their cells in the dungeon, chained to the walls. They were given a meager diet of bread and water each day, and one regular meal every three days, although the quantity and duration often varied relative to the extent of the punishment. Denied of proper toilet facilities, they were given a bucket as a toilet, emptied once a week, and stripped and chained to the wall standing at nights; according to Alvin J. Esau, prisoners in solitary confinement were \"placed on a starvation diet and made to stand nine hours each day with hands tied and their feet barely touching the floor.\" After completing the punishment in the hole, the prisoner could then return to his cell but be tagged; a red tag, third grade, denoted a prisoner who was restricted from leaving his cell for perhaps 3 months. At second grade the prisoners could receive letters, and if after 30 days they remained behaved, they would then be restored full prison privileges.\n\nDining\n\nAlcatraz Dining Hall, often referred to as the Mess Hall, is the dining hall where the prisoners and staff ate their meals. It is a long wing on the west end of the Main Cellhouse of Alcatraz, situated in the center of the island. It is connected to the block by a corridor known as \"Times Square\", as it passes beneath a large clock approaching the entrance way to the dining hall. This wing includes the dining hall and the kitchen beyond it. On the second floor was the hospital and the auditorium, which was where movies were screened to the inmates at weekends. \n\nDining hall protocol was a scripted process, including a whistle system to indicate which block and tier of men would move into and out of the hall at any given time, who sat where, where to place hands, and when to start eating. Prisoners would be awakened at 6:30, and sent to breakfast at 6:55. A breakfast menu is still preserved on the hallway board, dated 21 March 1963. The breakfast menu included assorted dry cereals, steamed whole wheat, a scrambled egg, milk, stewed fruit, toast, bread, and butter. Lunch was served in the dining hall at 11:20, followed by a 30-minute rest in the cell, before returning to work until 16:15. Dinner was served at 16:25 and the prisoners would then retire to their cells at 16:50 to be locked in for the night. Inmates were permitted to eat as much as they liked within 20 minutes, provided they left no waste; waste would be reported and may make the prisoner subject to removal of privileges if they made a habit of it.\n\nEach dining table had benches which held up to six men, although smaller tables and chairs later replaced these which seated four. All of the prison population, including the guards and officials would dine together, thus seating over 250 people. The food served at Alcatraz was reportedly the best in the United States prison system.\n\nRecreation\n\nThe Recreation Yard was the yard used by inmates of the prison between 1934 and 1963. It is located opposite the dining hall south of the end of D-Block, facing the mainland on a raised level surrounded by a high wall and fence above it. Guard Tower #3 lay just to the west of the yard. The gun gallery was situated in the yard, mounted on one of the dining hall's exterior walls.\n\nIn 1936, the previously dirt-covered yard was paved. The yard was part of the most violent escape attempt from Alcatraz in May 1946 when a group of inmates hatched a plot to obtain the key into the recreation yard, kill the tower guards, take hostages, and use them as shields to reach the dock.\n\nInmates were permitted out into the yard on Saturdays and Sundays and on holidays for a maximum of 5 hours. Inmates who worked seven days a week in the kitchen were rewarded with short yard breaks during the weekdays. Badly behaved prisoners were liable to having their yard access rights taken away from them on weekends. The prisoners of Alcatraz were permitted to play games such as baseball, softball and other sports at these times and intellectual games such as chess. Because of the small size of the yard and the diamond at the end of it, a section of the wall behind the first base had to be padded to cushion the impact of inmates overrunning it. Inmates were provided gloves, bats, and balls, but no sport uniforms. In 1938, there were four amateur teams, the Bees, Oaks, Oilers, and Seals, named after Minor League clubs, and four league teams named after Major League clubs, the Cardinals, Cubs, Giants, and Tigers. Many of the inmates used weekends in the yards to converse with each other and discuss crime, the only real opportunities they had during the week for a durable conversation.\n\nOther buildings\n\nWarden's House\n\nThe Warden's House was the home of the penitentiary's warden. It is located at the northeastern end of the Main Cellblock, next to Alcatraz Lighthouse. The 3-floor 15-room mansion was built in 1921 according to the Golden Gate National Recreational Area signpost, although some sources say it was built in 1926 or 1929 and had 17 or 18 rooms.\n\nBetween 1934 and 1963, the four wardens of Alcatraz resided here, including the first warden, James A. Johnston. A house of luxury, in stark contrast to the jail next to it, the wardens often held lavish cocktail parties here. The signpost at the spot shows a photograph of a trusted inmate doing chores at the house for the warden and that the house had a terraced garden and greenhouse. The mansion had tall windows, providing fine views of San Francisco Bay. Today, the house is a ruin, burned down by Native Americans during the Occupation of Alcatraz on June 1, 1970.\n\nBuilding 64\n\nBuilding 64 Residential Apartments was the first building constructed on the island of Alcatraz, intended entirely for the purpose of accommodating the military officers and their families living on the island. Located next to the dock on the southeastern side of the island, below the Warden's House, the three-story apartment block was built in 1905 on the site of a U.S. Army barracks which had been there from the 1860s. It functioned as the Military Guard Barracks from 1906 until 1933. One of its largest apartments in the southwest corner was known as the \"Cow Palace\" and a nearby alleyway was known as \"Chinatown\".\n\nSocial Hall\n\nThe Social Hall, also known as the Officers' Club, was a social club located on the northwestern side of the island. Located in close proximity to the Power House, water tower and Former Military Chapel (Bachelor Quarters), it formerly housed the post exchange. The club was a social venue for the Federal Penitentiary workers and their families on the island to unwind after a hard week's work dealing with America's most hardened criminals after they'd been locked up at 17:30. It was burned down by Native Americans during the Occupation of Alcatraz in 1970, leaving a shell which still remains.\n\nThe club had a small bar, library, large dining and dance floor, billiards table, ping pong table and a two-lane bowling alley, and was the centre of social life on the island for the employees of the penitentiary. It regularly hosted dinners, bingo events, and from the 1940s onwards showed movies every Sunday night after they had been shown to the inmates during the day on Saturday and Sunday. The club was responsible for organizing numerous special events on the island (held either in the hall or the Parade Grounds) and the fundraising associated with it, anything from ice cream and watermelon feasts to Halloween fancy dress and Christmas parties.\n\nPower House\n\nThe Power House is located on the northwest coast of Alcatraz Island. It was constructed in 1939 for $186,000 as part of a $1.1 million modernization scheme which also included the water tower, New Industries Building, officers quarters and remodeling of the D-block. The white powerhouse smokestack and lighthouse were said to give an \"appearance of a ship's mast on either side of the island\". A sign reading \"A Warning. Keep Off. Only Government permitted within 200 yards\" lay in front of the powerhouse to deter people landing on the island at the point.\n\nBetween 1939 and 1963 it supplied power to the Federal Penitentiary and other buildings on the island. The powerhouse had a tower duty station which was guarded with a \"30-caliber Winchester rifle with 50 rounds of ammunition, a 1911 semiautomatic pistol with three seven-round magazines, three gas grenades, and a gas mask.\"\n\nAlcatraz Water Tower\n\nThe Water Tower is located on the northwestern side of the island, near Tower No. 3, beyond the Morgue and Recreation Yard. The water tank is situated on six cross-braced steel legs submerged in concrete foundations. \n\nAs Alcatraz had no water supply of its own, it had to import it from the mainland, brought by tug and barge. During the island's military years, there were in-ground water tanks and water tanks were situated on the roof of the citadel. The water tower was built in 1940–41 by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, after the island received a government renovations grant to supply the majority of the island's fresh water.\n\nIt is the tallest building on the island, at a height of 94 ft with a volume of 250000 gal gallons of fresh water. It was used to store potable water for drinking, water for firefighting, and water for the island's service laundry facility. \n\nModel Industries Building\n\nThe Model Industries Building is a three/four-story building on the northwest corner of Alcatraz Island. This building was originally built by the U.S. military and was used as a laundry building until the New Industries Building was built as part of a redevelopment program on Alcatraz in 1939 when it was a federal penitentiary. As part of the Alcatraz jail, it held workshops for inmates to work in.\n\nOn January 10, 1935, the building shifted to within 2.5 feet from the edge of the cliff following a landslide caused by a severe storm. The warden at the time, James A. Johnston, proposed extend the seawall next to it and asked the Bureau for $6500 to fund it; he would later claim to dislike the building because it was irregularly shaped. A smaller, cheaper riprap was completed by the end of 1935. A guard tower and a catwalk from Hill Tower was added to the roof of the Industries Building in June 1936 and the building was made secure with bars from old cells to bar the windows and grill the roof ventilators and to prevent inmates from escaping from the roof. It ceased use as a laundry in 1939 when it was moved to the upper floor of the New Industries Building. Today the building is heavily rusted after decades of exposure to the salt air and wind, and neither the guard tower on top of the building or the Hill Tower still exist.\n\nNew Industries Building\n\nThe New Industries Building was constructed in 1939 for $186,000 as part of a $1.1 million modernization scheme which also included the water tower, power house, officers' quarters and remodeling of the D-block.\n\nThe ground floor of the two-story 306 ft long building contained a clothing factory, dry cleaning plant, furniture plant, brush factory, and an office, where prisoners of the federal penitentiary could work for money. They earned a small wage for their labour which was put into an account, known as a Prisoner's Trust Fund, which would be given to them upon leaving Alcatraz. They made items such as gloves, furniture mats, and army uniforms. The laundry room occupied the entire upper floor, the largest in San Francisco at the time. Each window has 9 panes and there are 17 bays on each floor on either side.\n\nNotable inmates\n\nLegends\n\nAlcatraz has been cited as one of the most \"haunted\" places in America. The Native Americans mentioned the evil spirits they purportedly encountered on the island long before it became a military prison. Mark Twain visited it, found the atmosphere of the island eerie, and described it as \"being as cold as winter, even in the summer months\", and The Washington Post has also claimed that Alcatraz is a place \"where visitors can sense the dread of past inhabitants still trapped in the atmosphere.\" The alleged haunting of the prison has been documented in numerous paranormal television series. Officials for Alcatraz have dismissed the reports of ghosts at Alcatraz as nonsense and deny their existence; an official for Alcatraz said in 1994, \"These ridiculous ghost stories will stop tourists from visiting. And how can these people say they heard canaries? We don't have any birds in here.\" \n\nIn popular culture" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "27", "twenty-seven" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "27", "twenty seven" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "27", "type": "Numerical", "value": "27" }
What was the name of the first weather satellite?	tc_1418	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Weather_satellite.txt" ], "title": [ "Weather satellite" ], "wiki_context": [ "The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth. Satellites can be polar orbiting, covering the entire Earth asynchronously, or geostationary, hovering over the same spot on the equator. \n\nMeteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems. City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., and other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites. \nWeather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna. Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored.\n\nOther environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields. For example, the 2002 Prestige oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT, which, though not a weather satellite, flies an instrument (ASAR) which can see changes in the sea surface.\n\nEl Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images. The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data. Collectively, weather satellites flown by the U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch.\n\nHistory\n\nAs early as 1946, the idea of cameras in orbit to observe the weather was being developed. This was due to sparse data observation coverage and the expense of using cloud cameras on rockets. By 1958, the early prototypes for TIROS and Vanguard (developed by the Army Signal Corps) were created. The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, was launched on February 17, 1959. It was designed to measure cloud cover and resistance, but a poor axis of rotation and its elliptical orbit kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data. The Explorer VI and VII satellites also contained weather-related experiments.\n\nThe first weather satellite to be considered a success was TIROS-1, launched by NASA on April 1, 1960. TIROS operated for 78 days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard 2. TIROS paved the way for the Nimbus program, whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then. Beginning with the Nimbus 3 satellite in 1969, temperature information through the tropospheric column began to be retrieved by satellites from the eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific ocean, which led to significant improvements to weather forecasts. \n\nThe ESSA and NOAA polar orbiting satellites followed suit from the late 1960s onward. Geostationary satellites followed, beginning with the ATS and SMS series in the late 1960s and early 1970s, then continuing with the GOES series from the 1970s onward. Polar orbiting satellites such as QuikScat and TRMM began to relay wind information near the ocean's surface starting in the late 1970s, with microwave imagery which resembled radar displays, which significantly improved the diagnoses of tropical cyclone strength, intensification, and location during the 2000s and 2010s.\n\nObservation\n\nObservation is typically made via different 'channels' of the Electromagnetic spectrum, in particular, the Visible and Infrared portions.\n\nSome of these channels include\n[http://www.eumetsat.int/groups/ops/documents/document/pdf_ten_052562_msg1_spctrsp.pdf EUMETSAT – MSG Spectrum] (PDF)[http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/Meteosat_First_Generation/Space_Segment/SP_1119958330356?l=en EUMETSAT – MFG Payload]\n\nVisible and Near Infrared: 0.6 μm – 1.6 μm – For recording cloud cover during the day\nInfrared: 3.9 μm – 7.3 μm (Water Vapor), 8.7 μm, – 13.4 μm (Thermal imaging)\n\nVisible spectrum\n\nVisible-light images from weather satellites during local daylight hours are easy to interpret even by the average person; clouds, cloud systems such as fronts and tropical storms, lakes, forests, mountains, snow ice, fires, and pollution such as smoke, smog, dust and haze are readily apparent. Even wind can be determined by cloud patterns, alignments and movement from successive photos. \n\nInfrared spectrum\n\nThe thermal or infrared images recorded by sensors called scanning radiometers enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. Infrared satellite imagery can be used effectively for tropical cyclones with a visible eye pattern, using the Dvorak technique, where the difference between the temperature of the warm eye and the surrounding cold cloud tops can be used to determine its intensity (colder cloud tops generally indicate a more intense storm). Infrared pictures depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream which are valuable to the shipping industry. Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color-digitized techniques, the gray shaded thermal images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information.\n\nTypes\n\nEach meteorological satellite is designed to use one of two different classes of orbit: geostationary and polar orbiting.\n\nGeostationary\n\nGeostationary weather satellites orbit the Earth above the equator at altitudes of 35,880 km (22,300 miles). Because of this orbit, they remain stationary with respect to the rotating Earth and thus can record or transmit images of the entire hemisphere below continuously with their visible-light and infrared sensors. The news media use the geostationary photos in their daily weather presentation as single images or made into movie loops. These are also available on the city forecast pages of noaa.gov (example Dallas, TX). \n\nSeveral geostationary meteorological spacecraft are in operation. The United States has three in operation; GOES-12, GOES-13, and GOES-15. GOES-12, previously designated GOES-East and now used for South America, is located at 60 degrees west. GOES-13 took over the role of GOES-East on April 14, 2010 and is located at 75 degrees west. GOES-11 was GOES-West over the eastern Pacific Ocean until it was decommissioned December 2011 and replaced by GOES-15. Russia's new-generation weather satellite Elektro-L No.1 operates at 76°E over the Indian Ocean. The Japanese have the MTSAT-2 located over the mid Pacific at 145°E and the Himawari 8 at 140°E. The Europeans have four in operation, Meteosat-8 (3.5°W) and Meteosat-9 (0°) over the Atlantic Ocean and have Meteosat-6 (63°E) and Meteosat-7 (57.5°E) over the Indian Ocean. China currently has three Fengyun (风云) geostationary satellites (FY-2E at 86.5°E, FY-2F at 123.5°E, and FY-2G at 105°E) operated. India also operates geostationary satellites called INSAT which carry instruments for meteorological purposes.\n\nPolar orbiting\n\nPolar orbiting weather satellites circle the Earth at a typical altitude of 850 km (530 miles) in a north to south (or vice versa) path, passing over the poles in their continuous flight. Polar satellites are in sun-synchronous orbits, which means they are able to observe any place on Earth and will view every location twice each day with the same general lighting conditions due to the near-constant local solar time. Polar orbiting weather satellites offer a much better resolution than their geostationary counterparts due their closeness to the Earth.\n\nThe United States has the NOAA series of polar orbiting meteorological satellites, presently NOAA 17 and NOAA 18 as primary spacecraft, NOAA 15 and NOAA 16 as secondary spacecraft, NOAA 14 in standby, and NOAA 12. Europe has the Metop-A and Metop-B satellites operated by EUMETSAT. Russia has the Meteor and RESURS series of satellites. China has FY-3A, 3B and 3C. India has polar orbiting satellites as well.\n\nDMSP\n\nThe United States Department of Defense's Meteorological Satellite (DMSP) can \"see\" the best of all weather vehicles with its ability to detect objects almost as 'small' as a huge oil tanker. In addition, of all the weather satellites in orbit, only DMSP can \"see\" at night in the visual. Some of the most spectacular photos have been recorded by the night visual sensor; city lights, volcanoes, fires, lightning, meteors, oil field burn-offs, as well as the Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis have been captured by this 450-mile-high space vehicle's low moonlight sensor.\n\nAt the same time, energy use and city growth can be monitored since both major and even minor cities, as well as highway lights, are conspicuous. This informs astronomers of light pollution. The New York City Blackout of 1977 was captured by one of the night orbiter DMSP space vehicles.\n\nIn addition to monitoring city lights, these photos are a life saving asset in the detection and monitoring of fires. Not only do the satellites see the fires visually day and night, but the thermal and infrared scanners on board these weather satellites detect potential fire sources below the surface of the Earth where smoldering occurs. Once the fire is detected, the same weather satellites provide vital information about wind that could fan or spread the fires. These same cloud photos from space tell the firefighter when it will rain.\n\nSome of the most dramatic photos showed the 600 Kuwaiti oil fires that the fleeing Army of Iraq started on February 23, 1991. The night photos showed huge flashes, far outstripping the glow of large populated areas. The fires consumed millions of gallons of oil; the last was doused on November 6, 1991.\n\nUses\n\nSnowfield monitoring, especially in the Sierra Nevada, can be helpful to the hydrologist keeping track of available snowpack for runoff vital to the watersheds of the western United States. This information is gleaned from existing satellites of all agencies of the U.S. government (in addition to local, on-the-ground measurements). Ice floes, packs and bergs can also be located and tracked from weather space craft.\n\nEven pollution whether it is nature-made or man-made can be pinpointed. The visual and infrared photos show effects of pollution from their respective areas over the entire earth. Aircraft and rocket pollution, as well as condensation trails, can also be spotted. The ocean current and low level wind information gleaned from the space photos can help predict oceanic oil spill coverage and movement. Almost every summer, sand and dust from the Sahara Desert in Africa drifts across the equatorial regions of the Atlantic Ocean. GOES-EAST photos enable meteorologists to observe, track and forecast this sand cloud. In addition to reducing visibilities and causing respiratory problems, sand clouds suppress hurricane formation by modifying the solar radiation balance of the tropics. Other dust storms in Asia and mainland China are common and easy to spot and monitor, with recent examples of dust moving across the Pacific Ocean and reaching North America.\n\nIn remote areas of the world with few local observers, fires could rage out of control for days or even weeks and consume millions of acres before authorities are alerted. Weather satellites can be a tremendous asset in such situations. Nighttime photos also show the burn-off in gas and oil fields. Atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles have been taken by weather satellites since 1969." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Tiros" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "tiros" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "tiros", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Tiros" }
Who directed the movie Trading Places?	tc_1419	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Trading_Places.txt", "John_Landis.txt" ], "title": [ "Trading Places", "John Landis" ], "wiki_context": [ "Trading Places is a 1983 American comedy film directed by John Landis, starring Dan Aykroyd and Eddie Murphy. It tells the story of an upper-class commodities broker and a homeless street hustler whose lives cross paths when they are unknowingly made part of an elaborate bet. Ralph Bellamy, Don Ameche, Denholm Elliott, and Jamie Lee Curtis also star. The storyline is often called a modern take on Mark Twain's classic 19th-century novel The Prince and the Pauper. It also bears a resemblance to another of Mark Twain's stories, The Million Pound Bank Note.\n\nThe film was written by Timothy Harris and Herschel Weingrod and was produced by Aaron Russo. It was released to theaters in North America on June 10, 1983, where it was distributed by Paramount Pictures. The film earned over US $90 million during its theatrical run in the United States, finishing as the fourth highest earning film of the year and the second highest earning R-rated film of 1983.\n\nDenholm Elliott and Jamie Lee Curtis won the awards for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and Best Actress in a Supporting Role, respectively, at the 37th British Academy Film Awards. The film was nominated for several additional awards including Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy at the 41st Golden Globe Awards.\n\nPlot\n\nRandolph (Ralph Bellamy) and Mortimer (Don Ameche), known as the Duke brothers, own a successful commodities brokerage in Philadelphia. Holding opposing views on the issue of nature versus nurture, they make a wager of the \"usual amount\" and agree to conduct an experiment switching the lives of two people at opposite sides of the social hierarchy and observing the results. They witness an encounter between their managing director—the well-mannered and educated Louis Winthorpe III (Dan Aykroyd), engaged to the Dukes' grand-niece Penelope—and a poor street hustler named Billy Ray Valentine (Eddie Murphy); Valentine is arrested at Winthorpe's insistence because of a suspected robbery attempt. The Dukes decide to use the two men for their experiment.\n\nWinthorpe is publicly framed as a thief, drug dealer and adulterer by Clarence Beeks (Paul Gleason) at the request of the Dukes. Winthorpe is fired from Duke & Duke, his bank accounts are frozen, he is denied entry to his Duke-owned home and he quickly finds himself vilified by Penelope and his former friends. He befriends Ophelia (Jamie Lee Curtis), a prostitute who agrees to help him in exchange for a financial reward once he is exonerated. Meanwhile, the Dukes bail Valentine out of jail, install him in Winthorpe's former job and grant him use of Winthorpe's home. Valentine soon becomes well-versed in the business using his street smarts to achieve success and begins to act well-mannered.\n\nDuring the firm's Christmas party, Winthorpe is caught planting drugs in Valentine's desk in a desperate attempt to get his job back, and he brandishes a gun to escape. Later, the Dukes discuss their experiment and settle their wager for one dollar, before plotting to return Valentine to the streets. Valentine overhears the conversation while smoking a joint in the men's bathroom and seeks out Winthorpe. Winthorpe attempts suicide by overdosing on pills. Valentine, Ophelia and Winthorpe's butler Coleman nurse him back to health and inform him of the Dukes' experiment. On television, they learn that Clarence Beeks is transporting a secret USDA report on orange crop forecasts. Winthorpe and Valentine recall large payments made to Beeks by the Dukes and realize that the Dukes plan to obtain the report to corner the market on frozen orange juice. The group agrees to disrupt their plan as revenge.\n\nOn New Year's Eve, the four board Beeks' Philadelphia bound train, intending to switch his report with a fake. Beeks uncovers their scheme and attempts to kill them, but he is knocked unconscious by a gorilla who is being transported on the train. The four disguise Beeks with a gorilla costume and lock him up with the real gorilla. The fake report indicating that the year's orange crop will be low is then delivered to the Dukes. Valentine and Winthorpe then travel to New York City with Coleman's and Ophelia's life savings to carry out their part of the plan.\n\nOn the commodities trading floor, the Dukes commit all their holdings to buying frozen concentrated orange juice futures contracts; other traders follow their lead, inflating the price. Meanwhile, Valentine and Winthorpe sell futures heavily at the inflated price. Following the broadcast of the actual crop report, showing that the orange crop will be normal, the price of orange juice futures plummets. Valentine and Winthorpe close their futures position by buying futures at the lower price from everyone but the Dukes, turning a large profit. The Dukes fail to meet a margin call, and are left owing $394 million. Valentine and Winthorpe explain to the Dukes that they had made a wager on whether they could simultaneously get rich while making the Dukes poor. Valentine collects $1 from Winthorpe while Randolph collapses holding his chest as Mortimer shouts angrily at his brother about their failed plan.\n\nBeeks and the gorilla are loaded onto a ship heading for Africa. Meanwhile, the now wealthy Valentine, Winthorpe, Ophelia and Coleman vacation on a luxurious tropical beach.\n\nCast\n\n* Dan Aykroyd as Louis Winthorpe III\n* Eddie Murphy as Billy Ray Valentine\n* Ralph Bellamy as Randolph Duke\n* Don Ameche as Mortimer Duke\n* Denholm Elliott as Coleman\n* Jamie Lee Curtis as Ophelia\n* Kristin Holby as Penelope Witherspoon, Louis Winthorpe's fiancée.\n* Paul Gleason as Clarence Beeks\n\nThe cast also includes Robert Curtis-Brown as Todd, Winthorpe's romantic rival for Penelope; James Belushi as Harvey, a party-goer on New Year's Eve; Jamie Lee Curtis' sister Kelly Curtis cameos as Penelope's friend Muffy; Frank Oz as a police officer; James Eckhouse as a police officer; Muppet performer Richard Hunt as Wilson; and Bo Diddley as a pawnbroker. Tom Davis and Al Franken, also Saturday Night Live cast members, cameo as train baggage handlers.\n\nThemes\n\nThe storyline of Trading Places—a member of society trading places with another whose socio-economic status stands in direct contrast to his own—often draws comparisons to Mark Twain's novel The Prince and the Pauper. First published in 1881, the novel follows the lives of a prince and a beggar—both of them of adolescent age—who use their uncanny resemblance to each other as a premise to switch places temporarily; the prince takes on a life of poverty and misery while the pauper enjoys the lavish luxuries of a royal life. Parallels have also been drawn between Trading Places and Mozart's 18th century comic opera The Marriage of Figaro in which a servant (Figaro) foils the plans of his rich master who tried to steal Figaro's bride to be. The music from The Marriage of Figaro is used as a cinematic narrative in the film when the viewers are introduced to the daily routine of protagonist Louis Winthorpe's privileged life with the opera's overture playing in the background. \n\nDavid Budd, in his 2002 book Culture Meets Culture in the Movies, writes about the experiences of characters when the expected roles of races in society are sometimes reversed. The 1995 fiction film White Man's Burden and John Howard Griffin's factual book Black Like Me are used as a foundation to show how different the experience of white people can be when subjected to the prejudices faced by black people. In that respect, Budd proclaims Trading Places as \"uncannily illustrative if heavy-handed\". Beginning from the premise that, in the film, the \"expectations of the races also stand upon their head\", Budd states that \"through even a highly comedic vessel a message loudly asking for a reassessment of prejudice, and for level playing fields, is heard.\"\n\nAmerican philosopher and professor at Harvard University Stanley Cavell wrote about Trading Places in his 2005 book Cavell on Film. Cavell postulates that film is sometimes used as a new technology in the production and experience of an opera. He explains that this axiom asserts its importance not in the fact that \"our time\" sees an increased expectation of new operas being developed but, rather, in the fact that there is an increased expectation of \"new productions of operas.\" Cavell draws a comparison of themes between Trading Places and the opera The Marriage of Figaro, stating that \"what Trading Places wants from its reference to Figaro is mostly the idea of resourceful and sociable young and poor overcoming with various disguises the conniving of the unsociable old and rich but with no sense that the old may be redeemed by a recognition of their faults and no revolutionary desire to see the world formed on a new basis.\"\n\nReception\n\nBox office\n\nTrading Places was released theatrically in the United States on June 10, 1983. During its opening weekend, the film earned $7.3 million from 1,375 theaters—an average of $5,334 per theater—ranking as the third highest grossing film of the weekend, behind Octopussy ($8.9 million)—debuting the same weekend—and Return of the Jedi ($12 million). \n\nThe film remained in the top ten grossing films for 17 weeks. It went on to earn $90.4 million during its U.S. theatrical run, making it the 4th highest grossing film of 1983, behind Flashdance ($92.9 million), Terms of Endearment ($108.4 million) and Return of the Jedi ($252.5 million), and the second highest grossing R-rated film of 1983, behind Flashdance. Adjusted for inflation, the film remains the number 58 highest-grossing R-rated film of all time. \n\nCritical response\n\nTrading Places was met with positive reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 86%, based on 42 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3 out of 10. The site's consensus states: \"Featuring deft interplay between Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd, Trading Places is an immensely appealing social satire.\" Metacritic gave the film a score of 66 out of 100, based on 9 critics, which indicates \"generally favorable reviews\". \n\nAuthor and critic Richard Schickel of Time magazine called Trading Places \"one of the most emotionally satisfying and morally gratifying comedies of recent times\". While admitting Aykroyd's success in demonstrating \"perfect prissiness as Winthorpe\", Schickel commented on Murphy's performance as Valentine calling Murphy \"a force to be reckoned with\" and stating that he \"makes Trading Places something more than a good-hearted comedy. He turns it into an event.\" Film critic Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film three and a half stars out of four, while offering that the film resembles Tootsie and comparing it to comedies of Frank Capra and Preston Sturges. Ebert stated \"This is good comedy\"; he commended the character development in the film calling the characters \"wonderful comic inventions\" and explained that the comedy is successful because it \"develops the quirks and peculiarities of its characters, so that they're funny because of who they are.\" He further commented on the cast by favorably commenting on acting as \"engaging\", stating that \"Murphy and Aykroyd are perfect foils for each other\", that they're both capable of being \"specifically eccentric\", that \"they both play characters with a lot of native intelligence\" and concluding that \"It's fun to watch them thinking.\" Commenting on Bellamy and Ameche in the roles of the Duke brothers, Ebert called their involvement in the film \"a masterstroke of casting.\" \n\nJanet Maslin of The New York Times repeated some of Roger Ebert's sentiments stating that \"Preston Sturges might have made a movie like Trading Places - if he'd had a little less inspiration and a lot more money.\" She, again, also commended the cast by calling it \"well-chosen\", commenting on Murphy and Aykroyd as \"the two actors best suited\", stating that the Duke brothers were \"played delightfully\" by Ameche and Bellamy and—concluding that \"the supporting cast is also quite good\"—praising Curtis for managing \"to turn a hard-edged, miniskirted prostitute into a character of unexpected charm.\" Jay Carr of The Boston Globe called it \"easily the best of the movies I've seen by the various Saturday Night Live alumni.\" Empire magazine awarded the film a rating of four stars out of five, classifying Trading Places as \"Excellent\" per the magazine's star rating system, stating that Murphy and Aykroyd are the show-stealers. A review of the film published by Variety magazine called the film \"a light romp geared up by the schtick shifted by Dan Aykroyd and Eddie Murphy.\" The review gave further commendations to supporting actors, stating that Murphy and Aykroyd \"couldn't have brought this one off without the contributions of three veterans - Ralph Bellamy, Don Ameche and the droll Englishman, Denholm Elliott\" and calling the presence of Jamie Lee Curtis \"enjoyable.\" \n\nAccolades\n\nThe film received several award nominations in 1984 including an Academy Award, two Golden Globes, and three BAFTA awards. Elliott and Curtis attracted the film's two wins, earning respectively, the BAFTA award for Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress.\n\nSoundtrack\n\nA score album was released by La-La Land Records on October 11, 2011 and was limited to 2000 copies. The album features Elmer Bernstein's Oscar-nominated score, as well as the source material that he wrote and arranged, including traditional Christmas carols that appear in the film. A significant portion of Bernstein's music is based on Mozart's music from The Marriage of Figaro. \"Do Ya Wanna Funk,\" a hit song by Sylvester featured in the movie, was omitted from the album. The song \"The Loco-Motion\" by Little Eva is also heard on the train scene and is credited on the film.\n\nLegacy\n\nAlmost 30 years after its release, the plot for the movie was part of the inspiration for new regulations on the financial markets. On March 3, 2010, Commodity Futures Trading Commission chief Gary Gensler stated, in testimony he gave to the 111th Congress: \"We have recommended banning using misappropriated government information to trade in the commodity markets. In the movie Trading Places, starring Eddie Murphy, the Duke brothers intended to profit from trades in frozen concentrated orange juice futures contracts using an illicitly obtained and not yet public Department of Agriculture orange crop report.\" \n\nThe \"Eddie Murphy Rule\", as it came to be known, later came into effect as Section 136 of the Wall Street Transparency and Accountability Act of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, under Section 746, which dealt with insider trading. \n\nIn Italy the movie has become a Christmas classic, being broadcast by Italian television every year, often on December 24.", "John David Landis (born August 3, 1950) is an American film director, screenwriter, actor, and producer. He is known for his comedy films, his horror films, and his music videos with Michael Jackson. He directed National Lampoon's Animal House, An American Werewolf in London, Trading Places, Michael Jackson's music video Thriller, The Blues Brothers, and Beverly Hills Cop III.\n\nEarly life\n\nLandis was born into a Jewish family in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Shirley Levine (née Magaziner) and Marshall Landis, an interior designer and decorator. Landis and his parents relocated to Los Angeles when he was four months old. Though spending his childhood in California, Landis still refers to Chicago as his hometown, and is a big fan of the Chicago White Sox baseball team.\n\nLandis began his film career working as a mailboy at 20th Century Fox. He worked as a \"go-fer\" and then as an assistant director during filming MGM's Kelly's Heroes in Yugoslavia in 1969; he replaced the film's original assistant director, who became ill and was sent home. During that time Landis became acquainted with actors Don Rickles and Donald Sutherland, both of whom would later work in his films. Following Kelly's Heroes, Landis worked on several films that were shot in Europe (especially in Italy and England), including Once Upon a Time in the West, El Condor and A Town Called Bastard (a.k.a. A Town Called Hell). Landis also worked as a stunt double.\n\nAfter working as a stunt double, Landis moved to London and worked as an uncredited co-writer for the film The Spy Who Loved Me.\n\nWhen Landis was a young boy, he watched The 7th Voyage of Sinbad which inspired him to become a director: \n\nI had complete suspension of disbelief—really, I was eight years old and it transported me. I was on that beach running from that dragon, fighting that Cyclops. It just really dazzled me, and I bought it completely. And so, I actually sat through it twice and when I got home, I asked my mom, “Who does that? Who makes the movie?” \n\nCareer\n\nEarly\n\nLandis made his feature debut in 1971 as a director in the US with Schlock. He was 21 years old. The film, which he also wrote and appeared in, is a tribute to monster movies. The gorilla suit for the film was made by Rick Baker—the beginning of a long-term collaboration between Landis and Baker. Schlock was a failure, and Landis was not offered another directing job for some time. \n\nIn his own words, he \"parked a lot of cars\" during this fallow period. In 1977, Landis directed Kentucky Fried Movie. The film was inspired by the satirical sketch comedy of shows like Monty Python, Free the Army, The National Lampoon Radio Hour and Saturday Night Live.\n\n1978–1981\n\nIn 1978 Landis directed his first film for Universal Studios, National Lampoon's Animal House, which was financially successful. In 1980 he co-wrote and directed The Blues Brothers, a comedy starring John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd. It featured musical numbers by R&B and soul legends James Brown, Cab Calloway, Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles and John Lee Hooker. It was, at the time, one of the most expensive films ever made (cost: almost $30 million) (for comparison: the earlier Steven Spielberg's contemporary 1941 cost $35 million). It is speculated that Spielberg and Landis engaged in a rivalry, the goal of which was to make the more expensive movie. The rivalry might have been a friendly one, as Spielberg makes a cameo appearance in Blues Brothers (as the unnamed desk clerk near the end) and Landis had made a cameo in 1941 as a messenger.\n\nIn 1981, Landis wrote and directed another cult-status movie, the comedy-horror An American Werewolf in London. It was perhaps Landis's most personal project; he had been planning to make it since 1969, while in Yugoslavia.\n\nTwilight Zone deaths\n\nOn July 23, 1982, during the filming of Twilight Zone, actor Vic Morrow and child extras Myca Dinh Le (age 7) and Renee Shin-Yi Chen (age 6) were killed in an accident involving an out-of-control helicopter. The three were caught under the aircraft when it crashed. The National Transportation Safety Board reported in October 1984:\nLandis and four other crew members were charged with involuntary manslaughter. The prosecutors attempted to show that Landis was reckless, and had not told the parents and others of the children's proximity to explosives and helicopters and of limitations on their working hours. He admitted that he had violated the California law regulating employment of children, by using the children after hours, and conceded that that was \"wrong.\" But he denied culpability. Numerous members of the film crew testified that the director was warned, but ignored these dangers. After a nine-month jury trial during 1986 and 1987, Landis, represented by criminal defense attorney Harland Braun, and the other crew members were acquitted of the charges.\n\nLandis was later reprimanded for circumventing the State of California's child labor laws in hiring the two children. This tragedy resulted in stricter safety measures and enforcement of child labor laws in California. The parents of the children sued, and eventually settled out of court with the studio for $2 million per family. Morrow's children, one of them being actress Jennifer Jason Leigh, who was 20 at the time, also settled out of court for an undisclosed sum.\n\nLandis has never acknowledged culpability for the accident. During an interview with Giulia D'Agnolo Vallan, he said:\n\nSubsequent film career\n\nTrading Places, a Prince and the Pauper-style comedy starring Dan Aykroyd and Eddie Murphy, was filmed directly after the Twilight Zone accident. After filming ended, Landis and his family went to London.\n\nNext, Landis directed Into the Night, starring Jeff Goldblum, Michelle Pfeiffer and David Bowie. This film was inspired by Hitchcock productions; Landis appeared in the film as an Iranian hitman. To promote the movie, he collaborated with Jeff Okun to direct a documentary film called B.B. King \"Into the Night\".\n\nHis next film, Spies Like Us, (starring co-writer Dan Aykroyd and Chevy Chase) was an homage to the Road to... films of Bob Hope and Bing Crosby. Hope made a cameo in the Landis film, portraying himself. \n\nIn 1986 Landis directed ¡Three Amigos!, which featured Chevy Chase, Martin Short and Steve Martin. \n\nLandis co-directed and produced Amazon Women on the Moon. It is a satirical comedy film that parodies the experience of watching low-budget movies on late-night television. \n\nLandis next directed the Eddie Murphy film Coming to America, which was commercially successful. It was also the subject of Buchwald v. Paramount, a civil suit filed by Art Buchwald in 1990 against the film's producers. Buchwald claimed that the concept for the film had been stolen from a 1982 script that Paramount optioned from Buchwald. Buchwald won the breach of contract action. \n\nIn 1991 he directed Sylvester Stallone in Oscar, based on a Claude Magnier stage play. Oscar recreates a 1930 era film, including the gestures along with bit acts and with some slapstick, as an homage to old Hollywood films. In 1992 Landis directed Innocent Blood, a horror-crime film.\n\nIn 1994, Landis directed Eddie Murphy in Beverly Hills Cop III. They had previously worked together on Trading Places and Coming to America. In 1996 he directed The Stupids. Then he returned to Universal to direct Blues Brothers 2000 in 1998 with John Goodman and, for the third time in a Landis film, Dan Aykroyd: during that same year, he directed Susan's Plan. The four movies did not score with critics and audiences.\n\nBurke and Hare was released in 2010, Landis's first theatrical release for over a decade.\n\nIn August 2011, Landis said he would return to horror and would be writing a new film. He was the executive producer on the comedy horror film Some Guy Who Kills People.\n\nMusic videos\n\nHe has directed several music videos. He was approached by Michael Jackson to make a video for his song, \"Thriller\". The resulting video significantly impacted MTV and the concept of music videos; it has won numerous awards, including the Video Vanguard Award for The Greatest Video in the History of the World. In 2009 (months before Jackson died), Landis sued the Jackson estate in a dispute over royalties for the video; he claimed to be owed at least four years' worth of royalties. \n\nIn 1991, Landis collaborated again with Michael Jackson on the music video for the song \"Black or White\".\n\nTelevision\n\nLandis has been active in television as the executive producer (and often director) of the series Dream On (1990), Weird Science (1994), Sliders (1995), Honey, I Shrunk the Kids: The TV Show (1997), Campus Cops (1995), Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World (1998), Masters of Horror, and various episodes of Psych. He also made commercials for DirecTV, Taco Bell, Coca Cola, Pepsi, Kellogg's, and Disney. In 2011 he made an\nappearance in Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton's television series Psychoville\n\nDocumentaries\n\nLandis made his first documentary, Coming Soon in 1982; it was only released on VHS. Next, he co-directed B.B. King \"Into the Night\" (1985) and in 2002 directed Where Are They Now?: A Delta Alumni Update, which can be seen as a part of the Animal House DVD extras. Initially, his documentaries were only made to promote his feature films. However, later in his career, he became more serious about the oeuvre and made Slasher (2004), Mr. Warmth: The Don Rickles Project (2007) and Starz Inside: Ladies or Gentlemen (2009). These documentaries were filmed for television; Landis won a 2008 Emmy Award for Mr. Warmth. He worked on the Making of Thriller, which was filmed in 3-D. Landis appeared in the Spanish documentary The Man Who Saw Frankenstein Cry, which covered the career of Spanish movie director Paul Naschy. \n\nPersonal life\n\nLandis stated that he feels the deaths of the two children from the accident on the set of The Twilight Zone in 1982 stick with him daily and that he feels it has certainly affected the growth of his career.\n\nLandis is married to Deborah Nadoolman, an Oscar-nominated costume designer, two-term president of the Costume Designers Guild, and chair of The David C. Copley Center for the Study of Costume Design at UCLA. They have two children: Max, a screenwriter, and Rachel, a school teacher with a master's degree in Human Development. In a BBC Radio interview, he stated that he is an atheist. \n\nArchive\n\nThe moving image collection of John Landis is held at the Academy Film Archive. \n\nAwards\n\n;Nominations\n* Schlock for Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films\n* Twilight Zone: The Movie for Best Film at Fantasporto\n* Dream On was nominated four times in the Comedy Series category at the CableACE Awards\n\n;Awards won:\n* Schlock won the Best Film award during Fantafestival\n* Into the Night won the Special Jury Prize at the Cognac Festival du Film Policier\n* Dream On won a CableACE Award in the Comedy Series in 1992\n* Mr. Warmth: The Don Rickles Project won in the \"Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Special\" category at the Emmy Awards\n* French government in 1985 (Chevalier dans l'ordre des Arts et des Lettres)\n* Rimini Cinema Festival in Italy (Federico Fellini Prize)\n* George Eastman Scholar, The Eastman House\n* Sitges Film Festival in Spain (Time Machine Career Achievement Award)\n\nFilmography\n\nFeature films\n\nDirected by Landis:\n* Schlock (1973) (also writer)\n* The Kentucky Fried Movie (1977)\n* National Lampoon's Animal House (1978)\n* The Blues Brothers (1980) (co-written with Dan Aykroyd)\n* An American Werewolf in London (1981) (also writer)\n* Trading Places (1983)\n* Into the Night (1985)\n* Spies Like Us (1985)\n* ¡Three Amigos! (1986)\n* Coming to America (1988)\n* Oscar (1991)\n* Innocent Blood (1992)\n* Beverly Hills Cop III (1994)\n* The Stupids (1996)\n* Blues Brothers 2000 (1998) (co-written with Dan Aykroyd)\n* Susan's Plan (1998) (also writer)\n* Burke and Hare (2010)\n\nCo-directed by Landis:\n* Twilight Zone: The Movie (with Steven Spielberg, George Miller and Joe Dante, also producer of the film with Steven Spielberg) (1983)\n* Amazon Women on the Moon (with Joe Dante, Carl Gottlieb, Peter Horton & Robert K. Weiss, also producer of the film with Robert K. Weiss) (1987)\n\nWritten by Landis:\n* Clue (1985) (with Jonathan Lynn)\n\nAs an actor:\n* Kelly's Heroes (1970) as Sister Rosa Stigmata\n* Battle for the Planet of the Apes (1973) as Jake's Friend\n* Death Race 2000 (1975) as Mechanic\n* The Muppet Movie (1979) as Grover\n* 1941 (1979) as Mizerany\n* The Muppets Take Manhattan (1984) as Leonard Winesop\n* Darkman (1990) as Physician\n* Sleepwalkers (1992) as Lab Technician\n* The Stand (miniseries) (1994) Russ Dorr (cameo)\n* Mad City (1997) as Doctor\n* Spider-Man 2 (2004) as Doctor\n* Attack of the 50 Foot Cheerleader (2012) as Professor White\n* Wrestling isn't Wrestling (2015) as Therapist\n\nDocumentary films\n\nFor Video/DVD:\n* Coming Soon (1982)\n* Where Are They Now?: A Delta Alumni Update (2002)\nFor Television:\n* Slasher (2004)\n* Mr. Warmth: The Don Rickles Project (2006)\nCo-directed by Landis:\n* B.B. King \"Into the Night\" (video segments, 1985)\n\nMusic videos\n\nShort films for Michael Jackson:\n* Thriller (1983)\n* Black or White (1991)\nFor B.B. King (from film B.B. King \"Into the Night\"):\n* My Lucille\n* Into the Night\n* In the Midnight Hour\nFor Paul McCartney:\n* Spies Like Us (1986)\n\nTelevision episodes\n\n* Disneyland's 30th Anniversary Celebration (1 episode, 1985)\n* George Burns Comedy Week (1 episode, \"Disaster at Buzz Creek\", 1985)\n* Disneyland's 35th Anniversary Celebration (1 episode, 1990)\n* Dream On (9 episodes, 1990–1995)\n* Honey, I Shrunk the Kids: The TV Show (1 episode, 1999)\n* Masters of Horror\n\"Deer Woman\" (2005)\n\"Family\" (2006)\n* The Great Sketch Experiment (segments, 2006)\n* Psych (3 episodes, 2007, 2008)\n* Fear Itself\n\"In Sickness and in Health\" (2008)\n* Psychoville (1 episode, 2011)\n\nOther works\n\n* Fastlane (1994; planned TV movie/pilot for Universal's Action Pack television block; never made it to air)\n* Universal 360: A Cinesphere Spectacular (2006)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "John Landis", "John D. 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Where in Australia was swashbuckling Errol Flynn born?	tc_1423	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Australia.txt", "Errol_Flynn.txt" ], "title": [ "Australia", "Errol Flynn" ], "wiki_context": [ "Australia (,,), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.\n\nFor about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, \nwho spoke languages grouped into roughly 250 language groups. After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies were established. On 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Since federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states and on the coast. \n\nAustralia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the world's 12th-largest economy. In 2014 Australia had the world's fifth-highest per capita income. Australia's military expenditure is the world's 13th-largest. With the second-highest human development index globally, Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political rights. Australia is a member of the United Nations, G20, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Trade Organization, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the Pacific Islands Forum.\n\nName\n\nThe name Australia (pronounced in Australian English ) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis (\"southern land\") a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times. The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in \"A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Sir Richard Hakluyt\", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish name \"Austrialia del Espíritu Santo\" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit) for an island in Vanuatu. The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. \nThe first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Matthew Flinders' charts of Australia. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nHuman habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago, possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century, most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists and hunter-gatherers. The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. \n\nEuropean arrival\n\nThe first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York.Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 233. The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent \"New Holland\" during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip. In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. With the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the \"First Fleet\", under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788, a date which became Australia's national day, Australia Day, although the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration and settlement of other regions.\n\nA British settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Western Australia (the Swan River Colony) in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia. South Australia was founded as a \"free province\"—it was never a penal colony. Victoria and Western Australia were also founded \"free\", but later accepted transported convicts. A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony; the last convict ship arrived in 1848. \n\nThe indigenous population, estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 in 1788, declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease. Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers. A government policy of \"assimilation\" beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—often referred to as the Stolen Generations—a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population. The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum. Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius (\"land belonging to no one\") before the European occupation. \n\nColonial expansion\n\nA gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence, and international shipping.\n\nNationhood\n\nOn 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting. This established the Commonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911. In 1914, Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party. Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front. Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded. Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action. The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II. \n\nBritain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia adopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II. The shock of the United Kingdom's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty. After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe. Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted. As a result, Australia's demography, culture, and self-image were transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London. In a 1999 referendum, 55% of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972, there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations, while maintaining close ties with Australia's traditional allies and trading partners. \n\nGovernment\n\nAustralia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of her ministers. The most notable exercise to date of the Governor-General's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975. \n\nThe federal government is separated into three branches:\n* The legislature: the bicameral Parliament, defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen (represented by the Governor-General), the Senate, and the House of Representatives;\n* The executive: the Federal Executive Council, which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet, comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the Governor-General; \n* The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Federal Executive Council.\n\nIn the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory). The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as \"electorates\" or \"seats\", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats. Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.\n\nAustralia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote. Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction, as is enrolment (with the exception of South Australia). The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament. \n\nThere are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses.\n\nThe most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majority government for the Coalition. Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was sworn into office as Prime Minister by the Governor-General of Australia on 18 September. In September 2015, Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged Abbott for leadership of the Coalition, and was sworn in as the 29th Prime Minister of Australia. \n\nStates and territories\n\nAustralia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria (VIC) and Western Australia (WA)—and two major mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT). In most respects these two territories function as states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including those over schools, state police, the state judiciary, roads, public transport and local government, since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51. \n\nEach state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor; and in the Northern Territory, the Administrator. In the Commonwealth, the Queen's representative is the Governor-General. \n\nThe federal parliament directly administers the following territories:\n* Ashmore and Cartier Islands\n* Australian Antarctic Territory\n* Christmas Island\n* Cocos (Keeling) Islands\n* Coral Sea Islands\n* Heard Island and McDonald Islands\n* Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales\n\nThe external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the Queen. In 2015, the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government, integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council. \n\nMacquarie Island is administered by Tasmania, and Lord Howe Island by New South Wales.\n\nForeign relations and military\n\nOver recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact, and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation. \n\nAustralia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation. It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization, and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand, with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China—the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan, South Korea in 2011, Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement, and as of November 2015 has put the Trans-Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification. \n\nAlong with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore, Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements, a regional defence agreement. A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5 billion for development assistance. Australia ranks fifteenth overall in the Center for Global Development's 2012 Commitment to Development Index. \n\nAustralia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 81,214 personnel (including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists) as of November 2015. The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government. Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief, while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence.\n\nIn the 2015–16 budget, defence spending was A$31.9 billion or 1.92% of GDP, representing the 13th largest defence budget. Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief and armed conflict, including the 2003 invasion of Iraq; it currently has deployed about 2,241 personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including Iraq and Afghanistan. \n\nGeography and climate\n\nAustralia's landmass of 7617930 km2 is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area, Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the \"island continent\", and is sometimes considered the world's largest island. Australia has 34218 km of coastline (excluding all offshore islands), and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8148250 km2. This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory. Apart from Macquarie Island, Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S, and longitudes 112° and 154°E.\n\nThe Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2000 km. Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia. At 2228 m, Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2745 m), on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3492 m and 3355 m respectively. \n\nAustralia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre. It is the flattest continent, with the oldest and least fertile soils; desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The driest inhabited continent, its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm. The population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world, although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline. \n\nEastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than 1600 m in height. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Einasleigh Uplands, Barkly Tableland, and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula. \n\nThe landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Countrywith their tropical climateinclude forest, woodland, wetland, grassland, rainforest and desert. At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara. To the south of these and inland, lie more areas of grassland: the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands. At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia. Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), the famous sandstone monolith, and the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast. \n\nThe climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall (monsoon) climate. The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate. Much of the south-east (including Tasmania) is temperate.\n\nEnvironment\n\nAlthough most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a megadiverse country. Fungi typify that diversity; an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5% have been described—occur in Australia. Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique. About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic. Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755 species. \n\nAustralian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts. Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra. Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world. The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE. Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine. \n\nMany of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species. All these factors have led to Australia having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species. Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established. Australia was ranked 3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014 Environmental Performance Index.\n\nEnvironmental issues\n\nProtection of the environment is a major political issue in Australia. In 2007, the First Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world, lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations. Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10–20% since the 1970s, while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s. \n\nAccording to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern; however, \"the country's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at above the long-term average\". Furthermore, 2014 was Australia's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910. Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought. Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010, 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought.\n\nA carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australia's emissions but was scrapped in 2014 under the Liberal Government. Since the carbon tax was repealed, emissions have again continued to rise. \n\nAustralian biota has been severely impacted by changes occurring since European settlement began in 1788, with more than 10% of mammal species lost in the past 225 years. There have also been 23 bird species or subspecies, 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant species known to be lost during this period. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 was designed to minimise further impacts on ecological communities in Australia and its territories. \n\nEconomy\n\nAustralia is a wealthy country; it generates its income from various sources including mining-related exports, telecommunications, banking and manufacturing. It has a market economy, a relatively high GDP per capita, and a relatively low rate of poverty. In terms of average wealth, Australia ranked second in the world after Switzerland in 2013, although the nation's poverty rate increased from 10.2% to 11.8%, from 2000/01 to 2013. It was identified by the Credit Suisse Research Institute as the nation with the highest median wealth in the world and the second-highest average wealth per adult in 2013. \n\nThe Australian dollar is the currency for the nation, including Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu. With the 2006 merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney Futures Exchange, the Australian Securities Exchange became the ninth largest in the world. \n\nRanked third in the Index of Economic Freedom (2010), Australia is the world's twelfth largest economy and has the fifth highest per capita GDP (nominal) at $66,984. The country was ranked second in the United Nations 2011 Human Development Index and first in Legatum's 2008 Prosperity Index. All of Australia's major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys; Melbourne reached top spot for the fourth year in a row on The Economists 2014 list of the world's most liveable cities, followed by Adelaide, Sydney, and Perth in the fifth, seventh, and ninth places respectively. Total government debt in Australia is about $190 billion – 20% of GDP in 2010. Australia has among the highest house prices and some of the highest household debt levels in the world. \n\nAn emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a significant increase in Australia's terms of trade since the start of the 21st century, due to rising commodity prices. Australia has a balance of payments that is more than 7% of GDP negative, and has had persistently large current account deficits for more than 50 years. Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6% for over 15 years, in comparison to the OECD annual average of 2.5%. Australia was the only advanced economy not to experience a recession due to the global financial downturn in 2008–2009. However, the economies of six of Australia's major trading partners have been in recession, which in turn has affected Australia, significantly hampering its economic growth in recent years. From 2012 to early 2013, Australia's national economy grew, but some non-mining states and Australia's non-mining economy experienced a recession. \n\nThe Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the financial system. The Howard Government followed with a partial deregulation of the labour market and the further privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry. The indirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% Goods and Services Tax (GST). In Australia's tax system, personal and company income tax are the main sources of government revenue. \n\nIn May 2012, there were 11,537,900 people employed (either full- or part-time), with an unemployment rate of 5.1%. Youth unemployment (15–24) stood at 11.2%. Data released in mid-November 2013 showed that the number of welfare recipients had grown by 55%. In 2007 228,621 Newstart unemployment allowance recipients were registered, a total that increased to 646,414 in March 2013. According to the Graduate Careers Survey, full-time employment for newly qualified professionals from various occupations has declined since 2011 but it increases for graduates three years after graduation. \n\nSince 2008, inflation has typically been 2–3% and the base interest rate 5–6%. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, accounts for about 70% of GDP. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat and wool, minerals such as iron-ore and gold, and energy in the forms of liquified natural gas and coal. Although agriculture and natural resources account for only 3% and 5% of GDP respectively, they contribute substantially to export performance. Australia's largest export markets are Japan, China, the US, South Korea, and New Zealand. Australia is the world's fourth largest exporter of wine, and the wine industry contributes $5.5 billion per year to the nation's economy. \n\nDemographics\n\nUntil the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles, and a majority of Australians have some British or Irish ancestry. In the 2011 Australian census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were English (36.1%), Australian (35.4%), Irish (10.4%), Scottish (8.9%), Italian (4.6%), German (4.5%), Chinese (4.3%), Indian (2.0%), Greek (1.9%), and Dutch (1.7%).\n\nAustralia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I, much of this increase from immigration. Following World War II and through to 2000, almost 5.9 million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born in another country. Most immigrants are skilled, but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees. By 2050, Australia's population is currently projected to reach around 42 million. Nevertheless, its population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, remains among the lowest in the world. As such, Australians have more living space per person than the inhabitants of any other nation. \n\nIn 2011, 24.6% of Australians were born elsewhere and 43.1% of people had at least one overseas-born parent; the five largest immigrant groups were those from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, China, India, and Vietnam. Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism. In 2005–06, more than 131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania. The migration target for 2012–13 is 190,000, compared to 67,900 in 1998–99. \n\nThe Indigenous population—Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders—was counted at 548,370 (2.5% of the total population) in 2011, a significant increase from 115,953 in the 1976 census. The increase is partly due to many people with Indigenous heritage previously having been overlooked by the census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status had not been recorded on the form. Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are, respectively, 11 and 17 years lower than those of non-indigenous Australians. Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having \"failed state\"-like conditions. \n\nIn common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2004, the average age of the civilian population was 38.8 years. A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002–03; 1 million or 5% of the total population in 2005 ) live outside their home country.\n\nLanguage\n\nAlthough Australia has no official language, English has always been entrenched as the de facto national language. \"English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language.\" Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon, and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling. General Australian serves as the standard dialect. According to the 2011 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for close to 81% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin (1.7%), Italian (1.5%), Arabic (1.4%), Cantonese (1.3%), Greek (1.3%), and Vietnamese (1.2%); a considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are bilingual. A 2010–2011 study by the Australia Early Development Index found the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic, followed by Vietnamese, Greek, Chinese, and Hindi. \n\nOver 250 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact, of which less than 20 are still in daily use by all age groups. About 110 others are spoken exclusively by older people. At the time of the 2006 census, 52,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 12% of the Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home. Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of about 5,500 deaf people. \n\nReligion\n\nAustralia has no state religion; Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government from making any law to establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion. In the 2011 census, 61.1% of Australians were counted as Christian, including 25.3% as Roman Catholic and 17.1% as Anglican; 22.3% of the population reported having \"no religion\"; 7.2% identify with non-Christian religions, the largest of these being Buddhism (2.5%), followed by Islam (2.2%), Hinduism (1.3%) and Judaism (0.5%). The remaining 9.4% of the population did not provide an adequate answer. \n\nBefore European settlement, the animist beliefs of Australia's indigenous people had been practised for many thousands of years. Mainland Aboriginal Australians' spirituality is known as the Dreamtime and it places a heavy emphasis on belonging to the land. The collection of stories that it contains shaped Aboriginal law and customs. Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions. The spirituality and customs of Torres Strait Islanders, who inhabit the islands between Australia and New Guinea, reflected their Melanesian origins and dependence on the sea. The 1996 Australian census counted more than 7000 respondents as followers of a traditional Aboriginal religion. \n\nSince the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in 1788, Christianity has grown to be the major religion practised in Australia. Christian churches have played an integral role in the development of education, health and welfare services in Australia. For much of Australian history the Church of England (now known as the Anglican Church of Australia) was the largest religious denomination. However, multicultural immigration has contributed to a decline in its relative position, and the Roman Catholic Church has benefitted from recent immigration to become the largest group. Similarly, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism and Judaism have all grown in Australia over the past half-century. \n\nAustralia has one of the lowest levels of religious adherence in the world. In 2001, only 8.8% of Australians attended church on a weekly basis. \n\nEducation\n\nSchool attendance, or registration for home schooling, is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is the responsibility of the individual states and territories so the rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16. In some states (e.g., Western Australia, the Northern Territory and New South Wales ), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship.\n\nAustralia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003. However, a 2011–12 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50%. In the Programme for International Student Assessment, Australia regularly scores among the top five of thirty major developed countries (member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Catholic education accounts for the largest non-government sector.\n\nAustralia has 37 government-funded universities and two private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level. The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university. There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople. About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications, and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia is the highest in the OECD countries. In addition, 38 percent of Australia's population has a university or college degree, which is among the highest percentages in the world. \n\nHealth\n\nAustralia has the third and seventh highest life expectancy of males and females respectively in the world. Life expectancy in Australia in 2010 was 79.5 years for males and 84.0 years for females. Australia has the highest rates of skin cancer in the world, while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%. Australia ranks 35th in the world and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults and nearly two thirds (63%) of its adult population is either overweight or obese.\n\nTotal expenditure on health (including private sector spending) is around 9.8% of GDP. Australia introduced universal health care in 1975. Known as Medicare, it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently set at 1.5%. The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.\n\nCulture\n\nSince 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, pp. 98–99. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.Teo and White, pp. 121–23. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. \n\nArts\n\nThe rock art of Australia's Indigenous peoples is the oldest and richest in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites. Traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, \"the last great art movement of the 20th century\"; its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye. During the first century of European settlement, colonial artists, trained in Europe, showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land. The naturalistic, sun-filled works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and others associated with the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first \"distinctively Australian\" movement in Western art—gave expression to a burgeoning Australian nationalism in the lead-up to Federation.[http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/discover-art/learn-more/australian-art/ Australian art], Art Gallery of New South Wales. Retrieved 27 August 2014. While the school remained influential into the new century, modernists such as Margaret Preston, and, later, Sidney Nolan and Arthur Boyd, explored new artistic trends. The landscape remained a central subject matter for Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-World War II artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract. The National Gallery of Australia and state galleries maintain collections of Australian and international art. Australia has one of the world's highest attendances of art galleries and museums per head of population. \n\nAustralian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older. 19th-century writers such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary. Their works are still very popular; Paterson's bush poem \"Waltzing Matilda\" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem. Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life. Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973. Australian winners of the Booker Prize include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan. Author David Malouf, playwright David Williamson and poet Les Murray are also renowned literary figures. \n\nMany of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council. There is a symphony orchestra in each state, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland. At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers. Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company. \n\nMedia\n\nThe Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature length film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. After World War I, Hollywood monopolised the industry, and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased. With the benefit of government support, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as Wake in Fright and Gallipoli, while \"Crocodile\" Dundee and the Ozploitation movement's Mad Max series became international blockbusters. In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015. The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger. \n\nAustralia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. In 2010, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 18th on a list of 178 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (19th) and United States (20th). This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia; most print media are under the control of News Corporation and Fairfax Media. \n\nCuisine\n\nMost Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker. The first settlers introduced British food to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday roast. Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the influence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese-inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll. Vegemite, pavlova, lamingtons and meat pies are regarded as iconic Australian foods. Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.\n\nSport and recreation\n\nAbout 24% of Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities. At an international level, Australia has excelled at cricket, field hockey, netball, rugby league and rugby union. The majority of Australians live within the coastal zone, making the beach a popular recreation spot and an integral part of the nation's identity. Australia is a powerhouse in water-based sports, such as swimming and surfing. The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia, and the volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons. Nationally, other popular sports include Australian rules football, horse racing, basketball, surfing, soccer, and motor racing. The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race attract intense interest. \n\nAustralia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era, and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney. Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games, hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and will host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Australia made its inaugural appearance at the Pacific Games in 2015. As well as being a regular FIFA World Cup participant, Australia has won the OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup once – the only country to have won championships in two different FIFA confederations. The country regularly competes among the world elite basketball teams as it is among the global top three teams in terms of qualifications to the Basketball Tournament at the Summer Olympics. Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament, international cricket matches, and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix. The highest-rating television programs include sports telecasts such as the Summer Olympics, FIFA World Cup, The Ashes, Rugby League State of Origin, and the grand finals of the National Rugby League and Australian Football League. Skiing in Australia began in the 1860s and snow sports take place in the Australian Alps and parts of Tasmania.", "Errol Leslie Flynn (20 June 1909 – 14 October 1959) was an Australian born actor who achieved fame in Hollywood after 1935. He was known for his romantic swashbuckler roles in Hollywood films, and became an American citizen in 1942.\n\nEarly life\n\nFlynn was born in a suburb of Hobart, Tasmania, where his father, Theodore, was a lecturer (1909) and later professor (1911) of biology at the University of Tasmania. Flynn was born at the Queen Alexandra Hospital in Battery Point. His mother was born Lily Mary Young, but dropped the first names Lily Mary shortly after she was married and changed her name to Marelle. Flynn described his mother's family as \"seafaring folk\" and this appears to be where his lifelong interest in boats and the sea originated. Despite Flynn's claims, the evidence indicates that he was not descended from any of the Bounty mutineers. Married at St. John's Church of England, Birchgrove, Sydney, on 23 January 1909, both of his parents were native-born Australians of Irish, English and Scottish descent. \n\nAfter early schooling in Hobart, from 1923 to 1925 Flynn was educated at the South West London College, a private boarding school in Barnes, London, and in 1926 returned to Australia to attend Sydney Church of England Grammar School (Shore School) where he was the classmate of a future Australian prime minister, John Gorton. He concluded his formal education with being expelled from Shore for theft,Moore, John Hammond 'The Young Errol Flynn Before Hollywood' (2nd Edition, 2011), Trafford Publishing and—according to his own account—having been caught in a romantic assignation with the school's laundress. After being dismissed from a job as a junior clerk with a Sydney shipping company for pilfering petty cash, he went to Papua New Guinea at the age of eighteen, seeking and failing to find his fortune in tobacco planting and metals mining. He spent the next five years oscillating between the New Guinea frontier territory and Sydney. In January 1931, he became engaged to Naomi Campbell-Dibbs, the youngest daughter of Mr and Mrs R Campbell-Dibbs of Temora and Bowral NSW, a relationship which ended before 1935. \n\nEarly career\n\nIn early 1933, Flynn appeared as an amateur actor in the Australian film In the Wake of the Bounty, in the lead role of Fletcher Christian. Later that year he returned to Britain to pursue a career in acting, and soon secured a job with the Northampton Repertory Company at the town's Royal Theatre (now part of Royal & Derngate), where he worked and received his training as a professional actor for seven months. Northampton is home to an art-house cinema named after him, the Errol Flynn Filmhouse. He performed at the 1934 Malvern Festival and in Glasgow, and briefly in London's West End. \n\nIn 1934 Flynn was dismissed from Northampton Rep. after he threw a female stage manager down a stairwell. He returned to Warner Brothers' Teddington Studios in Middlesex where he had worked as an extra in the film I Adore You before going to Northampton. With his new-found acting skills he was cast as the lead in Murder at Monte Carlo (currently a lost film). During its filming he was signed by Warner Bros. and emigrated to the U.S. as a contract actor.\n\nHollywood\n\nFlynn was an immediate sensation in his first starring Hollywood role, Captain Blood (1935). Typecast as a swashbuckler, he helped to re-invent the action-adventure genre with a succession of films over the next six years, most under the direction of Michael Curtiz: The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936),The Prince and the Pauper (1937), The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938; his first Technicolor film), The Dawn Patrol (1938), Dodge City (1939), The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939) and The Sea Hawk (1940). \n\nIn collaboration with Hollywood's best fight arrangers, Flynn became noted for fast-paced sword fights, beginning with The Adventures of Robin Hood, The Sea Hawk and Captain Blood. He demonstrated an acting range beyond action-adventure roles in light contemporary social comedies, such as The Perfect Specimen (1937) and Four's a Crowd (1938), and melodrama The Sisters (1938). During this period Flynn published his first book, Beam Ends (1937), an autobiographical account of his sailing experiences around Australia as a youth. He also travelled to Spain, in 1937, as a war correspondent during the Spanish Civil War. \n\nFlynn co-starred with Olivia de Havilland a total of eight times, and together they made the most successful on-screen romantic partnership in Hollywood in the late 1930s-early 1940s in Captain Blood (1935), The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936), The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), Four's a Crowd (1938), Dodge City (1939), The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939), Santa Fe Trail (1940) and They Died with Their Boots On (1941). While Flynn acknowledged his personal attraction to de Havilland, assertions by film historians that they were romantically involved during the filming of Robin Hood were denied by de Havilland. \"Yes, we did fall in love and I believe that this is evident in the screen chemistry between us,\" she told an interviewer in 2009. \"But his circumstances [Flynn's marriage to actress Lili Damita] at the time prevented the relationship going further. I have not talked about it a great deal but the relationship was not consummated. Chemistry was there though. It was there.\" \n\nFlynn's relationship with Bette Davis, his co-star in The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939), was quarrelsome; Davis allegedly slapped him across the face far harder than necessary during one scene. Flynn attributed her anger to unrequited romantic interest, but according to others, Davis resented sharing equal billing with a man she considered incapable of playing any role beyond a dashing adventurer. \"He himself openly said, 'I don't know really anything about acting',\" she told an interviewer, \"and I admire his honesty, because he's absolutely right.\" Years later, however, de Havilland recounted that during a private screening of Elizabeth and Essex, an astounded Davis exclaimed, \"Damn it! The man could act!\" \n\nIn 1940, at the zenith of his career, Flynn was voted the fourth most popular star in the US and the seventh most popular in Britain. He was a member of the Hollywood Cricket Club with David Niven, and a talented tennis player on the California club circuit. His suave, debonair, devil-may-care attitude was characterised as \"Errolesque\" by author Benjamin S. Johnson in his treatise, An Errolesque Philosophy on Life. \n\nSecond World War\n\nFlynn became a naturalised American citizen on 14 August 1942. As the United States had by then entered the Second World War, he attempted to enlist in the armed services, but failed the physical exam due to multiple heart problems (including at least one heart attack), recurrent malaria (contracted in New Guinea), chronic back pain (self-medicated with morphine and later, heroin), chronic tuberculosis and numerous venereal diseases. This created an image problem for both Flynn, the supposed paragon of male physical prowess, and for Warner Brothers, which continued to cast him in athletic roles, including such patriotic productions as Dive Bomber (1941), Desperate Journey (1942) and Objective, Burma! (1945).Thomas, Tony. Errol Flynn: The Spy Who Never Was\n\nDespite widespread criticism, Flynn's failure to join other Hollywood stars in military service was never explained by the studio, which had no desire to publicise the health problems of one of its most valuable assets. \n\nPost-war career\n\nIn 1946, Flynn published an adventure novel, Showdown, and earned a reported $184,000 (). In 1947 he signed a 15-year contract with Warner Bros. for $225,000 per film. His income totaled $214,000 that year, and $200,000 in 1948. \n\nAfter the Second World War, the taste of the American filmgoing audience changed from European-themed material and the English history-based escapist epics in which Flynn excelled, to more gritty, urban realism and film noir, reflecting modern American life. Flynn tried unsuccessfully to make the transition in Uncertain Glory (1944) and Cry Wolf (1947), and then increasingly passe Westerns such as Silver River (1948) and Montana (1950).\n\nFlynn's behaviour became increasingly disruptive during filming; he was released from his contract in 1950 by Jack L. Warner as part of a stable-clearing of 1930s glamour-generation stars. His Hollywood career over at the age of 41, Flynn entered a steep financial and physical decline.\n\nEurope\n\nIn the 1950s, after losing his savings from the Hollywood years in a series of financial disasters, including The Story of William Tell (1954), he became a parody of himself, sailing aimlessly around the Western Mediterranean aboard his yacht . Heavy alcohol abuse left him prematurely aged and overweight. He staved off financial ruin with roles in forgettable productions such as King's Rhapsody (1955) in the UK's failing film industry, Hello God (1951) and Crossed Swords (1954). He performed in such also-ran Hollywood films as Mara Maru (1952) and Istanbul (1957), and made occasional television appearances. As early as 1952 he had been seriously ill with hepatitis resulting in liver damage. In 1956 he presented and sometimes performed in the television anthology series The Errol Flynn Theatre that was filmed in Britain. He enjoyed a brief revival of popularity with The Sun Also Rises (1957); The Big Boodle (1957), filmed in Cuba; Too Much, Too Soon (1958); and The Roots of Heaven (1958). He met with Stanley Kubrick to discuss a role in Lolita, but nothing came of it. Flynn went to Cuba in late 1958 to film the self-produced B film Cuban Rebel Girls, where he met Fidel Castro and was initially an enthusiastic supporter of the Cuban Revolution. He wrote a series of newspaper and magazine articles for the New York Journal American and other publications documenting his time in Cuba with Castro. Many of these pieces were lost until 2009, when they were rediscovered in a collection at the University of Texas at Austin's Center for American History. He narrated a short film titled Cuban Story: The Truth About Fidel Castro Revolution (1959), his last known work as an actor. \n\nPersonal life\n\nLifestyle\n\nFlynn developed a reputation for womanising, hard drinking and for a time in the 1940s, narcotics abuse. He was linked romantically with Lupe Vélez, Marlene Dietrich, and Dolores del Río, among many others. Carole Lombard is said to have resisted his advances, but invited him to her extravagant parties. He was a regular attendee of William Randolph Hearst's equally lavish affairs at Hearst Castle, though he was once asked to leave after he became excessively intoxicated. \n\nThe expression \"in like Flynn\" is said to have been coined to refer to the supreme ease with which he reputedly seduced women, though there is dispute about its origin. Flynn was reportedly fond of the expression, and later claimed that he wanted to call his memoir In Like Me. (The publisher insisted on a more tasteful title, My Wicked, Wicked Ways.) \n\nHis lifestyle caught up with him in 1942 when two under-age girls, Betty Hansen and Peggy Satterlee, accused him of statutory rape at the Bel Air home of Flynn's friend Frederick McEvoy, and on board Flynn's yacht, respectively. The scandal received immense press attention. Many of Flynn's fans, assuming that his screen persona was a reflection of his actual personality, refused to accept that the charges were true. Some founded organisations to publicly protest the accusation. One such group, the American Boys' Club for the Defense of Errol Flynn—ABCDEF—accumulated a substantial membership that included William F. Buckley, Jr. \n\nThe trial took place in late January and early February 1943; Flynn's attorney, Jerry Giesler, impugned the accusers' character and morals, and accused them of numerous indiscretions, including affairs with married men and, in Satterlee's case, an abortion (which was illegal at the time). He implied that the women had cooperated with prosecutors in hopes of avoiding prosecution themselves. Flynn was acquitted, but the trial's widespread coverage and lurid overtones permanently damaged his carefully cultivated screen image as an idealised romantic leading player. \n\nMarriages and family\n\nFlynn was married three times: to actress Lili Damita from 1935 until 1942 (one son, Sean Flynn, 31 May 1941-disappeared MIA 1971); to Nora Eddington from 1943-49 (two daughters, Deirdre, born 1945 and Rory, born 1947); and to actress Patrice Wymore from 1950 until his death (one daughter, Arnella Roma, 1953–98). In Hollywood, he tended to refer to himself as Irish rather than Australian (his father Theodore Thomson Flynn had been a biologist and a professor at the Queen's University of Belfast in Northern Ireland during the latter part of his career). After quitting Hollywood, Flynn lived with Wymore in Port Antonio, Jamaica in the early 1950s. He was largely responsible for developing tourism to this area and for a while owned the Titchfield Hotel which was decorated by the artist Olga Lehmann. He popularised trips down rivers on bamboo rafts. \n\nHis only son, Sean (born 31 May 1941), was an actor and war correspondent. He and his colleague Dana Stone disappeared in Cambodia in 1970, during the Vietnam War, while both were working as freelance photojournalists for Time magazine. Neither man's remains has ever been found; it is generally assumed that they were killed by Khmer Rouge guerrillas. After a decade-long search financed by his mother, Sean was officially declared dead in 1984. In 2010 a British team uncovered the remains of a Western hostage in the Cambodian jungle, but DNA comparisons with samples from the Flynn family were negative. Sean's life is recounted in the book Inherited Risk: Errol and Sean Flynn in Hollywood and Vietnam. \n\nFlynn's daughter Rory has one son, Sean Rio Flynn, named after her half-brother. He is an actor. Rory Flynn wrote a book about her father, The Baron of Mulholland: A Daughter Remembers Errol Flynn \n\nDeath\n\nBy 1959, Flynn's financial difficulties had become so serious that he flew to Vancouver, British Columbia on 9 October to negotiate the lease of his yacht Zaca to the businessman George Caldough. As Caldough was driving Flynn and the young actress Beverly Aadland, who had accompanied him on the trip, to the airport on 14 October for a Los Angeles-bound flight, Flynn began complaining of severe pain in his back and legs. Caldough transported him to the residence of a doctor, Grant Gould, who noted that Flynn had considerable difficulty negotiating the building's stairway. Gould, assuming that the pain was due to degenerative disc disease and spinal osteoarthritis, administered 50 milligrams of demerol intravenously. As Flynn's discomfort diminished, he \"reminisced at great length about his past experiences\" to those present. He refused a drink when offered it. Gould then performed a leg massage in the apartment's bedroom and advised Flynn to rest there before resuming his journey. Flynn responded that he felt \"ever so much better\". After 20 minutes Aadland checked on Flynn and discovered him unresponsive. Despite immediate emergency medical treatment from Gould and a swift transferral by ambulance to Vancouver General Hospital, he did not regain consciousness and was pronounced dead that evening. The coroner's report noted the cause of death as a heart attack, with a significant incidental finding of cirrhosis of the liver. \n\nBoth of Flynn's parents survived him, as did his former wives and estranged third wife, Patrice Wymore, and his four children. He is buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. \n\nPosthumous controversies\n\nIn 1961, Beverly Aadland's mother, Florence, co-wrote The Big Love with Tedd Thomey, alleging that Flynn had been involved in a sexual relationship with her daughter, who was 15 at the time. The book was later made into a play starring Tracey Ullman as Florence Aadland. \n\nIn 1980, author Charles Higham published a controversial biography, Errol Flynn: The Untold Story, in which he alleged that Flynn was a fascist sympathiser who spied for the Nazis before and during the Second World War, and that he was bisexual and had multiple gay affairs. Higham claimed that Flynn arranged to have Dive Bomber filmed on location at the San Diego Naval Base for the benefit of Japanese military planners, who needed information on American warships and defense installations. He later admitted to the New York Times that he had no documentary evidence to support his claims. Flynn's former housemate David Niven criticised Higham for his unfounded accusations; Higham responded that Niven was ignorant of his friend's activities. Subsequent Flynn biographers were critical of Higham's allegations of Nazi sympathies, and found no evidence to corroborate them.[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/9250507/Charles-Higham.html Charles Higham] The Daily Telegraph, 22 April 2012; \"The book became a bestseller but was roundly denounced, not only by the actor’s widow but also by other biographers, who accused Higham of altering FBI documents to sustain his charges against Flynn. Higham himself was forced to admit that he did not have any direct documentary evidence that Flynn was a Nazi, though he claimed to have “pieced together a mosaic that proves that he is”. Flynn’s family subsequently tried to sue for libel, but since the actor had died in 1959 the suit was dismissed.\" ... \"[Higham] set a tone for vilification later explored by other biographers.\" Lincoln Hurst, for example, reported that Flynn attempted to join the OSS in 1942 and was put under surveillance by the FBI, which uncovered no subversive activities. \n\nIn 1981, Flynn's daughters, Rory and Deirdre, hired Melvin Belli to sue Higham and his publisher Doubleday for libel; the suit was eventually dismissed on the grounds that one cannot libel a person who is dead. In 2000, Higham repeated his charge that Flynn had been a German agent, claiming corroboration from Anne Lane, secretary to MI5 chief Sir Percy Sillitoe from 1946-51, and the person responsible for maintaining Flynn's British intelligence service file. Higham acknowledged that he never saw the file itself, and was unable to secure official confirmation of its existence. \n\nIn a 1982 interview with Penthouse magazine, Ronald DeWolf, son of the author L. Ron Hubbard, said that his father's friendship with Flynn was so strong that Hubbard's family considered Flynn an adoptive father to DeWolf. He claimed that Flynn and his father engaged in illegal activities together, including drug smuggling and sexual acts with under-age girls; but Flynn never joined Hubbard's religious group, Scientology. \n\nJournalist George Seldes, who disliked Flynn intensely, wrote in his 1987 memoir that Flynn did not travel to Spain in 1937 to report on its civil war as announced, nor to deliver cash, medicine, supplies, and food for the Republican soldiers as promised. His purpose, according to Seldes, was to perpetrate a pre-planned hoax that he triggered by sending an \"apparently harmless\" telegram from Madrid to Paris. The following day, American newspapers published an erroneous report that Flynn had been killed at the Spanish front. \"The next day he left Spain,\" Seldes wrote. \"There were no ambulances, no medical supplies, no food for the Spanish Republic, and not one cent of money. The war correspondents said bitterly that it was the cruelest hoax of the time. Flynn ... had used a terrible war just to advertise one of his cheap movies.\"\n\nFilm portrayals\n\n* Duncan Regehr portrayed Flynn in a 1985 American TV film My Wicked, Wicked Ways, loosely based on Flynn's autobiography of the same name.\n* Guy Pearce played Errol Flynn in the 1996 Australian film Flynn, which covers Flynn's youth and early manhood, ending before the start of his Hollywood career.\n* Flynn was portrayed by Jude Law in Martin Scorsese's 2004 film The Aviator.\n* Kevin Kline played Flynn in a film about his final days, The Last of Robin Hood, made in 2013. \n* The character of Alan Swann, portrayed by Peter O'Toole in the 1982 film My Favorite Year, was based on Flynn. \n* The character of Neville Sinclaire (played by Timothy Dalton) in the 1991 film The Rocketeer is based on Flynn; the character's Nazi affiliations are based on Charles Higham's uncorroborated claims in his book, Errol Flynn, the Untold Story.\n\nOther cultural references\n\n* The 1965 Marvel Comics character Fandral, a companion of the Norse God Thor and a member of the Warriors Three, was based on the likeness of Flynn by co-creator Stan Lee. Actor Joshua Dallas, who played the character in Thor, based his portrayal on Flynn. \n* The 1976 Genesis track Blood On The Rooftops (from album Wind and Wuthering) contains the line \"The trouble was started by a young Errol Flynn\". \n* Errol Flynn's life was the subject of the opera Flynn (1977–78) by British composer Judith Bingham. The score is titled: Music-theatre on the life and times of Errol Flynn, in three scenes, three solos, four duets, a mad song and an interlude. \n* \"Errol\" was the title of a 1981 hit pop song by the band Australian Crawl. It appeared on their album Sirocco, which was itself named after Flynn's yacht. \n* Roman Polanski's 1986 film, Pirates was intended to pay homage to the beloved Errol Flynn swashbucklers of his childhood. \n* The English rock band The Dogs D'Amour released an album named \"Errol Flynn\" in 1989, containing a song with the same title.\n* Bob Dylan mentions Errol Flynn in two songs, released in 1991: in \"You Changed My Life\" ('You came in like the wind, like Errol Flynn') and in \"Foot of Pride\" ('And your fall-by-the sword love affair with Errol Flynn'). \n* In 2005, a small waterfront reserve in Sandy Bay, a suburb of Flynn's hometown of Hobart, was renamed from Short Beach to the \"Errol Flynn Reserve\". \n* The Pirate's Daughter, a 2008 novel by Margaret Cezair-Thompson, is a fictionalised account of Flynn's later life. The novel's plot plays extensively on Flynn's purported attraction to under-aged girls. \n* In June 2009 the Errol Flynn Society of Tasmania Inc. organised the Errol Flynn Centenary Celebration, a 10-day series of events designed to celebrate the 100th anniversary of his birth. Be 'in like Flynn' to 10 days of events! On the actual centenary, 20 June 2009, his daughter Rory Flynn unveiled a star with his name on the footpath outside Hobart's heritage State Cinema. \n* In 2009, the Port Antonio mega-yacht marina in the north-eastern coast of Jamaica underwent a name change to the Errol Flynn Marina. \n* The 2010 novel Errol, Fidel and the Cuban Rebel Girls by Boyd Anderson is a fictionalised account of the last year of Flynn's life in Cuba. \n* Jay Electronica song \"2-Step\" Lyrics: \"Chillin' in the circle, Errol Flynnin' it up\" \n\nBibliography\n\n* Beam Ends (1937)\n* Showdown (1946)\n* Flynn, Errol. My Wicked, Wicked Ways: the Autobiography of Errol Flynn. Intro. by Jeffrey Meyers. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2003. Rpt. of My Wicked, Wicked Ways. New York: G.P. Putnam's sons, 1959; ISBN 0-8154-1250-9. \n* Flynn, Errol \"The Quest for an Oscar.\" by James Turiello, BearManor Media, Duncan, Oklahoma. 2012; ISBN 978-1-59393-695-2. \n\nFilmography\n\nSelect radio performances\n\nFlynn appeared in numerous radio performances: \n\nTheatre performances\n\nFlynn appeared on stage in a number of performances, particularly early in his career: \n* The Thirteenth Chair – Dec 1933 – Northampton Rep\n* Jack and the Beanstalk – Dec 1933 – Northampton Rep\n* Sweet Lavendar – January 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Bulldog Drummond – January 1934 –Northampton Rep\n* A Doll's House – January 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* On the Spot – January 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Pygmalion – January–February 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Crime at Blossoms – February 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Yellow Sands – February 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* The Grain of Mustard Seed – February 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Seven Keys to Baldpate – March 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Othello – March 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* The Green Bay Tree – March 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* The Fake – March 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* The Farmer's Wife – March–April 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* The Wind and the Rain – April 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Sheppey – April 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* The Soul of Nicholas Snyders – April 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* The Devil's Disciple – May 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Conflict – May 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Paddy the Next Best Thing – May 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* 9:45 – May–June 1934 – Northampton Rep\n* Malvern festival – July–August 1934 – appeared in A Man's House, History of Dr Faustus, Marvelous History of Saint Bernard, The Moon in Yellow River, Mutiny\n* A Man's House – August – September1934 – Glasgow, St Martin's Lane\n* Master of Thornfield – February 1958 – adaptation of Jane Eyre" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "UN/LOCODE:AUHBA", "Capital of Tasmania", "Hobart", "Hobart, Australia", "Hobart, Tasmania", "Hobart, AU-TAS", "Hobart , Australia", "Hobart Function & Conference Centre", "Hobart Town", "Hobart Pubs and Bars", "Hobart Town, Tasmania" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "capital of tasmania", "hobart au tas", "hobart town", "hobart function conference centre", "un locode auhba", "hobart tasmania", "hobart", "hobart pubs and bars", "hobart australia", "hobart town tasmania" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "hobart", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Hobart" }
At what weight did boxer Chris Eubank win the WBO title in 1990?	tc_1425	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Boxing.txt", "Chris_Eubank.txt", "World_Boxing_Organization.txt" ], "title": [ "Boxing", "Chris Eubank", "World Boxing Organization" ], "wiki_context": [ "Boxing is a martial art and combat sport in which two people wearing protective gloves throw punches at each other for a predetermined set of time in a boxing ring.\n\nAmateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth sport and is a common fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds. The result is decided when an opponent is deemed incapable to continue by a referee, is disqualified for breaking a rule, resigns by throwing in a towel, or is pronounced the winner or loser based on the judges' scorecards at the end of the contest. In the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, the fight is considered a draw (professional boxing). In Olympic boxing, due to the fact that a winner must be declared, in the case of a draw - the judges use technical criteria to choose the most deserving winner of the bout.\n\nWhile people have fought in hand-to-hand combat since before the dawn of history, the origin of boxing as an organized sport may be its acceptance by the ancient Greeks as an Olympic game in BC 688. Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century, again initially in Great Britain and later in the United States.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient history\n\nSee also Ancient Greek boxing\n\nThe earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from the 3rd millennium BCE Later depictions from the 2nd millennium BC are found in reliefs from the Mesopotamian nations of Assyria and Babylonia, and in Hittite art from Asia Minor. The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete (c.1650–1400 BCE), and on Sardinia, if we consider the boxing statues of Prama mountains (c. 2000–1000 BC).\n\nBoxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists. Eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon. The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus which then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex ('limb piercer'). Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events. However, especially in later times, purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities, and their lives were not given up without due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle marked on the floor. This is where the term ring came from. In AD 393, during the Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality. It was not until the late 17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London.\n\nEarly London prize ring rules\n\nRecords of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or \"Fist Fighting\".\n\nAs the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719. This is also the time when the word \"boxing\" first came to be used. It should be noted, that this earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling. On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica) engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize.\n\nEarly fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham, 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, a successful Wrestler from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today. \n\nThe first boxing rules, called the Broughton's rules, were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton encouraged the use of 'mufflers', a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in 'jousting' or sparring sessions in training, and in exhibition matches.\n\nThese rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered \"unmanly\" and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the Boxers. Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to preserve their hands, because the head was a common target to hit full out. Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows. \n\nMarquess of Queensberry rules (1867)\n\nIn 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them.\n\nThere were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be \"a fair stand-up boxing match\" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down, and wrestling was banned.\nThe introduction of gloves of \"fair-size\" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. \nThe gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face.\n\nLate 19th and early 20th centuries\n\nThrough the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police. Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics.\n\nThe English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.\n\nThe first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was \"Gentleman Jim\" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans. \n\nThe first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada, where it was legal at the time.\n\nThroughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy. They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan.\n\nRules\n\nThe Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.\n\nA boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds. A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls.\n\nUp to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches that connect, defense, knockdowns, and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one or both fighters believe they have been \"robbed\" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more \"seconds\" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signaled end of each round.\n\nA bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to \"go the distance\". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out ; such bouts are said to have ended \"inside the distance\". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue.\n\nShould the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled \"knocked out\" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A \"technical knock-out\" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a \"three-knockdown rule\", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A \"standing eight\" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that he feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if he is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown.\n\nIn general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the neck or head (called a \"rabbit-punch\") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between).\n\nIf a \"clinch\" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to \"punch out\" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue.\n\nViolations of these rules may be ruled \"fouls\" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a \"no contest\" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed.\n\nUnheard of these days, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a \"newspaper decision (NWS)\" might be made after a no decision bout had ended. A \"no decision\" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications. Officially, however, a \"no decision\" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report.\n\nProfessional vs. amateur boxing\n\nThroughout the 17th to 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts. Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career.\n\nAmateur boxing\n\nAmateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games, and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds.\n\nCompetitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle. There are cases however, where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn. The white end just is a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits. Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves. Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless, the fighters weigh under 165 pounds, thus allowing them to wear 10 ounce gloves. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced. Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as \"RSC\" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH).\n\nProfessional boxing\n\nProfessional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts, especially in Australia. Through the early twentieth century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the twentieth century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds.\n\nHeadgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted. At any time, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare-chested. \n\nBoxing styles\n\nDefinition of style\n\n\"Style\" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout. No two fighters' styles are alike, as it is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes. Three main styles exist in boxing: outside fighter (\"boxer\"), brawler (or \"slugger\"), and Inside fighter (\"swarmer\"). These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as counter puncher, etc. The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage over one, but disadvantage over the other one. It follows the rock-paper-scissors scenario - boxer beats brawler, brawler beats swarmer, and swarmer beats boxer. \n\nBoxer/out-fighter\n\nA classic \"boxer\" or stylist (also known as an \"out-fighter\") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler. Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.\n\nNotable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe Wilfredo Gómez, \nSalvador Sanchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney, Ezzard Charles, Willie Pep, Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo Lopez, Floyd Mayweather, Roy Jones, Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vazquez, Sergio \"Maravilla\" Martínez, Vitali Klitschko, Wladimir Klitschko, and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed.\n\nBoxer-puncher\n\nA boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter), but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style.\n\nNotable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Wladimir Klitschko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis, Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar de la Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón, Alexis Argüello, Erik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed and Thomas Hearns.\n\nCounter puncher\n\nCounter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one's attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork.\n\nNotable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Vitali Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd Mayweather, Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Gabriel Martinez and Guillermo Rigondeaux.\n\nCounter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches. The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in. The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense. This style can be incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off. They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents. A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike. As such, knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style.\n\nBrawler/slugger\n\nA brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Mainly Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, Mexican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment. However, not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García.\n\nA brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio Cesar Chavez, Roberto Duran, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Jake Lamotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy. This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and James \"Clubber\" Lang.\n\nBrawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other fighting styles because they train to take punches very well. They often have a higher chance than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks. Oftentimes they place focus on training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance. They also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a punch.\n\nSwarmer/in-fighter\n\nIn-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called \"pressure fighters\") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. A successful in-fighter often needs a good \"chin\" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting.\n\nThe essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters utilize their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts where they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his hard \"chin\", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents. Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving.\n\nNotable in-fighters include Julio César Chávez, Miguel Cotto, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Saúl Álvarez, Rocky Marciano, Jack Dempsey, Wayne McCullough, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb, David Tua, Ricky Hatton and Gennady Golovkin.\n\nCombinations of styles\n\nAll fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge. For example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches.\n\nStyle matchups\n\nThere is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock-paper-scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that \"styles make fights.\"\n\nBrawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout \"The Sunshine Showdown\".\n\nAlthough in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime.\n\nThe boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers.\n\nAn example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick Taylor). The match was nicknamed \"Thunder Meets Lightning\" as an allusion to punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the \"Mexican\" style of boxing. Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points. Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor. Coming into the later rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage. While there was little doubt that Taylor had solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would survive the final quarter. Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards of two of the three judges. Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend. However, Taylor did not stay away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez. As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could knock him out.\nWith about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots. Finally, with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him. Suddenly Chávez stepped around Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from Chávez' desperate final flurry. Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that dropped the younger man. By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count. Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer. Steele then concluded that Taylor was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout.\n\nEquipment\n\nSince boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. Both sides are allowed to inspect the wraps and gloves of the opponent to help ensure both are within agreed upon specifications and no tampering has taken place.\n\nA mouth guard is important to protect the teeth and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet. While older boxing boots more commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts.\n\nBoxers practice their skills on two basic types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped \"speed bag\" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical \"heavy bag\" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also utilize sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.\n\nBoxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes attached to posts rising in each corner. The term \"ring\" has come to be used as a metaphor for many aspects of prize fighting in general.\n\nTechnique\n\nStance\n\nThe modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson.\n\nFile:attitude_droite1.jpg\|Upright stance\nFile:attitude_semi-enroulée1.jpg\|Semi-crouch\nFile:attitude_enroulée1.jpg\|Full crouch\n\nIn a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step in front of the lead man. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist (for most penetration power). Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly off-center. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the \"textbook\" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents.\n\nLeft-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand.\n\nNorth American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots.\n\nModern boxers can sometimes be seen tapping their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). Boxers are taught to push off with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.\n\nPunches\n\nThere are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. Any punch other than a jab is considered a power punch. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer.\n\nFile:jab7.jpg\|Jab\nFile:Drop3.jpg\|Cross - in counter-punch with a looping\nFile:crochet1.jpg\|Hook\nFile:uppercut2.jpg\|Uppercut\n\n* Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face.\n** The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or 'wear down' their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko.\n* Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical plane. \n** Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross is also called a \"straight\" or \"right\", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab.\n* Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target.\n** At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the \"rip\" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Notable left hookers include Joe Frazier , Roy Jones Jr. and Mike Tyson.\n\n* Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso.\n** At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to \"lift\" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift the opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out.\n\nThese different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or \"combos.\" The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the \"one-two combo.\" This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully.\n\nA large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a \"roundhouse,\" \"haymaker,\" or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard.\n\nWide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in.\n\nAnother unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm.\n\nAn illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch.\n\nDefense\n\nThere are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below.\n\nFile:slip1.jpg\|Slipping\nFile:slip2.jpg\|Bobbing\nFile:blocage1.jpg\|Blocking (with the arms)\nFile:protection passive1.jpg\|Cover-Up (with the gloves)\nFile:neutraliser1.jpg\|Clinching\nFile:pas de retrait.jpg\|Footwork\nFile:retrait2.jpg\|Pulling away\n\n* Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to \"slip\" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson.\n* Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called \"rolling with the punch\" or \" Riding The Punch\".\n* Duck or break – To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head glances or misses entirely.\n* Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer \"weaves\" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the outside\". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the inside\". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving.\n* Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A \"palm\", \"catch\", or \"cuff\" is a defense which intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove.\n* The cover-up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches \"roll\" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below.\n* The clinch – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or \"tie up\" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing.\n\nLess common strategies\n\n* The \"rope-a-dope\" strategy : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 \"the Rumble in the Jungle\" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as he would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target. Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy while conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Recently, however, eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown.\n* Bolo punch : Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilan. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch.\n\nFile:contre_bolo1.jpg\| Bolo punch\nFile:drop1.jpg\| Overhand (overcut)\n\n* Overhand right : The overhand right is a punch not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the right cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand right has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over the shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko. The overhand right has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking.\n* Check hook : A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport. Floyd Mayweather, Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down.\n\nRing corner\n\nIn boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds for 1 minute and where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts and blood. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts that threaten the boxer's eyes.\n\nIn addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase \"to throw in the towel\", meaning to give up, derives from this practice). This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal.\n\nMedical concerns\n\nKnocking a person unconscious or even causing concussion may cause permanent brain damage. There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person. Since 1980, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters have died due to ring or training injuries. In 1983, editorials in the Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an \"obscenity\" that \"should not be sanctioned by any civilized society.\" Since then, the British, Canadian and Australian Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing.\n\nSupporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: \"It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing.\" Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for \"injury\". They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches winning rounds scored 10-9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many other sports where concussions are much more prevalent. \n\nIn 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage, and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage. The Gothenburg study analyzed temporary levels of neurofiliment light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside. More comprehensive studies of neurologiocal function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University and accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council show amateur boxing is a comparatively safe sport.\n\nIn 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing. \n\nProfessional boxing is forbidden in Iceland, Iran, Saudi Arabia and North Korea. It was banned in Sweden until 2007 when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed. It was banned in Albania from 1965 till the fall of Communism in 1991; it is now legal there. Norway legalized professional boxing in December 2014.\n\nBoxing Hall of Fame\n\nThe sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the World Boxing Hall of Fame (WBHF), with the IBHOF being the more widely recognized boxing hall of fame. In 2013, The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas opened in Las Vegas, NV founded by Steve Lott, former assistant manager for Mike Tyson \n\nThe WBHF was founded by Everett L. Sanders in 1980. Since its inception the WBHOF has never had a permanent location or museum, which has allowed the more recent IBHOF to garner more publicity and prestige. Among the notable names in the WBHF are Ricardo \"Finito\" Lopez, Gabriel \"Flash\" Elorde, Michael Carbajal, Khaosai Galaxy, Henry Armstrong, Jack Johnson, Roberto Durán, George Foreman, Ceferino Garcia and Salvador Sanchez. Boxing's International Hall of Fame was inspired by a tribute an American town held for two local heroes in 1982. The town, Canastota, New York, (which is about 15 mi east of Syracuse, via the New York State Thruway), honored former world welterweight/middleweight champion Carmen Basilio and his nephew, former world welterweight champion Billy Backus. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute which inspired the idea of creating an official, annual hall of fame for notable boxers.\n\nThe International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures include Salvador Sanchez, Jose Napoles, Roberto \"Manos de Piedra\" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel \"Flash\" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event. The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself.\n\nThe Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas features the $75 million ESPN Classic Sports fight film and tape library and radio broadcast collection. The collection includes the fights of all the great champions including: Muhammad Ali, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Roberto Duran, Marvin Hagler, Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Joe Frazier, Rocky Marciano and Sugar Ray Robinson. It is this exclusive fight film library that will separate the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas from the other halls of fame which do not have rights to any video of their sports. The inaugural inductees included Muhammad Ali, Henry Armstrong, Tony Canzoneri, Ezzard Charles, Julio Cesar Chavez Sr., Jack Dempsey, Roberto Duran, Joe Louis, and Sugar Ray Robinson \n\nGoverning and sanctioning bodies\n\n; Governing Bodies\n* British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC)\n* European Boxing Union\n* Nevada State Athletic Commission\n\n; Major Sanctioning Bodies\n* International Boxing Federation (IBF)\n* World Boxing Association (WBA)\n* World Boxing Council (WBC)\n* World Boxing Organization (WBO)\n\n;Amateur\n* International Boxing Association (AIBA; now also professional)\n\nBoxer rankings\n\nThere are various organizations and websites, that rank boxers in both weight class and pound-for-pound manner.\n* BoxRec ([http://boxrec.com/ratings.php ratings])\n* The Ring ([http://ringtv.craveonline.com/ratings ratings])\n* ESPN ([http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/boxing/columns/story?columnistrafael_dan&id\n6402207 ratings])\n* Transnational Boxing Rankings Board ([http://www.tbrb.org/all-rankings/ ratings])", "Christopher Livingstone Eubanks (born 8 August 1966),. Retrieved 2 July 2016. known as Chris Eubank, is a British former professional boxer who competed from 1985 to 1998. He held the WBO middleweight and super-middleweight titles, scoring victories over six world champions, and is ranked by BoxRec as the third best British super-middleweight boxer of all time. A slick, awkward and unorthodox fighter, Eubank had natural athleticism, coupling speed and one-punch knockout power used together with ease.\n\nHe was a world champion for over five years, undefeated in his first ten years as a professional, and remained undefeated at middleweight. His world title contests against fellow Britons Nigel Benn and Michael Watson helped British boxing ride a peak of popularity in the 1990s, with Eubank's eccentric personality making him one of the most recognisable celebrities of the period.\n\nIn his final two years of boxing he challenged then-up and coming contender Joe Calzaghe in a bid to reclaim his WBO super-middleweight title, with a victorious Calzaghe later claiming that it was the toughest fight of his whole career. Eubank's last two fights were against WBO junior-heavyweight champion Carl Thompson, both of which were brutal encounters. In the rematch, Eubank was stopped for the first and only time in his career.\n\nEubank is credited for his bravery in the ring, in which he was able to take considerable amounts of punishment from power punchers en route to his victories and defeats, and for this he is said to have a \"granite\" chin. \n\nEarly life\n\nChristopher Livingstone Eubanks (later opting to remove the 's' from his surname), one of the sons of Rachel Scollins, was born on 8 August 1966, in Dulwich, South London, and spent his early days in Jamaica (from two months old to six years old). On his return to England, he lived in Stoke Newington, Dalston, Hackney and then Peckham, in a largely impoverished environment.\n\nHe attended Northwold Primary School in Upper Clapton, Bellingden Junior School, and then Thomas Calton Secondary School in Peckham, from where he was suspended eighteen times in one year and then expelled, despite claiming he was gallantly trying to protect other children from bullies. Some time was spent at Orchard Lodge Regional Resource Centre, Anerley, in 1981. When he was 16, his father sent him to New York in the U.S. to live with his mother in the tough South Bronx district.\n\nBoxing career\n\nEubank made a fresh start in New York, battling drug, alcohol and shoplifting addictions to attend church and school. In his spare time he trained at the Jerome Boxing Club on Westchester Avenue, following in the footsteps of his boxing elder brothers (twins, Peter and Simon Eubanks) back in England. Eubank became obsessed with boxing training and went to the gym every day, even working as caretaker to pay his way. He won the 1984 Spanish Golden Gloves Tournament and also got to the semi-final stage of the main Golden Gloves tourney at Madison Square Garden at aged 18.\n\nHe writes in his autobiography that his drive to succeed in boxing came through his drive to become an accepted individual, largely caused by subjective bullying from his elder brothers.\n\nHe made his professional debut at the Atlantis Hotel and Casino against Tim Brown, shortly after his 19th birthday. Although his next 10 fights went largely unnoticed, then in February 1989 he made brief headlines in defeating Jamaican Anthony Logan in an undercard match to a Nigel Benn-headlined show. Benn was arguably the biggest rising star in European sport at the time and Logan had come closest to beating the power-punching Benn in what was Benn's most memorable clash to date. Eubank had already made Brighton in England his adopted hometown and set his sights on Benn, believing he could beat him.\n\nAfter a string of impressive stoppage victories following a dominant 10-round decision over American 'gatekeeper'/'journeyman' Randy Smith, Eubank captured the WBC International title in 1990 against Hugo Corti. Later in the year, he knocked out Renaldo Dos Santos in precisely 20 seconds (including the 10-count).\n\nWBO middleweight champion\n\nEubank won the WBO middleweight title against Nigel Benn (and the odds) in a classic encounter that was later released on DVD: a gruelling battle which ended when Benn (ahead on points, but only narrowly) was stopped on his feet near the end of round 9. Eubank would defend the title successfully against Dan Sherry (in a fight cut short by a headbutt, for which Eubank was penalised 2 points but still won on points over the 9 completed rounds), fellow Briton Gary Stretch and finally in an excellent match with another fellow Briton, Michael Watson, fighting him to a narrow 12-round majority decision in Eubank's favour. This concluded Eubank's career as a middleweight, with a 28–0 record.\n\nWBO super-middleweight champion\n\nA rematch with Watson for the vacant WBO super-middleweight title took place in September 1991, in which Watson suffered a near-fatal injury. Eubank was behind on all scorecards after 10 rounds, and was knocked down 18 seconds from the end of the round. He rose from the canvas (being given only a standing four-count instead of eight) to unleash a devastating uppercut to Watson's jaw right at the end of the round, knocking Watson's head and neck backwards into the ring ropes. The bell sounded to end the round as soon as Watson was up from the count. It was still obvious to all observers – and to Eubank himself – that he needed a knockout to win: and early in the 12th, with Watson still visibly shaken, the fight was stopped with Watson under a flurry of punches from Eubank. Soon after the fight Watson collapsed in his corner. His condition may have been worsened by delay in receiving medical attention: there was no ambulance or paramedic at the event and after eight minutes on the ring floor, Watson was attended by doctors wearing dinner jackets, arriving late. Following the fight, Eubank contemplated quitting the sport. Commentator Reg Gutteridge claimed, in the moment, he had, \"never seen a more dramatic end to a world title fight\". Eubank later reflected on the aftermath: \"I lost my finishing instinct in the ring – I couldn't finish fights any more. However, I needed to work and so I carried on and I won most of my fights on decisions. And I blamed myself, after all, it was me who threw the punch.\" \n\nEubank was particularly noted for his confidence, concentration, composure, and extravagant behaviour, and antics that included a vault over the top-rope into the ring before each fight. His trademark theme tune was Tina Turner's Simply the Best. He would often engage in posturing (particularly between rounds of fights). Eubank was by now presented as something of a \"man you love to hate\" figure in the British tabloid press because of his perceived arrogance and for his singularly unconventional sense of style. In boxing circles he enjoyed even less popularity, having once referred to the sport as a 'mug's game' on national television (This was a selective quote – Eubank had actually been discussing the seedier side of the sport, such as the beatings taken by journeyman fighters for small sums of money, or boxers that were lied to and ripped off by promoters).\n\nNow the holder of a second title, Eubank relinquished his middleweight title and concentrated on defending his new crown at the higher weight of . After the Watson tragedy Eubank never again showed any desire to knock opponents out, preferring to retain his title through points victories. He made successful defences against \"Sugarboy\" Malinga, the American quartet of John Jarvis, Ron Essett, Tony Thornton and former World Champion Lindell Holmes, as well as Juan Carlos Giminez Ferreyra and a draw with fellow Briton Ray Close.\n\nEubank vs Benn II\n\nNigel Benn moved up to super middleweight and became WBC champion. The pair agreed to meet in a WBC/WBO unification rematch. In 1993 the rivals would engage in another contest named 'Judgement Day' watched by a reported 1 billion people and fought an exciting contest – albeit less brutal than their first – to a draw. Don King had negotiated the contracts so that he would own both the winner and the loser of Eubank v Benn 2. Barry Hearn claimed that, as a draw was not written into the contract, Eubank was free to sign a new deal with him instead of King. He did – and Benn also did not sign for King, on the same pretext.\n\nFollowing the Benn fight, Eubank went on to defeat Graciano Rocchigiani of Germany, the undefeated former IBF super-middleweight title holder. After a split points victory over Ray Close, in the King's Hall Belfast, Eubank signed an eight-fight £10-million deal with Sky Sports for contests in South Africa, Manchester, London and Millstreet. Eubank made five further successful defences, beating British world title contenders Henry Wharton and Sam Storey as well as unbeaten Dan Schommer and Mauricio Amaral Costa.\n\nEubank vs Collins\n\nIn March 1995, however, Eubank lost his title to Irishman Steve Collins, by unanimous decision.\n\nEubank won an eliminator for his old title against Jose Ignacio Barruetabena, as well as a win over Bruno Ruben Godoy. A rematch with Collins took place in Cork, Ireland, and Eubank lost again by a surprisingly narrow split decision. He announced his retirement from the ring in October 1995. He made a quick comeback in 1996, however, defeating Luis Dionisio Barrera and Camilo Alarcon.\n\nCalzaghe vs Eubank\n\nAfter Steve Collins withdrew from his WBO super-middleweight title defence against Joe Calzaghe and unexpectedly retired in October 1997, Calzaghe was matched against Eubank for the vacant title with eleven days notice. Eubank had been scheduled to box at light-heavyweight on the undercard. Eubank was knocked down twice and lost on points to Calzaghe, but saw his popularity rise as a result of managing to finish the fight against his more fancied opponent.\n\nCruiserweight\n\nEubank then added 20 lbs in weight and challenged Britain's Carl Thompson for the WBO cruiserweight title. Eubank floored Thompson in the fourth round but, as in the first Steve Collins fight, failed to press home his advantage. The fight went the distance, with Thompson's strength and durability eventually telling in the later rounds. Thompson won by unanimous decision, but the closeness of the fight was reflected in the scoring, with two of the three judges giving the fight to Thompson by a single point.\n\nA rematch was quickly arranged for three months later and they again fought for the WBO cruiserweight championship in what turned out to be Eubank's last fight. Eubank had the better of the fight early in the rematch, but the short rest between the bouts came back to haunt him as his left eye that was damaged in the first fight rapidly began to swell. The fight was stopped at the end of the ninth round, when Eubank's left eye closed completely from swelling. At the time he was ahead on the scorecards. It was the only stoppage loss of Eubank's career spanning 3 weight divisions, 30 pounds and 13 years as professional.\n\nEubank finished his career with a record of 45 wins (23 KOs), 5 losses, and 2 draws.\n\nCareer beyond boxing\n\nThroughout his successful years and beyond, Eubank developed a reputation for eccentricity. In a poll published by BBC Homes and Antiques magazine in January 2006, Eubank was voted the second most eccentric star (after Björk). Speaking with a lisp and in affected upper-class tones; dressing as a stereotypically upper-class Englishman (in jodhpurs, bowler hat and riding boots; sporting a monocle) and carrying a silver-tipped cane, such affectations (along with his perceived arrogance and self-glorifying antics) did little to endear him to the tabloids. However, in 1991 and 1993 he won Britain's Best Dressed Man award, given by the Menswear Association of Great Britain. In 1993 and 1995 he won the Daily Express Best Dressed Sportsman award and in 1998 and 2001, the Gold Tie Pin Award.\n\nHis collection of vehicles included a customised Harley-Davidson and a huge American Peterbilt 379 truck cab – the largest truck in Europe. At one time he owned the only Hummer in the UK and Ireland.\n\nIn the early 1990s, Eubank was caricatured as a puppet on Spitting Image. He featured on the front cover of Esquire for the April 1992 edition. He was mentioned in a scene of I'm Alan Partridge, in which the title character desperately tries to think of ideas for a new television show, one of which is entitled Youth Hosteling with Chris Eubank. He has featured in television advertisements (commercials) for Nescafé, the Royal Mail, McDonald's and Jaffa Cakes, and has modelled for Vivienne Westwood and Versace.\n\nHe purchased the lord of the manor rights in Brighton at auction in 1996 and used the ancient right of this position to appoint a town crier in addition to the town crier employed by the local authority. In 1994 he took over a prime site in the city, which he called 'Buckingham Place'. He knocked down the interior whilst keeping the grade II façade intact and built 69 flats for the homeless, using £1,250,000 of his own money. The building was later sold for redevelopment in 2000. \n\nIn 1996, Eubank was the guest presenter on Top of the Pops. In 1999, he launched the Dreamcast and in the same year, he appeared in his truck in the music video for the song \"Turn Around\" by Phats & Small. He also had his own show on Talk Radio called Eubank's People. Guests included Linford Christie, John Fashanu, Lennox Lewis, and Naseem Hamed.\n\nIn 2001, he appeared in the first series of the reality television show Celebrity Big Brother on Channel 4, where he was the first ever celebrity to be evicted from the house.\n\nAfter Watson's accident in 1991, he and Eubank became friends, with Eubank accompanying Watson for the final mile of the 2003 London Marathon, which Watson – still showing physical damage from the fight and taking more than six days – completed to raise money for charity. \n\nIn 2006, Eubank was sacked by his own public relations advisor, Richard Hillgrove, for being \"too eccentric\". \n\nIn 2015, Eubank took part in the 2015 series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!.\n\nBankruptcy\n\nIn November 2009, Eubank was declared bankrupt, owing £1.3 million in taxes. \n\nAnti-war activism\n\nOn 14 October 2003, Eubank was intercepted by police whilst driving around Parliament Square, Westminster, in his truck, which displayed the message \"TONY BLAIR! MILITARY OCCUPATION CAUSES TERRORISM\". He completed a number of circuits before he was arrested. On 22 February 2007, Eubank was arrested outside Horse Guards Parade in Whitehall for a suspected breach of the peace after driving his truck through central London, which was emblazoned with a message condemning Tony Blair for sending Prince Harry to Iraq. The banner read \"BLAIR – Don't send our young prince to your catastrophic illegal war, to make it look plausible!\" On 23 May 2007, he was charged with making an unlawful anti-war protest after parking his seven-tonne truck outside Downing Street. On 16 November he failed to turn up at court, so an arrest warrant was issued, and he was fined. \n\nAmbassadorship\n\nIn October 2005, Eubank was appointed as the first ambassador for gambling charity GamCare, to support and encourage responsible gambling. \n\nTailored suit designer\n\nKnown for his unique sense of style, Eubank won the Britain's Best Dressed Man many times. In 2010, Eubank, once a regular customer, started designing tailored suits for Cad and the Dandy, a Savile Row bespoke tailoring company. \n\nYouth Hostelling with Chris Eubank\n\nOn 19 Aug 2015, a spoof trailer was made available for Youth Hostelling with Chris Eubank in association with Hostelworld, detailing Eubank's journey around Britain in an effort to learn more about youth hostels. The joke originates from the comedy show I'm Alan Partridge, in which the title character pitches a selection of ideas for television shows. \n\nPersonal life\n\nEubank and his first wife, Karron (married on 23 December 1990 in Brighton), had four children (Christopher, born on 18 September 1989; Sebastian, born on 18 July 1991; Emily, born on 19 April 1994; and Joseph, born on 23 October 1996) and have over the years starred in various television programmes. Eubank also has a son Nathanael Wilson, stemming from a 6-month relationship with Nathanael's mother Cynthia Wilson, Eubank refused to have any relationship with Nathanael, and agreed a £30000 out-of-court settlement, after a paternity test. \nIn 1992, Eubank was involved in a fatal collision when he lost control of his car on the London to Brighton road; the car came off the road and killed a building site worker. He was convicted of driving without due care and attention, fined £250 plus £1,450 costs, and had six penalty points added to his driving licence. \n\nIn 2001, Eubank was the subject of a Louis Theroux documentary entitled When Louis Met...Chris Eubank, in which Theroux and his camera crew accompanied Eubank for a period. In 2003, they invited television cameras to follow their lives for nine months; the resulting show, At Home with the Eubanks, was broadcast on Five. Karron petitioned for divorce from Eubank in August 2005. In 2005, Eubank was convicted of taking a vehicle without consent. He had driven a beer lorry which was being unloaded away from a place where he considered it to be causing an unreasonable obstruction. \n\nIn 2014, Eubank married for the second time to his manager Claire Geary. \n\nIn 2015, Eubank adopted the nickname of his deceased father, \"English\", to privately perpetuate his memory and to publicly differentiate himself from the budding boxing career of his son Chris, Jr.\n\nProfessional boxing record\n\nTitles in boxing\n\n!colspan3 style\n\"background:#C1D8FF;\"\|Regional titles\n\n!colspan3 style\n\"background:#C1D8FF;\"\|World titles", "The World Boxing Organization (WBO) is a sanctioning organization currently recognizing professional boxing world champions. The organization is recognized as one of the four major world championship groups by the IBHOF alongside the International Boxing Federation, the World Boxing Council and the World Boxing Association. WBO offices are located in San Juan, Puerto Rico.\n\nHistory\n\nThe WBO started after a group of Puerto Rican and Dominican businessmen broke out of the World Boxing Association's 1988 annual convention in Isla Margarita, Venezuela over disputes regarding what rules should be applied.\n\nThe WBO's first president was Ramon Pina Acevedo of the Dominican Republic. Soon after its beginning, the WBO was staging world championship bouts around the globe. Its first championship fight was for its vacant super-middleweight title, between Thomas Hearns and James Kinchen; Hearns won by decision. In order to gain respectability, the WBO next elected former world light-heavyweight champion José Torres of Ponce, Puerto Rico, as its president. Torres left in 1996, giving way to Puerto Rican lawyer Francisco Varcarcel as president. Varcarcel has been there since.\n\nAt heavyweight, especially in the United States, the organization struggled to gain credibility as a major sanctioning body, with WBO heavyweight title-holders Michael Moorer, Riddick Bowe, and Henry Akinwande relinquishing the title to pursue other options. Boxing publication The Ring also did not recognize the WBO, despite having recognized the IBF after its inception in 1983, five years prior to the WBO.\n\nIn the lighter weight divisions however, long-reigning champions during the 1990s such as Chris Eubank, Dariusz Michalczewski, Johnny Tapia, and Naseem Hamed gave the WBO title much more prestige. The WBO was also made popular by boxers such as Marco Antonio Barrera, Oscar De La Hoya, Nigel Benn, Ronald \"Winky\" Wright, Joe Calzaghe, and Wladimir Klitschko holding its title.\n\nIn Europe, the WBO was more accepted during its early years than in the U.S., and WBO champions always fared well in unification bouts with WBC, WBA, and IBF champions. (For instance, WBO light heavyweight champ Dariusz Michalczewski unified his belt with the WBA and IBF titles by defeating Virgil Hill.) By 2001, the WBA was giving the same recognition to WBO champions as to WBA, WBC and IBF champions. \n\nIn 2004 the WBC began naming WBO champions on its ranking listings.Compare\n\nand \n \n The IBF did not recognize the WBO in May 2006, but was doing so by February 2007. WBO regulations explicitly recognize the other three sanctioning bodies. For many years, as with the IBF, boxers based in Japan were not permitted to fight for WBO titles. In 2012, the Japan Boxing Commission (JBC) recognized the governing body. \n\nFighters who have been named \"WBO Super Champion\" include: Wladimir Klitschko, Marco Huck, Bernard Hopkins, Joe Calzaghe, Kelly Pavlik, Óscar De La Hoya, Manny Pacquiao, Juan Manuel Márquez, Juan Díaz, Marco Antonio Barrera, Fernando Montiel, Jorge Arce, Omar Andrés Narváez, and Iván Calderón.\n\nCriticism\n\nInitial holder of heavyweight title\n\nWhile the IBF had awarded recognition to Larry Holmes soon after its inception in 1983 (as they did with several established champions in the lower weight divisions), the WBO sanctioned a fight between two relatively unknown fighters, Francesco Damiani (winner of the super heavyweight silver medal at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles) and Johnny DuPlooy, to determine the initial holder of its heavyweight title in 1989. All other sanctioning bodies of boxing recognized the then-undefeated Mike Tyson as the heavyweight champion. Damiani went on to win the initial WBO heavyweight title. \n\nMinimumweight title declared vacant\n\nOn August 23, 1997, WBC minimumweight champion Ricardo López won the WBO minimumweight title by knocking out Puerto Rican fighter Alex Sánchez. After the bout, López told a Mexican newspaper that he wanted to give his newly won championship belt to his father, who is a boxing fan. WBO president Francisco Varcarcel said he viewed that comment as a public resignation and declared the title vacant without holding a hearing or notifying López. The WBO sanctioned a bout between Eric Jamili (10–5–1) and Mickey Cantwell (13–4–1) to fill the vacancy despite protests by López. \n\nRanking of deceased boxer\n\nThe WBO twice moved Darrin Morris up in its super-middleweight rankings in 2001, despite the fact that he was dead. Morris was Number 7 at the time of his death and Number 5 when the WBO discovered the error. Varcarcel said, \"We obviously missed the fact that Darrin was dead. It is regrettable.\" Valcarcel also stated that other boxing sanctioning organizations had made similar errors in the past by continuing to rank another boxer after he was dead. One week after British newspaper The Independent broke the story that one of the three men ranking the boxers, Gordon Volkman, still had not heard that Morris was dead. \n\nSilky Jones saga\n\nIn 2014, it came to the attention of the media via social networks that the WBO allegedly failed to present their former Junior Middleweight champion Paul \"Silky\" Jones with his title belt. Jones claims that he never received his belt almost 20 years after originally winning it. Fans of the popular British fighter started an ongoing campaign titled Get Silky His Belt.\n\nCurrent WBO world title holders \n\nMale\n\nAs of July 23, 2016\n\nFemale\n\nFormer champions\n\nWBO affiliated organizations\n\n* North American Boxing Organization (NABO)\n* WBO LATINO\n* WBO Asia-Pacific\n* Indian Professional Boxing Association (IPBA)\n\nTransition of WBO titles\n\n* List of WBO world champions" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Middle-weight", "Middleweight" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "middle weight", "middleweight" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "middleweight", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Middleweight" }
Who featured with Bobby Brown on the No 1 She Ain't Worth It?	tc_1426	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "She_Ain't_Worth_It.txt" ], "title": [ "She Ain't Worth It" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"She Ain't Worth It\" is a song recorded by Glenn Medeiros with a rap verse from singer Bobby Brown. It hit number one for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 on July 21, 1990, becoming Medeiros' only number one hit in America and Brown's second and last number one hit after \"My Prerogative\". The single also reached the Top 20 in the UK Singles Chart where Medeiros had previously reached number 1 with his hit \"Nothing's Gonna Change My Love for You\".\n\nCharts" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Glenn Medeiros", "Glen Medeiros", "Glenn Medieros", "Glenn medeiros", "Glen Medieros" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "glen medieros", "glenn medieros", "glenn medeiros", "glen medeiros" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "glenn medeiros", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Glenn Medeiros" }
What was Elvis Presley's first album which did not have his name in the title?	tc_1427	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Elvis_Presley.txt" ], "title": [ "Elvis Presley" ], "wiki_context": [ "Elvis Aaron Presley (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977) was an American musician and actor. Regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century, he is often referred to as \"the King of Rock and Roll\", or simply, \"the King\".\n\nPresley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi, as a twinless twin, and when he was 13 years old, he and his family relocated to Memphis, Tennessee. His music career began there in 1954, when he recorded a song with producer Sam Phillips at Sun Records. Accompanied by guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, Presley was an early popularizer of rockabilly, an uptempo, backbeat-driven fusion of country music and rhythm and blues. RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker, who managed the singer for more than two decades. Presley's first RCA single, \"Heartbreak Hotel\", was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the United States. He was regarded as the leading figure of rock and roll after a series of successful network television appearances and chart-topping records. His energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style, combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines that coincided with the dawn of the Civil Rights Movement, made him enormously popular—and controversial.\n\nIn November 1956, he made his film debut in Love Me Tender. In 1958, he was drafted into military service. He resumed his recording career two years later, producing some of his most commercially successful work before devoting much of the 1960s to making Hollywood films and their accompanying soundtrack albums, most of which were critically derided. In 1968, following a seven-year break from live performances, he returned to the stage in the acclaimed televised comeback special Elvis, which led to an extended Las Vegas concert residency and a string of highly profitable tours. In 1973, Presley was featured in the first globally broadcast concert via satellite, Aloha from Hawaii. Several years of prescription drug abuse severely damaged his health, and he died in 1977 at the age of 42.\n\nPresley is one of the most celebrated and influential musicians of the 20th century. Commercially successful in many genres, including pop, blues and gospel, he is the best-selling solo artist in the history of recorded music, with estimated record sales of around 600 million units worldwide. He won three Grammys, also receiving the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at age 36, and has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame.\n\nLife and career\n\n1935–53: Early years\n\nChildhood in Tupelo\n\nPresley was born on January 8, 1935, in Tupelo, Mississippi, the son of Gladys Love (née Smith; April 25, 1912 – August 14, 1958) and Vernon Elvis Presley (April 10, 1916 – June 26, 1979), in the two-room shotgun house built by Vernon's father in preparation for the child's birth. Jesse Garon Presley, his identical twin brother, was delivered stillborn 35 minutes before him. As an only child, Presley became close to both parents and formed an especially close bond with his mother. The family attended an Assembly of God, where he found his initial musical inspiration. Although he was in conflict with the Pentecostal church in his later years, he never officially left it. Rev. Rex Humbard officiated at his funeral, as Presley had been an admirer of Humbard's ministry. \n\nPresley's ancestry was primarily a Western European mix, including Scots-Irish, Scottish, German, and some French Norman. Gladys's great-great-grandmother, Morning Dove White, was possibly a Cherokee Native American. Gladys was regarded by relatives and friends as the dominant member of the small family. Vernon moved from one odd job to the next, evincing little ambition. The family often relied on help from neighbors and government food assistance. The Presleys survived the F5 tornado in the 1936 Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak. In 1938, they lost their home after Vernon was found guilty of kiting a check written by the landowner, Orville S. Bean, the dairy farmer and cattle-and-hog broker for whom he then worked. He was jailed for eight months, and Gladys and Elvis moved in with relatives.\n\nIn September 1941, Presley entered first grade at East Tupelo Consolidated, where his instructors regarded him as \"average\". He was encouraged to enter a singing contest after impressing his schoolteacher with a rendition of Red Foley's country song \"Old Shep\" during morning prayers. The contest, held at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show on October 3, 1945, was his first public performance: dressed as a cowboy, the ten-year-old Presley stood on a chair to reach the microphone and sang \"Old Shep\". He recalled placing fifth. A few months later, Presley received his first guitar for his birthday; he had hoped for something else—by different accounts, either a bicycle or a rifle. Over the following year, he received basic guitar lessons from two of his uncles and the new pastor at the family's church. Presley recalled, \"I took the guitar, and I watched people, and I learned to play a little bit. But I would never sing in public. I was very shy about it.\"\n\nEntering a new school, Milam, for sixth grade in September 1946, Presley was regarded as a loner. The following year, he began bringing his guitar in on a daily basis. He played and sang during lunchtime, and was often teased as a \"trashy\" kid who played hillbilly music. The family was by then living in a largely African-American neighborhood. A devotee of Mississippi Slim's show on the Tupelo radio station WELO, Presley was described as \"crazy about music\" by Slim's younger brother, a classmate of Presley's, who often took him into the station. Slim supplemented Presley's guitar tuition by demonstrating chord techniques. When his protégé was 12 years old, Slim scheduled him for two on-air performances. Presley was overcome by stage fright the first time, but succeeded in performing the following week.\n\nTeenage life in Memphis\n\nIn November 1948, the family moved to Memphis, Tennessee. After residing for nearly a year in rooming houses, they were granted a two-bedroom apartment in the public housing complex known as the Lauderdale Courts. Enrolled at L. C. Humes High School, Presley received only a C in music in eighth grade. When his music teacher told him he had no aptitude for singing, he brought in his guitar the next day and sang a recent hit, \"Keep Them Cold Icy Fingers Off Me\", in an effort to prove otherwise. A classmate later recalled that the teacher \"agreed that Elvis was right when he said that she didn't appreciate his kind of singing.\" He was usually too shy to perform openly, and was occasionally bullied by classmates who viewed him as a \"mama's boy\". In 1950, he began practicing guitar regularly under the tutelage of Jesse Lee Denson, a neighbor two-and-a-half years his senior. They and three other boys—including two future rockabilly pioneers, brothers Dorsey and Johnny Burnette—formed a loose musical collective that played frequently around the Courts. That September, he began ushering at Loew's State Theater. Other jobs followed, including Precision Tool, Loew's again, and MARL Metal Products.\n\nDuring his junior year, Presley began to stand out more among his classmates, largely because of his appearance: he grew out his sideburns and styled his hair with rose oil and Vaseline. In his free time, he would head down to Beale Street, the heart of Memphis's thriving blues scene, and gaze longingly at the wild, flashy clothes in the windows of Lansky Brothers. By his senior year, he was wearing them. Overcoming his reticence about performing outside the Lauderdale Courts, he competed in Humes's Annual \"Minstrel\" show in April 1953. Singing and playing guitar, he opened with \"Till I Waltz Again with You\", a recent hit for Teresa Brewer. Presley recalled that the performance did much for his reputation: \"I wasn't popular in school ... I failed music—only thing I ever failed. And then they entered me in this talent show ... when I came onstage I heard people kind of rumbling and whispering and so forth, 'cause nobody knew I even sang. It was amazing how popular I became after that.\"\n\nPresley, who never received formal music training or learned to read music, studied and played by ear. He also frequented record stores with jukeboxes and listening booths. He knew all of Hank Snow's songs, and he loved records by other country singers such as Roy Acuff, Ernest Tubb, Ted Daffan, Jimmie Rodgers, Jimmie Davis, and Bob Wills. The Southern gospel singer Jake Hess, one of his favorite performers, was a significant influence on his ballad-singing style. He was a regular audience member at the monthly All-Night Singings downtown, where many of the white gospel groups that performed reflected the influence of African-American spiritual music. He adored the music of black gospel singer Sister Rosetta Tharpe. Like some of his peers, he may have attended blues venues—of necessity, in the segregated South, on only the nights designated for exclusively white audiences. He certainly listened to the regional radio stations, such as WDIA-AM, that played \"race records\": spirituals, blues, and the modern, backbeat-heavy sound of rhythm and blues. Many of his future recordings were inspired by local African-American musicians such as Arthur Crudup and Rufus Thomas. B.B. King recalled that he had known Presley before he was popular, when they both used to frequent Beale Street. By the time he graduated from high school in June 1953, Presley had already singled out music as his future.\n\n1953–55: First recordings\n\nSam Phillips and Sun Records\n\nIn August 1953, Presley walked into the offices of Sun Records. He aimed to pay for a few minutes of studio time to record a two-sided acetate disc: \"My Happiness\" and \"That's When Your Heartaches Begin\". He would later claim that he intended the record as a gift for his mother, or that he was merely interested in what he \"sounded like\", although there was a much cheaper, amateur record-making service at a nearby general store. Biographer Peter Guralnick argues that he chose Sun in the hope of being discovered. Asked by receptionist Marion Keisker what kind of singer he was, Presley responded, \"I sing all kinds.\" When she pressed him on who he sounded like, he repeatedly answered, \"I don't sound like nobody.\" After he recorded, Sun boss Sam Phillips asked Keisker to note down the young man's name, which she did along with her own commentary: \"Good ballad singer. Hold.\"\n\nIn January 1954, Presley cut a second acetate at Sun Records—\"I'll Never Stand In Your Way\" and \"It Wouldn't Be the Same Without You\"—but again nothing came of it. Not long after, he failed an audition for a local vocal quartet, the Songfellows. He explained to his father, \"They told me I couldn't sing.\" Songfellow Jim Hamill later claimed that he was turned down because he did not demonstrate an ear for harmony at the time. In April, Presley began working for the Crown Electric company as a truck driver. His friend Ronnie Smith, after playing a few local gigs with him, suggested he contact Eddie Bond, leader of Smith's professional band, which had an opening for a vocalist. Bond rejected him after a tryout, advising Presley to stick to truck driving \"because you're never going to make it as a singer\".\n\nPhillips, meanwhile, was always on the lookout for someone who could bring to a broader audience the sound of the black musicians on whom Sun focused. As Keisker reported, \"Over and over I remember Sam saying, 'If I could find a white man who had the Negro sound and the Negro feel, I could make a billion dollars.'\" In June, he acquired a demo recording of a ballad, \"Without You\", that he thought might suit the teenage singer. Presley came by the studio, but was unable to do it justice. Despite this, Phillips asked Presley to sing as many numbers as he knew. He was sufficiently affected by what he heard to invite two local musicians, guitarist Winfield \"Scotty\" Moore and upright bass player Bill Black, to work something up with Presley for a recording session.\n\nThe session, held the evening of July 5, 1954, proved entirely unfruitful until late in the night. As they were about to give up and go home, Presley took his guitar and launched into a 1946 blues number, Arthur Crudup's \"That's All Right\". Moore recalled, \"All of a sudden, Elvis just started singing this song, jumping around and acting the fool, and then Bill picked up his bass, and he started acting the fool, too, and I started playing with them. Sam, I think, had the door to the control booth open ... he stuck his head out and said, 'What are you doing?' And we said, 'We don't know.' 'Well, back up,' he said, 'try to find a place to start, and do it again.'\" Phillips quickly began taping; this was the sound he had been looking for. Three days later, popular Memphis DJ Dewey Phillips played \"That's All Right\" on his Red, Hot, and Blue show. Listeners began phoning in, eager to find out who the singer was. The interest was such that Phillips played the record repeatedly during the last two hours of his show. Interviewing Presley on-air, Phillips asked him what high school he attended in order to clarify his color for the many callers who had assumed he was black. During the next few days, the trio recorded a bluegrass number, Bill Monroe's \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\", again in a distinctive style and employing a jury-rigged echo effect that Sam Phillips dubbed \"slapback\". A single was pressed with \"That's All Right\" on the A side and \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\" on the reverse.\n\nEarly live performances and signing with RCA\n\nThe trio played publicly for the first time on July 17 at the Bon Air club—Presley still sporting his child-size guitar. At the end of the month, they appeared at the Overton Park Shell, with Slim Whitman headlining. A combination of his strong response to rhythm and nervousness at playing before a large crowd led Presley to shake his legs as he performed: his wide-cut pants emphasized his movements, causing young women in the audience to start screaming. Moore recalled, \"During the instrumental parts, he would back off from the mike and be playing and shaking, and the crowd would just go wild\". Black, a natural showman, whooped and rode his bass, hitting double licks that Presley would later remember as \"really a wild sound, like a jungle drum or something\".\nSoon after, Moore and Black quit their old band to play with Presley regularly, and DJ and promoter Bob Neal became the trio's manager. From August through October, they played frequently at the Eagle's Nest club and returned to Sun Studio for more recording sessions, and Presley quickly grew more confident on stage. According to Moore, \"His movement was a natural thing, but he was also very conscious of what got a reaction. He'd do something one time and then he would expand on it real quick.\" Presley made what would be his only appearance on Nashville's Grand Ole Opry on October 2; after a polite audience response, Opry manager Jim Denny told Phillips that his singer was \"not bad\" but did not suit the program. Two weeks later, Presley was booked on Louisiana Hayride, the Oprys chief, and more adventurous, rival. The Shreveport-based show was broadcast to 198 radio stations in 28 states. Presley had another attack of nerves during the first set, which drew a muted reaction. A more composed and energetic second set inspired an enthusiastic response. House drummer D. J. Fontana brought a new element, complementing Presley's movements with accented beats that he had mastered playing in strip clubs. Soon after the show, the Hayride engaged Presley for a year's worth of Saturday-night appearances. Trading in his old guitar for $8 (and seeing it promptly dispatched to the garbage), he purchased a Martin instrument for $175, and his trio began playing in new locales including Houston, Texas, and Texarkana, Arkansas.\n\nBy early 1955, Presley's regular Hayride appearances, constant touring, and well-received record releases had made him a regional star, from Tennessee to West Texas. In January, Neal signed a formal management contract with Presley and brought the singer to the attention of Colonel Tom Parker, whom he considered the best promoter in the music business. Having successfully managed top country star Eddy Arnold, Parker was now working with the new number-one country singer, Hank Snow. Parker booked Presley on Snow's February tour. When the tour reached Odessa, Texas, a 19-year-old Roy Orbison saw Presley for the first time: \"His energy was incredible, his instinct was just amazing. ... I just didn't know what to make of it. There was just no reference point in the culture to compare it.\" Presley made his television debut on March 3 on the KSLA-TV broadcast of Louisiana Hayride. Soon after, he failed an audition for Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts on the CBS television network. By August, Sun had released ten sides credited to \"Elvis Presley, Scotty and Bill\"; on the latest recordings, the trio were joined by a drummer. Some of the songs, like \"That's All Right\", were in what one Memphis journalist described as the \"R&B idiom of negro field jazz\"; others, like \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\", were \"more in the country field\", \"but there was a curious blending of the two different musics in both\". This blend of styles made it difficult for Presley's music to find radio airplay. According to Neal, many country-music disc jockeys would not play it because he sounded too much like a black artist and none of the rhythm-and-blues stations would touch him because \"he sounded too much like a hillbilly.\" The blend came to be known as rockabilly. At the time, Presley was variously billed as \"The King of Western Bop\", \"The Hillbilly Cat\", and \"The Memphis Flash\".\n\nPresley renewed Neal's management contract in August 1955, simultaneously appointing Parker as his special adviser. The group maintained an extensive touring schedule throughout the second half of the year. Neal recalled, \"It was almost frightening, the reaction that came to Elvis from the teenaged boys. So many of them, through some sort of jealousy, would practically hate him. There were occasions in some towns in Texas when we'd have to be sure to have a police guard because somebody'd always try to take a crack at him. They'd get a gang and try to waylay him or something.\" The trio became a quartet when Hayride drummer Fontana joined as a full member. In mid-October, they played a few shows in support of Bill Haley, whose \"Rock Around the Clock\" had been a number-one hit the previous year. Haley observed that Presley had a natural feel for rhythm, and advised him to sing fewer ballads.\n\nAt the Country Disc Jockey Convention in early November, Presley was voted the year's most promising male artist. Several record companies had by now shown interest in signing him. After three major labels made offers of up to $25,000, Parker and Phillips struck a deal with RCA Victor on November 21 to acquire Presley's Sun contract for an unprecedented $40,000. Presley, at 20, was still a minor, so his father signed the contract. Parker arranged with the owners of Hill and Range Publishing, Jean and Julian Aberbach, to create two entities, Elvis Presley Music and Gladys Music, to handle all the new material recorded by Presley. Songwriters were obliged to forgo one third of their customary royalties in exchange for having him perform their compositions. By December, RCA had begun to heavily promote its new singer, and before month's end had reissued many of his Sun recordings.\n\n1956–58: Commercial breakout and controversy\n\nFirst national TV appearances and debut album\n\nOn January 10, 1956, Presley made his first recordings for RCA in Nashville. Extending the singer's by now customary backup of Moore, Black, and Fontana, RCA enlisted pianist Floyd Cramer, guitarist Chet Atkins, and three background singers, including first tenor Gordon Stoker of the popular Jordanaires quartet, to fill out the sound. The session produced the moody, unusual \"Heartbreak Hotel\", released as a single on January 27. Parker finally brought Presley to national television, booking him on CBS's Stage Show for six appearances over two months. The program, produced in New York, was hosted on alternate weeks by big band leaders and brothers Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey. After his first appearance, on January 28, introduced by disc jockey Bill Randle, Presley stayed in town to record at RCA's New York studio. The sessions yielded eight songs, including a cover of Carl Perkins' rockabilly anthem \"Blue Suede Shoes\". In February, Presley's \"I Forgot to Remember to Forget\", a Sun recording initially released the previous August, reached the top of the Billboard country chart. Neal's contract was terminated and, on March 2, Parker became Presley's manager.\n\nRCA Victor released Presley's eponymous debut album on March 23. Joined by five previously unreleased Sun recordings, its seven recently recorded tracks were of a broad variety. There were two country songs and a bouncy pop tune. The others would centrally define the evolving sound of rock and roll: \"Blue Suede Shoes\"—\"an improvement over Perkins' in almost every way\", according to critic Robert Hilburn—and three R&B numbers that had been part of Presley's stage repertoire for some time, covers of Little Richard, Ray Charles, and The Drifters. As described by Hilburn, these \"were the most revealing of all. Unlike many white artists ... who watered down the gritty edges of the original R&B versions of songs in the '50s, Presley reshaped them. He not only injected the tunes with his own vocal character but also made guitar, not piano, the lead instrument in all three cases.\" It became the first rock-and-roll album to top the Billboard chart, a position it held for 10 weeks. While Presley was not an innovative guitarist like Moore or contemporary African American rockers Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry, cultural historian Gilbert B. Rodman argues that the album's cover image, \"of Elvis having the time of his life on stage with a guitar in his hands played a crucial role in positioning the guitar ... as the instrument that best captured the style and spirit of this new music.\"\n\nMilton Berle Show and \"Hound Dog\"\n\nPresley made the first of two appearances on NBC's Milton Berle Show on April 3. His performance, on the deck of the USS Hancock in San Diego, prompted cheers and screams from an audience of sailors and their dates. A few days later, a flight taking Presley and his band to Nashville for a recording session left all three badly shaken when an engine died and the plane almost went down over Arkansas. Twelve weeks after its original release, \"Heartbreak Hotel\" became Presley's first number-one pop hit. In late April, Presley began a two-week residency at the New Frontier Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. The shows were poorly received by the conservative, middle-aged hotel guests—\"like a jug of corn liquor at a champagne party,\" wrote a critic for Newsweek. Amid his Vegas tenure, Presley, who had serious acting ambitions, signed a seven-year contract with Paramount Pictures. He began a tour of the Midwest in mid-May, taking in 15 cities in as many days. He had attended several shows by Freddie Bell and the Bellboys in Vegas and was struck by their cover of \"Hound Dog\", a hit in 1953 for blues singer Big Mama Thornton by songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. It became the new closing number of his act. After a show in La Crosse, Wisconsin, an urgent message on the letterhead of the local Catholic diocese's newspaper was sent to FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. It warned that \"Presley is a definite danger to the security of the United States. ... [His] actions and motions were such as to rouse the sexual passions of teenaged youth. ... After the show, more than 1,000 teenagers tried to gang into Presley's room at the auditorium. ... Indications of the harm Presley did just in La Crosse were the two high school girls ... whose abdomen and thigh had Presley's autograph.\"\n\nThe second Milton Berle Show appearance came on June 5 at NBC's Hollywood studio, amid another hectic tour. Berle persuaded the singer to leave his guitar backstage, advising, \"Let 'em see you, son.\" During the performance, Presley abruptly halted an uptempo rendition of \"Hound Dog\" with a wave of his arm and launched into a slow, grinding version accentuated with energetic, exaggerated body movements. Presley's gyrations created a storm of controversy. Newspaper critics were outraged: Jack Gould of The New York Times wrote, \"Mr. Presley has no discernible singing ability. ... His phrasing, if it can be called that, consists of the stereotyped variations that go with a beginner's aria in a bathtub. ... His one specialty is an accented movement of the body ... primarily identified with the repertoire of the blond bombshells of the burlesque runway.\" Ben Gross of the New York Daily News opined that popular music \"has reached its lowest depths in the 'grunt and groin' antics of one Elvis Presley. ... Elvis, who rotates his pelvis ... gave an exhibition that was suggestive and vulgar, tinged with the kind of animalism that should be confined to dives and bordellos\". Ed Sullivan, whose own variety show was the nation's most popular, declared him \"unfit for family viewing\". To Presley's displeasure, he soon found himself being referred to as \"Elvis the Pelvis\", which he called \"one of the most childish expressions I ever heard, comin' from an adult.\"\n\nSteve Allen Show and first Sullivan appearance\n\nThe Berle shows drew such high ratings that Presley was booked for a July 1 appearance on NBC's Steve Allen Show in New York. Allen, no fan of rock and roll, introduced a \"new Elvis\" in a white bow tie and black tails. Presley sang \"Hound Dog\" for less than a minute to a basset hound wearing a top hat and bow tie. As described by television historian Jake Austen, \"Allen thought Presley was talentless and absurd ... [he] set things up so that Presley would show his contrition\". Allen, for his part, later wrote that he found Presley's \"strange, gangly, country-boy charisma, his hard-to-define cuteness, and his charming eccentricity intriguing\" and simply worked the singer into the customary \"comedy fabric\" of his program. Just before the final rehearsal for the show, Presley told a reporter, \"I'm holding down on this show. I don't want to do anything to make people dislike me. I think TV is important so I'm going to go along, but I won't be able to give the kind of show I do in a personal appearance.\" Presley would refer back to the Allen show as the most ridiculous performance of his career. Later that night, he appeared on Hy Gardner Calling, a popular local TV show. Pressed on whether he had learned anything from the criticism to which he was being subjected, Presley responded, \"No, I haven't, I don't feel like I'm doing anything wrong. ... I don't see how any type of music would have any bad influence on people when it's only music. ... I mean, how would rock 'n' roll music make anyone rebel against their parents?\"\n\nThe next day, Presley recorded \"Hound Dog\", along with \"Any Way You Want Me\" and \"Don't Be Cruel\". The Jordanaires sang harmony, as they had on The Steve Allen Show; they would work with Presley through the 1960s. A few days later, the singer made an outdoor concert appearance in Memphis at which he announced, \"You know, those people in New York are not gonna change me none. I'm gonna show you what the real Elvis is like tonight.\" In August, a judge in Jacksonville, Florida, ordered Presley to tame his act. Throughout the following performance, he largely kept still, except for wiggling his little finger suggestively in mockery of the order. The single pairing \"Don't Be Cruel\" with \"Hound Dog\" ruled the top of the charts for 11 weeks—a mark that would not be surpassed for 36 years. Recording sessions for Presley's second album took place in Hollywood during the first week of September. Leiber and Stoller, the writers of \"Hound Dog,\" contributed \"Love Me.\"\n\nAllen's show with Presley had, for the first time, beaten CBS's Ed Sullivan Show in the ratings. Sullivan, despite his June pronouncement, booked the singer for three appearances for an unprecedented $50,000. The first, on September 9, 1956, was seen by approximately 60 million viewers—a record 82.6 percent of the television audience. Actor Charles Laughton hosted the show, filling in while Sullivan recuperated from a car accident. Presley appeared in two segments that night from CBS Television City in Los Angeles. According to Elvis legend, Presley was shot from only the waist up. Watching clips of the Allen and Berle shows with his producer, Sullivan had opined that Presley \"got some kind of device hanging down below the crotch of his pants–so when he moves his legs back and forth you can see the outline of his cock. ... I think it's a Coke bottle. ... We just can't have this on a Sunday night. This is a family show!\" Sullivan publicly told TV Guide, \"As for his gyrations, the whole thing can be controlled with camera shots.\" In fact, Presley was shown head-to-toe in the first and second shows. Though the camerawork was relatively discreet during his debut, with leg-concealing closeups when he danced, the studio audience reacted in customary style: screaming. Presley's performance of his forthcoming single, the ballad \"Love Me Tender\", prompted a record-shattering million advance orders. More than any other single event, it was this first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show that made Presley a national celebrity of barely precedented proportions.\n\nAccompanying Presley's rise to fame, a cultural shift was taking place that he both helped inspire and came to symbolize. Igniting the \"biggest pop craze since Glenn Miller and Frank Sinatra ... Presley brought rock'n'roll into the mainstream of popular culture\", writes historian Marty Jezer. \"As Presley set the artistic pace, other artists followed. ... Presley, more than anyone else, gave the young a belief in themselves as a distinct and somehow unified generation—the first in America ever to feel the power of an integrated youth culture.\"\n\nCrazed crowds and film debut\n\nThe audience response at Presley's live shows became increasingly fevered. Moore recalled, \"He'd start out, 'You ain't nothin' but a Hound Dog,' and they'd just go to pieces. They'd always react the same way. There'd be a riot every time.\" At the two concerts he performed in September at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show, 50 National Guardsmen were added to the police security to prevent crowd trouble. Elvis, Presley's second album, was released in October and quickly rose to number one. The album includes \"Old Shep\", which he sang at the talent show in 1945, and which now marked the first time he played piano on an RCA session. According to Guralnick, one can hear \"in the halting chords and the somewhat stumbling rhythm both the unmistakable emotion and the equally unmistakable valuing of emotion over technique.\" Assessing the musical and cultural impact of Presley's recordings from \"That's All Right\" through Elvis, rock critic Dave Marsh wrote that \"these records, more than any others, contain the seeds of what rock & roll was, has been and most likely what it may foreseeably become.\"\n\nPresley returned to the Sullivan show at its main studio in New York, hosted this time by its namesake, on October 28. After the performance, crowds in Nashville and St. Louis burned him in effigy. His first motion picture, Love Me Tender, was released on November 21. Though he was not top billed, the film's original title—The Reno Brothers—was changed to capitalize on his latest number one record: \"Love Me Tender\" had hit the top of the charts earlier that month. To further take advantage of Presley's popularity, four musical numbers were added to what was originally a straight acting role. The film was panned by the critics but did very well at the box office.\n\nOn December 4, Presley dropped into Sun Records where Carl Perkins and Jerry Lee Lewis were recording and jammed with them. Though Phillips no longer had the right to release any Presley material, he made sure the session was captured on tape. The results became legendary as the \"Million Dollar Quartet\" recordings—Johnny Cash was long thought to have played as well, but he was present only briefly at Phillips' instigation for a photo opportunity. The year ended with a front-page story in The Wall Street Journal reporting that Presley merchandise had brought in $22 million on top of his record sales, and Billboards declaration that he had placed more songs in the top 100 than any other artist since records were first charted. In his first full year at RCA, one of the music industry's largest companies, Presley had accounted for over 50 percent of the label's singles sales.\n\nLeiber and Stoller collaboration and draft notice\n\nPresley made his third and final Ed Sullivan Show appearance on January 6, 1957—on this occasion indeed shot only down to the waist. Some commentators have claimed that Parker orchestrated an appearance of censorship to generate publicity. In any event, as critic Greil Marcus describes, Presley \"did not tie himself down. Leaving behind the bland clothes he had worn on the first two shows, he stepped out in the outlandish costume of a pasha, if not a harem girl. From the make-up over his eyes, the hair falling in his face, the overwhelmingly sexual cast of his mouth, he was playing Rudolph Valentino in The Sheik, with all stops out.\" To close, displaying his range and defying Sullivan's wishes, Presley sang a gentle black spiritual, \"Peace in the Valley\". At the end of the show, Sullivan declared Presley \"a real decent, fine boy\".\nTwo days later, the Memphis draft board announced that Presley would be classified 1-A and would probably be drafted sometime that year.\n\nEach of the three Presley singles released in the first half of 1957 went to number one: \"Too Much\", \"All Shook Up\", and \"(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear\". Already an international star, he was attracting fans even where his music was not officially released. Under the headline \"Presley Records a Craze in Soviet\", The New York Times reported that pressings of his music on discarded X-ray plates were commanding high prices in Leningrad. Between film shoots and recording sessions, the singer also found time to purchase an 18-room mansion eight miles (13 km) south of downtown Memphis for himself and his parents: Graceland. When he reported to the film studio for his second film, the Technicolor Loving You, released in July, \"The makeup man said that with his eyes he should photograph well with black hair, so they dyed it.\" Loving You, the accompanying soundtrack, was Presley's third straight number one album. The title track was written by Leiber and Stoller, who were then retained to write four of the six songs recorded at the sessions for Jailhouse Rock, Presley's next film. The songwriting team effectively produced the Jailhouse sessions and developed a close working relationship with Presley, who came to regard them as his \"good-luck charm\".\n\nLeiber remembered initially finding Presley \"not quite authentic—after all, he was a white singer, and my standards were black.\" According to Stoller, the duo was \"surprised at the kind of knowledge that he had about black music. We figured that he had these remarkable pipes and all that, but we didn't realize that he knew so much about the blues. We were quite surprised to find out that he knew as much about it as we did. He certainly knew a lot more than we did about country music and gospel music.\" Leiber remembered the recording process with Presley, \"He was fast. Any demo you gave him he knew by heart in ten minutes.\" As Stoller recalled, Presley \"was 'protected'\" by his manager and entourage. \"He was removed. … They kept him separate.\"\n\nPresley undertook three brief tours during the year, continuing to generate a crazed audience response. A Detroit newspaper suggested that \"the trouble with going to see Elvis Presley is that you're liable to get killed.\" Villanova students pelted him with eggs in Philadelphia, and in Vancouver, the crowd rioted after the end of the show, destroying the stage. Frank Sinatra, who had famously inspired the swooning of teenaged girls in the 1940s, condemned the new musical phenomenon. In a magazine article, he decried rock and roll as \"brutal, ugly, degenerate, vicious. ... It fosters almost totally negative and destructive reactions in young people. It smells phoney and false. It is sung, played and written, for the most part, by cretinous goons. ... This rancid-smelling aphrodisiac I deplore.\" Asked for a response, Presley said, \"I admire the man. He has a right to say what he wants to say. He is a great success and a fine actor, but I think he shouldn't have said it. ... This is a trend, just the same as he faced when he started years ago.\"\n\nLeiber and Stoller were again in the studio for the recording of Elvis' Christmas Album. Toward the end of the session, they wrote a song on the spot at Presley's request: \"Santa Claus Is Back In Town\", an innuendo-laden blues. The holiday release stretched Presley's string of number one albums to four and would eventually become the best selling Christmas album of all time. After the session, Moore and Black—drawing only modest weekly salaries, sharing in none of Presley's massive financial success—resigned. Though they were brought back on a per diem basis a few weeks later, it was clear that they had not been part of Presley's inner circle for some time. On December 20, Presley received his draft notice. He was granted a deferment to finish the forthcoming King Creole, in which $350,000 had already been invested by Paramount and producer Hal Wallis. A couple of weeks into the new year, \"Don't\", another Leiber and Stoller tune, became Presley's tenth number one seller. It had been only 21 months since \"Heartbreak Hotel\" had brought him to the top for the first time. Recording sessions for the King Creole soundtrack were held in Hollywood mid-January. Leiber and Stoller provided three songs and were again on hand, but it would be the last time they worked closely with Presley. A studio session on February 1 marked another ending: it was the final occasion on which Black was to perform with Presley. He died in 1965. \n\n1958–60: Military service and mother's death\n\nOn March 24, Presley was inducted into the U.S. Army as a private at Fort Chaffee, near Fort Smith, Arkansas. His arrival was a major media event. Hundreds of people descended on Presley as he stepped from the bus; photographers then accompanied him into the fort. Presley announced that he was looking forward to his military stint, saying he did not want to be treated any differently from anyone else: \"The Army can do anything it wants with me.\"\n\nSoon after Presley commenced basic training at Fort Hood, Texas, he received a visit from Eddie Fadal, a businessman he had met on tour. According to Fadal, Presley had become convinced his career was finished—\"He firmly believed that.\" But then, during a two-week leave in early June, Presley recorded five songs in Nashville. In early August, his mother was diagnosed with hepatitis and her condition rapidly worsened. Presley, granted emergency leave to visit her, arrived in Memphis on August 12. Two days later, she died of heart failure, aged 46. Presley was devastated; their relationship had remained extremely close—even into his adulthood, they would use baby talk with each other and Presley would address her with pet names.\n\nAfter training, Presley joined the 3rd Armored Division in Friedberg, Germany, on October 1. Introduced to amphetamines by a sergeant while on maneuvers, he became \"practically evangelical about their benefits\"—not only for energy, but for \"strength\" and weight loss, as well—and many of his friends in the outfit joined him in indulging. The Army also introduced Presley to karate, which he studied seriously, later including it in his live performances. Fellow soldiers have attested to Presley's wish to be seen as an able, ordinary soldier, despite his fame, and to his generosity. He donated his Army pay to charity, purchased TV sets for the base, and bought an extra set of fatigues for everyone in his outfit.\n\nWhile in Friedberg, Presley met 14-year-old Priscilla Beaulieu. They would eventually marry after a seven-and-a-half-year courtship. In her autobiography, Priscilla says that despite his worries that it would ruin his career, Parker convinced Presley that to gain popular respect, he should serve his country as a regular soldier rather than in Special Services, where he would have been able to give some musical performances and remain in touch with the public. Media reports echoed Presley's concerns about his career, but RCA producer Steve Sholes and Freddy Bienstock of Hill and Range had carefully prepared for his two-year hiatus. Armed with a substantial amount of unreleased material, they kept up a regular stream of successful releases. Between his induction and discharge, Presley had ten top 40 hits, including \"Wear My Ring Around Your Neck\", the best-selling \"Hard Headed Woman\", and \"One Night\" in 1958, and \"(Now and Then There's) A Fool Such as I\" and the number one \"A Big Hunk o' Love\" in 1959. RCA also generated four albums compiling old material during this period, most successfully Elvis' Golden Records (1958), which hit number three on the LP chart.\n\n1960–67: Focus on films\n\nElvis Is Back\n\nPresley returned to the United States on March 2, 1960, and was honorably discharged with the rank of sergeant on March 5. The train that carried him from New Jersey to Tennessee was mobbed all the way, and Presley was called upon to appear at scheduled stops to please his fans. On the night of March 20, he entered RCA's Nashville studio to cut tracks for a new album along with a single, \"Stuck on You\", which was rushed into release and swiftly became a number one hit. Another Nashville session two weeks later yielded a pair of his best-selling singles, the ballads \"It's Now or Never\" and \"Are You Lonesome Tonight?\", along with the rest of Elvis Is Back! The album features several songs described by Greil Marcus as full of Chicago blues \"menace, driven by Presley's own super-miked acoustic guitar, brilliant playing by Scotty Moore, and demonic sax work from Boots Randolph. Elvis's singing wasn't sexy, it was pornographic.\" As a whole, the record \"conjured up the vision of a performer who could be all things\", in the words of music historian John Robertson: \"a flirtatious teenage idol with a heart of gold; a tempestuous, dangerous lover; a gutbucket blues singer; a sophisticated nightclub entertainer; [a] raucous rocker\".\n\nPresley returned to television on May 12 as a guest on The Frank Sinatra Timex Special—ironic for both stars, given Sinatra's not-so-distant excoriation of rock and roll. Also known as Welcome Home Elvis, the show had been taped in late March, the only time all year Presley performed in front of an audience. Parker secured an unheard-of $125,000 fee for eight minutes of singing. The broadcast drew an enormous viewership.\n\nG.I. Blues, the soundtrack to Presley's first film since his return, was a number one album in October. His first LP of sacred material, His Hand in Mine, followed two months later. It reached number 13 on the U.S. pop chart and number 3 in the UK, remarkable figures for a gospel album. In February 1961, Presley performed two shows for a benefit event in Memphis, on behalf of 24 local charities. During a luncheon preceding the event, RCA presented him with a plaque certifying worldwide sales of over 75 million records. A 12-hour Nashville session in mid-March yielded nearly all of Presley's next studio album, Something for Everybody. As described by John Robertson, it exemplifies the Nashville sound, the restrained, cosmopolitan style that would define country music in the 1960s. Presaging much of what was to come from Presley himself over the next half-decade, the album is largely \"a pleasant, unthreatening pastiche of the music that had once been Elvis's birthright.\" It would be his sixth number one LP. Another benefit concert, raising money for a Pearl Harbor memorial, was staged on March 25, in Hawaii. It was to be Presley's last public performance for seven years.\n\nLost in Hollywood\n\nParker had by now pushed Presley into a heavy film making schedule, focused on formulaic, modestly budgeted musical comedies. Presley at first insisted on pursuing more serious roles, but when two films in a more dramatic vein—Flaming Star (1960) and Wild in the Country (1961)—were less commercially successful, he reverted to the formula. Among the 27 films he made during the 1960s, there were few further exceptions. His films were almost universally panned; critic Andrew Caine dismissed them as a \"pantheon of bad taste\". Nonetheless, they were virtually all profitable. Hal Wallis, who produced nine of them, declared, \"A Presley picture is the only sure thing in Hollywood.\"\n\nOf Presley's films in the 1960s, 15 were accompanied by soundtrack albums and another 5 by soundtrack EPs. The films' rapid production and release schedules—he frequently starred in three a year—affected his music. According to Jerry Leiber, the soundtrack formula was already evident before Presley left for the Army: \"three ballads, one medium-tempo [number], one up-tempo, and one break blues boogie\". As the decade wore on, the quality of the soundtrack songs grew \"progressively worse\". Julie Parrish, who appeared in Paradise, Hawaiian Style (1966), says that he hated many of the songs chosen for his films. The Jordanaires' Gordon Stoker describes how Presley would retreat from the studio microphone: \"The material was so bad that he felt like he couldn't sing it.\" Most of the film albums featured a song or two from respected writers such as the team of Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman. But by and large, according to biographer Jerry Hopkins, the numbers seemed to be \"written on order by men who never really understood Elvis or rock and roll.\" Regardless of the songs' quality, it has been argued that Presley generally sang them well, with commitment. Critic Dave Marsh heard the opposite: \"Presley isn't trying, probably the wisest course in the face of material like 'No Room to Rumba in a Sports Car' and 'Rock-a-Hula Baby.'\"\n\nIn the first half of the decade, three of Presley's soundtrack albums hit number one on the pop charts, and a few of his most popular songs came from his films, such as \"Can't Help Falling in Love\" (1961) and \"Return to Sender\" (1962). (\"Viva Las Vegas\", the title track to the 1964 film, was a minor hit as a B-side, and became truly popular only later.) But, as with artistic merit, the commercial returns steadily diminished. During a five-year span—1964 through 1968—Presley had only one top-ten hit: \"Crying in the Chapel\" (1965), a gospel number recorded back in 1960. As for non-film albums, between the June 1962 release of Pot Luck and the November 1968 release of the soundtrack to the television special that signaled his comeback, only one LP of new material by Presley was issued: the gospel album How Great Thou Art (1967). It won him his first Grammy Award, for Best Sacred Performance. As Marsh described, Presley was \"arguably the greatest white gospel singer of his time [and] really the last rock & roll artist to make gospel as vital a component of his musical personality as his secular songs.\"\n\nShortly before Christmas 1966, more than seven years since they first met, Presley proposed to Priscilla Beaulieu. They were married on May 1, 1967, in a brief ceremony in their suite at the Aladdin Hotel in Las Vegas. The flow of formulaic films and assembly-line soundtracks rolled on. It was not until October 1967, when the Clambake soundtrack LP registered record low sales for a new Presley album, that RCA executives recognized a problem. \"By then, of course, the damage had been done\", as historians Connie Kirchberg and Marc Hendrickx put it. \"Elvis was viewed as a joke by serious music lovers and a has-been to all but his most loyal fans.\"\n\n1968–73: Comeback\n\nElvis: the '68 Comeback Special\n\nPresley's only child, Lisa Marie, was born on February 1, 1968, during a period when he had grown deeply unhappy with his career. Of the eight Presley singles released between January 1967 and May 1968, only two charted in the top 40, and none higher than number 28. His forthcoming soundtrack album, Speedway, would die at number 82 on the Billboard chart. Parker had already shifted his plans to television, where Presley had not appeared since the Sinatra Timex show in 1960. He maneuvered a deal with NBC that committed the network to both finance a theatrical feature and broadcast a Christmas special.\n\nRecorded in late June in Burbank, California, the special, called simply Elvis, aired on December 3, 1968. Later known as the '68 Comeback Special, the show featured lavishly staged studio productions as well as songs performed with a band in front of a small audience—Presley's first live performances since 1961. The live segments saw Presley clad in tight black leather, singing and playing guitar in an uninhibited style reminiscent of his early rock-and-roll days. Bill Belew, who designed this outfit, gave it a Napoleonic standing collar (Presley customarily wore high collars because he believed his neck looked too long), a design feature that he would later make a major trademark of the outfits Presley wore on stage in his later years. Director and coproducer Steve Binder had worked hard to reassure the nervous singer and to produce a show that was far from the hour of Christmas songs Parker had originally planned. The show, NBC's highest rated that season, captured 42 percent of the total viewing audience. Jon Landau of Eye magazine remarked, \"There is something magical about watching a man who has lost himself find his way back home. He sang with the kind of power people no longer expect of rock 'n' roll singers. He moved his body with a lack of pretension and effort that must have made Jim Morrison green with envy.\" Dave Marsh calls the performance one of \"emotional grandeur and historical resonance.\"\n\nBy January 1969, the single \"If I Can Dream\", written for the special, reached number 12. The soundtrack album broke into the top ten. According to friend Jerry Schilling, the special reminded Presley of what \"he had not been able to do for years, being able to choose the people; being able to choose what songs and not being told what had to be on the soundtrack. ... He was out of prison, man.\" Binder said of Presley's reaction, \"I played Elvis the 60-minute show, and he told me in the screening room, 'Steve, it's the greatest thing I've ever done in my life. I give you my word I will never sing a song I don't believe in.'\"\n\nFrom Elvis In Memphis and the International\n\nBuoyed by the experience of the Comeback Special, Presley engaged in a prolific series of recording sessions at American Sound Studio, which led to the acclaimed From Elvis in Memphis. Released in June 1969, it was his first secular, non-soundtrack album from a dedicated period in the studio in eight years. As described by Dave Marsh, it is \"a masterpiece in which Presley immediately catches up with pop music trends that had seemed to pass him by during the movie years. He sings country songs, soul songs and rockers with real conviction, a stunning achievement.\"\n\nPresley was keen to resume regular live performing. Following the success of the Comeback Special, offers came in from around the world. The London Palladium offered Parker $28,000 for a one-week engagement. He responded, \"That's fine for me, now how much can you get for Elvis?\" In May, the brand new International Hotel in Las Vegas, boasting the largest showroom in the city, announced that it had booked Presley, scheduling him to perform 57 shows over four weeks beginning July 31. Moore, Fontana, and the Jordanaires declined to participate, afraid of losing the lucrative session work they had in Nashville. Presley assembled new, top-notch accompaniment, led by guitarist James Burton and including two gospel groups, The Imperials and The Sweet Inspirations. Nonetheless, he was nervous: his only previous Las Vegas engagement, in 1956, had been dismal, and he had neither forgotten nor forgiven that failure. To revise his approach to performances, Presley visited Las Vegas hotel showrooms and lounges, at one of which, that of the Flamingo, he encountered Tom Jones, whose aggressive style was similar to his own 1950s approach; the two became friends. Already studying karate at the time, Presley recruited Bill Belew to design variants of karatekas's gis for him; these, in jumpsuit form, would be his \"stage uniforms\" in his later years. Parker, who intended to make Presley's return the show business event of the year, oversaw a major promotional push. For his part, hotel owner Kirk Kerkorian arranged to send his own plane to New York to fly in rock journalists for the debut performance.\n\nPresley took to the stage without introduction. The audience of 2200, including many celebrities, gave him a standing ovation before he sang a note and another after his performance. A third followed his encore, \"Can't Help Falling in Love\" (a song that would be his closing number for much of the 1970s). At a press conference after the show, when a journalist referred to him as \"The King\", Presley gestured toward Fats Domino, who was taking in the scene. \"No,\" Presley said, \"that's the real king of rock and roll.\" The next day, Parker's negotiations with the hotel resulted in a five-year contract for Presley to play each February and August, at an annual salary of $1 million. Newsweek commented, \"There are several unbelievable things about Elvis, but the most incredible is his staying power in a world where meteoric careers fade like shooting stars.\" Rolling Stone called Presley \"supernatural, his own resurrection.\" In November, Presley's final non-concert film, Change of Habit, opened. The double album From Memphis To Vegas/From Vegas To Memphis came out the same month; the first LP consisted of live performances from the International, the second of more cuts from the American Sound sessions. \"Suspicious Minds\" reached the top of the charts—Presley's first U.S. pop number one in over seven years, and his last. \n\nCassandra Peterson, later television's Elvira, met Presley during this period in Las Vegas, where she was working as a showgirl. She recalls of their encounter, \"He was so anti-drug when I met him. I mentioned to him that I smoked marijuana, and he was just appalled. He said, 'Don't ever do that again.'\" Presley was not only deeply opposed to recreational drugs, he also rarely drank. Several of his family members had been alcoholics, a fate he intended to avoid.\n\nBack on tour and meeting Nixon\n\nPresley returned to the International early in 1970 for the first of the year's two month-long engagements, performing two shows a night. Recordings from these shows were issued on the album On Stage. In late February, Presley performed six attendance-record–breaking shows at the Houston Astrodome. In April, the single \"The Wonder of You\" was issued—a number one hit in the UK, it topped the U.S. adult contemporary chart, as well. MGM filmed rehearsal and concert footage at the International during August for the documentary Elvis: That's the Way It Is. Presley was by now performing in a jumpsuit, which would become a trademark of his live act. During this engagement, he was threatened with murder unless $50,000 was paid. Presley had been the target of many threats since the 1950s, often without his knowledge. The FBI took the threat seriously and security was stepped up for the next two shows. Presley went onstage with a Derringer in his right boot and a .45 pistol in his waistband, but the concerts went off without incident.\n\nThe album That's the Way It Is, produced to accompany the documentary and featuring both studio and live recordings, marked a stylistic shift. As music historian John Robertson notes, \"The authority of Presley's singing helped disguise the fact that the album stepped decisively away from the American-roots inspiration of the Memphis sessions towards a more middle-of-the-road sound. With country put on the back burner, and soul and R&B left in Memphis, what was left was very classy, very clean white pop—perfect for the Las Vegas crowd, but a definite retrograde step for Elvis.\" After the end of his International engagement on September 7, Presley embarked on a week-long concert tour, largely of the South, his first since 1958. Another week-long tour, of the West Coast, followed in November.\n\nOn December 21, 1970, Presley engineered a meeting with President Richard Nixon at the White House, where he expressed his patriotism and his contempt for the hippies, the growing drug culture, and the counterculture in general. He asked Nixon for a Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs badge, to add to similar items he had begun collecting and to signify official sanction of his patriotic efforts. Nixon, who apparently found the encounter awkward, expressed a belief that Presley could send a positive message to young people and that it was therefore important he \"retain his credibility\". Presley told Nixon that the Beatles, whose songs he regularly performed in concert during the era, exemplified what he saw as a trend of anti-Americanism and drug abuse in popular culture. (Presley and his friends had had a four-hour get-together with the Beatles five years earlier.) On hearing reports of the meeting, Paul McCartney later said he \"felt a bit betrayed\" and commented: \"The great joke was that we were taking [illegal] drugs, and look what happened to him\", a reference to Presley's death, hastened by prescription drug abuse.\n\nThe U.S. Junior Chamber of Commerce named Presley one of its annual Ten Most Outstanding Young Men of the Nation on January 16, 1971. Not long after, the City of Memphis named the stretch of Highway 51 South on which Graceland is located \"Elvis Presley Boulevard\". The same year, Presley became the first rock and roll singer to be awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award (then known as the Bing Crosby Award) by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, the Grammy Award organization. Three new, non-film Presley studio albums were released in 1971, as many as had come out over the previous eight years. Best received by critics was Elvis Country, a concept record that focused on genre standards. The biggest seller was Elvis Sings the Wonderful World of Christmas, \"the truest statement of all\", according to Greil Marcus. \"In the midst of ten painfully genteel Christmas songs, every one sung with appalling sincerity and humility, one could find Elvis tom-catting his way through six blazing minutes of 'Merry Christmas Baby,' a raunchy old Charles Brown blues.\" According to Guralnick, \"the one real highlight\" of one of the 1971 sessions were the recording of \"I Will Be True,\" \"It's Still Here,\" and \"I'll Take You Home Again, Kathleen,\" a trio of songs that Presley recorded in a rare solo set, sitting at the piano after everyone else had gone home: \"Yearning, wistfulness, loneliness, need—all were communicated with a naked lack of adornment that Elvis was seeming to find increasingly difficult to display in the formal process of recording.\"\n\nMarriage breakdown and Aloha from Hawaii\n\nMGM again filmed Presley in April 1972, this time for Elvis on Tour, which went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Documentary Film that year. His gospel album He Touched Me, released that month, would earn him his second Grammy Award, for Best Inspirational Performance. A 14-date tour commenced with an unprecedented four consecutive sold-out shows at New York's Madison Square Garden. The evening concert on July 10 was recorded and issued in LP form a week later. Elvis: As Recorded at Madison Square Garden became one of Presley's biggest-selling albums. After the tour, the single \"Burning Love\" was released—Presley's last top ten hit on the U.S. pop chart. \"The most exciting single Elvis has made since 'All Shook Up'\", wrote rock critic Robert Christgau. \"Who else could make 'It's coming closer, the flames are now licking my body' sound like an assignation with James Brown's backup band?\"\n\nPresley and his wife, meanwhile, had become increasingly distant, barely cohabiting. In 1971, an affair he had with Joyce Bova resulted—unbeknownst to him—in her pregnancy and an abortion. He often raised the possibility of her moving into Graceland, saying that he was likely to leave Priscilla. The Presleys separated on February 23, 1972, after Priscilla disclosed her relationship with Mike Stone, a karate instructor Presley had recommended to her. Priscilla relates that when she told him, Presley \"grabbed ... and forcefully made love to\" her, declaring, \"This is how a real man makes love to his woman.\" Five months later, Presley's new girlfriend, Linda Thompson, a songwriter and one-time Memphis beauty queen, moved in with him. Presley and his wife filed for divorce on August 18. According to Joe Moscheo of the Imperials, the failure of Presley's marriage \"was a blow from which he never recovered.\"\n\nIn January 1973, Presley performed two benefit concerts for the Kui Lee Cancer Fund in connection with a groundbreaking TV special, Aloha from Hawaii. The first show served as a practice run and backup should technical problems affect the live broadcast two days later. Aired as scheduled on January 14, Aloha from Hawaii was the first global concert satellite broadcast, reaching millions of viewers live and on tape delay. Presley's costume became the most recognized example of the elaborate concert garb with which his latter-day persona became closely associated. As described by Bobbie Ann Mason, \"At the end of the show, when he spreads out his American Eagle cape, with the full stretched wings of the eagle studded on the back, he becomes a god figure.\" The accompanying double album, released in February, went to number one and eventually sold over 5 million copies in the United States. It proved to be Presley's last U.S. number one pop album during his lifetime. \n\nAt a midnight show the same month, four men rushed onto the stage in an apparent attack. Security men leapt to Presley's defense, and the singer's karate instinct took over as he ejected one invader from the stage himself. Following the show, he became obsessed with the idea that the men had been sent by Mike Stone to kill him. Though they were shown to have been only overexuberant fans, he raged, \"There's too much pain in me ... Stone [must] die.\" His outbursts continued with such intensity that a physician was unable to calm him, despite administering large doses of medication. After another two full days of raging, Red West, his friend and bodyguard, felt compelled to get a price for a contract killing and was relieved when Presley decided, \"Aw hell, let's just leave it for now. Maybe it's a bit heavy.\"\n\n1973–77: Health deterioration and death\n\nMedical crises and last studio sessions\n\nPresley's divorce took effect on October 9, 1973. He was now becoming increasingly unwell. Twice during the year he overdosed on barbiturates, spending three days in a coma in his hotel suite after the first incident. Toward the end of 1973, he was hospitalized, semicomatose from the effects of Demerol addiction. According to his main physician, Dr. George C. Nichopoulos, Presley \"felt that by getting [drugs] from a doctor, he wasn't the common everyday junkie getting something off the street.\" Since his comeback, he had staged more live shows with each passing year, and 1973 saw 168 concerts, his busiest schedule ever. Despite his failing health, in 1974 he undertook another intensive touring schedule.\n\nPresley's condition declined precipitously in September. Keyboardist Tony Brown remembers the singer's arrival at a University of Maryland concert: \"He fell out of the limousine, to his knees. People jumped to help, and he pushed them away like, 'Don't help me.' He walked on stage and held onto the mike for the first thirty minutes like it was a post. Everybody's looking at each other like, Is the tour gonna happen?\" Guitarist John Wilkinson recalled, \"He was all gut. He was slurring. He was so fucked up. ... It was obvious he was drugged. It was obvious there was something terribly wrong with his body. It was so bad the words to the songs were barely intelligible. ... I remember crying. He could barely get through the introductions\". Wilkinson recounted that a few nights later in Detroit, Michigan, \"I watched him in his dressing room, just draped over a chair, unable to move. So often I thought, 'Boss, why don't you just cancel this tour and take a year off ...?' I mentioned something once in a guarded moment. He patted me on the back and said, 'It'll be all right. Don't you worry about it.'\" Presley continued to play to sellout crowds.\n\nOn July 13, 1976, Vernon Presley—who had become deeply involved in his son's financial affairs—fired \"Memphis Mafia\" bodyguards Red West (Presley's friend since the 1950s), Sonny West, and David Hebler, citing the need to \"cut back on expenses\". Presley was in Palm Springs at the time, and some suggest the singer was too cowardly to face the three himself. Another associate of Presley's, John O'Grady, argued that the bodyguards were dropped because their rough treatment of fans had prompted too many lawsuits. However, Presley's stepbrother David Stanley has claimed that the bodyguards were fired because they were becoming more outspoken about Presley's drug dependency.\n\nRCA, which had enjoyed a steady stream of product from Presley for over a decade, grew anxious as his interest in spending time in the studio waned. After a December 1973 session that produced 18 songs, enough for almost two albums, he did not enter the studio in 1974. Parker sold RCA on another concert record, Elvis Recorded Live on Stage in Memphis. Recorded on March 20, it included a version of \"How Great Thou Art\" that would win Presley his third and final competitive Grammy Award. (All three of his competitive Grammy wins—out of 14 total nominations—were for gospel recordings.) Presley returned to the studio in Hollywood in March 1975, but Parker's attempts to arrange another session toward the end of the year were unsuccessful. In 1976, RCA sent a mobile studio to Graceland that made possible two full-scale recording sessions at Presley's home. Even in that comfortable context, the recording process was now a struggle for him.\n\nFor all the concerns of his label and manager, in studio sessions between July 1973 and October 1976, Presley recorded virtually the entire contents of six albums. Though he was no longer a major presence on the pop charts, five of those albums entered the top five of the country chart, and three went to number one: Promised Land (1975), From Elvis Presley Boulevard, Memphis, Tennessee (1976), and Moody Blue (1977). The story was similar with his singles—there were no major pop hits, but Presley was a significant force in not just the country market, but on adult contemporary radio as well. Eight studio singles from this period released during his lifetime were top ten hits on one or both charts, four in 1974 alone. \"My Boy\" was a number one adult contemporary hit in 1975, and \"Moody Blue\" topped the country chart and reached the second spot on the adult contemporary chart in 1976. Perhaps his most critically acclaimed recording of the era came that year, with what Greil Marcus described as his \"apocalyptic attack\" on the soul classic \"Hurt\". \"If he felt the way he sounded\", Dave Marsh wrote of Presley's performance, \"the wonder isn't that he had only a year left to live but that he managed to survive that long.\"\n\nFinal year and death\n\nPresley and Linda Thompson split in November 1976, and he took up with a new girlfriend, Ginger Alden. He proposed to Alden and gave her an engagement ring two months later, though several of his friends later claimed that he had no serious intention of marrying again. Journalist Tony Scherman writes that by early 1977, \"Presley had become a grotesque caricature of his sleek, energetic former self. Hugely overweight, his mind dulled by the pharmacopoeia he daily ingested, he was barely able to pull himself through his abbreviated concerts.\" In Alexandria, Louisiana, the singer was on stage for less than an hour and \"was impossible to understand\". Presley failed to appear in Baton Rouge; he was unable to get out of his hotel bed, and the rest of the tour was cancelled. Despite the accelerating deterioration of his health, he stuck to most touring commitments. In Rapid City, South Dakota, \"he was so nervous on stage that he could hardly talk\", according to Presley historian Samuel Roy, and unable to \"perform any significant movement.\" Guralnick relates that fans \"were becoming increasingly voluble about their disappointment, but it all seemed to go right past Elvis, whose world was now confined almost entirely to his room and his spiritualism books.\" A cousin, Billy Smith, recalled how Presley would sit in his room and chat for hours, sometimes recounting favorite Monty Python sketches and his own past escapades, but more often gripped by paranoid obsessions that reminded Smith of Howard Hughes. \"Way Down\", Presley's last single issued during his lifetime, came out on June 6. On the next tour, CBS filmed two concerts for a TV Special, Elvis in Concert, to be aired in October. On the first of these, captured in Omaha on June 19, Presley's voice, Guralnick writes, \"is almost unrecognizable, a small, childlike instrument in which he talks more than sings most of the songs, casts about uncertainly for the melody in others, and is virtually unable to articulate or project.\" He did better on the second night, two days later in Rapid City, Iowa: \"He looked healthier, seemed to have lost a little weight, and sounded better, too\", though his appearance was still a \"face framed in a helmet of blue-black hair from which sweat sheets down over pale, swollen cheeks.\" His final concert was held in Indianapolis, Indiana at Market Square Arena, on June 26.\n\nThe book Elvis: What Happened?, cowritten by the three bodyguards fired the previous year, was published on August 1. It was the first exposé to detail Presley's years of drug misuse. He was devastated by the book and tried unsuccessfully to halt its release by offering money to the publishers. By this point, he suffered from multiple ailments: glaucoma, high blood pressure, liver damage, and an enlarged colon, each aggravated—and possibly caused—by drug abuse. Genetic analysis of a hair sample in 2014 found evidence of genetic variants that could have caused his glaucoma, migraines and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. \n\nPresley was scheduled to fly out of Memphis on the evening of August 16, 1977, to begin another tour. That afternoon, Ginger Alden discovered him unresponsive on his bathroom floor. Attempts to revive him failed, and death was officially pronounced at 3:30 pm at Baptist Memorial Hospital.\n\nPresident Jimmy Carter issued a statement that credited Presley with having \"permanently changed the face of American popular culture\". Thousands of people gathered outside Graceland to view the open casket. One of Presley's cousins, Billy Mann, accepted $18,000 to secretly photograph the corpse; the picture appeared on the cover of the National Enquirers biggest-selling issue ever. Alden struck a $105,000 deal with the Enquirer for her story, but settled for less when she broke her exclusivity agreement. Presley left her nothing in his will.\n\nPresley's funeral was held at Graceland, on Thursday, August 18. Outside the gates, a car plowed into a group of fans, killing two women and critically injuring a third. Approximately 80,000 people lined the processional route to Forest Hill Cemetery, where Presley was buried next to his mother. Within a few days, \"Way Down\" topped the country and UK pop charts.\n\nFollowing an attempt to steal the singer's body in late August, the remains of both Presley and his mother were reburied in Graceland's Meditation Garden on October 2.\n\nSince his death, there have been numerous alleged sightings of Presley. A long-standing theory among some fans is that he faked his death. Fans have noted alleged discrepancies in the death certificate, reports of a wax dummy in his original coffin and numerous accounts of Presley planning a diversion so he could retire in peace.\n\nQuestions over cause of death\n\n\"Drug use was heavily implicated\" in Presley's death, writes Guralnick. \"No one ruled out the possibility of anaphylactic shock brought on by the codeine pills ... to which he was known to have had a mild allergy.\" A pair of lab reports filed two months later each strongly suggested that polypharmacy was the primary cause of death; one reported \"fourteen drugs in Elvis' system, ten in significant quantity.\" Forensic historian and pathologist Michael Baden views the situation as complicated: \"Elvis had had an enlarged heart for a long time. That, together with his drug habit, caused his death. But he was difficult to diagnose; it was a judgment call.\"\n\nThe competence and ethics of two of the centrally involved medical professionals were seriously questioned. Before the autopsy was complete and toxicology results known, medical examiner Dr. Jerry Francisco declared the cause of death as cardiac arrhythmia, a condition that can be determined only in someone who is still alive. Allegations of a cover-up were widespread. While Presley's main physician, Dr. Nichopoulos, was exonerated of criminal liability for the singer's death, the facts were startling: \"In the first eight months of 1977 alone, he had [prescribed] more than 10,000 doses of sedatives, amphetamines and narcotics: all in Elvis's name.\" His license was suspended for three months. It was permanently revoked in the 1990s after the Tennessee Medical Board brought new charges of over-prescription.\n\nAmidst mounting pressure in 1994, the Presley autopsy was reopened. Coroner Dr. Joseph Davis declared, \"There is nothing in any of the data that supports a death from drugs. In fact, everything points to a sudden, violent heart attack.\" Whether or not combined drug intoxication was in fact the cause, there is little doubt that polypharmacy contributed significantly to Presley's premature death.\n\nSince 1977\n\nBetween 1977 and 1981, six posthumously released singles by Presley were top ten country hits. Graceland was opened to the public in 1982. Attracting over half a million visitors annually, it is the second most-visited home in the United States, after the White House. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2006.\n\nPresley has been inducted into five music halls of fame: the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (1986), the Country Music Hall of Fame (1998), the Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2001), the Rockabilly Hall of Fame (2007), and the Memphis Music Hall of Fame (2012). In 1984, he received the W. C. Handy Award from the Blues Foundation and the Academy of Country Music's first Golden Hat Award. In 1987, he received the American Music Awards' Award of Merit.\n\nA Junkie XL remix of Presley's \"A Little Less Conversation\" (credited as \"Elvis Vs JXL\") was used in a Nike advertising campaign during the 2002 FIFA World Cup. It topped the charts in over 20 countries, and was included in a compilation of Presley's number one hits, ELV1S, that was also an international success. In 2003, a remix of \"Rubberneckin'\", a 1969 recording of Presley's, topped the U.S. sales chart, as did a 50th-anniversary re-release of \"That's All Right\" the following year. The latter was an outright hit in the UK, reaching number three on the pop chart.\n\nIn 2005, another three reissued singles, \"Jailhouse Rock\", \"One Night\"/\"I Got Stung\", and \"It's Now or Never\", went to number one in the United Kingdom. A total of 17 Presley singles were reissued during the year; all made the British top five. For the fifth straight year, Forbes named Presley the top-earning deceased celebrity, with a gross income of $45 million. He placed second in 2006, returned to the top spot the next two years, and ranked fourth in 2009. The following year, he was ranked second, with his highest annual income ever—$60 million—spurred by the celebration of his 75th birthday and the launch of Cirque du Soleil's Viva Elvis show in Las Vegas. In November 2010, Viva Elvis: The Album was released, setting his voice to newly recorded instrumental tracks. As of mid-2011, there were an estimated 15,000 licensed Presley products. He was again the second-highest-earning deceased celebrity.\n\nPresley holds the records for most songs charting in Billboards top 40 and top 100: chart statistician Joel Whitburn calculates the respective totals as 104 and 151; Presley historian Adam Victor gives 114 and 138. Presley's rankings for top-ten and number-one hits vary depending on how the double-sided \"Hound Dog/Don't Be Cruel\" and \"Don't/I Beg of You\" singles, which precede the inception of Billboards unified Hot 100 chart, are analyzed. According to Whitburn's analysis, Presley and Madonna share the record for most top ten hits with 38; per Billboards current assessment, he ranks second with 36. Whitburn and Billboard concur that the Beatles hold the record for most number-one hits with 20, and that Mariah Carey is second with 18. Whitburn has Presley also with 18, and thus tied for second; Billboard has him third with 17. Presley retains the record for cumulative weeks at number one: alone at 80, according to Whitburn and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame; tied with Carey at 79, according to Billboard. He holds the records for most British number-one hits with 21, and top-ten hits with 76.\n\nIn 2008, an 1800-year-old Roman bust described as bearing a \"striking\" resemblance to Elvis was displayed ahead of an intended auction. A spokesman for the auctioneers said that fans could \"be forgiven for thinking that their idol may well have lived a previous life in Rome.\"\n\nOn the anniversary date of his death, every year since 1997, thousands of people gather at his home in Memphis to celebrate his memory, during a candlelight ritual. \n\nArtistry\n\nInfluences\n\nPresley's earliest musical influence came from gospel. His mother recalled that from the age of two, at the Assembly of God church in Tupelo attended by the family, \"he would slide down off my lap, run into the aisle and scramble up to the platform. There he would stand looking at the choir and trying to sing with them.\" In Memphis, Presley frequently attended all-night gospel singings at the Ellis Auditorium, where groups such as the Statesmen Quartet led the music in a style that, Guralnick suggests, sowed the seeds of Presley's future stage act:\n\nAs a teenager, Presley's musical interests were wide-ranging, and he was deeply informed about African American musical idioms as well as white ones (see \"Teenage life in Memphis\"). Though he never had any formal training, he was blessed with a remarkable memory, and his musical knowledge was already considerable by the time he made his first professional recordings in 1954 at the age of 19. When Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller met him two years later, they were astonished at his encyclopedic understanding of the blues. At a press conference the following year, he proudly declared, \"I know practically every religious song that's ever been written.\"\n\nMusical style and genres\n\nPresley was a central figure in the development of rockabilly, according to music historians. Katherine Charlton even calls him \"rockabilly's originator\", though Carl Perkins has explicitly stated that \"[Sam] Phillips, Elvis, and I didn't create rockabilly.\" and, according to Michael Campbell, \"Bill Haley recorded the first big rockabilly hit.\" \"It had been there for quite a while\", says Scotty Moore. \"Carl Perkins was doing basically the same sort of thing up around Jackson, and I know for a fact Jerry Lee Lewis had been playing that kind of music ever since he was ten years old.\" However, \"Rockabilly crystallized into a recognizable style in 1954 with Elvis Presley's first release, on the Sun label\", writes Craig Morrison. Paul Friedlander describes the defining elements of rockabilly, which he similarly characterizes as \"essentially ... an Elvis Presley construction\": \"the raw, emotive, and slurred vocal style and emphasis on rhythmic feeling [of] the blues with the string band and strummed rhythm guitar [of] country\". In \"That's All Right\", the Presley trio's first record, Scotty Moore's guitar solo, \"a combination of Merle Travis–style country finger-picking, double-stop slides from acoustic boogie, and blues-based bent-note, single-string work, is a microcosm of this fusion.\"\n\nAt RCA, Presley's rock and roll sound grew distinct from rockabilly with group chorus vocals, more heavily amplified electric guitars and a tougher, more intense manner. While he was known for taking songs from various sources and giving them a rockabilly/rock and roll treatment, he also recorded songs in other genres from early in his career, from the pop standard \"Blue Moon\" at Sun to the country ballad \"How's the World Treating You?\" on his second LP to the blues of \"Santa Claus Is Back In Town\". In 1957, his first gospel record was released, the four-song EP Peace in the Valley. Certified as a million seller, it became the top-selling gospel EP in recording history. Presley would record gospel periodically for the rest of his life.\n\nAfter his return from military service in 1960, Presley continued to perform rock and roll, but the characteristic style was substantially toned down. The reason why the music from this period lacks the drama from his Fifties recordings, critic Dave Marsh writes, is \"because what we're hearing is not genius discovering itself but the sound of genius at work.\" His first post-Army single, the number one hit \"Stuck on You\", is typical of this shift. RCA publicity materials referred to its \"mild rock beat\"; discographer Ernst Jorgensen calls it \"upbeat pop\". The modern blues/R&B sound captured so successfully on Elvis Is Back! was essentially abandoned for six years until such 1966–67 recordings as \"Down in the Alley\" and \"Hi-Heel Sneakers\", though Marsh holds that while he may have recorded few blues songs in the early to middle Sixties, \"blues informs almost everything here.\" The singer's output during most of the 1960s emphasized pop music, often in the form of ballads such as \"Are You Lonesome Tonight?\", a number one in 1960. While that was a dramatic number, most of what Presley recorded for his film soundtracks was in a much lighter vein. Notable numbers in other genres are the No. 1 hits \"It's Now or Never\" of 1960, based on the Italian aria \"O Sole Mio\" and concluding with a \"full-voiced operatic cadence,\" and the 1962 hit \"She's Not You\" which \"integrates the Jordanaires so completely, it's practically doo-wop.\"\n\nWhile Presley performed several of his classic ballads for the '68 Comeback Special, the sound of the show was dominated by aggressive rock and roll. He would record few new straight-ahead rock and roll songs thereafter; as he explained, they were \"hard to find\". A significant exception was \"Burning Love\", his last major hit on the pop charts. Like his work of the 1950s, Presley's subsequent recordings reworked pop and country songs, but in markedly different permutations. His stylistic range now began to embrace a more contemporary rock sound as well as soul and funk. Much of Elvis In Memphis, as well as \"Suspicious Minds\", cut at the same sessions, reflected his new rock and soul fusion. In the mid-1970s, many of his singles found a home on country radio, the field where he first became a star.\n\nVocal style and range\n\nThe general development of Presley's voice is described by critic Dave Marsh as \"A voice, high and thrilled in the early days, lower and perplexed in the final months.\" Marsh credits Presley with the introduction of the \"vocal stutter\" on 1955's \"Baby Let's Play House.\" When on \"Don't Be Cruel\" Presley \"slides into a 'mmmmm' that marks the transition between the first two verses,\" he shows \"how masterful his relaxed style really is.\" Marsh describes the singing on \"Can't Help Falling in Love\" to be of \"gentle insistence and delicacy of phrasing,\" with the line \"'Shall I stay'\" pronounced as if the words are fragile as crystal.\" On the operatic \"It's Now or Never\" Presley \"was reaching for something more than he had ever attempted before,\" and, according to discographer Jorgensen, later the same year the melody to \"Surrender\", a number also based on an Italian original, \"Torna A Sorrento\", \"required an even greater demonstration of vocal powers.\" \n\nJorgensen calls the 1966 recording of \"How Great Thou Art\" \"an extraordinary fulfillment of his vocal ambitions,\" as Presley had \"crafted for himself an ad-hoc arrangement in which he took every part of the four-part vocal, from [the] bass intro to the soaring heights of the song's operatic climax,\" in the process becoming \"a kind of one-man quartet.\" Guralnick finds \"Stand By Me\" from the same sessions \"a beautifully articulated, almost nakedly yearning performance,\" but, by contrast, feels that Presley reaches beyond his powers on \"Where No One Stands Alone\" on which \"he was reduced to a kind of inelegant bellowing to push out a sound\" that Jake Hess would have no problem with. Hess himself thought that while others may have a voice as great or greater than Presley's, \"he had that certain something that everyone searches for all during their lifetime.\" Guralnick attempts to pinpoint that something: \"The warmth of his voice, his controlled use of both vibrato technique and natural falsetto range, the subtlety and deeply felt conviction of his singing were all qualities recognizably belonging to his talent but just as recognizably not to be achieved without sustained dedication and effort.\"\n\nPresley's singing to his own \"necessarily limited, both rhythmically and melodically,\" piano accompaniment, such as can be heard on the 1967 recording of \"You'll Never Walk Alone\", for Guralnick are always special occasions, because \"it was always a measure of his engagement when he sat down at the keyboard to play.\" Describing his piano technique as \"staccato style,\" Jorgensen finds that on \"Without Love\" from the 1969 sessions, \"his gospel-flavored treatment took it to a level of spirituality rarely matched in his career.\" Presley also played the instrument on the \"impassioned version\" of the sessions's next song, \"I'll Hold You in My Heart,\" of which Guralnick writes that \"there is something magical about the moment that only the most inspired singing can bring about, as Elvis loses himself in the music, words no longer lend themselves to literal translation, and singer and listener both are left emotionally wrung out by the time the song finally limps to an end.\" \n\nMarsh praises his 1968 reading of \"U.S. Male\", \"bearing down on the hard guy lyrics, not sending them up or overplaying them but tossing them around with that astonishingly tough yet gentle assurance that he brought to his Sun records.\" The performance on \"In the Ghetto\" is, according to Jorgensen, \"devoid of any of his characteristic vocal tricks or mannerisms,\" instead relying on \"the astonishing clarity and sensitivity of his voice.\" Guralnick describes the tenderness in the singing of the same song of \"such unassuming, almost translucent eloquence, it is so quietly confident in its simplicity\" that one is reminded of the Sun period, \"offering equal parts yearning and social compassion.\" On \"Suspicious Minds\" from the same sessions Guralnick hears essentially the same \"remarkable mixture of tenderness and poise,\" but supplemented with \"an expressive quality somewhere between stoicism (at suspected infidelity) and anguish (over impending loss).\"\n\nMusic critic Henry Pleasants observes that \"Presley has been described variously as a baritone and a tenor. An extraordinary compass ... and a very wide range of vocal color have something to do with this divergence of opinion.\" He identifies Presley as a high baritone, calculating his range as two octaves and a third, \"from the baritone low G to the tenor high B, with an upward extension in falsetto to at least a D-flat. Presley's best octave is in the middle, D-flat to D-flat, granting an extra full step up or down.\" In Pleasants' view, his voice was \"variable and unpredictable\" at the bottom, \"often brilliant\" at the top, with the capacity for \"full-voiced high Gs and As that an opera baritone might envy\". Scholar Lindsay Waters, who figures Presley's range as 2¼ octaves, emphasizes that \"his voice had an emotional range from tender whispers to sighs down to shouts, grunts, grumbles and sheer gruffness that could move the listener from calmness and surrender, to fear.\" Presley was always \"able to duplicate the open, hoarse, ecstatic, screaming, shouting, wailing, reckless sound of the black rhythm-and-blues and gospel singers,\" writes Pleasants, and also demonstrated a remarkable ability to assimilate many other vocal styles.\n\nPublic image\n\nRacial issues\n\nWhen Dewey Phillips first aired \"That's All Right\" on Memphis radio, many listeners who contacted the station by phone and telegram to ask for it again assumed that its singer was black. From the beginning of his national fame, Presley expressed respect for African American performers and their music, and disregard for the norms of segregation and racial prejudice then prevalent in the South. Interviewed in 1956, he recalled how in his childhood he would listen to blues musician Arthur Crudup—the originator of \"That's All Right\"—\"bang his box the way I do now, and I said if I ever got to the place where I could feel all old Arthur felt, I'd be a music man like nobody ever saw.\" The Memphis World, an African American newspaper, reported that Presley, \"the rock 'n' roll phenomenon\", \"cracked Memphis's segregation laws\" by attending the local amusement park on what was designated as its \"colored night\". Such statements and actions led Presley to be generally hailed in the black community during the early days of his stardom. By contrast, many white adults, according to Billboards Arnold Shaw, \"did not like him, and condemned him as depraved. Anti-negro prejudice doubtless figured in adult antagonism. Regardless of whether parents were aware of the Negro sexual origins of the phrase 'rock 'n' roll', Presley impressed them as the visual and aural embodiment of sex.\"\n\nDespite the largely positive view of Presley held by African Americans, a rumor spread in mid-1957 that he had at some point announced, \"The only thing Negroes can do for me is buy my records and shine my shoes.\" A journalist with the national African American weekly Jet, Louie Robinson, pursued the story. On the set of Jailhouse Rock, Presley granted Robinson an interview, though he was no longer dealing with the mainstream press. He denied making such a statement or holding in any way to its racist view: \"I never said anything like that, and people who know me know that I wouldn't have said it … A lot of people seem to think I started this business. But rock 'n' roll was here a long time before I came along. Nobody can sing that kind of music like colored people. Let's face it: I can't sing like Fats Domino can. I know that.\" Also, Red Robinson stated, \"Take a look at the things that are only publicized now, of how he'd be driving down the street and see a destitute black woman with a little child. He went and bought her a Cadillac. Now if this guy hated blacks, he wouldn’t even have gone near them\". Robinson found no evidence that the remark had ever been made, and on the contrary elicited testimony from many individuals indicating that Presley was anything but racist. Blues singer Ivory Joe Hunter, who had heard the rumor before he visited Graceland one evening, reported of Presley, \"He showed me every courtesy, and I think he's one of the greatest.\" Dudley Brooks, an African-American composer and studio musician who worked with Presley during the 1950s and 1960s, also disputed allegations that Presley was a racist. Though the rumored remark was wholly discredited at the time, it was still being used against Presley decades later. The identification of Presley with racism—either personally or symbolically—was expressed most famously in the lyrics of the 1989 rap hit \"Fight the Power\", by Public Enemy: \"Elvis was a hero to most / But he never meant shit to me / Straight-up racist that sucker was / Simple and plain\".\n\nThe persistence of such attitudes was fueled by resentment over the fact that Presley, whose musical and visual performance idiom owed much to African American sources, achieved the cultural acknowledgement and commercial success largely denied his black peers. Into the 21st century, the notion that Presley had \"stolen\" black music still found adherents. Notable among African American entertainers expressly rejecting this view was Jackie Wilson, who argued, \"A lot of people have accused Elvis of stealing the black man's music, when in fact, almost every black solo entertainer copied his stage mannerisms from Elvis.\" And throughout his career, Presley plainly acknowledged his debt. Addressing his '68 Comeback Special audience, he said, \"Rock 'n' roll music is basically gospel or rhythm and blues, or it sprang from that. People have been adding to it, adding instruments to it, experimenting with it, but it all boils down to [that].\" Nine years earlier, he had said, \"Rock 'n' roll has been around for many years. It used to be called rhythm and blues.\"\n\nSex symbol\n\nPresley's physical attractiveness and sexual appeal were widely acknowledged. \"He was once beautiful, astonishingly beautiful\", in the words of critic Mark Feeney. Television director Steve Binder, no fan of Presley's music before he oversaw the '68 Comeback Special, reported, \"I'm straight as an arrow and I got to tell you, you stop, whether you're male or female, to look at him. He was that good looking. And if you never knew he was a superstar, it wouldn't make any difference; if he'd walked in the room, you'd know somebody special was in your presence.\" His performance style, as much as his physical beauty, was responsible for Presley's eroticized image. Writing in 1970, critic George Melly described him as \"the master of the sexual simile, treating his guitar as both phallus and girl.\" In his Presley obituary, Lester Bangs credited him as \"the man who brought overt blatant vulgar sexual frenzy to the popular arts in America.\" Ed Sullivan's declaration that he perceived a soda bottle in Presley's trousers was echoed by rumors involving a similarly positioned toilet roll tube or lead bar.\n\nWhile Presley was marketed as an icon of heterosexuality, some cultural critics have argued that his image was ambiguous. In 1959, Sight and Sounds Peter John Dyer described his onscreen persona as \"aggressively bisexual in appeal\". Brett Farmer places the \"orgasmic gyrations\" of the title dance sequence in Jailhouse Rock within a lineage of cinematic musical numbers that offer a \"spectacular eroticization, if not homoeroticization, of the male image\". In the analysis of Yvonne Tasker, \"Elvis was an ambivalent figure who articulated a peculiar feminised, objectifying version of white working-class masculinity as aggressive sexual display.\"\n\nReinforcing Presley's image as a sex symbol were the reports of his dalliances with various Hollywood stars and starlets, from Natalie Wood in the 1950s to Connie Stevens and Ann-Margret in the 1960s to Candice Bergen and Cybill Shepherd in the 1970s. June Juanico of Memphis, one of Presley's early girlfriends, later blamed Parker for encouraging him to choose his dating partners with publicity in mind. Presley never grew comfortable with the Hollywood scene, and most of these relationships were insubstantial.\n\nLifestyle\n\nPresley was known for a life of luxury and excess, as exemplified by his estate at Graceland. He owned a number of expensive cars, including three pink Cadillacs, immortalized in his version of the song \"Baby, Let's Play House\", in which Presley replaced the line \"you may get religion\" with \"you may have a Pink Cadillac\".\n\nA number of stories, both real and exaggerated, detail Presley's appetite for rich or heavy food. He was said to enjoy the Southern cuisine of his upbringing, including chicken-fried steak and biscuits and gravy. Presley is commonly associated with rich sandwiches, including the Fool's Gold Loaf and peanut butter, banana and bacon sandwiches, now commonly called an \"Elvis sandwich\".\n\nAssociates\n\nColonel Parker and the Aberbachs\n\nOnce he became Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker insisted on exceptionally tight control over his client's career. Songwriter Robert B. Sherman (of the Sherman Brothers) bore witness to the deal being forged between Hill and Range co-owner Jean Aberbach and The Colonel in 1955. Early on, \"The Colonel\" and his Hill and Range allies, the brothers Jean and Julian Aberbach, perceived the close relationship that developed between Presley and songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller as a serious threat to that control. Parker effectively ended the relationship, deliberately or not, with the new contract he sent Leiber in early 1958. Leiber thought there was a mistake—the sheet of paper was blank except for Parker's signature and a line on which to enter his. \"There's no mistake, boy, just sign it and return it,\" Parker directed. \"Don't worry, we'll fill it in later.\" Leiber declined, and Presley's fruitful collaboration with the writing team was over. Other respected songwriters lost interest in or simply avoided writing for Presley because of the requirement that they surrender a third of their usual royalties.\n\nBy 1967, Parker's contracts with Presley gave him 50 percent of most of the singer's earnings from recordings, films, and merchandise. Beginning in February 1972, he took a third of the profit from live appearances; a January 1976 agreement entitled him to half of that as well. Priscilla Presley noted that, \"Elvis detested the business side of his career. He would sign a contract without even reading it.\" Presley's friend Marty Lacker regarded Parker as a \"hustler and a con artist. He was only interested in 'now money'—get the buck and get gone.\"\n\nLacker was instrumental in convincing Presley to record with Memphis producer Chips Moman and his handpicked musicians at American Sound Studio in early 1969. The American Sound sessions represented a significant departure from the control customarily exerted by Hill and Range. Moman still had to deal with the publisher's staff on site, whose song suggestions he regarded as unacceptable. He was on the verge of quitting, until Presley ordered the Hill and Range personnel out of the studio. Although RCA executive Joan Deary was later full of praise for the producer's song choices and the quality of the recordings, Moman, to his fury, received neither credit on the records nor royalties for his work.\n\nThroughout his entire career, Presley performed in only three venues outside the United States—all of them in Canada, during brief tours there in 1957. Rumors that he would play overseas for the first time were fueled in 1974 by a million-dollar bid for an Australian tour. Parker was uncharacteristically reluctant, prompting those close to Presley to speculate about the manager's past and the reasons for his apparent unwillingness to apply for a passport. Parker ultimately squelched any notions Presley had of working abroad, claiming that foreign security was poor and the venues unsuitable for a star of his magnitude.\n\nParker arguably exercised tightest control over Presley's film career. In 1957, Robert Mitchum asked Presley to costar with him in Thunder Road, on which Mitchum was writer and producer. According to George Klein, one of his oldest friends, Presley was offered starring roles in West Side Story and Midnight Cowboy. In 1974, Barbra Streisand approached Presley to star with her in the remake of A Star is Born. In each case, any ambitions the singer may have had to play such parts were thwarted by his manager's negotiating demands or flat refusals. In Lacker's description, \"The only thing that kept Elvis going after the early years was a new challenge. But Parker kept running everything into the ground.\" The prevailing attitude may have been summed up best by the response Leiber and Stoller received when they brought a serious film project for Presley to Parker and the Hill and Range owners for their consideration. In Leiber's telling, Jean Aberbach warned them to never again \"try to interfere with the business or artistic workings of the process known as Elvis Presley.\"\n\nMemphis Mafia\n\nIn the early 1960s, the circle of friends with whom Presley constantly surrounded himself until his death came to be known as the \"Memphis Mafia\". \"Surrounded by the[ir] parasitic presence\", as journalist John Harris puts it, \"it was no wonder that as he slid into addiction and torpor, no-one raised the alarm: to them, Elvis was the bank, and it had to remain open.\" Tony Brown, who played piano for Presley regularly in the last two years of the singer's life, observed his rapidly declining health and the urgent need to address it: \"But we all knew it was hopeless because Elvis was surrounded by that little circle of people ... all those so-called friends\". In the Memphis Mafia's defense, Marty Lacker has said, \"[Presley] was his own man. ... If we hadn't been around, he would have been dead a lot earlier.\"\n\nLarry Geller became Presley's hairdresser in 1964. Unlike others in the Memphis Mafia, he was interested in spiritual questions and recalls how, from their first conversation, Presley revealed his secret thoughts and anxieties: \"I mean there has to be a purpose ... there's got to be a reason ... why I was chosen to be Elvis Presley. ... I swear to God, no one knows how lonely I get. And how empty I really feel.\" Thereafter, Geller supplied him with books on religion and mysticism, which the singer read voraciously. Presley would be preoccupied by such matters for much of his life, taking trunkloads of books with him on tour.\n\nLegacy\n\nPresley's rise to national attention in 1956 transformed the field of popular music and had a huge effect on the broader scope of popular culture. As the catalyst for the cultural revolution that was rock and roll, he was central not only to defining it as a musical genre but in making it a touchstone of youth culture and rebellious attitude. With its racially mixed origins—repeatedly affirmed by Presley—rock and roll's occupation of a central position in mainstream American culture facilitated a new acceptance and appreciation of black culture. In this regard, Little Richard said of Presley, \"He was an integrator. Elvis was a blessing. They wouldn't let black music through. He opened the door for black music.\" Al Green agreed: \"He broke the ice for all of us.\" President Jimmy Carter remarked on his legacy in 1977: \"His music and his personality, fusing the styles of white country and black rhythm and blues, permanently changed the face of American popular culture. His following was immense, and he was a symbol to people the world over of the vitality, rebelliousness, and good humor of his country.\" Presley also heralded the vastly expanded reach of celebrity in the era of mass communication: at the age of 21, within a year of his first appearance on American network television, he was one of the most famous people in the world.\n\nPresley's name, image, and voice are instantly recognizable around the globe. He has inspired a legion of impersonators. In polls and surveys, he is recognized as one of the most important popular music artists and influential Americans. \"Elvis Presley is the greatest cultural force in the twentieth century\", said composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein. \"He introduced the beat to everything and he changed everything—music, language, clothes. It's a whole new social revolution—the sixties came from it.\" Bob Dylan described the sensation of first hearing Presley as \"like busting out of jail\".\n\nOn the 25th anniversary of Presley's death, The New York Times observed, \"All the talentless impersonators and appalling black velvet paintings on display can make him seem little more than a perverse and distant memory. But before Elvis was camp, he was its opposite: a genuine cultural force. ... Elvis's breakthroughs are underappreciated because in this rock-and-roll age, his hard-rocking music and sultry style have triumphed so completely.\" Not only Presley's achievements, but his failings as well, are seen by some cultural observers as adding to the power of his legacy, as in this description by Greil Marcus:\n\nElvis Presley is a supreme figure in American life, one whose presence, no matter how banal or predictable, brooks no real comparisons. ... The cultural range of his music has expanded to the point where it includes not only the hits of the day, but also patriotic recitals, pure country gospel, and really dirty blues. ... Elvis has emerged as a great artist, a great rocker, a great purveyor of schlock, a great heart throb, a great bore, a great symbol of potency, a great ham, a great nice person, and, yes, a great American.\n\nDiscography\n\nA vast number of recordings have been issued under Presley's name. The total number of his original master recordings has been variously calculated as 665 and 711. His career began and he was most successful during an era when singles were the primary commercial medium for pop music. In the case of his albums, the distinction between \"official\" studio records and other forms is often blurred. For most of the 1960s, his recording career focused on soundtrack albums. In the 1970s, his most heavily promoted and best-selling LP releases tended to be concert albums. This summary discography lists only the albums and singles that reached the top of one or more of the following charts: the main U.S. Billboard pop chart; the Billboard country chart, the genre chart with which he was most identified (there was no country album chart before 1964); and the official British pop chart.\n\nThe year given, in the table below, is the year the record first reached number one, rather than its original year of release. For instance: Elvis' 40 Greatest, released in 1974, a compilation on the budget Arcade label, was the fourth highest selling album of the year in the United Kingdom; at the time, the main British chart did not rank such compilations, relegating them to a chart for midpriced and TV-advertised albums, which Elvis' 40 Greatest topped for 15 weeks. The policy was altered in 1975, allowing the album to hit number one on the main chart in 1977, following Presley's death.\n\nBefore late 1958, rather than unified pop and country singles charts, Billboard had as many as four charts for each, separately ranking records according to sales, jukebox play, jockey spins (i.e., airplay), and, in the case of pop, a general \"Top 100\". Billboard now regards the sales charts as definitive for the period. Widely cited chart statistician Joel Whitburn accords historical releases the highest ranking they achieved among the separate charts. Presley discographer Ernst Jorgensen refers only to the Top 100 chart for pop hits. All of the 1956–58 songs listed here as number one US pop hits reached the top of both the sales and with three exceptions, the Top 100 charts: \"I Want You, I Need You, I Love You\" (three), \"Hound Dog\" (two, behind its flip side, \"Don't Be Cruel\"), and \"Hard Headed Woman\" (two).\n\nSeveral Presley singles reached number one in the United Kingdom as double A-sides; in the United States, the respective sides of those singles were ranked separately by Billboard. In the United States, Presley also had five or six number-one R&B singles and seven number-one adult contemporary singles; in 1964, his \"Blue Christmas\" topped the Christmas singles chart during a period when Billboard did not rank holiday singles in its primary pop chart. He also had number-one hits in many countries beside the US and UK.\n\nNumber one albums\n\nNumber one singles\n\nFilmography\n\n* Love Me Tender (1956)\n* Loving You (1957)\n* Jailhouse Rock (1957)\n* King Creole (1958)\n* G.I. Blues (1960)\n* Flaming Star (1960)\n* Wild in the Country (1961)\n* Blue Hawaii (1961)\n* Follow That Dream (1962)\n* Kid Galahad (1962)\n* Girls! Girls! Girls! (1962)\n\n* It Happened at the World's Fair (1963)\n* Fun in Acapulco (1963)\n* Kissin' Cousins (1964)\n* Viva Las Vegas (1964)\n* Roustabout (1964)\n* Girl Happy (1965)\n* Tickle Me (1965)\n* Harum Scarum (1965)\n* Frankie and Johnny (1966)\n* Paradise, Hawaiian Style (1966)\n* Spinout (1966)\n\n* Easy Come, Easy Go (1967)\n* Double Trouble (1967)\n* Clambake (1967)\n* Stay Away, Joe (1968)\n* Speedway (1968)\n* Live a Little, Love a Little (1968)\n* Charro! (1969)\n* The Trouble with Girls (1969)\n* Change of Habit (1969)\n* Elvis: That's the Way It Is (1970)\n* Elvis on Tour (1972)\n\nTV concert specials\n\nElvis (1968)\nElvis: Aloha from Hawaii via Satellite (1973)\n*Elvis in Concert (1977)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "King Creole" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "king creole" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "king creole", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "King Creole" }
Where was golf's 1977 US Open held?	tc_1431	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "1977_U.S._Open_(golf).txt" ], "title": [ "1977 U.S. Open (golf)" ], "wiki_context": [ "The 1977 U.S. Open was the 77th U.S. Open, held June 16–19 at Southern Hills Country Club in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Hubert Green won the first of his two major titles, one stroke ahead of runner-up Lou Graham, the 1975 champion.\n\nGreen began the final round with the lead, but 11 players were within three shots. Graham made a charge on the back nine, collecting birdies at 12, 14, 15, and 16 en route to a 68 (–2) and a 279 (–1) total. With four holes to play, Green needed to play even-par to win the championship. As he stepped off the 14th green, however, he was approached by tournament officials and a lieutenant with the Tulsa police, who told him that they had received a phone call threatening to assassinate Green while he played the 15th hole. Green decided to play on, then proceeded to hit his drive into a tree--which probably saved it from going out of bounds. He managed to hit his approach to 35 ft and two-putt for par without incident. Green birdied the 16th and took a two-stroke lead to the 18th tee. Although he struggled on the hole, he managed to make a 4-footer for bogey and the victory. \n\nThis year marked the final U.S. Open appearance by Sam Snead, two-time champion Julius Boros, and Tommy Bolt, who had won the 1958 Open at Southern Hills. All three received exemptions by the USGA, and all three missed the cut. This was the first time that the television broadcast of the U.S. Open covered all 18 holes of the final round.\n\nIt was the third major championship at Southern Hills; it previously hosted the U.S. Open in 1958 and the PGA Championship in 1970. The U.S. Open returned in 2001 and the PGA Championship in 1982, 1994, and 2007.\n\nPast champions in the field \n\nMade the cut \n\nMissed the cut \n\nSource: \n\nRound summaries\n\nFirst round\n\nThursday, June 16, 1977\n\nSecond round\n\nFriday, June 17, 1977\n\nAmateurs: Miller (+6), Fought (+7), Zabel (+9), Sander (+14), Choate (+15), Sonnier (+15), Cook (+16), King (+16), Gregg (+20), Rheim (+29).\n\nThird round\n\nSaturday, June 18, 1977\n\nFinal round\n\nSunday, June 19, 1977\n\nAmateurs: Lindy Miller (+19), John Fought (+22)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Tulsa oklahoma", "Tulsa, Okla.", "KWMJ", "Tulsa, ok", "Tulsa,Oklahoma", "Tulsa", "Tulsa Oklahoma", "Tulsa, United States", "Downtown Tulsa, Oklahoma", "Tulsa, OK", "City of Tulsa", "Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA", "Tulsa, Oklahoma", "Tulsa (OK)", "Tollsa", "Tulsa, USA", "UN/LOCODE:USTUL", "Tulsa ok" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "tollsa", "tulsa oklahoma", "un locode ustul", "tulsa usa", "tulsa oklahoma usa", "kwmj", "downtown tulsa oklahoma", "tulsa united states", "tulsa okla", "city of tulsa", "tulsa", "tulsa ok" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "tulsa oklahoma", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Tulsa Oklahoma" }
Who shared world amateur baseball championship with USA in1973?	tc_1432	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Baseball.txt" ], "title": [ "Baseball" ], "wiki_context": [ "Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each, who take turns batting and fielding.\n\nThe batting team attempts to score runs by hitting a ball that is thrown by the pitcher with a bat swung by the batter, then running counter-clockwise around a series of four bases: first, second, third, and home plate. A run is scored when a player advances around the bases and returns to home plate.\n\nPlayers on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team, which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates' turns batting, such as on a hit or by other means. The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs. One turn batting for both teams, beginning with the visiting team, constitutes an inning. A game is composed of nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. Baseball has no game clock, although almost all games end in the ninth inning.\n\nBaseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States. Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia.\n\nIn the United States and Canada, professional Major League Baseball (MLB) teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League.\n\nHistory \n\nOrigins \n\nThe evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. A French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball. Other old French games such as thèque, la balle au bâton, and la balle empoisonnée also appear to be related. Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (2005), by David Block, suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and \"tut-ball.\" It has long been believed that cricket also descended from such games, though evidence uncovered in early 2009 suggests that cricket may have been imported to England from Flanders.\n\nThe earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of \"base-ball\" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases. David Block discovered that the first recorded game of \"Bass-Ball\" took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player. William Bray, an English lawyer, recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey. This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants. Rounders was also brought to the USA by Canadians of both British and Irish ancestry. The first known American reference to baseball appears in a 1791 Pittsfield, Massachusetts, town bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the town's new meeting house. By 1796, a version of the game was well-known enough to earn a mention in a German scholar's book on popular pastimes. As described by Johann Gutsmuths, \"englische Base-ball\" involved a contest between two teams, in which \"the batter has three attempts to hit the ball while at the home plate.\" Only one out was required to retire a side. \n\nBy the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America. These games were often referred to locally as \"town ball\", though other names such as \"round-ball\" and \"base-ball\" were also used. Among the earliest examples to receive a detailed description—albeit five decades after the fact, in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life magazine—took place in Beachville, Ontario, in 1838. There were many similarities to modern baseball, and some crucial differences: five bases (or byes); first bye just 18 ft from the home bye; batter out if a hit ball was caught after the first bounce. The once widely accepted story that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839 has been conclusively debunked by sports historians. \n\nIn 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbocker Club, led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules. The practice, common to bat-and-ball games of the day, of \"soaking\" or \"plugging\"—effecting a putout by hitting a runner with a thrown ball—was barred. The rules thus facilitated the use of a smaller, harder ball than had been common. Several other rules also brought the Knickerbockers' game close to the modern one, though a ball caught on the first bounce was, again, an out and only underhand pitching was allowed. While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the \"New York Nine\" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings (three earlier games have recently been discovered). With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century. \n\nHistory of baseball in the United States \n\nThe game turns professional \n\nIn the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area. By 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the \"national pastime\" or \"national game.\" A year later, sixteen area clubs formed the sport's first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players. In 1858 in Corona, Queens New York, at the Fashion Race Course, the first games of baseball to charge admission took place. The games, which took place between the all stars of Brooklyn, including players from the Brooklyn Atlantics, Excelsior of Brooklyn, Putnams and Eckford of Brooklyn, and the All Stars of New York (Manhattan), including players from the New York Knickerbockers, Gothams (predecessors of the San Francisco Giants), Eagles and Empire, are commonly believed to be the first all-star baseball games. In 1863, the organization disallowed putouts made by catching a fair ball on the first bounce. Four years later, it barred participation by African Americans. The game's commercial potential was developing: in 1869 the first fully professional baseball club, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and amateur teams. The first professional league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, lasted from 1871 to 1875; scholars dispute its status as a major league. \n\nThe more formally structured National League was founded in 1876. As the oldest surviving major league, the National League is sometimes referred to as the \"senior circuit.\" Several other major leagues formed and failed. In 1884, African American Moses Walker (and, briefly, his brother Welday) played in one of these, the American Association. An injury ended Walker's major league career, and by the early 1890s, a gentlemen's agreement in the form of the baseball color line effectively barred black players from the white-owned professional leagues, major and minor. Professional Negro leagues formed, but quickly folded. Several independent African American teams succeeded as barnstormers. Also in 1884, overhand pitching was legalized.Rader (2008), p. 71. In 1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game. Virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by 1893; the last major change—counting foul balls as strikes—was instituted in 1901. The National League's first successful counterpart, the American League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was established that year. The two leagues, each with eight teams, were rivals that fought for the best players, often disregarding each other's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes. \n\nA modicum of peace was eventually established, leading to the National Agreement of 1903. The pact formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's minor professional leagues. The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall, albeit without express major league sanction: The Boston Americans of the American League defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League. The next year, the series was not held, as the National League champion New York Giants, under manager John McGraw, refused to recognize the major league status of the American League and its champion. In 1905, the Giants were National League champions again and team management relented, leading to the establishment of the World Series as the major leagues' annual championship event. \n\nAs professional baseball became increasingly profitable, players frequently raised grievances against owners over issues of control and equitable income distribution. During the major leagues' early decades, players on various teams occasionally attempted strikes, which routinely failed when their jobs were sufficiently threatened. In general, the strict rules of baseball contracts and the reserve clause, which bound players to their teams even when their contracts had ended, tended to keep the players in check. Motivated by dislike for particularly stingy owner Charles Comiskey and gamblers' payoffs, real and promised, members of the Chicago White Sox conspired to throw the 1919 World Series. The Black Sox Scandal led to the formation of a new National Commission of baseball that drew the two major leagues closer together. The first major league baseball commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the Eastern Colored League. \n\nProfessional baseball was played in northeastern cities with a large immigrant-ethnic population; they gave strong support to the new sport. The Irish Catholics dominated in the late 19th century, comprising a third or more of the players and many of the top stars and managers. Historian Jerrold Casway argues that:\nBaseball for Irish kids was a shortcut to the American dream and to self-indulgent glory and fortune. By the mid-1880s these young Irish men dominated the sport and popularized a style of play that was termed heady, daring, and spontaneous.... Ed Delahanty personified the flamboyant, exciting spectator-favorite, the Casey-at-the-bat, Irish slugger. The handsome masculine athlete who is expected to live as large as he played. \n\nRise of Ruth and racial integration \n\nCompared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring and pitchers, the likes of Walter Johnson and Christy Mathewson, were more dominant. The \"inside game,\" which demanded that players \"scratch for runs\", was played much more aggressively than it is today: the brilliant and often violent Ty Cobb epitomized this style. The so-called dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters. Strict new regulations governing the ball's size, shape and composition along with a new rule officially banning the spitball, along with other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances after the death of Ray Chapman who was hit by a pitch in August 1920, coupled with superior materials available after World War I, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit. The construction of additional seating to accommodate the rising popularity of the game often had the effect of bringing the outfield fences closer in, making home runs more common. The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth, the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game. The club with which Ruth set most of his slugging records, the New York Yankees, built a reputation as the majors' premier team. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern \"farm system\". A new Negro National League was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the Negro American League. The first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936. In 1939 Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania. By the late 1940s, it was the organizing body for children's baseball leagues across the United States.\n\nWith America's entry into World War II, many professional players had left to serve in the armed forces. A large number of minor league teams disbanded as a result and the major league game seemed under threat as well. Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of a new professional league with women players to help keep the game in the public eye – the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League existed from 1943 to 1954. The inaugural College World Series was held in 1947, and the Babe Ruth League youth program was founded. This program soon became another important organizing body for children's baseball. The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred the previous year: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers—where Branch Rickey had become general manager—and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal. In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers. Larry Doby debuted with the American League's Cleveland Indians the same year. Latin American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars. \n\nFacing competition as varied as television and football, baseball attendance at all levels declined. While the majors rebounded by the mid-1950s, the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved. Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster. That year, the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded. It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly, but it remained largely ineffective for years. No major league team had been located west of St. Louis until 1958, when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively. The majors' final all-white bastion, the Boston Red Sox, added a black player in 1959. With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players, the last Negro league folded the following year. In 1961, the American League reached the West Coast with the \|Los Angeles Angels expansion team, and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162. This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth's long-standing single-season home run record, one of the most celebrated marks in baseball. Along with the Angels, three other new franchises were launched during 1961–62. With this, the first major league expansion in 60 years, each league now had ten teams.\n\nAttendance records and the age of steroids \n\nThe players' union became bolder under the leadership of former United Steelworkers chief economist and negotiator Marvin Miller, who was elected executive director in 1966. On the playing field, major league pitchers were becoming increasingly dominant again. After the 1968 season, in an effort to restore balance, the strike zone was reduced and the height of the pitcher's mound was lowered from 15 to 10 inches. In 1969, both the National and American leagues added two more expansion teams, the leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, and a post-season playoff system leading to the World Series was instituted. Also that same year, Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the first serious legal challenge to the reserve clause. The major leagues' first general players' strike took place in 1972. In another effort to add more offense to the game, the American League adopted the designated hitter rule the following year. In 1975, the union's power—and players' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down, leading to the free agency system. In 1977, two more expansion teams joined the American League. Significant work stoppages occurred again in 1981 and 1994, the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years. Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance. \n\nThe addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues, this time into three divisions each. Offensive production—the number of home runs in particular—had surged that year, and again in the abbreviated 1994 season. After play resumed in 1995, this trend continued and non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season. Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set. The next year, Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris's decades-old single season home run record and two more expansion franchises were added. In 2000, the National and American leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball (MLB). \n\nIn 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004. In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs. Even though McGwire, Sosa, and Bonds—as well as many other players, including storied pitcher Roger Clemens—have been implicated in the steroid abuse scandal, their feats and those of other sluggers had become the major leagues' defining attraction. In contrast to the professional game's resurgence in popularity after the 1994 interruption, Little League enrollment was in decline: after peaking in 1996, it dropped 1 percent a year over the following decade. With more rigorous testing and penalties for performance-enhancing drug use a possible factor, the balance between bat and ball swung markedly in 2010, which became known as the \"Year of the Pitcher\". Runs per game fell to their lowest level in 18 years, and the strikeout rate was higher than it had been in half a century.\n\nBefore the start of the 2012 season, MLB altered its rules to double the number of wild card teams admitted into the playoffs to two per league. The playoff expansion resulted in the addition of annual one-game playoffs between the wild card teams in each league. \n\nBaseball around the world \n\nBaseball, widely known as America's pastime, is well established in several other countries as well. The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States. As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both countries. While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country, the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League. The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993, the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so. After the 2004 season, Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington, D.C., where the team is now known as the Nationals.\n\nIn 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa, Veracruz. A few days after the Battle of Cerro Gordo, they used the \"wooden leg captured (by the Fourth Illinois regiment) from General Santa Anna\". The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been one of the world's strongest since international play began in the late 1930s (all organized baseball in the country has officially been amateur since the Cuban Revolution). The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912. Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938). The Japanese major leagues—the Central League and Pacific League—have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States. Japan has a professional minor league system as well, though it is much smaller than the American version—each team has only one farm club in contrast to MLB teams' four or five.\n\nAfter World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American nations, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955). Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Professional Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990), and China (2003) all have professional leagues. \n\nMany European countries have professional leagues as well, the most successful, other than the Dutch league, being the Italian league founded in 1948. Compared to those in Asia and Latin America, the various European leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal. In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games. The Israel Baseball League, launched in 2007, folded after one season. The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries, as well as national squads. Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, were administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC). By 2009, the IBAF had 117 member countries. Women's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries where it is a leading men's sport. Since 2004, the IBAF and now WBSC have sanctioned the Women's Baseball World Cup, featuring national teams.\n\nAfter being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting. It remained part of the 2008 Games. The elimination of baseball, along with softball, from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports, but none received the votes required for inclusion. While the sport's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor, more important was Major League Baseball's reluctance to have a break during the Games to allow its players to participate, as the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic Games. Such a break is more difficult for MLB to accommodate because it would force the playoffs deeper into cold weather. Seeking reinstatement for the 2016 Summer Olympics, the IBAF proposed an abbreviated competition designed to facilitate the participation of top players, but the effort failed. Major League Baseball initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede the major league season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants. The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic. \n\nRules and gameplay \n\nA game is played between two teams, each composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting and baserunning) and defense (pitching and fielding). A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an inning. A game consists of nine innings (seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college and minor leagues). One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning. The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning. The goal of the game is to score more points (runs) than the other team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by circling or completing a tour of the four bases set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond. A player bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to first base, second base, third base, and back home in order to score a run. The team in the field attempts both to prevent runs from scoring and to record outs, which remove opposing players from offensive action until their turn in their team's batting order comes up again. When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest. Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, involve different numbers of players and innings.Thurston (2000), p. 15; \n\nThe game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield. In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height (many amateur games are played on unfenced fields). Fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well. \n\nThere are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt:\n* The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with red stitching.Porterfield (2007), p. 23; \n* The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood. Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 centimeters) long, and not longer than 42 inches (106 centimeters). \n* The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers. As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions.\nProtective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters.Thurston (2000), pp. 21, 30, 31; \n\nAt the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players on the fielding team arrange themselves around the field. One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate. Another player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest of the team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the standard arrangement, there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base. The basic outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher.Porterfield (2007), pp. 16–18, 25, 34, 35; Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well, though the number will vary depending on the level of play, amateur or children's games may only have an umpire behind the plate, while as many as six umpires can be used for important Major League Baseball games.\n\nPlay starts with a batter standing at home plate, holding a bat. The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball with the bat. The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a runner (or, until the play is over, a batter-runner). A batter-runner who reaches first base without being put out (see below) is said to be safe and is now on base. A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely. A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit. A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single. If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple. If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), it is a home run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desirable result for the batter. A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an error.\n\nAny runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they were at when the play began. If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up or touch the base they were at when the play began, as or after the ball is caught. Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate—a successful effort is a stolen base. \n\nA pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.) Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee.\n\nA strike is called when one of the following happens:\n* The batter lets a well-pitched ball (one within the strike zone) go through to the catcher.\n* The batter swings at any ball (even one outside the strike zone) and misses, or foul tips it directly into the catcher's hands.\n* The batter hits a foul ball—one that either initially lands in foul territory or initially lands within the diamond but moves into foul territory before passing first or third base. If there are already two strikes on the batter, a foul ball is not counted as a third strike; thus, a foul ball cannot result in the immediate strikeout of the batter. (There is an exception to this exception: a two-strike foul bunt is recorded as a third strike.)\nA ball is called when the pitcher throws a pitch that is outside the strike zone, provided the batter has not swung at it. \n\nWhile the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs. Among the various ways a member of the batting team may be put out, five are most common:\n* The strikeout: as described above, recorded against a batter who makes three strikes before putting the ball into play or being awarded a free advance to first base (see also uncaught third strike).\n* The flyout: as described above, recorded against a batter who hits a ball in the air that is caught by a fielder, whether in fair territory or foul territory, before it lands, whether or not the batter has run.\n* The ground out: recorded against a batter (in this case, batter-runner) who hits a ball that lands in fair territory which, before the batter-runner can reach first base, is retrieved by a fielder who touches first base while holding the ball or relays it to another fielder who touches first base while holding the ball.\n* The force out: recorded against a runner who is required to attempt to advance—either because the runner is on first base and a batted ball lands in fair territory, or because the runner immediately behind on the basepath is thus required to attempt to advance—but fails to reach the next base before a fielder touches the base while holding the ball. The ground out is technically a special case of the force out.\n* The tag out: recorded against a runner who is touched by a fielder with the ball or a glove holding the ball, while the runner is not touching a base.\nIt is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play—a double play. Even three—a triple play—is possible, though this is very rare. Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team's dugout or bench. A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat—every half-inning begins with the bases empty of runners. \n\nAn individual player's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased. A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player's team have all taken their turn at bat. The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game. Children's games often have more liberal substitution rules.Thurston (2000), p. 100; \n\nIf the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players.Porterfield (2007), p. 19; Thurston (2000), p. 153; \n\nPersonnel \n\nPlayer rosters \n\nRoster, or squad, sizes differ between different leagues and different levels of organized play. Major League Baseball teams maintain 25-player active rosters. A typical 25-man roster in a league without the DH rule, such as MLB's National League, features: \n* eight position players—catcher, four infielders, three outfielders—who play on a regular basis\n* five starting pitchers who constitute the team's pitching rotation or starting rotation\n* six relief pitchers, including one specialist closer, who constitute the team's bullpen (named for the off-field area where pitchers warm up)\n* one backup, or substitute, catcher\n* two backup infielders\n* two backup outfielders\n* one specialist pinch hitter, or a second backup catcher, or a seventh reliever\n\nIn the American League and others with the DH rule, there will usually be nine offensive regulars (including the DH), five starting pitchers, seven or eight relievers, a backup catcher and two or three other reserves; the need for late inning pinch-hitters (usually in the pitcher's spot) is reduced by the DH.\n\nOther personnel \n\nThe manager, or head coach of a team, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, occupying designated coaches' boxes just outside the foul lines, assist in the direction of baserunners when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners during pauses in play. In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform in order to be allowed on the playing field during a game.\"The Fans Speak Out\" [Baseball Digest staff], Baseball Digest, August 1999, pp. 9–10; \n\nAny baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In Major League Baseball, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines.Zoss (2004), p. 293; \n\nStrategy and tactics \n\nMany of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers. A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team's roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions: the manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups, the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder. \n\nPitching and fielding tactics \n\nThe tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection. By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it approaches the batter. Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the fastball, the changeup (or off-speed pitch), and two breaking balls—the curveball and the slider. Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical and/or horizontal location. If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch. With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out. Pickoff attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher's movements before and during the pickoff attempt. Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher, with the result being runners on base, if any, advance one base with impunity. If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base. Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield.Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 45.\n\nBatting and baserunning tactics \n\nSeveral basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base. The hit and run is sometimes employed with a skillful contact hitter: the runner takes off with the pitch drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through. The sacrifice bunt calls for the batter to focus on making contact with the ball so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into scoring position even at the expense of the batter being thrown out at first—a batter who succeeds is credited with a sacrifice. (A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to bunt for a hit.) A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a squeeze play. With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter in this case gets credit for a sacrifice fly. The manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to take, or not swing at, the next pitch. \n\nDistinctive elements \n\nBaseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following, including American and Canadian football, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All of these sports use a clock; in all of them, play is less individual and more collective; and in none of them is the variation between playing fields nearly as substantial or important. The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports.\n\nNo clock to kill \n\nIn clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy. In contrast, again, the clock comes into play even in the case of multi-day Test and first-class cricket: the possibility of a draw often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind to bat defensively, giving up any faint chance at a win to avoid a loss. Baseball offers no such reward for conservative batting.\n\nWhile nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the 20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960. By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters). In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of merely 2:45. By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three hours to complete. The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently. Other leagues have experienced similar issues. In 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade's average of 3:18. \n\nIndividual focus \n\nAlthough baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure. In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: \"the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits\". Contrasting the game with both football and basketball, scholar Michael Mandelbaum argues that \"baseball is the one closest in evolutionary descent to the older individual sports\". Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other. While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing. The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it. As described by Mandelbaum,\n\nIt is impossible to isolate and objectively assess the contribution each [football] team member makes to the outcome of the play ... [E]very basketball player is interacting with all of his teammates all the time. In baseball, by contrast, every player is more or less on his own ... Baseball is therefore a realm of complete transparency and total responsibility. A baseball player lives in a glass house, and in a stark moral universe ... Everything that every player does is accounted for and everything accounted for is either good or bad, right or wrong. \n\nCricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more. There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play. \n\nUniqueness of each baseball park \n\nUnlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams following the rules of Major League and Minor League Baseball is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of 325 ft from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 ft to center. Major league teams often skirt even this rule. For example, at Minute Maid Park, which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford Boxes in left field are only 315 ft from home plate. There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield. The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston's Fenway Park, in use since 1912: the Green Monster is 310 ft from home plate down the line and 37 ft tall. \n\nSimilarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground. A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner. These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park home run. The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the image to the left shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare. Some fields—including several in MLB—use an artificial surface, such as AstroTurf. Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played. While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant. \n\nThese physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect play. A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher's park or a hitter's park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements. The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies. Its high altitude—5282 ft above sea level—is responsible for giving it the strongest hitter's park effect in the major leagues. Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a hitter's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing out, it becomes more of a pitcher's park when they are blowing in. The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players' statistical records. For example, hitting a fly ball 330 ft into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park, and a home run at another. A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its roster with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it. On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park. \n\nStatistics \n\nOrganized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, New York, was responsible for the \"development of the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball.\"Tygiel (2000), p. 16. The statistical record is so central to the game's \"historical essence\" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball. In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a \"tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines.\" \n\nThe Official Baseball Rules administered by Major League Baseball require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records. General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions.\n\nCertain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans. The basic batting statistics include:\n* At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit by pitches—where the batter's ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners\n* Hits: times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without fielding error or fielder's choice\n* Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely\n* Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter's action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error\n* Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error\n* Batting average: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting ability\nThe basic baserunning statistics include:\n* Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball\n* Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base\n\nThe basic pitching statistics include:\n* Wins: credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win)\n* Losses: charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished\n* Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings\n* Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching divided by three (partial innings are conventionally recorded as, e.g., \"5.2\" or \"7.1\", the last digit actually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)\n* Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter\n* Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses)\n* Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitched\nThe basic fielding statistics include:\n* Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out\n* Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball\n* Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result\n* Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors\n* Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances\n\nAmong the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics. For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed. \n\nSabermetrics \n\nSabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR). \n\nThe growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average: \n* On-base percentage measures a batter's ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.\n* Slugging percentage measures a batter's ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the batter's total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats.\n\nSome of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:\n* On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage. \n* Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base. It is calculated exactly as its name suggests. \n\nPopularity and cultural impact \n\nWriting in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as America's national religion. In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been \"a unique paragon of American culture\"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal. Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes \"how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, [and] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan.\" Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís, has been the major leagues' primary source of foreign talent. Hall-of-Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico's history. While baseball has long been the island's primary athletic pastime, its once well-attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues' annual first-year player draft. In the Western Hemisphere, baseball is also one of the leading sports in Canada, Colombia, Mexico, the Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, and Venezuela. In Asia, it is among the most popular sports in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan.\n\nThe major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most blue-collar-oriented of leading American spectator sports. \n\nIn the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, Major League Baseball set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades. A new MLB revenue record of $6.6 billion was set in 2009. On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 16%, compared to pro football at 31%. In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league baseball games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella also set a record in 2007, with 42.8 million; this figure does not include attendance at games of the several independent minor leagues.\n\nIn Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country. In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport, the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues. Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system. Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority \"has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes\". \n\nAs of 2007, Little League Baseball oversees more than 7,000 children's baseball leagues with more than 2.2 million participants–2.1 million in the United States and 123,000 in other countries. Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants. According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball. \n\nA varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2008, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 35,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. The number of Americans participating in baseball has declined since the late 1980s, falling well behind the number of soccer participants. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium where they are played. In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team.\n\nBaseball in popular culture \n\nBaseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms. The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-by-play from New York City's Polo Grounds on WJZ–Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to WGY–Schenectady, New York, and WBZ–Springfield, Massachusetts. The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom. \n\nBaseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, Ernest Thayer's poem \"Casey at the Bat\", appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a \"clutch situation\", the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There have been many baseball movies, including the Academy Award–winning The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and the Oscar nominees The Natural (1984) and Field of Dreams (1989). The American Film Institute's selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham (1988) at number 5. Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the Adler–Ross musical Damn Yankees—and record—George J. Gaskin's \"Slide, Kelly, Slide\", Simon and Garfunkel's \"Mrs. Robinson\", and John Fogerty's \"Centerfield\". The baseball-founded comedic sketch \"Who's on First\", popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous. Six decades later, Time named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century. Baseball is also featured in various video games including MLB: The Show, Wii Sports, Kinect Sports: Season 2 and Mario Baseball.\n\nLiterary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud's The Natural (the source for the movie), Robert Coover's The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., and W. P. Kinsella's Shoeless Joe (the source for Field of Dreams). Baseball's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell. Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter's The Glory of Their Times, Roger Kahn's The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis's Moneyball. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports. \n\nBaseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards. A typical example would feature an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields. \n\nModern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active Major League Baseball players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players' latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports. The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports–related websites. By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby. The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Republic of Cuba", "Second Republic of Cuba", "People's Republic of Cuba", "Cuba", "Subdivisions of Cuba", "Red Cuba", "CUBA", "Administrative divisions of Cuba", "Cuban News Agency", "Etymology of Cuba", "The Republic of Cuba", "Isla Juana", "República de Cuba", "ISO 3166-1:CU", "Name of Cuba", "Republica de Cuba", "Prehistory of Cuba", "Communist Cuba", "Cuba (island)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cuba", "people s republic of cuba", "administrative divisions of cuba", "cuban news agency", "iso 3166 1 cu", "etymology of cuba", "isla juana", "communist cuba", "second republic of cuba", "republic of cuba", "república de cuba", "cuba island", "republica de cuba", "prehistory of cuba", "red cuba", "name of cuba", "subdivisions of cuba" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "cuba", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Cuba" }
Who lost the first Super Bowl of the 70s?	tc_1433	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl_XLIV.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl XLIV" ], "wiki_context": [ "Super Bowl XLIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion New Orleans Saints and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Indianapolis Colts to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2009 season. The Saints defeated the Colts by a score of 31–17, earning their first Super Bowl win. The game was played at Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida for the fifth time (and in South Florida for the tenth time), on February 7, 2010, the latest calendar date for a Super Bowl yet.\n\nThis was the Saints' first Super Bowl appearance and the fourth for the Colts franchise, their second appearance in four seasons. The Saints entered the game with a 13–3 record for the 2009 regular season, compared to the Colts' 14–2 record. In the playoff games, both teams placed first in their respective conferences, marking the first time since Super Bowl XXVIII (16 years previously) that both number one seeds have reached the Super Bowl. The Colts entered the Super Bowl off victories over the Baltimore Ravens and New York Jets, while the Saints advanced after defeating the previous year's runners up the Arizona Cardinals and then overcoming the Minnesota Vikings in the Conference Championship. It was also the first time both teams started out with a thirteen-game winning streak.\n\nDown 10–6 at halftime of Super Bowl XLIV, in what many consider the turning point of the game, New Orleans successfully recovered a surprise onside kick on the second half kickoff, then took their first lead of the game on Pierre Thomas' 16-yard touchdown reception. The Colts responded with Joseph Addai's 4-yard touchdown run to regain the lead at 17-13. The Saints then scored 18 unanswered points, including Tracy Porter's 74-yard interception return for a touchdown, to clinch the victory. New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees, who completed 32 of 39 passes for 288 yards and two touchdowns, was named the Super Bowl MVP. His 32 completions tied a Super Bowl record set by Tom Brady in Super Bowl XXXVIII.\n\nThe live broadcast of the game on CBS was watched by an average US audience of 106.5 million viewers, making it the then-third most-watched Super Bowl. The National Anthem was sung by Carrie Underwood and the halftime show featured the British rock band The Who.\n\nBackground\n\nHost selection process\n\nThe league initially voted on March 23, 2005, that New York City host the game, contingent on the completion of the proposed West Side Stadium being built for the New York Jets by 2008. After New York state government officials declined to approve $400million for the stadium, the NFL decided to reopen the bidding for the game's site. The league reconsidered the other, unsuccessful candidates for Super Bowl XLIII: Atlanta, Houston, and Miami. On October 6, 2006, the league selected Miami as the host city.\n\nThis was the tenth time the Super Bowl has been held in the Miami Metro area at the home stadium of the Miami Dolphins: the now-Sun Life Stadium had hosted four previous Super Bowls (XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, and XLI) and five were played in the Dolphins' now demolished former home, the Miami Orange Bowl (II, III, V, X, XIII). The Colts franchise was playing its 4th Super Bowl, all of which were played in Miami. Two at the Orange Bowl and two at Sun Life Stadium. They are the only franchise to play all of its Super Bowls in the same city and the second to play two or more Super Bowls in two different stadiums (joining the Broncos who played two at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego and two at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans.\n\nWith Tampa as the host of Super Bowl XLIII, Super Bowl XLIV also marked the third time that consecutive Super Bowls have been played in the same state. Super Bowls II and III were both played at the Orange Bowl. Super Bowls XXI and XXII were both played in California: XXI at Pasadena's Rose Bowl Stadium and XXII at San Diego's Jack Murphy Stadium.\n\nMiami became the first city to host two Super Bowls designated as a National Special Security Event (NSSE). In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXVI has been designated as an NSSE. Super Bowl XLI was Miami's first Super Bowl designated as an NSSE.\n\nPro Bowl changes\n\nThe 2010 Pro Bowl was played on January 31, during the off-week between the conference championships and the Super Bowl, breaking with the precedent of scheduling the game for the Sunday after the Super Bowl. The game also changed venues from Aloha Stadium in Honolulu, Hawaii, where it had been held since 1979, to Sun Life Stadium in Miami (the same city and stadium hosting the Super Bowl itself). Fourteen players from the Super Bowl participants, seven from each team, had been selected but were unable to participate due to the change. The new schedule took advantage of the bye week given to the conference champions to rest and prepare for the Super Bowl. The NFL has indicated this may not be a permanent transition, and has discussed a possible rotating location for the Pro Bowl in the future. The game has been played in Hawaii every year since 2011.\n\nThe move also meant that the Pro Bowl, which was won by the AFC by a score of 41–34, would avoid competing against the 2010 NBA All-Star Game, the second full day of competition in the 2010 Winter Olympics, and the 52nd running of the Daytona 500, as would have been the case had the game been played on February 14 per its traditional post-Super Bowl scheduling.\n\nTeams\n\nNew Orleans Saints\n\nThe New Orleans Saints finished the season with an NFC best 13–3 record and went on to advance to the first Super Bowl in their 43 years as an NFL team. After joining the NFL in 1967, it took them 21 years to record their first winning season and another 13 years after that to win their first playoff game. Five years later, the New Orleans area suffered another setback when the Louisiana Superdome was devastated with the rest of the city by Hurricane Katrina, forcing them to play all of their home games in elsewhere as they finished with a 3–13 record (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans Saints). But in the offseason, the team's fortunes began to turn. First, they signed free agent quarterback Drew Brees, who would go on to throw for more passing yards than any other quarterback over the next four seasons. They also drafted multi-talented Heisman Trophy winning (since vacated) running back Reggie Bush, receiver Marques Colston, and guard Jahri Evans, three players who would become major contributors on the Saints' offense. The following season, New Orleans improved to 10–6 and advanced to the NFC title game for the first time, which they lost to the Chicago Bears. Although they failed to make the playoffs over the next two seasons, they continued to sign new talent, and by 2009 they were ready to make another run at the Super Bowl.\n\nThe Saints' offense led the NFL in scoring, averaging just under 32 points per game. Brees finished the season as the NFL's top rated quarterback (109.6), completing an NFL-record 70.6% of his passes for 4,338 yards and 34 touchdowns, with just 11 interceptions. His top target was Colston, who caught 70 passes for 1,074 yards and 9 touchdowns, but he had plenty of other weapons, such as receivers Devery Henderson (51 receptions) and Robert Meachem (45), along with tight ends Jeremy Shockey (48) and Dave Thomas (35). With fullback Heath Evans out of action due to injury for most of the season, Dave Thomas often lined up as a fullback, with tackle Zach Strief serving as an extra blocker on short yardage plays. The ground attack was led by running backs Pierre Thomas and Mike Bell. Thomas rushed for 793 yards and caught 39 passes for 302, while Bell added 654 yards on the ground. Bush was also a major contributor, rushing for 390 yards (with a 5.6 yards per carry average), catching 47 passes for 335 yards, and adding another 130 yards returning punts. New Orleans also had a strong offensive line with three Pro Bowl selections: guard Jahri Evans, center Jonathan Goodwin, and tackle Jon Stinchcomb.\n\nDefensive lineman Will Smith led the team in sacks with 13. Another big weapon on defense was linebacker Jonathan Vilma, who led the team with 87 tackles and intercepted three passes. The Saints' secondary was led by 12-year veteran safety Darren Sharper, who recorded 9 interceptions and set an NFL record by returning them for 376 yards and three touchdowns. Cornerback Tracy Porter was also effective, recording 49 tackles and 4 picks with one touchdown.\n\nThe Saints started out the season strong, winning their first 13 games. But then they became the first 13–0 team ever to lose their last three games of the year. After losing their 14th game to the Dallas Cowboys 24–17, they suffered a narrow loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (20–17 in overtime) after Garrett Hartley missed a potential game winning field goal. With the team's playoff seed clinched, Head Coach Sean Payton chose to rest Brees and other starters in the final game of the season, resulting in a 23–10 loss to the Carolina Panthers. The string of defeats cast a cloud over the team's postseason chances. Still, they clinched the #1 NFC playoff seed and scored 76 points in their two playoff wins en route to their first ever Super Bowl.\n\nIndianapolis Colts\n\nIndianapolis had the NFL-best 14–2 record, winning seven games by less than a touchdown,[http://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/clt/2009.htm 2009 Indianapolis Colts Statistics & Players - Pro-Football-Reference.com] on their way to earning their second Super Bowl appearance in the last four years. Once again, the Colts boasted a powerful offense led by 10-time Pro Bowl quarterback Peyton Manning, who threw for over 4,500 yards and 33 touchdowns during the season, with only 16 interceptions, earning him a 99.9 passer rating and a league record fourth National Football League Most Valuable Player Award. Under the protection of Pro Bowl center Jeff Saturday and the rest of the line, Manning had been sacked just 13 times during the regular season, the fewest in the NFL. His top targets were veteran receiver Reggie Wayne and tight end Dallas Clark, who both recorded 100 receptions and 10 touchdowns. Wayne led the team with 1,260 yards, while Clark was second with 1,106. Manning also had other reliable targets, such as recently drafted receivers Austin Collie (60 receptions for 676 yards and 7 touchdowns) and Pierre Garçon (47 receptions for 765 yards and 4 touchdowns). Running back Joseph Addai led the Colts' ground game with 821 rushing yards and 10 touchdowns, while also catching 51 passes for another 336 yards and 3 scores.\n\nIndianapolis' defensive line was led by Pro Bowl defensive ends Robert Mathis and Dwight Freeney. Freeney led the team with 13.5 sacks, while Mathis added 9.5 sacks and forced 5 fumbles. Behind them, the Colts had a solid corps of linebackers featuring Clint Session and Gary Brackett, who each recorded 80 tackles. Pro Bowl safety Antoine Bethea led the secondary with 70 tackles and four interceptions.\n\nUnder their new coach Jim Caldwell, the Colts started off the season with 14 consecutive wins before suffering their first loss to the New York Jets, 29–15, a game in which Caldwell made the controversial decision to rest his starters after the team took a slim lead rather than keep them in to play for a chance at a 16–0 season. Indianapolis finished the season at 14–2 following a loss to the Buffalo Bills, in which they rested their starters and went on to advance to the Super Bowl, making them perfect in all their games in which their starters played all four quarters.\n\nCaldwell led the Colts to the Super Bowl the season after Tony Dungy retired, just like in Tampa Bay when Jon Gruden led the Bucs to Super Bowl XXXVII after Dungy was fired. Senior offensive line coach Howard Mudd retired following the game. \n\nPlayoffs\n\nIndianapolis' first opponent was the Baltimore Ravens, a 9–7 squad that had advanced to the divisional round by beating the New England Patriots 33–14, forcing four turnovers from their all-pro quarterback Tom Brady. Against the Colts however, all they could manage was a field goal on their opening drive. Indianapolis built up a 17–3 first half lead with a Matt Stover field goal and Manning's touchdown passes to Wayne and Collie. In the second half, the Colts survived two interceptions from Baltimore safety Ed Reed on one drive, one of which Reed fumbled, and the other which was called back by a penalty. Stover, who spent 18 years with the Modell franchise, finished the drive with his second field goal to make final score 20–3, as their defense put the game away by forcing two consecutive turnovers.\n\nTheir next opponent was the Jets, who had made the playoffs in part due to Caldwell's decision to bench his starters in their Week 16 meeting. This time, the Colts would have to mount a comeback, as New York built up a 17–6 first half lead. Yet Indianapolis would step up to the challenge, scoring 24 unanswered points. First, Manning completed three passes to Collie for 80 yards, the last one a 16-yard touchdown completion to cut the score to 17–13 at the end of the half. Manning added two more touchdown passes in the second half, one to Garçon and one to Clark, and Stover added a 21-yard field goal to close out the scoring. Manning finished the game with 377 passing yards and three touchdowns, while Garçon and Collie had over 100 receiving yards each.\n\nMeanwhile, New Orleans started off their playoff run with a dominating 45–14 win over the defending NFC champion Arizona Cardinals. Arizona was coming off a 51–45 overtime win over the Green Bay Packers in which they racked up 531 yards against a defense ranked second in the league in total yards allowed. However, although Arizona scored on their first play of the game, New Orleans dominated the Cardinals with 35 points in the first half. First, Lynell Hamilton scored on a 1-yard run. Then, Sharper recovered a fumble from Arizona, setting up Brees' touchdown pass to Shockey. Following a punt, Bush scored on a franchise playoff record 46-yard run. In the second quarter, Brees added two more touchdown passes, one to Henderson on a flea flicker and the other to Colston that was set up by a Will Smith interception, giving them a 35–14 first half lead before adding 10 more points in the second half on a Hartley field goal and Bush's 83-yard punt return. Bush racked up 217 all-purpose yards, while Brees threw for 247 yards and three touchdowns.\n\nTheir opponent in the NFC championship game was the Minnesota Vikings, led by 11-time Pro Bowl quarterback Brett Favre, who had thrown four touchdown passes in their divisional round win over the Dallas Cowboys. Even though the Saints' offense could only muster 257 total yards, their defense made up for it by forcing five turnovers. Additionally, the Saints outgained the Vikings in punt and kickoff return yards 166 to 50. The key play of the game occurred late in the fourth quarter with the score tied 28–28 and the Vikings driving for a potential game-winning field goal. With less than a minute left, they reached the Saints 33-yard line. But after two runs for no gain and a penalty that pushed them back to the 38, Porter picked off a pass from Favre to send the game into overtime. After New Orleans won the coin toss, Pierre Thomas' 40-yard kickoff return set up a 10-play, 39-yard drive that ended with a game winning 40-yard field goal by Hartley, sending the Saints to their first ever Super Bowl.\n\nThis is the first Super Bowl matchup in which both teams had a first-round bye since Super Bowl XXXIX. All four of the Super Bowls in-between had one team that played all three rounds (two of which were wild-card teams), with three of those teams (including the Colts in Super Bowl XLI) winning it all.\n\nBroadcasting\n\nTelevision\n\nUnited States\n\nThe game was televised live in the United States on CBS, capping the network's 50th season of NFL coverage (1956–93; 1998–present). This was the 17th Super Bowl telecast for CBS, the largest total among the \"big four\" US television networks. CBS had also broadcast the previous Super Bowl held in South Florida (XLI). Play-by-play announcer Jim Nantz and color commentator Phil Simms were in the broadcast booth, with Steve Tasker and Solomon Wilcots serving as sideline reporters. The game was preceded by The Super Bowl Today, a four-hour pregame show hosted by James Brown and featuring analysts Dan Marino, Boomer Esiason, Shannon Sharpe and Bill Cowher along with several other commentators,[http://www.cbssports.com/cbssports/story/12879282/cbs-sports-super-bowl-today-features-set-for-super-bowl-xliv CBS Sports' \"Super Bowl Today\" features set for Super Bowl XLIV - CBSSports.com] which started at 2pm EST. A kickoff show for the game aired from 6pm EST to 6:28pm EST.\n\nWith an average US audience of 106.5 million viewers, this was the third most-watched Super Bowl, trailing only the 111 million viewers for Super Bowl XLV the following year and 111.3 million viewers for Super Bowl XLVI. At the time, it was the most-watched program of any kind in American television history, beating the 27-year-long record previously held by the final episode of MASH, \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\", which coincidentally, also aired on CBS, and was watched by 105.97 million viewers. An estimated 153.4 million total viewers watched all or part of the game. The game drew a national Nielsen rating of 45.0 with a 68 share, the highest for a Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXX in 1996 (46.0/68). The telecast drew a 56.3 rating in New Orleans and a 54.2 rating in Indianapolis, first and fourth respectively among local markets.[http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/media_entertainment/super-bowl-xliv-most-watched-super-bowl-of-all-time/ Super Bowl XLIV most watched Super Bowl of all time/] Nielsen Blogs\n\nCommercials\n\nNotable returnees and absences\n\nPerennial Super Bowl advertisers Anheuser–Busch InBev and CareerBuilder stated their commitment to advertise in Super Bowl XLIV, showing eight and two different spots during the game, respectively. A 30-second spot cost US $2.8million with several advertisers getting discounts, down from the previous year's $3million. All advertising slots were sold out on February 1, 2010, six days before the game. Pepsi-Cola had previously stated their commitment to advertise, but then said they would not be buying any commercial time, marking the first time in 23 years that Pepsi did not run an ad during the Super Bowl itself. FedEx also stated that they would not buy ad time. Both Pepsi and FedEx are official NFL sponsors. Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper Snapple Group capitalized on Pepsi's absence by buying ads in the game; Dr Pepper's ad featured KISS performing \"Calling Dr. Love\", while one of Coca-Cola's three ads featured Montgomery Burns (of FOX's The Simpsons) losing everything he owns. Also for the second straight year, one of the Big Three American automobile makers — General Motors — did not have a commercial in the game. Ford had one commercial for the Ford Edge featuring Mike Rowe. Chrysler's Dodge brand did advertise this year for its Dodge Charger, narrated by Michael C. Hall.\n\nWhat aired\n\nFrito-Lay's Doritos brand, in turn owned by PepsiCo, had four consumer-created advertisements scheduled. The first three ads – running in the first quarter – featured a sly dog using an anti-bark collar to his advantage to steal a man's Doritos, a fast-handed boy defending his Doritos and his mother from a potential suitor, and a man faking his death for free Doritos. The fourth ad, featuring an angry gym rat who was overprotective for his Doritos being stolen, aired in the fourth quarter. Had three of the ads topped the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter rankings, the commercial's creators would have won a total of US $5million ($1million for first, $600,000 for second and $400,000 for third, plus a $1million bonus for each of the three finalists). The previous year, Joe and David Herbert's \"Free Doritos\" ad topped the survey and won $1million. The United States Census Bureau spent $2.5million on a 30-second spot, directed by noted independent filmmaker Christopher Guest, for the 2010 United States Census, which urged Americans to answer its questionnaires that will be sent out in the next few weeks. McDonald's aired a commercial, updating a famous ad from the early 1990s, in which NBA superstars LeBron James and Dwight Howard (replacing Michael Jordan and Larry Bird) play an otherworldly game of H-O-R-S-E, with a McDonald's lunch going to the winner – however, they soon look over and see that Bird has helped himself to it. Mars Chocolate returned three years after its controversial Snickers ad that was protested by gay groups with two men kissing one another that was pulled one day following the game (see Super Bowl XLI: Commercials). The commercial – winner of the annual Ad Meter survey – featured veteran actors Betty White and Abe Vigoda playing full-contact backyard football. \n\nThe rest of the Top Five:\n2. The aforementioned Doritos' amateur ad featuring a dog strapped to an anti-bark collar getting revenge on a teasing man.\n3. A Bud Light ad with a house completely made of beer cans of the sponsor's product.\n4. A Budweiser ad featuring the relationship between a Clydesdale and a Longhorn steer.\n5. Coca-Cola's man walking through an African savanna in the middle of the night.\n\nThe YouTube Top Five of their \"2010 Ad Blitz\" were:\n\n# Another Doritos ad that showed a kid slapping his mom's suitor.\n# E-Trade's baby with his girlfriend.\n#The Doritos dog collar ad.\n#The Snickers Betty White/Abe Vigoda ad.\n# The Doritos commercial with the gym rat.\n\nADBOWL results reflected the following ranking:\n# Snickers: You’re Not You – Betty White & Abe Vigoda\n# Doritos: House Rules\n# Volkswagen: \"Punch Dub\" Game\n# Google: Parisian Love\n# Doritos: Underdog\n\nInternet domain registrar GoDaddy, which created a racy ad the year after the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy, bought two ads in the Super Bowl for the sixth consecutive year. Advertising Age reported that Paramount Pictures bought a Super Bowl spot for the upcoming films Iron Man 2 and The Last Airbender. A trailer for the HBO miniseries The Pacific was also aired.\n\nOther advertisers for 2010 included Homeaway Inc., paying tribute to National Lampoon's Vacation with their stars Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo, and Diamond Foods, who returned to promote both its Emerald Nuts brand and Pop Secret popcorn, which they bought from General Mills two years before. Boost Mobile aired a special ad, celebrating the 25th Anniversary of The Super Bowl Shuffle, featuring many of the 1985 Chicago Bears to advertise their US $50 per month service. Also, in a CBS-produced promo for the Late Show with David Letterman, the eponymous host and his longtime talk show rival, Jay Leno, appeared together with Oprah Winfrey.\n\nControversies\n\nThree advertisers in particular raised eyebrows with their choice to advertise during the Super Bowl. One new advertiser, Focus on the Family, aired a commercial featuring 2007 Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow and his mother that elicited criticism from some women's groups who demanded CBS cancel the ad because they claimed it would be divisive, under the impression that it would mention Tebow's mother was advised, for health issues, to abort her son Tim, but she chose to give birth to him. In the first quarter, CBS aired the advertisement, which had not been pre-released to the public. Per a statement released earlier, the ad did not mention the topic of abortion explicitly. \n\nOne proposed sponsor, ManCrunch, a gay dating site that bills itself as a place \"where many many many men come out to play\", had expressed interest in purchasing a 30-second advertisement. The ManCrunch advertisement would have depicted a male Green Bay Packers fan and a male Minnesota Vikings fan reaching into the same bowl of potato chips at the same time and, after a brief pause, begin to passionately kiss. ManCrunch's ad, which has since been released to the public, was initially put on a waiting list before the network outright rejected it due to it violating CBS's broadcast standards. ManCrunch immediately accused CBS of discrimination. Some observers suspect that their advertisement was an attempt at ambush marketing and free publicity. Another ad that was rejected by CBS for failure to meet standards was for the texting service kgb, which focuses on two men with CGI-enhanced images bent over with their heads in their posteriors, while an actor, Sean Gunn, portraying an agent stated that \"They had their head up their [backsides]\". kgb instead aired an ad with two people who had to find the Japanese word for \"I surrender\" before being run over by a sumo wrestler. Another ad for Bud Light which was rejected showed workers stripping down for a charity clothes drive in exchange for free beer. All of the rejected ads were shown on YouTube.\n\nAmong other rejected or modified ads were one for Electronic Arts' Dante's Inferno, which had to be edited for content (the closing phrase, originally intended to read \"go to Hell\", was replaced with \"Hell awaits\"), and GoDaddy's originally planned advertisement. Career Builder's ad, showing people dressed too casually for \"Casual Friday\" and a Dockers ad to promote a free pair of their pants with men in shirts but sans trousers aired back-to-back early in the second quarter.\n\nAn ETRADE advertisement, continuing their theme of talking babies on a Web cam, featured a boyfriend-stealing, \"milkaholic\" baby girl named \"Lindsay.\" Actress Lindsay Lohan, who has a history of alcoholism and was noted for having tried in the early 2000s (decade) to date popular young men who were already dating other women, attempted to sue ETRADE over the advertisement, seeking US$100,000,000 in damages, under the impression that the advertisement defamed her via subliminal messaging and violated her personality rights. ETRADE denied the allegations and stated the name \"Lindsay\" came from a member of the accounting staff. Lohan and ETRADE settled the lawsuit in September 2010; the terms were confidential. \n\nInternational telecasts\n\nViewers worldwide were able to watch on the following channels:\nNorth America:\n: CTV (English) and RDS (French) (subject to simsub due to CRTC mandates all cable/satellite providers to replace the American feed.)\n: Televisa, TV Azteca (broadcasting in HD).\n: Tropical Vision Limited, Great Belize Television.\n: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\n: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\n: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\n\nOceania\n: Fox Sports 3, ESPN, Channel Ten and One HD\n: Sky Sport 2 and ESPN\nEurope:\n: Puls 4 started at 23:30 (CET)\n: Prime Sport\n: TV3+/TV3+ HD starting at 22:00 (CET)\n: ESPN America.\n: Nelonen Sport Pro and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET)\n: W9\n: ARD Das Erste started at 23:35 (CET)\n : Nova Sports started 01:30 (EET)\n: Sport 1\n and : BBC One and on Sky Sports 1 and HD 1 at 10:55pm and 11pm (GMT)\n: Rai Sport Più started at 22:00 (CET), Rai Due started at 00:15 (CET), broadcast also in HD in selected areas.\n: NRK1 started at 23:15 (CET) and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD\n: Polsat Sport/Polsat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET)\n: SportTV 2 and on SportTV HD started at 23:00 (WET)\n: Sport 1 started 01:00 (EET)\n: NTV Plus\n: Šport TV 1\n: Canal+\n: TV6 No longer available on TV6. Super Bowl is broadcast on TV10 and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET).\n: Turkey′′′: Fox Sports [Turkey] Spormax HD started 01.00 (EET)\n\nSouth America:\n: ESPN\n: ESPN and Esporte Interativo\n and : ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America\n: ESPN\n: ESPN\n\nAsia:\n: CCTV-5, G-Sports, Guangdong Sports, Sina TV\n: ATV\n: NHK, NTV\n\nRadio\n\nOn radio, Westwood One had the national English-language broadcast rights to the game in the United States and Canada. Marv Albert (play-by-play) and Boomer Esiason (color commentator) called the game for the network; it was the last broadcast Albert would do for Westwood One, due to his desire to focus on his basketball coverage duties. The teams' flagship stations also carried the game with their respective local announcers: WLHK-FM and WFNI-AM in Indianapolis (with Bob Lamey and Will Wolford announcing) and WWL-FM/AM in New Orleans (with Jim Henderson and Hokie Gajan announcing). Univision Radio aired a Spanish-language feed for Hispanophone American listeners (with Clemson Smith-Muñiz and David Crommett announcing).\n\nSirius XM Satellite Radio carried 14 game feeds in ten languages to Sirius subscribers, as well as to XM subscribers with the \"Best of Sirius\" package. In addition to the four US feeds mentioned above, Sirius carried the following international feeds:\n\n: BBC Radio 5 Live (English; Arlo White announcing)\n: Canal+ Spain (Spanish)\n: NTV Plus (Russian)\n: W9 (French)\n: NHK (Japanese)\n: ARD (German)\n: RAI (Italian)\n: Sport1 (Hungarian)\n: Prime Sport (Dutch)\n: Viasat (Danish)\n\nFieldPass, the subscription Internet radio service provided by the league at NFL.com, also carried most of these feeds. Due to contractual restrictions, only Sirius XM and FieldPass were permitted to carry the local team broadcasts along with WLHK, WFNI and WWL, with the teams' other network radio affiliates instead airing the Westwood One feed.\n\nEntertainment and other ceremonies\n\nPregame\n\nBarenaked Ladies played the Super Bowl Saturday Night event with O.A.R. and Robert Randolph & The Family Band. Chris Daughtry, Steve Winwood and Queen Latifah performed during the Super Bowl pre-game tailgate party, which started at 2 p.m.\n\nCarrie Underwood sang the National Anthem and Queen Latifah sang \"America the Beautiful.\" Underwood's selection marks the third straight year that an alumnus of American Idol has been chosen to perform \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", joining Jordin Sparks at Super Bowl XLII and Jennifer Hudson a year later. Translation of both songs into American Sign Language was provided by Kinesha Battles, a student at the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind. \n\nTo commemorate the 15th anniversary of the San Francisco 49ers' fifth Super Bowl victory, which took place at this stadium, Jerry Rice, who had also been MVP of Super Bowl XXIII, another Super Bowl played at this stadium, joined the coin toss ceremonies. Rice had just been named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame Class of 2010. The rest of the class – Rickey Jackson, Dick LeBeau, Floyd Little, Russ Grimm, John Randle, and Emmitt Smith – were named the day before. The Saints won the coin toss, marking the 13th straight Super Bowl the NFC won the toss (the Cardinals won the toss in Super Bowl XLIII but elected to defer to the second half, giving the Steelers the ball to open the game).\n\nHalftime\n\nThe Who performed at the Super Bowl XLIV halftime show. The band played a medley of their hits, consisting of \"Pinball Wizard\", \"Baba O'Riley\", \"Who Are You\", \"See Me, Feel Me\", and \"Won't Get Fooled Again\". For the first time since the Super Bowl XXXIV halftime show, there was no crowd of fans surrounding the halftime stage. This performance was also released as downloadable content for the Rock Band series, named \"The Who Super Bowl S-mashup\".\n\nMerchandising\n\nRetailers had ordered much more New Orleans Saints merchandise prior to the game than they had ordered Colts merchandise. The NFL estimated that US$100million worth of Super Bowl merchandise would be sold. \n\nGame summary\n\nFirst quarter\n\nThe Saints won the toss and chose to receive, but their first possession resulted in a punt after going three-and-out.\n\nThe Colts offense took the field for the first time, with the ball spotted at their own 27-yard line. The Colts put together a drive that went 53 yards and resulted in a 38-yard field goal by kicker Matt Stover. At 42 years old, Stover became the oldest person in NFL history to play in a Super Bowl.\n\nFollowing the game's first score, Courtney Roby returned the ensuing kickoff to the New Orleans 26-yard line. Approaching the 25-yard line, Roby swooped into a dive and appeared to fumble the ball, but he was ruled down by contact. This time, the Saints managed to get a first down with a 16-yard completion from Drew Brees to Reggie Bush, but they were eventually forced to punt again. Punter Thomas Morstead pinned the Colts back at their own 4-yard line with a 46-yard kick.\n\nIndianapolis responded with a 96-yard scoring drive, tying the record for the longest drive in Super Bowl history. Joseph Addai rushed three times for 53 yards on the drive, while Manning completed three passes for 35 yards, the last one a 19-yard touchdown pass to Pierre Garçon, increasing the Colts lead to 10–0.\n\nSecond quarter\n\nThe Saints' next drive carried over from the previous quarter. Brees completed three passes for 36 yards as the Saints advanced to the Colts' 22-yard line. But on third down, Brees was sacked for a 7-yard loss by Dwight Freeney, forcing New Orleans to settle for a 46-yard field goal from Garrett Hartley. After scoring points on their first 2 drives, the Colts looked to add more, but Garcon dropped a pass on 3rd down. The Colts were forced to punt and the Saints took over driving down into Colt territory. They drove down the field to a 1st-and-goal at the Colts' 3-yard line. A false start penalty set them back to the 8, and after getting a yard away from the end zone, they attempted 3rd and 4th down runs. They failed to convert both times. The Colts ran three straight running plays in an effort to wind down the clock and go to halftime with a seven-point lead, but the Saints kept the Colts from getting another first down. Following Bush's 4-yard punt return to the New Orleans 48, with only one timeout left to use in the half, the Saints got back into field goal territory, and Hartley hit a 44-yard field goal as time expired, with the Colts still leading 10–6. This was the first 10–6 halftime score in Super Bowl history.\n\nThird quarter\n\nThe Colts were set to receive the ball to start the second half, but were caught by surprise when the Saints executed an onside kick. This was the first onside kick attempted before the fourth quarter in Super Bowl history, a play the Saints referred to as \"Ambush.\" Thomas Morstead kicked the ball to his left, and after traveling almost 15 yards, the ball bounced off the facemask of the Colts' Hank Baskett, who failed to make a clean recovery. Several players dove for the loose ball, creating a pile that took over a minute for the officiating crew to separate. When the dust finally cleared, linebacker Jonathan Casillas of New Orleans was officially credited with the recovery on the 42-yard line, but Casillas and other Saints players insisted that it was actually safety Chris Reis who came up with the football. The Saints' offense took over and stormed down the field on an effective 58-yard drive in which they never faced a third down. Brees completed five consecutive passes for 58 yards on the drive and capped it off with a 'check-down' pass on the right side to Pierre Thomas, who took it 16 yards to the end zone behind blocks from Jonathan Goodwin, Jahri Evans, Devery Henderson, Kyle Eckel, Carl Nicks and Jeremy Shockey, to give the Saints their first lead of the game at 13–10.\n\nManning and the Colts answered with their own touchdown drive, moving the ball 76 yards in ten plays. Clark caught 3 passes for 45 yards, while Joseph Addai finished the drive off with a 4-yard touchdown run to put the Colts back on top 17–13 with 6:05 remaining in the quarter. For just the second time in Super Bowl history both teams scored touchdowns on their initial possessions of the second half; the only other time occurred in Super Bowl XIV.\n\nHartley would bring the Saints to within one point of tying the game at 17–16, with his third field goal, launched from 47 yards away. In doing so he became the first kicker in Super Bowl history to score three field goals of 40 or more yards in one game.\n\nThis was the first one-point lead after the third quarter in Super Bowl history and second closest game after three quarters, behind Super Bowl XXXIX which was tied between the New England Patriots and Philadelphia Eagles.\n\nFourth quarter\n\nIndianapolis responded with a drive to the New Orleans 33-yard line, only to have Stover miss a 51-yard field goal attempt, giving the ball back to the Saints with good field position on their 41-yard line. After that, Brees led the Saints on another touchdown drive featuring seven different players getting the ball. Bush started off the drive with a 12-yard run, and then Devery Henderson caught a pass on the Colts' 36-yard line. Following an 8-yard catch and run by Bush, Brees completed passes to Colston, Robert Meachem and tight end David Thomas, moving the ball to the 5-yard line. After a 3-yard run by Pierre Thomas, Brees threw a 2-yard touchdown pass to tight end Jeremy Shockey. Rather than settle for a six-point lead, and risk a potential Colts game-winning touchdown, the Saints chanced a two-point conversion. Lance Moore received a pass and attempted to stretch the ball out over the goal line as he fell to the ground and rolled over on his head. The ball was kicked away from his hands by defender Jacob Lacey, and the play was ruled an incomplete pass, prompting a coach's challenge from Sean Payton. After the review, the ruling on the field was overturned when it was determined that Moore maintained possession of the ball long enough and the ball had crossed the plane of the goal line for a successful conversion, giving the Saints a 24–17 advantage.\n\nOn the ensuing drive, Manning led the Colts into Saints territory; however, Tracy Porter intercepted a pass by Manning at the Saints 26 for the first takeaway of the game and returned it 74 yards for a touchdown; following the successful extra point, the Saints lead grew to 31–17 with 3:12 remaining. Porter's interception return for a touchdown improved teams to 10–0 in Super Bowls when returning an interception for a touchdown.\n\nNow down by two possessions, the Colts needed a touchdown on their next drive to stay alive, though they still had all three of their timeouts to use. They were able to drive to the New Orleans 3-yard line. When an offensive pass interference penalty on 1st and goal pushed them back 10 yards, the Colts got those 10 yards back on the next play. The next three plays saw a tipped pass that went off of the goal post and incomplete, a loss of two yards on a rushing play, and a pass that went through the hands of wide receiver Reggie Wayne and incomplete, effectively sealing the win for the Saints. Brees knelt the ball with 0:44 left on the clock, ending Super Bowl XLIV and winning the Saints' first league championship in franchise history.\n\nBox score\n\nStatistical overview\n\nDrew Brees was named Super Bowl MVP for tying a Super Bowl record by completing 32 of 39 passes, with 288 passing yards and two touchdowns. After the game, Brees said, \"Four years ago, who ever thought this would be happening when 85 percent of the city was under water? Most people left not knowing if New Orleans would ever come back, or if the organization would ever come back. We just all looked at one another and said, 'We are going to rebuild together. We are going to lean on each other.' This is the culmination in all that belief.\" \n\nFinal statistics\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/gamecenter/2010020700/2009/POST22/saints@colts#menuhighlights&tab\nanalyze NFL.com Super Bowl XLIV]\n\nStatistical comparison\n\nIndividual leaders\n\n1Completions/attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n5Tackles\n6Forced Fumbles\n\nSuper Bowl records\n\nNew Orleans recorded the first successful onside kick attempt in a Super Bowl outside of the fourth quarter.\nIndianapolis' place kicker Matt Stover became the oldest player to participate, as well as to score, in a Super Bowl at 42 years and 11 days of age.\nNew Orleans' place kicker Garrett Hartley became the first kicker in Super Bowl history to kick three field goals of 40 or more yards.\nNew Orleans' victory marked the sixth straight win by the team wearing its white jersey.\nNew Orleans quarterback Drew Brees had the second highest completion percentage in Super Bowl history (Phil Simms in Super Bowl XXI has the highest.) Brees also tied the mark for most completions in a Super Bowl, with 32. Drew Brees then broke the record when he made a 33rd pass completion in the game on a two-point conversion pass to Lance Moore in the 4th quarter.\nThis was the first Super Bowl played in Sun Life Stadium not to have a kickoff returned for a touchdown; because the Colts did not have a return TD, they also became the 1st team ever to lose a Super Bowl at Sun Life without achieving that.\nNew Orleans became the third team to win the Super Bowl after trailing at halftime AND failing to score a first-half touchdown. The New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII and the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXVIII are the only other two teams to do so.\nThe Saints' 25 points in the second half is the fourth highest total in Super Bowl history. The New York Giants scored 30 in Super Bowl XXI while 28 was scored by both the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XXIV and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Super Bowl XXXVII.\nThe Saints also became the seventh team to win a Super Bowl after trailing to start the fourth quarter. The others to do so were: the Giants in Super Bowl XLII, the 49ers in Super Bowl XXIII, the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVII, the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowls X and XIV and the Colts in Super Bowl V.\nBrees and Peyton Manning combined for a Super Bowl record 75% completion rate (63 of 84). They also accounted for the most combined pass completions in a Super Bowl, with 63.\nThe Colts became just the sixth team to score 10 or more points in the first quarter and lose the game, joining the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI, Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl XIX, the Denver Broncos in both Super Bowls XXI and XXII, and the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI\nHaving been down 10 points in the first quarter, the Saints tied a record for the biggest comeback win in Super Bowl history, set in Super Bowl XXII when the Washington Redskins faced a 10-point first quarter deficit of their own.\n* The Saints are the 9th team to win the Super Bowl on their first attempt. The others are the Green Bay Packers of Super Bowl I, the New York Jets of Super Bowl III, the Pittsburgh Steelers of Super Bowl IX, the San Francisco 49ers of Super Bowl XVI, the Chicago Bears of Super Bowl XX, the New York Giants of Super Bowl XXI, the Baltimore Ravens of Super Bowl XXXV, and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of Super Bowl XXXVII.\n\nStarting lineups\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/54814/IND_Gamebook.pdf NFL.com Super Bowl XLIV Gamebook]\n\nAftermath\n\nThe Saints finished the next season with an 11-5 record, but failed to defend their league title after they were eliminated by the Seattle Seahawks in the Wild Card playoff round. Super Bowl XLIV later became the subject of the wider New Orleans Saints bounty scandal, also known as \"Bountygate\", in which the NFL alleged in 2012 that several Saints defenders operated a slush fund that was in operation from the 2009 season and Super Bowl XLIV, through 2011. This alleged slush fund paid out bonuses, or \"bounties\", for in-game performance in violation of NFL rules, including deliberately injuring or knocking opposing players out of games. The league responded with some of the most severe sanctions in the league's 92-year history, and among the most severe punishments for an on-field incident in North American professional sports history. In 2012, New Orleans failed to make the playoffs for the first time since their Super Bowl win, with the sanctions for Bountygate cited as one of the primary causes. The Saints rebounded in 2013, but were eliminated in the Divisional playoff round by the eventual Super Bowl XLVIII champion Seahawks. Thus, New Orleans have not advanced to the Conference Championship Game since Super Bowl XLIV.\n\nThe game was the first of three straight playoff losses for the Colts. The team would not win another playoff game until their comeback win at home against the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wildcard Round of the 2013 playoffs. They also would not advance to the Conference Championship Game until the 2014 playoffs. Peyton Manning would later suffer a neck injury that kept him out of the 2011 season. The Colts fell to 2–14 in 2011, causing the team to release Manning, and fire Jim Caldwell and most of its coaching and front office staff. With the first pick in the 2012 NFL Draft, the Colts selected Andrew Luck, quarterback from Stanford. Manning then signed with the Denver Broncos, and later led Denver to a Super Bowl XLVIII loss after the 2013 regular season and two seasons later, a Super Bowl 50 win after the 2015 regular season.\n\nOfficials\n\nReferee – Scott Green (#19)\nUmpire – Undrey Wash (#96)\nHead Linesman – John McGrath (#5)\nLine Judge – Jeff Seeman (#45)\nField Judge – Rob Vernatchi (#75)\nSide Judge – Greg Meyer (#78)\nBack Judge – Greg Steed (#12)\nAlternate Referee – Gene Steratore\nAlternate Umpire – Ruben Fowler\nAlternate Flank – Jim Mello\nAlternate Deep – Jeff Lamberth\nAlternate Back Judge – Kirk Dornan\n\nGame time and weather conditions\n\n* Kickoff was at 6:32 p.m. EST (23:32 UTC).\n* Weather at kickoff was 66 °F, clear.\n* Game length was 3 hrs. 14 min." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Viqueens", "Logos and uniforms of the Minnesota Vikings", "Vikings Radio Network", "MN Vikings", "Vikes", "The Minnesota Vikings", "Minnesota Viking", "Minnesota Vikings", "Viktor the Viking" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "viqueens", "viktor viking", "minnesota vikings", "mn vikings", "minnesota viking", "logos and uniforms of minnesota vikings", "vikes", "vikings radio network" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "minnesota vikings", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Minnesota Vikings" }
How many times did the New York Yankees win the World Series in the 1970s?	tc_1434	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "New_York_Yankees.txt", "World_Series.txt" ], "title": [ "New York Yankees", "World Series" ], "wiki_context": [ "The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. The Yankees are one of two Major League clubs based in New York City; the other is the New York Mets. The club began play in the AL in the season as the Baltimore Orioles (not to be confused with the modern Baltimore Orioles.) Frank Farrell and Bill Devery purchased the franchise (which had ceased operations) and moved it to New York City, renaming the club as the New York Highlanders. The Highlanders were officially renamed as the \"Yankees\" in .\n\nThe team is owned by Yankee Global Enterprises, an LLC controlled by the family of the late George Steinbrenner, who purchased the team in 1973. Former catcher Joe Girardi is the team's manager, and Brian Cashman is the team's general manager. The team's home games were played at Yankee Stadium from 1923 to 1973 and from 1976 to 2008. In 2009, they moved into a new ballpark of the same name after the previous venue closed. The team is perennially among the leaders in MLB attendance—in 2011, the Yankees had the second-highest attendance.\n\nOne of the most successful sports clubs in the world, the Yankees have won 18 division titles, 40 AL pennants, and 27 World Series championships, all of which are MLB records. 44 Yankees players and 11 Yankees managers have been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, including Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle, and Yogi Berra. In pursuit of winning championships, the franchise has used a large payroll to recruit talent, particularly during the Steinbrenner era. According to Forbes, in 2013, the Yankees are the highest valued sports franchise in the United States and the fourth in the world, with an estimated value of approximately $2.3 billion. The Yankees have garnered enormous popularity and a dedicated fanbase, as well as widespread enmity from fans of other MLB teams. The team's rivalry with the Boston Red Sox is one of the most well-known rivalries in U.S. sports.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins in Baltimore (1901–1902) \n\nAt the end of 1900, Ban Johnson, president of the American League, a minor league, previously known as the Western League (1894–9), reorganized the league. He added teams in three east coast cities, forming the American League (AL) as a major league in an attempt to challenge the National League (NL) for supremacy. Plans to put a team in New York City were blocked by the NL's New York Giants, who had enough political power in New York City to prevent the AL from establishing a team. Instead, a team was put in Baltimore, Maryland, a city which the NL abandoned when it contracted from 12 to 8 teams in 1900.\n\nNicknamed the Orioles, the team began playing in 1901, and were managed and partly owned by John McGraw. During the 1902 season, McGraw feuded with Johnson, and secretly jumped to the Giants. In the middle of the season, the Giants, aided and abetted by McGraw, gained controlling interest of the Orioles and began raiding it for players, until the AL stepped in and took control of the team. In January 1903, a \"peace conference\" was held between the two leagues to settle disputes and try to coexist. At the conference, Johnson requested that an AL team be put in New York, to play alongside the NL's Giants. It was put to a vote, and 15 of the 16 Major League owners agreed on it, with only John T. Brush of the Giants opposing. The Orioles' new owners, Frank J. Farrell and William S. Devery, found a ballpark location not blocked by the Giants, and Baltimore's team moved to New York.\n\nMove to New York: the Highlanders years (1903–1912)\n\nThe team's new ballpark, Hilltop Park (formally known as \"American League Park\"), was constructed in northern Manhattan at one of the island's highest points between 165th and 168th Streets, just a few blocks away from the much larger Polo Grounds. The team came to be known as the New York Highlanders.There are two theories supporting this: it was a reference to the team's elevated location in Upper Manhattan, and to the noted Scottish military unit The Gordon Highlanders, which coincided with the team's president Joseph Gordon whose family was of Scots Irish heritage. As was common with all members of the American League, the team was called the New York Americans. New York Press Sports Editor Jim Price coined the unofficial nickname Yankees (or \"Yanks\") for the club as early as 1904, because it was easier to fit in headlines. \n\nThe most success the Highlanders achieved was finishing second in 1904, 1906 and 1910, 1904 being the closest they came to winning the AL pennant. That year, they lost the deciding game on the last day of the season to the Boston Americans, who later became the Boston Red Sox. This had much historical significance, as the Highlanders' role in the pennant race caused the Giants to announce that they would not play in the World Series against the AL pennant winner. The World Series was not skipped again for another 90 years, when a strike truncated the entire 1994 season. It was the last time Boston would beat New York in a pennant-deciding game for a full century (2004). 1904 was the year that pitcher Jack Chesbro set the single-season wins record at 41, which still stands. Under current playing practices, this is most likely an unbreakable record. \n\nNew owners, a new home, and a new name: Years at the Polo Grounds (1913–1922)\n\nThe Polo Grounds burned down in 1911 and the Highlanders allowed the Giants to play in Hilltop Park during reconstruction. Relations between the two teams warmed, and the Highlanders would move into the newly rebuilt Polo Grounds in 1913. Now playing on the Harlem River, a far cry from their high-altitude home, the name \"Highlanders\" no longer applied, and fell into disuse among the press. The media had already widely adopted the \"Yankees\" nickname coined by the New York Press, and in 1913 the team became officially known as the New York Yankees.\n\nBy the middle of the decade, Yankees owners Farrell and Devery had become estranged and both were in dire need of money. At the start of 1915, they sold the team to Colonel Jacob Ruppert and Captain Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston for $1.25 million. Ruppert inherited a brewery fortune, providing the Yankees with an owner who possessed deep pockets and a willingness to dig into them to produce a winning team. This would lead the team to more success and prestige than Ruppert could ever have envisioned.\n\nIt is interesting to note that all the games of the 1921 and 1922 World Series were played in the Polo Grounds, when the Yankees squared off against their intracity rival Giants.\n\nSluggers and the Stadium: Ruth, Gehrig, and Murderer's Row (1923–1935)\n\nIn the years around 1920, the Yankees, the Red Sox, and the Chicago White Sox had a détente. The trades between them, which antagonized Ban Johnson, garnered them the nickname the \"Insurrectos\". This détente paid off well for the Yankees as they increased their payroll. Most new players who would later contribute to the team's success came from the Red Sox, whose owner, Harry Frazee, was trading them for large sums of money to finance his theatrical productions. Pitcher-turned-outfielder Babe Ruth was the most talented of all the acquisitions from Boston, and the outcome of the trade would haunt the Red Sox for the next 86 years, a span in which the team did not win a single World Series championship. The Red Sox often found themselves eliminated from the playoff hunt as a result of the Yankees' success. This phenomenon eventually became known as the Curse of the Bambino as the failure of the Red Sox and the success of the Yankees seemed almost supernatural, and seemed to stem from that one trade. However, it would not be until 1990 when Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe wrote a book with the same title that the curse was publicized. \n\nRuth's multitude of home runs proved so popular that the Yankees began drawing more people than their landlords, the Giants. In 1921, when the Yankees made their first World Series appearance against the Giants, the Yankees were told to move out of the Polo Grounds after the 1922 season. Giants manager John McGraw was said to have commented that the Yankees should \"move to some out-of-the-way place, like Queens\", but they instead broke ground for a new ballpark in the Bronx, right across the Harlem River from the Polo Grounds. In 1922, the Yankees returned to the World Series again, and were dealt a second defeat at the hands of the Giants. Important newcomers in this period were manager Miller Huggins and general manager Ed Barrow. The hiring of Huggins by Ruppert, in 1918, would cause a break between the owners that eventually led to Ruppert buying Huston out in 1923.\n\nIn 1923, the Yankees moved to their new home, Yankee Stadium. It was the first triple-deck venue in baseball and seated an astounding 58,000 people. In the first game at Yankee Stadium, Babe Ruth hit a home run, which was fitting as his home runs and drawing power paid for the stadium, giving it its nickname of \"The House That Ruth Built\". At the end of the year, the Yankees faced the Giants for the third straight year in the World Series, and finally triumphed for their first championship. Prior to that point, the Giants had been the city's icon and dominant team. From 1923 onward, the Yankees would assume that role, and the Giants would eventually leave the city for San Francisco.\n\nIn the 1927 season, the Yankees featured a lineup that became known as \"Murderers' Row\", and some consider this team to be the best in the history of baseball (though similar claims have been made for other Yankee squads, notably those of 1939, 1961 and 1998). The Yankees won a then-AL record 110 games with only 44 losses, and swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1927 World Series. Ruth's home run total of 60 in 1927 set a single-season home run record that would stand for 34 years. Meanwhile, first baseman Lou Gehrig had his first big season, batting .373 with 47 home runs and 175 RBIs, beating Ruth's single-season RBI mark (171 in 1921). The Yankees would win the pennant and the World Series again in 1928.\n\nIn 1931, Joe McCarthy came in as manager, and brought the Yankees back to the top of the AL. They swept the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series, and brought the team's streak of consecutive World Series game wins to 12. This series was made famous by Babe Ruth's \"Called Shot\" in game three of the series at Wrigley Field, a fitting \"swan song\" to his illustrious World Series career. Ruth would leave the Yankees to join the NL's Boston Braves after 1934, and would never see the World Series again.\n\nJoltin' Joe DiMaggio (1936–1951)\n\nWith Ruth retired, Gehrig finally had a chance to take center stage, but it was only one year before a new star appeared: Joe DiMaggio. The team would win an unprecedented four straight World Series titles from 1936 to 1939. For most of 1939, however, they had to do it without Gehrig, who was forced to retire because of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), now nicknamed \"Lou Gehrig's Disease\" in his memory. The Yankees declared July 4, 1939 to be \"Lou Gehrig Day\", on which they retired his number 4 (the first retired number in baseball). Gehrig made a famous speech in which he declared himself to be \"the luckiest man on the face of the earth.\" He died two years later.\n\nOften described as the last year of the \"Golden Era\" before World War II and other realities intervened, 1941 was a thrilling year as America watched two major events unfold: Ted Williams of the Red Sox hunting for the elusive .400 batting average and Joe DiMaggio getting hits in consecutive ballgames. By the end of his hitting streak, DiMaggio hit in 56 consecutive games, the current major league record and one often deemed unbreakable. \n\nTwo months and one day after the Yankees beat the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1941 World Series, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and many of their best players, including DiMaggio himself, went off to serve in the military. The Yankees still managed to pull out a win against the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1943 World Series.\n\nIn 1945 construction magnate Del Webb and partners Dan Topping and Larry MacPhail purchased the team from the Ruppert estate for $2.8 million; MacPhail was bought out in 1947.\n\nAfter a few slumping seasons, McCarthy was fired early in 1946. A few interim managers later, Bucky Harris took the job, righting the ship and taking the Yankees to a hard fought series victory against the Dodgers.\n\nDespite finishing only three games behind the first place Cleveland Indians in 1948, Harris was released in favor of Casey Stengel, who had a reputation of being a clown and managing bad teams. His tenure as Yankee field manager, however, was marked with success. The \"underdog\" Yankees came from behind to catch and surprise a powerful Red Sox team on the last two days of the 1949 season, a face off that fueled the beginning of the modern Yankees–Red Sox rivalry. By this time, however, DiMaggio's career was winding down, and the \"Yankee Clipper\" retired after the 1951 season. This year marked the arrival of the \"Oklahoma Kid\", Mickey Mantle, who was one of several new stars that would fill the gap.\n\nStengel's squad in the 1950s (1951–1959)\n\nBettering the clubs managed by Joe McCarthy, the Yankees won the World Series five consecutive times from – under Stengel, which continues to be the major league record. Led by players like center fielder Mickey Mantle, pitcher Whitey Ford, and catcher Yogi Berra, Stengel's teams won ten pennants and seven World Series titles in his twelve seasons as the Yankees manager. Stengel was a master at publicity for the team and for himself, even landing a cover story in Time magazine in 1955. The title was the only one of those five championships not to be won against either the New York Giants or Brooklyn Dodgers; it was won in four straight games against the Whiz Kids of the Philadelphia Phillies.\n\nIn 1954, the Yankees won over 100 games, but the Indians took the pennant with an AL record 111 wins; 1954 was famously referred to as The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant. In , the Dodgers finally beat the Yankees in the World Series, after five previous Series losses to them, but the Yankees came back strong the next year. On October 8, 1956, in Game Five of the 1956 World Series against the Dodgers, pitcher Don Larsen threw the only perfect game in World Series history, which remains the only perfect game in postseason play and was the only no-hitter of any kind to be pitched in postseason play until Roy Halladay pitched a no-hitter on October 6, 2010. \n\nThe Yankees lost the 1957 World Series to the Milwaukee Braves when Lew Burdette incredibly won three games for the Braves. Following the Series, the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers both left for California, the former leaving for San Francisco and the latter moving to Los Angeles, leaving the Yankees as New York's only baseball team. In the 1958 World Series, the Yankees got their revenge against the Braves, and became the second team to win the Series after being down three games to one. For the decade, the Yankees won six World Series championships ('50, 51, '52, '53, '56, '58) and eight American League pennants (those six plus '55 and '57). Led by Mantle, Ford, Berra, Elston Howard (the Yankees' first African-American player), and the newly acquired Roger Maris, the Yankees entered the 1960s seeking to replicate their success of the 1950s.\n\nThe M&M Boys: Mantle and Maris (1960–1964)\n\nArnold Johnson, owner of the Kansas City Athletics, was a longtime business associate of then-Yankees co-owners Del Webb and Dan Topping. Because of this \"special relationship\" with the Yankees, he traded them young players for cash and aging veterans. Invariably, these trades ended up being heavily tilted in the Yankees' favor, leading to accusations that the Athletics were little more than a Yankee farm team at the major league level. Kansas City had been home to the Yankees' top farm team for almost 20 years before the Athletics moved there from Philadelphia in 1954.\n\nIn 1960, Charles O. Finley purchased the Athletics, and put an end to the trades. But the Yankees had already strengthened their supply of future prospects, which included a young outfielder named Roger Maris. In 1960, Maris led the league in slugging percentage, RBIs, and extra base hits. He finished second in home runs (one behind Mantle) and total bases, and won a Gold Glove, which gathered him enough votes for the American League MVP award.\n\nThe year of 1961 would prove to be one of the most memorable in Yankee history. Throughout the summer, Mantle and Maris hit home runs at a fast pace, and became known as the \"M&M Boys\". Ultimately, a severe hip infection forced Mantle to leave the lineup and drop out of the race. Maris continued though, and on October 1, the last day of the regular season, he hit home run number 61, surpassing Babe Ruth's single season home run record of 60. However, MLB Commissioner Ford Frick (who, as it was discovered later, had ghostwritten for Babe Ruth during his career) decreed that since Maris had played in a 162-game season, and Ruth (in 1927) had played in a 154-game season, two separate records would be kept. It would be 30 years before the dual record would be done away with, and Maris would hold the record alone until Mark McGwire broke it in 1998. Maris still holds the American League record.\n\nThe Yankees won the pennant with a 109–53 record and went on to defeat the Cincinnati Reds in the 1961 World Series. The team finished the year with a then-record 240 home runs.\n\nAfter the 1957 departures of the Dodgers for Los Angeles and the Giants for San Francisco, New York was a one-team town for the first time since professional play began. In 1962, the sports scene in New York changed when the National League expanded to include a new team, the New York Mets who played at the Giants' former home, the Polo Grounds, for two seasons while Shea Stadium was under construction in nearby Flushing, Queens. The Mets lost a record 120 games while the Yankees would win the 1962 World Series, their tenth in the past sixteen years, defeating the San Francisco Giants in seven games. It would be the Yankees' last championship until 1977.\n\nThe Yankees reached the 1963 World Series, but were swept by the Los Angeles Dodgers and their ace pitcher Sandy Koufax.\n\nAfter the season, Yogi Berra, who had just retired from playing, took over managerial duties. The aging Yankees returned the next year for a fifth straight World Series, but were beaten in seven games by the St. Louis Cardinals. It would be the Yankees' last World Series appearance until 1976.\n\nNew ownership and a steep decline (1965–1972)\n\nAfter the 1964 season, CBS purchased 80% of the Yankees from Topping and Webb for $11.2 million. With the new ownership, the team began to decline. In fact, the Yankees finished in the second division in 1965—their first losing record in 40 years, and only their second in 47 years.\n\nIn 1966, the Yankees finished last in the AL for the first time since 1912. It also marked their first consecutive losing seasons since 1917 and 1918. They finished next-to-last in 1967. While their fortunes improved somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s, they only finished higher than fourth once during CBS' ownership, in 1970. Topping and Webb had owned the Yankees for 20 years, missing the World Series only five times and going 10–5 in the ones they did get to. By contrast, the CBS-owned teams never went to the World Series.\n\nVarious reasons have been given for the decline, but the single biggest one was the Yankees' inability to replace their aging superstars with new ones, as they had consistently done in the previous five decades. As early as the 1961-62 offseason, longtime fans noticed that the pipeline of talent had started to dry up. This was worsened by the introduction of the major league amateur draft that year, which meant that the Yankees could no longer sign any player they wanted. While the Yankees usually drafted fairly early during this period due to their lackluster records, Thurman Munson was the only pick who lived up to his billing.\n\nAt the start of this period, all-time \"Voice of the Yankees\" Mel Allen, the team's top announcer since 1939, was fired after the 1964 season, supposedly due to cost-cutting measures by longtime broadcast sponsor Ballantine Beer.\n\nDuring baseball's centennial season in 1969, the greatest players at each position for every team were named during a voting. The all-time Yankees were: Bill Dickey (catcher), Whitey Ford (left-handed pitcher), Red Ruffing (right-handed pitcher), Johnny Murphy (relief pitcher), Lou Gehrig (first base), Tony Lazzeri (second base), Phil Rizzuto (shortstop), Red Rolfe (third base), Joe DiMaggio (center field, also named baseball's \"Greatest Living Player\"), Babe Ruth (right field), Mickey Mantle (left field), and Casey Stengel (manager).\n\nSteinbrenner, Martin, Jackson, and Munson: the Bronx Zoo (1973–1981)\n\nA group of investors, led by Cleveland-based shipbuilder George Steinbrenner (1930–2010), purchased the club from CBS on January 3, 1973 for $8.7 million. Mike Burke stayed on as president until he quit in April. Within a year, Steinbrenner bought out most of his other partners and became the team's principal owner, although Burke continued to hold a minority share into the 1980s.\n\nOne of Steinbrenner's major goals was to renovate the Stadium. It had greatly deteriorated by the late 1960s, and the surrounding neighborhood had gone south as well. CBS initially suggested renovations, but the team would have needed to play elsewhere, and the Mets refused to open their home, Shea Stadium, to the Yankees. A new stadium in the Meadowlands, across the Hudson River in New Jersey, was suggested (and was eventually built, as Giants Stadium, specifically for football). Finally, in mid-1972, Mayor John Lindsay stepped in. The city bought the Stadium and began an extensive two-year renovation period. Since the city owned Shea, the Mets had to allow the Yankees to play two seasons there. The renovations modernized the look of the stadium, significantly altered the dimensions, and reconfigured some of the seating.\n\nAfter the 1974 season, Steinbrenner made a move that started the modern era of free agency, signing star pitcher James Augustus \"Catfish\" Hunter away from Oakland. Midway through the 1975 season, Steinbrenner made another move, hiring former second baseman Billy Martin as manager. With Martin at the helm, the Yankees reached the 1976 World Series, but were swept by the Cincinnati Reds and their famed \"Big Red Machine.\"\n\nAfter the 1976 campaign, Steinbrenner added star Oakland outfielder Reggie Jackson, who spent 1976 with the Baltimore Orioles, to his roster. During spring training of 1977, Jackson alienated his teammates with controversial remarks about the Yankees captain, catcher Thurman Munson. He had bad blood with manager Billy Martin, who had managed the Detroit Tigers when Jackson's Athletics defeated them in the 1972 playoffs. Jackson, Martin, and Steinbrenner repeatedly feuded with each other throughout the life of Jackson's 5-year contract. Martin would be hired and fired by Steinbrenner five times over the next 13 years. This conflict, combined with the extremely rowdy Yankees fans of the late 1970s and the bad conditions of the Bronx, led to the Yankee organization and stadium being referred to as the \"Bronx Zoo.\" Despite the turmoil, Jackson starred in the 1977 World Series, when he hit three home runs in the same game, and overall, four home runs on four consecutive pitches from four different pitchers. Jackson's great performance in the postseason earned him the Series MVP Award, and the nickname \"Mr. October.\"\n\nThroughout the late 1970s, the race for the pennant was often a close competition between the Yankees and the Red Sox. In the 1950s and early 1960s, the Yankees had been dominant while the Red Sox were largely a non-factor. However, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Yankees were mired in second place and the Red Sox led the league. In the late 1970s the two teams were contending simultaneously and locked in a close fight.\n\nOn July 14, 1978, the Yankees were games behind the Red Sox. In late July, Martin suspended Reggie Jackson for \"defiance\" after he bunted while Martin had the \"swing\" signal on. Upon Jackson's return Martin made statements against both Jackson and owner Steinbrenner. Martin was forced to resign the next day and was replaced by Bob Lemon. This came while the team was winning 5 games in a row and Boston was losing 5 in a row. \n\nThe Yankees continued to win games, making up ground and by the time they met Boston for a pivotal four-game series at Fenway Park in early September, they were only four games behind the Red Sox. The Yankees swept the Red Sox in what became known as the \"Boston Massacre\", winning the games 15–3, 13–2, 7–0, and 7–4. The third game was a shutout pitched by \"Louisiana Lightning\" Ron Guidry, who would lead the majors with nine shutouts, a 25–3 record, and a 1.74 ERA. Guidry finished with 248 strikeouts, but Nolan Ryan's 260 strikeouts with the California Angels deprived Guidry of the pitching Triple Crown.\n\nOn the last day of the season, the two clubs finished in a tie for first place in the AL East, and a one-game playoff (the 163rd game of the regular season) was held at Fenway Park. With Guidry pitching against former Yankee Mike Torrez, the Red Sox took an early 2–0 lead. In the seventh inning, light-hitting Yankee shortstop Bucky Dent drove a three-run home run over the \"Green Monster\" (Fenway Park's famed left field wall), putting the Yankees up 3–2. Reggie Jackson's solo home run in the following inning sealed the eventual 5–4 win that gave the Yankees their one hundredth win of the season and their third straight AL East title and Guidry earned his 25th win of the season.\n\nAfter beating the Kansas City Royals for the third consecutive year in the ALCS, the Yankees faced the Dodgers again in the World Series. They lost the first two games in LA, but won all three games at Yankee Stadium and won Game 6 in Los Angeles, winning their 22nd World Championship.\n\nChanges occurred during the 1979 season. Former Cy Young Award-winning closer Sparky Lyle was traded to the Texas Rangers for several players, including Dave Righetti. Tommy John was acquired from the Dodgers and Luis Tiant from the hated Red Sox to bolster the pitching staff. During the season, Bob Lemon was replaced by Billy Martin.\n\nThe 1970s ended on a tragic note for the Yankees. On August 2, 1979, Thurman Munson died after crashing his private plane while practicing \"Touch and Go\" landings. Four days later, the entire team flew out to Canton, Ohio for the funeral, despite having a game later that day against the Orioles. Martin adamantly stated that the funeral was more important, and that he did not care if they made it back in time. Bobby Murcer, a close friend of Munson's, was chosen to give the eulogy at his funeral. In a nationally televised and emotional game, Murcer used Munson's bat (which he gave to his fallen friend's wife after the game), and drove in all five of the team's runs in a dramatic 5–4 walk-off victory. Before the game, Munson's locker sat empty except for his catching gear, a sad reminder for his teammates. His locker, labeled with his number 15, has remained empty in the Yankee clubhouse as a memorial. When the Yankees moved across the street, Munson's locker was torn out and installed in the new Stadium's museum. The number 15 has been retired by the team.\n\nThe 1980 season brought more changes to the Yankees. Billy Martin was fired once again and Dick Howser took his place. Chris Chambliss was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for catcher Rick Cerone. Thanks to Howser's no-nonsense attitude, Reggie Jackson hit .300 for the only time in his career with 41 homers, and finished 2nd in the MVP voting to Kansas City's George Brett. The Yankees won 103 games and the AL East by three games over the 100-win Baltimore Orioles, but were swept by the Royals in the 1980 ALCS.\n\nAfter the season ended, the Yankees signed Dave Winfield to a 10-year contract. The Yankees fired Howser and replaced him with Gene Michael. Under Michael, the Yankees led the AL East before a strike hit in June 1981. In the second half of the season, the Yankees struggled under Bob Lemon, who replaced Michael. Thanks to the split-season playoff format, the Yankees faced the second-half winner Milwaukee Brewers in the special 1981 American League Division Series. After narrowly defeating Milwaukee in five games, they breezed through Billy Martin and the Oakland Athletics in a three-game ALCS. In the World Series, the Yankees got off to a hot start by winning the first two games against the Los Angeles Dodgers. But the Dodgers fought back and stunned the Yankees by winning the next four games to clinch their first World Series title since 1965.\n\nStruggles: The Mattingly years (1982–1995)\n\nFollowing the team's loss to the Dodgers in the 1981 World Series, the Yankees began their longest absence from the playoffs since 1921. Following the example set by the St. Louis Cardinals and the Big Red Machine that had defeated his team in the 1976 World Series, George Steinbrenner announced his plan to transform the Yankees from the Bronx Bombers into the \"Bronx Burners\", increasing the Yankees' ability to win games based on speed and defense instead of \"waiting around for a 3 run home run\". As a first step towards this end, the Yankees signed Dave Collins from the Cincinnati Reds during the 1981 off season. Collins was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays after the 1982 season in a deal that also included future All-Stars Fred McGriff and Mike Morgan. In return the Yankees got Dale Murray and Tom Dodd.\n\nThe Yankees of the 1980s were led by All-Star first baseman Don Mattingly. In spite of accumulating the most total wins of any major league team, they failed to win a World Series (the first such Yankees team since the 1910s) and had only 1 playoff appearance. Although they consistently had a powerful offense—Mattingly at various times was teammate to Dave Winfield (whom Mattingly battled for the AL batting title throughout most of the 1984 season), Rickey Henderson, Don Baylor, Ken Griffey, Sr., Mike Pagliarulo, Steve Sax, and Jesse Barfield, and the Yankees led the majors in runs scored for the decade—the Yankees teams of the 1980s lacked sufficient starting pitching to win a championship. After posting a 22–6 record in 1985, arm problems caught up with Ron Guidry, and his performance declined over the next three years. Of the remaining mainstays of the Yankees' rotation, only Dave Righetti stood out, pitching a no-hitter on July 4, 1983, but he was moved to the bullpen the next year where he helped to define the closer role. Despite the Yankees' lack of pitching success during the 1980s, they had three of the premier pitchers of the early 1990s on their roster during these years in Al Leiter, Doug Drabek and José Rijo. All were mismanaged and dealt away before they could reach their full potential, with only Rijo returning much value – he was traded to the Oakland A's in the deal that brought Henderson to New York.\n\nThe team came close to winning the AL East in 1985 and 1986, finishing second to the Toronto Blue Jays and Boston Red Sox (who lost in the World Series that year to the Yankees' cross-town rivals, the New York Mets) respectively, but fell to fourth place in 1987 and fifth in 1988, despite having mid-season leads in the AL East standings both years. Despite their lack of championships and playoff appearances the Yankees posted the highest winning percentage of all MLB teams during the 1980s.\n\nBy the end of the decade, the Yankees' offense was on the decline. Henderson and Pagliarulo had departed by the middle of 1989, while back problems hampered both Winfield (who missed the entire '89 season) and Mattingly (who missed almost the entire second half of 1990). Winfield's tenure with the team ended when he was dealt to the Angels. From 1989 to 1992, the team had a losing record, spending significant money on free-agents and draft picks who did not live up to expectations. In 1990, the Yankees had the worst record in the American League, and their fourth last-place finish in franchise history.\n\nOn July 1, 1990, pitcher Andy Hawkins became the first Yankee ever to lose despite throwing a no-hitter. Third baseman Mike Blowers committed an error, followed by two walks and an error by the left fielder Jim Leyritz with the bases loaded, scoring all three runners and the batter. The 4–0 loss to the Chicago White Sox was the largest margin of any no-hitter loss in the 20th century. Ironically, the Yankees (and Hawkins) were no-hit for six innings in a rain-shortened game against the White Sox 11 days later.\n\nDuring the 1990 season, Yankee fans started to chant \"1918!\" to taunt the Red Sox, reminding them of the last time they won a World Series one weekend the Red Sox were there in 1990. Each time the Red Sox were at Yankee Stadium afterward, demeaning chants of \"1918!\" echoed through the stadium. Yankee fans also taunted the Red Sox with signs saying \"CURSE OF THE BAMBINO\", pictures of Babe Ruth, and wearing \"1918!\" T-shirts each time they were at the Stadium.\n\nThe poor showings in the 1980s and 1990s would soon change. Steinbrenner hired Howard Spira to uncover damaging information on Winfield and was subsequently suspended from day-to-day team operations by Commissioner Fay Vincent when the plot was revealed. This turn of events allowed management to implement a coherent acquisition/development program without owner interference. General Manager Gene Michael, along with manager Buck Showalter, shifted the club's emphasis from high-priced acquisitions to developing talent through the farm system. This new philosophy developed key players such as outfielder Bernie Williams, shortstop Derek Jeter, catcher Jorge Posada, and pitchers Andy Pettitte and Mariano Rivera. The first significant success came in 1994, when the Yankees had the best record in the AL, but the strike ended the season and Mattingly's best chance for a World Series title and is remembered among the 10 worst moments in New York City sports history. Because the Yankees were last in a postseason in a season cut short by a strike, the news media constantly reminded the Yankees about the parallels between the two Yankee teams (1981 and 1994), which included both Yankee teams having division leads taken away by strike. Throughout October, the media continued to speculate about what might have been if there had not been a strike, making references to the days games in the post-season would have been played.\n\nA year later, the team qualified for the playoffs in the new wild card slot in the strike shortened 1995 season. In the memorable 1995 American League Division Series against the Seattle Mariners, the Yankees won the first two games at home and dropped the next three in Seattle. Mattingly, suffering greatly from his back injury, retired after the 1995 season. He had the unfortunate distinction of beginning and ending his career on years bookended by Yankee World Series appearances (1981 and 1996).\n\nNew dynasty (1996–2007)\n\nTorre had a mediocre run as a manager in the National League, and the choice was initially derided (\"Clueless Joe\" was a headline in the New York Daily News). However, his calm demeanor proved to be a good fit, and his tenure was the longest under George Steinbrenner's ownership.\n\n1996 saw the rise of three Yankees who would form the core of the team for years to come: rookie shortstop Derek Jeter, second-year starting pitcher Andy Pettitte, and second-year pitcher Mariano Rivera, who served as setup man in 1996 before becoming closer in 1997. Aided by these young players, the Yankees won their first AL East title in 15 years in 1996. They defeated the Texas Rangers in the ALDS, and in the ALCS beat the Baltimore Orioles in five games, which included a notable fan interference by young Jeffrey Maier that was called as a home run for the Yankees. In the World Series the team rebounded from an 0–2 series deficit and defeated the defending champion Atlanta Braves, ending an 18-year championship drought. Jeter was named Rookie of the Year. In 1997, the Yankees lost the 1997 ALDS to the Cleveland Indians in five games. GM Bob Watson stepped down and was replaced by assistant GM Brian Cashman.\n\nThe 1998 Yankees are widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest teams in baseball history, compiling a then-AL record 114 regular season wins against just 48 losses and then sweeping the San Diego Padres in the 1998 World Series. Their 125 combined regular and postseason wins is an MLB single-season record.\n\nOn May 17, 1998, David Wells pitched a perfect game against the Minnesota Twins at Yankee Stadium. On July 18, 1999, which was \"Yogi Berra Day\" at the Stadium, David Cone pitched a perfect game against the Montreal Expos. The ALCS was the Yankees' first meeting with the Red Sox in a post-season series. The Yankees would go on to win the 1999 World Series giving the 1998–1999 Yankees a 22–3 record (including four series sweeps) in six consecutive post-season series.\n\nIn 2000, the Yankees faced the New York Mets in the first Subway Series World Series since 1956. The Yankees won the series in 5 games, but a loss in Game 3 snapped their streak of World Series wins at 14, surpassing the club's previous record of 12 (in 1927, 1928, and 1932). The Yankees are the last major league team to repeat as World Series champions and after the 2000 season they joined the Yankee teams of 1936–1939 and 1949–1953, as well as the 1972–1974 Oakland Athletics as the only teams to win at least three consecutive World Series.\n\nThe Yankees dynasty of the 1990s was also part the Braves–Mets rivalry. As noted above, three of their four World Series wins happened against either team (Braves in 1996 and 1999, Mets in 2000). Joe Torre added further fuel to the dynasty being part of the rivalry, having played for and managed both teams and he becoming manager of the Yankees and the events of the 1996 season were seen as factors in that rivalry intensifying.\n\nIn aftermath of the September 11 attacks, that year, Yankees defeated the Oakland A's in the ALDS, and the Seattle Mariners in the ALCS. By winning the pennant for a fourth straight year, the 1998–2001 Yankees joined the 1921–1924 New York Giants, and the Yankee teams of '36–'39, '49–'53, '55–'58 and '60–'64 as the only teams to win at least four straight pennants. The Yankees won 11 consecutive postseason series in this 4-year period. In the World Series against the Arizona Diamondbacks, the Yankees lost the series when closer Mariano Rivera uncharacteristically blew a save in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 7; it was the second time in five years that a team lost the World Series after taking a lead into the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 7 (following the Cleveland Indians in ) and the first time since that the home team won all seven games of a World Series. The Yankees were also the first American League team to lose a World Series in which the home team won all seven games. Also, despite a very poor series overall, batting under .200, Derek Jeter got the nickname, \"Mr. November\", echoing comparisons Reggie Jackson's \"Mr. October\", for his walk-off home run in Game 4, though it began October 31, as the game ended in the first minutes of November 1. In addition, the Yankees' home field in the aftermath of the attacks served as hosts of a memorial service titled \"Prayer for America.\"\n\nA vastly revamped Yankees team finished the 2002 season with an AL best record of 103–58. The season was highlighted by Alfonso Soriano becoming the first second baseman ever to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a season. In the ALDS the Yankees lost to the eventual champion Anaheim Angels in four games.\n\nIn 2003, the Yankees again had the best league record (101–61), highlighted by Roger Clemens' 300th win and 4000th strikeout. In the ALCS, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in a dramatic seven game series, which featured a bench-clearing incident in Game 3 and a series-ending walk-off home run by Aaron Boone in the bottom of the 11th inning of Game 7. In the World Series the Yankees lost in 6 games to the Florida Marlins, losing a World Series at home for the first time since 1981.\n\nIn 2004, the Yankees acquired Alex Rodriguez, who moved to third base from his usual shortstop position to accommodate Derek Jeter. In the ALCS, the Yankees met the Boston Red Sox again, and became the first team in professional baseball history, and only the third team in North American pro sports history, to lose a best-of-seven series after taking a 3–0 series lead.\n\nIn 2005 Alex Rodriguez won the American League MVP award, becoming the first Yankee to win the award since Don Mattingly in 1985. The Yankees again won the AL East by virtue of a tiebreaker but lost the ALDS in five games to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The 2006 season was highlighted by a 5-game series sweep of the Red Sox at Fenway Park (sometimes referred to as the \"Second Boston Massacre\"), outscoring the Red Sox 49–26. \n\nDespite winning the AL East for the ninth consecutive year, the Yankees lost again in the ALDS, this time to the Detroit Tigers. After the ALDS was over, tragedy struck when pitcher Cory Lidle died when his plane crashed into a highrise apartment building in Manhattan. Along with Thurman Munson, Lidle was the second active Yankee to be killed in a private plane crash.\n\nOn June 18, 2007 the Yankees broke new ground by signing the first two professional baseball players from the People's Republic of China to the MLB, and became the first team in MLB history to sign an advertising deal with a Chinese company. The Yankees' streak of nine straight AL East division titles ended in 2007, but they still reached the playoffs with the AL Wild Card. For the third year in a row, the team lost in the first round of the playoffs, as the Cleveland Indians defeated the Yankees in the 2007 ALDS. After the series, Joe Torre declined a reduced-length and compensation contract offer from the Yankees and returned to the National League as manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers.\n\nRecent years (2008–present)\n\nAfter Torre's departure the Yankees signed former catcher Joe Girardi to a three-year contract to manage the club. The 2008 season was the last season played at Yankee Stadium. To celebrate the final year and history of Yankee Stadium, the 2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game was played there on July 15, 2008. The final regular-season game at Yankee Stadium was played on September 21, 2008. After the game, Jeter addressed the crowd, thanking them for their support over the years, and urging them to \"take the memories of this field, add them to the new memories that will come at the new Yankee Stadium and continue to pass them on from generation to generation.\" Despite multiple midseason roster moves, the team was hampered by injuries and missed the playoffs for the first time in 14 seasons.\n\nDuring the off-season, the Yankees retooled their roster with several star free agent acquisitions, including CC Sabathia, Mark Teixeira, and A. J. Burnett. At the beginning of the 2009 season, the Yankees opened the new Yankee Stadium. The Yankees set a major league record by playing error-free ball for 18 consecutive games from May 14 to June 1, 2009. The Yankees finished first in the AL East. In the ALDS they defeated the Twins in a sweep before moving on to the ALCS where the Yankees defeated Angels in six games. They defeated the defending champions, the Philadelphia Phillies, in Game 6 of the World Series 7–3, to take the series 4–2, their 27th World Series title. \n\nThe 2010 season featured the rivalry between the Yankees and Red Sox being revived to start and end the season. The Yankees and the Red Sox started and finished the season against each other at Fenway Park. This was the first time since 1950 this had happened. In June, Joe Torre's Dodgers played games against the Yankees for the first time since he became manager of the Dodgers, with the Yankees taking two out of three games in the series. During the 2010 All-Star break, Pennsylvania announcer Bob Sheppard and principal owner George Steinbrenner died. Eight days later, another longtime Yankee icon, former player and manager Ralph Houk, died. The Yankees won the American League Wild Card. They swept the Minnesota Twins in the 2010 American League Division Series, but lost to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 American League Championship Series 4 games to 2.\n\nIn a 22–9 win over the Athletics at home on August 25, 2011, the Yankees became the first team in Major League history to hit three grand slams in a single game. They were hit by Robinson Canó, Russell Martin, and Curtis Granderson. The Yankees won the AL East title for the second time in three seasons, finishing with 97 wins and took home field throughout the AL postseason. However, they were defeated by the Tigers in five games in the 2011 American League Division Series.\n\nIn 2012, the Yankees again finished the season with the AL's best record at 95–67. They faced the Orioles in the 2012 American League Division Series. In Game 3, Raúl Ibañez became the oldest player to hit two home runs in a game, the oldest to hit a walk-off homer, the first substitute position player in a postseason game to hit two home runs, and the first to hit two home runs in the 9th inning or later in a postseason game, in the Yankees' 3–2 win. The Yankees would defeat the Orioles in five games. But in the 2012 American League Championship Series, the Yankees lost to the Tigers again, this time in a four-game sweep, which was compounded with a struggling offense and a season-ending injury to Derek Jeter.\n\nOn April 12, 2013, the Yankees made their second triple play ever in a home game playing the Baltimore Orioles. It was scored as 4–6–5–6–5–3–4, the first triple play of its kind in baseball history. \n\nOn September 25, 2013, the Yankees lost to the Tampa Bay Rays, which for the second time in the wild card era, eliminated them from any playoffs. \n\nDuring the 2013–14 offseason, the Yankees signed players such as Brian McCann, Jacoby Ellsbury, Masahiro Tanaka, and Carlos Beltrán. Despite that, the Yankees missed the playoffs for the second straight season, the first time in the post-1994 strike era. One notable moment happened on September 25, 2014, when Derek Jeter – playing his final home game – hit a walk-off single off pitcher Evan Meek to defeat the Baltimore Orioles in front of 48,613 fans who came to see the captain for the last time. \n\nWith Alex Rodriguez back from a long suspension, he led the Yankees back to the playoffs in 2015. However, they were soundly defeated by the Houston Astros, 3-0 in the 2015 American League Wild Card Game. Dallas Keuchel shut out the Yankees for six innings. Throughout the game, the Yankees' struggles at the plate led Yankee Stadium to boos.\n\nDistinctions\n\nThe Yankees have won a leading 27 World Series in 40 appearances (which, since the first World Series in 1903, currently amounts to an average appearance every 2.7 seasons and a championship every 4.0 seasons); the St. Louis Cardinals are second with 11 World Series victories. The Yankees' number of World Series losses, 13, leads in Major League Baseball. The St. Louis Cardinals, Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers and New York/San Francisco Giants are second in total World Series appearances with eighteen apiece. Of their 18 World Series appearances, the Dodgers have faced the Yankees eleven times, going 3–8 against the Yankees, while the Giants have faced the Yankees seven times, going 2–5 against the Yankees. Among North American major sports, the Yankees' success is only approached by the 24 Stanley Cup championships of the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League, though the Canadiens haven't won a Cup championship since . The Yankees have played in the World Series against every National League pennant winner except the Houston Astros and the Colorado Rockies, a feat that no other team is even close to matching.\n\nThrough 2014, the Yankees have an all-time regular season winning percentage of .567 (a 10,031–7,648 record), the best of any team in baseball.\n\nWorld Series championships\n\nThe Yankees have won 27 World Series Championships. Their most recent one came in 2009, under manager Joe Girardi, when they defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in six games.\n\nTeam nicknames\n\nThe \"Yankees\" name is often shortened to \"the Yanks.\" Their most prominently used nickname is \"the Bronx Bombers\" or simply \"the Bombers\", a reference to their home and their prolific hitting. A less used nickname is \"the Pinstripes\", in reference to the iconic feature on their home uniforms. Critics often refer to the team and the organization as \"the Evil Empire\", a term applied to the Yankees by Boston Red Sox president Larry Lucchino in a 2002 interview with the New York Times. A term from the team's tumultuous late 70s, \"the Bronx Zoo\", is sometimes used by detractors, as well as the \"Damn Yankees\", after the musical of the same name. Ironically, even many Yankees supporters refer to their team as the \"Evil Empire\" as a badge of honor and in fact enjoy having their team play \"the villain\".\n\nLogo, uniform, and dress code\n\nPopularity\n\nFan support\n\nWith the recurring success of the franchise since the 1920s, the Yankees have been and continue to be one of the most popular teams in the world, with their fan base coming from much further than the New York metropolitan area. The Yankees typically bring an upsurge in attendance at all or most of their various road-trip venues, drawing crowds of their own fans, as well as home-town fans whose interest is heightened when the Yankees come to town.\n\nThe first 1 million-fan season was in 1920, when 1,289,422 fans attended Yankee games at the Polo Grounds. The first 2 million-fan season was in 1946, when 2,265,512 fans attended the games at Yankee Stadium. The Yankees have beaten the league average for home attendance 83 out of the last 87 years (only during 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1994 did they not accomplish this). In the past seven years, the Yankees have drawn over three million fans each year, with an American League record-setting 4,090,696 in 2005, becoming only the third franchise in sports history to draw over four million in regular season attendance in their own ballpark. The Yankees were the league leaders in \"road attendance\" in each year from 2001 through 2006.\n\nOne famous fan was Fred Schuman, popularly known as \"Freddy Sez\". For over 50 years he came to Yankees' home games with a baseball cap, a Yankees' jersey (which on the back bears his own name) and a cake pan with a shamrock painted on it which was connected to a sign inscribed with words of encouragement for the home team. Fred died on October 17, 2010 at the age of 85.\n\nTo avoid unwanted publicity, Yankees members use aliases when registering for hotels. The Village Voice published a list of aliases used by Yankees members, and the contents were republished on The Smoking Gun.\n\nThe Bleacher Creatures\n\nThe \"Bleacher Creatures\" are a notorious group of season ticket holders who occupied Section 39 in the right field bleachers at the old Yankee Stadium, and occupy Section 203 in the new one. They are known for their strict allegiance to the Yankees, and are often merciless to opposing fans who sit in the section and cheer for the road team. They enjoy taunting the opposing team's right fielder with a series of chanting and slandering. The \"creatures\" got their nickname from New York Daily News columnist Filip \"Flip\" Bondy, who spent the 2004 season sitting in the section for research on his book about the group, Bleeding Pinstripes: A Season with the Bleacher Creatures of Yankee Stadium, published in 2005. \n\nGlobal expansion and business model\n\nThe Yankees baseball club is formally owned by Yankee Global Enterprises which owns the team's regional YES sports network. While the club has claimed it is operating under annual losses in excess of $47 million this figure is attributed only to the ballclub's finances and not to finances attributed to YES or Yankees Global Enterprises.\n\nThe Yankees have become well known for a winning reputation on a global level. In 2007, they reached an agreement with the Chinese Baseball Association to allow coaches, scouts and trainers to work in China to promote baseball and judge talent. They are trying to do the same with the Yomiuri Giants and the Hanshin Tigers in Japan. The Yankees and Yomiuri Giants currently have a close relationship and share ideas and strategies. The Yomiuri Shimbun daily newspaper has an ad on the left-field wall at Yankee Stadium, and other Japanese ads appear on the scrolling backstop advertising board. The Yankees are hoping that close ties with countries such as China and Japan will give them personal, in depth judgments of baseball talent. \n\nIn 2008, the Yankees announced a joint venture with the Dallas Cowboys that would form the basis for a partnership in running food and beverage, and other catering services to both teams' stadiums.\n \nIn 2013, Forbes magazine ranked New York Yankees as the fourth most valuable sports team in the world, behind Real Madrid of La Liga, Manchester United of the Premier League and Barcelona of La Liga, a value of $2.3 billion.\n\nCriticism\n\nWith the long-term success of the franchise and a large Yankee fanbase, many fans of other teams have come to dislike the Yankees. The organization is sometimes referred to by detractors as \"the Bronx Zoo\" (echoing the title of Sparky Lyle's book) or \"the Evil Empire.\" When the Yankees are on the road, it is common for the home fans to chant \"Yankees Suck\", and numerous T-shirts, bumper stickers and other items have been sold with this phrase.\n\nMuch of the animosity toward the team may derive from its high payroll (which was around $200 million at the start of the 2008 season, the highest of any American sports team), and the free agent superstars the team attracts in the offseason. Chicago Tribune columnist Mike Royko noted, \"Hating the Yankees is as American as pizza pie, unwed mothers, and cheating on your income tax.\" \n\nFight and theme songs\n\nThe official fight song for the Yankees is \"Here Come the Yankees\", written in 1967 by Bob Bundin and Lou Stallman. While it is not used as often, it is still heard frequently in instrumental form, most prominently in radio broadcasts. Another song strongly linked to the team is \"New York, New York\", which is played in the stadium after home games. The Frank Sinatra cover version is traditionally played after victories, and the Liza Minnelli original version after losses. When the Yankees take the field before the start of every game, 2 Unlimited's \"Get Ready For This\" is played, with the fans usually clapping along. When the Yankees score a run at home, a short snippet of 2 Unlimited's \"Workaholic\" containing the bell chime of Westminster Quarters is played.\n\nA wide selection of songs are played regularly at the stadium, many of them live on the Stadium's Hammond organ. \"God Bless America\" has been played during the 7th inning stretch since September 11. The version typically played is an abbreviated version of Kate Smith's rendition. However, during many important games (including most play-off games) and on noteworthy days, it is sung live a Capella and includes a longer introduction. During the 5th inning, the grounds-crew, while performing their duties, dances to \"Y.M.C.A.\". \"Cotton-Eyed Joe\", once played during the 7th inning stretch, is now played in the 8th inning. On the DiamondVision screen, a man in farmer's garb is shown dancing in the stadium's control room, with the words \"Cotton-Eyed Joey\" at the bottom. The organist will sometimes play the \"Zorba the Greek Theme\", accompanied by clapping from the audience, to excite the crowd and encourage a rally.\n\nRadio and television\n\nThe Yankees Entertainment and Sports (YES) Network launched in 2002, and serves as the primary home of the New York Yankees. Michael Kay is the play-by-play announcer with Ken Singleton, and Singleton, David Cone, Al Leiter, John Flaherty, and Paul O'Neill work as commentators as part of a three-man, or occasionally two-man, booth. Bob Lorenz hosts the pre-game show and the post-game show with Jack Curry, and Meredith Marakovits and Nancy Newman are the on site reporters. Some games are telecast on WPIX and formerly on WWOR-TV; those broadcasts are produced by YES.\n\nRadio broadcasts are on the Yankees Radio Network, the flagship station being WFAN 660 AM, with John Sterling as the play-by-play announcer and Suzyn Waldman providing the commentary, with Spanish-language broadcasts on WADO 1280 AM.\n\nThe history of Yankee radio broadcasters is: WJZ 770 (1939–'40), WOR 710 (1942), WINS 1010 (1944–'57), WMGM 1050 (1958–'60), WCBS 880 (1961–'66), WHN 1050 (1967–'70), WMCA 570 (1971–'77), WINS 1010 (1978–'80), WABC 770 (1981–2001), WCBS 880 (2002–2013), WFAN 660 AM and WFAN-FM 101.9 (2014–present). \n\nPast announcers\n\nMel Allen was the team's lead announcer from 1948 to 1964.\nRed Barber called Yankees games for thirteen seasons (1954–1966).\nFrank Messer, Phil Rizzuto and Bill White teamed together in the 1970s and 1980s. Rizzuto, with 40 years in the broadcast booth, is the longest serving broadcaster in the history of the club. Messer and White each worked nearly two decades for the Yankees, with White notably moving on to become president of the National League in 1989. Bobby Murcer also called games for over twenty years, and continued with the YES Network until shortly before his death from brain cancer.\n\nRetired numbers\n\nThe Yankees have retired 20 numbers for 22 individuals, the most in Major League Baseball. \n\nThe retired numbers were displayed behind the old Yankee Stadium's left field fence and in front of the opposing team's bullpen, forming a little alley that connects Monument Park to the left field stands. When the franchise moved across the street to the new stadium, the numbers were incorporated into Monument Park that sits place in center field between both bullpens. The 20 numbers are placed on the wall in chronological order, beginning with Lou Gehrig's number 4. This was retired soon after Gehrig left baseball on July 4, 1939, the same day he gave his famous farewell speech. His was the first number retired in Major League Baseball history. Beneath the numbers are plaques with the names of the players and a descriptive paragraph.\n\nThe number 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson on April 15, 1997, the 50th anniversary of his breaking the color barrier. The day was declared Jackie Robinson Day, and would later be observed by all of baseball, with select players from every team wearing the number 42. Players who wore No. 42 at the time were allowed to continue to wear it until they left the team with which they played on April 15, 1997; Mariano Rivera was the last active player covered under that grandfather clause. While other teams placed the number 42 with the rest of their retired numbers, the Yankees did not do so at first. Ten years later, on April 17, 2007, the Yankees honored Robinson by mounting the logo of Jackie Robinson Day with a corresponding plaque alongside the rest of the retired numbers. Because the Yankees were finishing a roadtrip in Oakland on Jackie Robinson Day, the ceremony took place two days later. When the Yankees moved to the second Yankee Stadium, they replaced the Jackie Robinson Day logo with a number 42 that resembled the other retired numbers. Later on they replaced the number 42 so that it resembled the Dodger's style, and on September 22, 2013 a plaque was dedicated to Robinson in Monument Park. Also, the number 42 dedicated to Robinson was removed entirely and replaced with one for Mariano Rivera.\n\nIn 1972, the number 8 was retired for two players on the same day, in honor of catcher Bill Dickey and his protege, catcher Yogi Berra. Berra inherited Dickey's number in 1948 after Dickey ended his playing career and became a coach.\n\nBilly Martin is the only Yankee to have his number retired as a player/manager combination. He wore number 1 as a player in the 1950s and as a manager in the 1970s and 1980s.\n\nThe numbers 37 and 6, retired for Casey Stengel and Joe Torre respectively, are the only numbers retired by the Yankees for someone who served solely as manager of the team. Stengel managed the Yankees to ten pennants and seven world championships between 1949 and 1960, including a record five consecutive world championships from 1949 through 1953. Joe Torre managed the Yankees from 1996 to 2007, winning six pennants and four World Series championships.\n\nRivalries\n\nBoston Red Sox\n\nThe Yankees–Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Boston Red Sox and the Yankees have been intense rivals. The rivalry is often termed \"the best\" and \"greatest rivalry in all of sports.\" Games between the two teams are often broadcast on national television, schedule permitting. \n\nThe rivalry is sometimes so polarizing that it is often a heated subject, like religion or politics, in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, the American League East rivals have squared off in the American League Championship Series three times, with the Yankees winning twice in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. In addition, the teams have twice met in the last regular-season series of a season to decide the league title, in 1904 (when the Red Sox won) and 1949 (when the Yankees won).\n\nThe teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high-profile one-game playoff for the division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14-game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. Similarly, the 2004 ALCS is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing a best of seven series. The Red Sox comeback was the only time in baseball history that a team has come back from a 0–3 deficit to win a postseason series. \n\nSubway Series\n\nThe Subway Series is a series of games played between teams based in New York City. The term's historic usage has been in reference to World Series games played between New York teams. The Yankees have appeared in all Subway Series games as they have been the only American League team in the city, and have compiled an 11–3 record in the fourteen championship Subway Series. Since 1997, the term Subway Series has also been applied to interleague play during the regular season between the Yankees and National League New York Mets.\n\nTeam captains\n\nTeam award winners and league leaders\n\nHall of Famers\n\nCurrent roster\n\nMinor league affiliations\n\nThe Yankees are affiliated with the following minor league teams:\n\nFront office \n\nThe Yankees front office, as of 2013, included Hal Steinbrenner (Managing General Partner/Co-Chairperson), Randy Levine (President), Lonn A. Trost (Chief Operating Officer and General Counsel), and Brian Cashman (Senior Vice President, General Manager).", "The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win-loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2015, the World Series has been contested 111 times, with the AL winning 64 and the NL winning 47. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best-of-seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner's Trophy. As the series is played in October (and occasionally November), during the autumn season in North America, it is often referred to as the Fall Classic. \n\nThe 2015 World Series took place between the New York Mets and the victorious Kansas City Royals. Five games were played, with the Royals victorious after game five, played in New York. The final score was 7-2; the game went into extra innings after a tied score of 2-2. This was the second World Series won by the franchise and the first in 30 years.\n\nIn the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia/Kansas City/Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York/San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 18 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.\n\nAs of 2015, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1999 and 2000, the longest such duration in Major League Baseball history.\n\nPrecursors to the modern World Series (1857–1902)\n\nThe original World Series\n\nUntil the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871–1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern Series: games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five), and both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.\n\nThe series was promoted and referred to as \"The Championship of the United States\", \"World's Championship Series\", or \"World's Series\" for short.\nIn his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed. \n\nThe 19th-century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th-century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th-century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th-century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. \n(For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists \"Baseball's World Championships 1884–1928\" in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists \"Baseball World Championships 1903–1942\". )\n\n1892–1900: \"The Monopoly Years\"\n\nFollowing the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half-season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893—and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969—the pennant was awarded to the first-place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894–1897, the league champions played the runners-up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900. \n\nIn 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy.\n\nModern World Series (1903–present)\n\nFirst attempt\n\nAfter two years of bitter competition and player raiding (in 1902, the AL and NL champions even went so far as to challenge each other to a tournament in football after the end of the baseball season), the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.\n\nBoycott of 1904\n\nThe 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the \"inferiority\" of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already \"world champions\" since they were the champions of the \"only real major league\". At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.\n\nDuring the winter of 1904–1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the \"Brush Rules\", under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from \"fixing\" early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now-official and compulsory World's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.\n\nWith the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players' strike.\n\nThe list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2–3–2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2–3–2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3–4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions. (The 2–3–2 pattern was used in 1944 because both teams were based in the same home stadium.)\n\n1919 Black Sox Scandal\n\nGambling and game-fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.\n\nThe Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph \"Sport\" Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting .324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).\n\nDuring the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the \"World's Serious\". The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.\n\nThe \"Black Sox\" were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.\n\nThe events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the \"live ball\" era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs are still waiting for their next trophy, and have not appeared in the Fall Classic since 1945, the longest drought of any MLB club.\n\nNew York Yankees dynasty (1920–1964)\n\nThe New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954–1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936–1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.\n\n1947–1964: New York City teams dominate World Series play\n\nIn an 18-year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.\n\nIn the years 1947, 1949, 1951–1953, and 1955–1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.\n\nThe World Series in California\n\nIn 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long-time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.\n\nThe Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.\n\nIn 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972–1974. In 1974, the A's played the Dodgers in the first all-California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).\n\nThe Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A's again went to three straight world series, from 1988–1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all-California series as the A's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (the most-recent all-California series), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).\n\n1969: League Championship Series\n\nPrior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the \"pennant winner\") based on the best win-loss record at the end of the regular season.\n\nA structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.\n\nThe National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2–3–2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home-field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.\n\n1970s\n\n1971: World Series at night\n\nMLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit's Tiger Stadium.)\n\n1972–1978: Three of a kind and The Greatest Game Ever Played\n\nDuring this seven-year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book-ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.\n\nHowever, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the \"amazing\" eight-year-old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers' back-to-back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.\n\nGame 6 of the 1975 World Series is widely regarded as the greatest World Series game ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail-biting turns of events, and a game-winning walk off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 to 6 Red Sox victory.\n\n1976: The Designated Hitter comes to the World Series\n\nThe National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak-hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular-season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even-numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine-man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion's park but not the NL champion's. Thus, the DH rule's use or non-use can help the team that has home-field advantage.\n\n1980s\n\n1984: Anderson becomes first to win in both leagues\n\nThe 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire-to-wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers' skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.\n\n1989: Earthquake\n\nWhen the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5:04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface-wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say \"I'll tell you what, we're having an earth--\" before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four-game sweep.\n\n1990s\n\n1992–1993: The World Series enters Canada\n\nWorld Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come-from-behind homer, after Joe Carter's three-run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8–6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth-inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.\n\n1994: League Division Series\n\nIn 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best-of-five playoff round (the \"division series\"), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second-best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best-of-seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team cannot get home-field advantage.\n\n1994–1995 strike\n\nAfter the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite World War I, the global influenza pandemic of 1918–1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America's involvement in World War II, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.\n\nAs the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus the commissioner, responsible for ensuring the integrity and protecting the welfare of the game, was an interested party rather than a neutral arbiter, and baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without an independent commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.\n\nThe previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74–40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos have never played in a World Series.)\n\nThe labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.\n\nAll-Star Game and home-field advantage (2003–present)\n\nPrior to 2003, home-field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All-Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home-field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All-Star Game. Originally implemented as a two-year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice has been extended indefinitely.\n\nThe American League won every All-Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home-field advantage from 2002, when it also had home-field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011 and 2014 World Series have gone the full seven games.\n\nThis rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home-field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All-Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees' shortstop's final All-Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season. \n\nAs Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:\n\nWith the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.\n\nHowever, in four of the last six seasons, home-field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Four of the Series (most recently in 2015) have been won on the road.\n\nStarting with the San Francisco Giants 2010 World Series victory, which was followed by the Giants victories in the 2012 World Series and the 2014 World Series, The Giants started what many around the sport of baseball consider to be a modern baseball dynasty, as most consider winning three World Series in a 5-year span in baseball today is incredibly difficult and thusly worthy of the dynasty title.\n\nModern World Series appearances by franchise\n\nWorld Series record by team or franchise, 1903–2015\n\nNotes\n\nAmerican League (AL) teams have won 64 of the 111 World Series played (58%). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 24% of all series played and 42% of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series (10%) and 23% of the 47 National League victories.\nAt least one New York team has been in 54 World Series (49%) of Series played.\nWhen the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.\n\nThe number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen \"expansion teams\" joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos/Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45%) in which they have played, which is 9% of all 111 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.\n\nTeam patterns in the World Series\n\nThis information is up to date through the present time:\n\nStreaks and droughts\n\n#Since their first championship in 1923, the New York Yankees have won two or more World Series titles in every decade except the 1980s, when they won none. Additionally, they have won at least one American League pennant in every decade since the 1920s. (They have yet to win a pennant or Series in the 2010s.) The Yankees are the only team in either League to win more than three series in a row, winning in four consecutive seasons from 1936 to 1939, and a still MLB record five consecutive seasons from 1949 to 1953.\n#The New York Giants' four World Series appearances from 1921 to 1924 are the most consecutive appearances for any National League franchise. The Yankees are the only American League franchise to accomplish this.\n#The 1907–1908 Cubs, 1921–1922 Giants and the 1975–1976 Reds are the only National League teams to win back-to-back World Series.\n#The 1907–1909 Detroit Tigers and the 1911–1913 New York Giants are the only teams to lose three consecutive World Series.\n#The Chicago Cubs hold the record for the longest World Series championship drought (still active through 2015), with their last title coming in 1908 (107 years). In fact, they also hold the longest drought without a World Series appearance, not having won the NL pennant since 1945. Even had the Cubs won the 1945 Series, they would still hold the longest World Series title drought, with the second longest World Series drought belonging to the Cleveland Indians, who have not won a World Series since 1948. The team with the longest active pennant drought among AL teams that have played in a World Series at least once is the Baltimore Orioles, who have not reached a World Series since winning their last title in 1983.\n#Twenty-two of the 28 teams to play in the World Series have won it at least once. The only exceptions are: Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s, enfranchised in 1962), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots, 1969), San Diego Padres (1969), Colorado Rockies (1993), Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays, 1998), and Texas Rangers (formerly Washington Senators, 1961). The Padres and Rangers have both lost two World Series; the remaining teams have all lost their only Series appearance. As of the present, all teams to reach the World Series at least three times have won at least one of their appearances.\n#Two teams have never played in the World Series: the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos, established in 1969), and the American League's Seattle Mariners (established in 1977). Both franchises have participated in post-season play and competed in a League Championship Series, but lost all League Championship Series appearances so far.\n#The Red Sox have the most World Series titles before their first World Series loss, winning the championship in their first five appearances—1903, 1912, 1915, 1916, and 1918—before losing in the next series they played, in 1946. The only other teams who have more than one Series victory before their first Series loss are the Cleveland Indians (in 1920 and 1948), the Toronto Blue Jays (in 1992 and 1993), and the Miami Marlins (in 1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins). The Blue Jays and the Marlins have never lost a World Series.\n#The American League's Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993) and National League's Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins) hold the record for most appearances in a Series without ever losing a Series. Two other franchises have won their lone appearance: the National League's Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and American League's Los Angeles Angels (2002).\n#The Pirates, Reds, Red Sox, and Giants are tied with the longest active streak of World Series victories (three) since the last time they lost a series. After losing the 1927 series to the Yankees, the Pirates have emerged victorious in the next three series in which they played (1960, 1971, and 1979). The Reds last series loss prior to their current active streak of three titles (1975, 1976, and 1990) was in 1972. The Red Sox are the American League leaders in this category with three consecutive titles (2004, 2007, and 2013) since their last series loss (1986). The Giants lost in 2002 before winning the next three they appeared in (2010, 2012, and 2014).\n#The Yankees have the most World Series victories (eight) between World Series losses. After losing the 1926 World Series to the Cardinals, the Yankees won their next eight appearances in the series (1927, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, and 1941) before losing in 1942 to the Cardinals again. After this loss, the Yankees went on to win their next seven Series appearances (1943, 1947, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, and 1953) before their next Series loss in 1955 to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Cardinals are the National League leader in this category, with four titles (1944, 1946, 1964, and 1967) between series losses in 1943 and 1968.\n#The Cubs and Dodgers are tied at seven apiece for most World Series losses between World Series victories. The Dodgers lost their first seven appearances in the Fall Classics (1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, and 1953) before winning their first title in 1955. The Cubs' situation is the opposite, as their losing streak is still ongoing: since winning their last title (in 1908), they lost the World Series in 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945. The Cleveland Indians have three World Series losses (1954, 1995, and 1997) since their last crown in 1948, more than any other team in the American League.\n#The longest duration without repeat World Series champions is fifteen years, dating back to the 2000 New York Yankees. The previous record of fourteen years (in between the 1978 New York Yankees' win and the 1993 Toronto Blue Jays' win) was broken when the San Francisco Giants, who won the 2014 World Series, did not qualify for the postseason in 2015.\n\nGame-by-game\n\n#Game 7 was won by the home team in the 9 World Series between 1980 and 2013 that went to seven games (the 1982 St. Louis Cardinals, 1985 Kansas City Royals, 1986 New York Mets, 1987 and 1991 Minnesota Twins, 1997 Florida Marlins, 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks, 2002 Anaheim Angels, and 2011 St. Louis Cardinals) before the Giants won game 7 on the road in 2014. This trend reverses the previous historical trend in which Game 7 had been most often won by the road team, in 1979, 1975, 1972, 1971, 1968, 1967, 1965, and 1962. During the 1960s and 1970s, the home team had won Game 7 only in 1960, 1964, and 1973. Since 2003, when home field advantage started to be awarded to the team representing the league that won the All-Star game, the first Series that reached Game 7 was in 2011. The greatest comeback in World Series history was in 1968, when the Detroit Tigers came back from a 3–1 game disadvantage to win Game 5 after being behind by 3 runs, before winning games 6 and 7 on the road at St. Louis.\n#The 1981 Los Angeles Dodgers are the last team to win a World Series after losing the first two games on the road (against New York). The recent tendency of a team winning the first two games at home and then winning the Series suggests the theoretical advantage to gaining home-field advantage (and the first two games at home) by winning the All-Star Game.\n#The Pittsburgh Pirates have won all five of their World Series championships in seven games.\n#The Minnesota Twins/Washington Senators have won their three World Series championships in seven games.\n#There have been 19 World Series four-game (4–0) sweeps. Nine different teams have swept a World Series at least once, the Yankees having done so most often (8 times). The Red Sox, Reds, and Giants have all done it twice. The Braves, Orioles, White Sox, Dodgers, and Athletics have each swept one Series. Six of these teams (all but the Orioles, Red Sox and White Sox) have also been swept 0–4 in at least one World Series. The Red Sox' two World Series sweeps are the most of any team that has never been swept in one. The Reds and Yankees are the only teams to have swept each other (The Yankees swept the Reds in 1939, while the Reds swept the Yankees in 1976). The Giants are the only team to record World Series sweeps in two different cities: New York (1954) and San Francisco (2012). The 1999 Yankees are the last team to date, and the only one since 1966, to sweep a World Series it began on the road (as well as the last American League champion to date to win a World Series it began on the road). The 1963 Dodgers are the last National League team to date to sweep a World Series it began on the road.\n#The Athletics, Cardinals, Cubs, and Yankees are the only teams to be swept in two World Series. The Athletics and Yankees are the only two of these with at least one World Series sweep to their credit, the other two being among nine teams overall that have never swept a World Series, but have been swept in one (the Tigers, Astros, Indians, Padres, Phillies, Pirates, and Rockies being the others).\n#The Cubs in 1907 and the Giants in 1922 won 4 games to 0, but each of those Series' included a tied game and are not considered to be true sweeps. In 1907, the first game was the tie and the Cubs won four straight after that. In 1922, Game 2 was the tie.\n#The Cincinnati Reds were the only National League team to sweep any World Series between 1963 and 2012, sweeping their last two series appearances to date in 1976 and 1990. When added to their Game 7 victory in 1975, this means that the Reds have won their last 9 consecutive games, making this the current longest winning streak in terms of consecutive World Series games won.\n#Nine World Series have ended with \"walk-off\" hits, i.e., that game and the Series ended when the home team won with a base hit in the bottom of the ninth or in extra innings: 1924, 1929, 1935, 1953, 1960, 1991, 1993, 1997, and 2001. Five of these (marked with a *) were in a deciding Game 7. In addition, the deciding Game 8 (one game had ended in a tie) of the 1912 World Series ended in a walk-off sacrifice fly. Two men have ended a World Series with a walk-off home run: Bill Mazeroski in 1960 and Joe Carter in 1993. Mazeroski's was a solo shot in the bottom of the ninth of Game 7 to win a championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates, while Carter's was a three-run shot in Game 6 that won a championship for the Toronto Blue Jays.\n#One World Series game has ended with a pick-off of a runner. Kolten Wong of the St. Louis Cardinals was picked off of first base in Game 3 of the 2013 World Series by Boston Red Sox closer Koji Uehara. The score was 4-2 and rookie Wong was a pinch runner.\n#The Philadelphia Phillies and the Tampa Bay Rays are the first teams to have an elimination game (or any game) be suspended because of weather, and not have it cancelled. Game 5 (in Philadelphia) was suspended Monday, October 27, 2008 with a 2–2 score, and resumed in the bottom of the sixth on October 29.\n#Both of the Minnesota Twins' World Series titles since relocating to the Twin Cities from Washington, D.C. (where they were the first Washington Senators) were in 7 game series where all games were won by the home team. The Twins accomplished this in 1987, when the Twins defeated the St. Louis Cardinals, then 4 years later in 1991, when the Twins defeated the Atlanta Braves. The Twins victories in both series were in games 1, 2, 6, and 7, while their National League opponents won games 3, 4, and 5. This same scenario also occurred in 2001, when the Arizona Diamondbacks defeated the New York Yankees.\n#Also of note when it comes to the three series where every game was won by the home team, a pitcher was MVP. In the 1987 World Series, Frank Viola was the MVP having pitched games 1, 4, and 7, and finishing with a 2–1 record. In 1991, Jack Morris achieved the same feat pitching games 1, 4, and 7 with a 2–0 record and a no decision in game 4, and winning MVP honors. However, Morris's MVP came on the heels of pitching 10 shutout innings in game 7. Finally, in 2001, Curt Schilling and Randy Johnson took MVP honors by being the reason the Arizona Diamondbacks were in position to win the series.\n#The Boston Red Sox have lost 4 World Series, all in 7 games. (1946, 1967, 1975, & 1986)\n#Four World Series ended with teams clinching the championship in the final game of the series which was not a Game 7 and went into extra innings. The title was won this way in 1939, 1992, 2012, and 2015.\n#As aforementioned, the home team has not won a deciding game of a World Series since 2013, and has been so in four of the last six seasons.\n\nLocal rivalries\n\nWhen two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already-existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.\n\nCross-town Series\n\nThe first city to host an entire World Series is Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.\n\nFourteen \"Subway Series\" have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically \"subway series\" since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California, and an all-NY Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.\n\nThe last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 \"Streetcar Series\" between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman's Park.\n\nThe 1989 World Series, sometimes called the \"Bay Bridge Series\" or the \"BART Series\" (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A's swept the Giants in four games.\n\nCross-state rivalries\n\nThe historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics-Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants' series against the then-Anaheim Angels in 2002.\n\nOther than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I-70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.\n\nPennants won in different cities\n\n# The Braves are the only team to have both won and lost a World Series in three different home cities (Boston, Milwaukee, and Atlanta).\n# The Athletics have had three different home cities (Philadelphia, Kansas City, and Oakland), but have appeared in the World Series (both winning and losing) while based in only two of them (Philadelphia and Oakland).\n# Three other teams have both won and lost the Fall Classic in two different home cities: The Dodgers (Brooklyn and Los Angeles), the Giants (New York and San Francisco), and the Twins (the Twin Cities and Washington, D.C., as the first Senators).\n# The Orioles are the only other team to have played in the World Series in two different home cities (Baltimore and St. Louis, as the Browns), but all three of their titles (and three of their four losses) have come while based in Baltimore.\n\nThe original sixteen teams\n\nAt the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the \"original sixteen\".\n\n#Every original team has won at least two World Series titles. The Philadelphia Phillies (National League) were the last of the original teams to win their first Series, in . They were also the last to win at least two, with their second Series victory in . The Cubs were the first team to win the series twice, in 1907 and 1908. They have not won another World Series since.\n#The last original American League team to win its first World Series was the Baltimore Orioles (former St. Louis Browns,originally the Milwaukee Brewers), winning in .\n#The Orioles were also the last original team in the majors to make their first World Series appearance, as the St. Louis Browns in . Although they never won another American League pennant while in St. Louis, they have won three World Series in six appearances since moving to Baltimore. The St. Louis Cardinals were the last original National League team to make its modern World Series debut, with its victory in . They have subsequently won more World Series than any other National League club: 11 championships through 2014.\n#The New York Yankees have defeated all eight original NL teams in a World Series. Conversely, they have lost at least one World Series to six of the original NL teams, never losing to the Chicago Cubs or the Philadelphia Phillies. The Boston Red Sox have played at least one Series against every original National League team except the (Boston, Milwaukee and Atlanta) Braves, with whom they shared a home city through 1953.\n#The St. Louis Cardinals are currently the only club of the National League's original eight that holds an overall Series lead over the Yankees, 3 to 2, taking that lead in 1964. The Giants won their first two Series over the Yankees (1921 and 1922), but the Yankees have faced the Giants five times since then and have won all five, taking the overall lead over the Giants in 1937. The Pittsburgh Pirates and Yankees have faced each other twice (1927 and 1960), with the Yankees winning in 1927 and the Pirates winning in 1960, making the two teams .500 against each other.\n#Since the two leagues expanded beyond eight teams apiece in 1961, only two of the original 16 teams have not won a World Series against the larger field of competitors: the American League Cleveland Indians, who have not won a Series since 1948 (defeating the Boston Braves), and the National League Chicago Cubs, who last won a Series in 1908 (defeating the Detroit Tigers).\n#The 2015 World Series was the first ever World Series to not feature any of the original sixteen teams.\n\nExpansion teams (after 1960)\n\n#The 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks won their first pennant and World Series in fewer seasons than any other expansion team (both attained in their 4th season). The 1997 World Series Champion Florida Marlins achieved these milestones in the second-fewest number of seasons (fifth season). The fastest AL expansion franchise to win a pennant was the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008 (11th season) and the fastest AL expansion franchise to win a World Series was the Toronto Blue Jays in 1992 (16th season).\n#While the New York Mets (NL) were the first expansion team to win or appear in the World Series (1969), the American League would have to wait until 1980 for its first expansion-team World Series appearance, and until 1985 for its first expansion-team win. Both were by the Kansas City Royals. The AL also had two expansion teams appear in the World Series (the Milwaukee Brewers being the second, in 1982) before the National League's second expansion team to appear—the San Diego Padres in 1984.\n#12 expansion teams have now contested at least one Series. Until 2015, all World Series matchups featured at least one of the 16 teams established by 1903. As of the end of the 2014 edition, expansion teams were 9–12 in the World Series, with three teams (the New York Mets, Toronto Blue Jays and Miami Marlins) each winning two. The Kansas City Royals, the then-Anaheim Angels and the Arizona Diamondbacks had each won one Series by the end of the 2014 season. With the New York Mets defeating the Chicago Cubs in a four-game sweep in the 2015 National League Championship Series, the 2015 World Series was guaranteed to be the first ever World Series matchup in which both teams were expansion teams, where the Mets (whose first season occurred in 1962) faced off against the Kansas City Royals (whose first season occurred in 1969). \n# Six expansion teams have appeared in the World Series without ever winning a championship: twice for the Texas Rangers (formerly the second Washington Senators) and San Diego Padres, and once each for the Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots), Colorado Rockies, and Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays).\n# Two expansion teams have not yet won a league pennant (and therefore also have not appeared in a World Series): the American League's Seattle Mariners and the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos). Both teams have competed in postseason play and appeared in their respective League Championship Series at least once, but have no League Championship Series victories.\n# The Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993), Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins), Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and Los Angeles Angels (2002) have never lost a World Series appearance.\n# The 2015 World Series—in which the Kansas City Royals (enfranchised by the American League in 1969) defeated the New York Mets (NL, 1962) in five games—was the first between two expansion teams.\n\nOther notes\n\n#The team with the better regular season winning percentage has won the World Series 53 times, or 48.62% (53 of 109) of the time. Three World Series featured teams with identical records (1949, 1958, 2013).\n#The Toronto Blue Jays are the only non-U.S. team ever to win a pennant or a World Series, doing both twice, in 1992 and 1993.\n#The Chicago Cubs are the only team with a World Series title to have never clinched one at home.\n#Three series have matched up the previous two World Champions, with the New York Yankees winning all three. The 1928 World Series was contested by the 1926 champion Cardinals and 1927 champion Yankees; the Yankees won the series 4-0. In 1943, the 1941 champion Yankees met the 1942 champion Cardinals, which the Yankees won 4-1. In the 1958 World Series, the 1956 champion Yankees faced the 1957 champion Milwaukee Braves; the Yankees won this series 4-3. The 2012 National League Championship Series also matched up the previous two World Champions: the 2010 champion Giants and the 2011 champion Cardinals. The Giants won this series 4-3.\n#The 2015 World Series game 1 between the New York Mets and the Kansas City Royals was the longest game 1 in history at 5 hours and 9 minutes.\n\nTelevision coverage and ratings\n\nWhen the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City, New York; Philadelphia; Schenectady, New York; Washington, D.C.; and environs surrounding these cities. In , games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By , World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By , World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color. \n\nInternational participation\n\nDespite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major-league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as \"world champions of baseball\". \n\nThe United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.\n\nBy the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America's high-salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half-century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time \"post\" them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player's request.\n\nSeveral tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball, uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The International Baseball Federation also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. But as these teams do not feature the best talent from each nation, the public generally does not give much weight to the result of these tournaments. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.\n\nImage gallery\n\nImage:WorldSeries1903-640.jpg\|Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston\nImage:West Side Park 1906 World Series.JPG\|Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all-Chicago World Series to date)\nImage:Wamby19201010UATP.JPG\|Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920\nImage:1924worldseries.jpg\|Washington's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Twice", "Twice (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "twice", "twice disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "twice", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Twice" }
Which team in the 80s won the Super Bowl by the biggest margin?	tc_1435	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Super Bowl is the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), the highest level of professional American football in the world. The game culminates a season that begins in the late summer of the previous calendar year. Normally, Roman numerals are used to identify each game, rather than the year in which it is held. For example, Super Bowl I was played on January 15, 1967, following the 1966 regular season. The single exception to this rule is Super Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, following the 2015 regular season. The next game, Super Bowl LI, scheduled for February 5, 2017, will follow the 2016 regular season.\n\nThe game was created as part of a merger agreement between the NFL and its then-rival league, the American Football League (AFL). It was agreed that the two leagues' champion teams would play in the AFL–NFL World Championship Game until the merger was to officially begin in 1970. After the merger, each league was redesignated as a \"conference\", and the game has since been played between the conference champions to determine the NFL's league champion. Currently, the National Football Conference (NFC) leads the league with 26 wins to 24 wins for the American Football Conference (AFC). The Pittsburgh Steelers have the most Super Bowl victories with six.\n\nThe day on which the Super Bowl is played, now considered by some an unofficial American national holiday, is called \"Super Bowl Sunday\". It is the second-largest day for U.S. food consumption, after Thanksgiving Day. In addition, the Super Bowl has frequently been the most-watched American television broadcast of the year; the four most-watched broadcasts in U.S. television history are Super Bowls. In 2015, Super Bowl XLIX became the most-watched American television program in history with an average audience of 114.4 million viewers, the fifth time in six years the game had set a record, starting with the 2010 Super Bowl, which itself had taken over the number-one spot held for 27 years by the final episode of MASH. The Super Bowl is also among the most-watched sporting events in the world, almost all audiences being North American, and is second to soccer's UEFA Champions League final as the most watched annual sporting event worldwide. \n\nThe NFL restricts the use of its \"Super Bowl\" trademark; it is frequently called the Big Game or other generic terms by non-sponsoring corporations. Because of the high viewership, commercial airtime during the Super Bowl broadcast is the most expensive of the year, leading to companies regularly developing their most expensive advertisements for this broadcast. As a result, watching and discussing the broadcast's commercials has become a significant aspect of the event.[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/floridatoday/access/1813188961.html?FMT\nABS&FMTSABS:FT&type\ncurrent&dateJan+28%2C+2004&author\nCarl+Kotala&pubFlorida+Today&desc\nCommercials+as+big+as+game&pqatl=google Commercials as big as game], Florida Today In addition, popular singers and musicians including Michael Jackson, Madonna, Prince, Beyoncé, The Rolling Stones, The Who, and Whitney Houston have performed during the event's pre-game and halftime ceremonies.\n\nOrigin\n\nFor four decades after its 1920 inception, the NFL successfully fended off several rival leagues. However, in 1960, it encountered its most serious competitor when the American Football League (AFL) was formed. The AFL vied heavily with the NFL for both players and fans, but by the middle of the decade the strain of competition led to serious merger talks between the two leagues. Prior to the 1966 season, the NFL and AFL reached a merger agreement that was to take effect for the 1970 season. As part of the merger, the champions of the two leagues agreed to meet in a world championship game for professional American football until the merger was effected.\n\nA bowl game is a post-season college football game. The original \"bowl game\" was the Rose Bowl Game in Pasadena, California, which was first played in 1902 as the \"Tournament East-West football game\" as part of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses and moved to the new Rose Bowl Stadium in 1923. The stadium got its name from the fact that the game played there was part of the Tournament of Roses and that it was shaped like a bowl, much like the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut; the Tournament of Roses football game itself eventually came to be known as the Rose Bowl Game. Exploiting the Rose Bowl Game's popularity, post-season college football contests were created for Miami (the Orange Bowl), New Orleans (the Sugar Bowl), and El Paso, Texas (the Sun Bowl) in 1935, and for Dallas (the Cotton Bowl) in 1937. By the time the first Super Bowl was played, the term \"bowl\" for any major American football game was well established.\n\nLamar Hunt, owner of the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs, first used the term \"Super Bowl\" to refer to the NFL-AFL championship game in the merger meetings. Hunt later said the name was likely in his head because his children had been playing with a Super Ball toy; a vintage example of the ball is on display at the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio. In a July 25, 1966, letter to NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, Hunt wrote, \"I have kiddingly called it the 'Super Bowl,' which obviously can be improved upon.\"\n\nThe leagues' owners chose the name \"AFL-NFL Championship Game\", but in July 1966 the Kansas City Star quoted Hunt in discussing \"the Super Bowl — that's my term for the championship game between the two leagues\", and the media immediately began using the term. Although the league stated in 1967 that \"not many people like it\", asking for suggestions and considering alternatives such as 'Merger Bowl' and 'The Game', the Associated Press reported that 'Super Bowl' \"grew and grew and grew-until it reached the point that there was Super Week, Super Sunday, Super Teams, Super Players, ad infinitum\". 'Super Bowl' became official beginning with the third annual game. Roman numerals were first affixed for the fifth edition, in January 1971.\n\nAfter the NFL's Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls, some team owners feared for the future of the merger. At the time, many doubted the competitiveness of AFL teams compared with their NFL counterparts, though that perception changed when the AFL's New York Jets defeated the NFL's Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III in Miami. One year later, the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL's Minnesota Vikings 23–7 in Super Bowl IV in New Orleans, which was the final AFL-NFL World Championship Game played before the merger. Beginning with the 1970 season, the NFL realigned into two conferences; the former AFL teams plus three NFL teams (the Colts, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Cleveland Browns) would constitute the American Football Conference (AFC), while the remaining NFL clubs would form the National Football Conference (NFC). The champions of the two conferences would play each other in the Super Bowl.\n\nThe winning team receives the Vince Lombardi Trophy, named after the coach of the Green Bay Packers, who won the first two Super Bowl games and three of the five preceding NFL championships in 1961, 1962, and 1965. Following Lombardi's death in September 1970, the trophy was named the Vince Lombardi Trophy, and was the first awarded as such to the Baltimore Colts following their win in Super Bowl V in Miami.\n\nDate\n\nThe Super Bowl is currently played on the first Sunday in February. This is due to the NFL current schedule which consists of the opening weekend of the season being held immediately after Labor Day (the first Monday in September), the 17-week regular season (where teams each play 16 games and have one bye), the first three rounds of the playoffs, and the Super Bowl two weeks after the two Conference Championship Games. This schedule has been in effect since Super Bowl XXXVIII in February 2004. The date of the Super Bowl can thus be determined from the date of the preceding Labor Day. For example, Labor Day 2015 was September 7: therefore the next Super Bowl is scheduled exactly five months later on February 7, 2016.\n\nOriginally, the game took place in early to mid-January. For Super Bowl I there was only one round of playoffs: the pre-merger NFL and AFL Championship Games. The addition of two playoff rounds (first in 1967 and then in 1978), an increase in regular season games from 14 to 16 (1978), and the establishment of one bye-week per team (1990) have caused the Super Bowl to be played later. Partially offsetting these season-lengthening effects, simultaneous with the addition of two regular season games in 1978, the season was started earlier. Prior to 1978 the season started as late as September 21. Now, since Labor Day is always the first Monday of September, September 13 is the latest possible date for the first full Sunday set of games (Since 2002, the regular season has started with the Kickoff Game on the Thursday after Labor Day).\n\nGame history\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers have won six Super Bowls, the most of any team; the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers have five victories each, while the Green Bay Packers, New York Giants and New England Patriots have four Super Bowl championships. Thirteen other NFL franchises have won at least one Super Bowl. Nine teams have appeared in Super Bowl games without a win. The Minnesota Vikings were the first team to have appeared a record four times without a win. The Buffalo Bills played in a record four Super Bowls in a row, and lost every one. Four teams (the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans) have never appeared in a Super Bowl. The Browns and Lions both won NFL Championships prior to the Super Bowl's creation, while the Jaguars (1995) and Texans (2002) are both recent NFL expansion teams. The Minnesota Vikings won the last NFL Championship before the merger, but lost to the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs in Super Bowl IV.\n\n1960s: Early history \n\nThe Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls, defeating the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders following the 1966 and 1967 seasons, respectively. The Packers were led by quarterback Bart Starr, who was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) for both games. These two championships, coupled with the Packers' NFL championships in , , and , amount to the most successful stretch in NFL History; five championships in seven years.\n\nIn Super Bowl III, the AFL's New York Jets defeated the eighteen-point favorite Baltimore Colts of the NFL, 16–7. The Jets were led by quarterback Joe Namath (who had famously guaranteed a Jets win prior to the game) and former Colts head coach Weeb Ewbank, and their victory proved that the AFL was the NFL's competitive equal. This was reinforced the following year, when the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL's Minnesota Vikings 23–7 in Super Bowl IV.\n\n1970s: Dominant franchises \n\nAfter the AFL–NFL merger was completed in 1970, three franchises – the Dallas Cowboys, Miami Dolphins, and Pittsburgh Steelers – would go on to dominate the 1970s, winning a combined eight Super Bowls in the decade.\n\nThe Baltimore Colts, now a member of the AFC, would start the decade by defeating the Cowboys in Super Bowl V, a game which is notable as being the only Super Bowl to date in which a player from the losing team won the Super Bowl MVP (Cowboys' linebacker Chuck Howley). Beginning with this Super Bowl, all Super Bowls have served as the NFL's league championship game.\n\nThe Cowboys, coming back from a loss the previous season, won Super Bowl VI over the Dolphins. However, this would be the Dolphins' final loss in over a year, as the next year, the Dolphins would go 14–0 in the regular season and eventually win all of their playoff games, capped off with a 14-7 victory in Super Bowl VII, becoming the first and only team to finish an entire perfect regular and post season. The Dolphins would repeat as league champions by winning Super Bowl VIII a year later.\n\nIn the late 1970s, the Steelers became the first NFL dynasty of the post-merger era by winning four Super Bowls (IX, X, XIII, and XIV) in six years. They were led by head coach Chuck Noll, the play of offensive stars Terry Bradshaw, Franco Harris, Lynn Swann, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster, and their dominant \"Steel Curtain\" defense, led by \"Mean\" Joe Greene, L.C. Greenwood, Ernie Holmes, Mel Blount, Jack Ham, and Jack Lambert. The coaches and administrators also were part of the dynasty's greatness as evidenced by the team's \"final pieces\" being part of the famous 1974 draft. The selections in that class have been considered the best by any pro franchise ever, as Pittsburgh selected four future Hall of Famers, the most for any team in any sport in a single draft. The Steelers were the first team to win three and then four Super Bowls and appeared in six AFC Championship Games during the decade, making the playoffs in eight straight seasons. Nine players and three coaches and administrators on the team have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Pittsburgh still remains the only team to win back-to-back Super Bowls twice and four Super Bowls in a six-year period.\n\nThe Steelers' dynasty was interrupted only by the Cowboys winning their second Super Bowl of the decade and the Oakland Raiders' Super Bowl XI win.\n\n1980s and 1990s: The NFC's winning streak \n\nIn the 1980s and 1990s, the tables turned for the AFC, as the NFC dominated the Super Bowls of the new decade and most of those of the 1990s. The NFC won 16 of the 20 Super Bowls during these two decades, including 13 straight from Super Bowl XIX to Super Bowl XXXI.\n\nThe most successful team of the 1980s was the San Francisco 49ers, which featured the West Coast offense of Hall of Fame head coach Bill Walsh. This offense was led by three-time Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Joe Montana, Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, and tight end Brent Jones. Under their leadership, the 49ers won four Super Bowls in the decade (XVI, XIX, XXIII, and XXIV) and made nine playoff appearances between 1981 and 1990, including eight division championships, becoming the second dynasty of the post-merger NFL.\n\nThe 1980s also produced the 1985 Chicago Bears, who posted an 18–1 record under head coach Mike Ditka; colorful quarterback Jim McMahon; and Hall of Fame running back Walter Payton. Their team won Super Bowl XX in dominating fashion. The Washington Redskins and New York Giants were also top teams of this period; the Redskins won Super Bowls XVII, XXII, and XXVI. The Giants claimed Super Bowls XXI and XXV. As in the 1970s, the Oakland Raiders were the only team to interrupt the Super Bowl dominance of other teams; they won Super Bowls XV and XVIII (the latter as the Los Angeles Raiders).\n\nFollowing several seasons with poor records in the 1980s, the Dallas Cowboys rose back to prominence in the 1990s. During this decade, the Cowboys made post-season appearances every year except for the seasons of 1990 and 1997. From 1992 to 1996, the Cowboys won their division championship each year. In this same period, the Buffalo Bills had made their mark reaching the Super Bowl for a record four consecutive years, only to lose all four. After Super Bowl championships by division rivals New York (1990) and Washington (1991), the Cowboys won three of the next four Super Bowls (XXVII, XXVIII, and XXX) led by quarterback Troy Aikman, running back Emmitt Smith, and wide receiver Michael Irvin. All three of these players went to the Hall of Fame. The Cowboys' streak was interrupted by the 49ers, who won their league-leading fifth title overall with Super Bowl XXIX in dominating fashion under Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Steve Young, Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, and Hall of Fame cornerback Deion Sanders; however, the Cowboys' victory in Super Bowl XXX the next year also gave them five titles overall and they did so with Deion Sanders after he won the Super Bowl the previous year with the San Francisco 49ers. The NFC's winning streak was continued by the Green Bay Packers who, under quarterback Brett Favre, won Super Bowl XXXI, their first championship since Super Bowl II in the late 1960s.\n\n1997–2009: AFC resurgence\n\nSuper Bowl XXXII saw quarterback John Elway and running back Terrell Davis lead the Denver Broncos to an upset victory over the defending champion Packers, snapping the NFC's 13 year winning streak. The following year, the Broncos defeated the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl XXXIII, Elway's fifth Super Bowl appearance, his second NFL championship, and his final NFL game. The back-to-back victories heralded a change in momentum in which AFC teams would win 10 out of 13 Super Bowls. In the years between 2001 and 2011, three teams – the Patriots, Steelers, and Colts – accounted for ten of the AFC Super Bowl appearances, with those same teams often meeting each other earlier in the playoffs. In contrast, the NFC saw a different representative in the Super Bowl every season from 2001 through 2010.\n\nThe year following the Denver Broncos' second victory, however, a surprising St. Louis Rams led by undrafted quarterback Kurt Warner would close out the 1990s in a wild battle against the Tennessee Titans in Super Bowl XXXIV. The tense game came down to the final play in which Tennessee had the opportunity to tie the game and send it to overtime. The Titans nearly pulled it off, but the tackle of receiver Kevin Dyson by linebacker Mike Jones kept the ball out of the end zone by a matter of inches. In 2007, ESPN would rank \"The Tackle\" as the 2nd greatest moment in Super Bowl history.\n\nSuper Bowl XXXV was played by the AFC's Baltimore Ravens and the NFC's New York Giants. The Ravens defeated the Giants by the score of 34–7. The game was played on January 28, 2001, at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida.\n\nThe New England Patriots became the dominant team throughout the early 2000s, winning the championship three out of four years early in the decade. They would become only the second team in the history of the NFL to do so (after the 1990s Dallas Cowboys). In Super Bowl XXXVI, first-year starting quarterback Tom Brady led his team to a 20–17 upset victory over the St. Louis Rams. Brady would go on to win the MVP award for this game. The Patriots also won Super Bowls XXXVIII and XXXIX defeating the Carolina Panthers and the Philadelphia Eagles respectively. This four-year stretch of Patriot dominance was interrupted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers' 48-21 Super Bowl XXXVII victory over the Oakland Raiders.\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers and Indianapolis Colts continued the era of AFC dominance by winning Super Bowls XL and XLI in 2005-06 and 2006–07, respectively defeating the Seattle Seahawks and Chicago Bears.\n\nIn the 2007 season, the Patriots became the second team in NFL history to have a perfect regular season record, after the 1972 Miami Dolphins, and the first to finish 16–0. They easily marched through the AFC playoffs and were heavy favorites in Super Bowl XLII. However, they lost that game to Eli Manning and the New York Giants 17–14, leaving the Patriots' 2007 record at 18-1.\n\nThe following season, the Steelers logged their record sixth Super Bowl title (XLIII) in a 27-23, final-minute victory against the Arizona Cardinals.\n\n2010–present: The NFC re-emerges \n\nThe 2010s have seen a return to dominance by NFC teams. Between 2010 and 2016, four of the seven Super Bowl winners hailed from the NFC.\n\nThe Giants won another title after the 2011 season, again defeating the Patriots in Super Bowl XLVI. Prior to that Super Bowl victory, the New Orleans Saints won their first (XLIV) by defeating the Indianapolis Colts in February 2010, and the Green Bay Packers won their fourth Super Bowl (XLV) and record thirteenth NFL championship overall by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers in February 2011.\n\nThe Baltimore Ravens snapped the NFC's three-game winning streak by winning Super Bowl XLVII in a 34-31 nail-biter over the San Francisco 49ers.\n\nSuper Bowl XLVIII, played at New Jersey's MetLife Stadium in February 2014, was the first Super Bowl held outdoors in a cold weather environment. The Seattle Seahawks won their first NFL title with a 43-8 defeat of the Denver Broncos, in a highly touted matchup that pitted Seattle's top-ranked defense against a Peyton-Manning-led Denver offense that had broken the NFL's single-season scoring record.\n\nIn Super Bowl XLIX, the New England Patriots, the AFC champions, beat the NFC and defending Super Bowl champions, the Seattle Seahawks.\n\nIn Super Bowl 50, the Denver Broncos, led by the league's top-ranked defense, defeated the Carolina Panthers, who had the league's top-ranked offense, in what became the final game of quarterback Peyton Manning's career.\n\nThe Super Bowls of the 2000s and early 2010s are notable for the performances (and the pedigrees) of several of the participating quarterbacks. During that era, Tom Brady (six Super Bowl appearances, four wins), Ben Roethlisberger (three appearances, two wins), Peyton Manning (four appearances, two wins), Eli Manning (two appearances, two wins), Kurt Warner (three appearances, one win), Drew Brees (one appearance, one win), Aaron Rodgers (one appearance, one win), Joe Flacco (one appearance, one win), and Russell Wilson (two appearances, one win) have all added Super Bowl championships to their lists of individual accomplishments.\n\nTelevision coverage and ratings\n\nThe Super Bowl is one of the most watched annual sporting events in the world. The only other annual events that gather more viewers are the UEFA Champions League final, and El Clásico in Spain. For many years, the Super Bowl has possessed a large US and global television viewership, and it is often the most watched United States originating television program of the year. The game tends to have high Nielsen television ratings, which is usually around a 40 rating and 60 share. This means that on average, more than 100 million people from the United States alone are tuned into the Super Bowl at any given moment.\n\nIn press releases preceding each year's event, the NFL typically claims that that year's Super Bowl will have a potential worldwide audience of around one billion people in over 200 countries. This figure refers to the number of people able to watch the game, not the number of people actually watching. However the statements have been frequently misinterpreted in various media as referring to the latter figure, leading to a common misperception about the game's actual global audience. The New York-based media research firm Initiative measured the global audience for the 2005 Super Bowl at 93 million people, with 98 percent of that figure being viewers in North America, which meant roughly 2 million people outside North America watched the Super Bowl that year.\n\nThe 2015 Super Bowl XLIX holds the record for total number of U.S. viewers, with a final number of 114.4 million, making the game the most-viewed television broadcast of any kind in American history. The halftime show was the most watched ever with 118.5 million viewers tuning in, and an all-time high of 168 million viewers in the United States had watched several portions of the Super Bowl 2015 broadcast. The game set a record for total viewers for the fifth time in six years.\n\nThe highest-rated game according to Nielsen was Super Bowl XVI in 1982, which was watched in 49.1 percent of households (73 share), or 40,020,000 households at the time. Ratings for that game, a San Francisco victory over Cincinnati, may have been aided by a large blizzard that had affected much of the northeastern United States on game day, leaving residents to stay at home more than usual. Super Bowl XVI still ranks fourth on Nielsen's list of top-rated programs of all time, and three other Super Bowls, XII, XVII, and XX, made the top ten. \n\nFamous commercial campaigns include the Budweiser \"Bud Bowl\" campaign, the 1984 introduction of Apple's MacIntosh computer, and the 1999 and 2000 dot-com ads. As the television ratings of the Super Bowl have steadily increased over the years, prices have also increased every year, with advertisers paying as much as $3.5 million for a thirty-second spot during Super Bowl XLVI in 2012. A segment of the audience tunes into the Super Bowl solely to view commercials. In 2010, Nielsen reported that 51 percent of Super Bowl viewers tune in for the commercials. The Super Bowl halftime show has spawned another set of alternative entertainment such as the Lingerie Bowl, the Beer Bottle Bowl, and others.\n\nSince 1991, the Super Bowl has begun between 6:19 and 6:40 PM EST so that most of the game is played during the primetime hours on the East Coast.\n\nSuper Bowl on TV\n\nNote: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.\n\nSuper Bowls I–VI were blacked out in the television markets of the host cities, due to league restrictions then in place. \n\nGame analyst John Madden is the only person to broadcast a Super Bowl for each of the four networks that have televised the game (5 with CBS, 3 with Fox, 2 with ABC, 1 with NBC).\n\nLead-out programming\n\nThe Super Bowl provides an extremely strong lead-in to programming following it on the same channel, the effects of which can last for several hours. For instance, in discussing the ratings of a local TV station, Buffalo television critic Alan Pergament noted on the coattails from Super Bowl XLVII, which aired on CBS: \"A paid program that ran on Channel 4 (WIVB-TV) at 2:30 in the morning had a 1.3 rating. That's higher than some CW prime time shows get on WNLO-TV, Channel 4's sister station.\" \n\nBecause of this strong coattail effect, the network that airs the Super Bowl typically takes advantage of the large audience to air an episode of a hit series, or to premiere the pilot of a promising new one in the lead-out slot, which immediately follows the Super Bowl and post-game coverage.\n\nEntertainment\n\nEarly Super Bowls featured a halftime show consisting of marching bands from local colleges or high schools; but as the popularity of the game increased, a trend where popular singers and musicians performed during its pre-game ceremonies and the halftime show, or simply sang the national anthem of the United States, emerged.[http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/entertainment Super Bowl – Entertainment] Unlike regular season or playoff games, thirty minutes are allocated for the Super Bowl halftime. The first halftime show to have featured only one star performer was Super Bowl XXVII in 1993, at which Michael Jackson performed. The NFL specifically went after him to increase viewership and to continue expanding the Super Bowl's realm. Sports bloggers have ranked Jackson's appearance as the No. 1 Super Bowl halftime show since its inception. Another notable performance came during Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002, when U2 performed; during their third song, \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", the band played under a large projection screen which scrolled through names of the victims of the September 11 attacks.\n\nWhitney Houston's performance of the national anthem at Super Bowl XXV in 1991, during the Gulf War, has been regarded as one of the best renditions of the anthem in history. Her performance was released as a single on February 12, 1991, and appeared on the album Whitney: The Greatest Hits.\n\nThe halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 generated controversy when Justin Timberlake removed a piece of Janet Jackson's top, exposing her right breast with a star-shaped pastie around the nipple. Timberlake and Jackson have maintained that the incident was accidental, calling it a \"wardrobe malfunction\". The game was airing live on CBS, and MTV had produced the halftime show. Immediately after the moment, the footage jump-cut to a wide-angle shot and went to a commercial break; however, video captures of the moment in detail circulated quickly on the internet. The NFL, embarrassed by the incident, permanently banned MTV from conducting future halftime shows. This also led to the FCC tightening controls on indecency and fining CBS and CBS-owned stations a total of $550,000 for the incident. The fine was later reversed in July 2008. CBS and MTV eventually split into two separate companies in part because of the fiasco, with CBS going under the control of CBS Corporation and MTV falling under the banner of Viacom (although both corporations remain under the ownership of National Amusements). For six years following the incident, all of the performers in Super Bowl halftime shows were artists associated with the classic rock genre of the 1970s and 1980s (including three acts from the British Invasion of the 1960s), with only one act playing the entire halftime show. Paul McCartney (formerly of The Beatles) played Super Bowl XXXIX in 2005, The Rolling Stones played Super Bowl XL in 2006, and The Who played Super Bowl XLIV in 2010. The halftime show returned to a modern act in 2011 with The Black Eyed Peas. But during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLVI in 2012, M.I.A. gave the middle finger during a performance of \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\" with Madonna, which was caught by TV cameras. An attempt to censor the gesture by blurring the entire screen came late. \n\nExcluding Super Bowl XXXIX, the famous \"I'm going to Disney World!\" advertising campaign took place at every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXI, when quarterback Phil Simms from the New York Giants became the first player to say the tagline.\n\nVenue\n\nAs of Super Bowl XLVIII, 27 of 49 Super Bowls have been played in three cities: New Orleans (ten times), the Greater Miami area (ten times), and the Greater Los Angeles area (seven times). No market or region without an NFL franchise has ever hosted a Super Bowl, and the presence of an NFL team in a market or region is now a de jure requirement for bidding on the game. The winning market is not, however, required to host the Super Bowl in the same stadium that its NFL team uses, and nine Super Bowls have been held in a stadium other than the one the NFL team in that city was using at the time. Los Angeles's last five Super Bowls were all played at the Rose Bowl.\n\nNo team has ever played the Super Bowl in its home stadium. Two teams have played the Super Bowl in their home market: the San Francisco 49ers, who played Super Bowl XIX in Stanford Stadium instead of Candlestick Park; and the Los Angeles Rams, who played Super Bowl XIV in the Rose Bowl instead of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. In both cases, the stadium in which the Super Bowl was held was perceived to be a better stadium for a large, high-profile event than the stadiums the Rams and 49ers were playing in at the time; this situation has not arisen since 1993, in part because the league has traditionally awarded the Super Bowl in modern times to the newest stadiums. Besides those two, the only other Super Bowl venue that was not the home stadium to an NFL team at the time was Rice Stadium in Houston: the Houston Oilers had played there previously, but moved to the Astrodome several years prior to Super Bowl VIII. The Orange Bowl was the only AFL stadium to host a Super Bowl and the only stadium to host consecutive Super Bowls, hosting Super Bowls II and III.\n\nTraditionally, the NFL does not award Super Bowls to stadiums that are located in climates with an expected average daily temperature less than 50 °F (10 °C) on game day unless the field can be completely covered by a fixed or retractable roof. Five Super Bowls have been played in northern cities: two in the Detroit area—Super Bowl XVI at Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan and Super Bowl XL at Ford Field in Detroit, one in Minneapolis—Super Bowl XXVI, one in Indianapolis at Lucas Oil Stadium for Super Bowl XLVI, and one in the New York area—Super Bowl XLVIII at MetLife Stadium. Only MetLife Stadium did not have a roof (be it fixed or retractable) but it was still picked as the host stadium for Super Bowl XLVIII in an apparent waiver of the warm-climate rule. A sixth Super Bowl is planned in a northern city as Minneapolis has been picked to host Super Bowl LII in 2018 in the under-construction roofed U.S. Bank Stadium. \n\nThere have been a few instances where the league has rescinded the Super Bowl from cities. Super Bowl XXVII in 1993 was originally awarded to Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona, but after Arizona voters elected not to recognize Martin Luther King, Jr. Day as a paid state-employee's holiday in 1990, the NFL moved the game to the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. When voters in Arizona opted to create such a legal holiday in 1992, Super Bowl XXX in 1996 was awarded to Tempe. Super Bowl XXXIII was awarded first to Candlestick Park in San Francisco, but when plans to renovate the stadium fell through the game was moved to Pro Player Stadium in greater Miami. Super Bowl XXXVII was awarded to a new stadium not yet built in San Francisco, when that stadium failed to be built, the game was moved to San Diego. Super Bowl XLIV, slated for February 7, 2010, was withdrawn from New York City's proposed West Side Stadium, because the city, state, and proposed tenants New York Jets could not agree on funding. Super Bowl XLIV was then eventually awarded to Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. And Super Bowl XLIX in 2015 was originally given to Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, but after two sales taxes failed to pass at the ballot box, and opposition by local business leaders and politicians increased, Kansas City eventually withdrew its request to host the game. Super Bowl XLIX was then eventually awarded to University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona.\n\nIn 2011, Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott said, \"It's commonly known as the single largest human trafficking incident in the United States.\" According to Forbes, 10,000 prostitutes were brought to Miami in 2010 for the Super Bowl. Snopes research in 2015 determined that the actual number of prostitutes involved in a typical Super Bowl weekend is less than 100, not statistically higher than any other time of the year, and that the notion of mass increases in human trafficking around the Super Bowl was a politician's myth. \n\nSelection process\n\nThe location of the Super Bowl is chosen by the NFL well in advance, usually three to five years before the game. Cities place bids to host a Super Bowl and are evaluated in terms of stadium renovation and their ability to host. In 2014, a document listing the specific requirements of Super Bowl hosts was leaked, giving a clear list of what was required for a Super Bowl host. Much of the cost of the Super Bowl is to be assumed by the host community, although some costs are enumerated within the requirements to be assumed by the NFL. Some of the host requirements include:\nThe host stadium must be in a market that hosts an NFL team and must have a minimum of 70,000 seats, with the media and electrical amenities necessary to produce the Super Bowl. Stadiums may include temporary seating for Super Bowls, but seating must be approved by the league. Stadiums where the average game day temperature is below 50° Fahrenheit must either have a roof, or a waiver given by the league. There must be a minimum of 35,000 parking spaces within one mile of the stadium. \nThe host stadium must have space for the Gameday Experience, a large pregame entertainment area, within walking distance of the stadium.\nThe host city must have space for the NFL Experience, the interactive football theme park which is operated the week prior to the Super Bowl. An indoor venue for the event must have a minimum of 850,000 square feet, and an outdoor venue must have a minimum of 1,000,000 square feet. Additionally, there must be space nearby for the Media Center, and space for all other events involved in the Super Bowl week, including golf courses and bowling alleys.\nThe necessary infrastructure must be in place around the stadium and other Super Bowl facilities, including parking, security, electrical needs, media needs, communication needs and transportation needs. \nThere must be a minimum number of hotel spaces within one hour's drive of the stadium equaling 35% of the stadium's capacity, along with hotels for the teams, officials, media and other dignitaries. (For Super Bowl XXXIX, the city of Jacksonville docked several luxury cruise liners at their port to act as temporary hotel space. )\nThere must be practice space of equal and comparable quality for both teams within a 20-minute drive of the team hotels, and rehearsal space for all events within a reasonable distance to the stadium. The practice facilities must have one grass field and at least one field of the same surface as the host stadium.\n\nThe NFL owners meet to make a selection on the site, usually three years prior to the event. In 2007, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell suggested that a Super Bowl might be played in London, perhaps at Wembley Stadium.[http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/news/story?id=3065254 ESPN – Goodell says NFL to look into playing Super Bowl in London – NFL], Associated Press, ESPN, 2007-10-15. Retrieved January 26, 2009 The game has never been played in a region that lacks an NFL franchise; seven Super Bowls have been played in Los Angeles, but none since the Los Angeles Raiders and Los Angeles Rams relocated to Oakland and St. Louis respectively in 1995. New Orleans, the site of the 2013 Super Bowl, invested more than $1 billion in infrastructure improvements in the years leading up to the game. \n\nHome team designation\n\nThe designated \"home team\" alternates between the NFC team in odd-numbered games and the AFC team in even-numbered games. This alternation was initiated with the first Super Bowl, when the Green Bay Packers were the designated home team. Regardless of being the home or away team of record, each team has their team wordmark painted in one of the end zones. Designated away teams have won 29 of 50 Super Bowls to date (58 percent).\n\nSince Super Bowl XIII in January 1979, the home team is given the choice of wearing their colored or white jerseys. Originally, the designated home team had to wear their colored jerseys, which resulted in Dallas donning their less exposed dark blue jerseys for Super Bowl V. While most of the home teams in the Super Bowl have chosen to wear their colored jerseys, there have been five exceptions: the Cowboys during Super Bowl XIII and XXVII, the Washington Redskins during Super Bowl XVII, the Pittsburgh Steelers during Super Bowl XL, and the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl 50. The Cowboys, since , and Redskins, with the arrival of coach Joe Gibbs in , have traditionally worn white jerseys at home. Meanwhile, the Steelers, who have always worn their black jerseys at home since the AFL-NFL merger in , opted for the white jerseys after winning three consecutive playoff games on the road, wearing white. The Steelers' decision was compared with the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX; the Patriots had worn white jerseys at home during the season, but after winning road playoff games against the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins wearing red jerseys, New England opted to switch to red for the Super Bowl as the designated home team. For the Broncos in Super Bowl 50, Denver general manager John Elway simply stated, \"We've had Super Bowl success in our white uniforms\"; they previously had been in Super Bowls when wearing their orange jerseys. The Broncos' decision is also perceived to be made out of superstition, losing all Super Bowl games with the orange jerseys in terrible fashion. White-shirted teams have won 32 of 50 Super Bowls to date (64 percent).\n\nHost cities/regions\n\nFifteen different regions have hosted Super Bowls.\n\nNote: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.\n\nHost stadiums\n\nA total of twenty-six different stadiums, five of which no longer exist and two of which do not yet exist, have hosted or are scheduled to host Super Bowls. Years listed in the table below are the years the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.\n\n^ Stadium is now demolished.\n‡ Miami Gardens became a separate city in 2003. Prior to, the stadium had a Miami address.\n† The original Stanford Stadium, which hosted Super Bowl XIX, was demolished and replaced with a new stadium in 2006.\n* Future Super Bowl sites:\n\n2017 – NRG Stadium (2), Houston, Texas (3)\n2018 – U.S. Bank Stadium (1), Minneapolis (2)\n2019 – Mercedes-Benz Stadium (1), Atlanta (3)\n2020 – New Miami Stadium (6), Miami Gardens, Florida (11)\n*2021 – City of Champions Stadium (1), Inglewood, California (8) \n\nThe game has never been played in a region that lacked an NFL franchise. London, England has occasionally been mentioned as a host city for a Super Bowl in the near future. Wembley Stadium has hosted several NFL games as part of the NFL International Series and is specifically designed for large, individual events. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell has openly discussed the possibility on different occasions. Time zone complications are a significant obstacle to a Super Bowl in London; a typical 6:30 p.m. Eastern Time start would result in the game beginning at 11:30 p.m. local time in London, an unusually late hour to be holding spectator sports (the NFL has never in its history started a game later than 9:15 p.m. local time). As bids have been submitted for all Super Bowls through Super Bowl LV, the soonest that any stadium outside the NFL's footprint could serve as host would be Super Bowl LVI in 2022.\n\nSuper Bowl trademark\n\nThe NFL is very active on stopping what it says is unauthorized commercial use of its trademarked terms \"NFL\", \"Super Bowl\", and \"Super Sunday\". As a result, many events and promotions tied to the game, but not sanctioned by the NFL, are asked to refer to it with colloquialisms such as \"The Big Game\", or other generic descriptions. A radio spot for Planters nuts parodied this, by saying \"it would be super...to have a bowl...of Planters nuts while watching the big game!\" and comedian Stephen Colbert began referring to the game in 2014 as the \"Superb Owl\". In 2015, The NFL filed opposition with the USPTO Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to a trademark application submitted by an Arizona-based nonprofit for \"Superb Owl\". The NFL claims that the use of the phrase \"Super Bowl\" implies an NFL affiliation, and on this basis the league asserts broad rights to restrict how the game may be shown publicly; for example, the league says Super Bowl showings are prohibited in churches or at other events that \"promote a message\", while venues that do not regularly show sporting events cannot show the Super Bowl on any television screen larger than 55 inches. Some critics say the NFL is exaggerating its ownership rights by stating that \"any use is prohibited\", as this contradicts the broad doctrine of fair use in the United States. Legislation was proposed by Utah Senator Orrin Hatch in 2008 \"to provide an exemption from exclusive rights in copyright for certain nonprofit organizations to display live football games\", and \"for other purposes\". \n\nIn 2006, the NFL made an attempt to trademark \"The Big Game\" as well; however, it withdrew the application in 2007 due to growing commercial and public-relations opposition to the move, mostly from Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley and their fans, as the Stanford Cardinal football and California Golden Bears football teams compete in the Big Game, which has been played since 1892 (28 years before the formation of the NFL and 75 years before Super Bowl I). Additionally, the Mega Millions lottery game was known as The Big Game from 1996 to 2002. \n\nUse of the phrase \"world champions\"\n\nLike the other major professional leagues in the United States, the winner of the Super Bowl is usually declared \"world champions\", a title often mocked by non-Americans. Others feel the title is fitting, since it is the only professional league of its kind. \n\nThe practice by the U.S. major leagues of using the \"World Champion\" moniker originates from the World Series of professional baseball, and it was later used during the first three Super Bowls when they were referred to as AFL-NFL World Championship Games. The phrase is still engraved on the Super Bowl rings." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Chicago Bears", "Chicago Staleys", "Decatur Staleys", "Chicago Bears football", "Chicago bears", "Save Da Planet", "Chicago Gators" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "chicago bears", "chicago staleys", "chicago gators", "decatur staleys", "save da planet", "chicago bears football" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chicago bears", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Chicago Bears" }
Where did Maurice Green set his 9.79 seconds for the 100m in 1999?	tc_1436	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Maurice_Greene_(athlete).txt" ], "title": [ "Maurice Greene (athlete)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Maurice Greene (born July 23, 1974) is an American former track and field sprinter who specialized in the 100 meters and 200 meters. He is a former 100 m world record holder with a time of 9.79 seconds. During the height of his career (1997–2004) he won four Olympic medals and was a five-time World Champion. This included three golds at the 1999 World Championships, a feat which had previously only been done by Carl Lewis and Michael Johnson and has since been equaled by three others.\n\nHis career was affected by a number of injuries from 2001 onwards, although he won the 100 meters bronze and silver in the sprint relay at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Greene was also successful indoors: he was the 1999 Indoor World Champion and remains the world record holder in the 60-meter dash and the joint-fastest man over 50 meters. He raced sparingly after an injury in 2005 and officially retired in 2008. Over his career, he made the second most sub-10-second runs (51) in the 100m (since surpassed by Asafa Powell).\n\nFollowing his track career he has become an ambassador for the IAAF and a TV personality, appearing on Identity, Blind Date, and Dancing with the Stars. Most recently he volunteered as a track coach at University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) for the 2012–2013 season.\n\nEarly life \n\nMaurice Greene was born in Kansas City, Kansas and attended F.L. Schlagle High School. In his youth and high school, he participated in both American football and track and field. After high school, Greene received a Track scholarship to the University of Kansas.\n\nSports career \n\nEarly Career and Breakthrough \n\nIn 1995 he took part in his first major international tournament at the World Championships in Gothenburg, but was eliminated in the 100 m quarter-finals. His next season was disappointing, as he failed to make the American team for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. After watching the Olympic final from the stands, Greene made his way to Los Angeles to seek the coaching of John Smith. He joined the start up HSI group. He went on to become the group's most visible member.\n\nThe following season would be his breakthrough. At the World Championships in Athens, Greene won the 100 m title. This marked the beginning of Greene's dominance in the 100 m. He successfully defended his title in 1999 and 2001 and captured the Olympic gold medal in the 2000 Olympics. He was also successful at the 200 m. At the 1999 World Championships, he also won the 200 m title, the first to win both sprint events at a World Championships. However, he did not run the 200 m at the 2000 Olympics after an injury at the US trials.\n\nWorld Record Holder and Athletic Prime \n\nIn 1999 he set the 100 m world record at 9.79 s (+0.1 m/s wind), beating Donovan Bailey's standing world record of 9.84 s (+0.7 m/s wind), and lowering the world record by the largest margin since the advent of electronic timing. Greene also matched Bailey's 50 m indoor world record time, but the run was never ratified. He also set the 60 m indoor world record twice. His 60 m indoor record is currently at 6.39 s. Both records still stand. In addition, Maurice Greene is the only sprinter to hold the 60 m and 100 m world records at the same time.\n\nIn 2002, Greene lost his 100 m world record to fellow American Tim Montgomery, who beat his time by 0.01 (9.78 s +2.0 m/s), while Greene himself was injured and watched the race from the stands; Montgomery has since been found guilty of using performance-enhancing drugs, and his record has been retroactively rescinded. The record was broken legitimately by Asafa Powell in 2005 with a time of 9.77 s (+1.6 m/s wind).\n\nAt the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greene added to his medal tally with the bronze after finishing third in his attempt to defend his 100 m title, and a silver as the anchor leg runner on the United States 4 × 100 m relay team, narrowly denied another Olympic Gold by the British team, who won by 0.01 seconds.\n\nGreene ran 53 sub-10-second 100 m races during his career, which at the time was more than any other sprinter in history. This record has now been surpassed by Asafa Powell who has 88 100 m sub-10-second runs to his name. Previously Greene had held the record for the most wind-legal sub-10-second clockings for 100 m in one season, when he ran 9 sub-10s in 1999. This record was also broken by Asafa Powell in 2006 (12), and it was improved by Powell in 2008 to 15.\n\nOn December 21, 2006, he appeared as one of the \"strangers\" on the NBC game show Identity. The contestant, a self-professed track and field fan, incorrectly identified him by name as Marion Jones, although she identified him as the \"world's fastest man.\"\n\nPost Running \n\nOn February 4, 2008, Greene announced his retirement from track and field in Beijing, citing nagging injuries and a wish to see new individuals succeed in the sport. Greene said he hopes to pursue coaching and business interests. \n\nIn April 2008, the New York Times reported that Greene had paid Mexican discus thrower Angel Guillermo Heredia $10,000, which Heredia claimed was in payment for performance-enhancing drugs. Greene admitted meeting Heredia and making the payment, but claimed it was common for him to pay for \"stuff\" for other members of his training group, and reiterated that he had never used banned drugs. \n\nGreene was a contestant on Season 7 of Dancing with the Stars, and was paired with two-time champion Cheryl Burke. He was eliminated on Week 8 of the competition, taking 5th place. He hyperextended his leg during the competition. He later helped out in their pro-dancer competition and danced a Tango with future winner Anna Demidova. Greene also appeared on the American television series Blind Date where he was paired with a woman named Christie. Greene and Christie agreed that they would see each other again.\n\nHe has a tattoo that reads GOAT referring to his claim to be \"Greatest of All Time\" \n\nMedia\n\nIn an event set up by ESPN's Todd Gallagher, Greene appeared in the book \"Andy Roddick Beat Me With a Frying Pan\" racing in a 100-meter race against the book's editor, who had a 31-meter head start and the help of a moving sidewalk. Greene lost by a nose. \n\nMaurice Greene is now hosting the monthly show \"Greene Light\" on Eurosport where he is meeting the stars of athletics like Blanka Vlašić, Allyson Felix or Churandy Martina.\n\nPersonal bests\n\nAchievements\n\nDancing with the Stars" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Athina", "Athēnai", "Athens", "Athénes", "Атина", "Atina, Greece", "Municipality of Athens", "Athens (municipality)", "Athens, Modern Diocese of", "Athens (Greece)", "Capital of Greece", "Athina, Greece", "Athènes", "GRATH", "Athens, Greece", "Αθήνα", "Greece Athens", "Gulf of Athens", "Modern Athens", "Athenian", "Agrae", "Travel athens", "City of Athens", "Athens Municipality", "Athenes", "Athenai", "Ἀθῆναι", "UN/LOCODE:GRATH", "Athenians", "Athence", "Atenás", "Athína", "Athínai" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "city of athens", "athence", "athens", "gulf of athens", "athenes", "athēnai", "atenás", "athenian", "αθήνα", "atina greece", "athína", "municipality of athens", "athenai", "ἀθῆναι", "athénes", "athènes", "athínai", "modern athens", "travel athens", "athens municipality", "athens modern diocese of", "athina", "agrae", "greece athens", "атина", "capital of greece", "un locode grath", "athina greece", "athenians", "athens greece", "grath" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "athens", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Athens" }
Who won baseball's first World Series of the 50s?	tc_1437	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Baseball.txt", "World_Series.txt" ], "title": [ "Baseball", "World Series" ], "wiki_context": [ "Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each, who take turns batting and fielding.\n\nThe batting team attempts to score runs by hitting a ball that is thrown by the pitcher with a bat swung by the batter, then running counter-clockwise around a series of four bases: first, second, third, and home plate. A run is scored when a player advances around the bases and returns to home plate.\n\nPlayers on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team, which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates' turns batting, such as on a hit or by other means. The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs. One turn batting for both teams, beginning with the visiting team, constitutes an inning. A game is composed of nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. Baseball has no game clock, although almost all games end in the ninth inning.\n\nBaseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States. Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia.\n\nIn the United States and Canada, professional Major League Baseball (MLB) teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League.\n\nHistory \n\nOrigins \n\nThe evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. A French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball. Other old French games such as thèque, la balle au bâton, and la balle empoisonnée also appear to be related. Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (2005), by David Block, suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and \"tut-ball.\" It has long been believed that cricket also descended from such games, though evidence uncovered in early 2009 suggests that cricket may have been imported to England from Flanders.\n\nThe earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of \"base-ball\" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases. David Block discovered that the first recorded game of \"Bass-Ball\" took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player. William Bray, an English lawyer, recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey. This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants. Rounders was also brought to the USA by Canadians of both British and Irish ancestry. The first known American reference to baseball appears in a 1791 Pittsfield, Massachusetts, town bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the town's new meeting house. By 1796, a version of the game was well-known enough to earn a mention in a German scholar's book on popular pastimes. As described by Johann Gutsmuths, \"englische Base-ball\" involved a contest between two teams, in which \"the batter has three attempts to hit the ball while at the home plate.\" Only one out was required to retire a side. \n\nBy the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America. These games were often referred to locally as \"town ball\", though other names such as \"round-ball\" and \"base-ball\" were also used. Among the earliest examples to receive a detailed description—albeit five decades after the fact, in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life magazine—took place in Beachville, Ontario, in 1838. There were many similarities to modern baseball, and some crucial differences: five bases (or byes); first bye just 18 ft from the home bye; batter out if a hit ball was caught after the first bounce. The once widely accepted story that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839 has been conclusively debunked by sports historians. \n\nIn 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbocker Club, led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules. The practice, common to bat-and-ball games of the day, of \"soaking\" or \"plugging\"—effecting a putout by hitting a runner with a thrown ball—was barred. The rules thus facilitated the use of a smaller, harder ball than had been common. Several other rules also brought the Knickerbockers' game close to the modern one, though a ball caught on the first bounce was, again, an out and only underhand pitching was allowed. While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the \"New York Nine\" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings (three earlier games have recently been discovered). With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century. \n\nHistory of baseball in the United States \n\nThe game turns professional \n\nIn the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area. By 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the \"national pastime\" or \"national game.\" A year later, sixteen area clubs formed the sport's first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players. In 1858 in Corona, Queens New York, at the Fashion Race Course, the first games of baseball to charge admission took place. The games, which took place between the all stars of Brooklyn, including players from the Brooklyn Atlantics, Excelsior of Brooklyn, Putnams and Eckford of Brooklyn, and the All Stars of New York (Manhattan), including players from the New York Knickerbockers, Gothams (predecessors of the San Francisco Giants), Eagles and Empire, are commonly believed to be the first all-star baseball games. In 1863, the organization disallowed putouts made by catching a fair ball on the first bounce. Four years later, it barred participation by African Americans. The game's commercial potential was developing: in 1869 the first fully professional baseball club, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and amateur teams. The first professional league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, lasted from 1871 to 1875; scholars dispute its status as a major league. \n\nThe more formally structured National League was founded in 1876. As the oldest surviving major league, the National League is sometimes referred to as the \"senior circuit.\" Several other major leagues formed and failed. In 1884, African American Moses Walker (and, briefly, his brother Welday) played in one of these, the American Association. An injury ended Walker's major league career, and by the early 1890s, a gentlemen's agreement in the form of the baseball color line effectively barred black players from the white-owned professional leagues, major and minor. Professional Negro leagues formed, but quickly folded. Several independent African American teams succeeded as barnstormers. Also in 1884, overhand pitching was legalized.Rader (2008), p. 71. In 1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game. Virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by 1893; the last major change—counting foul balls as strikes—was instituted in 1901. The National League's first successful counterpart, the American League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was established that year. The two leagues, each with eight teams, were rivals that fought for the best players, often disregarding each other's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes. \n\nA modicum of peace was eventually established, leading to the National Agreement of 1903. The pact formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's minor professional leagues. The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall, albeit without express major league sanction: The Boston Americans of the American League defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League. The next year, the series was not held, as the National League champion New York Giants, under manager John McGraw, refused to recognize the major league status of the American League and its champion. In 1905, the Giants were National League champions again and team management relented, leading to the establishment of the World Series as the major leagues' annual championship event. \n\nAs professional baseball became increasingly profitable, players frequently raised grievances against owners over issues of control and equitable income distribution. During the major leagues' early decades, players on various teams occasionally attempted strikes, which routinely failed when their jobs were sufficiently threatened. In general, the strict rules of baseball contracts and the reserve clause, which bound players to their teams even when their contracts had ended, tended to keep the players in check. Motivated by dislike for particularly stingy owner Charles Comiskey and gamblers' payoffs, real and promised, members of the Chicago White Sox conspired to throw the 1919 World Series. The Black Sox Scandal led to the formation of a new National Commission of baseball that drew the two major leagues closer together. The first major league baseball commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the Eastern Colored League. \n\nProfessional baseball was played in northeastern cities with a large immigrant-ethnic population; they gave strong support to the new sport. The Irish Catholics dominated in the late 19th century, comprising a third or more of the players and many of the top stars and managers. Historian Jerrold Casway argues that:\nBaseball for Irish kids was a shortcut to the American dream and to self-indulgent glory and fortune. By the mid-1880s these young Irish men dominated the sport and popularized a style of play that was termed heady, daring, and spontaneous.... Ed Delahanty personified the flamboyant, exciting spectator-favorite, the Casey-at-the-bat, Irish slugger. The handsome masculine athlete who is expected to live as large as he played. \n\nRise of Ruth and racial integration \n\nCompared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring and pitchers, the likes of Walter Johnson and Christy Mathewson, were more dominant. The \"inside game,\" which demanded that players \"scratch for runs\", was played much more aggressively than it is today: the brilliant and often violent Ty Cobb epitomized this style. The so-called dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters. Strict new regulations governing the ball's size, shape and composition along with a new rule officially banning the spitball, along with other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances after the death of Ray Chapman who was hit by a pitch in August 1920, coupled with superior materials available after World War I, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit. The construction of additional seating to accommodate the rising popularity of the game often had the effect of bringing the outfield fences closer in, making home runs more common. The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth, the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game. The club with which Ruth set most of his slugging records, the New York Yankees, built a reputation as the majors' premier team. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern \"farm system\". A new Negro National League was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the Negro American League. The first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936. In 1939 Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania. By the late 1940s, it was the organizing body for children's baseball leagues across the United States.\n\nWith America's entry into World War II, many professional players had left to serve in the armed forces. A large number of minor league teams disbanded as a result and the major league game seemed under threat as well. Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of a new professional league with women players to help keep the game in the public eye – the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League existed from 1943 to 1954. The inaugural College World Series was held in 1947, and the Babe Ruth League youth program was founded. This program soon became another important organizing body for children's baseball. The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred the previous year: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers—where Branch Rickey had become general manager—and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal. In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers. Larry Doby debuted with the American League's Cleveland Indians the same year. Latin American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars. \n\nFacing competition as varied as television and football, baseball attendance at all levels declined. While the majors rebounded by the mid-1950s, the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved. Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster. That year, the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded. It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly, but it remained largely ineffective for years. No major league team had been located west of St. Louis until 1958, when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively. The majors' final all-white bastion, the Boston Red Sox, added a black player in 1959. With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players, the last Negro league folded the following year. In 1961, the American League reached the West Coast with the \|Los Angeles Angels expansion team, and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162. This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth's long-standing single-season home run record, one of the most celebrated marks in baseball. Along with the Angels, three other new franchises were launched during 1961–62. With this, the first major league expansion in 60 years, each league now had ten teams.\n\nAttendance records and the age of steroids \n\nThe players' union became bolder under the leadership of former United Steelworkers chief economist and negotiator Marvin Miller, who was elected executive director in 1966. On the playing field, major league pitchers were becoming increasingly dominant again. After the 1968 season, in an effort to restore balance, the strike zone was reduced and the height of the pitcher's mound was lowered from 15 to 10 inches. In 1969, both the National and American leagues added two more expansion teams, the leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, and a post-season playoff system leading to the World Series was instituted. Also that same year, Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the first serious legal challenge to the reserve clause. The major leagues' first general players' strike took place in 1972. In another effort to add more offense to the game, the American League adopted the designated hitter rule the following year. In 1975, the union's power—and players' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down, leading to the free agency system. In 1977, two more expansion teams joined the American League. Significant work stoppages occurred again in 1981 and 1994, the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years. Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance. \n\nThe addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues, this time into three divisions each. Offensive production—the number of home runs in particular—had surged that year, and again in the abbreviated 1994 season. After play resumed in 1995, this trend continued and non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season. Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set. The next year, Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris's decades-old single season home run record and two more expansion franchises were added. In 2000, the National and American leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball (MLB). \n\nIn 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004. In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs. Even though McGwire, Sosa, and Bonds—as well as many other players, including storied pitcher Roger Clemens—have been implicated in the steroid abuse scandal, their feats and those of other sluggers had become the major leagues' defining attraction. In contrast to the professional game's resurgence in popularity after the 1994 interruption, Little League enrollment was in decline: after peaking in 1996, it dropped 1 percent a year over the following decade. With more rigorous testing and penalties for performance-enhancing drug use a possible factor, the balance between bat and ball swung markedly in 2010, which became known as the \"Year of the Pitcher\". Runs per game fell to their lowest level in 18 years, and the strikeout rate was higher than it had been in half a century.\n\nBefore the start of the 2012 season, MLB altered its rules to double the number of wild card teams admitted into the playoffs to two per league. The playoff expansion resulted in the addition of annual one-game playoffs between the wild card teams in each league. \n\nBaseball around the world \n\nBaseball, widely known as America's pastime, is well established in several other countries as well. The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States. As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both countries. While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country, the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League. The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993, the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so. After the 2004 season, Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington, D.C., where the team is now known as the Nationals.\n\nIn 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa, Veracruz. A few days after the Battle of Cerro Gordo, they used the \"wooden leg captured (by the Fourth Illinois regiment) from General Santa Anna\". The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been one of the world's strongest since international play began in the late 1930s (all organized baseball in the country has officially been amateur since the Cuban Revolution). The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912. Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938). The Japanese major leagues—the Central League and Pacific League—have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States. Japan has a professional minor league system as well, though it is much smaller than the American version—each team has only one farm club in contrast to MLB teams' four or five.\n\nAfter World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American nations, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955). Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Professional Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990), and China (2003) all have professional leagues. \n\nMany European countries have professional leagues as well, the most successful, other than the Dutch league, being the Italian league founded in 1948. Compared to those in Asia and Latin America, the various European leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal. In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games. The Israel Baseball League, launched in 2007, folded after one season. The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries, as well as national squads. Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, were administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC). By 2009, the IBAF had 117 member countries. Women's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries where it is a leading men's sport. Since 2004, the IBAF and now WBSC have sanctioned the Women's Baseball World Cup, featuring national teams.\n\nAfter being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting. It remained part of the 2008 Games. The elimination of baseball, along with softball, from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports, but none received the votes required for inclusion. While the sport's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor, more important was Major League Baseball's reluctance to have a break during the Games to allow its players to participate, as the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic Games. Such a break is more difficult for MLB to accommodate because it would force the playoffs deeper into cold weather. Seeking reinstatement for the 2016 Summer Olympics, the IBAF proposed an abbreviated competition designed to facilitate the participation of top players, but the effort failed. Major League Baseball initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede the major league season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants. The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic. \n\nRules and gameplay \n\nA game is played between two teams, each composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting and baserunning) and defense (pitching and fielding). A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an inning. A game consists of nine innings (seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college and minor leagues). One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning. The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning. The goal of the game is to score more points (runs) than the other team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by circling or completing a tour of the four bases set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond. A player bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to first base, second base, third base, and back home in order to score a run. The team in the field attempts both to prevent runs from scoring and to record outs, which remove opposing players from offensive action until their turn in their team's batting order comes up again. When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest. Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, involve different numbers of players and innings.Thurston (2000), p. 15; \n\nThe game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield. In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height (many amateur games are played on unfenced fields). Fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well. \n\nThere are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt:\n* The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with red stitching.Porterfield (2007), p. 23; \n* The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood. Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 centimeters) long, and not longer than 42 inches (106 centimeters). \n* The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers. As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions.\nProtective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters.Thurston (2000), pp. 21, 30, 31; \n\nAt the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players on the fielding team arrange themselves around the field. One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate. Another player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest of the team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the standard arrangement, there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base. The basic outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher.Porterfield (2007), pp. 16–18, 25, 34, 35; Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well, though the number will vary depending on the level of play, amateur or children's games may only have an umpire behind the plate, while as many as six umpires can be used for important Major League Baseball games.\n\nPlay starts with a batter standing at home plate, holding a bat. The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball with the bat. The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a runner (or, until the play is over, a batter-runner). A batter-runner who reaches first base without being put out (see below) is said to be safe and is now on base. A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely. A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit. A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single. If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple. If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), it is a home run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desirable result for the batter. A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an error.\n\nAny runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they were at when the play began. If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up or touch the base they were at when the play began, as or after the ball is caught. Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate—a successful effort is a stolen base. \n\nA pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.) Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee.\n\nA strike is called when one of the following happens:\n* The batter lets a well-pitched ball (one within the strike zone) go through to the catcher.\n* The batter swings at any ball (even one outside the strike zone) and misses, or foul tips it directly into the catcher's hands.\n* The batter hits a foul ball—one that either initially lands in foul territory or initially lands within the diamond but moves into foul territory before passing first or third base. If there are already two strikes on the batter, a foul ball is not counted as a third strike; thus, a foul ball cannot result in the immediate strikeout of the batter. (There is an exception to this exception: a two-strike foul bunt is recorded as a third strike.)\nA ball is called when the pitcher throws a pitch that is outside the strike zone, provided the batter has not swung at it. \n\nWhile the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs. Among the various ways a member of the batting team may be put out, five are most common:\n* The strikeout: as described above, recorded against a batter who makes three strikes before putting the ball into play or being awarded a free advance to first base (see also uncaught third strike).\n* The flyout: as described above, recorded against a batter who hits a ball in the air that is caught by a fielder, whether in fair territory or foul territory, before it lands, whether or not the batter has run.\n* The ground out: recorded against a batter (in this case, batter-runner) who hits a ball that lands in fair territory which, before the batter-runner can reach first base, is retrieved by a fielder who touches first base while holding the ball or relays it to another fielder who touches first base while holding the ball.\n* The force out: recorded against a runner who is required to attempt to advance—either because the runner is on first base and a batted ball lands in fair territory, or because the runner immediately behind on the basepath is thus required to attempt to advance—but fails to reach the next base before a fielder touches the base while holding the ball. The ground out is technically a special case of the force out.\n* The tag out: recorded against a runner who is touched by a fielder with the ball or a glove holding the ball, while the runner is not touching a base.\nIt is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play—a double play. Even three—a triple play—is possible, though this is very rare. Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team's dugout or bench. A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat—every half-inning begins with the bases empty of runners. \n\nAn individual player's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased. A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player's team have all taken their turn at bat. The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game. Children's games often have more liberal substitution rules.Thurston (2000), p. 100; \n\nIf the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players.Porterfield (2007), p. 19; Thurston (2000), p. 153; \n\nPersonnel \n\nPlayer rosters \n\nRoster, or squad, sizes differ between different leagues and different levels of organized play. Major League Baseball teams maintain 25-player active rosters. A typical 25-man roster in a league without the DH rule, such as MLB's National League, features: \n* eight position players—catcher, four infielders, three outfielders—who play on a regular basis\n* five starting pitchers who constitute the team's pitching rotation or starting rotation\n* six relief pitchers, including one specialist closer, who constitute the team's bullpen (named for the off-field area where pitchers warm up)\n* one backup, or substitute, catcher\n* two backup infielders\n* two backup outfielders\n* one specialist pinch hitter, or a second backup catcher, or a seventh reliever\n\nIn the American League and others with the DH rule, there will usually be nine offensive regulars (including the DH), five starting pitchers, seven or eight relievers, a backup catcher and two or three other reserves; the need for late inning pinch-hitters (usually in the pitcher's spot) is reduced by the DH.\n\nOther personnel \n\nThe manager, or head coach of a team, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, occupying designated coaches' boxes just outside the foul lines, assist in the direction of baserunners when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners during pauses in play. In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform in order to be allowed on the playing field during a game.\"The Fans Speak Out\" [Baseball Digest staff], Baseball Digest, August 1999, pp. 9–10; \n\nAny baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In Major League Baseball, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines.Zoss (2004), p. 293; \n\nStrategy and tactics \n\nMany of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers. A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team's roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions: the manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups, the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder. \n\nPitching and fielding tactics \n\nThe tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection. By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it approaches the batter. Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the fastball, the changeup (or off-speed pitch), and two breaking balls—the curveball and the slider. Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical and/or horizontal location. If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch. With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out. Pickoff attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher's movements before and during the pickoff attempt. Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher, with the result being runners on base, if any, advance one base with impunity. If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base. Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield.Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 45.\n\nBatting and baserunning tactics \n\nSeveral basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base. The hit and run is sometimes employed with a skillful contact hitter: the runner takes off with the pitch drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through. The sacrifice bunt calls for the batter to focus on making contact with the ball so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into scoring position even at the expense of the batter being thrown out at first—a batter who succeeds is credited with a sacrifice. (A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to bunt for a hit.) A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a squeeze play. With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter in this case gets credit for a sacrifice fly. The manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to take, or not swing at, the next pitch. \n\nDistinctive elements \n\nBaseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following, including American and Canadian football, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All of these sports use a clock; in all of them, play is less individual and more collective; and in none of them is the variation between playing fields nearly as substantial or important. The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports.\n\nNo clock to kill \n\nIn clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy. In contrast, again, the clock comes into play even in the case of multi-day Test and first-class cricket: the possibility of a draw often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind to bat defensively, giving up any faint chance at a win to avoid a loss. Baseball offers no such reward for conservative batting.\n\nWhile nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the 20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960. By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters). In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of merely 2:45. By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three hours to complete. The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently. Other leagues have experienced similar issues. In 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade's average of 3:18. \n\nIndividual focus \n\nAlthough baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure. In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: \"the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits\". Contrasting the game with both football and basketball, scholar Michael Mandelbaum argues that \"baseball is the one closest in evolutionary descent to the older individual sports\". Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other. While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing. The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it. As described by Mandelbaum,\n\nIt is impossible to isolate and objectively assess the contribution each [football] team member makes to the outcome of the play ... [E]very basketball player is interacting with all of his teammates all the time. In baseball, by contrast, every player is more or less on his own ... Baseball is therefore a realm of complete transparency and total responsibility. A baseball player lives in a glass house, and in a stark moral universe ... Everything that every player does is accounted for and everything accounted for is either good or bad, right or wrong. \n\nCricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more. There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play. \n\nUniqueness of each baseball park \n\nUnlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams following the rules of Major League and Minor League Baseball is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of 325 ft from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 ft to center. Major league teams often skirt even this rule. For example, at Minute Maid Park, which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford Boxes in left field are only 315 ft from home plate. There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield. The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston's Fenway Park, in use since 1912: the Green Monster is 310 ft from home plate down the line and 37 ft tall. \n\nSimilarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground. A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner. These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park home run. The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the image to the left shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare. Some fields—including several in MLB—use an artificial surface, such as AstroTurf. Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played. While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant. \n\nThese physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect play. A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher's park or a hitter's park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements. The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies. Its high altitude—5282 ft above sea level—is responsible for giving it the strongest hitter's park effect in the major leagues. Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a hitter's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing out, it becomes more of a pitcher's park when they are blowing in. The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players' statistical records. For example, hitting a fly ball 330 ft into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park, and a home run at another. A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its roster with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it. On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park. \n\nStatistics \n\nOrganized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, New York, was responsible for the \"development of the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball.\"Tygiel (2000), p. 16. The statistical record is so central to the game's \"historical essence\" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball. In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a \"tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines.\" \n\nThe Official Baseball Rules administered by Major League Baseball require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records. General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions.\n\nCertain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans. The basic batting statistics include:\n* At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit by pitches—where the batter's ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners\n* Hits: times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without fielding error or fielder's choice\n* Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely\n* Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter's action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error\n* Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error\n* Batting average: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting ability\nThe basic baserunning statistics include:\n* Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball\n* Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base\n\nThe basic pitching statistics include:\n* Wins: credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win)\n* Losses: charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished\n* Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings\n* Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching divided by three (partial innings are conventionally recorded as, e.g., \"5.2\" or \"7.1\", the last digit actually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)\n* Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter\n* Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses)\n* Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitched\nThe basic fielding statistics include:\n* Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out\n* Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball\n* Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result\n* Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors\n* Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances\n\nAmong the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics. For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed. \n\nSabermetrics \n\nSabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR). \n\nThe growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average: \n* On-base percentage measures a batter's ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.\n* Slugging percentage measures a batter's ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the batter's total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats.\n\nSome of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:\n* On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage. \n* Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base. It is calculated exactly as its name suggests. \n\nPopularity and cultural impact \n\nWriting in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as America's national religion. In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been \"a unique paragon of American culture\"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal. Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes \"how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, [and] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan.\" Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís, has been the major leagues' primary source of foreign talent. Hall-of-Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico's history. While baseball has long been the island's primary athletic pastime, its once well-attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues' annual first-year player draft. In the Western Hemisphere, baseball is also one of the leading sports in Canada, Colombia, Mexico, the Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, and Venezuela. In Asia, it is among the most popular sports in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan.\n\nThe major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most blue-collar-oriented of leading American spectator sports. \n\nIn the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, Major League Baseball set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades. A new MLB revenue record of $6.6 billion was set in 2009. On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 16%, compared to pro football at 31%. In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league baseball games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella also set a record in 2007, with 42.8 million; this figure does not include attendance at games of the several independent minor leagues.\n\nIn Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country. In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport, the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues. Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system. Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority \"has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes\". \n\nAs of 2007, Little League Baseball oversees more than 7,000 children's baseball leagues with more than 2.2 million participants–2.1 million in the United States and 123,000 in other countries. Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants. According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball. \n\nA varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2008, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 35,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. The number of Americans participating in baseball has declined since the late 1980s, falling well behind the number of soccer participants. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium where they are played. In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team.\n\nBaseball in popular culture \n\nBaseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms. The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-by-play from New York City's Polo Grounds on WJZ–Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to WGY–Schenectady, New York, and WBZ–Springfield, Massachusetts. The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom. \n\nBaseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, Ernest Thayer's poem \"Casey at the Bat\", appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a \"clutch situation\", the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There have been many baseball movies, including the Academy Award–winning The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and the Oscar nominees The Natural (1984) and Field of Dreams (1989). The American Film Institute's selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham (1988) at number 5. Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the Adler–Ross musical Damn Yankees—and record—George J. Gaskin's \"Slide, Kelly, Slide\", Simon and Garfunkel's \"Mrs. Robinson\", and John Fogerty's \"Centerfield\". The baseball-founded comedic sketch \"Who's on First\", popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous. Six decades later, Time named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century. Baseball is also featured in various video games including MLB: The Show, Wii Sports, Kinect Sports: Season 2 and Mario Baseball.\n\nLiterary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud's The Natural (the source for the movie), Robert Coover's The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., and W. P. Kinsella's Shoeless Joe (the source for Field of Dreams). Baseball's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell. Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter's The Glory of Their Times, Roger Kahn's The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis's Moneyball. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports. \n\nBaseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards. A typical example would feature an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields. \n\nModern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active Major League Baseball players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players' latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports. The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports–related websites. By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby. The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals.", "The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win-loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2015, the World Series has been contested 111 times, with the AL winning 64 and the NL winning 47. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best-of-seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner's Trophy. As the series is played in October (and occasionally November), during the autumn season in North America, it is often referred to as the Fall Classic. \n\nThe 2015 World Series took place between the New York Mets and the victorious Kansas City Royals. Five games were played, with the Royals victorious after game five, played in New York. The final score was 7-2; the game went into extra innings after a tied score of 2-2. This was the second World Series won by the franchise and the first in 30 years.\n\nIn the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia/Kansas City/Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York/San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 18 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.\n\nAs of 2015, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1999 and 2000, the longest such duration in Major League Baseball history.\n\nPrecursors to the modern World Series (1857–1902)\n\nThe original World Series\n\nUntil the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871–1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern Series: games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five), and both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.\n\nThe series was promoted and referred to as \"The Championship of the United States\", \"World's Championship Series\", or \"World's Series\" for short.\nIn his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed. \n\nThe 19th-century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th-century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th-century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th-century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. \n(For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists \"Baseball's World Championships 1884–1928\" in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists \"Baseball World Championships 1903–1942\". )\n\n1892–1900: \"The Monopoly Years\"\n\nFollowing the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half-season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893—and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969—the pennant was awarded to the first-place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894–1897, the league champions played the runners-up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900. \n\nIn 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy.\n\nModern World Series (1903–present)\n\nFirst attempt\n\nAfter two years of bitter competition and player raiding (in 1902, the AL and NL champions even went so far as to challenge each other to a tournament in football after the end of the baseball season), the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.\n\nBoycott of 1904\n\nThe 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the \"inferiority\" of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already \"world champions\" since they were the champions of the \"only real major league\". At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.\n\nDuring the winter of 1904–1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the \"Brush Rules\", under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from \"fixing\" early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now-official and compulsory World's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.\n\nWith the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players' strike.\n\nThe list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2–3–2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2–3–2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3–4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions. (The 2–3–2 pattern was used in 1944 because both teams were based in the same home stadium.)\n\n1919 Black Sox Scandal\n\nGambling and game-fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.\n\nThe Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph \"Sport\" Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting .324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).\n\nDuring the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the \"World's Serious\". The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.\n\nThe \"Black Sox\" were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.\n\nThe events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the \"live ball\" era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs are still waiting for their next trophy, and have not appeared in the Fall Classic since 1945, the longest drought of any MLB club.\n\nNew York Yankees dynasty (1920–1964)\n\nThe New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954–1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936–1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.\n\n1947–1964: New York City teams dominate World Series play\n\nIn an 18-year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.\n\nIn the years 1947, 1949, 1951–1953, and 1955–1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.\n\nThe World Series in California\n\nIn 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long-time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.\n\nThe Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.\n\nIn 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972–1974. In 1974, the A's played the Dodgers in the first all-California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).\n\nThe Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A's again went to three straight world series, from 1988–1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all-California series as the A's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (the most-recent all-California series), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).\n\n1969: League Championship Series\n\nPrior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the \"pennant winner\") based on the best win-loss record at the end of the regular season.\n\nA structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.\n\nThe National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2–3–2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home-field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.\n\n1970s\n\n1971: World Series at night\n\nMLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit's Tiger Stadium.)\n\n1972–1978: Three of a kind and The Greatest Game Ever Played\n\nDuring this seven-year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book-ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.\n\nHowever, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the \"amazing\" eight-year-old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers' back-to-back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.\n\nGame 6 of the 1975 World Series is widely regarded as the greatest World Series game ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail-biting turns of events, and a game-winning walk off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 to 6 Red Sox victory.\n\n1976: The Designated Hitter comes to the World Series\n\nThe National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak-hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular-season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even-numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine-man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion's park but not the NL champion's. Thus, the DH rule's use or non-use can help the team that has home-field advantage.\n\n1980s\n\n1984: Anderson becomes first to win in both leagues\n\nThe 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire-to-wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers' skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.\n\n1989: Earthquake\n\nWhen the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5:04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface-wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say \"I'll tell you what, we're having an earth--\" before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four-game sweep.\n\n1990s\n\n1992–1993: The World Series enters Canada\n\nWorld Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come-from-behind homer, after Joe Carter's three-run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8–6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth-inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.\n\n1994: League Division Series\n\nIn 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best-of-five playoff round (the \"division series\"), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second-best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best-of-seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team cannot get home-field advantage.\n\n1994–1995 strike\n\nAfter the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite World War I, the global influenza pandemic of 1918–1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America's involvement in World War II, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.\n\nAs the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus the commissioner, responsible for ensuring the integrity and protecting the welfare of the game, was an interested party rather than a neutral arbiter, and baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without an independent commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.\n\nThe previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74–40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos have never played in a World Series.)\n\nThe labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.\n\nAll-Star Game and home-field advantage (2003–present)\n\nPrior to 2003, home-field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All-Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home-field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All-Star Game. Originally implemented as a two-year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice has been extended indefinitely.\n\nThe American League won every All-Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home-field advantage from 2002, when it also had home-field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011 and 2014 World Series have gone the full seven games.\n\nThis rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home-field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All-Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees' shortstop's final All-Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season. \n\nAs Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:\n\nWith the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.\n\nHowever, in four of the last six seasons, home-field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Four of the Series (most recently in 2015) have been won on the road.\n\nStarting with the San Francisco Giants 2010 World Series victory, which was followed by the Giants victories in the 2012 World Series and the 2014 World Series, The Giants started what many around the sport of baseball consider to be a modern baseball dynasty, as most consider winning three World Series in a 5-year span in baseball today is incredibly difficult and thusly worthy of the dynasty title.\n\nModern World Series appearances by franchise\n\nWorld Series record by team or franchise, 1903–2015\n\nNotes\n\nAmerican League (AL) teams have won 64 of the 111 World Series played (58%). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 24% of all series played and 42% of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series (10%) and 23% of the 47 National League victories.\nAt least one New York team has been in 54 World Series (49%) of Series played.\nWhen the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.\n\nThe number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen \"expansion teams\" joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos/Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45%) in which they have played, which is 9% of all 111 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.\n\nTeam patterns in the World Series\n\nThis information is up to date through the present time:\n\nStreaks and droughts\n\n#Since their first championship in 1923, the New York Yankees have won two or more World Series titles in every decade except the 1980s, when they won none. Additionally, they have won at least one American League pennant in every decade since the 1920s. (They have yet to win a pennant or Series in the 2010s.) The Yankees are the only team in either League to win more than three series in a row, winning in four consecutive seasons from 1936 to 1939, and a still MLB record five consecutive seasons from 1949 to 1953.\n#The New York Giants' four World Series appearances from 1921 to 1924 are the most consecutive appearances for any National League franchise. The Yankees are the only American League franchise to accomplish this.\n#The 1907–1908 Cubs, 1921–1922 Giants and the 1975–1976 Reds are the only National League teams to win back-to-back World Series.\n#The 1907–1909 Detroit Tigers and the 1911–1913 New York Giants are the only teams to lose three consecutive World Series.\n#The Chicago Cubs hold the record for the longest World Series championship drought (still active through 2015), with their last title coming in 1908 (107 years). In fact, they also hold the longest drought without a World Series appearance, not having won the NL pennant since 1945. Even had the Cubs won the 1945 Series, they would still hold the longest World Series title drought, with the second longest World Series drought belonging to the Cleveland Indians, who have not won a World Series since 1948. The team with the longest active pennant drought among AL teams that have played in a World Series at least once is the Baltimore Orioles, who have not reached a World Series since winning their last title in 1983.\n#Twenty-two of the 28 teams to play in the World Series have won it at least once. The only exceptions are: Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s, enfranchised in 1962), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots, 1969), San Diego Padres (1969), Colorado Rockies (1993), Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays, 1998), and Texas Rangers (formerly Washington Senators, 1961). The Padres and Rangers have both lost two World Series; the remaining teams have all lost their only Series appearance. As of the present, all teams to reach the World Series at least three times have won at least one of their appearances.\n#Two teams have never played in the World Series: the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos, established in 1969), and the American League's Seattle Mariners (established in 1977). Both franchises have participated in post-season play and competed in a League Championship Series, but lost all League Championship Series appearances so far.\n#The Red Sox have the most World Series titles before their first World Series loss, winning the championship in their first five appearances—1903, 1912, 1915, 1916, and 1918—before losing in the next series they played, in 1946. The only other teams who have more than one Series victory before their first Series loss are the Cleveland Indians (in 1920 and 1948), the Toronto Blue Jays (in 1992 and 1993), and the Miami Marlins (in 1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins). The Blue Jays and the Marlins have never lost a World Series.\n#The American League's Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993) and National League's Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins) hold the record for most appearances in a Series without ever losing a Series. Two other franchises have won their lone appearance: the National League's Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and American League's Los Angeles Angels (2002).\n#The Pirates, Reds, Red Sox, and Giants are tied with the longest active streak of World Series victories (three) since the last time they lost a series. After losing the 1927 series to the Yankees, the Pirates have emerged victorious in the next three series in which they played (1960, 1971, and 1979). The Reds last series loss prior to their current active streak of three titles (1975, 1976, and 1990) was in 1972. The Red Sox are the American League leaders in this category with three consecutive titles (2004, 2007, and 2013) since their last series loss (1986). The Giants lost in 2002 before winning the next three they appeared in (2010, 2012, and 2014).\n#The Yankees have the most World Series victories (eight) between World Series losses. After losing the 1926 World Series to the Cardinals, the Yankees won their next eight appearances in the series (1927, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, and 1941) before losing in 1942 to the Cardinals again. After this loss, the Yankees went on to win their next seven Series appearances (1943, 1947, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, and 1953) before their next Series loss in 1955 to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Cardinals are the National League leader in this category, with four titles (1944, 1946, 1964, and 1967) between series losses in 1943 and 1968.\n#The Cubs and Dodgers are tied at seven apiece for most World Series losses between World Series victories. The Dodgers lost their first seven appearances in the Fall Classics (1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, and 1953) before winning their first title in 1955. The Cubs' situation is the opposite, as their losing streak is still ongoing: since winning their last title (in 1908), they lost the World Series in 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945. The Cleveland Indians have three World Series losses (1954, 1995, and 1997) since their last crown in 1948, more than any other team in the American League.\n#The longest duration without repeat World Series champions is fifteen years, dating back to the 2000 New York Yankees. The previous record of fourteen years (in between the 1978 New York Yankees' win and the 1993 Toronto Blue Jays' win) was broken when the San Francisco Giants, who won the 2014 World Series, did not qualify for the postseason in 2015.\n\nGame-by-game\n\n#Game 7 was won by the home team in the 9 World Series between 1980 and 2013 that went to seven games (the 1982 St. Louis Cardinals, 1985 Kansas City Royals, 1986 New York Mets, 1987 and 1991 Minnesota Twins, 1997 Florida Marlins, 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks, 2002 Anaheim Angels, and 2011 St. Louis Cardinals) before the Giants won game 7 on the road in 2014. This trend reverses the previous historical trend in which Game 7 had been most often won by the road team, in 1979, 1975, 1972, 1971, 1968, 1967, 1965, and 1962. During the 1960s and 1970s, the home team had won Game 7 only in 1960, 1964, and 1973. Since 2003, when home field advantage started to be awarded to the team representing the league that won the All-Star game, the first Series that reached Game 7 was in 2011. The greatest comeback in World Series history was in 1968, when the Detroit Tigers came back from a 3–1 game disadvantage to win Game 5 after being behind by 3 runs, before winning games 6 and 7 on the road at St. Louis.\n#The 1981 Los Angeles Dodgers are the last team to win a World Series after losing the first two games on the road (against New York). The recent tendency of a team winning the first two games at home and then winning the Series suggests the theoretical advantage to gaining home-field advantage (and the first two games at home) by winning the All-Star Game.\n#The Pittsburgh Pirates have won all five of their World Series championships in seven games.\n#The Minnesota Twins/Washington Senators have won their three World Series championships in seven games.\n#There have been 19 World Series four-game (4–0) sweeps. Nine different teams have swept a World Series at least once, the Yankees having done so most often (8 times). The Red Sox, Reds, and Giants have all done it twice. The Braves, Orioles, White Sox, Dodgers, and Athletics have each swept one Series. Six of these teams (all but the Orioles, Red Sox and White Sox) have also been swept 0–4 in at least one World Series. The Red Sox' two World Series sweeps are the most of any team that has never been swept in one. The Reds and Yankees are the only teams to have swept each other (The Yankees swept the Reds in 1939, while the Reds swept the Yankees in 1976). The Giants are the only team to record World Series sweeps in two different cities: New York (1954) and San Francisco (2012). The 1999 Yankees are the last team to date, and the only one since 1966, to sweep a World Series it began on the road (as well as the last American League champion to date to win a World Series it began on the road). The 1963 Dodgers are the last National League team to date to sweep a World Series it began on the road.\n#The Athletics, Cardinals, Cubs, and Yankees are the only teams to be swept in two World Series. The Athletics and Yankees are the only two of these with at least one World Series sweep to their credit, the other two being among nine teams overall that have never swept a World Series, but have been swept in one (the Tigers, Astros, Indians, Padres, Phillies, Pirates, and Rockies being the others).\n#The Cubs in 1907 and the Giants in 1922 won 4 games to 0, but each of those Series' included a tied game and are not considered to be true sweeps. In 1907, the first game was the tie and the Cubs won four straight after that. In 1922, Game 2 was the tie.\n#The Cincinnati Reds were the only National League team to sweep any World Series between 1963 and 2012, sweeping their last two series appearances to date in 1976 and 1990. When added to their Game 7 victory in 1975, this means that the Reds have won their last 9 consecutive games, making this the current longest winning streak in terms of consecutive World Series games won.\n#Nine World Series have ended with \"walk-off\" hits, i.e., that game and the Series ended when the home team won with a base hit in the bottom of the ninth or in extra innings: 1924, 1929, 1935, 1953, 1960, 1991, 1993, 1997, and 2001. Five of these (marked with a ) were in a deciding Game 7. In addition, the deciding Game 8 (one game had ended in a tie) of the 1912 World Series ended in a walk-off sacrifice fly. Two men have ended a World Series with a walk-off home run: Bill Mazeroski in 1960 and Joe Carter in 1993. Mazeroski's was a solo shot in the bottom of the ninth of Game 7 to win a championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates, while Carter's was a three-run shot in Game 6 that won a championship for the Toronto Blue Jays.\n#One World Series game has ended with a pick-off of a runner. Kolten Wong of the St. Louis Cardinals was picked off of first base in Game 3 of the 2013 World Series by Boston Red Sox closer Koji Uehara. The score was 4-2 and rookie Wong was a pinch runner.\n#The Philadelphia Phillies and the Tampa Bay Rays are the first teams to have an elimination game (or any game) be suspended because of weather, and not have it cancelled. Game 5 (in Philadelphia) was suspended Monday, October 27, 2008 with a 2–2 score, and resumed in the bottom of the sixth on October 29.\n#Both of the Minnesota Twins' World Series titles since relocating to the Twin Cities from Washington, D.C. (where they were the first Washington Senators) were in 7 game series where all games were won by the home team. The Twins accomplished this in 1987, when the Twins defeated the St. Louis Cardinals, then 4 years later in 1991, when the Twins defeated the Atlanta Braves. The Twins victories in both series were in games 1, 2, 6, and 7, while their National League opponents won games 3, 4, and 5. This same scenario also occurred in 2001, when the Arizona Diamondbacks defeated the New York Yankees.\n#Also of note when it comes to the three series where every game was won by the home team, a pitcher was MVP. In the 1987 World Series, Frank Viola was the MVP having pitched games 1, 4, and 7, and finishing with a 2–1 record. In 1991, Jack Morris achieved the same feat pitching games 1, 4, and 7 with a 2–0 record and a no decision in game 4, and winning MVP honors. However, Morris's MVP came on the heels of pitching 10 shutout innings in game 7. Finally, in 2001, Curt Schilling and Randy Johnson took MVP honors by being the reason the Arizona Diamondbacks were in position to win the series.\n#The Boston Red Sox have lost 4 World Series, all in 7 games. (1946, 1967, 1975, & 1986)\n#Four World Series ended with teams clinching the championship in the final game of the series which was not a Game 7 and went into extra innings. The title was won this way in 1939, 1992, 2012, and 2015.\n#As aforementioned, the home team has not won a deciding game of a World Series since 2013, and has been so in four of the last six seasons.\n\nLocal rivalries\n\nWhen two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already-existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.\n\nCross-town Series\n\nThe first city to host an entire World Series is Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.\n\nFourteen \"Subway Series\" have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically \"subway series\" since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California, and an all-NY Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.\n\nThe last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 \"Streetcar Series\" between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman's Park.\n\nThe 1989 World Series, sometimes called the \"Bay Bridge Series\" or the \"BART Series\" (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A's swept the Giants in four games.\n\nCross-state rivalries\n\nThe historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics-Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants' series against the then-Anaheim Angels in 2002.\n\nOther than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I-70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.\n\nPennants won in different cities\n\n# The Braves are the only team to have both won and lost a World Series in three different home cities (Boston, Milwaukee, and Atlanta).\n# The Athletics have had three different home cities (Philadelphia, Kansas City, and Oakland), but have appeared in the World Series (both winning and losing) while based in only two of them (Philadelphia and Oakland).\n# Three other teams have both won and lost the Fall Classic in two different home cities: The Dodgers (Brooklyn and Los Angeles), the Giants (New York and San Francisco), and the Twins (the Twin Cities and Washington, D.C., as the first Senators).\n# The Orioles are the only other team to have played in the World Series in two different home cities (Baltimore and St. Louis, as the Browns), but all three of their titles (and three of their four losses) have come while based in Baltimore.\n\nThe original sixteen teams\n\nAt the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the \"original sixteen\".\n\n#Every original team has won at least two World Series titles. The Philadelphia Phillies (National League) were the last of the original teams to win their first Series, in . They were also the last to win at least two, with their second Series victory in . The Cubs were the first team to win the series twice, in 1907 and 1908. They have not won another World Series since.\n#The last original American League team to win its first World Series was the Baltimore Orioles (former St. Louis Browns,originally the Milwaukee Brewers), winning in .\n#The Orioles were also the last original team in the majors to make their first World Series appearance, as the St. Louis Browns in . Although they never won another American League pennant while in St. Louis, they have won three World Series in six appearances since moving to Baltimore. The St. Louis Cardinals were the last original National League team to make its modern World Series debut, with its victory in . They have subsequently won more World Series than any other National League club: 11 championships through 2014.\n#The New York Yankees have defeated all eight original NL teams in a World Series. Conversely, they have lost at least one World Series to six of the original NL teams, never losing to the Chicago Cubs or the Philadelphia Phillies. The Boston Red Sox have played at least one Series against every original National League team except the (Boston, Milwaukee and Atlanta) Braves, with whom they shared a home city through 1953.\n#The St. Louis Cardinals are currently the only club of the National League's original eight that holds an overall Series lead over the Yankees, 3 to 2, taking that lead in 1964. The Giants won their first two Series over the Yankees (1921 and 1922), but the Yankees have faced the Giants five times since then and have won all five, taking the overall lead over the Giants in 1937. The Pittsburgh Pirates and Yankees have faced each other twice (1927 and 1960), with the Yankees winning in 1927 and the Pirates winning in 1960, making the two teams .500 against each other.\n#Since the two leagues expanded beyond eight teams apiece in 1961, only two of the original 16 teams have not won a World Series against the larger field of competitors: the American League Cleveland Indians, who have not won a Series since 1948 (defeating the Boston Braves), and the National League Chicago Cubs, who last won a Series in 1908 (defeating the Detroit Tigers).\n#The 2015 World Series was the first ever World Series to not feature any of the original sixteen teams.\n\nExpansion teams (after 1960)\n\n#The 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks won their first pennant and World Series in fewer seasons than any other expansion team (both attained in their 4th season). The 1997 World Series Champion Florida Marlins achieved these milestones in the second-fewest number of seasons (fifth season). The fastest AL expansion franchise to win a pennant was the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008 (11th season) and the fastest AL expansion franchise to win a World Series was the Toronto Blue Jays in 1992 (16th season).\n#While the New York Mets (NL) were the first expansion team to win or appear in the World Series (1969), the American League would have to wait until 1980 for its first expansion-team World Series appearance, and until 1985 for its first expansion-team win. Both were by the Kansas City Royals. The AL also had two expansion teams appear in the World Series (the Milwaukee Brewers being the second, in 1982) before the National League's second expansion team to appear—the San Diego Padres in 1984.\n#12 expansion teams have now contested at least one Series. Until 2015, all World Series matchups featured at least one of the 16 teams established by 1903. As of the end of the 2014 edition, expansion teams were 9–12 in the World Series, with three teams (the New York Mets, Toronto Blue Jays and Miami Marlins) each winning two. The Kansas City Royals, the then-Anaheim Angels and the Arizona Diamondbacks had each won one Series by the end of the 2014 season. With the New York Mets defeating the Chicago Cubs in a four-game sweep in the 2015 National League Championship Series, the 2015 World Series was guaranteed to be the first ever World Series matchup in which both teams were expansion teams, where the Mets (whose first season occurred in 1962) faced off against the Kansas City Royals (whose first season occurred in 1969). \n# Six expansion teams have appeared in the World Series without ever winning a championship: twice for the Texas Rangers (formerly the second Washington Senators) and San Diego Padres, and once each for the Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots), Colorado Rockies, and Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays).\n# Two expansion teams have not yet won a league pennant (and therefore also have not appeared in a World Series): the American League's Seattle Mariners and the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos). Both teams have competed in postseason play and appeared in their respective League Championship Series at least once, but have no League Championship Series victories.\n# The Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993), Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins), Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and Los Angeles Angels (2002) have never lost a World Series appearance.\n# The 2015 World Series—in which the Kansas City Royals (enfranchised by the American League in 1969) defeated the New York Mets (NL, 1962) in five games—was the first between two expansion teams.\n\nOther notes\n\n#The team with the better regular season winning percentage has won the World Series 53 times, or 48.62% (53 of 109) of the time. Three World Series featured teams with identical records (1949, 1958, 2013).\n#The Toronto Blue Jays are the only non-U.S. team ever to win a pennant or a World Series, doing both twice, in 1992 and 1993.\n#The Chicago Cubs are the only team with a World Series title to have never clinched one at home.\n#Three series have matched up the previous two World Champions, with the New York Yankees winning all three. The 1928 World Series was contested by the 1926 champion Cardinals and 1927 champion Yankees; the Yankees won the series 4-0. In 1943, the 1941 champion Yankees met the 1942 champion Cardinals, which the Yankees won 4-1. In the 1958 World Series, the 1956 champion Yankees faced the 1957 champion Milwaukee Braves; the Yankees won this series 4-3. The 2012 National League Championship Series also matched up the previous two World Champions: the 2010 champion Giants and the 2011 champion Cardinals. The Giants won this series 4-3.\n#The 2015 World Series game 1 between the New York Mets and the Kansas City Royals was the longest game 1 in history at 5 hours and 9 minutes.\n\nTelevision coverage and ratings\n\nWhen the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City, New York; Philadelphia; Schenectady, New York; Washington, D.C.; and environs surrounding these cities. In , games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By , World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By , World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color. \n\nInternational participation\n\nDespite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major-league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as \"world champions of baseball\". \n\nThe United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.\n\nBy the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America's high-salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half-century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time \"post\" them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player's request.\n\nSeveral tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball, uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The International Baseball Federation also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. But as these teams do not feature the best talent from each nation, the public generally does not give much weight to the result of these tournaments. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.\n\nImage gallery\n\nImage:WorldSeries1903-640.jpg\|Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston\nImage:West Side Park 1906 World Series.JPG\|Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all-Chicago World Series to date)\nImage:Wamby19201010UATP.JPG\|Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920\nImage:1924worldseries.jpg\|Washington's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The N. Y. Yankees", "New York Highlanders", "NYY", "New York Baseball", "NY Yankees", "New York Yankees Roster", "Lonn A. Trost", "Nyy", "N. Y. 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Who was Jermaine O'Neal playing against when he made his debut in 1996?	tc_1440	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jermaine_O'Neal.txt" ], "title": [ "Jermaine O'Neal" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jermaine Lee O'Neal (born October 13, 1978) is an American former professional basketball player. The 6 ft 11 in (2.11 m), 255 lb (115 kg) forward-center had a successful high school career and declared his eligibility for the 1996 NBA draft straight out of high school. He was selected by the Portland Trail Blazers with the 17th overall pick, but O'Neal was unable to break into the first team in Portland and was traded to the Indiana Pacers in 2000. In his eight seasons with the club, he was voted an NBA All-Star six times, made the All-NBA teams three times, and was voted the NBA Most Improved Player in the 2001–02 season. He also helped Indiana reach the NBA Playoffs six times, including the Conference Finals in the 2003–04 season. He was traded to the Toronto Raptors before the 2008–09 season began, and traded to the Miami Heat midway through the same season. O'Neal joined the Boston Celtics prior to the 2010–11 season. In 2012, he signed with the Suns, and in the offseason of 2013, he signed with the Warriors.\n\nEarly life and high school career\n\nO'Neal was born in Columbia, South Carolina. He and his older brother, Clifford, were raised by their mother Angela Jones. Jones worked hard to support her sons, and left her children largely to their own devices. O'Neal found his love for athletics at a young age. Tall and quick, he enjoyed both American football and basketball, but basketball was his favorite sport. Two of his basketball heroes are Hakeem Olajuwon and Bill Russell; O'Neal often marveled at Olajuwon's approach to the game, while he loved watching Russell's video highlights of his duels with Wilt Chamberlain. \n\nEach summer, he would play for an AAU team, and impressed onlookers with his athleticism and his ability to handle the ball with both hands. By the time he turned 14, the 6'4\" O'Neal—now a confident guard who could drain three-pointers—entered Eau Claire High School of the Arts as a freshman in 1992. In his first meeting with basketball coach George Glymph, he made the bold promise to become the best player in the school's history. While O'Neal's first season was hardly noteworthy (he even played as quarterback for the Eau Claire team) things changed when he grew five inches over the next year and a half, and he was inspired to develop into a defensive powerhouse like his idol Russell. Glymph built his team's defense around O'Neal, and Eau Claire featured one of the most imposing frontcourts around. With O'Neal averaging 18 points, 12 rebounds and 9 blocks a game, Eau Claire captured its third straight 3A state title in 1995.\n\nThe following July, the 16-year-old was to raise his profile yet again. At an ABCD summer basketball camp, he outplayed Tim Thomas, a rising star at that time. Before long, recruiting letters from various top colleges came pouring in. O'Neal, however, also faced great pressure off the court. That same year, the District Attorney contemplated prosecuting him for rape after he and his 15-year-old girlfriend were found partially nude in bed together by her father. The DA eventually did not prosecute O'Neal, but as the latter struggled to cope with the pressure on and off the court, Glymph stepped in, introducing discipline to his life and keeping his feet to the ground. At the same time, O'Neal's mother had met a new man, Abraham Kennedy, who also guided O'Neal along.\n\nIn his senior season at Eau Claire, O'Neal's averages of 22.4 points, 12.4 rebounds and 5.2 blocks per game ensured that he was voted First Team All-State, South Carolina's Player of the Year and \"Mr. Basketball\". Named to USA Today's All-USA Basketball Team, he earned a spot in the McDonald's All-America Game as well. Despite being one of the nation's top prospects, O'Neal's future in college basketball was uncertain. He scored poorly on the SATs, and Glymph advised against him making the leap to the NBA. But it was only a year before that another South Carolinian—future NBA All-Star Kevin Garnett—had made a seamless transition from high school to the NBA, and O'Neal thought he could emulate Garnett.\n\nNBA career\n\nPortland Trail Blazers\n\nO'Neal was selected by the Portland Trail Blazers as the 17th pick in the 1996 NBA draft. The rookie was surrounded by veterans and emerging stars who could show him the ropes in Portland; forming the frontcourt with him were Arvydas Sabonis, Rasheed Wallace and Clifford R. Robinson. After missing the first 17 games with a bone contusion in his knee, O'Neal made his debut against the Denver Nuggets in December. At 18 years, one month and 22 days, he became the youngest player to play in an NBA game (a mark that was later eclipsed by Andrew Bynum). O'Neal also became the youngest player at 18 years, three months and eleven days to score 20 points in a game on January 22, 1997 against the Seattle SuperSonics.\n\nPortland was mediocre in the first half of the campaign, but came to form as the playoffs approached and managed to finish third in the Pacific Division with a 49–33 win–loss record. While fans at the Rose Garden harbored thoughts of an upset against the Los Angeles Lakers in the first round of the playoffs, the Trail Blazers succumbed in four games. In O'Neal's first season, he appeared in a total of 45 games in the regular season, averaging 4.1 points and 2.8 rebounds per game. For the most part, however, he came off the bench and only averaged 10.2 minutes a game. O'Neal doubted for a while if he had made the right decision to skip college—he watched with envy as good friend and fellow prep-to-pro draftee Kobe Bryant was enjoying a good rookie season—but he remained confident that the best had yet to come.\n\nDespite his optimism, O'Neal found it difficult to break into the first team the following season. Brian Grant was acquired from free agency and new coach Mike Dunleavy, Sr. planned to use Sabonis, Wallace and Grant as the starting frontcourt, while the presence of veteran Gary Trent also further reduced the sophomore's chances. Thus, O'Neal was not given meaningful minutes in the early part of the campaign, although he showed glimpses of his potential with occasional double double performances when he returned from an early-season injury. Portland eventually produced a similar win–loss record as the preceding season with 46 wins, finishing fourth in the division. In the playoffs, Dunleavy opted to go with a more youthful lineup: before the trade deadline, he had acquired point guard Damon Stoudamire, as well as forwards Carlos Rogers and Walt Williams. The move was designed to bolster the team's chances in the playoffs against teams that were bigger and more physical. Nevertheless, for the second time in two years, the Trail Blazers were eliminated by the Lakers in four games in the first round. And just like the season before, O'Neal hardly featured for Portland, playing only three minutes in one game.\n\nThe 1998–99 season was initially disrupted for several months following an impasse in the collective bargaining negotiations. In the end, the league scaled down to a 50-game schedule, and Portland capitalized on the shortened campaign. Boasting one of the league's most balanced squads that also had strength in depth, the Trail Blazers chalked up an impressive 35–15 record and topped the division. Dunleavy—who would later be named NBA Coach of the Year—led his club into the playoffs aiming to capture the franchise's first NBA title since 1977. After sweeping the Phoenix Suns 3–0 in the first round, Portland defeated the Utah Jazz 4–2 to set up a showdown with the San Antonio Spurs in the Western Conference Finals. In Game 2, a 3-pointer by Sean Elliott in the closing seconds gave the Spurs an 86–85 win and propelled San Antonio to win the series (the Spurs went on to win the NBA championship). O'Neal's disappointment at losing in the Conference Finals was compounded by the fact that his regular season minutes had dropped to fewer than 10 a game for the first time, and that his contributions to the team were mostly insignificant to begin with. He was having increasing doubts about his NBA career.\n\nHowever, in an unexpected move, Portland showed their willingness to invest in O'Neal by offering him a four-year contract worth $24 million. However, the new deal did not translate into more playing time for the power forward in the 1999–2000 season. Portland acquired Detlef Schrempf, Scottie Pippen, and Steve Smith during the 1999 offseason, which meant that O'Neal was once again consigned to the bench. His statistics remained unimpressive, averaging 3.9 points and 3.3 rebounds per game during the regular season. In the meantime, the Trail Blazers continued to build on the success of their previous campaign. They notched 59 wins in the regular season, and defeated the Minnesota Timberwolves and the Utah Jazz en route to reaching the Western Conference Finals. Up against recent perennial rivals the Los Angeles Lakers, the team relinquished a 15-point lead in the fourth quarter of the pivotal Game 7, and lost 89–84. Not that O'Neal was heavily involved in any of this, however. With back-to-back Conference Finals disappointments coupled with a lack of playing time, he soon announced his intention to be traded. The Trail Blazers relented in the end and sent him to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for NBA All-Star Dale Davis. \n\nIndiana Pacers\n\nThe trade was greeted with surprise by the Indiana fans as the Pacers had just came off an appearance in the 2000 NBA Finals, and the trade involved losing a quality player for an unproven quantity in O'Neal. The Pacers roster also saw the departures of Mark Jackson, Rik Smits and Chris Mullin, and even coach Larry Bird stepped down. All of this meant that O'Neal arrived in Indianapolis facing intense pressure and scrutiny.\nWhen O'Neal arrived at his new club, new coach Isiah Thomas—who had pushed for the O'Neal/Davis trade—told him that he simply needed to work harder on his game to succeed. At that time, Indiana was rebuilding and still revolved around veteran All-Star Reggie Miller. O'Neal turned out to be a revelation for his new club and it was not long before he established himself as a key player for his new team. Starting in 80 of the 81 regular season games he played in for the 2000–01 season, his statistics improved significantly as he averaged 12.9 points and 9.8 rebounds per game. The big man helped his team to a 41–41 record and the eighth playoff seed; he also led the league in total blocks (228, a franchise record), and led the Eastern Conference in double doubles. O'Neal kept up his form into the playoffs as well, averaging almost 9.8 points and 12.5 boards a game in the first round against the Philadelphia 76ers, although the series was short-lived as the latter emerged victorious in four games.\n\nThe 2001–02 season proved to be the breakthrough season for O'Neal as he earned a trio of honors: winning the NBA Most Improved Player Award, being named an NBA All-Star, and making the All-NBA Third Team (becoming the second Pacer in history to do so after Reggie Miller). Leading his team in scoring (19.0) and rebounding (10.5), he chalked up 39 double doubles, which was third best in the conference and eighth best in the league. Indiana recorded 42 wins and qualified for the playoffs once again as the eighth seed, where they faced one of the hottest teams in the league at that time, the New Jersey Nets. The Pacers lost the series in 5 Games, despite forcing overtime twice. The Nets decided to put Kenyon Martin on O'Neal after the latter put up a 30-point, 11 rebound performance in Game 1, and they succeeded by limiting him to just 17.2 points and 7.6 rebounds per game for the rest of the series. As the Pacers reflected on yet another premature end to the postseason, they knew that O'Neal was next in line to succeed the 36-year-old Miller as the new face of the franchise. At the same time, the Pacers seemed to have found players in Brad Miller, Ron Artest, Al Harrington and Jamaal Tinsley who complemented O'Neal. Indiana was on the brink of becoming a legitimate threat in the East.\n\nThe Pacers started the 2002–03 season well, winning 14 of their first 16 games, and had the best record in the East by the time the All-Star break arrived. The same team from the year before was playing better than ever, but the season fell apart in the latter half. For one, Brad Miller got injured and Indiana lost one of their most versatile players. Defensive lynchpin Artest suffered from too many emotional outbursts and this further hurt the Pacers, who could only finish the season 48–34. On his part, O'Neal kept up his All-Star numbers, averaging 20.8 points and 10.3 rebounds per game, being only one of three players in the NBA that year to pull off a 20/10. He was voted Eastern Conference Player of the Month twice, in January and April, and would go on to be named to the All-NBA Third Team again by the season's end. With no momentum heading into the playoffs, however, the Pacers were eliminated 4–2 by the underdog Boston Celtics, marking a first-round elimination for the third year in a row. Off the court, the team had also been facing family problems. Brad Miller's father-in-law and Tinsley's mother died during the season, and just before the playoffs, O'Neal's stepfather attempted suicide. When the season ended, O'Neal tried to keep his focus on basketball and considered the possibility of joining another team since he was now a free agent. The San Antonio Spurs, led by two-time NBA Champion Tim Duncan, looked an interesting proposition as perennial All-Star David Robinson had just retired. Much as it was tempting for O'Neal to make the switch, he opted not to uproot his family and signed a seven-year, $126 million contract with the Pacers. Even so, the offseason produced a few surprises for O'Neal when Isiah Thomas was replaced by Rick Carlisle, and Brad Miller left for the Sacramento Kings. Indiana was undergoing rebuilding yet again.\n\nDespite all the changes, O'Neal spearheaded the Pacers to a league-best 61–21 record in the 2003–04 season. He remained a constant double-double threat, averaging 20.1 points and 10.0 rebounds a game in the regular season. He also continued to rack up individual honors, making his third All-Star trip and being named to the All-NBA Second Team. Artest was instrumental to the team's success too as he enjoyed a breakthrough season, netting his first All-Star berth as well as the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. In the playoffs, Indiana gained revenge from the preceding season by sweeping Boston in the first round, before defeating the Miami Heat in the next. That sent them back to the Eastern Conference Finals for the sixth time in 11 years, where they were disposed of by eventual NBA champions Detroit Pistons. In the series-deciding Game 6, O'Neal endured a sprained knee and managed to tally 20 points and 10 rebounds, but Richard Hamilton's inspired play ensured a close victory for the Pistons. \n\nThe Pacers looked to build on their previous campaign in the 2004–05 season, but all their plans came apart in November. In a game against the Pistons at The Palace of Auburn Hills, a brawl broke out that spilled into the stands. O'Neal was one of the Pacers who fought with some of the fans and was suspended for 25 games by NBA Commissioner David Stern; teammates Artest and Stephen Jackson were suspended for the rest of the season and 30 games respectively. Following an appeal just before Christmas, O'Neal won a ten-game reduction in his sentence, but this did not mitigate the damage that Indiana had already suffered. Stripped of three of its core players, the team hobbled to a 44–38 record and the sixth seed. O'Neal appeared in only 44 games, his lowest total ever with Indiana. Although his scoring average improved to 24.3 points per game, his rebounding dropped and he was no longer the same intimidating presence on defense. Things worsened when he sprained his right shoulder in March and played sparingly for the remainder of the regular season, while hoping to recover in time for the playoffs. The Pacers drew the Celtics in the first round, and managed to salvage their season by winning the series 4–3. O'Neal, however, was not playing as well as he could have: his offensive output dropped, and he shot poorly from the field. When the Pacers met the Pistons in the semifinals, they were eliminated in six games, capping yet another frustrating season for O'Neal.\n\nO'Neal continued his battle against injuries during the 2005–06 season, and played in only 51 games. Nevertheless, he averaged a team-high 20.1 points and 9.3 rebounds a game. and was voted by the fans as the starting forward for the Eastern Conference All-Star team (he was later replaced by Gilbert Arenas due to injury). The Pacers entered the playoffs as the sixth seed. They eventually lost to the New Jersey Nets in six games.\n\nO'Neal missed 13 more games in the 2006–07 season as the Pacers missed the playoffs altogether. O'Neal continued to miss huge amounts of time, especially towards the end of the season, as the Pacers struggled to compete. O'Neal's production and stats declined as well. He had two years and $44 million left on his deal. The Pacers were looking to move the huge contract.\n\nOn June 25, 2008, it was reported that O'Neal and the 41st pick in the 2008 NBA Draft, Nathan Jawai would be sent to Toronto for T. J. Ford, Rasho Nesterovič, Maceo Baston and the 17th pick in the 2008 NBA Draft, Roy Hibbert. The trade was finalized on July 9, 2008. \n\nToronto Raptors\n\nO'Neal was given jersey #6 for the Raptors since his number with the Pacers (#7) was already owned by Andrea Bargnani. While he was expected to combine with Toronto's three-time All-Star Chris Bosh to form a strong frontcourt and provide greater rebounding and interior defense for the Raptors, O'Neal's arrival was dwarfed by the Elton Brand signing pulled off by division rivals Philadelphia. O'Neal wasted no time in imposing his style on his new team: in the season opener at Philadelphia, he pointed to hecklers in the home crowd after making a dunk; in the team's second game, Toronto's center blocked a dunk from Golden State's Brandan Wright and thereafter waved a finger, as though to say \"Don't come back here again.\" Even so, it took O'Neal some time to find his offensive game: he reached the 20-point mark just twice in his first 23 games, before notching three straight thereafter. By the All-Star break, injuries had ruled the big man out for almost a quarter of Toronto's games, while Bargnani regained his starting spot with a streak of solid performances. This, coupled with the Raptors entering the break placed 14th in the conference and 13 games under .500, Toronto General Manager Bryan Colangelo looked to move O'Neal to bring in a wing player and free up the salary space.\n\nOn February 13, 2009, O'Neal and Jamario Moon were traded to Miami for Shawn Marion and Marcus Banks. In his 41 games as a Raptor, O'Neal averaged 13.5 points, 7 rebounds and 2 blocks per game.\n\nMiami Heat\n\nThe Heat went 7–5 in O'Neal's first 12 games with his new club—including a victory over the Raptors at the Air Canada Centre—as they looked to secure the fourth seed for the playoffs. The Heat eventually concluded the regular season with a 43–39 record and was seeded fifth.[http://www.basketball-reference.com/leagues/NBA_2009.html 2008-09 NBA Season Summary], basketball-reference.com, accessed 14 July 2009. In the first round of the playoffs, the Atlanta Hawks defeated the Heat in seven games.\n\nIn the 2009–10 season, O'Neal started in all 70 games he played in and produced numbers identical to his career averages. Miami concluded the regular season as the fifth seed for the playoffs, and were up against the Boston Celtics. Boston won the series 4–1.\n\nBoston Celtics\n\nOn July 14, 2010, O'Neal signed a two-year deal with the Boston Celtics. He had a difficult season with his new team, missing 58 regular season games with left knee and left wrist injuries, playing only 24 games and started in 10 of them, averaging 5.4 points, 3.7 rebounds and 1.3 blocks in 18.0 minutes per game. O'Neal came back in the starting line-up for the 2011 NBA Playoffs. Boston (third seed) faced the New York Knicks in the first round. O'Neal had a good series, especially in Game 1 with 12 points and 5 blocks. Boston swept the Knicks, but lost to the eventual Eastern Conference champions, the Miami Heat, in the second round in five games.\n\nOn April 20, 2012, he was waived by the Celtics following season-ending wrist surgery. In 25 games, he averaged 5.0 points, 5.4 rebounds and 1.7 blocks per game.\n\nPhoenix Suns\n\nOn August 15, 2012, O'Neal signed a one-year contract with the Phoenix Suns. O'Neal cited the Suns' training staff as a major factor in his decision to sign with the team. He has been considered the leader around the locker room to replace the likes of Steve Nash and Grant Hill. As a result, O'Neal became a new captain of the team along with Jared Dudley.\n\nOn November 21, 2012, O'Neal scored 17 points off of 7-9 shooting off the bench to help defeat the Portland Trail Blazers 114–87. Two days later, O'Neal would record his first double-double with the Suns by scoring 13 points and grabbing 11 rebounds in a close 111-108 overtime victory over the New Orleans Hornets.\n\nOn January 23, 2013, O'Neal was sidelined by an irregular heartbeat. O'Neal would return on February 5, 2013 against the Memphis Grizzlies before the All-Star break.\n\nOn February 27, 2013, O'Neal scored 22 points and grabbed 13 rebounds in a 105-101 overtime victory against the San Antonio Spurs. In March 2013, O'Neal took time off from the team to be with his daughter, Asjia, who underwent surgery to repair a leaky heart valve. \n\nGolden State Warriors\n\nOn July 23, 2013, O'Neal signed with the Golden State Warriors. On December 13, 2013, O'Neal underwent surgery to repair a torn ligament in his right wrist. He returned to action on February 4, 2014.\n\nFeeling exhausted, O'Neal decided to sit out the 2014–15 NBA season. Despite receiving interest from several teams during the season, O'Neal remained out of action and instead decided to focus on his family.[http://www.si.com/nba/2016/03/16/golden-state-warriors-jermaine-oneal-stephe-curry-draymond-green Almost a champ: Jermaine O'Neal on leaving the Warriors] In February 2016, O'Neal noted that he had not yet officially retired from the NBA. \n\nNBA career statistics\n\nRegular season\n\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 45 \|\| 0 \|\| 10.2 \|\| .451 \|\| .000 \|\| .603 \|\| 2.8 \|\| .2 \|\| .0 \|\| .6 \|\| 4.1\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 60 \|\| 9 \|\| 13.5 \|\| .485 \|\| .000 \|\| .506 \|\| 3.4 \|\| .3 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 4.5\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 36 \|\| 1 \|\| 8.6 \|\| .434 \|\| .000 \|\| .514 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .4 \|\| .1 \|\| .4 \|\| 2.5\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 70 \|\| 8 \|\| 12.3 \|\| .486 \|\| .000 \|\| .582 \|\| 3.3 \|\| .3 \|\| .2 \|\| .8 \|\| 3.9\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 81 \|\| 80 \|\| 32.6 \|\| .465 \|\| .000 \|\| .601 \|\| 9.8 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .6 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 12.9\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 72 \|\| 72 \|\| 37.6 \|\| .479 \|\| .071 \|\| .688 \|\| 10.5 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .6 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 19.0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 77 \|\| 76 \|\| 37.2 \|\| .484 \|\| .333 \|\| .731 \|\| 10.3 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 20.8\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 78 \|\| 78 \|\| 35.7 \|\| .434 \|\| .111 \|\| .757 \|\| 10.0 \|\| 2.1 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 20.1\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 44 \|\| 41 \|\| 34.8 \|\| .452 \|\| .167 \|\| .754 \|\| 8.8 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .6 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 24.3\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 51 \|\| 47 \|\| 35.3 \|\| .472 \|\| .300 \|\| .709 \|\| 9.3 \|\| 2.6 \|\| .5 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 20.1\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 69 \|\| 69 \|\| 35.6 \|\| .436 \|\| .000 \|\| .767 \|\| 9.6 \|\| 2.4 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 19.4\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 42 \|\| 34 \|\| 28.7 \|\| .439 \|\| .000 \|\| .742 \|\| 6.7 \|\| 2.2 \|\| .5 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 13.6\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Toronto\n\| 41 \|\| 34 \|\| 29.7 \|\| .473 \|\| .000 \|\| .810 \|\| 7.0 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .4 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 13.5\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Miami\n\| 27 \|\| 27 \|\| 30.0 \|\| .475 \|\| .000 \|\| .750 \|\| 5.4 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .4 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 13.0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Miami\n\| 70 \|\| 70 \|\| 28.4 \|\| .529 \|\| .000 \|\| .720 \|\| 7.0 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .4 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 13.6\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Boston\n\| 24 \|\| 10 \|\| 18.0 \|\| .459 \|\| .000 \|\| .674 \|\| 3.7 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 5.4\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Boston\n\| 25 \|\| 24 \|\| 22.8 \|\| .433 \|\| .000 \|\| .677 \|\| 5.4 \|\| .4 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 5.0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Phoenix\n\| 55 \|\| 4 \|\| 18.7 \|\| .482 \|\| .000 \|\| .835 \|\| 5.3 \|\| .8 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 8.3\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| align=\"left\" \| Golden State\n\| 44 \|\| 13 \|\| 20.1 \|\| .504 \|\| .000 \|\| .750 \|\| 5.5 \|\| .6 \|\| .3 \|\| .9 \|\| 7.9\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| Career\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| 1011 \|\| 697 \|\| 27.1 \|\| .467 \|\| .147 \|\| .715 \|\| 7.2 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .5 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 13.2\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| All-Star\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| 5 \|\| 2 \|\| 24.0 \|\| .478 \|\| .000 \|\| .667 \|\| 7.6 \|\| .8 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 11.2\n\nPlayoffs\n\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 1997\n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 2 \|\| 0 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| .5 \|\| .0 \|\| .0 \|\| .5 \|\| .0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 1998\n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 1 \|\| 0 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .0 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 1999\n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 9 \|\| 0 \|\| 6.1 \|\| .400 \|\| .000 \|\| .500 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .1 \|\| .0 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.6\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2000\n\| align=\"left\" \| Portland\n\| 8 \|\| 0 \|\| 4.8 \|\| .273 \|\| .000 \|\| .667 \|\| .9 \|\| .1 \|\| .0 \|\| .4 \|\| 1.5\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2001\n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 4 \|\| 4 \|\| 39.3 \|\| .436 \|\| .000 \|\| .500 \|\| 12.5 \|\| 1.8 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 9.8\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2002\n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 5 \|\| 5 \|\| 38.4 \|\| .447 \|\| .000 \|\| .750 \|\| 7.6 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 17.2\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2003\n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 45.3 \|\| .467 \|\| .000 \|\| .785 \|\| 17.5 \|\| .7 \|\| .5 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 22.8\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2004\n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 16 \|\| 16 \|\| 37.8 \|\| .423 \|\| .000 \|\| .700 \|\| 9.1 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .5 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 19.2\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2005\n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 13 \|\| 13 \|\| 36.6 \|\| .365 \|\| .000 \|\| .750 \|\| 8.0 \|\| 2.2 \|\| .5 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 16.0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2006\n\| align=\"left\" \| Indiana\n\| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 36.0 \|\| .524 \|\| .000 \|\| .717 \|\| 7.5 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .5 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 21.0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2009\n\| align=\"left\" \| Miami\n\| 6 \|\| 5 \|\| 27.0 \|\| .549 \|\| .000 \|\| .750 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .5 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 13.3\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2010\n\| align=\"left\" \| Miami\n\| 5 \|\| 5 \|\| 23.4 \|\| .205 \|\| .000 \|\| .429 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 4.2\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2011\n\| align=\"left\" \| Boston\n\| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 21.9 \|\| .488 \|\| .000 \|\| .909 \|\| 4.2 \|\| .9 \|\| .2 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 5.8\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| 2014\n\| align=\"left\" \| Golden State\n\| 7 \|\| 3 \|\| 12.0 \|\| .563 \|\| .000 \|\| .750 \|\| 3.4 \|\| .1 \|\| .1 \|\| .4 \|\| 6.0\n\|-\n\| align=\"left\" \| Career\n\| align=\"left\" \| \n\| 97 \|\| 72 \|\| 26.6 \|\| .426 \|\| .000 \|\| .718 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .4 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 11.6\n\nNational team career\n\nFollowing his breakout season in 2000–01, O'Neal earned a spot on Team USA for the 2001 Goodwill Games. The Americans won all of their five games and the gold medal, and O'Neal led the team in blocks and shooting percentage, while finishing second in points and rebounds. The 2002 NBA Most Improved Player was selected to represent his nation again in the 2002 World Basketball Championship which was held in Indianapolis. This time round, the Americans had a lackluster tournament, and could only finish sixth. O'Neal averaged 7.3 points and 4.5 rebounds over eight games. The next year, Team USA staged a comeback in the 2003 Tournament of the Americas. Winning all its ten games and the gold medal, the team qualified for the 2004 Olympics. O'Neal featured in every game in that tournament, averaging 11.2 points and 6.2 rebounds per contest. While he was earmarked as a core member of the team that would compete in the Olympics, a knee injury prevented him from participating in the games.\n\nNBA achievements\n\n* NBA All-Star: 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007\n* All-NBA:\n* Second Team: 2004\n* Third Team: 2002, 2003\n* NBA Most Improved Player Award: 2002\n* NBA Magic Johnson Award: 2004\n* Holds the Pacers franchise records for:\n* Most blocks in a game: 10 (January 22, 2003 vs. the Toronto Raptors)\n* Most blocks in a season: 228 (2000–01)\n* Most rebounds in a playoffs game: 22 (April 29, 2003 vs. Boston Celtics)\n* Highest rebounding average in a playoff series: 17.5 (2003 Eastern Conference First Round vs. Boston Celtics)\n* Most free throws attempted in a game: 25 (January 4, 2005 vs. the Milwaukee Bucks)\n\nPersonal life\n\nO'Neal is married to Mesha and has two children, a son, Jermaine Jr. and a daughter, Asjia. He also owned a recording studio named Bogota Entertainment in Atlanta, Georgia.\n\nO'Neal is a Christian. O'Neal's Twitter account profile says, \"Jesus is the answer!\" He also frequently tweets about his faith." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Denver Larks", "Jonathon Herrera", "Colorado nuggets", "Denver Rockets", "Denver nuggets", "Denver nuggetts", "Denver Nuggets" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "denver rockets", "denver nuggetts", "colorado nuggets", "jonathon herrera", "denver nuggets", "denver larks" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "denver nuggets", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Denver Nuggets" }
Who was the second American to win the Indianapolis 500 four times?	tc_1444	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Indianapolis_500.txt" ], "title": [ "Indianapolis 500" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Indianapolis 500 is an automobile race held annually at Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana, an enclave suburb of Indianapolis, Indiana. The event is held over Memorial Day (originally Decoration Day) weekend, which is typically the last weekend in May. It is contested as part of the Verizon IndyCar Series, the top level of American Championship Car racing, an open-wheel formula colloquially known as \"Indy Car Racing\". The name of the race is often shortened to Indy 500.\n\nThe event, billed as The Greatest Spectacle in Racing, is considered part of the Triple Crown of Motorsport, which comprises three of the most prestigious motorsports events in the world. The official attendance is not disclosed by Speedway management, but the permanent seating capacity is upwards of 250,000, and infield patrons raise the race-day attendance to approximately 300,000. \n\nThe inaugural running was won by Ray Harroun in 1911. The race celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2011, and the 100th running was held in 2016. Alexander Rossi is the defending champion. The most successful drivers are A. J. Foyt, Al Unser, and Rick Mears, each of whom have won the race four times. The active driver with the most victories is Hélio Castroneves, with three. Rick Mears holds the record for most career pole positions with six. The most successful car owner is Roger Penske, owner of Team Penske, which has 16 total wins and 17 poles.\n\nFor a list of races and winners, see List of Indianapolis 500 winners.\n\nRace specifics\n\nThe Indianapolis 500 is held annually at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a 2.5 mile oval circuit. Drivers race 200 laps, counterclockwise around the circuit, for a distance of 500 miles. Since its inception in 1911, the race has always been scheduled on or around Memorial Day. Since 1974, the race has been scheduled for the Sunday of Memorial Day weekend. Practice and time trials are held in the two weeks leading up to the race.\n\nTraditionally, the field consists of 33 starters, aligned in a starting grid of eleven rows of three cars apiece. The event is contested by \"Indy cars\", a formula of professional-level, single-seat, open cockpit, open-wheel, purpose-built race cars. As of 2015, all entrants utilize 2.2 L V6, twin-turbocharged engines, tuned to produce a range of 550 -. Chevrolet and Honda are the current engine manufacturers involved in the sport. Firestone, which has a deep history in the sport, dating back to the first 500, is the exclusive tire provider.\n\nThe race is the most prestigious event of the IndyCar calendar, and one of the oldest and most important automobile races. It has been avouched to be the largest single-day sporting event in the entire world. Likewise, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway itself is regarded as the world's largest sporting facility in terms of capacity. The total purse exceeded $13 million in 2011, with over $2.5 million awarded to the winner, making it one of the richest cash prize funds in sports.\n\nDue to safety issues, the race is not held in wet conditions. In the event of a rain delay, the race will be postponed until rain showers cease, and the track is sufficiently dried. If rain falls during the race, officials can end the race and declare the results official if more than half of the scheduled distance (i.e., 101 laps) has been completed.\n\nHistory\n\nThe early years\n\nThe Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex was built in 1909 as a gravel-and-tar track and hosted a smattering of small events, including ones for motorcycles. The first long distance event, in \"fearful conditions\", was the 100-lap Prest-O-Lite Trophy in 1909, won by Bob Burman in a Buick. Breakup of the asphalt led to two fatal accidents in the first two long-distance events (a 250 mi and 300 mi, which was shortened to 235 mi after two severe wrecks). \n\nThat these spectacles had attracted 15,000 paying customers (and crowds of up to 40,000) persuaded principal owner Carl G. Fisher to spend US$155,000 on repaving the track with 3.2 million bricks; he also added a 2 ft concrete wall around the track's circumference. During the 1910 Decoration Day weekend, the first events on the newly paved circuit drew 60,000 spectators; Ray Harroun won the 200 mi Wheeler-Schebler Trophy in a Marmon.\n\nThe crowds grew progressively smaller for the rest of the season, however, so the track owners chose to focus on a single race. They considered a 24-hour contest, in the fashion of Le Mans, or a 1000 mi. They instead chose a 500 mi contest, and offered a spectacular purse of $US25,000, equivalent to of pure gold. The combination allowed the track to rapidly acquire a privileged status for automobile races.\n\nThe first \"500\" was held at the Speedway on Decoration Day (as Memorial Day was known from its inception in 1868 to 1967 when Federal Law made Memorial Day the official name), May 30, 1911, run to a 600 cid maximum engine size formula. It saw a field of 40 starters, with Harroun piloting a Marmon Model 32-based Wasp racer — outfitted with his invention, the rear view mirror. Harroun (with relief from Cyrus Patschke) was declared the winner, although Ralph Mulford protested the official result. 80,000 spectators were in attendance, and an annual tradition had been established. Many considered Harroun to be a hazard during the race, as he was the only driver in the race driving without a riding mechanic, who checked the oil pressure and let the driver know when traffic was coming. \n\nIn 1912, the purse was raised to US$50,000. The field was limited to 33 (where it remains) and a riding mechanic was made mandatory. This second event was won by Joe Dawson in a National, after Ralph de Palma's Mercedes broke. Although the first race was won by an American driver at the wheel of an American car, European makers such as the Italian Fiat or French Peugeot companies soon developed their own vehicles to try to win the event, which they did from 1912 to 1919. The 1913 event saw a change to a 450 cid maximum engine size.\n\nAfter World War I, the native drivers and manufacturers regained their dominance of the race. Engineer Harry Miller set himself up as the most competitive of the post-war builders. His technical developments allowed him to be indirectly connected to a history of success that would last into the mid-1970s.\n\nFor musical entertainment prior to the start of the race, the Purdue All-American Marching Band began performing on the track near the finish-line in 1927 and has been the host band of the race ever since. In 1946 American operatic tenor and car enthusiast James Melton started the tradition of singing \"Back Home Again in Indiana\" with the Purdue Band before the race when asked to do so on the spur of the moment by Speedway president Tony Hulman. This tradition has continued through the years, notably by actor and singer Jim Nabors from 1972 until 2014. Nabors announced in 2014 that the 2014 Indy 500 would be the last at which he would sing. In 2015, the a cappella group Straight No Chaser sang the song before the race. \n\nMiller and Offenhauser\n\nFollowing the European trends, engine sizes were limited to 183 cid during 1920–1922, 122 cid for 1923–1925, and 91 cid in 1926–1929. The 1920 race was won by Gaston Chevrolet in a Frontenac, prepared by his brothers, powered by the first eight-cylinder engine to win the 500. For 1923, riding mechanics were no longer required. A supercharged car, ID, first won the race in 1924. In 1925, Pete DePaolo was the first to win at an average over 100 mph, with a speed of .\n\nIn the early 1920s, Miller built his own 3.0 litre (183 in³) engine, inspired by the Peugeot Grand Prix engine which had been serviced in his shop by Fred Offenhauser in 1914, installing it in Jimmy Murphy's Duesenberg and allowing him to win the 1922 edition of the race. Miller then created his own automobiles, which shared the 'Miller' designation, which, in turn, were powered by supercharged versions of his 2.0 and 1.5 liter (122 and 91 in³) engine single-seaters, winning four more races for the engine up to 1929 (two of them, 1926 and 1928, in Miller chassis). The engines powered another seven winners until 1938 (two of them, 1930 and 1932, in Miller chassis), then ran at first with stock-type motors before later being adjusted to the international 3.0 liter formula.\n\nAfter purchasing the Speedway in 1927, Eddie Rickenbacker prohibited supercharging and increased the displacement limit to 366 cid, while also re-introducing the riding mechanic.\n\nIn 1935, Miller's former employees, Fred Offenhauser and Leo Goosen, had already achieved their first win with the soon-to-become famous 4-cylinder Offenhauser or \"Offy\" engine. This motor was forever connected with the Brickyard's history with a to-date record total of 27 wins, in both naturally aspirated and supercharged form, and winning a likewise record-holding 18 consecutive years between 1947 and 1964. \n\nEuropean incursions\n\nMeanwhile, European manufacturers, gone from the Indianapolis 500 for nearly two decades, made a brief return just before World War II, with the competitive Maserati 8CTF allowing Wilbur Shaw to become the first driver to win consecutively at Indianapolis in 1939–1940. With the 500 having been a part of the Formula One World Drivers' Championship between 1950 and 1960, Ferrari made a discreet appearance at the 1952 event with Alberto Ascari, but European entries were few and far between during those days. Among the Formula One drivers who did drive at the speedway was the legendary Argentinian Juan Manuel Fangio, though he failed to qualify for the 1958 race.\n\nIn fact, it was not until the Indianapolis 500 was removed from the Formula One calendar that European entries made their return. In 1963, technical innovator Colin Chapman brought his Team Lotus to Indianapolis for the first time, attracted by the large monetary prizes, far bigger than the usual at a European event. Racing a mid-engined car, Scotsman Jim Clark was second in his first attempt in 1963, dominating in 1964 until suffering suspension failure on lap 47, and completely dominating the race in 1965, a victory which also interrupted the success of the Offy, and offering the 4.2 litre Ford V8 its first success at the race. The following year, 1966, saw another British win, this time Graham Hill in a Lola-Ford. \n\nOffenhauser too would join forces with a European maker, McLaren, obtaining three wins for the chassis, one with the Penske team in 1972 with driver Mark Donohue, and two for the McLaren works team in 1974 and 1976 with Johnny Rutherford. This was also the last time the Offy would win a race, its competitiveness steadily decreasing until its final appearance in 1983. American drivers kept on filling the majority of entries at the Brickyard for the following years, but European technology had taken over. Starting in 1978, most chassis and engines were European, with the only American-based chassis to win during the CART era being the Wildcat and Galmer (which was actually built in Bicester, England) in 1982 and 1992 respectively. Ford and Chevrolet engines were built in the UK by Cosworth and Ilmor, respectively.\n\nWorld Series\n\nAfter foreign cars became the norm, foreign drivers began competing in the Indianapolis 500 on a regular basis, choosing the United States as their primary base for their motor racing activities. Brazilian Emerson Fittipaldi, Italian Teo Fabi and Colombian Roberto Guerrero, were able to obtain good outings in the '80s, as was Dutchman Arie Luyendyk. However, it was not until 1993 that reigning Formula One World Champion Nigel Mansell shocked the racing world by moving to the United States, winning the CART PPG IndyCar World Series Championship and only losing the 500 in his rookie year because of inexperience with green-flag restarts. Foreign-born drivers became a regular fixture of Indianapolis in the years to follow. Despite the increase in foreign drivers commonly being associated with the CART era, it should be noted that four of the first six Indianapolis 500 winners were non-American drivers.\n\nRace name\n\nThe race was originally advertised as the \"International 500-Mile Sweepstakes Race\" from 1911 to 1916. However, from its inception, the race has been widely known as the Indianapolis 500 or, more simply as \"the 500\". In 1919, the race was referred to as the \"Liberty Sweepstakes\" following WWI. From 1920 to 1980, the race officially reverted to the \"International Sweepstakes\" moniker, as printed on the tickets and other paraphernalia, with slight variations over the years.\n\nFollowing WWII, the race was commonly recognized as \"The 500\", \"The 500-Mile Race\", \"Indianapolis 500-Mile Race\", \"Indianapolis 500\", or the simple form \"Indy 500\". Usually the ordinal (e.g. \"50th\") preceded it. Often the race was also advertised on the radio as the \"Annual Memorial Day race,\" or similar variations.\n\nFor the 1981 race, the name \"65th Indianapolis 500-Mile Race\" was officially adopted, with all references as the \"International Sweepstakes\" dropped. Since 1981, the race has been formally advertised in this fashion, complete with a unique annual logo with the ordinal almost always included. Around that same time, in the wake of the 1979 entry controversy, and the formation of CART, the race changed to an invitational event, rather than an Open, rendering the \"sweepstakes\" description inappropriate.\n\nSince its inception, the race has eschewed any sort of naming rights or title sponsor, a move, though uncommon in the modern sports world, has been well received by fans. While the facility has numerous sponsor billboards around the grounds, including some mildly controversial ads on the retaining walls and infield grass, the Speedway has preferred to feature a contingent of several prominent official race sponsors rather than one primary title sponsor. In the 21st century on television, the race broadcast has been advertised with a title sponsor. Currently on ABC-TV, the race is referred to as the Indianapolis 500 Telecast Presented by Firestone, but this appears only on the U.S. telecasts, and mention of the sponsor is not visible for patrons at the track.\n\nThe Borg-Warner Trophy, introduced in 1936, proclaims the event as the \"Indianapolis 500-Mile Race\", with no reference at all to the name \"International Sweepstakes\".\n\nCentennial Era\n\nIn 2009, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway began a three-year-long \"Centennial Era\" to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the opening of the track (1909), and the 100th anniversary of the first Indy 500 (1911). As a gesture to the nostalgic Centennial Era celebration (2009–2011), tickets for the 2009 race donned the moniker \"93rd 500 Mile International Sweepstakes\". It is the first time since 1980 that the \"Sweepstakes\" title has been used. During the month of May 2009, the ordinal (93rd) was used very sparingly, and for the first time since 1981, was not identified on the annual logo. Instead, in most instances in print, television, and radio, the race was referred to as the \"2009 Indianapolis 500\". Since the race was not held during the United States' participation in the two World Wars (1917–18, 1942–45), the advertised Centennial Era occurred during the 93rd to 95th runnings. To avoid confusion between the 100th anniversary, and the actual number of times the race has been run, references to the ordinal during the Centennial Era were curtailed.\n\nSix years later, in 2016, the race celebrated its 100th running with about 350,000 in attendance. \n\nFemale drivers\n\nFemale participation of any sort at Indianapolis was discouraged and essentially banned throughout the first several decades of competition. As such, female reporters were not even allowed in the pit area until 1971. There have been nine female drivers to qualify, starting with Janet Guthrie in 1977.\n\nSarah Fisher has competed nine times, the most of any woman. Danica Patrick led 19 laps in the 2005 race and 10 laps in the 2011 race, the only times a woman has led laps during the race. Her third-place finish in 2009 is the best finish for a woman.\nAfrican-American drivers\n\nTwo African-American drivers have competed in the Indy 500. Willy T. Ribbs was the first, racing in 1991 and 1993. George Mack drove in the 2002 race.\n\nRace sanctioning\n\nAAA and USAC\n\nFrom 1911 to 1955, the race was organized under the auspices of the AAA Contest Board. Following the 1955 Le Mans disaster, AAA dissolved the Contest Board to concentrate on its membership program aimed at the general motoring public. Speedway owner Tony Hulman founded USAC in 1956, which took over sanctioning of the race and the sport of Championship racing. \n\nFrom 1950 to 1960, the Indianapolis 500 also counted toward the FIA's World Championship of Drivers (now synonymous with Formula One), although few drivers participated in the other races of that series. Italian driver Alberto Ascari was the only European-based driver to actually race in the 500 during its World Championship years. His appearance in 1952 in a Ferrari was also the only time a Ferrari has ever appeared in the race. Juan Manuel Fangio practiced at the track in 1958, but declined an offer to race.\n\nControl issues of monetary prizes and squabbles over technical regulations caused conflict in the 1970s. Soon after the death of Tony Hulman in 1977, and the loss of several key USAC officials in a 1978 plane crash, several key team owners banded together and formed CART in late 1978 to sanction the sport of Indy car racing.\n\nThe Indianapolis 500 itself, however, remained under the sanctioning control of USAC. It became the lone top-level race the body still sanctioned, as it ultimately dropped all other Indy car races (as well as their stock car division) to concentrate on sprints and midgets. For the next three years, the race was not officially recognized on the CART calendar, but the CART teams and drivers comprised the field. By 1983, an agreement was made for the USAC-sanctioned Indy 500 to be recognized on the CART calendar, and the race awarded points towards the CART championship.\n\nDespite the CART/USAC divide, from 1983 to 1995 the race was run in relative harmony. CART and USAC occasionally quarreled over relatively minor technical regulations, but utilized the same machines and the CART-based teams and driver comprised the bulk of the Indy 500 entries each year.\n\nIndyCar Series\n\nIn 1994, Speedway owner Tony George announced plans for a new series, to be called the Indy Racing League. The Indy 500 would serve as its centerpiece. Opinions varied on his motivations, with his supporters sharing his disapproval of the race's lack of status within CART, the increasing number of foreign drivers (as American drivers were gravitating towards NASCAR), and the decreasing number of ovals in the season series. Detractors accused George of throwing his weight around and using the race as leverage to gain complete control of the sport of open wheel racing in the United States.\n\nIn 1995 and in response to a change in schedule by the CART series that put several races in direct conflict with Indy Racing League events, George announced that 25 of the 33 starting positions at the 1996 Indy 500 would be reserved for the top 25 cars in IRL points standings (similar in practice to NASCAR's Top 35 rule introduced years later). The move effectively left only eight starting positions open to the CART-regulars that chose not to participate in the IRL races. CART's reaction was to refuse to compromise on the schedule conflicts, skip the IRL races required to accumulate the qualifying points, boycott the race, and stage a competing event, the U.S. 500, on the same day at Michigan. Veteran Buddy Lazier won a competitive but crash-filled 1996 Indy 500. Two CART teams, Walker Racing and Galles Racing, competed in the Indianapolis 500 to fulfill sponsor obligations and were welcomed without incident. The U.S. 500, meanwhile, failed to garner as much interest and was marred by a huge crash on the pace laps that forced ten teams to use backup cars. CART would run at Gateway International Raceway a 300-mile race in ensuing years (1997–99) instead.\n\nFor 1997, new rules for less expensive cars and \"production based\" engines were put into place. The move made it such that the IRL utilized different and incompatible equipment; no CART-based teams would enter the Indy 500 for the next three years.\n\nIn 2000, Target Chip Ganassi Racing, still a CART-mainstay, made the decision to cross lines and compete at Indianapolis with drivers Jimmy Vasser and Juan Pablo Montoya. On race day, Montoya dominated the event, leading 167 of the 200 laps to victory. In 2001, Penske Racing returned, and won the race with driver Hélio Castroneves. Penske and Castroneves repeated with a win in 2002.\n\nBy 2003, Ganassi, Penske and Andretti Green all defected to the IRL permanently. CART went bankrupt later in the year, and its rights and infrastructure were purchased by remaining car owners, and it became the Champ Car World Series. The two series continued to operate separately through 2007. In early 2008, the two series were unified to create a single open wheel championship after a 12-year split being run under Indy Racing League/IMS controlknown as the IndyCar Series. \n\nThe 2012 race was the return of Turbocharged engines for the first time since 1996 with the use of the Dallara DW12 chassis and 2.2 L V-6 single turbo and twin turbocharged engines.\n\nNASCAR and the 500\n\nIn the 1960s and early 1970s, the Indy 500 and the World 600 at Charlotte Motor Speedway were held on different days of the week. A handful of NASCAR regulars participated in both events in the same year, including Bobby Allison, Donnie Allison, Cale Yarborough, and Lee Roy Yarbrough. From 1974–1992, the two events were scheduled for the same day and same starting time, making participation in both impossible. A few stock car drivers during that time, namely Neil Bonnett in 1979, nevertheless still attempted to qualify at Indy, even if that meant skipping Charlotte altogether.\n\n\"Double Duty\"\n\nFrom 1994 to 2014, several NASCAR drivers were able to compete in both the Indy 500 and the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte in the same day. Since 1993, the Coca-Cola 600 has been scheduled in the evening the same day as the Indy 500. The effort has been known as \"Double Duty\".\nAt the conclusion of the Indy 500, drivers would catch a helicopter directly from the Speedway to the Indianapolis International Airport. From there they would fly to Concord Regional Airport, and ride a helicopter to the NASCAR race. John Andretti, Tony Stewart, and Robby Gordon, attempted the feat, with Kurt Busch being the latest in 2014. In 2001, Tony Stewart became the first driver to complete the full race distance (1100 miles) in both races on the same day. \n\nFor 2005, the start of Indianapolis was pushed back to 1 p.m. EDT to improve television ratings. This significantly closed the window for a driver to be able to race both events in the same day. (The race's original starting time had been set at 11 a.m. EST – 12 noon EDT – because in 1911, race promoters estimated it would take six hours to complete the event, and they did not want the race to finish too close to suppertime. Nowadays the race is routinely completed in under three and one-half hours.)\n\nTwo drivers, Mario Andretti and A. J. Foyt, have won the Indianapolis 500 and the Daytona 500. Foyt also won the 24 Hours of Daytona and 12 Hours of Sebring, America's premier endurance races, as well as the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Foyt won Le Mans in 1967, about one month after winning his third Indy 500. Andretti won the Formula One World Championship and is a three time Sebring winner (he also won the 6 Hour version of Daytona). Indianapolis 500 winner Johnny Rutherford once won one of the Daytona 500 qualifying races. In 2010 Chip Ganassi became the first car owner to win the Daytona and Indianapolis 500s in the same year, with Jamie McMurray winning the Daytona 500 and Dario Franchitti winning the Indianapolis 500.\n\nIn 2010, Bruton Smith (owner of Speedway Motorsports, Inc.), offered $20,000,000 to any driver, IndyCar or NASCAR, who can win both the Indianapolis 500 and the Coca-Cola 600 on the same day starting in 2011 – a feat that has never been done before. For 2011, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway moved the start time of the Indy 500 back to 12:15 PM EDT (prior to 2005, the engines started at 10:52 AM EST; under the modern schedule, engines start around 12:05 PM for a start around 12:15 PM), which re-opened the window for travel. Brad Keselowski suggested that he would consider answering the challenge in 2014. It was announced on March 4, 2014 that Kurt Busch would attempt to qualify for the 2014 Indianapolis 500, driving a fifth car for the Andretti Autosport team. Busch completed all 500 miles at Indy to finish sixth, but dropped out of the 600 with a blown engine just past the 400-mile mark.\n\nTechnical regulations\n\nTechnical specifications for the Indianapolis 500 are currently written by IndyCar. Rules are generally the same as every other IndyCar race. In the past, particularly during the era in which USAC sanctioned the Indy 500 (but CART sanctioned the other Indy car races), rules at Indy slightly differed at times. The result, for example, would be a particular chassis or engine configuration being legal at Indy, but not so at the CART-sanctioned events. This was rather commonplace in the 1980s and early 1990s, when \"stock-block\" engines (namely the V-6 Buick) was allotted an increased level of turbocharger boost by USAC at Indy, compared to the purpose-built V-8 quad-cam engines. While the \"stock block\" engines were technically legal in CART competition, they were not given the increased boost advantage, which effectively rendered them uncompetitive, and precluded their use by teams. The most famous manifestation of the USAC rules disparity was the Ilmor-built Mercedes-Benz 500I engine fielded by Roger Penske in 1994. \n\nTeams may enter up to two machines under a given car number – the \"primary\" car and a \"backup\" car. The backup car is identified by the letter \"T\". For example, the two cars for the #2 team would be numbered #2 and #2T. Both cars may be practiced during the month, but due to engine lease rules, they must share the same engine. It is not uncommon for teams to prefer their backup car, if it is deemed faster, or for other strategic reasons. Additionally, as the month wears on, a \"T car\" may be split off into its own entry, and reassigned a new number, or be sold to another team.\n\nAll cars must pass a rigorous technical inspection before receiving a sticker signifying that the car is eligible to practice. Various criteria includes minimum weight, dimensions, and approved parts, particularly safety equipment. Prior to and following qualification attempts, cars must pass another inspection. The pre-qualifying inspection is focused on safety aspects, and is done on the pit lane qualifying queue. It is relatively brief, due to the time constraints of the qualifying procedure. The post-qualifying inspection is much more stringent and lengthy, and takes place in the garage area. It is to detect deviations from the performance guidelines set forth by the league, and cars can and have been fined or outright disqualified if they fail inspection.\n\nQualifying procedure\n\nThroughout the years, the race has used a number of different qualifying procedures. The current four-lap (ten-mile) qualifying distance was first introduced in 1920, and has been used every year since 1939. \n\nIn 2014, the qualifying procedure was refined, such that the pole position winner, and the starting grid would be determined over two days. On the weekend before the race (Saturday and Sunday), all cars are entered into a blind draw for the qualifying order.\n\nSaturday: All entries can make up to three attempts to qualify. The top 33 cars at the end of the day are locked into the grid. The top nine cars will advance to a special \"shootout\" session to determine the pole position. Making a second (or third) attempt automatically forfeits the previous attempt.\nSunday: The drivers that qualified 10-33 on Saturday have their original times erased, and go out to make a new run. This run determines the grid lineup for positions 10-33. The drivers who qualified 1-9 on Saturday advance to the \"Shootout\". Those cars also have their original time erased. Each car makes a new attempt, and determine the lineup for positions 1-9, including the highly coveted pole positions.\n\nFor each attempt, cars are allowed two warm-up laps. At that time, a member of the team is stationed at the north end of the mainstretch. He/she must wave a green flag, signaling an attempt, or else the car will be waved off. The attempt can be waved off during any of the four laps by the team, driver, or race officials. (The series will wave off the run if it is obvious the run will not be fast enough to qualify and it is getting late in the day.) If an attempt is waved off after the run starts, the attempt counts towards the three-attempt limit and the previous time is still forfeited, unless race officials waved off the attempt because of weather.\n\nCulture\n\nMemorabilia\n\nMany people promote and share information about the Indianapolis 500 and its memorabilia collecting. The National Indy 500 Collectors Club is an independent active organization that has been dedicated to support such activities. The organization was established January 1, 1985 in Indianapolis by its founder John Blazier and includes an experienced membership available for discussion and advice on Indy 500 memorabilia trading and Indy 500 questions in general.\n\nThe longest-running Indy racing memorabilia show is the National Auto Racing Memorabilia Show.\n\nEntertainment\n\nThe Indianapolis 500 has been the subject of several films, and has experienced countless references in television, movies, and other media.\n\nIndianapolis 500 Legends, a Wii and DS game based on the race was released on December 18, 2007. \n\nMilk\n\nLouis Meyer requested a glass of buttermilk after winning his second Indy 500 race in 1933. After winning his third title in 1936, he requested another glass but instead received a bottle. He was captured by a photographer in the act of swigging from the bottle while holding up three fingers to signify the third win. A local dairy company executive recognized the marketing opportunity in the image and, being unaware Meyer was drinking buttermilk, offered a bottle of milk to the winners of future races. Milk has been presented each year since then apart from 1947 to 1955. Modern drivers are offered a choice of whole, 2%, and skim. \n\nAt the 1993 Indianapolis 500, winner Emerson Fittipaldi, who owned and operated an orange grove, notoriously drank orange juice instead of milk during the televised winner's interview. He eventually relented and also drank from the milk bottle later in the post-race ceremonies after the broadcast was over, but the public relations damage had been done. The snub led to him being booed at the next ChampCar race in Milwaukee, Wisconsin the heart of dairy country, and by some, as late as the 2008 Indianapolis 500 in which he drove the pace car. In 2016, as a promotion the track gave out commemorative bottles of milk to 100,000 of those in attendance to toast the winner with milk after the race. \n\nBroadcasting\n\nRadio coverage of the race dates back to 1922. The race has been broadcast live on the radio in its entirety by the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network since 1953.\n\nThe Hulmans were somewhat resistant to allow live television coverage of the 500, largely to maximize gate attendance. The race was briefly televised live in 1949 and 1950 on WFBM-TV, after which the practice was discontinued. From 1964 to 1970, the race was broadcast live on closed-circuit television in theaters around the country. From 1965 through 1970, a highlighted version of the race was shown on ABC's Wide World of Sports. From 1971 through 1985, an edited same-day, tape delay broadcast of the race was shown in prime time. The race broadcast was edited down to either two or three hours in duration (including commercials).\n\nSince 1986, ABC has televised the race live in its entirety. However, at the request of the Speedway, Indianapolis affiliate WRTV is required to blackout the live broadcast and carry it on tape delay in prime time to encourage local race attendance. In 2007 (the first year in which the race was carried under the ESPN on ABC branding), the race was first aired in high-definition. \n\nIn 2016, the IMS declared a sell-out of race tickets for the 100th running of the event, and announced at the same time that WRTV would be allowed to air the race live for the first time since 1950. \n\nCoverage of time trials on ABC dates back to 1961. ABC covered time trials in various live and in tape-delayed formats from 1961-2008 and from 2014-present. ESPN (and later along with ESPN 2) carried various portions of time trials from 1987-2008. Versus (now NBCSN) covered time trials from 2009-2013.\n\nPractice sessions have been streamed live online dating back to at least 2001. \n\nIn 2015, ABC celebrated its 50th anniversary of covering the Indianapolis 500." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Al Unser Snr", "Al Unser", "Al Unser Senior", "Al Unser, Sr.", "Al Unser Sr.", "Al Unser Sr" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "al unser", "al unser snr", "al unser senior", "al unser sr" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "al unser sr", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Al Unser Sr" }
Who was the Super Bowl MVP in 1979 and 1980.	tc_1445	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl_XIV.txt", "Super_Bowl_Most_Valuable_Player_Award.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl XIV", "Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award" ], "wiki_context": [ "Super Bowl XIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Los Angeles Rams and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Pittsburgh Steelers to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1979 season. The Steelers defeated the Rams by the score of 31–19, becoming the first team to win four Super Bowls in six years, as well as the first to win more than three Super Bowls.\n\nThe game was played on January 20, 1980, at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, and was attended by a Super Bowl record 103,985 spectators. It was also the first time that the Super Bowl was coincidentally played in the home market of one of the participants; at the time, the Rams played at nearby Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum.\n\nThe Rams became the first team to reach the Super Bowl after posting nine wins or fewer during the regular season. Their 9–7 regular season record was followed by postseason wins over the Dallas Cowboys and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The Steelers were the defending Super Bowl XIII champions, and finished the 1979 regular season with a 12–4 record, and posted playoff victories over the Miami Dolphins and the Houston Oilers.\n\nSuper Bowl XIV was a close game during the first three quarters. The Rams led 13–10 at halftime before Steelers quarterback Terry Bradshaw connected with wide receiver Lynn Swann on a 47-yard touchdown pass. Los Angeles regained the lead on a halfback option play with running back Lawrence McCutcheon's 24-yard touchdown pass to Ron Smith. But Pittsburgh controlled the fourth quarter, scoring 14 unanswered points with Bradshaw's 73-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver John Stallworth, and running back Franco Harris' 1-yard touchdown run. Despite throwing three interceptions, Bradshaw was named Super Bowl MVP by completing 14 of 21 passes for 309 yards and two touchdowns. \n\nBackground\n\nThe NFL awarded Super Bowl XIV to Pasadena on June 14, 1977 at the owners meetings held in New York.\n\nPittsburgh Steelers\n\nThe Steelers won the AFC Central with a 12–4 regular season record (including 8-0 at home), and advanced to their second consecutive Super Bowl and their fourth appearance in the last six seasons. Pittsburgh appeared to be even better than what they were in their three previous Super Bowl victories. leading the league with 6,258 yards in total offense, an average of 391 yards per game and just 31 yards short of an NFL record. The team also led the league in scoring with 412 points.\n\nPittsburgh quarterback Terry Bradshaw had another fine season as the leader of the Steelers offense, throwing for 3,724 yards and 26 touchdowns during the regular season (but he did throw 25 interceptions). Wide receiver John Stallworth was his top target with 70 receptions for 1,183 yards and 8 touchdowns, while wide receiver Lynn Swann caught 41 passes for 808 yards, an average of 19.7 yards per catch. Steelers starting tight end Bennie Cunningham, who missed most of the previous season due to injuries, was also a big contributor with 36 receptions for 512 yards.\n\nRunning back Franco Harris was the Steelers' leading rusher for the 8th consecutive season with 1,186 yards and 11 touchdowns. He also recorded his 7th consecutive season with more than 1,000 yards, tying an NFL record set by Jim Brown. Harris also had his best year as a receiver out of the backfield, recording career-highs of 36 receptions for 291 yards and another touchdown. Fullback Rocky Bleier also had another superb season, providing Harris with excellent blocking while also contributing 711 combined rushing and receiving yards. And running back Sidney Thornton also emerged as a big threat with 816 total yards and averaging 5 yards per carry. Pittsburgh also had a solid offensive line, led by center Mike Webster. The Steelers' offense did lead the NFL with a staggering 52 turnovers in the regular season, a trend that would continue in Super Bowl XIV.\n\nThe Steelers' \"Steel Curtain\" defense finished the regular season as the top rated defense in the AFC, limiting opponents to only 4,621 offensive yards. Up front, linemen Joe Greene and L.C. Greenwood terrorized opposing quarterbacks and rushers. And linebackers Jack Lambert and Jack Ham excelled at run stopping and pass coverage, combining for 8 interceptions. The Steelers also had a fine secondary, led by defensive backs Mel Blount, who recorded 3 interceptions, and Donnie Shell, who had 5.\n\nLos Angeles Rams\n\nAdversity hovered over the Rams long before the season began. During the off-season, in a mysterious accident, owner Carroll Rosenbloom drowned, and a power struggle ensued between Carroll's second wife, Georgia Frontiere, and his son, Steve Rosenbloom. Georgia eventually gained control of the team and fired her stepson. Prior to Carroll Rosenbloom's death, the Rams had already announced their intentions to leave the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and move to Anaheim Stadium in Orange County for the 1980 season.\n\nThe Rams barely outscored their opponents, 323-309, and finished the regular season with a 9-7 record, the worst ever by a team who advanced to the Super Bowl (that record was later tied by the Arizona Cardinals in Super Bowl XLIII and the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLVI). The team was plagued with injuries during the regular season, including the loss of their starting quarterback Pat Haden. His replacement, Vince Ferragamo, completed less than 50 percent of his passes and threw twice as many interceptions (10) as touchdowns (5). But he still led the Rams to victory in 6 of their last 7 games.\n\nThe Rams gained 6,006 total yards of offense during the regular season, ranking second in the league. The team's main offensive weapon was running back Wendell Tyler, who rushed for 1,109 yards, caught 32 passes for 308 yards, and scored 10 touchdowns. Tyler's rushing yards came off just 218 rushing attempts, giving him a league-leading 5.1 yards per carry average. Fullback Cullen Bryant provided Tyler with excellent blocking while also gaining 846 total yards and scoring 5 touchdowns. Wide receiver Preston Dennard was the team's main deep threat, catching 43 passes for 766 yards and 4 touchdowns. The offensive line, led by tackles Doug France and Jackie Slater and guard Dennis Harrah, paved the Rams' running attack to 4th in the NFC during the season despite injuries. They also gave up only 29 sacks.\n\nBut the Rams' main strength was their defense, which featured defensive end Jack Youngblood, who made the Pro Bowl for the 7th year in a row and was playing with a broken leg, and lightning-quick Fred Dryer on the opposite end. Behind them, the Rams had two outstanding linebackers: Jack \"Hacksaw\" Reynolds, and Jim Youngblood (no relation to Jack), who had recorded 5 interceptions and returned 2 of them for touchdowns. The Rams also had a solid secondary, led by free safety Nolan Cromwell, who also grabbed 5 interceptions. Collectively, the Rams' defense established an NFL record (which still stands) on November 4, 1979, by holding the Seattle Seahawks' offense (which finished the 1979 season 4th in the NFL in points scored) to a total of minus 7 yards for the game.\n\nPlayoffs\n\nIn the playoffs, the Rams avenged the previous year's NFC Championship Game shutout loss to the Dallas Cowboys by beating them 21–19. Then they beat the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the NFC Championship Game, 9–0, scoring only three field goals.\n\nMeanwhile, the Steelers went on to defeat the Miami Dolphins, 34–14, and the Houston Oilers, 27–13, in the playoffs. During those two playoff games, the Pittsburgh defense limited running backs Larry Csonka and Earl Campbell, respectively, to a combined total of only 35 rushing yards. Campbell was the league's rushing leader during the regular season with 1,697 yards, but could only gain 15 yards against the Steelers in the AFC Championship Game.\n\nSuper Bowl pregame news and notes\n\nPittsburgh was heavily favored to win Super Bowl XIV and become the first team to win 4 Super Bowls. Most people did not think that the Rams even belonged on the same field with the Steelers. In fact, Sports Illustrated had called the NFC Championship Game a game for losers, played by losers. One sports writer sarcastically suggested that Bradshaw throw left-handed and the Rams should be allowed to play with 12 men on the field to make the Super Bowl more competitive.\n\nHowever, the Steelers were not taking their opponents lightly. In their previous meetings, the Rams held a 12–1–2 all-time record over the Steelers, including wins in 1971, 1975, and 1978. The wins in 1975 (by a score of 10–3) and 1978 (by a score of 10–7) were over Steeler teams that eventually won the Super Bowl those seasons. Also, the Steelers had shown clear signs of weakness when playing away from their home stadium during the season. Their first loss of the year was on the road in a 4-turnover performance against the Philadelphia Eagles. Two weeks later at 5-1, Pittsburgh was blown out 34-10 in Cincinnati against an 0-6 Bengals team. In week 12, the team lost 8 turnovers in a 35-7 loss on the road against the San Diego Chargers.\n\nBradshaw became the second quarterback to start four Super Bowls, joining his counterpart from Super Bowls X and XIII Roger Staubach. Joe Montana became the third to start four Super Bowls, but all were passed by John Elway and Tom Brady.\n\nSuper Bowl XIV holds the record for attendance with 103,985 spectators.\n\nTelevision and entertainment\n\nCBS televised the game in the United States with play-by-play announcer Pat Summerall and color commentator Tom Brookshier. One of the guest analysts for the network's studio pregame show was former Oakland Raiders coach John Madden; he impressed CBS executives so much that he replaced Brookshier as lead game analyst in 1981. CBS Radio coverage featured Jack Buck and Hank Stram; with Brent Musburger working both radio and television coverage (hosting the Super Bowl Today pregame show and the Vince Lombardi Trophy presentation). Locally, Bob Starr and Al Wisk called the game for the Rams over KMPC in Los Angeles, while WTAE-AM in Pittsburgh featured the Steelers' play-by-play team of Jack Fleming and Myron Cope.\n\nThe Los Angeles Unified School District All-City Band played during the pregame ceremonies. Later, actress and singer Cheryl Ladd performed the national anthem. The coin toss ceremony featured longtime Steelers owner Art Rooney.\n\nThe performance event group Up with People performed during the halftime show titled \"A Salute to the Big Band Era\".\n\nThe famous Coca-Cola commercial in which \"Mean\" Joe Greene gives a boy his game jersey aired during CBS' telecast of the game. However, it is technically not viewed as a Super Bowl ad since it actually debuted on October 1, 1979, not during the day of the game.[http://espn.go.com/page2/s/list/sbcommercials.html ESPN.com – Page2 – Best Super Bowl commercials][http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ccmphtml/colahist.html Coca-Cola Television Advertisements:The D'Arcy Era] 60 Minutes was broadcast after the game, representing the Super Bowl lead-out program.\n\nThe city of Pittsburgh celebrated its third major pro championship in 13 months. The Steelers had also won the previous year's Super Bowl, and the city's Major League Baseball team, the Pirates, had won the World Series three months before this Super Bowl game. Ten days after the Steelers' Super Bowl victory, the city's National Hockey League team, the Pittsburgh Penguins, changed its uniform colors to match the black and gold scheme of the Pirates and Steelers, as well as that of the Pittsburgh city flag.\n\nGame summary\n\nDespite being the underdogs, the Rams managed to hang on to a 13–10 lead at halftime, and a 19–17 lead at the beginning of the fourth quarter. But the Steelers held the Rams scoreless in the fourth quarter and scored two touchdowns for the win. Despite the game's uneven matchup and the final score, this game is regarded by some as one of the most competitive games in Super Bowl history. Overall, the lead changed 7 times between both teams, a Super Bowl record; the Rams took the lead 3 times while the Steelers took it 4 times.\n\nFirst Half\n\nThe Rams took the opening kickoff but the Steel Curtain, however, managed to force a three-and-out. Then on the Steelers' 7th play of their first possession, quarterback Terry Bradshaw completed a 32-yard pass to running back Franco Harris to reach the Los Angeles 26-yard line. But a third down pass fell incomplete, forcing Pittsburgh to settle for a 41-yard field goal from rookie kicker Matt Bahr.\n\nBahr's ensuing kickoff was very short, giving the Rams great field position at their 41-yard line. On the first play of the drive, Los Angeles running back Wendell Tyler caught a 6-yard pass from Vince Ferragamo. Then on the next play, Tyler took a handoff, ran left, broke some tackles, and ran 39 yards to the Steelers 14-yard line before he was finally dragged down by Pittsburgh defensive back Donnie Shell, the longest run against the Steelers all season. Shell saved the touchdown by making the tackle after previously being knocked to the turf five yards past the line of scrimmage. 6 plays later, fullback Cullen Bryant scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give the Rams a 7–3 lead. The score was the Steelers' first rushing touchdown allowed in Super Bowl competition.\n\nBut the lead did not last long. Pittsburgh defensive back Larry Anderson returned the ensuing kickoff 45 yards to his own 47-yard line, and then the Steelers marched 53 yards in 9 plays using every offensive weapon in their arsenal. First, Harris ran for 12 yards, fullback Rocky Bleier ran for 1, then tight end Bennie Cunningham caught a pass for 8. Bleier ran again for 2, followed by Bradshaw's 18-yard completion to receiver Lynn Swann on the last play of the first quarter. The second period opened with Bradshaw's 13-yard completion to Cunningham to reach the Los Angeles 5-yard line, and then Harris ran through the middle to the 4. Wide receiver John Stallworth was then stopped at the 1-yard line, but then Harris ran to the right untouched and scored a touchdown on the next play, giving the Steelers a 10–7 lead.\n\nBut like the Rams' previous lead, the Steelers' lead also turned out to be short-lived. Aided by a 20-yard pass interference penalty against Shell, Los Angeles advanced 67 yards in 10 plays to score on 31-yard field goal from kicker Frank Corral to tie the game. Anderson gave the Steelers great field position after returning the ensuing kickoff 38 yards to the Pittsburgh 46-yard line, but the Steelers could not move the ball and had to punt. The Rams were also forced to punt on their next possession after only gaining 6 yards. But on the first play of the Steelers' next drive, Los Angeles defensive back Dave Elmendorf intercepted a pass from Bradshaw and returned it 10 yards to Pittsburgh's 39-yard line.\n\nOn the first two plays after the turnover, Ferragamo was sacked for a 10-yard loss and threw an incomplete pass. But he managed to overcome the situation with a 12-yard completion to Bryant on third down and a 10-yard completion to receiver Billy Waddy on 4th down and 8. Ferragamo's next pass was complete to tight end Terry Nelson for a first down at the 13-yard line, but after throwing two incompletions, Pittsburgh lineman John Banaszak sacked Ferragamo on third down. However, Corral kicked a 45-yard field goal to give the Rams a 13–10 halftime lead.\n\nSecond Half\n\nThe heavily favored Steelers trailed at the end of the half. \"How can you mess up this way?\" Steelers assistant coach Woody Widenhofer asked his team at halftime. \"Didn't we go over these things a dozen times? You guys are standing out there like statues.\"[http://www.steelergridiron.com/history/historyof14.html History of Steelers-Super Bowl xiv]\n\nAnderson once again gave the Steelers great starting field position, returning the opening kickoff of the second half 37 yards to the Pittsburgh 39-yard line. The Steelers lulled the Rams defense by running the ball on three consecutive plays of the drive, and then Bradshaw burned them with a 47-yard touchdown completion to Swann, who made a leaping catch at the Los Angeles 2-yard line and tumbled into the end zone to give Pittsburgh a 17–13 lead.\n\nBut they didn't hold it. After starting the ensuing drive with two running plays, Ferragamo completed a 50-yard pass to Waddy. Then on the next play, Ferragamo handed the ball off to running back Lawrence McCutcheon, who started to run to the right. The Steelers' defense came up to tackle him behind the line of scrimmage, only to watch him throw a 24-yard touchdown pass to Ron Smith. Corral missed the extra point attempt, but the Rams had retaken the lead, 19–17.\n\nThe Steelers had some success advancing into Rams territory on their next two possessions, only to see the Rams intercept the ball both times. First, Rams free safety Eddie Brown stopped the ensuing Steelers drive with an interception, lateraling to Pat Thomas to gain an additional two yards. Then after a punt, Pittsburgh drove all the way to the Rams 16-yard line, but Los Angeles defensive back Rod Perry intercepted a pass intended for Stallworth. Thus, the third quarter ended with the Rams still in the lead, 19–17, seemingly in control of the game. Worse yet, Pittsburgh lost Swann to injury, when he was knocked out of the game by Perry.\n\nWith 12:59 left in the game, Rams punter Ken Clark's 59-yard punt planted Pittsburgh back on their own 25-yard line. Then faced with 3rd down and 8, Bradshaw took the snap, faked a handoff, and then threw a pass to Stallworth, who was running a streak pattern down the middle of the field. Stallworth caught the ball barely beyond the outstretched hand of Perry and took it all the way to the end zone for a 73-yard go-ahead touchdown to make the score 24–19 for the Steelers. The NFL Films highlight film notes that safety Eddie Brown was supposed to help Perry in covering Stallworth, but for some reason, Brown ignored the Steeler receiver. On the ensuing kickoff, the Rams tried a reverse, which resulted in poor field position.\n\nAfter an exchange of punts, the Rams mounted one final, spirited drive to regain the lead. Ferragamo smartly moved the Rams down the field, completing 3 out of 4 passes around runs by Tyler. His 15-yard completion to Waddy on 3rd and 13 moved the Rams to the Pittsburgh 32-yard line with just under 6 minutes remaining. However, on the following play, Ferragamo made his first and only mistake of the game. Despite the fact that Waddy had broken free down the right side of the field, Ferragamo had zeroed in on Ron Smith down the middle of the field, but he didn't notice Pittsburgh linebacker Jack Lambert playing behind Smith. As Ferragamo released the ball, Lambert jumped in front of Smith and intercepted the pass with 5:24 remaining.\n\nWhen faced with a 3rd down and 7 on their ensuing drive, Bradshaw once again made a crucial long pass completion to Stallworth, this time a 45-yard reception to the Rams 22-yard line, barely beyond the outstretched hand of Perry. Two plays later, a pass interference penalty on Los Angeles cornerback Pat Thomas in the end zone gave the Steelers a first down at the 1-yard line. The Rams managed to keep Bleier and Harris out of the end zone for two plays, but Harris then scored on a third-down, 1-yard touchdown run to give the Steelers a 31–19 lead and put the game away. The Rams responded by driving to Pittsburgh's 37-yard line, but ended up turning over the ball on downs with 39 seconds left in the game, and the Steelers ran out the clock for the win.\n\nAftermath\n\nThis was the third time in Super Bowl history that a team overcame a deficit entering the fourth quarter to win the game. The Baltimore Colts entered the final quarter down 13–6 against Dallas in Super Bowl V and won the game 16–13. The Pittsburgh Steelers started the final period against Dallas in Super Bowl X down 10–7 and eventually won the game 21–17. The lead had changed hands seven times, a Super Bowl record to this day. Franco Harris, Lynn Swann, and John Stallworth became the fourth, fifth and sixth players to score touchdowns in back-to-back Super Bowls, respectively. They had to celebrate when Swann returned from the hospital after being injured.\n\nFerragamo finished the game with 15 out of 25 completions for 212 yards, with 1 interception. Tyler was the top rusher of the game with 60 yards, and caught 2 passes for 20 yards. Waddy was the Rams leading receiver with 3 catches for 75 yards. Harris led the Steelers in rushing with 44 yards and 2 touchdowns, while also catching 3 passes for 66 yards. Stallworth was the top receiver of the game with 3 receptions for 121 yards and a touchdown, an average of 40.3 yards per catch. Swann had 5 catches for 79 yards and a touchdown. Larry Anderson set a Super Bowl record with 162 yards from his 5 kickoff returns.\n\nThe Rams would remain competitive in the 1980s but wouldn't reach another Super Bowl until their victory in Super Bowl XXXIV in January 2000, after the team had moved to St. Louis before the 1995 season. The closest the Los Angeles Rams would get to getting back to another Super Bowl was in 1985, when they advanced to the NFC title game before falling to the eventual Super Bowl champion Chicago Bears, and in 1989; reaching the NFC Championship before losing to division rival and defending Super Bowl champion San Francisco. Wendell Tyler eventually won a Super Bowl as a featured back for the San Francisco 49ers in 1984. The last link of the 1979 team was Jackie Slater, who remained on the team until 1995, the club's first season in St. Louis. He set an NFL record by playing 20 seasons with one team, yet Super Bowl XIV would remain his lone trip to the Big Game.\n\nPittsburgh would go 9–7 the following season and miss the playoffs. They would go 8–8 in 1981 before making the playoffs the next three seasons. Many of the links that powered the Steelers to their Super Bowl wins began to retire shortly after Super Bowl XIV, starting with Rocky Bleier in 1980 and Joe Greene in 1981. Stallworth, Webster, and Shell would play well into the 1980s and helped lead Pittsburgh to the 1984 AFC Championship game. But they would not reach a Super Bowl until the 1995 season, losing to the Dallas Cowboys 27–17 in Super Bowl XXX. Kicker Matt Bahr would win another Super Bowl with the New York Giants during the 1990 season. He kicked the game-winning field goal in Super Bowl XXV, and a week earlier booted the game-winning field goal against the San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, thus denying the 49ers a chance at three straight Super Bowl victories and surpassing the Steelers' total of four Super Bowl titles. Chuck Noll, the last link to Pittsburgh's dynasty, retired from coaching following the 1991 season. Only Bill Belichick has matched Noll's four Vince Lombardi Trophies as a head coach. The Steelers' record of four Super Bowls in six seasons has yet to be matched.\n\nBox score\n\nFinal statistics\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/boxscore/sbxiv NFL.com Super Bowl XIV]\n\nStatistical comparison\n\nIndividual leaders\n\n1Completions/attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n\nStarting lineups\n\nOfficials\n\nReferee: Fred Silva #7 first Super Bowl on field (alternate for IX)\nUmpire: Al Conway #7 second Super Bowl (IX)\nHead Linesman: Burl Toler #18 first Super Bowl \nLine Judge: Bob Beeks #16 first Super Bowl\nField Judge: Charley Musser #19 second Super Bowl (IV)\nSide Judge: Ben Tompkins #4 first Super Bowl\nBack Judge: Stan Javie #6 fourth Super Bowl (II, VIII, X)\nAlternate Referee: Jerry Seeman #17 worked Super Bowls XXIII and XXV on field\n\nThis was the First Super Bowl officiating crew to feature two African-Americans (Toler and Beeks).", "The Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award, or Super Bowl MVP, is presented annually to the most valuable player of the Super Bowl, the National Football League's (NFL) championship game. The winner is chosen by a fan vote during the game and by a panel of 16 football writers and broadcasters who vote after the game. The media panel's ballots count for 80 percent of the vote tally, while the viewers' ballots make up the other 20 percent. The game's viewing audience can vote on the Internet or by using cellular phones; Super Bowl XXXV, held in 2001, was the first Super Bowl where fan voting was allowed. \n\nThe Super Bowl MVP has been awarded annually since the game's inception in 1967. Through 1989, the award was presented by SPORT magazine. Bart Starr was the MVP of the first two Super Bowls. Since 1990, the award has been presented by the NFL. At Super Bowl XXV, the league first awarded the Pete Rozelle Trophy, named after the former NFL commissioner, to the Super Bowl MVP. Ottis Anderson was the first to win the trophy. Most award winners have received cars from various sponsors. The most recent Super Bowl MVP was Denver Broncos linebacker Von Miller, who was named the most valuable player of Super Bowl 50, held on February 7, 2016. \n\nJoe Montana and Tom Brady are the only players to have won three Super Bowl MVP awards; three others—Starr, Terry Bradshaw, and Eli Manning—have won the award twice. Starr and Bradshaw are the only ones to have won it in back-to-back years. The MVP has come from the winning team every year except 1971, when Dallas Cowboys linebacker Chuck Howley won the award despite the Cowboys' loss in Super Bowl V to the Baltimore Colts. Harvey Martin and Randy White were named co-MVPs of Super Bowl XII, the only time co-MVPs have been chosen. Including the Super Bowl XII co-MVPs, seven Cowboys players have won Super Bowl MVP awards, the most of any NFL team. Quarterbacks have earned the honor 27 times in 50 games. The youngest player to win the award was Marcus Allen, who was 23 when he was named the MVP of Super Bowl XVIII; the oldest winner was Super Bowl XXXIII MVP John Elway, who was 38 at the time. Mark Rypien and Hines Ward are the only players born outside the United States to earn the Super Bowl MVP, having been born in Canada and South Korea, respectively. \n\nTable key\n\nWinners\n\nBy team\n\nBy position\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Terri bradshaw", "Terry Bradshaw", "Terry Paxton Bradshaw" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "terri bradshaw", "terry bradshaw", "terry paxton bradshaw" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "terry bradshaw", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Terry Bradshaw" }
In 1978 US Masters, who was leading Gary Player by seven strokes, only to lose by a single stroke?	tc_1447	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Gary_Player.txt" ], "title": [ "Gary Player" ], "wiki_context": [ "Gary Player DMS, OIG (born 1 November 1935) is a retired South African professional golfer, widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of golf. Over his career, Player accumulated nine major championships on the regular tour and six Champions Tour major championship victories, as well as three Senior British Open Championships on the European Senior Tour. At the age of 29, Player won the 1965 U.S. Open and became the only non-American to win all four majors, known as the career Grand Slam. Player became only the third golfer in history to win the Career Grand Slam, following Ben Hogan and Gene Sarazen, and only Jack Nicklaus and Tiger Woods have performed the feat since. Player has won 165 tournaments on six continents over six decades and was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. \n\nBorn in Johannesburg, Player has logged more than 25 million kilometres (15 million miles) in travel, which is more than any other athlete. Nicknamed the Black Knight, Mr. Fitness, and the International Ambassador of Golf, Player is also a renowned golf course architect with more than 325 design projects on five continents throughout the world. He has also authored or co-written 36 golf books.\n\nHis business interests are represented by Black Knight International, which includes Gary Player Design, Player Real Estate, The Player Foundation, Gary Player Academies, and Black Knight Enterprises, aspects of which include licensing, events, publishing, wine, apparel and memorabilia. \n\nThe Gary Player Stud Farm has received worldwide acclaim for breeding top thoroughbred race horses, including 1994 Epsom Derby entry Broadway Flyer.\n\nHe operates The Player Foundation, which has a primary objective of promoting underprivileged education around the world. In 1983, The Player Foundation established the Blair Atholl Schools in Johannesburg, South Africa, which has educational facilities for more than 500 students from kindergarten through eighth grade. In 2013 it celebrated its 30th Anniversary with charity golf events in London, Palm Beach, Shanghai and Cape Town, bringing its total of funds raised to over US$60 million. \n\nBackground and family\n\nGary Player was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, the youngest of Harry and Muriel Player's three children. When he was eight years old his mother died from cancer. Although his father was often away from home working in the gold mines, he did manage to take a loan in order to buy a set of clubs for his son Gary to begin playing golf. The Virginia Park golf course in Johannesburg is where Player first began his love affair with golf. At the age of 14, Player played his first round of golf and parred the first three holes. At age 16, he announced that he would become number one in the world. At age 17, he became a professional golfer.\n\nPlayer married wife Vivienne Verwey (sister of professional golfer Bobby Verwey) on 19 January 1957, four years after turning professional. Together they have six children: Jennifer, Marc, Wayne, Michele, Theresa and Amanda. He is also a grandfather to 21 grandchildren. During the early days of his career Player would travel from tournament to tournament with wife, six children, nanny and a tutor in tow.\n\nHis eldest son, Marc Player, owns and operates Black Knight International, which exclusively represents Player in all his commercial activities, including all endorsements, licensing, merchandising, golf course design, and real estate development.\n\nGary Player is the brother of Ian Player, a notable South African environmental educator and conservationist who saved the white rhino from extinction. \n\nRegular PGA Tour career\n\nPlayer is one of the most successful golfers in the history of the sport, ranking third (behind Roberto de Vicenzo and Sam Snead) in total professional wins, with at least 166, and tied for fourth in major championship victories with nine. Along with Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus he is often referred to as one of \"The Big Three\" golfers of his era – from the late 1950s through the late 1970s – when golf boomed in the United States and around the world, greatly encouraged by expanded television coverage. Along with Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods, he is one of only five players to win golf’s \"career Grand Slam\". He completed the Grand Slam in 1965 at the age of twenty-nine. Player was the second multiple majors winner from South Africa, following Bobby Locke, then was followed by Ernie Els, and Retief Goosen.\n\nPlayer played regularly on the U.S. based PGA Tour from the late 1950s. He led the Tour money list in 1961, and went on to accumulate 24 career Tour titles. He also played an exceptionally busy schedule all over the world, and he has been called the world's most traveled athlete, clocking up more than 15 million miles. He has more victories than anyone else in the South African Open (13) and the Australian Open (7). He held the record for most victories in the World Match Play Championship, with five wins, from 1973 until 1991 when this feat was equalled by Seve Ballesteros, finally losing his share of the record in 2004, when Ernie Els won the event for a sixth time. Player was in the top ten of Mark McCormack's world golf rankings from their inception in 1968 until 1981; he was ranked second in 1969, 1970 and 1972, each time to Jack Nicklaus.\n\nHe was the only player in the 20th century to win the British Open in three different decades. His first win, as a 23-year-old in 1959 at Muirfield, came after he double-bogeyed the last hole. In 1974, he became one of the few golfers in history to win two major championships in the same season. Player last won the U.S. Masters in 1978, when he started seven strokes behind 54-hole leader Hubert Green entering the final round, and won by one shot with birdies at seven of the last 10 holes for a back nine 30 and a final round 64. One week later, Player again came from seven strokes back in the final round to win the Tournament of Champions. In 1984, at the age of 48 Player nearly became the oldest ever major champion, finishing in second place behind Lee Trevino at the PGA Championship. And in gusty winds at the 1998 Masters, he became the oldest golfer ever to make the cut, breaking the 25-year-old record set by Sam Snead. Player credited this feat to his dedication to the concept of diet, health, practice and golf fitness. \n\nBeing South African, Player never played in the Ryder Cup in which American and European golfers compete against each other. Regarding the event, Player remarked, \"The things I have seen in the Ryder Cup have disappointed me. You are hearing about hatred and war.\" He was no longer an eligible player when the Presidents Cup was established to give international players the opportunity to compete in a similar event, but he was non-playing captain of the International Team for the Presidents Cup in 2003, which was held on a course he designed, The Links at Fancourt, in George, South Africa. After 2003 ended in a tie, he was reappointed as captain for the 2005 Presidents Cup, and his team lost to the Americans 15.5 to 18.5. Both Player and Jack Nicklaus were appointed to captain their respective teams again in 2007 in Canada; the United States won.\n\nLegacy\n\nIn 2000 he was voted \"Sportsman of the Century\" in South Africa. In 1966, Gary Player was awarded the Bob Jones Award, the highest honour given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. The \"Gary Player – A Global Journey\" exhibition was launched by the Hall of Fame as of March 2006.\n\nIn 2000, Player was ranked as the eighth greatest golfer of all time by Golf Digest magazine. \n\nIn 2002, Player was voted as the second greatest global golfer of all time by a panel of international media, golf magazines and fellow professionals conducted by the leading Golf Asia Magazine.\n\nOn 10 April 2009, he played for the last time in the Masters, where he was playing for his record 52nd time – every year since 1957 except for 1973, when he was recovering from surgery. After Nicklaus and Palmer, he was the last of the Big Three to retire from this tournament, a testament to his longevity.\n\nOn 23 July 2009, at the age of 73, Player competed in the Senior British Open Championship at Sunningdale Golf Club, 53 years after capturing his maiden European Tour victory at the Berkshire venue. \n\nAugusta National Golf Club and the Masters announced on 5 July 2011 that Player had been invited to join Jack Nicklaus and Arnold Palmer as an honorary starter. The Big Three were reunited in this capacity starting with the 2012 tournament. \n\nIn July 2013, he became the oldest athlete ever to pose nude in ESPN The Magazines annual Body Issue to inspire people to keep looking after themselves throughout their lives whatever their age.\n\nGolf course designing\n\nGary Player and Gary Player Design have executed over 300 projects in 35 countries on five continents. They try to build long-term mutually rewarding relationships with clients and display integrity and credibility in business settings. The group proactively provides experienced solutions throughout the intricate development process of a project.\n\nThe company offers three different design brands: Gary Player Design, Player Design, and Black Knight Design. The marketing advantages of each of these brands vary according to the personal participation of Player, as well as the access to different levels of intellectual property. \n\nGary Player Design also upholds a strict environmental policy, which includes minimizing site disturbance, promoting organic applications, and specifying environmentally-sensitive building materials in their golf course design approaches; they are refining efforts in these areas and are using state-of-the-art industry methods.\n\nTheir primary focus, however, is on water, which is one of Gary Player's greatest concerns. According to Player, \"Water conservation techniques are not only our fundamental responsibility, but are important to the industry of golf and the global growth of the wonderful game of golf, as real water-savings also mean real cost-savings.\" With golf accepted back into the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Gary Player Design was selected among the finalists of an official RFP in early December 2011.\n\nThe Player Foundation\n\nThe Player Foundation was established in 1983 and began as an effort to provide education, nutrition, medical care and athletic activities, for a small community of disadvantaged children living on the outskirts of Johannesburg, South Africa. The Player Foundation has since blossomed into an organisation that circles the globe bringing aid to underprivileged children and impoverished communities. Since its establishment,The Player Foundation has donated over $50 million to the support of children's charities, the betterment of impoverished communities and the expansion of educational opportunities throughout the world.\n\nThe Foundation is primarily funded by four Gary Player Invitational events presented through Black Knight International and staged in the United States, China, Europe and South Africa annually. The Gary Player Invitational is a pro-am tournament that pairs celebrities and professional golfers from the PGA and Champions Tours with businessmen and other local participants. The proceeds of these tournaments and other special events provide funding for an ever-expanding number of institutions around the world, including the Blair Atholl Schools in South Africa, the Pleasant City Elementary School in Palm Beach, the Masizame Children’s Shelter in Plettenberg Bay, South Africa, and AIDS infected children in Baoshan, a drug-infested city located on the China-Burma border.\n\nProceeds from the Gary Player Invitational have also been donated to The Lord’s Taverners in the UK and the following organisations in South Africa; Wildlands Conservation Trust, Twilight Children, and Bana Development Centre. \n\nControversy\n\nIn July 2007, a media controversy emerged over his statements at The Open Championship golf tournament about the use of performance-enhancing drugs in golf. Subsequently, the PGA Tour introduced a formal policy.\nPlayer has almost always \"spoken his mind\" and been considered a controversial albeit frank and forthright professional golfer. He has been a pioneer of diet, health and fitness although he upset the Atkins Diet organisation by disagreeing with their \"all protein\" approach. He was branded a \"traitor\" by South African Nationalist Government supporters for inviting and bringing both black tennis pro Arthur Ashe and golfer Lee Elder to play in South Africa. He was the first golfer to call for mandatory drug testing on all tours around the world.\n\nPlayer has hosted the Nelson Mandela Invitational golf tournament since 2000. In October 2007, further media controversy arose about his involvement in the 2002 design of a golf course in Burma. As a result of the political uprisings in Burma, the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund withdrew from the fundraising golf tournament because of Player's unsubstantiated business links with the country. Both Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu accepted Player's position and statements on Burma. Player refused to withdraw as he personally built the golf event from scratch and issued a statement rebutting these claims via his website. The event is now annually staged at the Fancourt Resort as the Gary Player Invitational.\n\nIn June 2016, in an interview with bunkered.co.uk, Player branded a report released by The R&A and USGA which said that driving distance in golf was only increasing minimally as 'laughable' and warned of a 'tsunami coming' due the governing bodies' failure to address issues surrounding new golf technology. \n\nDistinctions and honours\n\nOn 8 June 1961, Player was the guest on NBC's The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford. In a comedy skit, he gives Tennessee Ernie Ford a golf lesson. \nReceived the 1966 Bob Jones Award from the United States Golf Association.\nNamed Honorary Member of the R&A in 1994.\nReceived Honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from St. Andrews in 1995.\nReceived Honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland in 1997\nThe WGC-Bridgestone Invitational trophy is named the Gary Player Cup.\nNamed Honorary Member of Carnoustie in 1999\nReceived Honorary Doctorate in Law, University of Dundee, Scotland in 1999\nSouth African Sportsman of the Century award in 2000\nReceived the 2003 Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award at the Laureus World Sports Awards in Monte Carlo.\nAwarded the Order of Ikhamanga (in gold for exceptional achievement) in 2003 by President Mbeki of South Africa for excellence in golf and contribution to non-racial sport in South Africa.\nHe was the world's first golfer to be featured on any country's postal stamp in South Africa.\nHas designed over 325 golf courses on six continents around the world.\nHe currently plays on the U.S. Champions Tour and European Seniors Tour occasionally.\nHe received the 2006 Payne Stewart Award from the PGA Tour.\nPlayed in his 52nd Masters Tournament at Augusta National in April 2009, extending his record of for most Masters appearances\nInducted into the African American Sports Hall of Fame in May 2007, with Lifetime Achievement Award\nHas played in a record 46 consecutive British Open Championships, winning 3 times over 3 decades.\nStars with Camilo Villegas in a MasterCard \"priceless foursome\" television commercial launched during the U.S. Open in June 2009\nIn November 2009 he was awarded the inaugural Breeders Cup \"Sports and Racing Excellence Award\" at Santa Anita Park in California which honours owners and breeders of thoroughbred race horses.\nWas inducted into the Asian Pacific Golf Hall of Fame with Jack Nicklaus in 2011 at a ceremony in Pattaya, Thailand.\nIn December 2011, Gary Player Design was selected amongst the finalists to design the golf course for the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro\nHe received the PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award at The Players Championship in May 2012. The first international person to receive this accolade.\n\nProfessional wins\n\nPGA Tour wins (24)\n\nPGA Tour playoff record (3–10)\n\nMajor championships are shown in bold.\n\nSunshine Tour (73)\n\nPlayer won 165 professional tournaments. This is a list of his other 141 wins in addition to his 24 on the PGA Tour\n\nSouth Africa Tour (now the Sunshine Tour)\n\n73 wins between 1955 and 1981 (64 regular and 9 majors):\nEast Rand Open: 1955, 1956\nGeneral Motors Open: 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976\nICL International: 1977\nLiquid Air Tournament: 1963\nNatal Open: 1958, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1966, 1968\nNissan Skins Game: 1986, 1988, 1991\nRand International Open: 1974\nRichelieu Grand Prix, Cape Town: 1963\nRichelieu Grand Prix, Johannesburg: 1963\nSouth African Masters: 11 times (1960, 1964, 1967, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1979(x2))\nSouth African Open: 13 times (1956, 1960, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1972, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1981)\nSouth African PGA Championship: 1959, 1969, 1979, 1982\nSponsored 5000: 1963\nSun City Classic: 1979\nTrophee Boigny: 1980\nTransvaal Open: 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1966\nWestern Province Open: 1957, 1959, 1960, 1968, 1971, 1972\nEgyptian Matchplay 1955\n\nPGA Tour of Australasia (18)\n\n18 wins between 1956 and 1981:\nAmpol Tournament: 1956, 1958, 1961\nAustralian Open: A record 7 times (1958, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1969, 1970, 1974). Jack Nicklaus won 6 and Greg Norman 5 times.\nWills Classic: 1961 \nWills Masters: 1968 \nAustralian PGA Championship: 1957\nNorth Coast Open (Coffs Harbour): 1956, 1957\nDunlop International: 1970\nGold Coast Classic: 1981\nVictorian Open: 1959\n\nOther wins (28)\n\n28 wins between 1955 and 1995, including:\nAlfred Dunhill Challenge: 1995\nBrazil Open: 1972, 1974\nChile Open: 1980\nChrysler Cup: 1987\nDunlop Tournament (England): 1956\nFred Meyer Challenge: 1986 (team with Greg Norman, tied with Peter Jacobsen and Curtis Strange)\nPGA Grand Slam of Golf - 1979 (tie with Andy North)\nIbergolf Tournament (Spain): 1974\nJapan Air Lines Open (Japan): 1972\nJohnnie Walker Trophy (Spain): 1984\nLa Manga Tournament (Spain): 1974\nNTL Challenge Cup (Canada): 1965\nPiccadilly World Match Play Championship: 1965, 1966, 1968, 1971, 1973 (unofficial money event)\nSkins Game: 1983\nTrophée Lancôme: 1975\nWestern Australia Open: 1956\nWorld Cup: (x3) Team event 1965, individual title in 1965, 1977\nWorld Series of Golf: 1965, 1968, 1972 (unofficial money event)\nYomiuri Open (Japan): 1961\n\nChampions Tour wins (19)\n\nChampions Tour playoff record (4–2)\n\nSenior majors are shown in bold. See \"Other senior wins\" below for Player's wins in the Senior British Open.\n\nEuropean Senior Tour and other wins (12)\n\n1987 Northville Invitational (United States), German PGA Team Championship\n1988 Senior British Open (European Seniors Tour),\n1990 Senior British Open (European Seniors Tour)\n1993 Irish Senior Masters (European Seniors Tour)\n1997 Dai-ichi Seimei Cup (Japan), Senior British Open (European Seniors Tour), Shell Wentworth Senior Masters (European Seniors Tour),\n2000 Senior Skins Game (U.S. – unofficial event)\n2005 Nelson Mandela Invitational (Sunshine Tour – unofficial event)\n2009 Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf – Demaret Division (with Bob Charles)\n2010 Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf – Demaret Division (with Bob Charles)\n\nThe Senior British Open is shown in bold as it is generally recognised as a major and it is now an official Champions Tour event and major. However, it was not an official Champions Tour event when Player achieved his wins, and in contrast to early wins in regular British Opens by PGA Tour members, which are now included in their official PGA Tour win tallies, wins in early Senior British Opens by Champions Tour members have not been retrospectively designated as Champions Tour wins by the PGA Tour at this time. The Senior British Open is however recognised as a major by all other international bodies, such as the European Tour, Sunshine Tour, Japanese Tour and Asian Tour.\n\nMajor championships\n\nWins (9)\n\n1 Defeated Kel Nagle in 18-hole playoff – Player 71 (+1), Nagle 74 (+4).\n\nResults timeline\n\nDNP = Did not play\nWD = Withdrew\nCUT = missed the half-way cut\n\"T\" indicates a tie for a place\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10\n\nSummary\n\nMost consecutive cuts made – 37 (1970 PGA – 1980 Masters)\nLongest streak of top-10s – 6 (1962 PGA – 1964 Masters)\n\nChampions Tour major championships\n\nWins (6)\n\n1 Won in an 18-hole playoff, Player (68) to Charles (70).\n\nResults timeline\n\n1The Senior Open Championship was not a Champions Tour major until 2003, though it was on the European Seniors Tour. Player won the event three times prior to this recognition.\n\nDNP = Did not play\nCUT = Missed the half-way cut\nNYF = Tournament not yet founded\n\"T\" = tied\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10.\n\nEquipment \n\nDriver: Callaway RAZR Fit \nFairway woods: Strong 4, 5 and 9 Callaway Steelhead Woods\nHybrid: Callaway Heavenwood 4H\nIrons: 5-PW X-Tour Callaway\nSand wedges: 56 Degree and 64 Degree X-Tour Callaway\nPutter: Odyssey Whitehot #1\nBall: Callaway HX Tour\n\nTeam appearances\n\nWorld Cup (representing South Africa): 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965 (winners, individual winner), 1966, 1967, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1977 (individual winner)\nSlazenger Trophy (representing British Commonwealth and Empire): 1956\nDunhill Cup (representing South Africa): 1991" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Hubie Green", "Hubert Green" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "hubert green", "hubie green" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "hubert green", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Hubert Green" }
Where were the first World Athletics Championships held?	tc_1448	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "IAAF_World_Championships_in_Athletics.txt" ], "title": [ "IAAF World Championships in Athletics" ], "wiki_context": [ "The World Championships in Athletics is an event organized by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The first three championships were held every four years, championships have been held every two years since 1991.\n\nHistory\n\nThe idea of having an Athletics World Championships was around well before the competition's first event in 1983. In 1913, the IAAF decided that the Olympic Games would serve as the World Championships for athletics. This was considered suitable for over 50 years until in the late 1960s the desire of many IAAF members to have their own World Championships began to grow. In 1976 at the IAAF Council Meeting in Puerto Rico an Athletics World Championships separate from the Olympic Games was approved.\n\nFollowing bids from both Stuttgart, West Germany and Helsinki, Finland, the IAAF Council awarded the inaugural competition to Helsinki, to take place in 1983 and be held in the Helsinki Olympic Stadium (where the 1952 Summer Olympics had been held).\n\nTwo IAAF world championship events preceded the inaugural edition of the World Championships in Athletics in 1983. The 1976 World Championships had just one event – the men's 50 kilometres walk which was dropped from the Olympic programme for the 1976 Summer Olympics and the IAAF responded by setting up their own contest. Four years later, the 1980 World Championships contained only two newly approved women's events, (400 metres hurdles and 3000 metres), neither of which featured on the programme for the 1980 Summer Olympics.[http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/wc.htm IAAF World Championships in Athletics]. GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2013-09-08. \n\nOver the years the competition has grown in size. In 1983 an estimated 1,300 athletes from 154 countries participated. By the 2003 competition, in Paris, it had grown to 1,907 athletes from 203 countries with coverage being transmitted to 179 different countries.\n\nThere has also been a change in composition over the years, with several new events, all for women, being added. By 2005, the only differences were men's competition in the 50 km walk, and equivalent events in women's 100 m hurdles and heptathlon to men's 110 m hurdles and decathlon.\n\nThe following list shows when new events were added for the first time.\n\n1987, women's 10,000 m and 10 km walk were added.\n1993, women's triple jump was added.\n1995, women's 5000 m was added, replacing the 3000 m race.\n1999, women's pole vault and hammer were added and the women's 20 km walk replaced the 10 km walk.\n2005, women's 3000 m steeplechase was added.\n\nChampionships\n\nMedal totals since 1983\n\nUpdated after 2015 Championships\n\nNOTE: Germany refers both to the former West Germany (1983–90) and the unified Federal Republic of Germany (1990–present).\n\nCeremonies\n\nThe opening and closing ceremonies of the 8th IAAF World Championships held in Edmonton in 2001 were broadcast live to over 200 countries. The event included the men's marathon, and featured a thousand voice choir and original music by The Second City alumni Jan Randall.\n\nMultiple medallist\n\n;Men\nThere are fifteen athletes who have won at least six medals.[http://iaaf-ebooks.s3.amazonaws.com/Moscow-2013-Statistics/sources/projet/IAAF-Moscow.pdf Statistics book, Moscow 2013]\n\n;Women\nThere are thirteen athletes who have won at least six medals.\n\nAthletes with most appearances\n\nThere are eighteen athletes that competed in at least eight editions." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Helsingfors", "Helsinki,Finland", "Helstinky", "Helsinki", "Helsinki, finland", "UN/LOCODE:FIHEL", "Helsinki, Finland", "Stadi", "Helsinky", "Demographics of Helsinki", "Gelsingfors", "Helinski", "Capital of Finland", "Helsinkiem", "Helsset", "City of Helsinki" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "helsset", "city of helsinki", "helinski", "helsinkiem", "demographics of helsinki", "helsingfors", "un locode fihel", "helsinki finland", "helstinky", "stadi", "helsinky", "helsinki", "capital of finland", "gelsingfors" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "helsinki", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Helsinki" }
Which was the first team to win three Super Bowls?	tc_1449	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "List_of_Super_Bowl_champions.txt" ], "title": [ "List of Super Bowl champions" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Super Bowl is an annual American football game that determines the champion of the National Football League (NFL). The game culminates a season that begins in the late summer of the previous calendar year. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand, usually at warm-weather sites or domed stadiums. Since January 1971, the winner of the American Football Conference (AFC) Championship Game has faced the winner of the National Football Conference (NFC) Championship Game in the culmination of the NFL playoffs. Normally, Roman numerals are used to identify each game, rather than the year in which it is held. For example, Super Bowl I was played on January 15, 1967, following the 1966 regular season. The single exception to this rule was Super Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, following the 2015 regular season.\n\nBefore the 1970 merger between the American Football League (AFL) and the National Football League (NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were known as the \"AFL-NFL World Championship Game\". Super Bowl III in January 1969 was the first such game that carried the \"Super Bowl\" moniker, the names \"Super Bowl I\" and \"Super Bowl II\" were retroactively applied to the first two games. The NFC/NFL leads in Super Bowl wins with 26, while the AFC/AFL has won 24. Nineteen different franchises, including teams that relocated to another city, have won the Super Bowl.\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers (6–2) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships, while both the Dallas Cowboys (5–3) and the San Francisco 49ers (5–1) have five wins. Dallas, Pittsburgh, New England and Denver have the most Super Bowl appearances with eight, while the Buffalo Bills (0–4) have the most consecutive appearances with four losses in a row from 1990 to 1993. The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances: 1972–74. The Denver Broncos (3–5) have lost a record five Super Bowls. The New England Patriots (4–4), the Minnesota Vikings (0–4) and the Bills have lost four. The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises: the 1966–67 Green Bay Packers, the 1972–73 Miami Dolphins, the 1974–75 and 1978–79 Pittsburgh Steelers (the only team to accomplish this feat twice), the 1988–89 San Francisco 49ers, the 1992–93 Dallas Cowboys, the 1997–98 Denver Broncos, and the 2003–04 New England Patriots. Among those, Dallas (1992–93; 1995) and New England (2001; 2003–04) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls. The 1972 Dolphins' win is the only perfect season in NFL history. The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens, who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position. Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl, including franchise relocations and renaming: the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans, though both the Browns (1964) and Lions (1957) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl.\n\nSuper Bowl Championship (1966–present)\n\nNumbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances, as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows:\n* Winning team and Losing team columns indicate the number of times that team has appeared in a Super Bowl as well as each respective teams' Super Bowl record to date.\n* Venue column indicates number of times that stadium has hosted a Super Bowl.\n* City column indicates number of times that that metropolitan area has hosted a Super Bowl.\n\n\|-\n! style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|National Football Conference (NFC, 1971–present)\n! style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|American Football Conference (AFC, 1971–present)\n\|-\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|NFC champion(46, 24–22)\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|AFC champion†(46, 22–24)\n\|}\n\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\|\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\|\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\|\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\|style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\|style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\| style=\"background:#fcc;\"\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"background:#d0e7ff;\"\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| \n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\|\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| Dates are tentative, pending possible future changes to the NFL calendar.\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| Dates are tentative, pending possible future changes to the NFL calendar.\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| TBD\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| Dates are tentative, pending possible future changes to the NFL calendar.\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| TBD\n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\|\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\| Dates are tentative, pending possible future changes to the NFL calendar.\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| \n\|\n\|\n\|\n\| style=\"text-align: center;\"\| TBD\n\| style\"text-align: center;\"\|\n\|}\n\nConsecutive repeat winners\n\nSeven different franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which has accomplished it twice:\n Green Bay Packers (Super Bowls I and II)\n* Miami Dolphins (VII and VIII)\n* Pittsburgh Steelers (twice: IX and X as well as XIII and XIV)\n* San Francisco 49ers (XXIII and XXIV)\n* Dallas Cowboys (XXVII and XXVIII)\n* Denver Broncos (XXXII and XXXIII)\n* New England Patriots (XXXVIII and XXXIX)\n\nNo franchise has yet won three Super Bowls in a row, although several have come close:\n* The Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls, and also won the NFL championship the preceding year.\n* The Miami Dolphins appeared in three consecutive Super Bowls (VI, VII, and VIII), winning the last two.\n* The Pittsburgh Steelers won two consecutive Super Bowls (IX and X); the following season they were eliminated in the AFC championship game by the eventual Super Bowl champion Oakland Raiders.\n* The San Francisco 49ers won two consecutive Super Bowls (XXIII and XXIV); the following season they were eliminated in the NFC championship by the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants.\n* The Dallas Cowboys won two consecutive Super Bowls (XXVII and XXVIII); the following season they were eliminated in the NFC championship game by the eventual champion San Francisco 49ers. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX the following year for three wins in four seasons.\n\nSuper Bowl appearances by team\n\nIn the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by year of first appearance. In the \"Season(s)\" column, bold years indicate winning seasons.\n\nTeams with no Super Bowl appearances\n\nFour current teams have never reached the Super Bowl. Two of them held NFL league championships prior to Super Bowl I in the 1966 NFL season:\nDetroit Lions, NFL champions four times in 1935, 1952, 1953, and 1957; appeared in one other NFL Championship Game in 1954; and appeared in one NFC Championship Game in 1991 \nCleveland Browns, NFL champions four times in 1950, 1954, 1955, and 1964; appeared in seven other NFL championship games in 1951, 1952, 1953, 1957, 1965, 1968, and 1969; and appeared in three AFC Championship Games in 1986, 1987, and 1989 The Browns are officially viewed as one continuous franchise that began in 1946 as a member of the All-America Football Conference, joined the NFL in 1950, suspended operations from 1996–1998, and resumed play in 1999. The Baltimore Ravens were an expansion team created in 1996 with former Browns players. \nJacksonville Jaguars, 1995 expansion team; appeared in two AFC Championship Games in 1996 and 1999 \nHouston Texans, 2002 expansion team; two Divisional Round appearances in 2011 and 2012.\n\nIn addition, Detroit, Houston and Jacksonville have hosted Super Bowls; this means Cleveland is the only current NFL city that has neither hosted, nor had its team play in, a Super Bowl.\n\nTeams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories\n\nNine teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances, they are:\n* Buffalo Bills (4), appeared in Super Bowls XXV, XXVI, XXVII, and XXVIII. Their second and last AFL championship was in 1965, the season before the first Super Bowl.\n* Minnesota Vikings (4), appeared in Super Bowls IV, VIII, IX, and XI. They won the NFL Championship Game in 1969, the last year before the AFL–NFL merger, but failed to win the subsequent Super Bowl.\n* Cincinnati Bengals (2), appeared in Super Bowls XVI and XXIII. An AFL expansion team in 1968, they have no pre-Super Bowl league championships.\n* Philadelphia Eagles (2), appeared in Super Bowls XV and XXXIX. Their last championship was in 1960.\n* Carolina Panthers (2), appeared in Super Bowls XXXVIII and 50. A post-merger expansion team, their first season was in 1995.\n* Arizona Cardinals (1), appeared in Super Bowl XLIII. Their last championship was in 1947 as the Chicago Cardinals.\n* Atlanta Falcons (1), appeared in Super Bowl XXXIII. An expansion team in 1966, they have no pre-Super Bowl league championships.\n* San Diego Chargers (1), appeared in Super Bowl XXIX. Their only AFL championship was in 1963.\n* Tennessee Titans (1), appeared in Super Bowl XXXIV. Their second and last AFL championship was in 1961 as the Houston Oilers.\n\nTeams with long Super Bowl droughts\n\nThe following eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl, but not since 1995, meaning their droughts are longer than Jacksonville's and Houston's.\n\nTwo of these teams have not appeared in the Super Bowl since the AFL–NFL merger in 1970: \n* New York Jets (most recently appeared in Super Bowl III, 1968 season)\n* Kansas City Chiefs (Super Bowl IV in 1969 season)\nThe most recent Super Bowl appearance for the following teams was after the AFL–NFL merger, but prior to the 1995 regular season:\n* Minnesota Vikings (Super Bowl XI, 1976 season)\n* Miami Dolphins (Super Bowl XIX, 1984 season)\n* Cincinnati Bengals (Super Bowl XXIII, 1988 season)\n* Washington Redskins (Super Bowl XXVI, 1991 season)\n* Buffalo Bills (Super Bowl XXVIII, 1993 season)\n* San Diego Chargers (Super Bowl XXIX, 1994 season)\n\nSuper Bowl rematches\n\nThe following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl:\n* Dallas Cowboys and Pittsburgh Steelers (3) – Super Bowls X and XIII were won by Pittsburgh, and Super Bowl XXX was won by Dallas. See also Cowboys–Steelers rivalry.\n* Miami Dolphins and Washington Redskins (2) – Super Bowl VII was won by Miami, and Super Bowl XVII was won by Washington.\n* Cincinnati Bengals and San Francisco 49ers (2) – Super Bowls XVI and XXIII were both won by San Francisco.\n* Buffalo Bills and Dallas Cowboys (2) – Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII, the only rematch in consecutive seasons, were both won by Dallas.\n* New England Patriots and New York Giants (2) – Super Bowls XLII and XLVI were both won by New York." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Pittsburgh Reelers", "Pittsburgh steelers", "Pittsburgh Steeler", "Pittsburgh Pirates (NFL)", "Eli Rogers", "Pittsburgh Steelers", "Steely Mcbeam", "Pittsburg Steelers", "The Steelers", "Pittsburgh Pirates (football)", "Pittsburgh Steelers Stadiums", "Steely McBeam", "Stillers", "Steelers", "List of Pittsburgh Steelers players who have been MVP", "Pittsburgh Steelers stadiums" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "steely mcbeam", "pittsburgh reelers", "pittsburg steelers", "pittsburgh pirates football", "pittsburgh steelers stadiums", "stillers", "steelers", "list of pittsburgh steelers players who have been mvp", "pittsburgh steeler", "eli rogers", "pittsburgh steelers", "pittsburgh pirates nfl" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "pittsburgh steelers", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Pittsburgh Steelers" }
Who was the first MVP in a Super Bowl to be on the losing side?	tc_1450	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl_Most_Valuable_Player_Award.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award, or Super Bowl MVP, is presented annually to the most valuable player of the Super Bowl, the National Football League's (NFL) championship game. The winner is chosen by a fan vote during the game and by a panel of 16 football writers and broadcasters who vote after the game. The media panel's ballots count for 80 percent of the vote tally, while the viewers' ballots make up the other 20 percent. The game's viewing audience can vote on the Internet or by using cellular phones; Super Bowl XXXV, held in 2001, was the first Super Bowl where fan voting was allowed. \n\nThe Super Bowl MVP has been awarded annually since the game's inception in 1967. Through 1989, the award was presented by SPORT magazine. Bart Starr was the MVP of the first two Super Bowls. Since 1990, the award has been presented by the NFL. At Super Bowl XXV, the league first awarded the Pete Rozelle Trophy, named after the former NFL commissioner, to the Super Bowl MVP. Ottis Anderson was the first to win the trophy. Most award winners have received cars from various sponsors. The most recent Super Bowl MVP was Denver Broncos linebacker Von Miller, who was named the most valuable player of Super Bowl 50, held on February 7, 2016. \n\nJoe Montana and Tom Brady are the only players to have won three Super Bowl MVP awards; three others—Starr, Terry Bradshaw, and Eli Manning—have won the award twice. Starr and Bradshaw are the only ones to have won it in back-to-back years. The MVP has come from the winning team every year except 1971, when Dallas Cowboys linebacker Chuck Howley won the award despite the Cowboys' loss in Super Bowl V to the Baltimore Colts. Harvey Martin and Randy White were named co-MVPs of Super Bowl XII, the only time co-MVPs have been chosen. Including the Super Bowl XII co-MVPs, seven Cowboys players have won Super Bowl MVP awards, the most of any NFL team. Quarterbacks have earned the honor 27 times in 50 games. The youngest player to win the award was Marcus Allen, who was 23 when he was named the MVP of Super Bowl XVIII; the oldest winner was Super Bowl XXXIII MVP John Elway, who was 38 at the time. Mark Rypien and Hines Ward are the only players born outside the United States to earn the Super Bowl MVP, having been born in Canada and South Korea, respectively. \n\nTable key\n\nWinners\n\nBy team\n\nBy position\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Chuck Howley", "Charles Louis Howley" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "charles louis howley", "chuck howley" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chuck howley", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Chuck Howley" }
Which team has not won a World Series since Babe Ruth stopped pitching for them?	tc_1453	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "World_Series.txt", "Babe_Ruth.txt" ], "title": [ "World Series", "Babe Ruth" ], "wiki_context": [ "The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win-loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2015, the World Series has been contested 111 times, with the AL winning 64 and the NL winning 47. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best-of-seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner's Trophy. As the series is played in October (and occasionally November), during the autumn season in North America, it is often referred to as the Fall Classic. \n\nThe 2015 World Series took place between the New York Mets and the victorious Kansas City Royals. Five games were played, with the Royals victorious after game five, played in New York. The final score was 7-2; the game went into extra innings after a tied score of 2-2. This was the second World Series won by the franchise and the first in 30 years.\n\nIn the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia/Kansas City/Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York/San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 18 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.\n\nAs of 2015, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1999 and 2000, the longest such duration in Major League Baseball history.\n\nPrecursors to the modern World Series (1857–1902)\n\nThe original World Series\n\nUntil the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871–1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern Series: games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five), and both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.\n\nThe series was promoted and referred to as \"The Championship of the United States\", \"World's Championship Series\", or \"World's Series\" for short.\nIn his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed. \n\nThe 19th-century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th-century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th-century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th-century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. \n(For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists \"Baseball's World Championships 1884–1928\" in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists \"Baseball World Championships 1903–1942\". )\n\n1892–1900: \"The Monopoly Years\"\n\nFollowing the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half-season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893—and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969—the pennant was awarded to the first-place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894–1897, the league champions played the runners-up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900. \n\nIn 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy.\n\nModern World Series (1903–present)\n\nFirst attempt\n\nAfter two years of bitter competition and player raiding (in 1902, the AL and NL champions even went so far as to challenge each other to a tournament in football after the end of the baseball season), the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.\n\nBoycott of 1904\n\nThe 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the \"inferiority\" of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already \"world champions\" since they were the champions of the \"only real major league\". At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.\n\nDuring the winter of 1904–1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the \"Brush Rules\", under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from \"fixing\" early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now-official and compulsory World's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.\n\nWith the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players' strike.\n\nThe list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2–3–2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2–3–2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3–4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions. (The 2–3–2 pattern was used in 1944 because both teams were based in the same home stadium.)\n\n1919 Black Sox Scandal\n\nGambling and game-fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.\n\nThe Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph \"Sport\" Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting .324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).\n\nDuring the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the \"World's Serious\". The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.\n\nThe \"Black Sox\" were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.\n\nThe events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the \"live ball\" era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs are still waiting for their next trophy, and have not appeared in the Fall Classic since 1945, the longest drought of any MLB club.\n\nNew York Yankees dynasty (1920–1964)\n\nThe New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954–1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936–1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.\n\n1947–1964: New York City teams dominate World Series play\n\nIn an 18-year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.\n\nIn the years 1947, 1949, 1951–1953, and 1955–1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.\n\nThe World Series in California\n\nIn 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long-time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.\n\nThe Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.\n\nIn 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972–1974. In 1974, the A's played the Dodgers in the first all-California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).\n\nThe Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A's again went to three straight world series, from 1988–1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all-California series as the A's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (the most-recent all-California series), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).\n\n1969: League Championship Series\n\nPrior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the \"pennant winner\") based on the best win-loss record at the end of the regular season.\n\nA structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.\n\nThe National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2–3–2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home-field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.\n\n1970s\n\n1971: World Series at night\n\nMLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit's Tiger Stadium.)\n\n1972–1978: Three of a kind and The Greatest Game Ever Played\n\nDuring this seven-year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book-ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.\n\nHowever, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the \"amazing\" eight-year-old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers' back-to-back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.\n\nGame 6 of the 1975 World Series is widely regarded as the greatest World Series game ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail-biting turns of events, and a game-winning walk off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 to 6 Red Sox victory.\n\n1976: The Designated Hitter comes to the World Series\n\nThe National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak-hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular-season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even-numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine-man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion's park but not the NL champion's. Thus, the DH rule's use or non-use can help the team that has home-field advantage.\n\n1980s\n\n1984: Anderson becomes first to win in both leagues\n\nThe 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire-to-wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers' skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.\n\n1989: Earthquake\n\nWhen the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5:04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface-wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say \"I'll tell you what, we're having an earth--\" before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four-game sweep.\n\n1990s\n\n1992–1993: The World Series enters Canada\n\nWorld Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come-from-behind homer, after Joe Carter's three-run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8–6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth-inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.\n\n1994: League Division Series\n\nIn 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best-of-five playoff round (the \"division series\"), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second-best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best-of-seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team cannot get home-field advantage.\n\n1994–1995 strike\n\nAfter the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite World War I, the global influenza pandemic of 1918–1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America's involvement in World War II, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.\n\nAs the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus the commissioner, responsible for ensuring the integrity and protecting the welfare of the game, was an interested party rather than a neutral arbiter, and baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without an independent commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.\n\nThe previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74–40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos have never played in a World Series.)\n\nThe labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.\n\nAll-Star Game and home-field advantage (2003–present)\n\nPrior to 2003, home-field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All-Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home-field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All-Star Game. Originally implemented as a two-year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice has been extended indefinitely.\n\nThe American League won every All-Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home-field advantage from 2002, when it also had home-field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011 and 2014 World Series have gone the full seven games.\n\nThis rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home-field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All-Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees' shortstop's final All-Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season. \n\nAs Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:\n\nWith the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.\n\nHowever, in four of the last six seasons, home-field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Four of the Series (most recently in 2015) have been won on the road.\n\nStarting with the San Francisco Giants 2010 World Series victory, which was followed by the Giants victories in the 2012 World Series and the 2014 World Series, The Giants started what many around the sport of baseball consider to be a modern baseball dynasty, as most consider winning three World Series in a 5-year span in baseball today is incredibly difficult and thusly worthy of the dynasty title.\n\nModern World Series appearances by franchise\n\nWorld Series record by team or franchise, 1903–2015\n\nNotes\n\nAmerican League (AL) teams have won 64 of the 111 World Series played (58%). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 24% of all series played and 42% of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series (10%) and 23% of the 47 National League victories.\nAt least one New York team has been in 54 World Series (49%) of Series played.\nWhen the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.\n\nThe number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen \"expansion teams\" joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos/Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45%) in which they have played, which is 9% of all 111 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.\n\nTeam patterns in the World Series\n\nThis information is up to date through the present time:\n\nStreaks and droughts\n\n#Since their first championship in 1923, the New York Yankees have won two or more World Series titles in every decade except the 1980s, when they won none. Additionally, they have won at least one American League pennant in every decade since the 1920s. (They have yet to win a pennant or Series in the 2010s.) The Yankees are the only team in either League to win more than three series in a row, winning in four consecutive seasons from 1936 to 1939, and a still MLB record five consecutive seasons from 1949 to 1953.\n#The New York Giants' four World Series appearances from 1921 to 1924 are the most consecutive appearances for any National League franchise. The Yankees are the only American League franchise to accomplish this.\n#The 1907–1908 Cubs, 1921–1922 Giants and the 1975–1976 Reds are the only National League teams to win back-to-back World Series.\n#The 1907–1909 Detroit Tigers and the 1911–1913 New York Giants are the only teams to lose three consecutive World Series.\n#The Chicago Cubs hold the record for the longest World Series championship drought (still active through 2015), with their last title coming in 1908 (107 years). In fact, they also hold the longest drought without a World Series appearance, not having won the NL pennant since 1945. Even had the Cubs won the 1945 Series, they would still hold the longest World Series title drought, with the second longest World Series drought belonging to the Cleveland Indians, who have not won a World Series since 1948. The team with the longest active pennant drought among AL teams that have played in a World Series at least once is the Baltimore Orioles, who have not reached a World Series since winning their last title in 1983.\n#Twenty-two of the 28 teams to play in the World Series have won it at least once. The only exceptions are: Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s, enfranchised in 1962), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots, 1969), San Diego Padres (1969), Colorado Rockies (1993), Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays, 1998), and Texas Rangers (formerly Washington Senators, 1961). The Padres and Rangers have both lost two World Series; the remaining teams have all lost their only Series appearance. As of the present, all teams to reach the World Series at least three times have won at least one of their appearances.\n#Two teams have never played in the World Series: the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos, established in 1969), and the American League's Seattle Mariners (established in 1977). Both franchises have participated in post-season play and competed in a League Championship Series, but lost all League Championship Series appearances so far.\n#The Red Sox have the most World Series titles before their first World Series loss, winning the championship in their first five appearances—1903, 1912, 1915, 1916, and 1918—before losing in the next series they played, in 1946. The only other teams who have more than one Series victory before their first Series loss are the Cleveland Indians (in 1920 and 1948), the Toronto Blue Jays (in 1992 and 1993), and the Miami Marlins (in 1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins). The Blue Jays and the Marlins have never lost a World Series.\n#The American League's Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993) and National League's Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins) hold the record for most appearances in a Series without ever losing a Series. Two other franchises have won their lone appearance: the National League's Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and American League's Los Angeles Angels (2002).\n#The Pirates, Reds, Red Sox, and Giants are tied with the longest active streak of World Series victories (three) since the last time they lost a series. After losing the 1927 series to the Yankees, the Pirates have emerged victorious in the next three series in which they played (1960, 1971, and 1979). The Reds last series loss prior to their current active streak of three titles (1975, 1976, and 1990) was in 1972. The Red Sox are the American League leaders in this category with three consecutive titles (2004, 2007, and 2013) since their last series loss (1986). The Giants lost in 2002 before winning the next three they appeared in (2010, 2012, and 2014).\n#The Yankees have the most World Series victories (eight) between World Series losses. After losing the 1926 World Series to the Cardinals, the Yankees won their next eight appearances in the series (1927, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, and 1941) before losing in 1942 to the Cardinals again. After this loss, the Yankees went on to win their next seven Series appearances (1943, 1947, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, and 1953) before their next Series loss in 1955 to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Cardinals are the National League leader in this category, with four titles (1944, 1946, 1964, and 1967) between series losses in 1943 and 1968.\n#The Cubs and Dodgers are tied at seven apiece for most World Series losses between World Series victories. The Dodgers lost their first seven appearances in the Fall Classics (1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, and 1953) before winning their first title in 1955. The Cubs' situation is the opposite, as their losing streak is still ongoing: since winning their last title (in 1908), they lost the World Series in 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945. The Cleveland Indians have three World Series losses (1954, 1995, and 1997) since their last crown in 1948, more than any other team in the American League.\n#The longest duration without repeat World Series champions is fifteen years, dating back to the 2000 New York Yankees. The previous record of fourteen years (in between the 1978 New York Yankees' win and the 1993 Toronto Blue Jays' win) was broken when the San Francisco Giants, who won the 2014 World Series, did not qualify for the postseason in 2015.\n\nGame-by-game\n\n#Game 7 was won by the home team in the 9 World Series between 1980 and 2013 that went to seven games (the 1982 St. Louis Cardinals, 1985 Kansas City Royals, 1986 New York Mets, 1987 and 1991 Minnesota Twins, 1997 Florida Marlins, 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks, 2002 Anaheim Angels, and 2011 St. Louis Cardinals) before the Giants won game 7 on the road in 2014. This trend reverses the previous historical trend in which Game 7 had been most often won by the road team, in 1979, 1975, 1972, 1971, 1968, 1967, 1965, and 1962. During the 1960s and 1970s, the home team had won Game 7 only in 1960, 1964, and 1973. Since 2003, when home field advantage started to be awarded to the team representing the league that won the All-Star game, the first Series that reached Game 7 was in 2011. The greatest comeback in World Series history was in 1968, when the Detroit Tigers came back from a 3–1 game disadvantage to win Game 5 after being behind by 3 runs, before winning games 6 and 7 on the road at St. Louis.\n#The 1981 Los Angeles Dodgers are the last team to win a World Series after losing the first two games on the road (against New York). The recent tendency of a team winning the first two games at home and then winning the Series suggests the theoretical advantage to gaining home-field advantage (and the first two games at home) by winning the All-Star Game.\n#The Pittsburgh Pirates have won all five of their World Series championships in seven games.\n#The Minnesota Twins/Washington Senators have won their three World Series championships in seven games.\n#There have been 19 World Series four-game (4–0) sweeps. Nine different teams have swept a World Series at least once, the Yankees having done so most often (8 times). The Red Sox, Reds, and Giants have all done it twice. The Braves, Orioles, White Sox, Dodgers, and Athletics have each swept one Series. Six of these teams (all but the Orioles, Red Sox and White Sox) have also been swept 0–4 in at least one World Series. The Red Sox' two World Series sweeps are the most of any team that has never been swept in one. The Reds and Yankees are the only teams to have swept each other (The Yankees swept the Reds in 1939, while the Reds swept the Yankees in 1976). The Giants are the only team to record World Series sweeps in two different cities: New York (1954) and San Francisco (2012). The 1999 Yankees are the last team to date, and the only one since 1966, to sweep a World Series it began on the road (as well as the last American League champion to date to win a World Series it began on the road). The 1963 Dodgers are the last National League team to date to sweep a World Series it began on the road.\n#The Athletics, Cardinals, Cubs, and Yankees are the only teams to be swept in two World Series. The Athletics and Yankees are the only two of these with at least one World Series sweep to their credit, the other two being among nine teams overall that have never swept a World Series, but have been swept in one (the Tigers, Astros, Indians, Padres, Phillies, Pirates, and Rockies being the others).\n#The Cubs in 1907 and the Giants in 1922 won 4 games to 0, but each of those Series' included a tied game and are not considered to be true sweeps. In 1907, the first game was the tie and the Cubs won four straight after that. In 1922, Game 2 was the tie.\n#The Cincinnati Reds were the only National League team to sweep any World Series between 1963 and 2012, sweeping their last two series appearances to date in 1976 and 1990. When added to their Game 7 victory in 1975, this means that the Reds have won their last 9 consecutive games, making this the current longest winning streak in terms of consecutive World Series games won.\n#Nine World Series have ended with \"walk-off\" hits, i.e., that game and the Series ended when the home team won with a base hit in the bottom of the ninth or in extra innings: 1924, 1929, 1935, 1953, 1960, 1991, 1993, 1997, and 2001. Five of these (marked with a ) were in a deciding Game 7. In addition, the deciding Game 8 (one game had ended in a tie) of the 1912 World Series ended in a walk-off sacrifice fly. Two men have ended a World Series with a walk-off home run: Bill Mazeroski in 1960 and Joe Carter in 1993. Mazeroski's was a solo shot in the bottom of the ninth of Game 7 to win a championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates, while Carter's was a three-run shot in Game 6 that won a championship for the Toronto Blue Jays.\n#One World Series game has ended with a pick-off of a runner. Kolten Wong of the St. Louis Cardinals was picked off of first base in Game 3 of the 2013 World Series by Boston Red Sox closer Koji Uehara. The score was 4-2 and rookie Wong was a pinch runner.\n#The Philadelphia Phillies and the Tampa Bay Rays are the first teams to have an elimination game (or any game) be suspended because of weather, and not have it cancelled. Game 5 (in Philadelphia) was suspended Monday, October 27, 2008 with a 2–2 score, and resumed in the bottom of the sixth on October 29.\n#Both of the Minnesota Twins' World Series titles since relocating to the Twin Cities from Washington, D.C. (where they were the first Washington Senators) were in 7 game series where all games were won by the home team. The Twins accomplished this in 1987, when the Twins defeated the St. Louis Cardinals, then 4 years later in 1991, when the Twins defeated the Atlanta Braves. The Twins victories in both series were in games 1, 2, 6, and 7, while their National League opponents won games 3, 4, and 5. This same scenario also occurred in 2001, when the Arizona Diamondbacks defeated the New York Yankees.\n#Also of note when it comes to the three series where every game was won by the home team, a pitcher was MVP. In the 1987 World Series, Frank Viola was the MVP having pitched games 1, 4, and 7, and finishing with a 2–1 record. In 1991, Jack Morris achieved the same feat pitching games 1, 4, and 7 with a 2–0 record and a no decision in game 4, and winning MVP honors. However, Morris's MVP came on the heels of pitching 10 shutout innings in game 7. Finally, in 2001, Curt Schilling and Randy Johnson took MVP honors by being the reason the Arizona Diamondbacks were in position to win the series.\n#The Boston Red Sox have lost 4 World Series, all in 7 games. (1946, 1967, 1975, & 1986)\n#Four World Series ended with teams clinching the championship in the final game of the series which was not a Game 7 and went into extra innings. The title was won this way in 1939, 1992, 2012, and 2015.\n#As aforementioned, the home team has not won a deciding game of a World Series since 2013, and has been so in four of the last six seasons.\n\nLocal rivalries\n\nWhen two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already-existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.\n\nCross-town Series\n\nThe first city to host an entire World Series is Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.\n\nFourteen \"Subway Series\" have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically \"subway series\" since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California, and an all-NY Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.\n\nThe last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 \"Streetcar Series\" between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman's Park.\n\nThe 1989 World Series, sometimes called the \"Bay Bridge Series\" or the \"BART Series\" (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A's swept the Giants in four games.\n\nCross-state rivalries\n\nThe historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics-Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants' series against the then-Anaheim Angels in 2002.\n\nOther than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I-70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.\n\nPennants won in different cities\n\n# The Braves are the only team to have both won and lost a World Series in three different home cities (Boston, Milwaukee, and Atlanta).\n# The Athletics have had three different home cities (Philadelphia, Kansas City, and Oakland), but have appeared in the World Series (both winning and losing) while based in only two of them (Philadelphia and Oakland).\n# Three other teams have both won and lost the Fall Classic in two different home cities: The Dodgers (Brooklyn and Los Angeles), the Giants (New York and San Francisco), and the Twins (the Twin Cities and Washington, D.C., as the first Senators).\n# The Orioles are the only other team to have played in the World Series in two different home cities (Baltimore and St. Louis, as the Browns), but all three of their titles (and three of their four losses) have come while based in Baltimore.\n\nThe original sixteen teams\n\nAt the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the \"original sixteen\".\n\n#Every original team has won at least two World Series titles. The Philadelphia Phillies (National League) were the last of the original teams to win their first Series, in . They were also the last to win at least two, with their second Series victory in . The Cubs were the first team to win the series twice, in 1907 and 1908. They have not won another World Series since.\n#The last original American League team to win its first World Series was the Baltimore Orioles (former St. Louis Browns,originally the Milwaukee Brewers), winning in .\n#The Orioles were also the last original team in the majors to make their first World Series appearance, as the St. Louis Browns in . Although they never won another American League pennant while in St. Louis, they have won three World Series in six appearances since moving to Baltimore. The St. Louis Cardinals were the last original National League team to make its modern World Series debut, with its victory in . They have subsequently won more World Series than any other National League club: 11 championships through 2014.\n#The New York Yankees have defeated all eight original NL teams in a World Series. Conversely, they have lost at least one World Series to six of the original NL teams, never losing to the Chicago Cubs or the Philadelphia Phillies. The Boston Red Sox have played at least one Series against every original National League team except the (Boston, Milwaukee and Atlanta) Braves, with whom they shared a home city through 1953.\n#The St. Louis Cardinals are currently the only club of the National League's original eight that holds an overall Series lead over the Yankees, 3 to 2, taking that lead in 1964. The Giants won their first two Series over the Yankees (1921 and 1922), but the Yankees have faced the Giants five times since then and have won all five, taking the overall lead over the Giants in 1937. The Pittsburgh Pirates and Yankees have faced each other twice (1927 and 1960), with the Yankees winning in 1927 and the Pirates winning in 1960, making the two teams .500 against each other.\n#Since the two leagues expanded beyond eight teams apiece in 1961, only two of the original 16 teams have not won a World Series against the larger field of competitors: the American League Cleveland Indians, who have not won a Series since 1948 (defeating the Boston Braves), and the National League Chicago Cubs, who last won a Series in 1908 (defeating the Detroit Tigers).\n#The 2015 World Series was the first ever World Series to not feature any of the original sixteen teams.\n\nExpansion teams (after 1960)\n\n#The 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks won their first pennant and World Series in fewer seasons than any other expansion team (both attained in their 4th season). The 1997 World Series Champion Florida Marlins achieved these milestones in the second-fewest number of seasons (fifth season). The fastest AL expansion franchise to win a pennant was the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008 (11th season) and the fastest AL expansion franchise to win a World Series was the Toronto Blue Jays in 1992 (16th season).\n#While the New York Mets (NL) were the first expansion team to win or appear in the World Series (1969), the American League would have to wait until 1980 for its first expansion-team World Series appearance, and until 1985 for its first expansion-team win. Both were by the Kansas City Royals. The AL also had two expansion teams appear in the World Series (the Milwaukee Brewers being the second, in 1982) before the National League's second expansion team to appear—the San Diego Padres in 1984.\n#12 expansion teams have now contested at least one Series. Until 2015, all World Series matchups featured at least one of the 16 teams established by 1903. As of the end of the 2014 edition, expansion teams were 9–12 in the World Series, with three teams (the New York Mets, Toronto Blue Jays and Miami Marlins) each winning two. The Kansas City Royals, the then-Anaheim Angels and the Arizona Diamondbacks had each won one Series by the end of the 2014 season. With the New York Mets defeating the Chicago Cubs in a four-game sweep in the 2015 National League Championship Series, the 2015 World Series was guaranteed to be the first ever World Series matchup in which both teams were expansion teams, where the Mets (whose first season occurred in 1962) faced off against the Kansas City Royals (whose first season occurred in 1969). \n# Six expansion teams have appeared in the World Series without ever winning a championship: twice for the Texas Rangers (formerly the second Washington Senators) and San Diego Padres, and once each for the Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots), Colorado Rockies, and Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays).\n# Two expansion teams have not yet won a league pennant (and therefore also have not appeared in a World Series): the American League's Seattle Mariners and the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos). Both teams have competed in postseason play and appeared in their respective League Championship Series at least once, but have no League Championship Series victories.\n# The Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993), Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins), Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and Los Angeles Angels (2002) have never lost a World Series appearance.\n# The 2015 World Series—in which the Kansas City Royals (enfranchised by the American League in 1969) defeated the New York Mets (NL, 1962) in five games—was the first between two expansion teams.\n\nOther notes\n\n#The team with the better regular season winning percentage has won the World Series 53 times, or 48.62% (53 of 109) of the time. Three World Series featured teams with identical records (1949, 1958, 2013).\n#The Toronto Blue Jays are the only non-U.S. team ever to win a pennant or a World Series, doing both twice, in 1992 and 1993.\n#The Chicago Cubs are the only team with a World Series title to have never clinched one at home.\n#Three series have matched up the previous two World Champions, with the New York Yankees winning all three. The 1928 World Series was contested by the 1926 champion Cardinals and 1927 champion Yankees; the Yankees won the series 4-0. In 1943, the 1941 champion Yankees met the 1942 champion Cardinals, which the Yankees won 4-1. In the 1958 World Series, the 1956 champion Yankees faced the 1957 champion Milwaukee Braves; the Yankees won this series 4-3. The 2012 National League Championship Series also matched up the previous two World Champions: the 2010 champion Giants and the 2011 champion Cardinals. The Giants won this series 4-3.\n#The 2015 World Series game 1 between the New York Mets and the Kansas City Royals was the longest game 1 in history at 5 hours and 9 minutes.\n\nTelevision coverage and ratings\n\nWhen the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City, New York; Philadelphia; Schenectady, New York; Washington, D.C.; and environs surrounding these cities. In , games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By , World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By , World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color. \n\nInternational participation\n\nDespite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major-league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as \"world champions of baseball\". \n\nThe United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.\n\nBy the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America's high-salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half-century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time \"post\" them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player's request.\n\nSeveral tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball, uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The International Baseball Federation also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. But as these teams do not feature the best talent from each nation, the public generally does not give much weight to the result of these tournaments. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.\n\nImage gallery\n\nImage:WorldSeries1903-640.jpg\|Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston\nImage:West Side Park 1906 World Series.JPG\|Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all-Chicago World Series to date)\nImage:Wamby19201010UATP.JPG\|Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920\nImage:1924worldseries.jpg\|Washington's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)", "George Herman Ruth Jr. (February 6, 1895 – August 16, 1948), better known as Babe Ruth, was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball (MLB) spanned 22 seasons, from 1914 through 1935. Nicknamed \"The Bambino\" and \"The Sultan of Swat\", he began his MLB career as a stellar left-handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, but achieved his greatest fame as a slugging outfielder for the New York Yankees. Ruth established many MLB batting (and some pitching) records, including career home runs (714), runs batted in (RBIs) (2,213), bases on balls (2,062), slugging percentage (.690), and on-base plus slugging (OPS) (1.164); the latter two still stand today. Ruth is regarded as one of the greatest sports heroes in American culture and is considered by many to be the greatest baseball player of all time. In , Ruth was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its \"first five\" inaugural members.\n\nAt age seven, Ruth was sent to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory where he learned life lessons and baseball skills from Brother Matthias Boutlier of the Christian Brothers, the school's disciplinarian and a capable baseball player. In 1914, Ruth was signed to play minor-league baseball for the Baltimore Orioles but was soon sold to the Red Sox. By 1916, he had built a reputation as an outstanding pitcher who sometimes hit long home runs, a feat unusual for any player in the pre-1920 dead-ball era. Although Ruth twice won 23 games in a season as a pitcher and was a member of three World Series championship teams with Boston, he wanted to play every day and was allowed to convert to an outfielder. With regular playing time, he broke the MLB single-season home run record in 1919.\n\nAfter that season, Red Sox owner Harry Frazee controversially sold Ruth to the Yankees, an act that, coupled with Boston's subsequent championship drought, popularized the \"Curse of the Bambino\" superstition. In his 15 years with New York, Ruth helped the Yankees win seven American League (AL) championships and four World Series championships. His big swing led to escalating home run totals that not only drew fans to the ballpark and boosted the sport's popularity but also helped usher in the live-ball era of baseball, in which it evolved from a low-scoring game of strategy to a sport where the home run was a major factor. As part of the Yankees' vaunted \"Murderer's Row\" lineup of 1927, Ruth hit 60 home runs, extending his MLB single-season record. He retired in 1935 after a short stint with the Boston Braves. During his career, Ruth led the AL in home runs during a season twelve times.\n\nRuth's legendary power and charismatic personality made him a larger-than-life figure in the \"Roaring Twenties\". During his career, he was the target of intense press and public attention for his baseball exploits and off-field penchants for drinking and womanizing. His often reckless lifestyle was tempered by his willingness to do good by visiting children at hospitals and orphanages. He was denied a job in baseball for most of his retirement, most likely due to poor behavior during parts of his playing career. In his final years, Ruth made many public appearances, especially in support of American efforts in World War II. In 1946, he became ill with cancer, and died two years later.\n\nEarly years\n\nGeorge Herman Ruth Jr. was born in 1895 at 216 Emory Street in Pigtown, a working-class section of Baltimore, Maryland, named for its meat-packing plants. Its population included recent immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Italy, and African Americans. Ruth's parents, George Herman Ruth, Sr. (1871–1918), and Katherine Schamberger, were both of German American ancestry. According to the 1880 census, his parents were born in Maryland. The paternal grandparents of Ruth, Sr. were from Prussia and Hanover, respectively. Ruth, Sr. had a series of jobs, including lightning rod salesman and streetcar operator, before becoming a counterman in a family-owned combination grocery and saloon on Frederick Street. George Ruth Jr. was born in the house of his maternal grandfather, Pius Schamberger, a German immigrant and trade unionist. Only one of young George's seven siblings, his younger sister Mamie, survived infancy. \n\nMany aspects of Ruth's childhood are undetermined, including the date of his parents' marriage. When young George was a toddler, the family moved to 339 South Woodyear Street, not far from the rail yards; by the time the boy was 6, his father had a saloon with an upstairs apartment at 426 West Camden Street. Details are equally scanty about why young George was sent at the age of 7 to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory and orphanage. As an adult, Babe Ruth suggested that not only had he been running the streets and rarely attending school, he was drinking beer when his father was not looking. Some accounts say that, after a violent incident at his father's saloon, the city authorities decided this environment was unsuitable for a small child. At St. Mary's, which George Jr. entered on June 13, 1902, he was recorded as \"incorrigible\"; he spent much of the next twelve years there. \n\nAlthough St. Mary's inmates received an education, students were also expected to learn work skills and help operate the school, particularly once the boys turned 12. Ruth became a shirtmaker, and was also proficient as a carpenter. He would adjust his own shirt collars, rather than having a tailor do it, even during his well-paid baseball career. The boys, aged 5 to 21, did most work around the facility, from cooking to shoemaking, and renovated St. Mary's in 1912. The food was simple, and the Xaverian Brothers who ran the school insisted on strict discipline; corporal punishment was common. Ruth's nickname there was \"Niggerlips\", as he had large facial features and was darker than most boys at the all-white reformatory. \n\nRuth was sometimes allowed to rejoin his family, or was placed at St. James's Home, a supervised residence with work in the community, but he was always returned to St. Mary's. He rarely was visited by his family; his mother died when he was 12 and by some accounts, he was permitted to leave St. Mary's only to attend the funeral. How Ruth came to play baseball there is uncertain: according to one account, his placement at St. Mary's was due in part to repeatedly breaking Baltimore's windows with long hits while playing street ball; by another, he was told to join a team on his first day at St. Mary's by the school's athletic director, Brother Herman, becoming a catcher even though left-handers rarely play that position. During his time there he also played third base and shortstop, again unusual for a left-hander, and was forced to wear mitts and gloves made for right-handers. He was encouraged in his pursuits by the school's Prefect of Discipline, Brother Matthias Boutlier, a native of Nova Scotia. A large man, Brother Matthias was greatly respected by the boys both for his strength and for his fairness. For the rest of his life, Ruth would praise Brother Matthias, and his running and hitting styles closely resembled his teacher's. Ruth stated, \"I think I was born as a hitter the first day I ever saw him hit a baseball.\" The older man became a mentor and role model to George; biographer Robert W. Creamer commented on the closeness between the two:\n\nThe school's influence remained with Ruth in other ways: a lifelong Catholic, he would sometimes attend Mass after carousing all night, and he became a well-known member of the Knights of Columbus. He would visit orphanages, schools, and hospitals throughout his life, often avoiding publicity. He was generous to St. Mary's as he became famous and rich, donating money and his presence at fundraisers, and spending $5,000 to buy Brother Matthias a Cadillac in 1926—subsequently replacing it when it was destroyed in an accident. Nevertheless, his biographer Leigh Montville suggests that many of the off-the-field excesses of Ruth's career were driven by the deprivations of his time at St. Mary's. \n\nMost of the boys at St. Mary's played baseball, with organized leagues at different levels of proficiency. Ruth later estimated that he played 200 games a year as he steadily climbed the ladder of success. Although he played all positions at one time or another (including infield positions generally reserved for right-handers), he gained stardom as a pitcher. According to Brother Matthias, Ruth was standing to one side laughing at the bumbling pitching efforts of fellow students, and Matthias told him to go in and see if he could do better. After becoming the best pitcher at St. Mary's, in 1913, when Ruth was 18, he was allowed to leave the premises to play weekend games on teams drawn from the community. He was mentioned in several newspaper articles, for both his pitching prowess and ability to hit long home runs. \n\nProfessional baseball\n\nMinor league, Baltimore Orioles\n\nIn early 1914, Ruth was signed to a professional baseball contract by Jack Dunn, owner and manager of the minor-league Baltimore Orioles, an International League team. The circumstances of Ruth's signing cannot be stated with certainty, with historical fact obscured by stories that cannot all be true. By some accounts, Dunn was urged to attend a game between an all-star team from St. Mary's and one from another Xaverian facility, Mount St. Mary's College. Some versions have Ruth running away before the eagerly awaited game, to return in time to be punished, and then pitching St. Mary's to victory as Dunn watched. Others have Washington Senators pitcher Joe Engel, a Mount St. Mary's graduate, pitching in an alumni game after watching a preliminary contest between the college's freshmen and a team from St. Mary's, including Ruth. Engel watched Ruth play, then told Dunn about him at a chance meeting in Washington. Ruth, in his autobiography, stated only that he worked out for Dunn for a half-hour, and was signed. According to biographer Kal Wagenheim, there were legal difficulties to be straightened out as Ruth was supposed to remain at the school until he turned 21. \n\nThe train journey to spring training in Fayetteville, North Carolina, in early March was likely Ruth's first outside the Baltimore area. The rookie ballplayer was the subject of various pranks by the veterans, who were probably also the source of his famous nickname. There are various accounts of how Ruth came to be called Babe, but most center on his being referred to as \"Dunnie's babe\" or a variant. \"Babe\" was at that time a common nickname in baseball, with perhaps the most famous to that point being Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher and 1909 World Series hero Babe Adams, who appeared younger than he was. \n\nBabe Ruth's first appearance as a professional ballplayer was in an intersquad game on March 7, 1914. Ruth played shortstop, and pitched the last two innings of a 15–9 victory. In his second at bat, Ruth hit a long home run to right, which was reported locally to be longer than a legendary shot hit in Fayetteville by Jim Thorpe. His first appearance against a team in organized baseball was an exhibition against the major-league Philadelphia Phillies: Ruth pitched the middle three innings, giving up two runs in the fourth, but then settling down and pitching a scoreless fifth and sixth. The following afternoon, Ruth was put in during the sixth inning against the Phillies and did not allow a run the rest of the way. The Orioles scored seven runs in the bottom of the eighth to overcome a 6–0 deficit, making Ruth the winning pitcher. \n\nOnce the regular season began, Ruth was a star pitcher who was also dangerous at the plate. The team performed well, yet received almost no attention from the Baltimore press. A third major league, the Federal League, had begun play, and the local franchise, the Baltimore Terrapins, restored that city to the major leagues for the first time since 1902. Few fans visited Oriole Park, where Ruth and his teammates labored in relative obscurity. Ruth may have been offered a bonus and a larger salary to jump to the Terrapins; when rumors to that effect swept Baltimore, giving Ruth the most publicity he had experienced to date, a Terrapins official denied it, stating it was their policy not to sign players under contract to Dunn. \n\nThe competition from the Terrapins caused Dunn to sustain large losses. Although by late June the Orioles were in first place, having won over two-thirds of their games, the paid attendance dropped as low as 150. Dunn explored a possible move by the Orioles to Richmond, Virginia, as well as the sale of a minority interest in the club. These possibilities fell through, leaving Dunn with little choice other than to sell his best players to major league teams to raise money. He offered Ruth to the reigning World Series champions, Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, but Mack had his own financial problems. The Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants expressed interest in Ruth, but Dunn sold his contract, along with those of pitchers Ernie Shore and Ben Egan, to the Boston Red Sox of the American League (AL) on July 4. The sale price was announced as $25,000 but other reports lower the amount to half that, or possibly $8,500 plus the cancellation of a $3,000 loan. Ruth remained with the Orioles for several days while the Red Sox completed a road trip, and reported to the team in Boston on July 11. \n\nBoston Red Sox (1914–19)\n\nDeveloping star\n\nRuth arrived in Boston on July 11, 1914, along with Egan and Shore. Ruth later told of meeting the woman he would first marry, Helen Woodford, that morning—she was then a 16-year-old waitress at Landers Coffee Shop, and Ruth related that she served him when he had breakfast there. Other stories, though, suggest the meeting happened on another day, and perhaps under other circumstances. Regardless of when he began to woo his first wife, he won his first game for the Red Sox that afternoon, 4–3, over the Cleveland Naps. He pitched to catcher Bill Carrigan, who was also the Red Sox manager. Shore was given a start by Carrigan the next day; he won that and his second start and thereafter was pitched regularly. Ruth lost his second start, and was thereafter little used. As a batter, in his major-league debut, Ruth went 0-for-2 against left-hander Willie Mitchell, striking out in his first at bat, before being removed for a pinch hitter in the seventh inning. Ruth was not much noticed by the fans, as Bostonians watched the Red Sox's crosstown rivals, the Braves, begin a legendary comeback that would take them from last place on the Fourth of July to the 1914 World Series championship. \n\nEgan was traded to Cleveland after two weeks on the Boston roster. During his time as a Red Sox, he kept an eye on the inexperienced Ruth, much as Dunn had in Baltimore. When he was traded, no one took his place as supervisor. Ruth's new teammates considered him brash, and would have preferred him, as a rookie, to remain quiet and inconspicuous. When Ruth insisted on taking batting practice despite his being both a rookie who did not play regularly, and a pitcher, he arrived to find his bats sawn in half. His teammates nicknamed him \"the Big Baboon\", a name the swarthy Ruth, who had disliked the nickname \"Niggerlips\" at St. Mary's, detested. Ruth had received a raise on promotion to the major leagues, and quickly acquired tastes for fine food, liquor, and women, among other temptations. \n\nManager Carrigan allowed Ruth to pitch two exhibition games in mid-August. Although Ruth won both against minor-league competition, he was not restored to the pitching rotation. It is uncertain why Carrigan did not give Ruth additional opportunities to pitch. There are legends—filmed for the screen in The Babe Ruth Story (1948)—that the young pitcher had a habit of signaling his intent to throw a curveball by sticking out his tongue slightly, and that he was easy to hit until this changed. Creamer pointed out that it is common for inexperienced pitchers to display such habits, and the need to break Ruth of his would not constitute a reason to not use him at all. The biographer suggested that Carrigan was unwilling to use Ruth due to poor behavior by the rookie. \n\nOn July 30, 1914, Boston owner Joseph Lannin had purchased the minor-league Providence Grays, members of the International League. The Providence team had been owned by several people associated with the Detroit Tigers, including star hitter Ty Cobb, and as part of the transaction, a Providence pitcher was sent to the Tigers. To soothe Providence fans upset at losing a star, Lannin announced that the Red Sox would soon send a replacement to the Grays. This was intended to be Ruth, but his departure for Providence was delayed when Cincinnati Reds owner Garry Herrmann claimed him off waivers. After Lannin wrote to Herrmann explaining that the Red Sox wanted Ruth in Providence so he could develop as a player, and would not release him to a major league club, Herrmann allowed Ruth to be sent to the minors. Carrigan later stated that Ruth was not sent down to Providence to make him a better player, but to help the Grays win the International League pennant (league championship). \n\nRuth joined the Grays on August 18, 1914. What was left of the Baltimore Orioles after Dunn's deals had managed to hold on to first place until August 15, after which they continued to fade, leaving the pennant race between Providence and Rochester. Ruth was deeply impressed by Providence manager \"Wild Bill\" Donovan, previously a star pitcher with a 25–4 win–loss record for Detroit in 1907; in later years, he credited Donovan with teaching him much about pitching. Ruth was called upon often to pitch, in one stretch starting (and winning) four games in eight days. On September 5 in Toronto, Ruth pitched a one-hit 9–0 victory, and hit his first professional home run, his only one as a minor leaguer, off Ellis Johnson. Recalled to Boston after Providence finished the season in first place, he pitched and won a game for the Red Sox against the New York Yankees on October 2, getting his first major league hit, a double. Ruth finished the season with a record of 2–1 as a major leaguer and 23–8 in the International League (for Baltimore and Providence). Once the season concluded, Ruth married Helen in Ellicott City, Maryland. Creamer speculated that they did not marry in Baltimore, where the newlyweds boarded with George Ruth, Sr., to avoid possible interference from those at St. Mary's—both bride and groom were not yet of age and Ruth remained on parole from that institution until his 21st birthday. \n\nRuth reported to his first major league spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas, in March 1915. Despite a relatively successful first season, he was not slated to start regularly for the Red Sox, who had two stellar left-handed pitchers already: the established stars Dutch Leonard, who had broken the record for the lowest earned run average (ERA) in a single season; and Ray Collins, a 20-game winner in both 1913 and 1914. Ruth was ineffective in his first start, taking the loss in the third game of the season. Injuries and ineffective pitching by other Boston pitchers gave Ruth another chance, and after some good relief appearances, Carrigan allowed Ruth another start, and he won a rain-shortened seven inning game. Ten days later, the manager had him start against the New York Yankees at the Polo Grounds. Ruth took a 3–2 lead into the ninth, but lost the game 4–3 in 13 innings. Ruth, hitting ninth as was customary for pitchers, hit a massive home run into the upper deck in right field off of Jack Warhop. At the time, home runs were rare in baseball, and Ruth's majestic shot awed the crowd. The winning pitcher, Warhop, would in August 1915 conclude a major league career of eight seasons, undistinguished but for being the first major league pitcher to give up a home run to Babe Ruth. \n\nCarrigan was sufficiently impressed by Ruth's pitching to give him a spot in the starting rotation. Ruth finished the 1915 season 18–8 as a pitcher; as a hitter, he batted .315 and had four home runs. The Red Sox won the AL pennant, but with the pitching staff healthy, Ruth was not called upon to pitch in the 1915 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies. Boston won in five games; Ruth was used as a pinch hitter in Game Five, but grounded out against Phillies ace Grover Cleveland Alexander. Despite his success as a pitcher, Ruth was acquiring a reputation for long home runs; at Sportsman's Park against the St. Louis Browns, a Ruth hit soared over Grand Avenue, breaking the window of a Chevrolet dealership. \n\nIn 1916, there was attention focused on Ruth for his pitching, as he engaged in repeated pitching duels with the ace of the Washington Senators, Walter Johnson. The two met five times during the season, with Ruth winning four and Johnson one (Ruth had a no decision in Johnson's victory). Two of Ruth's victories were by the score of 1–0, one in a 13-inning game. Of the 1–0 shutout decided without extra innings, AL President Ban Johnson stated, \"That was one of the best ball games I have ever seen.\" For the season, Ruth went 23–12, with a 1.75 ERA and nine shutouts, both of which led the league. Ruth's nine shutouts in 1916 set a league record for left-handers that would remain unmatched until Ron Guidry tied it in 1978. The Red Sox won the pennant and World Series again, this time defeating the Brooklyn Superbas (as the Dodgers were then known) in five games. Ruth started and won Game 2, 2–1, in 14 innings. Until another game of that length was played in 2005, this was the longest World Series game, and Ruth's pitching performance is still the longest postseason complete game victory. \n\nCarrigan retired as player and manager after 1916, returning to his native Maine to be a businessman. Ruth, who played under four managers who are in the National Baseball Hall of Fame, always maintained that Carrigan, who is not enshrined there, was the best skipper he ever played for. There were other changes in the Red Sox organization that offseason, as Lannin sold the team to a three-man group headed by New York theatrical promoter Harry Frazee. Jack Barry was hired by Frazee as manager. \n\nEmergence as a hitter\n\nRuth went 24–13 with a 2.01 ERA and six shutouts in 1917, but the Sox finished in second place in the league, nine games behind the Chicago White Sox in the standings. On June 23 at Washington, Ruth made a memorable pitching start. When the home plate umpire 'Brick' Owens called the first four pitches as balls, Ruth threw a punch at him, and was ejected from the game and later suspended for ten days and fined $100. Ernie Shore was called in to relieve Ruth, and was allowed eight warm-up pitches. The runner who had reached base on the walk was caught stealing, and Shore retired all 26 batters he faced to win the game. Shore's feat was listed as a perfect game for many years; in 1991, Major League Baseball's (MLB) Committee on Statistical Accuracy caused it to be listed as a combined no-hitter. In 1917, Ruth was used little as a batter, other than his plate appearances while pitching, and hit .325 with two home runs. \n\nThe entry of the United States into World War I occurred at the start of the season, and overshadowed the sport. Conscription was introduced in September 1917, and most baseball players in the big leagues were of draft age. This included Barry, who was a player-manager, and who joined the Naval Reserve in an attempt to avoid the draft, only to be called up after the 1917 season. Frazee hired International League President Ed Barrow as Red Sox manager. Barrow had spent the previous 30 years in a variety of baseball jobs, though he never played the game professionally. With the major leagues shorthanded due to the war, Barrow had many holes in the Red Sox lineup to fill.\n\nRuth also noticed these vacancies in the lineup, and, dissatisfied in the role of a pitcher who appeared every four or five days, wanted to play every day at another position. Barrow tried Ruth at first base and in the outfield during the exhibition season, but as the team moved towards Boston and the season opener, restricted him to pitching. At the time, Ruth was possibly the best left-handed pitcher in baseball; allowing him to play another position was an experiment that could have backfired.\n\nInexperienced as a manager, Barrow had player Harry Hooper advise him on baseball game strategy. Hooper urged his manager to allow Ruth to play another position when he was not pitching, arguing to Barrow, who had invested in the club, that the crowds were larger on days when Ruth played, as they were attracted by his hitting. Barrow gave in early in May; Ruth promptly hit home runs in four consecutive games (one an exhibition), the last off of Walter Johnson. For the first time in his career (disregarding pinch-hitting appearances), Ruth was allowed a place in the batting order higher than ninth.\n\nAlthough Barrow predicted that Ruth would beg to return to pitching the first time he experienced a batting slump, that did not occur. Barrow used Ruth primarily as an outfielder in the war-shortened 1918 season. Ruth hit .300, with 11 home runs, enough to secure him a share of the major league home run title with Tillie Walker of the Philadelphia Athletics. He was still occasionally used as a pitcher, and had a 13–7 record with a 2.22 ERA. \n\nThe Red Sox won their third pennant in four years, and faced the Chicago Cubs in the 1918 World Series, beginning on September 5, the earliest in history. The season was shortened as the government had ruled that baseball players eligible for the military would have to be inducted or work in critical war industries, such as armaments plants. Ruth pitched Game One for the Red Sox, a 1–0 shutout. Before Game Four, Ruth injured his left hand in a fight; he pitched anyway. He gave up seven hits and six walks, but was helped by outstanding fielding behind him and by his own batting efforts, as a fourth-inning triple by Ruth gave his team a 2–0 lead. The Cubs tied the game in the eighth inning, but the Red Sox scored to take a 3–2 again in the bottom of that inning. After Ruth gave up a hit and a walk to start the ninth inning, he was relieved on the mound by Joe Bush. To keep Ruth and his bat in the game, he was sent to play left field. Bush retired the side to give Ruth his second win of the Series, and the third and last World Series pitching victory of his career, against no defeats, in three pitching appearances. Ruth's effort gave his team a three-games-to-one lead, and two days later the Red Sox won their third Series in four years, four games to two. Before allowing the Cubs to score in Game Four, Ruth pitched consecutive scoreless innings, a record for the World Series that stood for more than 40 years until 1961, broken by Whitey Ford after Ruth's death. Ruth was prouder of that record than he was of any of his batting feats. \n\nWith the World Series over, Ruth gained exemption from the war draft by accepting a nominal position with a Pennsylvania steel mill. Many industrial establishments took pride in their baseball teams and sought to hire major leaguers. The end of the war in November set Ruth free to play baseball without such contrivances. \n\nDuring the 1919 season, Ruth pitched in only 17 of his 130 games, compiling an 8–5 record as Barrow used him as a pitcher mostly in the early part of the season, when the Red Sox manager still had hopes of a second consecutive pennant. By late June, the Red Sox were clearly out of the race, and Barrow had no objection to Ruth concentrating on his hitting, if only because it drew people to the ballpark. Ruth had hit a home run against the Yankees on Opening Day, and another during a month-long batting slump that soon followed. Relieved of his pitching duties, Ruth began an unprecedented spell of slugging home runs, which gave him widespread public and press attention. Even his failures were seen as majestic—one sportswriter noted, \"When Ruth misses a swipe at the ball, the stands quiver\". \n\nTwo home runs by Ruth on July 5, and one in each of two consecutive games a week later, raised his season total to 11, tying his career best from 1918. The first record to fall was the AL single-season mark of 16, set by Ralph \"Socks\" Seybold in 1902. Ruth matched that on July 29, then pulled ahead toward the major league record of 24, set by Buck Freeman in 1899. Ruth reached this on September 8, by which time, writers had discovered that Ned Williamson of the 1884 Chicago White Stockings had hit 27—though in a ballpark where the distance to right field was only 215 ft. On September 20, \"Babe Ruth Day\" at Fenway Park, Ruth won the game with a home run in the bottom of the ninth inning, tying Williamson. He broke the record four days later against the Yankees at the Polo Grounds, and hit one more against the Senators to finish with 29. The home run at Washington made Ruth the first major league player to hit a home run at all eight ballparks in his league. In spite of Ruth's hitting heroics, the Red Sox finished sixth, games behind the league champion White Sox. \n\nSale to New York\n\nAs an out-of-towner from New York City, Frazee had been regarded with suspicion by Boston's sportswriters and baseball fans when he bought the team. He won them over with success on the field and a willingness to build the Red Sox by purchasing or trading for players. He offered the Senators $60,000 for Walter Johnson, but Washington owner Clark Griffith was unwilling. Even so, Frazee was successful in bringing other players to Boston, especially as replacements for players in the military. This willingness to spend for players helped the Red Sox secure the 1918 title. The 1919 season saw record-breaking attendance, and Ruth's home runs for Boston made him a national sensation. In March 1919 Ruth was reported as having accepted a three-year contract for a total of $27,000, after protracted negotiations Nevertheless, on December 26, 1919, Frazee sold Ruth's contract to the New York Yankees. \n\nNot all of the circumstances concerning the sale are known, but brewer and former congressman Jacob Ruppert, the New York team's principal owner, reportedly asked Yankee manager Miller Huggins what the team needed to be successful. \"Get Ruth from Boston\", Huggins supposedly replied, noting that Frazee was perennially in need of money to finance his theatrical productions. In any event, there was precedent for the Ruth transaction: when Boston pitcher Carl Mays left the Red Sox in a 1919 dispute, Frazee had settled the matter by selling Mays to the Yankees, though over the opposition of AL President Johnson. \n\nAccording to one of Ruth's biographers, Jim Reisler, \"why Frazee needed cash in 1919—and large infusions of it quickly—is still, more than 80 years later, a bit of a mystery\". The often-told story is that Frazee needed money to finance the musical No, No, Nanette, which was a Broadway hit and brought Frazee financial security. That play did not open until 1925, however, by which time Frazee had sold the Red Sox. Still, the story may be true in essence: No, No, Nanette was based on a Frazee-produced play, My Lady Friends, which opened in 1919. \n\nThere were other financial pressures on Frazee, despite his team's success. Ruth, fully aware of baseball's popularity and his role in it, wanted to renegotiate his contract, signed before the 1919 season for $10,000 per year through 1921. He demanded that his salary be doubled, or he would sit out the season and cash in on his popularity through other ventures. Ruth's salary demands were causing other players to ask for more money. Additionally, Frazee still owed Lannin as much as $125,000 from the purchase of the club. \n\nAlthough Ruppert and his co-owner, Colonel Tillinghast Huston, were both wealthy, and had aggressively purchased and traded for players in 1918 and 1919 to build a winning team, Ruppert faced losses in his brewing interests as Prohibition was implemented, and if their team left the Polo Grounds, where the Yankees were the tenants of the New York Giants, building a stadium in New York would be expensive. Nevertheless, when Frazee, who moved in the same social circles as Huston, hinted to the colonel that Ruth was available for the right price, the Yankees owners quickly pursued the purchase. \n\nFrazee sold the rights to Babe Ruth for $100,000, the largest sum ever paid for a baseball player. The deal also involved a $350,000 loan from Ruppert to Frazee, secured by a mortgage on Fenway Park. Once it was agreed, Frazee informed Barrow, who, stunned, told the owner that he was getting the worse end of the bargain. Cynics have suggested that Barrow may have played a larger role in the Ruth sale, as less than a year after, he became the Yankee general manager, and in the following years made a number of purchases of Red Sox players from Frazee.Reisler, p. 2 The $100,000 price included $25,000 in cash, and notes for the same amount due November 1 in 1920, 1921, and 1922; Ruppert and Huston assisted Frazee in selling the notes to banks for immediate cash.\n\nThe transaction was contingent on Ruth signing a new contract, which was quickly accomplished—Ruth agreed to fulfill the remaining two years on his contract, but was given a $20,000 bonus, payable over two seasons. The deal was announced on January 6, 1920. Reaction in Boston was mixed: some fans were embittered at the loss of Ruth; others conceded that the slugger had become difficult to deal with. The New York Times suggested presciently, \"The short right field wall at the Polo Grounds should prove an easy target for Ruth next season and, playing seventy-seven games at home, it would not be surprising if Ruth surpassed his home run record of twenty-nine circuit clouts next Summer.\" According to Reisler, \"The Yankees had pulled off the sports steal of the century.\"\n\nAccording to Marty Appel in his history of the Yankees, the transaction, \"changed the fortunes of two high-profile franchises for decades\". The Red Sox, winners of five of the first sixteen World Series, those played between 1903 and 1919, would not win another pennant until 1946, or another World Series until 2004, a drought attributed in baseball superstition to Frazee's sale of Ruth and sometimes dubbed the \"Curse of the Bambino\". The Yankees, on the other hand, had not won the AL championship prior to their acquisition of Ruth. They won seven AL pennants and four World Series with Ruth, and lead baseball with 40 pennants and 27 World Series titles in their history. \n\nNew York Yankees (1920–34)\n\nInitial success (1920–23)\n\nAs a Yankee, Ruth's transition from a pitcher to a power-hitting outfielder became complete. In his fifteen-season Yankee career, consisting of over 2,000 games, Ruth broke many batting records, while making only five widely scattered appearances on the mound, winning all of them.\n\nAt the end of April 1920, the Yankees were 4–7, with the Red Sox leading the league with a 10–2 mark. Ruth had done little, having injured himself swinging the bat. Both situations began to change on May 1, when Ruth hit a home run with the ball going completely out of the Polo Grounds, a feat believed only to have been previously accomplished by Shoeless Joe Jackson. The Yankees won, 6–0, taking three out of four from the Red Sox. Ruth hit his second home run on May 2, and by the end of the month had set a major league record for home runs in a month with 11, and promptly broke it with 13 in June. Fans responded with record attendance: on May 16, Ruth and the Yankees drew 38,600 to the Polo Grounds, a record for the ballpark, and 15,000 fans were turned away. Large crowds jammed stadiums to see Ruth play when the Yankees were on the road. \n\nThe home runs kept coming; Ruth tied his own record of 29 on July 15, and broke it with home runs in both games of a doubleheader four days later. By the end of July, he had 37, but his pace slackened somewhat after that. Nevertheless, on September 4, he both tied and broke the organized baseball record for home runs in a season, snapping Perry Werden's 1895 mark of 44 in the minor Western League. The Yankees played well as a team, battling for the league lead early in the summer, but slumped in August in the AL pennant battle with Chicago and Cleveland. The championship was won by Cleveland, surging ahead after the Black Sox Scandal broke on September 28 and led to the suspension of many of the team's top players, including Joe Jackson. The Yankees finished third, but drew 1.2 million fans to the Polo Grounds, the first time a team had drawn a seven figure attendance. The rest of the league sold 600,000 more tickets, many fans there to see Ruth, who led the league with 54 home runs, 158 runs, and 137 runs batted in (RBIs). \n\nRuth was aided in his exploits, in 1920 and afterwards, by the fact that the A.J. Reach Company, maker of baseballs used in the major leagues, was using a more efficient machine to wind the yarn found within the baseball. When these went into play in 1920, the start of the live-ball era, the number of home runs increased by 184 over the previous year across the major leagues. Baseball statistician Bill James points out that while Ruth was likely aided by the change in the baseball, there were other factors at work, including the gradual abolition of the spitball (accelerated after the death of Ray Chapman, struck by a pitched ball thrown by Mays in August 1920) and the more frequent use of new baseballs (also a response to Chapman's death). Nevertheless, James theorizes that Ruth's 1920 explosion might have happened in 1919, had a full season of 154 games been played rather than 140, had Ruth refrained from pitching 133 innings that season, and if he were playing with any other home field but Fenway Park, where he hit only 9 of 29 home runs. \n\nYankees business manager Harry Sparrow had died early in the 1920 season; to replace him, Ruppert and Huston hired Barrow. Ruppert and Barrow quickly made a deal with Frazee for New York to acquire some of the players who would be mainstays of the early Yankee pennant-winning teams, including catcher Wally Schang and pitcher Waite Hoyt. The 21-year-old Hoyt became close to Ruth:\n\nRuth hit home runs early and often in the 1921 season, during which he broke Roger Connor's mark for home runs in a career, 138. Each of the almost 600 home runs Ruth hit in his career after that extended his own record. After a slow start, the Yankees were soon locked in a tight pennant race with Cleveland, winners of the 1920 World Series. On September 15, Ruth hit his 55th home run, shattering his year-old single season record. In late September, the Yankees visited Cleveland and won three out of four games, giving them the upper hand in the race, and clinched their first pennant a few days later. Ruth finished the regular season with 59 home runs, batting .378 and with a slugging percentage of .846. \n\nThe Yankees had high expectations when they met the New York Giants in the 1921 World Series, and the Yankees won the first two games with Ruth in the lineup. However, Ruth badly scraped his elbow during Game 2, sliding into third base (he had walked and stolen both second and third bases). After the game, he was told by the team physician not to play the rest of the series. Despite this advice, he did play in the next three games, and pinch-hit in Game Eight of the best-of-nine series, but the Yankees lost, five games to three. Ruth hit .316, drove in five runs and hit his first World Series home run. \n\nAfter the Series, Ruth and teammates Bob Meusel and Bill Piercy participated in a barnstorming tour in the Northeast. A rule then in force prohibited World Series participants from playing in exhibition games during the offseason, the purpose being to prevent Series participants from replicating the Series and undermining its value. Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis suspended the trio until May 20, 1922, and fined them their 1921 World Series checks. In August 1922, the rule was changed to allow limited barnstorming for World Series participants, with Landis's permission required.Pietrusza, p. 239\n\nOn March 6, 1922, Ruth signed a new contract, for three years at $52,000 a year. The largest sum ever paid a ballplayer to that point, it represented 40% of the team's player payroll. Despite his suspension, Ruth was named the Yankees' new on-field captain prior to the 1922 season. During the suspension, he worked out with the team in the morning, and played exhibition games with the Yankees on their off days. He and Meusel returned on May 20, to a sellout crowd at the Polo Grounds, but Ruth batted 0-for-4, and was booed. On May 25, he was thrown out of the game for throwing dust in umpire George Hildebrand's face, then climbed into the stands to confront a heckler. Ban Johnson ordered him fined, suspended, and stripped of his captaincy. In his shortened season, Ruth appeared in 110 games, batted .315, with 35 home runs, and drove in 99 runs, but compared to his previous two dominating years, the 1922 season was a disappointment. Despite Ruth's off-year, Yankees managed to win the pennant to face the New York Giants for the second straight year in the World Series. In the Series, Giants manager John McGraw instructed his pitchers to throw him nothing but curveballs, and Ruth never adjusted. Ruth had just two hits in seventeen at bats, and the Yankees lost to the Giants for the second straight year, by 4–0 (with one tie game). Sportswriter Joe Vila called him, \"an exploded phenomenon\". \n\nAfter the season, Ruth was a guest at an Elks Club banquet, set up by Ruth's agent with Yankee team support. There, each speaker, concluding with future New York mayor Jimmy Walker, censured him for his poor behavior. An emotional Ruth promised reform, and, to the surprise of many, followed through. When he reported to spring training, he was in his best shape as a Yankee, weighing only 210 lb.Stout, p. 104\n\nThe Yankees's status as tenants of the Giants at the Polo Grounds had become increasingly uneasy, and in 1922 Giants owner Charles Stoneham stated that the Yankees's lease, expiring after that season, would not be renewed. Ruppert and Huston had long contemplated a new stadium, and had taken an option on property at 161st Street and River Avenue in the Bronx. Yankee Stadium was completed in time for the home opener on April 18, 1923, at which the Babe hit the first home run in what was quickly dubbed \"the House that Ruth Built\".Stout, p. 105 The ballpark was designed with Ruth in mind: although the venue's left-field fence was further from home plate than at the Polo Grounds, Yankee Stadium's right-field fence was closer, making home runs easier to hit for left-handed batters. To spare Ruth's eyes, right field–his defensive position–was not pointed into the afternoon sun, as was traditional; left fielder Meusel was soon suffering headaches from squinting toward home plate.\n\nThe Yankees were never challenged, leading the league for most of the 1923 season and winning the AL pennant by 17 games. Ruth finished the season with a career-high .393 batting average and major-league leading 41 home runs (tied with Cy Williams). Another career high for Ruth in 1923 was his 45 doubles, and he reached base 379 times, then a major league record. For the third straight year, the Yankees faced the Giants in the World Series, which Ruth dominated. He batted .368, walked eight times, scored eight runs, hit three home runs and slugged 1.000 during the series, as the Yankees won their first World Series championship, four games to two.\n\nBatting title and \"bellyache\" (1924–25)\n\nIn 1924, the Yankees were favored to become the first team to win four consecutive pennants. Plagued by injuries, they found themselves in a battle with the Senators. Although the Yankees won 18 of 22 at one point in September, the Senators beat out the Yankees by two games. Ruth hit .378, winning his only AL batting title, with a league-leading 46 home runs. \n\nRuth had kept up his efforts to stay in shape in 1923 and 1924, but by early 1925 weighed nearly 260 lb. His annual visit to Hot Springs, Arkansas, where he exercised and took saunas early in the year, did him no good as he spent much of the time carousing in the resort town. He became ill while there, and suffered relapses during spring training. Ruth collapsed in Asheville, North Carolina, as the team journeyed north. He was put on a train for New York, where he was briefly hospitalized. A rumor circulated that he had died, prompting British newspapers to print a premature obituary. In New York, Ruth collapsed again and was found unconscious in his hotel bathroom. He was taken to a hospital where he suffered multiple convulsions. After sportswriter W. O. McGeehan wrote that Ruth's illness was due to binging on hot dogs and soda pop before a game, it became known as \"the bellyache heard 'round the world\". However, the exact cause of his ailment has never been confirmed and remains a mystery. Glenn Stout, in his history of the Yankees, notes that the Ruth legend is \"still one of the most sheltered in sports\"; he suggests that alcohol was at the root of Ruth's illness, pointing to the fact that Ruth remained six weeks at St. Vincent's Hospital but was allowed to leave, under supervision, for workouts with the team for part of that time. He concludes that the hospitalization was behavior-related. Playing just 98 games, Ruth had his worst season as a Yankee; he finished with a .290 average and 25 home runs. The Yankees finished next to last in the AL with a 69–85 record, their last season with a losing record until 1965. \n\nMurderer's Row (1926–28)\n\nRuth spent part of the offseason of 1925–26 working out at Artie McGovern's gym, getting back into shape. Barrow and Huggins had rebuilt the team, surrounding the veteran core with good young players like Tony Lazzeri and Lou Gehrig. But New York was not expected to win the pennant. \n\nBabe Ruth returned to his normal production during 1926, batting .372 with 47 home runs and 146 RBIs. The Yankees built a ten-game lead by mid-June, and coasted to win the pennant by three games. The St. Louis Cardinals had won the National League with the lowest winning percentage for a pennant winner to that point (.578) and the Yankees were expected to win the World Series easily. Although the Yankees won the opener in New York, St. Louis took Games Two and Three. In Game Four, Ruth hit three home runs, the first time this had been done in a World Series game, to lead the Yankees to victory; in the fifth game Ruth caught a ball as he crashed into the fence, described by baseball writers as a defensive gem. New York took that game, but Grover Cleveland Alexander won Game Six for St. Louis to tie the Series at three games each, then got very drunk. He was nevertheless inserted into Game Seven in the seventh inning and shut down the Yankees to win the game, 3–2, and win the Series. Ruth had hit his fourth home run of the Series earlier in the game, and was the only Yankee to reach base off Alexander, walking in the ninth inning before being caught stealing to end the game. Although Ruth's attempt to steal second is often deemed a baserunning blunder, Creamer pointed out that the Yankees' chances of tying the game would have been greatly improved with a runner in scoring position. \n\nThe 1926 Series was also known for Ruth's promise to Johnny Sylvester, a hospitalized 11-year-old, that he would hit a home run on his behalf. Sylvester had been injured in a fall from a horse, and a friend of Sylvester's father gave the boy two autographed baseballs signed by Yankees and Cardinals, and relayed a promise from Ruth, who did not know the boy, to hit a home run for him. After the Series, Ruth visited the boy in the hospital. When the matter became public, the press greatly inflated it, and by some accounts, Ruth saved a dying boy's life by visiting him, emotionally promising to hit a home run, and doing so. \nThe 1927 New York Yankees team is considered one of the greatest squads that ever took the field. Known as Murderer's Row because of the power of its lineup, the team won a then-AL-record 110 games, and took the AL pennant by 19 games, clinching first place on Labor Day. With little suspense as to the pennant race, the nation's attention turned to Ruth's pursuit of his own single-season home run record of 59. He was not alone in this chase: Gehrig proved to be a slugger capable of challenging Ruth for his home run crown, tying Ruth with 24 home runs late in June. Through July and August, they were never separated by more than two home runs. Gehrig took the lead, 45–44, in the first game of a doubleheader at Fenway Park early in September; Ruth responded with two of his own to take the lead, as it proved permanently—Gehrig finished with 47. Even so, as of September 6, Ruth was still several games off his 1921 pace, and going into the final series against the Senators, had only 57. He hit two in the first game of the series, including one off of Paul Hopkins, facing his first major league batter, to tie the record. The following day, September 30, he broke it with his 60th homer, in the eighth inning off Tom Zachary to break a 2–2 tie. \"Sixty! Let's see some son of a bitch try to top that one\", Ruth exulted after the game. In addition to his career-high 60 home runs, Ruth batted .356, drove in 164 runs and slugged .772. In the 1927 World Series, the Yankees swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in four games; the National Leaguers were disheartened after watching the Yankees take batting practice before Game One, with ball after ball leaving Forbes Field. According to Appel, \"The 1927 New York Yankees. Even today, the words inspire awe ... all baseball success is measured against the '27 team.\" \n\nBefore the 1928 season, Ruth signed a new contract for an unprecedented $80,000 per year. The season started off well for the Yankees, who led the league in the early going. But the Yankees were plagued by injuries, erratic pitching and inconsistent play. The Philadelphia Athletics, rebuilding after some lean years, erased the Yankees' big lead and even took over first place briefly in early September. The Yankees, however, regained first place when they beat the Athletics three out of four games in a pivotal series at Yankee Stadium later that month, and clinched the pennant in the final weekend of the season. Ruth's play in 1928 mirrored his team's performance. He got off to a hot start and on August 1, he had 42 home runs. This put him ahead of his 60 home run pace from the previous season. He then slumped for the latter part of the season, and he hit just twelve home runs in the last two months. Ruth's batting average also fell to .323, well below his career average. Nevertheless, he ended the season with 54 home runs. The Yankees swept the favored Cardinals in four games in the World Series, with Ruth batting .625 and hitting three home runs in Game Four, including one off Alexander. \n\n\"Called shot\" and final Yankee years (1929–34)\n\nBefore the 1929 season, Ruppert, who had bought out Huston in 1923, announced that the Yankees would wear uniform numbers to allow fans at cavernous Yankee Stadium to tell one player from another. The Cardinals and Indians had each experimented with uniform numbers; the Yankees were the first to use them on both home and away uniforms. As Ruth batted third, he was given number 3. According to a long-standing baseball legend, the Yankees adopted their now-iconic pinstriped uniforms in hopes of making Ruth look slimmer.Sherman, p. 9 In truth, though, they had been wearing pinstripes since Ruppert bought the team in 1915. \n\nAlthough the Yankees started well, the Athletics soon proved they were the better team in 1929, splitting two series with the Yankees in the first month of the season, then taking advantage of a Yankee losing streak in mid-May to gain first place. Although Ruth performed well, the Yankees were not able to catch the Athletics—Connie Mack had built another great team. Tragedy struck the Yankees late in the year as manager Huggins died of erysipelas, a bacterial skin infection, on September 25, only ten days after he had last led the team. Despite past differences, Ruth praised Huggins and described him as a \"great guy\". The Yankees finished second, 18 games behind the Athletics. Ruth hit .345 during the season, with 46 home runs and 154 RBIs.\n\nThe Yankees hired Bob Shawkey as manager, their fourth choice. Ruth politicked for the job of player-manager, but was not seriously considered by Ruppert and Barrow; Stout deems this the first hint Ruth would have no future with the Yankees once he was done as a player. Shawkey, a former Yankees player and teammate of Ruth, was unable to command the slugger's respect. The Athletics won their second consecutive pennant and World Series, as the Yankees finished in third place, sixteen games back. During that season Ruth was asked by a reporter what he thought of his yearly salary of $80,000 being more than President Hoover's $75,000. His response was, \"I know, but I had a better year than Hoover.\" In 1930, Ruth hit .359 with 49 home runs (his best in his years after 1928) and 153 RBIs, and pitched his first game in nine years, a complete game victory. At the end of the season, Shawkey was fired and replaced with Cubs manager Joe McCarthy, though Ruth again unsuccessfully sought the job. \n\nMcCarthy was a disciplinarian, but chose not to interfere with Ruth, and the slugger for his part did not seek conflict with the manager. The team improved in 1931, but was no match for the Athletics, who won 107 games, games in front of the Yankees.Stout, p. 148 Ruth, for his part, hit .373, with 46 home runs and 163 RBIs. He had 31 doubles, his most since 1924. In the 1932 season, the Yankees went 107–47 and won the pennant. Ruth's effectiveness had decreased somewhat, but he still hit .341 with 41 home runs and 137 RBIs. Nevertheless, he twice was sidelined due to injury during the season. \n\nThe Yankees faced the Cubs, McCarthy's former team, in the 1932 World Series. There was bad blood between the two teams as the Yankees resented the Cubs only awarding half a World Series share to Mark Koenig, a former Yankee. The games at Yankee Stadium had not been sellouts; both were won by the home team, with Ruth collecting two singles, but scoring four runs as he was walked four times by the Cubs pitchers. In Chicago, Ruth was resentful at the hostile crowds that met the Yankees's train and jeered them at the hotel. The crowd for Game Three included New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic candidate for president, who sat with Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak. Many in the crowd threw lemons at Ruth, a sign of derision, and others (as well as the Cubs themselves) shouted abuse at Ruth and other Yankees. They were briefly silenced when Ruth hit a three-run home run off Charlie Root in the first inning, but soon revived, and the Cubs tied the score at 4–4 in the fourth inning. When Ruth came to the plate in the top of the fifth, the Chicago crowd and players, led by pitcher Guy Bush, were screaming insults at Ruth. With the count at two balls and one strike, Ruth gestured, possibly in the direction of center field, and after the next pitch (a strike), may have pointed there with one hand. Ruth hit the fifth pitch over the center field fence; estimates were that it traveled nearly 500 ft. Whether or not Ruth intended to indicate where he planned to (and did) hit the ball, the incident has gone down in legend as Babe Ruth's called shot. The Yankees won Game Three, and the following day clinched the Series with another victory. During that game, Bush hit Ruth on the arm with a pitch, causing words to be exchanged and provoking a game-winning Yankee rally. \n\nRuth remained productive in 1933, as he batted .301, with 34 home runs, 103 RBIs, and a league-leading 114 walks, as the Yankees finished second, seven games behind the Senators. He was selected to play right field by Athletics manager Connie Mack in the first Major League Baseball All-Star Game, held on July 6, 1933, at Comiskey Park in Chicago. He hit the first home run in the All-Star Game's history, a two-run blast against Bill Hallahan during the third inning, which helped the AL win the game 4–2. During the final game of the 1933 season, as a publicity stunt organized by his team, Ruth was called upon and pitched a complete game victory against the Red Sox, his final appearance as a pitcher. Despite unremarkable pitching numbers, Ruth had a 5–0 record in five games for the Yankees, raising his career totals to 94–46.\n\nIn 1934, Ruth played in his last full season. By this time, years of high living were starting to catch up with him. His conditioning had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer field or run.Neyer, p. 42. He accepted a pay cut from Ruppert to $35,000, but was still the highest-paid player in the major leagues. He could still handle a bat, recording a .288 batting average with 22 home runs, statistics Reisler described as \"merely mortal\". Ruth was selected to the AL All-Star team for the second consecutive year. During the game, New York Giants pitcher Carl Hubbell struck out Ruth and four other future Hall-of-Famers consecutively. The Yankees finished second again, seven games behind the Tigers.Stout, p. 461\n\nBoston Braves (1935)\n\nAlthough Ruth knew he was nearly finished as a player, he desired to remain in baseball as a manager. He was often spoken of as a possible candidate as managerial jobs opened up, but in 1932, when he was mentioned as a contender for the Red Sox position, Ruth stated that he was not yet ready to leave the field. There were rumors that Ruth was a likely candidate each time when the Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, and Detroit Tigers were looking for a manager, but nothing came of them. \n\nJust before the 1934 season, Ruppert offered to make Ruth the manager of the Yankees' top minor-league team, the Newark Bears, but he was talked out of it by his wife, Claire, and his business manager, Christy Walsh. Shortly afterward, Tigers owner Frank Navin made a proposal to Ruppert and Barrow—if the Yankees traded Ruth to Detroit, Navin would name Ruth player-manager. Navin believed Ruth would not only bring a winning attitude to a team that had not finished higher than third since 1923, but would also revive the Tigers' sagging attendance figures. Navin asked Ruth to come to Detroit for an interview. However, Ruth balked, since Walsh had already arranged for him to take part in a celebrity golf tournament in Hawaii. Ruth and Navin negotiated over the phone while Ruth was in Hawaii, but those talks foundered when Navin refused to give Ruth a portion of the Tigers' box office proceeds. \n\nEarly in the 1934 season, Ruth began openly campaigning to become manager of the Yankees. However, the Yankee job was never a serious possibility. Ruppert always supported McCarthy, who would remain in his position for another 12 seasons. Ruth and McCarthy's relationship had been lukewarm at best, and Ruth's managerial ambitions further chilled their relations. By the end of the season, Ruth hinted that he would retire unless Ruppert named him manager of the Yankees. For his part, Ruppert wanted his slugger to leave the team without drama and hard feelings when the time came.\n\nDuring the 1934–35 offseason, Ruth circled the world with his wife, including a barnstorming tour of the Far East. At his final stop before returning home, in the United Kingdom, Ruth was introduced to cricket by Australian player Alan Fairfax, and after having little luck in a cricketer's stance, stood as a baseball batter and launched some massive shots around the field, destroying the bat in the process. Although Fairfax regretted that he could not have the time to make Ruth a cricket player, Ruth had lost any interest in such a career upon learning that the best batsmen made only about $40 per week. \n\nAlso during the offseason, Ruppert had been sounding out the other clubs in hopes of finding one that would be willing to take Ruth as a manager and/or a player. However, the only serious offer came from Athletics owner-manager Connie Mack, who gave some thought to stepping down as manager in favor of Ruth. However, Mack later dropped the idea, saying that Ruth's wife would be running the team in a month if Ruth ever took over. \n\nWhile the barnstorming tour was under way, Ruppert began negotiating with Boston Braves owner Judge Emil Fuchs, who wanted Ruth as a gate attraction. Although the Braves had enjoyed modest recent success, finishing fourth in the National League in both 1933 and 1934, the team performed poorly at the box office. Unable to afford the rent at Braves Field, Fuchs had considered holding dog races there when the Braves were not at home, only to be turned down by Landis. After a series of phone calls, letters, and meetings, the Yankees traded Ruth to the Braves on February 26, 1935. Ruppert had stated that he would not release Ruth to go to another team as a full-time player. For this reason, it was announced that Ruth would become a team vice president and would be consulted on all club transactions, in addition to playing. He was also made assistant manager to Braves skipper Bill McKechnie. In a long letter to Ruth a few days before the press conference, Fuchs promised Ruth a share in the Braves' profits, with the possibility of becoming co-owner of the team. Fuchs also raised the possibility of Ruth succeeding McKechnie as manager, perhaps as early as 1936. Ruppert called the deal \"the greatest opportunity Ruth ever had\". \n\nThere was considerable attention as Ruth reported for spring training. He did not hit his first home run of the spring until after the team had left Florida, and was beginning the road north in Savannah. He hit two in an exhibition against the Bears. Amid much press attention, Ruth played his first home game in Boston in over 16 years. Before an opening-day crowd of over 25,000, including five of New England's six state governors, Ruth accounted for all of the Braves' runs in a 4–2 defeat of the New York Giants, hitting a two-run home run, singling to drive in a third run and later in the inning scoring the fourth. Although age and weight had slowed him, he made a running catch in left field that sportswriters deemed the defensive highlight of the game. \n\nRuth had two hits in the second game of the season, but it quickly went downhill both for him and the Braves from there. The season soon settled down to a routine of Ruth performing poorly on the few occasions he even played at all, and the Braves losing most games. As April passed into May, Ruth's deterioration became even more pronounced. While he remained productive at the plate early on, he could do little else. His condition had deteriorated to the point that he could barely trot around the bases. His fielding had become so poor that three Braves pitchers told McKechnie that they would not take the mound if he was in the lineup. Before long, Ruth stopped hitting as well. He grew increasingly annoyed that McKechnie ignored most of his advice. For his part, McKechnie later said that Ruth's huge salary and refusal to stay with the team while on the road made it nearly impossible to enforce discipline. \n\nRuth soon realized that Fuchs had deceived him, and had no intention of making him manager or giving him any significant off-field duties. He later stated that his only duties as vice president consisted of making public appearances and autographing tickets. Ruth also found out that far from giving him a share of the profits, Fuchs wanted him to invest some of his money in the team in a last-ditch effort to improve its balance sheet.Neyer, p. 44. As it turned out, both Fuchs and Ruppert had known all along that Ruth's non-playing positions were meaningless. \n\nBy the end of the first month of the season, Ruth concluded he was finished even as a part-time player. As early as May 12, he asked Fuchs to let him retire. Ultimately, Fuchs persuaded Ruth to remain at least until after the Memorial Day doubleheader in Philadelphia. In the interim was a western road trip, at which the rival teams had scheduled days to honor him. In Chicago and St. Louis, Ruth performed poorly, and his batting average sank to .155, with only three home runs. In the first two games in Pittsburgh, Ruth had only one hit, though a long fly caught by Paul Waner probably would have been a home run in any other ballpark besides Forbes Field. \n\nRuth played in the third game of the Pittsburgh series on May 25, 1935, and added one more tale to his playing legend. Ruth went 4-for-4, including three home runs, though the Braves lost the game 11–7. The last two were off Ruth's old Cubs nemesis, Guy Bush. The final home run, both of the game and of Ruth's career, sailed over the upper deck in right field and out of the ballpark, the first time anyone had hit a fair ball completely out of Forbes Field. Ruth was urged to make this his last game, but he had given his word to Fuchs and played in Cincinnati and Philadelphia. The first game of the doubleheader in Philadelphia—the Braves lost both—was his final major league appearance. On June 2, after an argument with Fuchs, Ruth retired. He finished 1935 with a .181 average—easily his worst as a full-time position player—and the final six of his 714 home runs. The Braves, 10–27 when Ruth left, finished 38–115, at .248 the worst winning percentage in modern National League history. Insolvent like his team, Fuchs gave up control of the Braves before the end of the season; the National League took over the franchise at the end of the year. \n\nRetirement\n\n1935–46\n\nAlthough Fuchs had given Ruth his unconditional release, no major league team expressed an interest in hiring him in any capacity. Ruth still hoped to be hired as a manager if he could not play anymore, but only one managerial position, Cleveland, became available between Ruth's retirement and the end of the 1937 season. Asked if he had considered Ruth for the job, Indians owner Alva Bradley replied negatively.\n\nThe writer Creamer believed Ruth was unfairly treated in never being given an opportunity to manage a major league club. The author believed there was not necessarily a relationship between personal conduct and managerial success, noting that McGraw, Billy Martin, and Bobby Valentine were winners despite character flaws. Team owners and general managers assessed Ruth's flamboyant personal habits as a reason to exclude him from a managerial job; Barrow said of him, \"How can he manage other men when he can't even manage himself?\"\n\nRuth played much golf and in a few exhibition baseball games, demonstrating a continuing ability to draw large crowds. This appeal contributed to the Dodgers hiring him as first base coach in 1938. But Brooklyn general manager Larry MacPhail made it clear when Ruth was hired that he would not be considered for the manager's job if, as expected, Burleigh Grimes retired at the end of the season. Although much was said about what Ruth could teach the younger players, in practice, his duties were to appear on the field in uniform and encourage base runners—he was not called upon to relay signs. He got along well with everyone except team captain Leo Durocher, who was hired as Grimes' replacement at season's end. Ruth returned to retirement, never again to work in baseball.Creamer, pp. 399–405.\n\nOn July 4, 1939, Ruth spoke on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium as members of the 1927 Yankees and a sellout crowd turned out to honor the first baseman, forced into premature retirement by ALS disease, which would kill him in two years. The next week, Ruth went to Cooperstown, New York, for the formal opening of the Baseball Hall of Fame. Three years earlier he was one of the first five players elected to it. As radio broadcasts of baseball became popular, Ruth sought a job in that field, arguing that his celebrity and knowledge of baseball would assure large audiences, but he received no offers. During World War II, he made many personal appearances to advance the war effort, including his last appearance as a player at Yankee Stadium, in a 1943 exhibition for the Army–Navy Relief Fund. He hit a long fly ball off Walter Johnson; the blast left the field, curving foul, but Ruth circled the bases anyway. In 1946, he made a final effort to gain a job in baseball, contacting new Yankees boss MacPhail, but was sent a rejection letter. \n\nPersonal life\n\nRuth met Helen Woodford (1897–1929), by some accounts, in a coffee shop in Boston where she was a waitress, and they were married on October 17, 1914; he was 19 and she was 17. They adopted a daughter, Dorothy (1921–1989), in 1921. Ruth and Helen separated around 1925, reportedly due to his repeated infidelities. Their last public appearance together came during the 1926 World Series. Helen died in January 1929 at age 31 in a house fire in Watertown, Massachusetts, in a house owned by Edward Kinder, a dentist with whom she had been living as \"Mrs. Kinder\". In her book, My Dad, the Babe, Dorothy claimed that she was Ruth's biological child by a mistress named Juanita Jennings. She died in 1989. \n\nOn April 17, 1929, only three months after the death of his first wife, Ruth married actress and model Claire Merritt Hodgson (1897–1976) and adopted her daughter Julia; he was 34 and she was 31. It was the second and final marriage for both parties. By one account, Julia and Dorothy were, through no fault of their own, the reason for the seven-year rift in Ruth's relationship with teammate Lou Gehrig. Sometime in 1932, Gehrig's mother, during a conversation which she assumed was private, remarked, \"It's a shame [Claire] doesn't dress Dorothy as nicely as she dresses her own daughter.\" When the comment inevitably got back to Ruth, he angrily told Gehrig to tell his mother to mind her own business. Gehrig in turn took offense at what he perceived as Ruth's comment about his mother. The two men reportedly never spoke off the field until they reconciled at Yankee Stadium on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day in 1939. \n\nAlthough Ruth was married through most of his baseball career, when Colonel Huston asked him to tone down his lifestyle, the player said, \"I'll promise to go easier on drinking and to get to bed earlier, but not for you, fifty thousand dollars, or two-hundred and fifty thousand dollars will I give up women. They're too much fun.\" \n\nCancer and death (1946–48)\n\nAs early as the war years, doctors had cautioned Ruth to take better care of his health, and he grudgingly followed their advice, limiting his drinking and not going on a proposed trip to support the troops in the South Pacific. In 1946, Ruth began experiencing severe pain over his left eye, and had difficulty swallowing. In November 1946, he entered French Hospital in New York for tests, which revealed that Ruth had an inoperable malignant tumor at the base of his skull and in his neck. It was a lesion known as nasopharyngeal carcinoma, or \"lymphoepithelioma.\" His name and fame gave him access to experimental treatments, and he was one of the first cancer patients to receive both drugs and radiation treatment simultaneously. He was discharged from the hospital in February, having lost 80 lb, and went to Florida to recuperate. He returned to New York and Yankee Stadium after the season started. The new commissioner, Happy Chandler (Judge Landis had died in 1944), proclaimed April 27, 1947, Babe Ruth Day around the major leagues, with the most significant observance to be at Yankee Stadium. A number of teammates and others spoke in honor of Ruth, who briefly addressed the crowd of almost 60,000. \n\nAround this time, developments in chemotherapy offered some hope. The doctors had not told Ruth that he had cancer because of his family's fear that he might do himself harm. They treated him with teropterin, a folic acid derivative; he may have been the first human subject. Ruth showed dramatic improvement during the summer of 1947, so much so that his case was presented by his doctors at a scientific meeting, without using his name. He was able to travel around the country, doing promotional work for the Ford Motor Company on American Legion Baseball. He appeared again at another day in his honor at Yankee Stadium in September, but was not well enough to pitch in an old-timers game as he had hoped.Montville, p. 360. \n\nThe improvement was only a temporary remission, and by late 1947, Ruth was unable to help with the writing of his autobiography, The Babe Ruth Story, which was almost entirely ghostwritten. In and out of the hospital in New York, he left for Florida in February 1948, doing what activities he could. After six weeks he returned to New York to appear at a book-signing party. He also traveled to California to witness the filming of the book. \n\nOn June 5, 1948, a \"gaunt and hollowed out\" Ruth visited Yale University to donate a manuscript of The Babe Ruth Story to its library. On June 13, Ruth visited Yankee Stadium for the final time in his life, appearing at the 25th anniversary celebrations of \"The House that Ruth Built\". By this time he had lost much weight and had difficulty walking. Introduced along with his surviving teammates from 1923, Ruth used a bat as a cane. Nat Fein's photo of Ruth taken from behind, standing near home plate and facing \"Ruthville\" (right field) became one of baseball's most famous and widely circulated photographs, and won the Pulitzer Prize. \n\nRuth made one final trip on behalf of American Legion Baseball, then entered Memorial Hospital, where he would die. He was never told he had cancer, but before his death, had surmised it. He was able to leave the hospital for a few short trips, including a final visit to Baltimore. On July 26, 1948, Ruth left the hospital to attend the premiere of the film The Babe Ruth Story. Shortly thereafter, Ruth returned to the hospital for the final time. He was barely able to speak. Ruth's condition gradually became worse; only a few visitors were allowed to see him, one of whom was National League president and future Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick. \"Ruth was so thin it was unbelievable. He had been such a big man and his arms were just skinny little bones, and his face was so haggard\", Frick said years later. \n\nThousands of New Yorkers, including many children, stood vigil outside the hospital in Ruth's final days. On August 16, 1948, at 8:01 p.m., Ruth died in his sleep at the age of 53. Instead of a wake at a funeral home, his casket was taken to Yankee Stadium, where it remained for two days; 77,000 people filed past to pay him tribute. His funeral Mass took place at St. Patrick's Cathedral; a crowd estimated at 75,000 waited outside. Ruth was buried on a hillside in Section 25 at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne, New York. An epitaph by Cardinal Spellman appears on his headstone. His second wife, Claire Merritt Ruth, would be interred with him 28 years later in 1976.\n\nMemorial and museum\n\nOn April 19, 1949, the Yankees unveiled a granite monument in Ruth's honor in center field of Yankee Stadium. The monument was located in the field of play next to a flagpole and similar tributes to Huggins and Gehrig until the stadium was remodeled from 1974–1975, which resulted in the outfield fences moving inward and enclosing the monuments from the playing field. This area was known thereafter as Monument Park. Yankee Stadium, \"the House that Ruth Built\", was replaced after the 2008 season with a new Yankee Stadium across the street from the old one; Monument Park was subsequently moved to the new venue behind the center field fence. Ruth's uniform number 3 has been retired by the Yankees, and he is one of five Yankees players or managers to have a granite monument within the stadium. \n\nThe Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum is located at 216 Emory Street, a Baltimore row house where Ruth was born, and three blocks west of Oriole Park at Camden Yards, where the AL's Baltimore Orioles play.[https://web.archive.org/web/20110419151458/http://www.baberuthmuseum.com/pagebank/index.html?id\n119 History: Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum] webpage. Official website of the Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum and the Sports Legends Museum at Camden Yards. Babe Ruth Birthplace Foundation, Inc. Retrieved August 4, 2014. The property was restored and opened to the public in 1973 by the non-profit Babe Ruth Birthplace Foundation, Inc. Ruth's widow, Claire, his two daughters, Dorothy and Julia, and his sister, Mamie, helped select and install exhibits for the museum.\n\nContemporary impact\n\nRuth was the first baseball star to be the subject of overwhelming interest by the public. Baseball had developed star players before, such as Cobb and \"Shoeless Joe\" Jackson, but both men had uneasy relations with fans, in Cobb's case sometimes marked by violence. Ruth's biographers agree that he benefited from the timing of his ascension to \"Home Run King\", with an America hit hard by both the war and the 1918 flu pandemic longing for something to help put these traumas behind it. He also resonated in a country which felt, in the aftermath of the war, that it took second place to no one. Montville argues that as a larger-than-life figure capable of unprecedented athletic feats in the nation's largest city, Ruth became an icon of the significant social changes which marked the early 1920s. Glenn Stout notes in his history of the Yankees, \"Ruth was New York incarnate—uncouth and raw, flamboyant and flashy, oversized, out of scale, and absolutely unstoppable\".Stout, p. 86\n\nRuth became such a symbol of the United States during his lifetime that during World War II, Japanese soldiers yelled in English, \"To hell with Babe Ruth\", to anger American soldiers. (Ruth replied that he hoped that \"every Jap that mention[ed] my name gets shot\"). Creamer recorded that \"Babe Ruth transcended sport, moved far beyond the artificial limits of baselines and outfield fences and sports pages\". Wagenheim stated, \"He appealed to a deeply rooted American yearning for the definitive climax: clean, quick, unarguable.\" According to Glenn Stout, \"Ruth's home runs were exalted, uplifting experience that meant more to fans than any runs they were responsible for. A Babe Ruth home run was an event unto itself, one that meant anything was possible.\"\n\nRuth's penchant for hitting home runs altered how baseball is played. Prior to 1920, home runs were unusual, and managers tried to win games by getting a runner on base and bringing him around to score through such means as the stolen base, the bunt, and the hit and run. Advocates of what was dubbed \"inside baseball\", such as Giants manager McGraw, disliked the home run, considering it a blot on the purity of the game. According to sportswriter W. A. Phelon after the 1920 season, Ruth's breakout performance that season and the response in excitement and attendance, \"settled, for all time to come, that the American public is nuttier over the Home Run than the Clever Fielding or the Hitless Pitching. Viva el Home Run and two times viva Babe Ruth, exponent of the home run, and overshadowing star.\" Bill James noted, \"When the owners discovered that the fans liked to see home runs, and when the foundations of the games were simultaneously imperiled by disgrace [in the Black Sox Scandal], then there was no turning back.\" While a few, such as McGraw and Cobb, decried the passing of the old-style play, teams quickly began to seek and develop sluggers. \n\nAccording to contemporary sportswriter Grantland Rice, only two sports figures of the 1920s approached Ruth in popularity—boxer Jack Dempsey and racehorse Man o' War. One of the factors that contributed to Ruth's broad appeal was the uncertainty about his family and early life. Ruth appeared to exemplify the American success story, that even an uneducated, unsophisticated youth, without any family wealth or connections, can do something better than anyone else in the world. Montville notes that \"the fog [surrounding his childhood] will make him forever accessible, universal. He will be the patron saint of American possibility.\" Similarly, the fact that Ruth played when a relatively small portion of his fans had the opportunity to see him play, in the era before television coverage of baseball, allowed his legend to grow through word of mouth and the hyperbole of sports reporters. Reisler notes that recent sluggers who surpassed Ruth's 60-home run mark, such as Mark McGwire and Barry Bonds, generated much less excitement than when Ruth repeatedly broke the single-season home run record in the 1920s; Ruth dominated a relatively small sports world, while Americans of the present era have many sports available to watch. \n\nLegacy\n\nCreamer termed Ruth \"a unique figure in the social history of the United States\". Ruth has even entered the language: a dominant figure in a field, whether within or outside sports, is often referred to as \"the Babe Ruth\" of that field. Similarly, \"Ruthian\" has come to mean in sports, \"colossal, dramatic, prodigious, magnificent; with great power.\" \n\nMore books, Montville noted in 2006, have been written about Ruth than about any other member of the Baseball Hall of Fame. At least five of these books (including Creamer's and Wagenheim's) were written in 1973 and 1974, timed to capitalize on the increase in public interest in Ruth as Henry Aaron approached his career home run mark, which he broke on April 8, 1974. Aaron stated as he approached Ruth's record, \"I can't remember a day this year or last when I did not hear the name of Babe Ruth.\"\n\nMontville suggests that Ruth is probably even more popular today than he was when his career home run record was broken by Aaron. The longball era that Ruth started continues in baseball, to the delight of the fans. Owners build ballparks to encourage home runs, which are featured on SportsCenter and Baseball Tonight each evening during the season. The questions of performance-enhancing drug use, which have dogged recent home run hitters such as McGwire and Bonds, do nothing to diminish Ruth's reputation; his overindulgences with beer and hot dogs seem part of a simpler time. \n\nRuth has been named the greatest baseball player of all time in various surveys and rankings. In 1998, The Sporting News ranked him number one on the list of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\". In 1999, baseball fans named Ruth to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. He was named baseball's Greatest Player Ever in a ballot commemorating the 100th anniversary of professional baseball, in 1969. The Associated Press reported in 1993 that Muhammad Ali was tied with Babe Ruth as the most recognized athletes in America. In a 1999 ESPN poll, he was ranked as the second-greatest U.S. athlete of the century, behind Michael Jordan. In 1983, the United States Postal Service honored Ruth with the issuance of a twenty-cent stamp. \n\nOne long-term survivor of the craze over Ruth may be the Baby Ruth candy bar. The original company to market the confectionery, the Curtis Candy Company, maintained that the bar was named after Ruth Cleveland, daughter of former president Grover Cleveland. She died in 1904 and the bar was first marketed in 1921, at the height of the craze over the slugger. The slugger later sought to market candy bearing his name; he was refused a trademark because of the Baby Ruth bar. Corporate files from 1921 are no longer extant; the brand has changed hands several times and is now owned by the Nestlé company. The Ruth estate licensed his likeness for use in an advertising campaign for Baby Ruth in 1995. Due to a marketing arrangement, in 2005, the Baby Ruth bar became the official candy bar of Major League Baseball. \n\nMontville notes the continuing relevance of Babe Ruth in American culture, over three-quarters of a century after he last swung a bat in a major league game:" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Carlos Ahern", "Redsox", "RedSox", "Boston redsox", "The Boston Redsox", "Boston Americans", "Red socs", "Bosox", "Red Sox Bench Coach", "Boston Red Socks", "Red Sox First Base Coach", "Boston Red Sox", "Old Town Team", "Red Sox Hitting Coach", "Boston Red Sox roster", "Boston Red Sox (sports)", "Truck Day", "BoSox", "The red sox", "Redsocks", "Crimson hose", "Boston Pilgrams", "Bo-sox", "Boston Sox", "Boston Red Sox Roster", "Red sox", "Red Sox Pitching Coach", "Red Sox", "Red Sox Roster", "The Boston Red Sox", "The Boston Red Socks", "The Old Town Team", "Boston red sox", "Boston Redsox", "Talksox", "Boston Somersets", "New England Nine", "Boston Pilgrims" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "red socs", "red sox pitching coach", "redsocks", "red sox bench coach", "boston somersets", "boston red sox", "boston pilgrams", "truck day", "new england nine", "crimson hose", "redsox", "bosox", "talksox", "carlos ahern", "red sox roster", "boston redsox", "boston pilgrims", "boston americans", "boston red sox sports", "old town team", "boston red sox roster", "red sox", "red sox hitting coach", "bo sox", "boston red socks", "boston sox", "red sox first base coach" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "boston red sox", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Boston Red Sox" }
Who did Martina Navratilova beat to win her ninth Wimbledon title?	tc_1463	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Martina_Navratilova.txt" ], "title": [ "Martina Navratilova" ], "wiki_context": [ "Martina Navratilova (; born Martina Šubertová; October 18, 1956) is a retired Czech and American tennis player and coach. In 2005, Tennis magazine selected her as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.\n\nNavratilova was World No. 1 for a total of 332 weeks in singles, and a record 237 weeks in doubles, making her the only player in history to have held the top spot in both singles and doubles for over 200 weeks. She was year-end singles No. 1 seven times, including a record five consecutive years, as well as year-end doubles No. 1 five times, including three consecutive years during which she held the ranking for the entire year. \n\nShe won 18 Grand Slam singles titles, 31 major women's doubles titles (an all-time record), and 10 major mixed doubles titles. She reached the Wimbledon singles final 12 times, including nine consecutive years from 1982 through 1990, and won the women's singles title at Wimbledon a record nine times (surpassing Helen Wills Moody's eight Wimbledon titles), including a run of six consecutive titles – the best performance by any professional player at a major event. She and Billie Jean King each won 20 Wimbledon titles, an all-time record. Navratilova is one of just three women ever to have accomplished a Career Grand Slam in singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles (called the Grand Slam \"boxed set\"), a distinction she shares with Margaret Court and Doris Hart.\n\nNavratilova holds the records for most singles titles (167) and for most doubles titles (177) in the open era. Her record as No.1 in singles (1982–86) is the most dominant in professional tennis. Over five consecutive seasons, she won 428 of 442 singles matches, averaging fewer than 3 losses per year to 87 wins, for a sustained winning percentage of 96.8%. She holds the best season win-loss record for the open era, 86-1 (98.9%) in 1983, and four of the top six open era seasons. She recorded the longest winning streak in the open era (74 consecutive matches) and three of the six longest winning streaks. \n\nShe is the only professional player to have won six major singles crowns without the loss of a set. Navratilova, Margaret Court and Maureen Connolly share the record for the most consecutive major singles titles (six). Navratilova reached 11 consecutive major singles finals, second all-time to Steffi Graf's 13, and is the only woman ever to reach 19 consecutive major semi-finals. Navratilova also won the season-ending WTA Tour Championships for top ranked players a record eight times and made the finals a record 14 times. She is the only person of either sex to have won eight different tournaments at least seven times. She was ranked in the world's top 10 in singles for a record 20 consecutive years (1975-1994), a span which included 19 years in the top 5, 15 years in the top 3, and 7 years as the world No.1 ranked singles player.\n\nIn women's doubles, Navratilova and Pam Shriver won 109 consecutive matches and won all four major titles—the Grand Slam—in 1984. The pair set an all-time record of 79 titles together and tied Louise Brough Clapp's and Margaret Osborne duPont's record of 20 major women's doubles titles as a team. Navratilova also won the WTA Tour Championships doubles title a record 11 times. She is one of only five tennis players all-time to win a multiple slam set in two disciplines, matching Margaret Court, Roy Emerson, Frank Sedgman and Serena Williams. Navratilova took her last major title in 2006, winning the mixed doubles crown at the 2006 US Open, just short of her 50th birthday — 32 years after her first Grand Slam title in 1974.\n\nOriginally from Czechoslovakia, she was stripped of her citizenship when, in 1975 at the age of 18, she asked the United States for political asylum and was granted temporary residency. At the time, Navratilova was told by the Czechoslovak Sports Federation that she was becoming too Americanized and that she should go back to school and make tennis secondary. Navratilova became a US citizen in 1981, and on January 9, 2008, she acquired Czech citizenship. She stated she has not renounced her U.S. citizenship nor does she plan to do so and that acquiring her Czech citizenship was not politically motivated. \n\nEarly life and tennis career\n\nNavratilova was born Martina Šubertová in Prague, Czechoslovakia. Her parents divorced when she was three, and her mother, an accomplished gymnast, tennis player, and ski instructor, moved the family to Řevnice. In 1962, her mother Jana married Miroslav Navrátil, who became her first tennis coach. Martina then took the name of her stepfather (adding the feminine suffix \"ová\"), thus becoming Martina Navrátilová. Her father, Mirek, was a ski instructor and remarried and divorced. When she was eight, he committed suicide. \n\nIn 2008, Navratilova's mother died of emphysema, aged 75. Navratilova has a sister, Jana, and an older paternal half-brother. Navratilova's grandmother, Agnes Semanska, was a tennis player for the Czechoslovak Federation before the Second World War and had a ranking as high as no. 2 among Czech women during her amateur career. \n\nWhen Navratilova was 4, she was hitting a tennis ball off a cement wall and started to play tennis regularly at age 7. In 1972, at the age of 15, Navratilova won the Czechoslovakia national tennis championship. In 1973, aged 16, she made her debut on the United States Lawn Tennis Association professional tour but did not turn professional until 1975. Although perhaps most renowned for her mastery of fast low-bouncing grass, her best early showing at majors was on the red clay at the French Open, where she would go on to reach the final 6 times. In 1973, she made the quarterfinals where she lost 6-7 4-6 to Evonne Goolagong. She made the quarterfinals the next year and lost to Helga Masthoff (née Niessen), after again losing the first set in a tiebreak. She won her first professional singles title in Orlando, Florida in 1974, at the age of 17. Upon arriving in the United States, Navratilova first lived with former Vaudeville actress, Frances Dewey Wormser, and her husband, Morton Wormser, a tennis enthusiast.\n\nNavratilova was the runner-up at two major singles tournaments in 1975. She lost in the final of the Australian Open to Evonne Goolagong and in the final of the French Open to Chris Evert over three sets. After losing to Evert in the semifinals of that year's US Open, the 18-year-old Navratilova went to the offices of the Immigration and Naturalization Service in New York City and informed them that she wished to defect from Communist Czechoslovakia. Within a month, she received a green card and in 1981 became a US citizen. Also, in 1975, Navratilova teamed with then world number one, Chris Evert, to win the French Open women's doubles title, Martina's first major title. They teamed again in 1976 to win the women's Wimbledon doubles title over Billie Jean King and Bette Stove.\n\nNavratilova won her first major singles title at Wimbledon in 1978, where she defeated Evert in three sets in the final and captured the World No. 1 ranking for the first time on the WTA computer, although Evert maintained the number one ranking at the end of 1978. She successfully defended her Wimbledon title in 1979, again beating Evert in the final in straight sets, and earned the World No. 1 ranking at the end of the year for the first time. Just before Wimbledon in 1979, Navratilova and Evert played possibly the highest scoring women's professional match ever in the Eastbourne final, which Evert edged 7–5, 5–7, 13-11 after facing match points herself. In April 1981, Evert defeated Navratilova in the finals of the Women's Tennis Association championships, held on clay at Amelia Island, 6–0, 6–0. It was Navratilova's only professional double bagel loss (one she later avenged with a crushing 6–2, 6–0 defeat of Evert in the finals of the same Amelia Island event in 1984). It was at this point that Navratilova began working with Nancy Lieberman to improve her fitness and toughen her mental approach to better compete with Evert and fulfil her true potential. In 1981, Navratilova won her third major singles title by defeating Evert in the final of the Australian Open. Navratilova also defeated Evert to reach the final of the US Open, where she lost a third set tiebreak to Tracy Austin. Navratilova won both Wimbledon and the French Open in 1982.\n\nAfter adopting basketball player Nancy Lieberman's exercise plan and using Yonex isometric midsize graphite-fiberglass composite racquets, Navratilova became the most dominant player in women's tennis. After losing in the fourth round of the first major event of 1983, the French Open, she captured the year's three remaining major titles (the Australian Open was held in December at that time). Navratilova's loss at the French Open was her only singles defeat during that year, during which she established an 86–1 record. Her winning percentage was the best ever for a post-1968 professional tennis player. During 1982, 1983, and 1984, Navratilova lost a total of only six singles matches. This included a run of 13 consecutive victories over her closest rival and world-ranked #2, Chris Evert. Navratilova's reign from 1982 to 1986 is the most dominant unbroken spell in the professional era.\n\nNavratilova won the 1984 French Open, thus holding all four major singles titles simultaneously. Her accomplishment was declared a \"Grand Slam\" by Philippe Chatrier, president of the International Tennis Federation, although some tennis observers countered that it was not a true slam because the titles had not been won in a single calendar year. Navratilova extended her major singles tournament winning streak to a record-equalling six following wins at Wimbledon and the US Open. Navratilova's victory meant she became the first player to win majors on clay, grass and hard court on the same year. She entered the 1984 Australian Open with a chance of winning all four titles in the same year. In the semifinals, however, Helena Suková ended Navratilova's 74-match winning streak (a record for a professional) 1–6, 6–3, 7–5. \n\nA left-hander, Navratilova completed a calendar grand slam in women's doubles in 1984, partnering right-handed Pam Shriver, a tall and talented player whose most noted stroke was a slice forehand, a shot virtually unheard of in the game today. This was part of a record 109-match winning streak that the pair achieved between 1983 and 1985. (Navratilova was ranked the World No. 1 doubles player for a period of over three years in the 1980s.) From 1985 through 1987, Navratilova reached the women's singles final at all 11 major tournaments held during those three years, winning six of them. From 1982 through 1990, she reached the Wimbledon final nine consecutive times. She reached the US Open final five consecutive times from 1983 through 1987 and appeared in the French Open final five out of six years from 1982 through 1987. \n\nIn 1985, Navratilova played in what many consider to be perhaps the best woman's match of all time, the French Open final against Chris Evert. Navratilova battled back from 3–6, 2–4 down to 5-5 all in the third set, before Evert hit a winning backhand passing shot on match point to defeat Navratilova 6–3, 6–7(4), 7–5. This was a major turnaround for Evert, who was so outmatched the year earlier in the final that Bud Collins remarked as a TV commentator that the sport needed to create a higher league for Navratilova to compete in. In outdoor matches against Evert, Navratilova led 10-5 on grass and 9-7 on hardcourts, while Evert was up 11-3 on clay. On indoor courts, however, Navratilova had a decisive 21–14 lead. At the end of what is widely regarded as the greatest rivalry in women's tennis, Navratilova led Evert 43–37 in total matches, 14–8 in Grand Slams and 10–4 in Grand Slam finals.\n\nSeventeen-year-old German player Steffi Graf emerged on the scene in 1987 when she narrowly beat Navratilova in the final of the French Open, 6–4, 4–6, 8–6. Navratilova defeated Graf in straight sets in the 1987 Wimbledon and US Open finals (and at the US Open became only the third player in the open era to win the women's singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles at the same event - the rare 'triple crown'). Navratilova reached all four Grand Slam finals in 1987, winning two of them. Graf's consistent play throughout 1987, however, allowed her to obtain the World No. 1 ranking before the end of the year. Graf eventually broke Navratilova's records of 156 consecutive weeks and 331 total weeks as the World No. 1 singles player but fell 60 short of Navratilova's record of 167 singles titles. Including doubles, Navratilova won almost three times as many titles as Graf with a record doubles/mixed/singles combined total of 344 titles to Graf's 118.\n\nIn 1988, Graf won all four major singles titles, beating the 31-year-old Navratilova 5–7, 6–2, 6–1 in the Wimbledon final along the way, after recovering from a set and a break down. In 1989, Graf and Navratilova met in the finals of both Wimbledon and the US Open, with Graf winning both encounters in three sets. Despite the 13 year age difference between the two players, and Graf's comparative lack of investment in doubles and mixed doubles, Navratilova won 9 of the 18 career singles matches with Graf and 5 of the 9 major singles matches with her. At age 34, Navratilova defeated Graf the last time they played in a major in the semifinals of the 1991 US Open 7–6(2), 6–7(6), 6–4, to end their Grand Slam rivalry 5-4 up. It is worthy to note that all 4 of Graf's Grand Slam victories over Navratilova came in the finals of a Slam. This is reflected in the Grand Slams Finals chart below.\n\nNavratilova's final major singles triumph was in 1990. In the final, the 33-year-old Navratilova swept Zina Garrison 6–4, 6–1 to claim an all-time record ninth Wimbledon singles crown. Though that was her last major singles title, Navratilova reached two additional major singles finals during the remainder of career. In 1991, she lost in the US Open final to the new World No. 1 Monica Seles. And then in 1994, at the age of 37, Navratilova reached the Wimbledon final, where she lost in three sets to Conchita Martínez. Soon after, she retired from full-time competition on the singles tour. She was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2000.\n\nIn 2000, Navratilova returned to the tour to mostly play doubles events, while rarely also playing singles. In her first singles performance in eight years, at Eastbourne in 2002, she beat World No. 22 Tatiana Panova before losing in the next round to Daniela Hantuchová in three sets. In 2003, she won the mixed doubles titles at both the Australian Open and Wimbledon, partnering Leander Paes. This made her the oldest ever major champion (aged 46 years, 8 months). The Australian Open victory made her the third player in history to complete a \"boxed set\" of major titles by winning the singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles at all four majors. The Wimbledon win allowed her to equal Billie Jean King's record of 20 Wimbledon titles (in singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles combined) and extended her overall number of major titles to 58 (second only to Margaret Court, who won 62). Despite being criticized for receiving a wildcard, Navratilova won a singles match over Catalina Castaño 6–0 6–1 at the first round of Wimbledon in 2004, aged 47 years and eight months, to make her the oldest player to win a professional singles match in the open era. She then lost her second round match with Gisela Dulko in three sets.\n\nOn July 6, 2006, Navratilova played her last career match at Wimbledon, losing in the third round of mixed doubles to the eventual champions, Israel's Andy Ram and Russia's Vera Zvonareva. Earlier that day, Navratilova lost her women's doubles quarterfinal match against Chinese fourth seeds Yan Zi and Zheng Jie, also the eventual champions. Navratilova capped off her career by winning the mixed doubles title at the 2006 US Open with Bob Bryan, her 41st major doubles title (31 in women's doubles and 10 in mixed doubles) and 177th overall. At the time, she was just over a month away from her 50th birthday.\n\nNavratilova won 167 top-level singles titles (more than any other player in the open era) and 177 doubles titles. Her last title in women's doubles came on August 21, 2006, at the Tier I Rogers Cup in Montreal, Canada, where she partnered Nadia Petrova. Navratilova won 18 major singles titles: nine at Wimbledon, four at the US Open, three at the Australian Open, and two at the French Open. Her overall record in 67 major singles events was 306–49 .862 (120–14 at Wimbledon, 89–17 at the US Open, 51–11 at the French Open, and 46–7 at the Australian Open). Some observers argue that the very few singles matches she played in her forties should be counted separately in her career statistics. She is the only player to have won at least one tour event for 21 consecutive years and won the singles and doubles at the same event a record 84 times. She was ranked in the world top 3 in singles for 15 years between 1977 and 1993. Her career singles match win total of 1,442 is the most during the open era. \n\nIn September 1992, the 35-year-old Navratilova played Jimmy Connors in the third Battle of the Sexes tennis match at Caesars Palace in Paradise, Nevada. Connors was allowed only one serve per point and Navratilova was allowed to hit into half the doubles court. Connors won 7–5, 6–2. She played for the Boston Lobsters in the World TeamTennis pro league through the 2009 season. \n\nPlaying style\n\nNavratilova has an attacking serve and volley. Under Renee Richards, she improved her game tactics.\n\nEvert said that \"Martina revolutionized the game by her superb athleticism and aggressiveness...She brought athleticism to a whole new level with her training techniques — particularly cross-training, the idea that you could go to the gym or play basketball to get in shape for tennis.\"\n\nCoaching career\n\nIn December 2014, it was announced that Navratilova had joined Agnieszka Radwańska's coaching staff. However, in April 2015, after Radwańska struggled in the first half of the season, the pair decided to part ways. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1985, Navratilova released an autobiography, co-written with The New York Times sports columnist George Vecsey, titled Martina in the U.S. and Being Myself in the rest of the world. She had earlier co-written a tennis instruction book with Mary Carillo in 1982, entitled Tennis My Way. She later wrote three mystery novels with Liz Nickles: The Total Zone (1994), Breaking Point (1996), and Killer Instinct (1997). Navratilova's most recent literary effort was a health and fitness book entitled Shape Your Self, which came out in 2006. \n\nSexuality and relationships\n\nIn 1981, shortly after becoming a United States citizen, Navratilova gave an interview to New York Daily News sports reporter Steve Goldstein, coming out as bisexual and revealing that she had a sexual relationship with Rita Mae Brown, but asked him not to publish the article until she was ready to come out publicly. However, the New York Daily News published the article on July 30, 1981. Navratilova and Nancy Lieberman, her girlfriend at the time, gave an interview to Dallas Morning News columnist Skip Bayless, where Navratilova reiterated that she was bisexual and Lieberman identified herself as straight. Navratilova has since identified herself as a lesbian. \n\nFrom 1984 to 1991, Navratilova had a long-term relationship with Judy Nelson, whom she met at a tournament in Fort Worth in 1982. Their split in 1991 included a much-publicized legal wrangle. Navratilova was featured in a WITA (Women's International Tennis Association) calendar, shot by Jean Renard with her Wimbledon trophies and Nelson's children in the background. \n\nOn September 6, 2014, Navratilova proposed to her longtime girlfriend Julia Lemigova at the US Open. They married in New York on December 15, 2014. \n\nHealth problems\n\nOn April 7, 2010, Navratilova announced that she was being treated for breast cancer. A routine mammogram in January 2010 revealed that she had a ductal carcinoma in situ in her left breast, which she was informed of on February 24, and in March she had the tumour surgically removed; she received radiation therapy in May.\n\nIn December 2010, Navratilova was hospitalized after developing high altitude pulmonary edema while attempting a climb of Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. \n\nActivism and opinions\n\nWhen not playing tennis, Navratilova is involved with various charities that benefit animal rights, underprivileged children, and gay rights. She participated in a lawsuit against Amendment 2, a successful 1992 ballot proposition in Colorado designed to prevent sexual orientation from being a protected class. In 1993, she spoke before the March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. She also serves as the Health and Fitness Ambassador for AARP in an alliance created to help AARP's millions of members lead active, healthy lives.\n\nIn 2000, she was the recipient of National Equality Award from the Human Rights Campaign, the nation's largest gay and lesbian activist/lobbying group. \n\nA vegetarian, Navratilova appeared in ad campaigns for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In an April 2006 interview, however, she said she had recently begun eating fish again because she found it hard to get enough protein while on the road; which would make her a pescetarian rather than a vegetarian; nevertheless in 2008 she described herself as vegetarian. \n\nShe has spoken out on a number of volatile political issues, including tort/litigation reform, but perhaps her most consistent theme—aside from gay and lesbian rights—has been her unstinting opposition to Communism, and unrelenting opposition to the former Eastern Bloc power structure that compelled her to flee her native Czechoslovakia. She has denounced the Soviet Union's control over Czechoslovakia, maintaining that she refuses to speak Russian to this day because of the Soviet Union's former hegemony over Eastern Europe.\"Whenever people go into politics and they try to say that Communism was a good thing, I say, 'Go ahead and live in a Communist country then, if you think it's so great.' \"\n\nNavratilova was a guest on CNN's Connie Chung Tonight show on July 17, 2002. During the show, Chung quoted a German newspaper which quoted Navratilova as saying: \"The most absurd part of my escape from the unjust system is that I have exchanged one system that suppresses free opinion for another. The Republicans in the U.S. manipulate public opinion and sweep controversial issues under the table. It's depressing. Decisions in America are based solely on the question of how much money will come out of it and not on the questions of how much health, morals or environment suffer as a result.\"\n\nNavratilova said that the remarks referred to what she perceived as a trend of centralization of government power and a loss of personal freedom. In the discussion that followed, Chung stated: \"Can I be honest with you? I can tell you that when I read this, I have to tell you that I thought it was un-American, unpatriotic. I wanted to say, go back to Czechoslovakia. You know, if you don't like it here, this a country that gave you so much, gave you the freedom to do what you want.\"\n\nNavratilova responded, \"And I'm giving it back. This is why I speak out. When I see something that I don't like, I'm going to speak out because you can do that here. And again, I feel there are too many things happening that are taking our rights away.\" \n\nNavratilova was quoted in 2007 as being ashamed of the US under President George W. Bush because unlike the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, Bush was elected. \n\nCareer statistics\n\nGrand Slam Singles Finals: 32 (18–14)\n\nBy winning the 1983 US Open title, Navratilova completed the Career Grand Slam. She became only the seventh female player in history to achieve this.\n\nPerformance timeline\n\nSingles\n\nRecords\n\n* These are Open Era tennis records.\n* Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.\n\nAwards\n\nITF World Champion 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986.\nWTA Player of the Year 1978, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986.\n*Czech Sport Legend Award\n\nRecognition\n\nIn 2005, Tennis magazine selected her as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005, directly over Steffi Graf . Billie Jean King, a former World No. 1 player, said in 2006 that Navratilova is \"the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\" In 2008, tennis historian and journalist Bud Collins called Navratilova \"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\" \n\nIn 2006, Martina Navratilova was named by Equality Forum as one of their 31 Icons of the LGBT History Month. \n\nTennis writer Steve Flink, in his book The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century (1999), named her as the second best female player of the 20th century, directly behind [Steffi Graf]. \n\nIn June 2011, she was named one of the \"30 Legends of Women's Tennis: Past, Present and Future\" by Time. \n\nIn March 2012, The Tennis Channel named Navratilova as the second greatest female tennis player of all times, behind Steffi Graf, in their list of 100 greatest tennis players of all times. \n\nOn August 2, 2013, Navratilova was among the first class of inductees into the National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame. \n\nMedia\n\nIn 1996, Navratilova was featured with American football player Art Monk in an endorsement for PowerBook in an ad series \"What's on Your PowerBook?\" \nIn November 2008, Martina Navratilova appeared on the UK's ITV series Series 8 of I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!; she finished runner-up to Joe Swash. In February 2012 Navratilova was announced as a cast member on the 14th season of ABC's Dancing with the Stars. She was partnered with Tony Dovolani, but they were the first pair eliminated. Navratilova guest-starred as a dissatisfied Yelp reviewer in episode three of the third season of absurdist comedy Portlandia." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Zina Garrison-Jackson", "Zina Garrison Jackson", "Zina Garrison" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "zina garrison jackson", "zina garrison" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "zina garrison", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Zina Garrison" }
Who captained the US Ryder Cup team in 1991?	tc_1464	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "1991_Ryder_Cup.txt" ], "title": [ "1991 Ryder Cup" ], "wiki_context": [ "The 29th Ryder Cup Matches were held September 27–29, 1991, on The Ocean Course at Kiawah Island Golf Resort in Kiawah Island, South Carolina, southwest of Charleston.\n\nThe United States team won the competition by 14½ to 13½ points, winning back the Cup on the 18th hole of the final match. Bernhard Langer missed a six-foot (1.8 m) par putt which would have won his match and clinched a 14-all tie and retained the Ryder Cup for Europe. It was the first win for the U.S. since 1983, after consecutive losses to Europe in 1985 and 1987 and a tie in 1989. Due to the fierce competition, gamesmanship and general over exuberance of the U.S. Team and their fans, these Ryder Cup Matches became known as the \"War on the Shore.\"\n\nThe Ocean Course later hosted the PGA Championship in 2012.\n\nFormat\n\nThe Ryder Cup is a match play event, with each match worth one point. The competition format in 1991 was as follows:\nDay 1 (Friday) — 4 four-ball (better ball) matches in a morning session and 4 foursome (alternate shot) matches in an afternoon session\nDay 2 (Saturday) — 4 foursome matches in a morning session and 4 four-ball matches in an afternoon session\n*Day 3 (Sunday) — 12 singles matches\nWith a total of 28 points, 14½ points were required to win the Cup, and 14 points were required for the defending champion to retain the Cup. All matches were played to a maximum of 18 holes.\n\nTeams\n\nCaptains picks are shown in yellow. The world rankings and records are at the start of the 1991 Ryder Cup.\n\nThe selection process for the European team remained the same as used since 1985, with nine players chosen from the 1991 European Tour money list at the conclusion of the German Open on August 25 and the remaining three team members being chosen immediately afterwards by the team captain, Bernard Gallacher. Gallacher had announced before the final event that he would choose Nick Faldo as one of his picks. He also announced that he would select José María Olazábal, who was then in the 9th and final automatic spot, even if he dropped out of the top nine. At the time Olazábal and Faldo were second and third in the world rankings. Olazábal had just won the The International on the PGA Tour. Eamonn Darcy, in 7th place in the points list, chose to miss the German Open. However, with David Gilford earning £4,320 in prize money, Sam Torrance tying for 3rd place and Paul Broadhurst losing a playoff, Darcy dropped to 10th place in the final list, £58.26 behind Gilford. Olazábal dropped to 11th place in the points list but had been assured of selection anyway. Gallacher chose Mark James as his third choice in preference to Darcy. \n\nCaptains picks are shown in yellow. The world rankings and records are at the start of the 1991 Ryder Cup.\n\nFriday's matches\n\nMorning foursomes\n\nAfternoon four-ball\n\nSaturday's matches\n\nMorning foursomes\n\nAfternoon four-ball\n\nSunday's singles matches\n\nIndividual player records\n\nEach entry refers to the Win–Loss–Half record of the player.\n\nSource: \n\nUnited States\n\nEurope\n\nSteve Pate injury criticism\n\nOn the eve of the games, Steve Pate and some other members of the U.S. team were involved in a minor caravan crash causing Pate to bruise his ribs and need hospital treatment. Much was discussed by the U.S. captain to either replace him at the last minute or carry on as planned. The decision was taken to allow Pate to participate in the games causing him to sit out the first three sessions of play. The only session he did play in was a four-ball defeat to Bernhard Langer and Colin Montgomerie on Saturday afternoon. Prior to the first singles tee off on Sunday the U.S. team announced that Steve Pate would be unable to play in the singles due to his earlier sustained injury. As a result, the match he was due to contend with David Gilford was automatically halved causing Gilford to miss out his singles match.\n\nThis brought heavy criticism from the general media and the European team feeling a sense of bad sportsmanship on behalf of the Americans. Especially considering U.S. captain Dave Stockton had chosen to play Pate in an earlier match thus risking causing further unnecessary injury to the player. In post-match interviews serious questions were asked by the European team of the American's reasoning and tactics behind the decision.\n\nBallesteros/Azinger feud\n\nBallesteros and Azinger had previously locked horns in 1989 when Ballesteros tried to have a scuffed ball taken out of play which Azinger disagreed with. The bad blood escalated at Kiawah Island when on the morning of the Friday foursomes with Ballesteros partnering José María Olazábal against Paul Azinger and Chip Beck the Europeans noticed the Americans had changed the compression of the ball on the 7th tee which is in violation of the one-ball rule. Ballesteros accused his opponents of doing this at least three times since the start of the match. On speaking with the referee at first Azinger flatly denied it. However once it had become apparent to the Americans that they were not called up on the violation at the time of incident therefore could no longer be penalized by loss of hole they admitted to switching their ball. This incident was the stem of accusations of the U.S. side of repeated gamesmanship, bad sportsmanship and ill tactics in many future matches to come. \n\nSince the mid-1980s, the European team had dominated the event including wins in 1985, 1987 and retaining the cup in 1989. With exception to 1993, the European team would continue to dominate until ill feelings between the two sides would come to a head in an explosive match at Brookline in 1999 where the U.S. side and their fans would again be accused of having the mindset of \"anything to win\" going against the spirit of how the matches were intended to be played." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Dave Stockton" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dave stockton" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dave stockton", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Dave Stockton" }
Which team in the 70s won the Super Bowl by the biggest margin?	tc_1465	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Super Bowl is the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), the highest level of professional American football in the world. The game culminates a season that begins in the late summer of the previous calendar year. Normally, Roman numerals are used to identify each game, rather than the year in which it is held. For example, Super Bowl I was played on January 15, 1967, following the 1966 regular season. The single exception to this rule is Super Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, following the 2015 regular season. The next game, Super Bowl LI, scheduled for February 5, 2017, will follow the 2016 regular season.\n\nThe game was created as part of a merger agreement between the NFL and its then-rival league, the American Football League (AFL). It was agreed that the two leagues' champion teams would play in the AFL–NFL World Championship Game until the merger was to officially begin in 1970. After the merger, each league was redesignated as a \"conference\", and the game has since been played between the conference champions to determine the NFL's league champion. Currently, the National Football Conference (NFC) leads the league with 26 wins to 24 wins for the American Football Conference (AFC). The Pittsburgh Steelers have the most Super Bowl victories with six.\n\nThe day on which the Super Bowl is played, now considered by some an unofficial American national holiday, is called \"Super Bowl Sunday\". It is the second-largest day for U.S. food consumption, after Thanksgiving Day. In addition, the Super Bowl has frequently been the most-watched American television broadcast of the year; the four most-watched broadcasts in U.S. television history are Super Bowls. In 2015, Super Bowl XLIX became the most-watched American television program in history with an average audience of 114.4 million viewers, the fifth time in six years the game had set a record, starting with the 2010 Super Bowl, which itself had taken over the number-one spot held for 27 years by the final episode of MASH. The Super Bowl is also among the most-watched sporting events in the world, almost all audiences being North American, and is second to soccer's UEFA Champions League final as the most watched annual sporting event worldwide. \n\nThe NFL restricts the use of its \"Super Bowl\" trademark; it is frequently called the Big Game or other generic terms by non-sponsoring corporations. Because of the high viewership, commercial airtime during the Super Bowl broadcast is the most expensive of the year, leading to companies regularly developing their most expensive advertisements for this broadcast. As a result, watching and discussing the broadcast's commercials has become a significant aspect of the event.[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/floridatoday/access/1813188961.html?FMT\nABS&FMTSABS:FT&type\ncurrent&dateJan+28%2C+2004&author\nCarl+Kotala&pubFlorida+Today&desc\nCommercials+as+big+as+game&pqatl=google Commercials as big as game], Florida Today In addition, popular singers and musicians including Michael Jackson, Madonna, Prince, Beyoncé, The Rolling Stones, The Who, and Whitney Houston have performed during the event's pre-game and halftime ceremonies.\n\nOrigin\n\nFor four decades after its 1920 inception, the NFL successfully fended off several rival leagues. However, in 1960, it encountered its most serious competitor when the American Football League (AFL) was formed. The AFL vied heavily with the NFL for both players and fans, but by the middle of the decade the strain of competition led to serious merger talks between the two leagues. Prior to the 1966 season, the NFL and AFL reached a merger agreement that was to take effect for the 1970 season. As part of the merger, the champions of the two leagues agreed to meet in a world championship game for professional American football until the merger was effected.\n\nA bowl game is a post-season college football game. The original \"bowl game\" was the Rose Bowl Game in Pasadena, California, which was first played in 1902 as the \"Tournament East-West football game\" as part of the Pasadena Tournament of Roses and moved to the new Rose Bowl Stadium in 1923. The stadium got its name from the fact that the game played there was part of the Tournament of Roses and that it was shaped like a bowl, much like the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut; the Tournament of Roses football game itself eventually came to be known as the Rose Bowl Game. Exploiting the Rose Bowl Game's popularity, post-season college football contests were created for Miami (the Orange Bowl), New Orleans (the Sugar Bowl), and El Paso, Texas (the Sun Bowl) in 1935, and for Dallas (the Cotton Bowl) in 1937. By the time the first Super Bowl was played, the term \"bowl\" for any major American football game was well established.\n\nLamar Hunt, owner of the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs, first used the term \"Super Bowl\" to refer to the NFL-AFL championship game in the merger meetings. Hunt later said the name was likely in his head because his children had been playing with a Super Ball toy; a vintage example of the ball is on display at the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio. In a July 25, 1966, letter to NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, Hunt wrote, \"I have kiddingly called it the 'Super Bowl,' which obviously can be improved upon.\"\n\nThe leagues' owners chose the name \"AFL-NFL Championship Game\", but in July 1966 the Kansas City Star quoted Hunt in discussing \"the Super Bowl — that's my term for the championship game between the two leagues\", and the media immediately began using the term. Although the league stated in 1967 that \"not many people like it\", asking for suggestions and considering alternatives such as 'Merger Bowl' and 'The Game', the Associated Press reported that 'Super Bowl' \"grew and grew and grew-until it reached the point that there was Super Week, Super Sunday, Super Teams, Super Players, ad infinitum\". 'Super Bowl' became official beginning with the third annual game. Roman numerals were first affixed for the fifth edition, in January 1971.\n\nAfter the NFL's Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls, some team owners feared for the future of the merger. At the time, many doubted the competitiveness of AFL teams compared with their NFL counterparts, though that perception changed when the AFL's New York Jets defeated the NFL's Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III in Miami. One year later, the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL's Minnesota Vikings 23–7 in Super Bowl IV in New Orleans, which was the final AFL-NFL World Championship Game played before the merger. Beginning with the 1970 season, the NFL realigned into two conferences; the former AFL teams plus three NFL teams (the Colts, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Cleveland Browns) would constitute the American Football Conference (AFC), while the remaining NFL clubs would form the National Football Conference (NFC). The champions of the two conferences would play each other in the Super Bowl.\n\nThe winning team receives the Vince Lombardi Trophy, named after the coach of the Green Bay Packers, who won the first two Super Bowl games and three of the five preceding NFL championships in 1961, 1962, and 1965. Following Lombardi's death in September 1970, the trophy was named the Vince Lombardi Trophy, and was the first awarded as such to the Baltimore Colts following their win in Super Bowl V in Miami.\n\nDate\n\nThe Super Bowl is currently played on the first Sunday in February. This is due to the NFL current schedule which consists of the opening weekend of the season being held immediately after Labor Day (the first Monday in September), the 17-week regular season (where teams each play 16 games and have one bye), the first three rounds of the playoffs, and the Super Bowl two weeks after the two Conference Championship Games. This schedule has been in effect since Super Bowl XXXVIII in February 2004. The date of the Super Bowl can thus be determined from the date of the preceding Labor Day. For example, Labor Day 2015 was September 7: therefore the next Super Bowl is scheduled exactly five months later on February 7, 2016.\n\nOriginally, the game took place in early to mid-January. For Super Bowl I there was only one round of playoffs: the pre-merger NFL and AFL Championship Games. The addition of two playoff rounds (first in 1967 and then in 1978), an increase in regular season games from 14 to 16 (1978), and the establishment of one bye-week per team (1990) have caused the Super Bowl to be played later. Partially offsetting these season-lengthening effects, simultaneous with the addition of two regular season games in 1978, the season was started earlier. Prior to 1978 the season started as late as September 21. Now, since Labor Day is always the first Monday of September, September 13 is the latest possible date for the first full Sunday set of games (Since 2002, the regular season has started with the Kickoff Game on the Thursday after Labor Day).\n\nGame history\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers have won six Super Bowls, the most of any team; the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers have five victories each, while the Green Bay Packers, New York Giants and New England Patriots have four Super Bowl championships. Thirteen other NFL franchises have won at least one Super Bowl. Nine teams have appeared in Super Bowl games without a win. The Minnesota Vikings were the first team to have appeared a record four times without a win. The Buffalo Bills played in a record four Super Bowls in a row, and lost every one. Four teams (the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans) have never appeared in a Super Bowl. The Browns and Lions both won NFL Championships prior to the Super Bowl's creation, while the Jaguars (1995) and Texans (2002) are both recent NFL expansion teams. The Minnesota Vikings won the last NFL Championship before the merger, but lost to the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs in Super Bowl IV.\n\n1960s: Early history \n\nThe Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls, defeating the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders following the 1966 and 1967 seasons, respectively. The Packers were led by quarterback Bart Starr, who was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) for both games. These two championships, coupled with the Packers' NFL championships in , , and , amount to the most successful stretch in NFL History; five championships in seven years.\n\nIn Super Bowl III, the AFL's New York Jets defeated the eighteen-point favorite Baltimore Colts of the NFL, 16–7. The Jets were led by quarterback Joe Namath (who had famously guaranteed a Jets win prior to the game) and former Colts head coach Weeb Ewbank, and their victory proved that the AFL was the NFL's competitive equal. This was reinforced the following year, when the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL's Minnesota Vikings 23–7 in Super Bowl IV.\n\n1970s: Dominant franchises \n\nAfter the AFL–NFL merger was completed in 1970, three franchises – the Dallas Cowboys, Miami Dolphins, and Pittsburgh Steelers – would go on to dominate the 1970s, winning a combined eight Super Bowls in the decade.\n\nThe Baltimore Colts, now a member of the AFC, would start the decade by defeating the Cowboys in Super Bowl V, a game which is notable as being the only Super Bowl to date in which a player from the losing team won the Super Bowl MVP (Cowboys' linebacker Chuck Howley). Beginning with this Super Bowl, all Super Bowls have served as the NFL's league championship game.\n\nThe Cowboys, coming back from a loss the previous season, won Super Bowl VI over the Dolphins. However, this would be the Dolphins' final loss in over a year, as the next year, the Dolphins would go 14–0 in the regular season and eventually win all of their playoff games, capped off with a 14-7 victory in Super Bowl VII, becoming the first and only team to finish an entire perfect regular and post season. The Dolphins would repeat as league champions by winning Super Bowl VIII a year later.\n\nIn the late 1970s, the Steelers became the first NFL dynasty of the post-merger era by winning four Super Bowls (IX, X, XIII, and XIV) in six years. They were led by head coach Chuck Noll, the play of offensive stars Terry Bradshaw, Franco Harris, Lynn Swann, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster, and their dominant \"Steel Curtain\" defense, led by \"Mean\" Joe Greene, L.C. Greenwood, Ernie Holmes, Mel Blount, Jack Ham, and Jack Lambert. The coaches and administrators also were part of the dynasty's greatness as evidenced by the team's \"final pieces\" being part of the famous 1974 draft. The selections in that class have been considered the best by any pro franchise ever, as Pittsburgh selected four future Hall of Famers, the most for any team in any sport in a single draft. The Steelers were the first team to win three and then four Super Bowls and appeared in six AFC Championship Games during the decade, making the playoffs in eight straight seasons. Nine players and three coaches and administrators on the team have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Pittsburgh still remains the only team to win back-to-back Super Bowls twice and four Super Bowls in a six-year period.\n\nThe Steelers' dynasty was interrupted only by the Cowboys winning their second Super Bowl of the decade and the Oakland Raiders' Super Bowl XI win.\n\n1980s and 1990s: The NFC's winning streak \n\nIn the 1980s and 1990s, the tables turned for the AFC, as the NFC dominated the Super Bowls of the new decade and most of those of the 1990s. The NFC won 16 of the 20 Super Bowls during these two decades, including 13 straight from Super Bowl XIX to Super Bowl XXXI.\n\nThe most successful team of the 1980s was the San Francisco 49ers, which featured the West Coast offense of Hall of Fame head coach Bill Walsh. This offense was led by three-time Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Joe Montana, Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, and tight end Brent Jones. Under their leadership, the 49ers won four Super Bowls in the decade (XVI, XIX, XXIII, and XXIV) and made nine playoff appearances between 1981 and 1990, including eight division championships, becoming the second dynasty of the post-merger NFL.\n\nThe 1980s also produced the 1985 Chicago Bears, who posted an 18–1 record under head coach Mike Ditka; colorful quarterback Jim McMahon; and Hall of Fame running back Walter Payton. Their team won Super Bowl XX in dominating fashion. The Washington Redskins and New York Giants were also top teams of this period; the Redskins won Super Bowls XVII, XXII, and XXVI. The Giants claimed Super Bowls XXI and XXV. As in the 1970s, the Oakland Raiders were the only team to interrupt the Super Bowl dominance of other teams; they won Super Bowls XV and XVIII (the latter as the Los Angeles Raiders).\n\nFollowing several seasons with poor records in the 1980s, the Dallas Cowboys rose back to prominence in the 1990s. During this decade, the Cowboys made post-season appearances every year except for the seasons of 1990 and 1997. From 1992 to 1996, the Cowboys won their division championship each year. In this same period, the Buffalo Bills had made their mark reaching the Super Bowl for a record four consecutive years, only to lose all four. After Super Bowl championships by division rivals New York (1990) and Washington (1991), the Cowboys won three of the next four Super Bowls (XXVII, XXVIII, and XXX) led by quarterback Troy Aikman, running back Emmitt Smith, and wide receiver Michael Irvin. All three of these players went to the Hall of Fame. The Cowboys' streak was interrupted by the 49ers, who won their league-leading fifth title overall with Super Bowl XXIX in dominating fashion under Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterback Steve Young, Hall of Fame wide receiver Jerry Rice, and Hall of Fame cornerback Deion Sanders; however, the Cowboys' victory in Super Bowl XXX the next year also gave them five titles overall and they did so with Deion Sanders after he won the Super Bowl the previous year with the San Francisco 49ers. The NFC's winning streak was continued by the Green Bay Packers who, under quarterback Brett Favre, won Super Bowl XXXI, their first championship since Super Bowl II in the late 1960s.\n\n1997–2009: AFC resurgence\n\nSuper Bowl XXXII saw quarterback John Elway and running back Terrell Davis lead the Denver Broncos to an upset victory over the defending champion Packers, snapping the NFC's 13 year winning streak. The following year, the Broncos defeated the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl XXXIII, Elway's fifth Super Bowl appearance, his second NFL championship, and his final NFL game. The back-to-back victories heralded a change in momentum in which AFC teams would win 10 out of 13 Super Bowls. In the years between 2001 and 2011, three teams – the Patriots, Steelers, and Colts – accounted for ten of the AFC Super Bowl appearances, with those same teams often meeting each other earlier in the playoffs. In contrast, the NFC saw a different representative in the Super Bowl every season from 2001 through 2010.\n\nThe year following the Denver Broncos' second victory, however, a surprising St. Louis Rams led by undrafted quarterback Kurt Warner would close out the 1990s in a wild battle against the Tennessee Titans in Super Bowl XXXIV. The tense game came down to the final play in which Tennessee had the opportunity to tie the game and send it to overtime. The Titans nearly pulled it off, but the tackle of receiver Kevin Dyson by linebacker Mike Jones kept the ball out of the end zone by a matter of inches. In 2007, ESPN would rank \"The Tackle\" as the 2nd greatest moment in Super Bowl history.\n\nSuper Bowl XXXV was played by the AFC's Baltimore Ravens and the NFC's New York Giants. The Ravens defeated the Giants by the score of 34–7. The game was played on January 28, 2001, at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida.\n\nThe New England Patriots became the dominant team throughout the early 2000s, winning the championship three out of four years early in the decade. They would become only the second team in the history of the NFL to do so (after the 1990s Dallas Cowboys). In Super Bowl XXXVI, first-year starting quarterback Tom Brady led his team to a 20–17 upset victory over the St. Louis Rams. Brady would go on to win the MVP award for this game. The Patriots also won Super Bowls XXXVIII and XXXIX defeating the Carolina Panthers and the Philadelphia Eagles respectively. This four-year stretch of Patriot dominance was interrupted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers' 48-21 Super Bowl XXXVII victory over the Oakland Raiders.\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers and Indianapolis Colts continued the era of AFC dominance by winning Super Bowls XL and XLI in 2005-06 and 2006–07, respectively defeating the Seattle Seahawks and Chicago Bears.\n\nIn the 2007 season, the Patriots became the second team in NFL history to have a perfect regular season record, after the 1972 Miami Dolphins, and the first to finish 16–0. They easily marched through the AFC playoffs and were heavy favorites in Super Bowl XLII. However, they lost that game to Eli Manning and the New York Giants 17–14, leaving the Patriots' 2007 record at 18-1.\n\nThe following season, the Steelers logged their record sixth Super Bowl title (XLIII) in a 27-23, final-minute victory against the Arizona Cardinals.\n\n2010–present: The NFC re-emerges \n\nThe 2010s have seen a return to dominance by NFC teams. Between 2010 and 2016, four of the seven Super Bowl winners hailed from the NFC.\n\nThe Giants won another title after the 2011 season, again defeating the Patriots in Super Bowl XLVI. Prior to that Super Bowl victory, the New Orleans Saints won their first (XLIV) by defeating the Indianapolis Colts in February 2010, and the Green Bay Packers won their fourth Super Bowl (XLV) and record thirteenth NFL championship overall by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers in February 2011.\n\nThe Baltimore Ravens snapped the NFC's three-game winning streak by winning Super Bowl XLVII in a 34-31 nail-biter over the San Francisco 49ers.\n\nSuper Bowl XLVIII, played at New Jersey's MetLife Stadium in February 2014, was the first Super Bowl held outdoors in a cold weather environment. The Seattle Seahawks won their first NFL title with a 43-8 defeat of the Denver Broncos, in a highly touted matchup that pitted Seattle's top-ranked defense against a Peyton-Manning-led Denver offense that had broken the NFL's single-season scoring record.\n\nIn Super Bowl XLIX, the New England Patriots, the AFC champions, beat the NFC and defending Super Bowl champions, the Seattle Seahawks.\n\nIn Super Bowl 50, the Denver Broncos, led by the league's top-ranked defense, defeated the Carolina Panthers, who had the league's top-ranked offense, in what became the final game of quarterback Peyton Manning's career.\n\nThe Super Bowls of the 2000s and early 2010s are notable for the performances (and the pedigrees) of several of the participating quarterbacks. During that era, Tom Brady (six Super Bowl appearances, four wins), Ben Roethlisberger (three appearances, two wins), Peyton Manning (four appearances, two wins), Eli Manning (two appearances, two wins), Kurt Warner (three appearances, one win), Drew Brees (one appearance, one win), Aaron Rodgers (one appearance, one win), Joe Flacco (one appearance, one win), and Russell Wilson (two appearances, one win) have all added Super Bowl championships to their lists of individual accomplishments.\n\nTelevision coverage and ratings\n\nThe Super Bowl is one of the most watched annual sporting events in the world. The only other annual events that gather more viewers are the UEFA Champions League final, and El Clásico in Spain. For many years, the Super Bowl has possessed a large US and global television viewership, and it is often the most watched United States originating television program of the year. The game tends to have high Nielsen television ratings, which is usually around a 40 rating and 60 share. This means that on average, more than 100 million people from the United States alone are tuned into the Super Bowl at any given moment.\n\nIn press releases preceding each year's event, the NFL typically claims that that year's Super Bowl will have a potential worldwide audience of around one billion people in over 200 countries. This figure refers to the number of people able to watch the game, not the number of people actually watching. However the statements have been frequently misinterpreted in various media as referring to the latter figure, leading to a common misperception about the game's actual global audience. The New York-based media research firm Initiative measured the global audience for the 2005 Super Bowl at 93 million people, with 98 percent of that figure being viewers in North America, which meant roughly 2 million people outside North America watched the Super Bowl that year.\n\nThe 2015 Super Bowl XLIX holds the record for total number of U.S. viewers, with a final number of 114.4 million, making the game the most-viewed television broadcast of any kind in American history. The halftime show was the most watched ever with 118.5 million viewers tuning in, and an all-time high of 168 million viewers in the United States had watched several portions of the Super Bowl 2015 broadcast. The game set a record for total viewers for the fifth time in six years.\n\nThe highest-rated game according to Nielsen was Super Bowl XVI in 1982, which was watched in 49.1 percent of households (73 share), or 40,020,000 households at the time. Ratings for that game, a San Francisco victory over Cincinnati, may have been aided by a large blizzard that had affected much of the northeastern United States on game day, leaving residents to stay at home more than usual. Super Bowl XVI still ranks fourth on Nielsen's list of top-rated programs of all time, and three other Super Bowls, XII, XVII, and XX, made the top ten. \n\nFamous commercial campaigns include the Budweiser \"Bud Bowl\" campaign, the 1984 introduction of Apple's MacIntosh computer, and the 1999 and 2000 dot-com ads. As the television ratings of the Super Bowl have steadily increased over the years, prices have also increased every year, with advertisers paying as much as $3.5 million for a thirty-second spot during Super Bowl XLVI in 2012. A segment of the audience tunes into the Super Bowl solely to view commercials. In 2010, Nielsen reported that 51 percent of Super Bowl viewers tune in for the commercials. The Super Bowl halftime show has spawned another set of alternative entertainment such as the Lingerie Bowl, the Beer Bottle Bowl, and others.\n\nSince 1991, the Super Bowl has begun between 6:19 and 6:40 PM EST so that most of the game is played during the primetime hours on the East Coast.\n\nSuper Bowl on TV\n\nNote: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.\n\nSuper Bowls I–VI were blacked out in the television markets of the host cities, due to league restrictions then in place. \n\nGame analyst John Madden is the only person to broadcast a Super Bowl for each of the four networks that have televised the game (5 with CBS, 3 with Fox, 2 with ABC, 1 with NBC).\n\nLead-out programming\n\nThe Super Bowl provides an extremely strong lead-in to programming following it on the same channel, the effects of which can last for several hours. For instance, in discussing the ratings of a local TV station, Buffalo television critic Alan Pergament noted on the coattails from Super Bowl XLVII, which aired on CBS: \"A paid program that ran on Channel 4 (WIVB-TV) at 2:30 in the morning had a 1.3 rating. That's higher than some CW prime time shows get on WNLO-TV, Channel 4's sister station.\" \n\nBecause of this strong coattail effect, the network that airs the Super Bowl typically takes advantage of the large audience to air an episode of a hit series, or to premiere the pilot of a promising new one in the lead-out slot, which immediately follows the Super Bowl and post-game coverage.\n\nEntertainment\n\nEarly Super Bowls featured a halftime show consisting of marching bands from local colleges or high schools; but as the popularity of the game increased, a trend where popular singers and musicians performed during its pre-game ceremonies and the halftime show, or simply sang the national anthem of the United States, emerged.[http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/entertainment Super Bowl – Entertainment] Unlike regular season or playoff games, thirty minutes are allocated for the Super Bowl halftime. The first halftime show to have featured only one star performer was Super Bowl XXVII in 1993, at which Michael Jackson performed. The NFL specifically went after him to increase viewership and to continue expanding the Super Bowl's realm. Sports bloggers have ranked Jackson's appearance as the No. 1 Super Bowl halftime show since its inception. Another notable performance came during Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002, when U2 performed; during their third song, \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", the band played under a large projection screen which scrolled through names of the victims of the September 11 attacks.\n\nWhitney Houston's performance of the national anthem at Super Bowl XXV in 1991, during the Gulf War, has been regarded as one of the best renditions of the anthem in history. Her performance was released as a single on February 12, 1991, and appeared on the album Whitney: The Greatest Hits.\n\nThe halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 generated controversy when Justin Timberlake removed a piece of Janet Jackson's top, exposing her right breast with a star-shaped pastie around the nipple. Timberlake and Jackson have maintained that the incident was accidental, calling it a \"wardrobe malfunction\". The game was airing live on CBS, and MTV had produced the halftime show. Immediately after the moment, the footage jump-cut to a wide-angle shot and went to a commercial break; however, video captures of the moment in detail circulated quickly on the internet. The NFL, embarrassed by the incident, permanently banned MTV from conducting future halftime shows. This also led to the FCC tightening controls on indecency and fining CBS and CBS-owned stations a total of $550,000 for the incident. The fine was later reversed in July 2008. CBS and MTV eventually split into two separate companies in part because of the fiasco, with CBS going under the control of CBS Corporation and MTV falling under the banner of Viacom (although both corporations remain under the ownership of National Amusements). For six years following the incident, all of the performers in Super Bowl halftime shows were artists associated with the classic rock genre of the 1970s and 1980s (including three acts from the British Invasion of the 1960s), with only one act playing the entire halftime show. Paul McCartney (formerly of The Beatles) played Super Bowl XXXIX in 2005, The Rolling Stones played Super Bowl XL in 2006, and The Who played Super Bowl XLIV in 2010. The halftime show returned to a modern act in 2011 with The Black Eyed Peas. But during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLVI in 2012, M.I.A. gave the middle finger during a performance of \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\" with Madonna, which was caught by TV cameras. An attempt to censor the gesture by blurring the entire screen came late. \n\nExcluding Super Bowl XXXIX, the famous \"I'm going to Disney World!\" advertising campaign took place at every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXI, when quarterback Phil Simms from the New York Giants became the first player to say the tagline.\n\nVenue\n\nAs of Super Bowl XLVIII, 27 of 49 Super Bowls have been played in three cities: New Orleans (ten times), the Greater Miami area (ten times), and the Greater Los Angeles area (seven times). No market or region without an NFL franchise has ever hosted a Super Bowl, and the presence of an NFL team in a market or region is now a de jure requirement for bidding on the game. The winning market is not, however, required to host the Super Bowl in the same stadium that its NFL team uses, and nine Super Bowls have been held in a stadium other than the one the NFL team in that city was using at the time. Los Angeles's last five Super Bowls were all played at the Rose Bowl.\n\nNo team has ever played the Super Bowl in its home stadium. Two teams have played the Super Bowl in their home market: the San Francisco 49ers, who played Super Bowl XIX in Stanford Stadium instead of Candlestick Park; and the Los Angeles Rams, who played Super Bowl XIV in the Rose Bowl instead of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. In both cases, the stadium in which the Super Bowl was held was perceived to be a better stadium for a large, high-profile event than the stadiums the Rams and 49ers were playing in at the time; this situation has not arisen since 1993, in part because the league has traditionally awarded the Super Bowl in modern times to the newest stadiums. Besides those two, the only other Super Bowl venue that was not the home stadium to an NFL team at the time was Rice Stadium in Houston: the Houston Oilers had played there previously, but moved to the Astrodome several years prior to Super Bowl VIII. The Orange Bowl was the only AFL stadium to host a Super Bowl and the only stadium to host consecutive Super Bowls, hosting Super Bowls II and III.\n\nTraditionally, the NFL does not award Super Bowls to stadiums that are located in climates with an expected average daily temperature less than 50 °F (10 °C) on game day unless the field can be completely covered by a fixed or retractable roof. Five Super Bowls have been played in northern cities: two in the Detroit area—Super Bowl XVI at Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan and Super Bowl XL at Ford Field in Detroit, one in Minneapolis—Super Bowl XXVI, one in Indianapolis at Lucas Oil Stadium for Super Bowl XLVI, and one in the New York area—Super Bowl XLVIII at MetLife Stadium. Only MetLife Stadium did not have a roof (be it fixed or retractable) but it was still picked as the host stadium for Super Bowl XLVIII in an apparent waiver of the warm-climate rule. A sixth Super Bowl is planned in a northern city as Minneapolis has been picked to host Super Bowl LII in 2018 in the under-construction roofed U.S. Bank Stadium. \n\nThere have been a few instances where the league has rescinded the Super Bowl from cities. Super Bowl XXVII in 1993 was originally awarded to Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona, but after Arizona voters elected not to recognize Martin Luther King, Jr. Day as a paid state-employee's holiday in 1990, the NFL moved the game to the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. When voters in Arizona opted to create such a legal holiday in 1992, Super Bowl XXX in 1996 was awarded to Tempe. Super Bowl XXXIII was awarded first to Candlestick Park in San Francisco, but when plans to renovate the stadium fell through the game was moved to Pro Player Stadium in greater Miami. Super Bowl XXXVII was awarded to a new stadium not yet built in San Francisco, when that stadium failed to be built, the game was moved to San Diego. Super Bowl XLIV, slated for February 7, 2010, was withdrawn from New York City's proposed West Side Stadium, because the city, state, and proposed tenants New York Jets could not agree on funding. Super Bowl XLIV was then eventually awarded to Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. And Super Bowl XLIX in 2015 was originally given to Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, but after two sales taxes failed to pass at the ballot box, and opposition by local business leaders and politicians increased, Kansas City eventually withdrew its request to host the game. Super Bowl XLIX was then eventually awarded to University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona.\n\nIn 2011, Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott said, \"It's commonly known as the single largest human trafficking incident in the United States.\" According to Forbes, 10,000 prostitutes were brought to Miami in 2010 for the Super Bowl. Snopes research in 2015 determined that the actual number of prostitutes involved in a typical Super Bowl weekend is less than 100, not statistically higher than any other time of the year, and that the notion of mass increases in human trafficking around the Super Bowl was a politician's myth. \n\nSelection process\n\nThe location of the Super Bowl is chosen by the NFL well in advance, usually three to five years before the game. Cities place bids to host a Super Bowl and are evaluated in terms of stadium renovation and their ability to host. In 2014, a document listing the specific requirements of Super Bowl hosts was leaked, giving a clear list of what was required for a Super Bowl host. Much of the cost of the Super Bowl is to be assumed by the host community, although some costs are enumerated within the requirements to be assumed by the NFL. Some of the host requirements include:\nThe host stadium must be in a market that hosts an NFL team and must have a minimum of 70,000 seats, with the media and electrical amenities necessary to produce the Super Bowl. Stadiums may include temporary seating for Super Bowls, but seating must be approved by the league. Stadiums where the average game day temperature is below 50° Fahrenheit must either have a roof, or a waiver given by the league. There must be a minimum of 35,000 parking spaces within one mile of the stadium. \nThe host stadium must have space for the Gameday Experience, a large pregame entertainment area, within walking distance of the stadium.\nThe host city must have space for the NFL Experience, the interactive football theme park which is operated the week prior to the Super Bowl. An indoor venue for the event must have a minimum of 850,000 square feet, and an outdoor venue must have a minimum of 1,000,000 square feet. Additionally, there must be space nearby for the Media Center, and space for all other events involved in the Super Bowl week, including golf courses and bowling alleys.\nThe necessary infrastructure must be in place around the stadium and other Super Bowl facilities, including parking, security, electrical needs, media needs, communication needs and transportation needs. \nThere must be a minimum number of hotel spaces within one hour's drive of the stadium equaling 35% of the stadium's capacity, along with hotels for the teams, officials, media and other dignitaries. (For Super Bowl XXXIX, the city of Jacksonville docked several luxury cruise liners at their port to act as temporary hotel space. )\nThere must be practice space of equal and comparable quality for both teams within a 20-minute drive of the team hotels, and rehearsal space for all events within a reasonable distance to the stadium. The practice facilities must have one grass field and at least one field of the same surface as the host stadium.\n\nThe NFL owners meet to make a selection on the site, usually three years prior to the event. In 2007, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell suggested that a Super Bowl might be played in London, perhaps at Wembley Stadium.[http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/news/story?id=3065254 ESPN – Goodell says NFL to look into playing Super Bowl in London – NFL], Associated Press, ESPN, 2007-10-15. Retrieved January 26, 2009 The game has never been played in a region that lacks an NFL franchise; seven Super Bowls have been played in Los Angeles, but none since the Los Angeles Raiders and Los Angeles Rams relocated to Oakland and St. Louis respectively in 1995. New Orleans, the site of the 2013 Super Bowl, invested more than $1 billion in infrastructure improvements in the years leading up to the game. \n\nHome team designation\n\nThe designated \"home team\" alternates between the NFC team in odd-numbered games and the AFC team in even-numbered games. This alternation was initiated with the first Super Bowl, when the Green Bay Packers were the designated home team. Regardless of being the home or away team of record, each team has their team wordmark painted in one of the end zones. Designated away teams have won 29 of 50 Super Bowls to date (58 percent).\n\nSince Super Bowl XIII in January 1979, the home team is given the choice of wearing their colored or white jerseys. Originally, the designated home team had to wear their colored jerseys, which resulted in Dallas donning their less exposed dark blue jerseys for Super Bowl V. While most of the home teams in the Super Bowl have chosen to wear their colored jerseys, there have been five exceptions: the Cowboys during Super Bowl XIII and XXVII, the Washington Redskins during Super Bowl XVII, the Pittsburgh Steelers during Super Bowl XL, and the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl 50. The Cowboys, since , and Redskins, with the arrival of coach Joe Gibbs in , have traditionally worn white jerseys at home. Meanwhile, the Steelers, who have always worn their black jerseys at home since the AFL-NFL merger in , opted for the white jerseys after winning three consecutive playoff games on the road, wearing white. The Steelers' decision was compared with the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX; the Patriots had worn white jerseys at home during the season, but after winning road playoff games against the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins wearing red jerseys, New England opted to switch to red for the Super Bowl as the designated home team. For the Broncos in Super Bowl 50, Denver general manager John Elway simply stated, \"We've had Super Bowl success in our white uniforms\"; they previously had been in Super Bowls when wearing their orange jerseys. The Broncos' decision is also perceived to be made out of superstition, losing all Super Bowl games with the orange jerseys in terrible fashion. White-shirted teams have won 32 of 50 Super Bowls to date (64 percent).\n\nHost cities/regions\n\nFifteen different regions have hosted Super Bowls.\n\nNote: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.\n\nHost stadiums\n\nA total of twenty-six different stadiums, five of which no longer exist and two of which do not yet exist, have hosted or are scheduled to host Super Bowls. Years listed in the table below are the years the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.\n\n^ Stadium is now demolished.\n‡ Miami Gardens became a separate city in 2003. Prior to, the stadium had a Miami address.\n† The original Stanford Stadium, which hosted Super Bowl XIX, was demolished and replaced with a new stadium in 2006.\n* Future Super Bowl sites:\n\n2017 – NRG Stadium (2), Houston, Texas (3)\n2018 – U.S. Bank Stadium (1), Minneapolis (2)\n2019 – Mercedes-Benz Stadium (1), Atlanta (3)\n2020 – New Miami Stadium (6), Miami Gardens, Florida (11)\n*2021 – City of Champions Stadium (1), Inglewood, California (8) \n\nThe game has never been played in a region that lacked an NFL franchise. London, England has occasionally been mentioned as a host city for a Super Bowl in the near future. Wembley Stadium has hosted several NFL games as part of the NFL International Series and is specifically designed for large, individual events. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell has openly discussed the possibility on different occasions. Time zone complications are a significant obstacle to a Super Bowl in London; a typical 6:30 p.m. Eastern Time start would result in the game beginning at 11:30 p.m. local time in London, an unusually late hour to be holding spectator sports (the NFL has never in its history started a game later than 9:15 p.m. local time). As bids have been submitted for all Super Bowls through Super Bowl LV, the soonest that any stadium outside the NFL's footprint could serve as host would be Super Bowl LVI in 2022.\n\nSuper Bowl trademark\n\nThe NFL is very active on stopping what it says is unauthorized commercial use of its trademarked terms \"NFL\", \"Super Bowl\", and \"Super Sunday\". As a result, many events and promotions tied to the game, but not sanctioned by the NFL, are asked to refer to it with colloquialisms such as \"The Big Game\", or other generic descriptions. A radio spot for Planters nuts parodied this, by saying \"it would be super...to have a bowl...of Planters nuts while watching the big game!\" and comedian Stephen Colbert began referring to the game in 2014 as the \"Superb Owl\". In 2015, The NFL filed opposition with the USPTO Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to a trademark application submitted by an Arizona-based nonprofit for \"Superb Owl\". The NFL claims that the use of the phrase \"Super Bowl\" implies an NFL affiliation, and on this basis the league asserts broad rights to restrict how the game may be shown publicly; for example, the league says Super Bowl showings are prohibited in churches or at other events that \"promote a message\", while venues that do not regularly show sporting events cannot show the Super Bowl on any television screen larger than 55 inches. Some critics say the NFL is exaggerating its ownership rights by stating that \"any use is prohibited\", as this contradicts the broad doctrine of fair use in the United States. Legislation was proposed by Utah Senator Orrin Hatch in 2008 \"to provide an exemption from exclusive rights in copyright for certain nonprofit organizations to display live football games\", and \"for other purposes\". \n\nIn 2006, the NFL made an attempt to trademark \"The Big Game\" as well; however, it withdrew the application in 2007 due to growing commercial and public-relations opposition to the move, mostly from Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley and their fans, as the Stanford Cardinal football and California Golden Bears football teams compete in the Big Game, which has been played since 1892 (28 years before the formation of the NFL and 75 years before Super Bowl I). Additionally, the Mega Millions lottery game was known as The Big Game from 1996 to 2002. \n\nUse of the phrase \"world champions\"\n\nLike the other major professional leagues in the United States, the winner of the Super Bowl is usually declared \"world champions\", a title often mocked by non-Americans. Others feel the title is fitting, since it is the only professional league of its kind. \n\nThe practice by the U.S. major leagues of using the \"World Champion\" moniker originates from the World Series of professional baseball, and it was later used during the first three Super Bowls when they were referred to as AFL-NFL World Championship Games. The phrase is still engraved on the Super Bowl rings." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Oakland Senors", "LA Raiders", "List of Oakland Raiders Coaches", "Oakland raiders", "San Antonio Raiders", "Oakland Raiders(Football Team)", "Da Raidahs", "Los Angeles/Oakland Raiders", "Oakland Raiders", "Raidahs", "Oakland Señors", "Logos and uniforms of the Oakland Raiders", "Just win, baby", "Oakland Raider", "Los Angeles Raiders", "List of Oakland Raiders first-round draft picks", "L.A. 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Who was the winner of the last Open at Carnoustie before Paul Lawrie?	tc_1466	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Carnoustie.txt" ], "title": [ "Carnoustie" ], "wiki_context": [ "Carnoustie (; ) is a town and former police burgh in the council area of Angus, Scotland. It is at the mouth of the Barry Burn on the North Sea coast. In the 2011 census, Carnoustie had a population of 11,394, making it the fourth largest town in Angus.\n\nThe town was founded in the late 18th century, and grew rapidly throughout the 19th century due to the growth of the local textile industry. It was popular as a tourist resort from the early Victorian era up to the latter half of the 20th century, due to its seaside location, and is best known for the Carnoustie Golf Links course that often hosts The Open Championship. \n\nCarnoustie can be considered a dormitory town for its nearest city, Dundee, which is 11 mi to the west. It is served by Carnoustie railway station, and less so by Golf Street railway station. Its nearest major road is the A92.\n\nHistory \n\nToponymy \n\nThe origin of the name Carnoustie is uncertain. Plausible suggestions have included various Gaelic derivations such as cathair, càrr or càrn na fheusta, 'fort, rock or cairn of the feast,' or càrn guithais, 'cairn of the firtree.' However, these suggestions are of relatively recent origin and the name may derive from an obscure Pictish element, Càrn Ùstaidh.\n\nFolk etymology suggests that the name has a later, Anglic origin. The name is supposed to derive from the scots 'Craws Nestie', referring to the large number of crows that inhabit the area. This tradition is alluded to in the coat of arms of Carnoustie, which includes a pair of crows. Other, less likely possibilities include that it derives from 'Cairn of the Host' or 'Cairn of the Heroes' in memory of those who supposedly perished at the Battle of Barry.; \n\nUltimately the origin of the name is unknown but predates the town itself by several hundred years. The earliest record is of 'Carnowis' in a 1510 charter of James IV to Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Angus. 'Carnussie' farm is recorded in the Balmerino Abbey register of c1575, which states that it (along with part of Grange of Barry and Badiehill) was feued to the Fairny family and 'Karnousty' farm can be seen on Pont's map of Lower Angus, c1583-96. The town is seen as 'Carnowstie' in a deed of sale from 1595, 'Carnushie' appears in a tax roll from Balmerino Abbey in 1617, and the lands of 'Carnouslie' are referred to in the title deeds confirming its purchase by George Maule, 2nd Earl of Panmure in 1672. Adair is perhaps the first to depict Carnoustie with the current spelling in 1703, while Roy's military survey of Scotland, 1747–55 has it as 'Cornisty'. In Webster's Topographical Dictionary of Scotland (1819), Carnoustie is mentioned as 'Carnuistie'. \n\nEarly history \n\nThe area surrounding Carnoustie has been occupied continuously since the Neolithic period, as evidenced by a Cursus monument, identified from cropmarks near Woodhill. This cursus is of a similar scale to the well characterised, mid-4th century BC enclosure found nearby at Douglasmuir near Friockheim. Numerous stones incised with cup and ring marks have also been found in the surrounding area.;; An assemblage of Late Neolithic pottery fragments found at Carlogie, half a mile to the north of Carnoustie, has been interpreted as evidence of a settlement of that age in the area. \n\nBronze age archaeology is also present in the area. Numerous short cist burials have been found in the area, including one found in 1994 at West Scryne, a mile north-east of Carnoustie, that was radiocarbon dated to between 1730 and 1450 BC. The presence of Bronze Age round barrows at Craigmill is also indicated by cropmarks. From the Iron age, perhaps the most prominent remains are of the Dundee Law Hill Fort, with the Iron Age fort at Craigmill Den being less well known. Near to Carnoustie can be found the souterrains at Carlungie and Ardestie, which date from around the 2nd century AD. Several brochs are also found in the area, including the ruins at Drumsturdy and at Craighill. Roman remains are also found in the area. Particularly notable are the temporary marching camps at Kirkbuddo, Marcus and Finavon, and Roman coins have periodically been found nearby. \n\nPictish remains are to be found in abundance in the surrounding area. Class I sculptured stones from Aberlemno and Strathmartine can be seen in the McManus Galleries in Dundee while the class I Dunnichen Stone is on loan to the Meffan Institute in Forfar. A class I stone can also be seen in situ at Aberlemno, and this stone appears to be a recycled neolithic stone, having cup and ring marks apparent on its side. Class II stones can be seen at Aberlemno and Glamis and a much-misinterpreted class III stone (known locally as the Camus Cross) can be found 4 mi North of Carnoustie at Camuston Hill on Panmure Estate. Linked in misinterpretation with the Camus stone is the early Christian Pictish cemetery that was situated to the West of the Lochty burn, in the vicinity of the High Street. The soil in this vicinity is sandy and was prone to wind erosion, and periodically human remains became exposed to the surface prior to the founding of the town. Popular interpretation was that a great battle had taken place at the site, giving rise to the legend of the Battle of Barry.\n\nThe medieval period marks the earliest recorded history in the area. Arbroath Abbey was founded by William the Lion and dedicated in 1178 and the earldom of Dundee granted to David, Earl of Huntingdon around 1182 (Dundee later gained Royal Burgh status in 1292 on the coronation of David's heir, John Balliol). Closer to Carnoustie, a number of medieval mottes can be found, including at Old Downie, where the thanage can be traced to Duncan of Downie in 1254, and at Grange of Barry, as well as the ruins of Panmure Castle where, it is said, William the Lion signed the Panmure charter granting the lands of Panmure to Philip de Valognes in 1172. The original castle was destroyed at some point in the Second War of Independence, possibly in 1336.\n\nThe Parish of Barry was bestowed to the monks of Balmerino Abbey in Fife by Alexander II in 1230. The monks managed the lands from the Grange of Barry and latterly the land was controlled by the office of the Bailies of Barry, an early holder of this position being Sir Thomas Maule of Panmure in 1511. \n\nA number of feus were granted in the parish around that time, including Ravensby in 1539, Gedhall to David Gardyne in 1541, half of Barry Links and Cowbyres to Walter Cant in 1545 and the other half of the links to Robert Forrester in 1552. A document from around this time details the rent charged for each of the farms in the area, and it is in this that we see the first mention of Carnoustie:\n\n\"The two part of Grange of Barrie 10s. land of ye same 9 aikers of badihill. And toun and lands of Carnussie set to ffairny for 25 li. 2s. 24 capons 20 puld.\"\n\nThe land was annexed by the state in the Protestant reformation following an Act of Parliament in 1587 and the Bailiery of Barry was granted by James VI as a heritable gift to Patrick Maule in 1590. Ownership of the lands was granted by the King to James Elphinstone, Secretary of State in 1599 (ratified 1605), and was sold to George Maule, 2nd Earl of Panmure in 1667 (ratified in 1672) for £746 13s 4d. The land was forfeited following James Maule, 4th Earl of Panmure's involvement the Jacobite Rebellion in 1715.\n\nThe first recorded owners of the Barony of Panbride was the Morham family, whose ancestral name was Malherbe.; They are first mentioned in relation to Panbride in the registers of Arbroath Abbey in a charter of John Morham made in the mid-13th century. It is thought that they had possession of the land until 1309 when Robert I conferred the land to his brother in law, Alexander Fraser, Lord Chamberlain of Scotland. Fraser died at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332 and it is thought that David II conferred the barony (at least in part) to the Boyce family in 1341. \n\nThe lands of Panbride were fragmented and passed through a number of hands from that point, and were gradually acquired by the Carnegie family, later to become the Earls of Northesk, in the 16th century. The lands were forfeited following the Jacobite rebellion but were bought back by James Carnegie in 1764. Carnegie used the lands to purchase lands near his main estate and the barony of Panbride passed to William Maule, linking Panbride with Panmure. \n\nOrigin \n\nThe lands of Carnoustie remained in the ownership of the Fernie family until the end of the 16th century. In 1595 they had passed into the hands of Mitchell Downie and Margaret Fernie who sold them to Robert Bultie, Burgess of Dundee for the sum of 5,000 merks. They then came into the possession of the Alexander family, probably around the beginning of the 17th century, and documents dating to the middle of that century mention a village of Carnoustie. The estate was then sold to Patrick Lyon of Strathmore around 1680, and remained in that family's ownership, passing through marriage to James Milne, a wealthy shipmaster from Montrose around 1752.\n\nThe Barry parish register attests to a small but thriving community based largely on linen weaving existing on the land that became Carnoustie at least from the early 18th century (before then, the place of residence is not listed in the records). Around a fifth of the births registered in the parish in the mid-18th century are listed as being in the Carnoustie estate. \n\nThe stimulus that triggered the expansion of the town was undoubtedly the sudden increase in demand for linen from around 1760, caused by the population explosion of the mid-18th century. Handloom weaving was a relatively easy trade to learn and, at that time, a fairly prosperous career. In 1792 on his return from India, Major William Phillips, former valet to the Earl of Panmure, purchased Carnoustie estate from James Milne for £5,000. Phillips most likely recognised the potential of the local industry when he offered portions of the land for feu in 1797.\n\nThe first person to take up a feu was Thomas Lowson, a local loom wright, who rented 2 acre of land near the new road that had been recently been marked out by David Gardyne of Ravensby. Over the next few years, more and more people settled in the immediate area The venture proved profitable and Phillips sold the property in 1808 to George Kinloch for £11,000. \n\nKinloch promoted the further growth of the village, setting up brickworks and granting loans to prospective feuers to allow them to settle and, by the mid-19th century, the population of the town had risen to more than a thousand. For many years, the village was known simply as 'the Feus'. Perhaps the first cartographic depiction of the town is from a French maritime chart of 1803, where the village is shown as 'Feux', while Thomson's 1832 map of the area shows 'the Feus' as being a number of properties, largely concentrated in the area to the west of the Lochty burn. \n\nIndustrial history \n\nThe handloom linen weaving industry dominated Carnoustie's economy through its early years. Flax was grown in considerable quantities in the area and supplemented imports from Riga and St Petersburg. The predominant occupation listed in the 1841 census and 1843 statistical account for Barry Parish is that of 'Linen Hand Loom Weaver'. The expansion in the linen industry supported a population increase in the Barry Parish from 796 in 1791 to 2,124 by the time of the 1841 census.\n\nAside from the linen industry, the economy rested mainly on agriculture and fishing. Major crops of that period were cereal and vegetables; much of which was sold on to markets in local towns. Cattle were raised for export to England. Salmon were caught in nets on Carnoustie beach, and the small fishing fleets of Westhaven and Easthaven caught cod for export and haddock which was largely destined for Dundee and Forfar. Lobsters were caught for live export to London and crabs were caught for local use. \n\nThe arrival of the Dundee and Arbroath Railway in 1838 encouraged major industrial growth in the town and shortly after, the Vitriol Works opened near the railway line, on ground to the west of the town, producing sulphuric acid used largely in the production of agricultural fertiliser. The Panbride Bleachfield, at which linen from the expanding local industry was bleached was opened by John Dickson in the early 1840s adjacent to the railway near the mouth of the Craigmill burn on land which is now occupied by David Murray Transport. This was supplied with water from the burn via the ponds that can now be seen in the grounds of Panbride House, now the location of the Liz McColgan Health Club. \n\nIn 1851, shoe maker John Winter opened a shop near The Cross. His business grew such that he built a large factory in 1874 at the foot of East Path (now Park Avenue/Queen Street), employing 200 people and producing 2000 pairs of shoes and boots a week. His son, George, took over the business and built the impressive mansion, Winterdyne, that overlooks Carnoustie House Grounds at the top of Queen Street. Production ceased in 1958, and the Lousen Park sheltered housing complex was subsequently built at the site.\n\nThe linen industry in Carnoustie was modernised in 1857 with the opening of The Panmure Works by James Smieton. This factory, which at its height employed 600 employees, was a state-of-the-art facility containing 400 modern power looms and produced six million yards of linen and jute annually. Smieton also built new housing on a number of streets in the surrounding area for his employees and, in 1865, he opened the Panmure Works Institute on Kinloch Street which provided a library, billiard room and a hall for the education and recreation of his workers. The firm went through several changes of ownership through its history and was owned by WG Grant & Co Ltd from 1932 until 1972 when it went into liquidation.\n\nThe smaller Taymouth Linen works were opened in 1867 to the west of Panmure Works and the Vitriol Works, and at its height contained 100 power looms. Again, additional housing was built by the owners, the Brodies, including Taymouth Terrace. By 1898 Taymouth Works had become home to the business of George Anderson, owner of the Arbroath Foundry. George Anderson & Co. Ltd. produced for example, quarrying equipment such as channelling machines. The business evolved into Anderson-Grice Co. Ltd. which produced a range of mechanical equipment, including the short-lived Dalhousie motor car.\n\nDevelopment as a dormitory town \n\nIn addition to bringing industry to Carnoustie, the opening of the railway also made the town appealing to the middle classes, who used it as a commuter town for Dundee, further boosting population growth in the town. This trend has continued to the present day to the point where nearly half of the employed population now commute to Dundee for work.\n\nTourism and recreation \n\nCarnoustie benefited from the 19th century fashion for sea bathing. The arrival of the railway enabled the town to develop as a popular tourist destination; it was promoted as the \"Brighton of the North\" in the early 20th Century.;\n\nWhile golf has been played on Barry links since the 16th century a formal 10 hole golf course was laid out in 1850 to the design of Alan Robertson of St Andrews. This was later improved in 1867 by Old Tom Morris, who added a further 8 holes. In 1891, Arthur George Maule Ramsey, 14th Earl of Dalhousie, sold the links to the town on condition that they would be maintained for all time as a golf course. A three-day bazaar was held at the Kinnaird Hall in Dundee, which raised the funds for the purchase and secured the future of the links for golfing and leisure.\n\nTourism in Carnoustie began to decline in the latter half of the 20th century, largely due to the increased availability of package tours to warmer parts of the world. This trend has reversed somewhat with the increase in golf tourism.\n\nGovernance \n\nCarnoustie is represented within Angus Council by the Carnoustie & District ward, from which three councillors are elected. The town is part of the Dundee East constituency of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which returns a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons, at Westminster. The constituency's MP is Stewart Hosie of the Scottish National Party. \n\nCarnoustie is also part of the Angus South constituency of the Scottish Parliament, which has significantly different boundaries to the Westminster constituency. The constituency returns a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) to Holyrood directly, and is part of the North East Scotland electoral region with regards to additional Members of the Scottish Parliament. The constituency's MSP is Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party. \n\nGeography \n\nCarnoustie occupies a seafront position on the North Sea coast of Scotland, on land immediately to the north east of the Buddon Ness, ENE of Dundee, SW of Arbroath and SSE of Forfar. The town lies NNE of Edinburgh and NNW of London. The built-up area occupies a roughly rectangular shape 1.9 miles (3.1 km) long by 0.5 miles (0.9 km) wide. The land is relatively flat, rising gradually to around 30 m elevation to the north of the town. The climate is typical for the east coast of Scotland, although the weather can be locally influenced by sea mist, locally known as haar.\n\nThe town straddles the border between the parishes of Barry and Panbride and incorporates a number of former villages and hamlets, including Greenlawhill, Gardynebourg and Hunterstown to the west, and Gallowlaw, Panbride and Westhaven to the east. Contiguous to the town, on the west side, is the village of Barry, and to the east, separated from the town by 250 yds (0.22 km) is the hamlet that was known as Kirkton of Panbride (now known as Panbride). To the north of the town runs the A92, between Dundee and Arbroath. 1-mile (1.9 km) to the east of the town lies the village of East Haven. Running through the town on the border of the two parishes is a small stream, the Lochty burn, and to the western edge of the town, runs the Barry Burn. The south-western corner of the town lies within the floodplain of the Barry Burn. Half a mile (0.8 km) to the east of the town runs the Craig Mill burn, which flows through Batty's Den, into Craig Mill Den, to the sea.\n\nThe Dundee and Arbroath Railway runs along the south of the town, bisecting the former villages of Gallowlaw and Westhaven to the east of the Lochty burn. The A930 runs through the town from Barry, and is named Barry Road, Dundee Street, and High Street, as it runs from west to east. It turns sharply north at Gallowlaw, where it is named Carlogie road, and carves a path through Batty's Den to Muirdrum, where it meets with the A92.\n\nThe part of the coast that lies to the east of the Lochty burn is a rocky shore, where the Devonian Old Red Sandstone bedrock is exposed. To the west, lies the sandy beach of Barry Sands (otherwise known as Carnoustie Beach). The soil is sandy and, prior to the founding of the town, the land resembled the sandy dunes of Barry Links. To the west of the Lochty burn, the shore is increasingly separated by the peninsula of the Buddon Ness, on which lies the three golf courses of Carnoustie Golf Links, and Panmure Golf Club. To the south of the golf courses lies the Ministry of Defence owned Barry Buddon training camp. This land is classified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Special Area of Conservation.\n\nThe Buddon Ness is a triangle of land around 11 km2. Its position at the estuary of the River Tay makes it prone to erosion, and the position of both the west and east facing shores have changed considerably since the founding of Carnoustie. Comparison of Ordnance Survey maps from the mid-19th century with present-day maps show the shoreline retreating on the west shore and advancing on the east shore. This is supported by comparison of old photographs of Carnoustie links with the present day situation in which the foreshore is now much further from the Beach Pavilion (now the Rugby Club) than it was 80 years ago. The concern latterly has been of the shoreline eroding from this part of the beach and rock armour was placed at the shoreline in 1994.\n\nDemography \n\nThe 2001 census gives Carnoustie's total resident population as 10,561. This makes it the fourth largest town in Angus, after Arbroath (22,785), Forfar (14,048) and Montrose (10,845). This ranking is likely to change in the near future, as the population of Carnoustie is rising (2006 est. 10,630) while the population of Montrose is falling (2006 est. 10,830). The demographic breakdown of these figures closely follows that of the rest of Scotland. Males make up 48% of the population and females, 52%. Under-16s account for 18.9% of the population, people of pensionable age, 19.4%, and people of working age make up 61.7%. 88.2% of the population were born in Scotland and 8.0% in England, with people from the rest of the United Kingdom making up 0.8%. 0.3% were from the Republic of Ireland, 0.8% from elsewhere in Europe and 1.9% from outside of Europe. Slightly less than 1% of the population speak Gaelic. 84% of the working-age population were economically active, 2.7% were unemployed. \n\nEconomy \n\nThe economy of Carnoustie relies to a large extent on its proximity to Dundee. In the 2001 census, 2,267 people reported commuting to Dundee for work, making up 41.4% of the economically active, working-age population.\n\nGolf is a major tourist draw to the town, and it is estimated that the recent Open Championship contributed £14 million to the local economy. Television coverage during the event was estimated to be worth the equivalent of £34 million in advertising value, half of which was in North America. The 'Carnoustie Country' golf marketing campaign is funded and promoted by Angus Council to promote the area for golfing tourism in the area. \n\nLandmarks \n\nAt the far west end of the town is the village of Barry. On the north side of the road that runs through the village, to the west of the Barry Burn is the kirkyard and ruins of the old parish church. To the immediate east of this, a road heads north towards the old A92. Half a kilometre up this road, on the left hand side is the medieval motte associated with Grange of Barry, from where the monks of Balmerino Abbey managed the parish from the 13th century. On the other side of the road, a driveway runs towards the old Upper Mill, now simply known as 'Barry Mill', a water powered corn mill dating from 1815, when it was built on the site of a much older mill dating to the 16th century. It, along with the nearby bridge which was part of the old road from Barry Grange to Panbride, are both Category B listed buildings.;\n\nMuch of the western part of Carnoustie is post-war. The main road in this part of the town is known as 'Barry Road' and towards its eastern end there are a group of weavers cottages that pre-date the expansion of the town and used to belong to the hamlet of Hunterstown. Leading south from here, is Panmure Street, which leads to the Panmure Institute and, behind it, the Panmure Works. The Panmure Institute is now known as the Panmure Centre and owned by Angus Council for their Community Learning and Development Centre. The factory building was restored in the late 1990s and now houses the building firm DJ Laing. At the end of Barry Road, the road diverts to the north slightly at the Corner Hotel, before continuing eastwards along Dundee Street. This corner, which used to be known as Hutton's corner, is where a rocky outcrop blocked the path of the plough when the road was originally marked out in the 18th century. \n\nThe road heading north on the opposite side of Dundee Street is 'West Path'. Its name comes from the fact it was the path that lead down to the main road from the western boundary of the grounds of Carnoustie House. Carnoustie House was built by Major William Philips in 1792 and bought by George Kinloch in 1808. It passed to Kinloch's daughter, Cecilia Kinloch who, in turn, passed it to her niece, Helen Lingard-Guthrie. The house and lands were bought by the council in the first half of the 20th century and the house was demolished following a fire around 40 years ago. Carnoustie House Grounds is now used as a park and is where the annual town gala is held. Part of the land is now occupied by Woodlands Primary School, Woodlands Caravan Park and the town recycling centre.\n\nContinuing eastwards along Dundee Street from the foot of West Path, on the north side of the road is the small former St Annes Roman Catholic Church. On the south side of the road, are the large grounds of Kinloch Primary School, opened in 1878 as Carnoustie Public School and last used as a school in November 2008 during renovations of Carlogie Primary School. The buildings were demolished in 2010 to make way for affordable housing.\n\nOpposite the main part of the school is the former Erskine Free Church, which has been through a number of hands since it was sold off in the early 20th century and now houses All Stars sports bar, and beyond the school, heading south towards the beach is Links Avenue. On the left hand side of Links Avenue can be found the scout hut which, despite appearances, is the oldest school building in Carnoustie. The street passes through a narrow tunnel under the railway line to Links Parade near to Carnoustie Hotel, which was built in anticipation of the 1999 Open Championship. The hotel houses a 2.8 metre clock, weighing 450 kg, which was the largest timepiece supplied by Rolex at the time it was fitted. There are only 40 golf courses worldwide that have been given these Rolex clocks. Beyond the hotel lie the three golf courses of Carnoustie Golf Links.\n\nPast Links Avenue on the north side of Dundee Street Carnoustie Church, which never received its steeple and, a little further past that, is the 'Auld Nick' which originally housed Carnoustie's police station. The war memorial lies adjacent to the Auld Nick and was dedicated in 1926. It features a sculpture of the Unknown Soldier by Thomas Beattie.\n\nOn the opposite side of the road from the Auld Nick is Ferrier Street and a little way down on the right hand side can be seen Thomas Lowson's Dibble Tree. Opposite the Dibble tree is Kinloch Street and, about 100 metres down that street on the North Side, is the Erskine United Free Church, the oldest church building in Carnoustie, built in 1810.\n\nA short way past the war memorial on the southern side of Dundee Street is First Feu Cottage, Thomas Lowson's original home in Carnoustie, and beyond that is the traditional centre of the town, The Cross, marking the intersection between Dundee Street, High Street, Queens Street and Park Avenue. Meeting High Street on its north side, Lochty Street leads up to the Church of the Holyrood in Maule Street. It is a Category B listed building, the only listed building within the town, and was built on land donated by Helen Lingard-Guthrie, who had recently married one of the clergymen who ministered to the nascent Episcopalian congregation during the early summer missions, Rev. Roger Lingard. \n\nAt the easternmost end of High Street, the main road becomes Church Street, with Station Road heading south towards the main railway station and the adjacent Station Hotel, built in 1840. Opposite Station Road is the old City of Glasgow Bank building built in 1870 in Italian style architecture that used to house the Clydesdale Bank. It is being developed into private accommodation. Church Street continues eastwards and at one time lead all the way to Newton of Panbride church in the former village of Gallowlaw. The junction with Carlogie Road was realigned some years ago and the part of Church Street east of Carlogie Road renamed Arbroath Road. Past the Church, on the south side of the road, a road bridge leads to the former fishing village of West Haven, which pre-dates Carnoustie by several centuries. To the east of the town, in Panbride, is Panbride Parish Kirk. The building itself is category C(s) listed, although its burial aisle and the nearby parish school are both Category B listed\n;\n The 'Loupin' on Stane' a series of steps in the church courtyard that allowed churchgoers to mount their horses in a dignified manner have category B listing, as does the bridge over the Craigmill burn at the bottom of the hill. At the southern end of Craigmill Den, Panbride House has Category B listing, as does the associated stables. \n\nTransport \n\nThe A92 runs between Arbroath and Dundee about 1 km to the north of Carnoustie. There are several ways to reach the A92, including the main routes that run between the Upper Victoria junction and between the A930, Carlogie road and Muirdrum junction. It is also possible to reach the west-bound carriageway of the A92 via Balmachy Road and the Grange of Barry Road.\n\nTrains are operated by Abellio ScotRail on the Edinburgh to Aberdeen line. They stop at Carnoustie Station on an approximately hourly basis. Two trains a day stop at Golf Street station (0638 West-bound and 1910 East-bound) and two at Barry Links (06:41 West-bound and 18:52 East-bound). As a result, Golf Street and Barry Links are two of the least used stations in the UK. \n\nBuses are operated by Stagecoach on their Arbroath-Dundee route, including the number 73 and 73A buses, and the number 39A (early weekday mornings, evenings and on Sundays). They operate on a regular basis, with most stopping on the main A930 road between Muirdrum, Carlogie Road, Church Street, High Street, Dundee Street, Barry Road and Barry village. A handful of buses also serve Easthaven and take alternate routes through Carnoustie. \n\nEducation \n\nHistory of education \n\nAt the start of the 1870s, each church in Carnoustie had its own school. Some of these can still be seen today, in the former primary schools of Barry and Panbride, which were at that point the schools of Panbride Parish Church and Barry Free Church, and the Phillip Hall on Dundee Street, which was the school connected with The Erskine Free Church. These were supplemented with a number of private subscription schools, including a school in Links Avenue, opened in 1831, that now houses the local scout group, and a school off Maule Street that is now used as Holyrood Church's Hall. These were both victims of the success of Carnoustie Free Church school and were abandoned. More successful were the school linked to Panmure Works and a private girls school in Kinloch Street, but these too were made redundant by the 1872 act.\n\nCarnoustie Public School was built in 1878 near the Free Church school on Dundee Street. It was extended several times before the secondary school pupils were decanted to the new Carnoustie High School building in Shanwell Road. The old school was renamed Kinloch Primary School, and continued until 2006, when it, along with Barry and Panbride Primary Schools, was closed as part of the reorganisation of schools in the area.\n\nSchools today \n\n[http://www.carlogie.angus.sch.uk/ Carlogie Primary School] was opened in the mid-1970s in the new Caesar Avenue/Linefield Road housing estate and its current catchment area is all of Carnoustie East of Queen Street and the pupils from the surrounding rural area that was used to be served by Panbride Primary School, including Panbride, East Haven, Hatton, Muirdrum, Auchrennie, Pitlivie and Salmond's Muir. The school's buildings and grounds were extensively refurbished in 2008. \n\n[http://www.woodlands.angus.sch.uk/ Woodlands Primary School] is a building in the former caravan park in Carnoustie House Grounds. Its catchment area is the central part of Carnoustie between Burnside Street and Queen Street, plus the rural area north of the town, incorporating Clayholes, Balmachie, Pitskelly, Upper Victoria and Heugh-Head.\n\n[http://www.burnside.angus.sch.uk/ Burnside Primary School] is a building in Thomas Street on land that had been used as football pitches. Its catchment area includes the remaining part of Carnoustie and the former rural catchment of Barry Primary, including Barry, Cotside, Balhungie, Ardestie, Woodhill, Grange of Barry and Mains of Ravensby.\n\nCarnoustie High School is situated on Shanwell Road and takes all secondary pupils from Carnoustie and the surrounding rural area, including former pupils of Carlogie, Woodlands, Burnside, Kinloch, Panbride, Barry, Newbigging and Monikie Primary Schools. The School was almost entirely rebuilt in 2008, the only part of the previous buildings retained being the old Physical Education department, theatre and music department. \n\nReligion \n\nHistory of religion \n\nThe site now occupied by Panbride Church has been a site of worship since 1147. A series of successive buildings have been built at the site, with the present building built in 1681 by George Maule, 2nd Earl of Panmure. It was extensively repaired in 1775 and enlarged considerably by Fox Maule in 1851.\n\nBarry Parish was founded in 1230 when Alexander II bequeathed the land to Balmerino Abbey. The earliest record of a church at Barry is from 1243 when the parish church was consecrated by David de Bernham, Bishop of St Andrews (1238–1252). The building that was Barry Parish Church up until the 1950s was built in 1800 on the site of an earlier building that was described as being \"old and sorry\". All that remains of Barry Parish Church now is the lower portion of its walls and its kirkyard. \n\nThe first two churches within the town of Carnoustie were built in 1810 by two rival branches of the Secession Church, which had split from the Established Church in 1733 over the issue of patronage. The Anti-Burghers demolished the church they had built in 1789 near Grange of Barry Farm to rebuild it nearer the expanding village of Carnoustie. The 'Red Kirk', as it was known, was situated at Rye Park, where Thistle Street now stands. The Burghers, built their church the same year in Kinloch Street. This church later went through a series of Unions with other churches, becoming part of the United Original Secession Church in 1822 and the Free Church in 1852. \n\nBarry Parish Church proved insufficient to house the rapidly expanding population of the parish and the refusal of the Heritors to fund its enlargement led to the building of Carnoustie church in 1837. This building was situated on the south side of Dundee street at the site on which now stands the Army and Air Cadets building. The quoad sacra parish was assigned to the church by the Presbytery of Arbroath in 1838. \n\nThe Disruption of 1843 had a profound effect on the town. A small Free Church was set up at the east end of Barry, and was replaced by a larger building in 1888, which continues as Barry Church today. The Free Church took over Carnoustie Church, and eventually built a second church immediately adjacent to it in 1850 when the Established Church claimed ownership of the building. This new building was later to become known as St Stephen's church. The school associated with the new Free Church, The Philip Hall, is still in existence and is now used by Carnoustie Church as their church hall. In 1854, the part of the congregation of Panbride Church that had joined the Free Church built what became Newton Church at Gallowlaw after several years of being housed in a wooden building on Westhaven Farm. The building was damaged by fire in 1887 and rebuilt to a larger design.\n\nIn 1873, the congregation of the Red Kirk, which had now become part of The United Presbyterian Church, again demolished their church and, in part, used the material to build The Erskine Church on the North side of Dundee Street. This, along with St Stevens Free Church, the Free Church in Kinloch Street, Barry Free Church and Newton of Panbride Church became part of the United Free Church when the United Presbyterians and Free Church merged in 1900.\n\nThe Scottish Episcopal Church traces its history in Carnoustie to 1853 when it began meeting in an old Schoolhouse off Maule Street. It was formed into a congregation in 1877, which rapidly outgrew its premises, leading to the building of The Church of The Holyrood in 1881, the former building becoming the church hall. The church building was graded as a Category B listed building in 1971\n\nIn 1901, the established Church of Scotland built a new church, St Brides Chapel, on Carlogie Road for the burghal part of Panbride parish. This building became redundant as a place of worship in 1929 when the congregations of the Free church and Established church united, and it served for a while as the Church hall, until it was sold to the Boys Brigade in 1952. Carnoustie Church built its new, larger church in 1902, opposite its former site. This building continues today to house the congregation of Carnoustie Church. The congregations of Carnoustie Church and St Stephen's merged in 1969, with St Stephen's being demolished to make way for the new Health Centre.\n\nOn unification of the United Free Church with the Established Church in 1929, St Stephens and The Erskine Church's congregations merged, using St Stephen's as a home. The Erskine Church was sold, and since then has variously been a cinema, snooker club and pub. Those that did not agree with reunification with the Established Church formed a congregation as part of The United Free Church (Continuing), first finding a home in the YMCA building, later buying the Original Secession Church in Kinloch Street in 1934. The two churches in Barry finally completed their move to the former Free Church site in the 1950s.\n\nThe congregations of Panbride Church and Newton of Panbride Church united in 1956 and those of Carnoustie Church and Barry Church in 2003.\n\nThe Carnoustie Christian Fellowship was an independent congregation meeting in a converted former Co-op building opposite the War Memorial. They were linked to a charismatic Christian movement known as the International Association of Healing Rooms. This congregation ceased meeting in 2011 and ownership of the building was transferred to a church plant from Dundee's Central Baptist Church that took the name of Carnoustie Community Church. \n\nReligion today \n\nThe Church of Scotland today has three congregations that meet in Carnoustie. Carnoustie Church and Barry Church are linked under one minister, Rev. Michael Goss. During the months of July and August, they meet together in each church on alternate months. Carnoustie Panbride church meet at Newton Church during Winter months and Panbride in the Summer. The minister is Rev. Matthew Bicket. \n\nThe Episcopalian congregation continues to meet at Holyrood church on the corner of Maule Street and Holyrood Street. The church is part of the Anglican Diocese of Brechin. Services are led by an interim pastor, Rev. John Cuthbert. Holyrood church and Holy Trinity Church in Monifieth have just become a linked charge. \n\nThe Roman Catholic Church meets in the modern (built 2000) building of St Anne's Church in Thomas Street. This replaced the much smaller building the congregation had previously used in Dundee Street. The church is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dunkeld. \n\nThe Carnoustie Erskine United Free Church of Scotland meet at the former Original Secession Church on Kinloch street.\n\nThe Carnoustie Community Church is baptist congregation meeting in a converted former Co-op building opposite the War Memorial named 'The Bridge'. This congregation began in 2011 as a church plant from Dundee's Central Baptist Church initially meeting in hotels before moving into the building vacated by the Carnoustie Christian Fellowship. The pastor is Dr John Toller.\n\nSport \n\nGolf \n\nCarnoustie is famous for golf, which is first recorded as having been played here in the 16th century. Carnoustie Golf Links has three golf courses: the Championship course, on which several international tournaments are held, the Burnside course and the Buddon course. \n\nCarnoustie Golf Links is one of the venues in The Open Championship's rotation. The course first played host to The Open in 1931, when it was won by Tommy Armour of the USA. Subsequent winners have included Henry Cotton of England in 1937, Ben Hogan of the USA in 1953, Gary Player of South Africa in 1968, Tom Watson of the USA in 1975, Paul Lawrie of Scotland in 1999 and Pádraig Harrington of Ireland in 2007. \n\nThe 1999 Open Championship is best remembered for the epic collapse of French golfer Jean van de Velde, who needed only a double-bogey six on the 72nd hole to win the Open—and proceeded to shoot a triple-bogey seven, tying with Paul Lawrie and 1997 champion Justin Leonard at 290, six over par. Lawrie won the playoff and the championship. With several experienced players running into difficulties on the course that year, the media responded by dubbing the course 'Carnasty'. \n\nCarnoustie is also one of the three hosts of the Alfred Dunhill Links Championship, along with The Old Course at St Andrews and Kingsbarns. \n\nIn the early part of the 20th century, an estimated 300 golfers from Carnoustie emigrated to the United States, and were instrumental in the development of the sport there. When the Professional Golfers' Association of America was founded in 1916, nearly half of the 82 professional members were from Carnoustie. \n\nThe archives of Carnoustie Golf Club are held at the University of Dundee.\n\nFootball \n\nCarnoustie is home to the junior football club Carnoustie Panmure F.C.. Formed in 1936, they are nicknamed the Gowfers due to the town's well-established links to the sport of golf (\"gowf\" in Scots). They play at Laing Park, to which they moved in 2004, having previously played at Westfield Park.\n\nThe club received significant investment in the late 1990s, which has allowed them to emerge as one of the stronger Tayside clubs participating in the East Region. The pinnacle of their achievements was winning the Scottish Junior Cup in 2004. \n\nThe club plays in the Scottish Junior Football Association's East Region Premier League.\n\nCarnoustie Panmure Youth FC, formed in 1979, is one of the biggest youth football clubs in the Tayside area, running football teams for boys from 9s to Under 19s level in the Dundee & District Youth Football Association league. In 2012 the club formed a Football Academy for boys & girls aged 5 to 8 years.\n\nThe main Amateur club in Carnoustie is Carnoustie YM AFC who play at Carlogie Park. There is also a men's team representing the town on a Sunday morning at amateur level and they are called Craws Nest FC, playing out of the Craws Nest pub on Barry Road.\n\nIn 2012 the main football clubs in Carnoustie came together to form Carnoustie Panmure FC as Scottish Charitable Incorporated Organisation. The current members are Carnoustie Panmure FC, Carnoustie YM AFC, Carnoustie Panmure Youth FC and Monifieth Ladies FC. The aim of the SCIO is to develop the Player Pathway and to provide better facilities for football in the area. In 2013 the joint club became the first to receive the Scottish FA Legacy Club Award in the SFA East Region.\n\nRugby \n\nThe town also has a thriving rugby club, Carnoustie HSFP, based at their clubhouse on Links Parade. The first XV team play in Division 2 (Midlands Section) of the Caledonia Regional League.\n\nPublic services \n\nCarnoustie and the surrounding area is supplied with water by Scottish Water. Water was supplied from Crombie reservoir until 1981. Since then, along with Dundee and parts of Perthshire, Angus has been supplied from Lintrathen and Backwater reservoirs in Glen Isla. Electricity distribution is by Scottish Hydro Electric plc, part of the Scottish and Southern Energy group.\n\nWaste management is handled by Angus Council. There is a kerbside recycling scheme that has been in operation since May 2006. Cans, glass, paper and plastic bottles are collected on a weekly basis. Compostable material and non-recyclable material are collected on alternate weeks. Roughly two thirds of non-recyclable material is sent to landfill at Angus Council's site at Lochhead, Forfar and the remainder sent for incineration (with energy recovery) outside the council area. \n\nA recycling centre is located at Balmachie Road. Items accepted include, steel and aluminium cans, cardboard, paper, electrical equipment, engine oil, fridges and freezers, garden waste, gas bottles, glass, liquid food and drinks cartons, plastic bottles, plastic carrier bags, rubble, scrap metal, shoes and handbags, spectacles, textiles, tin foil, wood and yellow pages. Angus council publishes details of where and how each product is processed. There are also glass banks at the Co-op and Craws Nest car parks. The Angus Council area had a recycling rate of 34.7% in 2007/08.\n\nHealthcare is supplied in the area by NHS Tayside. The nearest hospitals with accident and emergency departments are Arbroath Infirmary and Ninewells Hospital, Dundee. Primary Health Care in Carnoustie is supplied by Carnoustie Medical Group which is based at Parkview Health Centre on Barry Road, opened in May 2006. Carnoustie, along with the rest of Scotland is served by the Scottish Ambulance Service.\n\nLaw enforcement is provided by Tayside Police and Carnoustie is served by Tayside Fire and Rescue Service. The Police Station is located at 5 North Burnside Street in Carnoustie.\n\nTwin town \n\n* Maule, France\n\nCarnoustie is twinned with Maule, approximately 50 km west of Paris, due to Carnoustie and the surrounding area's long association with the Maule Family. \n\nNotable people \n\nThe 16th century philosopher and historian, Hector Boece, was a member of the Boyce family that owned parts of Panbride parish at that time and is thought to have lived there.\n\nTwo streets in Carnoustie are named after Victoria Cross winners. Lance Corporal Charles Jarvis, Royal Engineers, was a resident of Carnoustie from 1889 until he joined the army in 1899. He was one of five men awarded the medal three weeks after the outbreak of Great War, for his role in destroying a bridge under heavy fire during the Battle of Mons on 23 August 1914. Petty Officer George Samson of the Royal Naval Reserve was born in Carnoustie in 1889, and awarded the medal for multiple acts of gallantry during the landings at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915, during which he rescued a number of his colleagues and treated their injuries under fire, before himself being hit by machine gun fire, sustaining 19 bullet wounds. His medals were sold at auction in 2007 for £247,000 to Lord Ashcroft. \n\nThe actor Ian McDiarmid, best known for his recurring role as Emperor Palpatine in the Star Wars series of films, is a native of Carnoustie, where he lived as a child before moving to Dundee to attend Harris Academy. Alan Cumming, who has played starring roles in major films such as Golden Eye and X2: X-Men United, lived on Panmure Estate, to the north of Carnoustie, and attended Carnoustie High School. \n\nIain Macmillan, photographer, notably of The Beatles' Abbey Road album cover, was born in Carnoustie and moved back there in the 1980s. Roddy Woomble, singer from rock band Idlewild, lived in Carnoustie from age 8, and attended Carnoustie High School, playing drums in several local bands. \n\nThe Canadian-based poet, Stephen Scobie, was originally from Carnoustie. \n\nA two-time winner of the U.S. Open golf championship, Alex Smith, was born in Carnoustie in 1874 and learned to play there before emigrating to the United States.\n\nLiz McColgan (born Elizabeth Lynch) is a runner, coach and Olympic athlete who lived on the outskirts of Carnoustie. At the 1988 Summer Olympic Games in Seoul, she was the Silver Medallist for the 10,000 metres. She captured the gold medal for the 10,000 metres at the 1991 World Championships in Athletics held in Tokyo. She also was the women's champion for the 1991 New York City Marathon, the 1992 Tokyo Marathon and the 1996 London Marathon. She is a Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE)." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Tommy Watson", "Tom Watson (politician)", "Tom Watson MP", "Tommy Watson (footballer)", "Thomas Watson", "Thomas Watson (disambiguation)", "Thomas Watson (MP)", "Tom Watson", "Watson, Thomas" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "tommy watson", "thomas watson disambiguation", "thomas watson mp", "watson thomas", "tommy watson footballer", "tom watson mp", "tom watson", "thomas watson", "tom watson politician" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "tom watson", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Tom Watson" }
In what years did John Henry win the Arlington Million?	tc_1473	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "John_Henry_(horse).txt" ], "title": [ "John Henry (horse)" ], "wiki_context": [ "John Henry (March 9, 1975 – October 8, 2007) was an American Thoroughbred race horse who had 39 wins, with $6,591,860 in earnings. This total is the equivalent to almost 15 million dollars in 2015. He was twice voted the Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year in 1981 and 1984, with his 1981 selection the only one in which the victor received all votes cast for that award. In all, he won seven Eclipse awards. John Henry was also listed as #23 - Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century.\n\nBackground\n\nThe horse was named after the folk hero John Henry. As a colt, John Henry had a habit of tearing steel water and feed buckets off stall walls and stomping them flat. This reminded his then-owners of the legendary John Henry, who was known as a \"steel-drivin' man\". He was gelded both for his temperament as well as his lack of good breeding. A Golden Chance Farm foal, John Henry was from breeding that might best be described as plebeian. His sire, Ole Bob Bowers, once sold for just $900 and was not in much demand by breeders. His dam, Once Double, was an undistinguished runner and producer, but was sired by Double Jay, a graded stakes race winner who had proven to be a useful broodmare sire.\n\nJohn Henry was sold as a yearling for $1,100 at the Keeneland January Mixed sale to John Callaway who is credited with giving John Henry his name. Besides being back at the knee (a flaw in conformation that generally makes a long racing career unlikely), undersized, and plainly bred, John Henry had bumped his head in his stall just before being led to the ring, bloodying his face.\n\nRacing record\n\nHe had a series of trainers, making his mark as a workmanlike racehorse who earned money in minor stakes, allowance races, and mid-level claiming races. One such allowance race took place at Saratoga Race Course on August 8, 1978. The race is of note in that John Henry finished behind Darby Creek Road who won in a track record time of 1:20 2/5 for seven furlongs. Also of note was the fact that unknown to all attending that day, the race card featured two future National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame horses.\n\nGoing to California\n\nIn 1978, New York City businessman Sam Rubin and his wife Dorothy paid $25,000 sight unseen for the then three-year-old John Henry. The horse broker who picked out the horse for Rubin was Louisville trainer and broker, Mike McGee. Rubin asked McGee if he \"was sure this horse was sound\". McGee said he could see potential in John Henry. Racing under the Rubins' Dotsam Stable banner, he was first conditioned by trainer Robert Donato, a former policeman, who saw his grass potential. Under him, John Henry won 6 of 19 starts and $120,000, starting the year as a cheap claimer and finishing it as a stakes winner. The following year, the Rubins and Donato had a disagreement on policy and parted ways. John Henry was given to a new trainer, Lefty Nickerson. Under him, he won 4 of 11 races in 1979. When the grass season was over in New York, Rubin decided to send the horse to California. Nickerson suggested his good friend Ron McAnally as trainer. Under McAnally, John Henry won six stakes races in a row. Initially the plan was to keep him under McAnally out west and Nickerson in the east, but eventually this was scrapped and McAnally had him full-time. Because they were such good friends, Nickerson agreed to this and McAnally voluntarily gave him half of his 10% trainer's share of John Henry's earnings.\n\nRacing through the age of nine, John Henry won the 1981 Santa Anita Handicap and repeated in 1982 after Perrault was disqualified. He is one of only three horses with back-to-back victories in the race's 72-year history. He also twice won the Arlington Million Stakes and won three renewals of both the Hollywood Invitational Handicap and the Oak Tree Invitational Stakes, two Grade I turf stakes in Southern California. He also won one of America's most important races for older horses, the 1981 Jockey Club Gold Cup at Belmont Park, at 1½ miles on the dirt. This victory clinched his first Horse of the Year title.\n\nA bronze statue called \"Against All Odds,\" created by Edwin Bogucki, stands on a balcony overlooking the paddock at Arlington Park. It commemorates one of John Henry's most famous finishes. 1981 was the inaugural Arlington Million and two horses, John and an Irish 5 year-old named The Bart, finished side by side. Although it initially appeared that The Bart had won, John Henry was a nose ahead in the photo.\n\nIn the 1981 Oak Tree Invitational, Spence Bay went by in the stretch, but John Henry came back to win.\n\nOn December 11, 1983, John Henry became the first racehorse to surpass $4 million in career earnings when he won the Hollywood Turf Cup Stakes with jockey Chris McCarron at Hollywood Park Racetrack.\n\nJohn Henry's last race was the 1984 Ballantine Scotch Classic at the Meadowlands. As he took the lead in the stretch, Meadowlands track announcer Dave Johnson exclaimed, \"And down the stretch they come! The old man, John Henry, takes command!\" He pulled away to his 39th career victory and his second Horse of the Year title. The final time of 2:13 equaled (at the time) the track record for 1⅜ mile.\n\nInaugural Breeders Cup 1984\n\nJohn Henry, despite coming off a four race win streak in 1984, was not initially pointed to the inaugural running of the Breeders' Cup, the richest single day of horse racing in the world, which was to be held November 10, 1984 at Hollywood Park.\n\nOnly a relatively late decision in October was made to supplement John Henry to the 1½ mile $2 million USD Turf Cup. Because his sire was never nominated to the BC, owner Sam Rubin had to supplement 20% of the total purse. A check for $133,000 USD was due October 30, 1984 and the balance $267,000 USD to be paid the first week of November. Rubin was quoted as saying 'It's a stupid thing to do. I'm doing it for the horse, for the jockey, for the trainer. I could have done without it. I hope he comes out of the race healthy; that's what I hope. \n\nHe was found to have a strained ligament in his left foreleg and was withdrawn from the race and retired.\n\nSummary\n\nHis final race record stood at 83 starts, 39 wins, 15 seconds, and 9 thirds with $6,591,860 in earnings. He was twice voted the Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year in 1981 and 1984, of which his 1981 election is notable in that it remains the only one whereby the victor received all votes cast for that award.\n\nRetirement\n\nIt wasn't until June 21, 1985, that owner Sam Rubin made the decision to retire John Henry, age 10, when he injured a tendon during a workout at Hollywood Park on July 19, 1985. He was subsequently unretired in a comeback bid but never returned to racing and retired a second time.\n\nRubin sent the gelding to the Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington in 1985 to live. No doubt because he was a gelding, but also because he was difficult to handle. On more than one occasion, John Henry bit his owner, or anyone else within reach. The acquisition of John Henry was seen as a major coup for the park, since several tracks in California sought to host John Henry in retirement, and Rubin had thought about retiring him on the East Coast. The Kentucky Horse Park was able to win out because the former president of the Keeneland racing and sales operation in Lexington, Ted Bassett, persuaded McAnally to intercede with Rubin. John Henry's arrival at the park was the catalyst for gathering the first group of horses that would share the Hall of Champions with him. Today, the Hall houses many other retired champions, such as Cigar, Da Hoss and Funny Cide.\n\nJohn Henry lived at the park for only seven months before Rubin announced he would return him to training May 1, 1986. At the age of 11, he was in training for a comeback until a \"recurring leg ailment\" flared up in August 1986. Ron McAnally had been planning for John Henry's comeback in the Ballantine Classic at the Meadowlands September 3, 1986, (the same race John Henry won in his last outing in October 1984) and retired him a second time on August 12, 1986. He returned to the park, where he spent the rest of his life.\n\nJohn Henry had many quirks that endeared him to his followers, not the least of which was the habit of turning towards the tote board after a victory as if checking the time of the race, or possibly the payoff. Regular rider Chris McCarron often described him as very smart, commenting: \"I'm just along for the ride.\" McAnally also attributed his career to his soundness, noting him to step over rocks on the way to his morning exercise. John Henry also once was determined to get to the winner's circle after losing a race, dragging his groom to get there.\n\nJohn Henry, in the view of many followers of thoroughbred racing, was one of the best come-from-behind horses (or \"closers\") in recent history. In The Blood-Horse ranking of the top 100 U.S. thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century, he was ranked #23.\n\nJohn Henry was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, New York in 1990.\n\n \n\nDeath\n\nJohn Henry was euthanized at 7:05 pm EDT (2305 UTC) on October 8, 2007, at the age of 32. He had developed serious kidney problems in August 2007, while Central Kentucky was experiencing a heat wave. On October 6, he stopped responding to veterinary treatment, and the decision was made to put him down. Many who worked with him had the chance to say their goodbyes, including McCarron, who was notified of the decision to euthanize at 4:30 pm, arrived at the park at 5:30, and stayed with him until shortly before the veterinarian arrived.\n\nJohn Henry was buried on the night of his death in front of the Hall of Champions at a spot in front of his paddock. A memorial service was held at the park on October 19.\n\nAbove the grave is a stone inscribed with the poem of \"If tears could build a stairway, and memories a lane, I'd walk right up to Heaven, and bring you home again.\" There is also a statue of him standing. Engraved under it are the words \"John Henry, A Lasting Legend.\"\n\nJohn Henry's accomplishments\n\n* Oldest horse to win Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year - at age 9\n* Oldest horse to win a Grade 1 race - at age 9 (tied)\n* Only horse to win the Arlington Million (G1) twice - 1981 & 1984\n* One of only three horses to win the Santa Anita Handicap (G1) twice - 1981 & 1982\n* Won more graded stakes than any other Thoroughbred - 25\n* Retired as the world's richest thoroughbred - July 28, 1985\n* Inducted into National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1990\n* Raced in 46 graded (G1,G2,G3) races\n* Raced on 18 different North American race tracks\n* Won inaugural running of the Arlington Million (1981)\n* Oldest horse at age 9 to win the Arlington Million (1984)\n* Won on 13 different North American Race Tracks\n\nTabulated pedigree" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1981 & 1984" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1981 1984" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1981 1984", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "1981 & 1984" }
Who was the first president of the National Football League?	tc_1475	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "National_Football_League.txt" ], "title": [ "National Football League" ], "wiki_context": [ "The National Football League (NFL) is a professional American football league consisting of 32 teams, divided equally between the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). The NFL is one of the four major professional sports leagues in North America, and the highest professional level of American football in the world. The NFL's 17-week regular season runs from the week after Labor Day to the week after Christmas, with each team playing 16 games and having one bye week. Following the conclusion of the regular season, six teams from each conference (four division winners and two wild card teams) advance to the playoffs, a single-elimination tournament culminating in the Super Bowl, played between the champions of the NFC and AFC.\n\nThe NFL was formed in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association (APFA) before renaming itself the National Football League for the 1922 season. The NFL agreed to merge with the American Football League (AFL) in 1966, and the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that season; the merger was completed in 1970. Today, the NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and is the most popular sports league in the United States. The Super Bowl is among the biggest club sporting events in the world and individual Super Bowl games account for many of the most watched television programs in American history, all occupying the Nielsen's Top 5 tally of the all-time most watched U.S. television broadcasts by 2015. The NFL's executive officer is the commissioner, who has broad authority in governing the league.\n\nThe team with the most NFL championships is the Green Bay Packers with thirteen; the team with the most Super Bowl championships is the Pittsburgh Steelers with six. The current NFL champions are the Denver Broncos, who defeated the Carolina Panthers 24–10 in Super Bowl 50.\n\nHistory\n\nFounding and history\n\nOn August 20, 1920, a meeting was held by representatives of the Akron Pros, Canton Bulldogs, Cleveland Indians, Rock Island Islanders and Dayton Triangles at the Jordan and Hupmobile auto showroom in Canton, Ohio. This meeting resulted in the formation of the American Professional Football Conference (APFC), a group who, according to the Canton Evening Repository, intended to \"raise the standard of professional football in every way possible, to eliminate bidding for players between rival clubs and to secure cooperation in the formation of schedules\". Another meeting held on September 17, 1920 resulted in the renaming of the league to the American Professional Football Association (APFA). The league hired Jim Thorpe as its first president, and consisted of 14 teams. Only two of these teams, the Decatur Staleys (now the Chicago Bears) and the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals), remain. \n\nAlthough the league did not maintain official standings for its 1920 inaugural season and teams played schedules that included non-league opponents, the APFA awarded the Akron Pros the championship by virtue of their 8–0–3 (8 wins, 0 losses, and 3 ties) record. The first event occurred on September 26, 1920 when the Rock Island Independents defeated the non-league St. Paul Ideals 48-0 at Douglas Park. On October 3, 1920, the first full week of league play occurred. \nThe following season resulted in the Chicago Staleys controversially winning the title over the Buffalo All-Americans. In 1922, the APFA changed its name to the National Football League (NFL). \n\nIn 1932, the season ended with the Chicago Bears (6-1-6) and the Portsmouth Spartans (6-1-4) tied for first in the league standings. At the time, teams were ranked on a single table and the team with the highest winning percentage (not including ties, which were not counted towards the standings) at the end of the season was declared the champion; the only tiebreaker was that in the event of a tie, if two teams played twice in a season, the result of the second game determined the title (the source of the 1921 controversy). This method had been used since the league's creation in 1920, but no situation had been encountered where two teams were tied for first. The league quickly determined that a playoff game between Chicago and Portsmouth was needed to decide the league's champion. The teams were originally scheduled to play the playoff game, officially a regular season game that would count towards the regular season standings, at Wrigley Field in Chicago, but a combination of heavy snow and extreme cold forced the game to be moved indoors to Chicago Stadium, which did not have a regulation-size football field. Playing with altered rules to accommodate the smaller playing field, the Bears won the game 9-0 and thus won the championship. Fan interest in the de facto championship game led the NFL, beginning in 1933, to split into two divisions with a championship game to be played between the division champions. The 1934 season also marked the first of 12 seasons in which African Americans were absent from the league. The de facto ban was rescinded in 1946, following public pressure and coinciding with the removal of a similar ban in Major League Baseball. \n\nThe NFL was always the foremost professional football league in the United States; it nevertheless faced a large number of rival professional leagues through the 1930s and 1940s. Rival leagues included at least three separate American Football Leagues and the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), on top of various regional leagues of varying caliber. Three NFL teams trace their histories to these rival leagues, including the Los Angeles Rams (who came from a 1936 iteration of the American Football League), the Cleveland Browns and San Francisco 49ers (the last two of which came from the AAFC). By the 1950s, the NFL had an effective monopoly on professional football in the United States; its only competition in North America was the professional Canadian football circuit, which formally became the Canadian Football League (CFL) in 1958. With Canadian football being a different football code than the American game, the CFL established a niche market in Canada and still survives as an independent league.\n\nA new professional league, the fourth American Football League (AFL), began play in 1960. The upstart AFL began to challenge the established NFL in popularity, gaining lucrative television contracts and engaging in a bidding war with the NFL for free agents and draft picks. The two leagues announced a merger on June 8, 1966, to take full effect in 1970. In the meantime, the leagues would hold a common draft and championship game. The game, the Super Bowl, was held four times before the merger, with the NFL winning Super Bowl I and Super Bowl II, and the AFL winning Super Bowl III and Super Bowl IV. After the league merged, it was reorganized into two conferences: the National Football Conference (NFC), consisting of most of the pre-merger NFL teams, and the American Football Conference (AFC), consisting of all of the AFL teams as well as three pre-merger NFL teams.\n\nToday, the NFL is considered the most popular sports league in North America; much of its growth is attributed to former Commissioner Pete Rozelle, who led the league from 1960 to 1989. Overall annual attendance increased from three million at the beginning of his tenure to seventeen million by the end of his tenure, and 400 million viewers watched 1989's Super Bowl XXIII. The NFL established NFL Properties in 1963. The league's licensing wing, NFL Properties earns the league billions of dollars annually; Rozelle's tenure also marked the creation of NFL Charities and a national partnership with United Way. Paul Tagliabue was elected as commissioner to succeed Rozelle; his seventeen-year tenure, which ended in 2006, was marked by large increases in television contracts and the addition of four expansion teams, as well as the introduction of league initiatives to increase the number of minorities in league and team management roles. The league's current Commissioner, Roger Goodell, has focused on reducing the number of illegal hits and making the sport safer, mainly through fining or suspending players who break rules. These actions are among many the NFL is taking to reduce concussions and improve player safety. \n\nSeason and playoff development\n\nFrom 1920 to 1934, the NFL did not have a set number of games for teams to play, instead setting a minimum. The league mandated a 12-game regular season for each team beginning in 1935, later shortening this to 11 games in 1937 and 10 games in 1943, mainly due to World War II. After the war ended, the number of games returned to 11 games in 1946 and to 12 in 1947. The NFL went to a 14-game schedule in 1961, which it retained until switching to the current 16-game schedule in 1978. Proposals to increase the regular season to 18 games have been made, but have been rejected in labor negotiations with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA).\n\nThe NFL operated in a two-conference system from 1933 to 1966, where the champions of each conference would meet in the NFL Championship Game. If two teams tied for the conference lead, they would meet in a one-game playoff to determine the conference champion. In 1967, the NFL expanded from 15 teams to 16 teams. Instead of just evening out the conferences by adding the expansion New Orleans Saints to the seven-member Western Conference, the NFL realigned the conferences and split each into two four-team divisions. The four conference champions would meet in the NFL playoffs, a two-round playoff. The NFL also operated the Playoff Bowl (officially the Bert Bell Benefit Bowl) from 1960 to 1969. Effectively a third-place game, pitting the two conference runners-up against each other, the league considers Playoff Bowls to have been exhibitions rather than playoff games. The league discontinued the Playoff Bowl in 1970 due to its perception as a game for losers. \n\nFollowing the addition of the former AFL teams into the NFL in 1970, the NFL split into two conferences with three divisions each. The expanded league, now with twenty-six teams, would also feature an expanded eight-team eight playoff, the participants being the three division champions from each conference as well as one 'wild card' team (the team with the best win percentage) from each conference. In 1978, the league added a second wild card team from each conference, bringing the total number of playoff teams to ten, and a further two wild card teams were added in 1990 to bring the total to twelve. When the NFL expanded to 32 teams in 2002, the league realigned, changing the division structure from three divisions in each conference to four divisions in each conference. As each division champion gets a playoff bid, the number of wild card teams from each conference dropped from three to two. \n\nCorporate structure\n\nAt the corporate level, the National Football League considers itself a trade association made up of and financed by its 32 member teams. Up until 2015, the league was an unincorporated nonprofit 501(c)(6) association. Section 501(c)(6) of the Internal Revenue Code provides an exemption from federal income taxation for \"Business leagues, chambers of commerce, real-estate boards, boards of trade, or professional football leagues (whether or not administering a pension fund for football players), not organized for profit and no part of the net earnings of which inures to the benefit of any private shareholder or individual.\". In contrast, each individual team (except the non-profit Green Bay Packers ) is subject to tax because they make a profit. The NFL gave up the tax exempt status in 2015 following public criticism; in a letter to the club owners, Commissioner Roger Goodell labeled it a \"distraction\", saying \"the effects of the tax exempt status of the league office have been mischaracterized repeatedly in recent years... Every dollar of income generated through television rights fees, licensing agreements, sponsorships, ticket sales, and other means is earned by the 32 clubs and is taxable there. This will remain the case even when the league office and Management Council file returns as taxable entities, and the change in filing status will make no material difference to our business\". As a result, the league office might owe around US$10 million, but is no longer required to disclose the salaries of its executive officers. \n\nThe league has three defined officers: the commissioner, secretary, and treasurer. Each conference has one officer, the president. The commissioner is elected by affirmative vote of two-thirds or 18 (whichever is greater) of the members of the league, while the president of each conference is elected by an affirmative vote of three-fourths or ten of the conference members. The commissioner appoints the secretary and treasurer and has broad authority in disputes between clubs, players, coaches, and employees. He is the \"principal executive officer\" of the NFL and also has authority in hiring league employees, negotiating television contracts, disciplining individuals that own part or all of an NFL team, clubs, or employed individuals of an NFL club if they have violated league bylaws or committed \"conduct detrimental to the welfare of the League or professional football\". The commissioner can, in the event of misconduct by a party associated with the league, suspend individuals, hand down a fine of up to US$500,000, cancel contracts with the league, and award or strip teams of draft picks.\n\nIn extreme cases, the commissioner can offer recommendations to the NFL's Executive Committee up to and including the \"cancellation or forfeiture\" of a club's franchise or any other action he deems necessary. The commissioner can also issue sanctions up to and including a lifetime ban from the league if an individual connected to the NFL has bet on games or failed to notify the league of conspiracies or plans to bet on or fix games. The current Commissioner of the National Football League is Roger Goodell, who was elected in 2006 after Paul Tagliabue, the previous commissioner, retired. \n\nClubs\n\nThe NFL consists of 32 clubs divided into two conferences of 16 teams in each. Each conference is divided into four divisions of four clubs in each. During the regular season, each team is allowed a maximum of 53 players on its roster; only 46 of these may be active (eligible to play) on game days. Each team can also have a 10-player practice squad separate from its main roster, but the practice squad may only be composed of players who were not active for at least nine games in any of their seasons in the league. A player can only be on a practice squad for a maximum of three seasons. \n\nEach NFL club is granted a franchise, the league's authorization for the team to operate in its home city. This franchise covers 'Home Territory' (the 75 miles surrounding the city limits, or, if the team is within 100 miles of another league city, half the distance between the two cities) and 'Home Marketing Area' (Home Territory plus the rest of the state the club operates in, as well as the area the team operates its training camp in for the duration of the camp). Each NFL member has the exclusive right to host professional football games inside its Home Territory and the exclusive right to advertise, promote, and host events in its Home Marketing Area. There are several exceptions to this rule, mostly relating to teams with close proximity to each other: the San Francisco 49ers and Oakland Raiders only have exclusive rights in their cities and share rights outside of it; and teams that operate in the same city (e.g. New York Giants and New York Jets) or the same state (e.g. California, Florida, and Texas) share the rights to the city's Home Territory and the state's Home Marketing Area, respectively. \n\nEvery NFL team is based in the contiguous United States. Although no team is based in a foreign country, the Buffalo Bills played one home game every season at Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario, as part of the Bills Toronto Series from to , and the Jacksonville Jaguars will play one home game a year from 2013 to 2016 at Wembley Stadium in London, England, as part of the NFL International Series. Mexico also has hosted an NFL regular-season game, a 2005 game between the San Francisco 49ers and Arizona Cardinals known as \"Fútbol Americano\", and 39 international preseason games were played from 1986 to 2005 as part of the American Bowl series. The Raiders and Houston Texans will play a game in Mexico City at Estadio Azteca on November 21, 2016. \n\nAccording to Forbes, the Dallas Cowboys, at approximately US $4 billion, are the most valuable NFL franchise and the most valuable sports team in the world. Also, all 32 NFL teams rank among the Top 50 most valuable sports teams in the world; and 14 of the NFL's owners are listed on the Forbes 400, the most of any sports league or organization. \n\nSeason format\n\nThe NFL season format consists of a four-week preseason, a seventeen-week regular season (each team plays 16 games), and a twelve-team single-elimination playoff culminating in the Super Bowl, the league's championship game.\n\nPreseason\n\nThe NFL preseason begins with the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, played at Fawcett Stadium in Canton. Each NFL team is required to schedule four preseason games, two of which must be at its home stadium, but the teams involved in the Hall of Fame game, as well as any teams playing in an American Bowl game, play five preseason games. Preseason games are exhibition matches and do not count towards regular-season totals. Because the preseason does not count towards standings, teams do not focus on winning games; instead, they are used by coaches to evaluate their teams and by players to show their performance, both to their current team and to other teams if they get cut. The quality of preseason games has been criticized by some fans, who dislike having to pay full price for exhibition games, as well as by some players and coaches, who dislike the risk of injury the games have, while others have felt the preseason is a necessary part of the NFL season.\n\nRegular season\n\nThis chart of the 2015 season standings displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. The Broncos in 2015 (highlighted in green) finished in first place in the AFC West. Thus, in 2016, the Broncos will play two games against each of its division rivals (highlighted in light blue), one game against each team in the AFC South and NFC South (highlighted in yellow), and one game each against the first-place finishers in the AFC East and AFC North (highlighted in orange).\n\nCurrently, the thirteen opponents each team faces over the 16-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula: \n\nThe National Football League runs a seventeen-week, 256-game regular season. Since 2001, the season has begun the week after Labor Day and concluded the week after Christmas. The opening game of the season is normally a primetime home game for the league's defending champion.\n\nMost NFL games are played on Sundays, with a Monday night game typically held at least once a week and Thursday night games occurring on most weeks as well. NFL games are not normally played on Fridays or Saturdays until late in the regular season, as federal law prohibits professional football leagues from competing with college or high school football. Because high school and college teams typically play games on Friday and Saturday, respectively, the NFL cannot hold games on those days until the third Friday in December. NFL games are rarely scheduled for Tuesday or Wednesday, and those days have only been used twice since 1948: in 2010, when a Sunday game was rescheduled to Tuesday due to a blizzard, and in 2012, when the Kickoff game was moved from Thursday to Wednesday to avoid conflict with the Democratic National Convention. \n\nNFL regular season matchups are determined according to a scheduling formula. Within a division, all four teams play fourteen out of their sixteen games against common opponents - two games (home and away) are played against the other three teams in the division, while one game is held against all the members of a division from the NFC and a division from the AFC division as determined by a rotating cycle (three years for the conference the team is in, and four years in the conference they are not in). The other two games are intraconference games, determined by the standings of the previous year - for example, if a team finishes first in its division, it will play two other first-place teams in its conference, while a team that finishes last would play two other last-place teams in the conference. In total, each team plays sixteen games and has one bye week, where they do not play any games. \n\nAlthough the teams any given club will play are known by the end of the previous year's regular season, the exact dates, times, and home/away status for NFL games are not determined until much later because the league has to account for, among other things, the Major League Baseball postseason and local events that could pose a scheduling conflict with NFL games. During the 2010 season, over 500,000 potential schedules were created by computers, 5,000 of which were considered \"playable schedules\" and were reviewed by the NFL's scheduling team. After arriving at what they felt was the best schedule out of the group, nearly 50 more potential schedules were developed to try and ensure that the chosen schedule would be the best possible one. \n\nPostseason\n\nFollowing the conclusion of the regular season, a twelve-team single elimination tournament, the NFL Playoffs, is held. Six teams are selected from each conference: the winners of each of the four divisions as well as two wild card teams (the two remaining teams with the best overall record). These teams are seeded according to overall record, with the division champions always ranking higher than either of the wild card teams. The top two teams (seeded one and two) from each conference are awarded a bye week, while the remaining four teams (seeded 3-6) from each conference compete in the first round of the playoffs, the Wild Card round, with the third seed competing against the sixth seed and the fourth seed competing against the fifth seed. The winners of the Wild Card round advance to the Divisional Round, which matches the lower seeded team against the first seed and the higher seeded team against the second seed. The winners of those games then compete in the Conference Championships, with the higher remaining seed hosting the lower remaining seed. The AFC and NFC champions then compete in the Super Bowl to determine the league champion.\n\nThe only other postseason event hosted by the NFL is the Pro Bowl, the league's all-star game. The Pro Bowl is held the week before the Super Bowl. The Pro Bowl is not considered as competitive as a regular-season game because the biggest concern of teams is to avoid injuries to the star players. \n\nTrophies and awards\n\nTeam trophies\n\nThe National Football League has used three different trophies to honor its champion over its existence. The first trophy, the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup, was donated to the NFL (then APFA) in 1920 by the Brunswick-Balke Collender Corporation. The trophy, the appearance of which is only known by its description as a \"silver loving cup\", was intended to be a traveling trophy and not to become permanent until a team had won at least three titles. The league awarded it to the Akron Pros, champions of the inaugural 1920 season; however, the trophy was discontinued and its current whereabouts are unknown. \n\nA second trophy, the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy, was issued by the NFL from 1934 to 1969. The trophy's namesake, Ed Thorp, was a referee in the league and a friend to many early league owners; upon his death in 1934, the league created the trophy to honor him. In addition to the main trophy, which would be in the possession of the current league champion, the league issued a smaller replica trophy to each champion, who would maintain permanent control over it. The current location of the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy, like that of its predecessor, is unknown. The predominant theory is that the Minnesota Vikings, the last team to be awarded the trophy, somehow misplaced it after the 1969 season. \n\nThe current trophy of the NFL is the Vince Lombardi Trophy. The Super Bowl trophy was officially renamed in 1970 after Vince Lombardi, who as head coach led the Green Bay Packers to victories in the first two Super Bowls. Unlike the previous trophies, a new Vince Lombardi Trophy is issued to each year's champion, who maintains permanent control of it. Lombardi Trophies are made by Tiffany & Co. out of sterling silver and are worth anywhere from US$25,000 to US$300,000. Additionally, each player on the winning team as well as coaches and personnel are awarded Super Bowl rings to commemorate their victory. The winning team chooses the company that makes the rings; each ring design varies, with the NFL mandating certain ring specifications (which have a degree of room for deviation), in addition to requiring the Super Bowl logo be on at least one side of the ring. The losing team are also awarded rings, which must be no more than half as valuable as the winners' rings, but those are almost never worn. \n\nThe conference champions receive trophies for their achievement. The champions of the NFC receive the George Halas Trophy, named after Chicago Bears founder George Halas, who is also considered as one of the co-founders of the NFL. The AFC champions receive the Lamar Hunt Trophy, named after Lamar Hunt, the founder of the Kansas City Chiefs and the principal founder of the American Football League. Players on the winning team also receive a conference championship ring. \n\nPlayer and coach awards\n\nThe NFL recognizes a number of awards for its players and coaches at its annual NFL Honors presentation. The most prestigious award is the AP Most Valuable Player (MVP) award. Other major awards include the AP Offensive Player of the Year, AP Defensive Player of the Year, AP Comeback Player of the Year, and the AP Offensive and Defensive Rookie of the Year awards. Another prestigious award is the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award, which recognizes a player's off-field work in addition to his on-field performance. The NFL Coach of the Year award is the highest coaching award. The NFL also gives out weekly awards such as the FedEx Air & Ground NFL Players of the Week and the Pepsi MAX NFL Rookie of the Week awards. \n\nMedia coverage\n\nIn the United States, the National Football League has television contracts with four networks: CBS, ESPN, Fox, and NBC. In general, CBS televises afternoon games in which the away team is an AFC team, and Fox carries afternoon games in which the away team belongs to the NFC. In fall 1984, the Skycam camera system was used for the first time in a live telecast, at a preseason National Football League game in San Diego between the Chargers and 49ers, and televised by CBS. \n\nSince 2011, the league has reserved the right to give games that, under the contract, would normally air on one network to the other network. CBS also carries a package of five games on Thursday nights during the 2014 season. NBC carries the primetime Sunday Night Football package and seven Thursday night games, which includes the NFL Kickoff game and a primetime Thanksgiving Day game. ESPN carries all Monday Night Football games. The NFL's own network, NFL Network, carries all Thursday Night Football games, including those on CBS and NBC (except the Thanksgiving and kickoff games, which remain exclusive to NBC). \n\nThe Super Bowl television rights are rotated on a three-year basis between CBS, Fox, and NBC. In 2011, all four stations signed new nine-year contracts with the NFL, each running until 2022; CBS, Fox, and NBC are estimated by Forbes to pay a combined total of US$3 billion a year, while ESPN will pay US$1.9 billion a year. The league also has deals with Spanish-language broadcasters NBC Universo, Fox Deportes and ESPN Deportes, which air Spanish language dubs of their respective English-language sister networks' games. The league's contracts do not cover preseason games, which individual teams are free to sell to local stations directly; a minority of preseason games are distributed among the league's national television partners.\n\nThrough the 2014 season, the NFL had a blackout policy in which games were 'blacked out' on local television in the home team's area if the home stadium was not sold out. Clubs could elect to set this requirement at only 85%, but they would have to give more ticket revenue to the visiting team; teams could also request a specific exemption from the NFL for the game. The vast majority of NFL games were not blacked out; only 6% of games were blacked out during the 2011 season, and only two games were blacked out in and none in . The NFL announced in March 2015 that it would suspend its blackout policy for at least the 2015 season. According to Nielsen, the NFL regular season since 2012 was watched by at least 200 million individuals, accounting for 80% of all television households in the United States and 69% of all potential viewers in the United States. NFL regular season games accounted for 31 out of the top 32 most-watched programs in the fall season and an NFL game ranked as the most-watched television show in all 17 weeks of the regular season. At the local level, NFL games were the highest-ranked shows in NFL markets 92% of the time. Super Bowls account for the 22 most-watched programs (based on total audience) in US history, including a record 167 million people that watched Super Bowl XLVIII, the conclusion to the 2013 season.\n\nIn addition to radio networks run by each NFL team, select NFL games are broadcast nationally by Westwood One (known as Dial Global for the 2012 season). These games are broadcast on over 500 networks, giving all NFL markets access to each primetime game. The NFL's deal with Westwood One was extended in 2012 and will run through 2017. \n\nThe NFL, as a one-time experiment, distributed the October 25, 2015 International Series game from Wembley Stadium in London between the Buffalo Bills and Jacksonville Jaguars. The game was live streamed on the Internet exclusively via Yahoo!, except for over-the-air broadcasts on the local CBS-TV affiliates in the Buffalo and Jacksonville markets. \n\nIn 2015, the NFL began sponsoring a series of public service announcements to bring attention to domestic abuse and sexual assault in response to what was seen as poor handling of incidents of violence by players. \n\nDraft\n\nEach April (excluding 2014 when it took place in May), the NFL holds a draft of college players. The draft consists of seven rounds, with each of the 32 clubs getting one pick in each round. The draft order for non-playoff teams is determined by regular-season record; among playoff teams, teams are first ranked by the furthest round of the playoffs they reached, and then are ranked by regular-season record. For example, any team that reached the divisional round will be given a higher pick than any team that reached the conference championships, but will be given a lower pick than any team that did not make the divisional round. The Super Bowl champion always drafts last, and the runner-up always drafts next-to-last. All potential draftees must be at least three years removed from high school in order to be eligible for the draft. Underclassmen that have met that criterion to be eligible for the draft must write an application to the NFL by January 15 renouncing their remaining college eligibility. Clubs can trade away picks for future draft picks, but cannot trade the rights to players they have selected in previous drafts. \n\nAside from the 32 picks each club gets, compensatory draft picks are given to teams that have lost more compensatory free agents than they have gained. These are spread out from rounds 3 to 7, and a total of 32 are given. Clubs are required to make their selection within a certain period of time, the exact time depending on which round the pick is made in. If they fail to do so on time, the clubs behind them can begin to select their players in order, but they do not lose the pick outright. This happened in the 2003 draft, when the Minnesota Vikings failed to make their selection on time. The Jacksonville Jaguars and Carolina Panthers were able to make their picks before the Vikings were able to use theirs. Selected players are only allowed to negotiate contracts with the team that picked them, but if they choose not to sign they become eligible for the next year's draft. Under the current collective bargaining contract, all contracts to drafted players must be four-year deals with a club option for a fifth. Contracts themselves are limited to a certain amount of money, depending on the exact draft pick the player was selected with. Players who were draft eligible but not picked in the draft are free to sign with any club.\n\nThe NFL operates several other drafts in addition to the NFL draft. The league holds a supplemental draft annually. Clubs submit emails to the league stating the player they wish to select and the round they will do so, and the team with the highest bid wins the rights to that player. The exact order is determined by a lottery held before the draft, and a successful bid for a player will result in the team forfeiting the rights to its pick in the equivalent round of the next NFL draft. Players are only eligible for the supplemental draft after being granted a petition for special eligibility. The league holds expansion drafts, the most recent happening in 2002 when the Houston Texans began play as an expansion team. Other drafts held by the league include an allocation draft in 1950 to allocate players from several teams that played in the dissolved All-America Football Conference and a supplemental draft in 1984 to give NFL teams the rights to players who had been eligible for the main draft but had not been drafted because they had signed contracts with the United States Football League or Canadian Football League. \n\nLike the other major sports leagues in the United States, the NFL maintains protocol for a disaster draft. In the event of a 'near disaster' (less than 15 players killed or disabled) that caused the club to lose a quarterback, they could draft one from a team with at least three quarterbacks. In the event of a 'disaster' (15 or more players killed or disabled) that results in a club's season being cancelled, a restocking draft would be held. Neither of these protocols has ever had to be implemented. \n\nFree agency\n\nFree agents in the National Football League are divided into restricted free agents, who have three accrued seasons and whose current contract has expired, and unrestricted free agents, who have four or more accrued seasons and whose contract has expired. An accrued season is defined as \"six or more regular-season games on a club's active/inactive, reserved/injured or reserve/physically unable to perform lists\". Restricted free agents are allowed to negotiate with other clubs besides their former club, but the former club has the right to match any offer. If they choose not to, they are compensated with draft picks. Unrestricted free agents are free to sign with any club, and no compensation is owed if they sign with a different club.\n\nClubs are given one franchise tag to offer to any unrestricted free agent. The franchise tag is a one-year deal that pays the player 120% of his previous contract or no less than the average of the five highest-paid players at his position, whichever is greater. There are two types of franchise tags: exclusive tags, which do not allow the player to negotiate with other clubs, and non-exclusive tags, which allow the player to negotiate with other clubs but gives his former club the right to match any offer and two first-round draft picks if they decline to match it. \n\nClubs also have the option to use a transition tag, which is similar to the non-exclusive franchise tag but offers no compensation if the former club refuses to match the offer. Due to that stipulation, the transition tag is rarely used, even with the removal of the \"poison pill\" strategy (offering a contract with stipulations that the former club would be unable to match) that essentially ended the usage of the tag league-wide. Each club is subject to a salary cap, which is set at US$143.28 million for the 2015 season, US$10 million more than in 2014 and US$20 million more than in 2013. \n\nMembers of clubs' practice squads, despite being paid by and working for their respective clubs, are also simultaneously a kind of free agent and are able to sign to any other club's active roster (provided their new club is not their previous club's next opponent within a set number of days) without compensation to their previous club; practice squad players cannot be signed to other clubs' practice squads, however, unless released by their original club first." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Jim Thorpe", "Jacobus Franciscus %22Jim%22 Thorpe", "Wa-Tho-Huk", "Wa-Tho-Huck", "James Francis Thorpe", "Bright Path" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "jacobus franciscus 22jim 22 thorpe", "james francis thorpe", "bright path", "jim thorpe", "wa tho huck", "wa tho huk" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "jim thorpe", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Jim Thorpe" }
Who won the first all American French Open Men's Singles final for almost 40 years in the 90s?	tc_1479	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "French_Open.txt" ], "title": [ "French Open" ], "wiki_context": [ "The French Open, often referred to as Roland Garros, is a major tennis tournament held over two weeks between late May and early June at the Stade Roland Garros in Paris, France. Named after the French aviator Roland Garros, it is the premier clay-court tennis championship event in the world and the second of four annual Grand Slam tournaments, the other three being the Australian Open, Wimbledon and the US Open. Roland Garros is the only Grand Slam event held on clay and ends the clay-court season.\n\nBecause of the slow-playing surface and the five-set men's singles matches without a tiebreak in the final set, the event is widely considered to be the most physically demanding tennis tournament in the world. \n\nHistory\n\nOfficially named in French Internationaux de France de Roland-Garros and Tournoi de Roland-Garros (the \"French Internationals of Roland Garros\" or \"Roland Garros Tournament\" in English), the tournament is often referred to in English as the \"French Open\" and alternatively as \"Roland Garros\", which is the designation used by the tournament itself in all languages. French spelling rules dictate that in the name of a place or event named after a person, the elements of the name are joined together with a hyphen. Therefore, the names of the stadium and the tournament are hyphenated as Roland-Garros.\n\nIn 1891 the Championnat de France, which is commonly referred to in English as the French Championships, was begun. It was only open to tennis players who were members of French clubs. The first winner was a Briton—H. Briggs—who was a Paris resident. The first women's singles tournament, with four entries, was held in 1897. The mixed doubles event was added in 1902 and the women's doubles in 1907. This \"French club members only\" tournament was played until 1924, using four different venues during that period:\n\n* Île de Puteaux, in Puteaux, played on sand laid out on a bed of rubble.\n* The Racing Club de France (in the Bois de Boulogne, Paris), played on clay.\n* For one year, 1909, it was played at the Société Athlétique de la Villa Primrose in Bordeaux, on clay.\n* Tennis Club de Paris (club opened in 1895), at Auteuil, Paris, played on clay.\n\nAnother tournament, the World Hard Court Championships, is sometimes considered the precursor to the French Open as it was open to international competitors. It was held on clay courts at Stade Français in Saint-Cloud from 1912 to 1914, then, after World War 1, was contested there again in 1920, 1921 and 1923, with the 1922 tournament held at Brussels, Belgium. Winners of this tournament included world no. 1's such as Tony Wilding from New Zealand (1913, 1914) and Bill Tilden from the US (1921). In 1924 there was no World Hard Court Championships due to tennis being played at the Paris Olympic Games.\n\nIn 1925, the French Championships became open to all amateurs internationally and was designated a major championship by the ILTF. It was held at the Stade Français in Saint-Cloud (site of the previous World Hardcourt Championships) in 1925 and 1927, on clay courts. In 1926 the Racing Club de France hosted the event in Paris, site of the previous \"French club members only\" Championship, also on clay. In 1928, the Roland Garros stadium was opened and the event has been held there ever since. \n\nAfter the Mousquetaires or Philadelphia Four (René Lacoste, Jean Borotra, Henri Cochet, and Jacques Brugnon) won the Davis Cup on American soil in 1927, the French decided to defend the cup in 1928 at a new tennis stadium at Porte d'Auteuil. The Stade de France had offered the tennis authorities three hectares of land with the condition that the new stadium must be named after the World War I pilot, Roland Garros. The new Stade de Roland Garros, and its Center Court (which was named Court Philippe Chatrier in 1988) hosted that Davis Cup challenge.\n\nDuring World War II the tournament was held from 1941 through 1945 on the same grounds but these editions are not recognized by the French governing body, Fédération Française de Tennis. From 1946 through 1947, the French Championships were held after Wimbledon, making it the third Grand Slam event of the year. In 1968, the French Championships became the first Grand Slam tournament to go open, allowing both amateurs and professionals to compete.\n\nSince 1981, new prizes have been presented: the Prix Orange (for the player demonstrating the best sportsmanship and cooperative attitude with the press), the Prix Citron (for the player with the strongest character and personality) and the Prix Bourgeon (for the tennis player revelation of the year). In another novelty, since 2006 the tournament has begun on a Sunday, featuring 12 singles matches played on the three main courts. Additionally, on the eve of the tournament's opening, the traditional Benny Berthet exhibition day takes place, where the profits go to different charity associations. In March 2007, it was announced that the event would provide equal prize money for both men and women in all rounds for the first time. \nIn 2010, it was announced that the French Open was considering a move away from Roland Garros as part of a continuing rejuvenation of the tournament. However, as of the 2016 tournament the competition still takes place at Roland Garros.\n\nSurface characteristics\n\nClay courts slow down the ball and produce a high bounce when compared to grass courts or hard courts. For this reason, clay courts take away some of the advantages of big servers and serve-and-volleyers, which makes it hard for these types of players to dominate on the surface. For example, Pete Sampras, known for his huge serve and who won 14 Grand Slam titles, never won the French Open – his best result was reaching the semi-finals in 1996. Many players who have won multiple Grand Slam events have never won the French Open, including John McEnroe, Frank Sedgman, John Newcombe, Venus Williams, Stefan Edberg, Jimmy Connors, Louise Brough, Martina Hingis, and Virginia Wade.\n\nOn the other hand, players whose games are more suited to slower surfaces, such as Rafael Nadal, Björn Borg, Ivan Lendl, and Mats Wilander, Justine Henin and Chris Evert, have found great success at this tournament. In the open era, the only male players who have won both the French Open and Wimbledon, played on faster grass courts, are Rod Laver, Jan Kodeš, Björn Borg, Andre Agassi, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic and Roger Federer.\n\nExpansion vs. relocation\n\nFrom 2004–2008 there were off and on plans to build a covered stadium with a roof. There have also been various proposals to expand the facility or to move the French Open to a completely new, 55-court venue outside of Paris city limits. In 2011 it was decided to keep the tournament at Roland-Garros. \n\nThe expansion project calls for a new stadium to be built alongside the historical Auteuil's greenhouses and expansion of old stadiums and the tournament village. In May 2015, the city council voted against the expansion project, but on 9 June 2015 Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo announced the signing of the construction permits, with work scheduled to begin in September of that year and concluding in 2019. In December 2015, the Paris Administrative Court once again halted renovation work. The French Tennis Federation is appealing the decision. Opponents however vow to continue to fight the expansion plans in the courts.\n\nBall boys and ball girls\n\nAt the 2010 French Open there were 250 \"ramasseurs de balles\" which in English translates literally as \"gatherers of balls\". They are aged between 12 and 16 years old, and dress in matching shirts and shorts. The 250 ball boys and ball girls are chosen to take part in the French Open by an application and selection process, which in 2010 had approximately 2,500 applicants from across France. Upon selection the ball boys and ball girls participate in preparatory training in the weeks leading up to the French Open to ensure that they are prepared for the day they set foot on the tennis court in front of a global audience.\n\nPrize money and ranking points\n\nFor 2015, the prize money purse was increased to €28,028,600. The prize money and points breakdown is as follows:\n\nper team\n\nChampions\n\nPast champions\n\n Men's Singles, winner of the Coupe des Mousquetaires\n* Women's Singles, winner of the Coupe Suzanne Lenglen\n* Men's Doubles, winners of the Coupe Jacques Brugnon\n* Women's Doubles, winners of the Coupe Simone Mathieu\n* Mixed Doubles, winners of the Coupe Marcel Bernard\n* Singles Finals, records and statistics\n\nThe trophies, designed and made by Maison Mellerio dits Meller, are all made of pure silver with finely etched decorations on their side. Each new singles winner gets his or her name written on the base of the trophy. Winners receive custom-made pure silver replicas of the trophies they have won. \n\nCurrent champions\n\nFile:Djokovic RG15 (1) (19121926889).jpg\|Novak Djokovic was the winner of the Men's Singles in 2016. It was his twelfth Grand Slam singles title and his first at Roland Garros. This completed his Career Grand Slam in men's singles.\nFile:Garbiñe Muguruza Roland Garros 2016.jpg\|Garbiñe Muguruza was the winner of the Women's Singles in 2016. It was her first Grand Slam title.\nFile:Feliciano López 1, Aegon Championships, London, UK - Diliff.jpg\|Feliciano López was part of the winning Men's Doubles team in 2016. It was his first Grand Slam title.\nFile:Flickr - Carine06 - Marc Lopez.jpg\|Marc López was part of the winning Men's Doubles team in 2016. It was his first Grand Slam title.\nFile:Caroline Garcia (18594151091).jpg\|Caroline Garcia was part of the winning Women's Doubles team in 2016. It was her first Grand Slam women's doubles title and the first time a French team had won the women's doubles at the French Open since 1971.\nFile:Kristina Mladenovic (25702167751).jpg\|Kristina Mladenovic was part of the winning Women's Doubles team in 2016. It was her first Grand Slam women's doubles title and the first time a French team had won the women's doubles at the French Open since 1971.\nFile:Hingis RG16 (10) (27331857371).jpg\|Martina Hingis was part of the winning Mixed Doubles team in 2016. This completed her Career Grand Slam in mixed doubles.\nFile:Paes WM13-009 (9495560679).jpg\|Leander Paes was part of the winning Mixed Doubles team in 2016. This completed his Career Grand Slam in mixed doubles.\n\nRecords\n\nTelevision coverage\n\nFrance Télévisions and Eurosport held the broadcast rights to the French Open until 2014.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nITV Sport holds broadcasting rights to show the French Open tennis tournaments until 2018. The bulk of the daily coverage is broadcast on ITV4 although both singles finals plus other weekend matches are shown on ITV1. John Inverdale hosts the coverage. Commentators include Jim Courier, Amélie Mauresmo, Sam Smith, Mark Petchey, Nick Mullins and Fabrice Santoro.\n\nStudio presentation for the French Open on British Eurosport is hosted by Annabel Croft with the segment Hawk-Eye presented by former British Number 2 Jason Goodall. (Goodall was briefly ranked ahead of Chris Bailey, Nick Brown, Andrew Castle, Nick Fulwood, Mark Petchey, and James Turner, in May 1989).\n\nUnited States\n\nNBC's coverage of the French Open began in 1975. Tennis Channel owns pay television rights to the tournament. Coverage of morning window (U.S. time) matches were sub-licensed to ESPN for broadcast by ESPN2 from 2007 through 2015. In August 2015, ESPN announced that it would discontinue its sub-licensing and drop coverage of the French Open beginning in 2016, with network staff citing that because of the structure of the arrangement, its coverage \"did not fit our successful model at the other three Majors\"—where ESPN is the exclusive rightsholder. Tennis Channel chose to retain these rights under its new owner Sinclair Broadcast Group, nearly doubling the amount of coverage Tennis Channel will air from Roland Garros. \n\nOther than a three-year stint on CBS, NBC has remained the American television network home of the French Open since 1983. NBC shows weekend morning early-round matches in the afternoon via tape-delay. If a match is still being played, it is shown live. Other broadcasters cannot show NBC's tape-delayed matches. NBC also shows a tape-delayed version of the men's semifinal, broadcasting it in the late morning of the same day. It broadcasts both singles finals live.\n\nIndian Subcontinent\n\nNeo Sports holds the rights to broadcast French Open Tennis tournament in India and its subcontinental regions." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Jim Courier" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "jim courier" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "jim courier", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Jim Courier" }
What was the first British-trained horse to run in the Kentucky Derby?	tc_1482	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Jupiter_Island_(horse).txt" ], "title": [ "Jupiter Island (horse)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jupiter Island (23 February 1979–25 July 1998) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. He won fourteen of his forty-one races in a six-year racing career which lasted from 1981 until 1986. He showed useful but unexceptional form until the late summer of 1983 when he won the Ebor Handicap and followed up with a win in the St. Simon Stakes. He reached his peak as a six-year-old in 1985 when he won the John Porter Stakes, Hardwicke Stakes and Prix du Conseil de Paris. His final season was disrupted by injury problems, but he ended his career with his biggest success when he became the first British-trained horse to win the Japan Cup.\n\nBackground\n\nJupiter Island was a \"close-coupled, quite attractive\" but \"rather narrow\" horse with a white coronet on his left hind foot, bred by the Marquess of Tavistock. He was one of many winners produced by Tavistock's broodmare Mr Moss: the others were almost all fast-maturing sprinters including Krayyan (National Stakes), Precocious (Gimcrack Stakes) and Pushy (Queen Mary Stakes). The Marquess of Tavistock was staying on Jupiter Island in Florida when the colt was foaled and named the horse after the island. \n\nAs a yearling he was sent to the Newmarket Houghton sales where he was sold for 10,000 guineas to the trainer Clive Brittain. He entered the ownership of S. M. Threadwell and was trained by Brittain Carlburg Stable in Newmarket, Suffolk. Brittain has been regarded as a pioneer of intercontinental racing, sending Bold Arrangement to finish second in the Kentucky Derby and winning the Breeders' Cup Turf with the filly Pebbles. \n\nRacing career\n\n1981 & 1982: two and three-year-old seasons\n\nJupiter Island ran twice as a two-year-old, and showed some promise despite finishing unplaced on both occasions. Timeform described him as being \"the type to improve with racing and longer distances\". In the following year he ran ten times and won three races. His first success came in a minor race over one and a half miles at Wolverhampton Racecourse and he later won a handicap race at Yarmouth. He produced his best performance in September at Ascot Racecourse when he won a one and a hal mile handicap by eight lengths on soft ground. \n\n1983 & 1984: four and five-year-old season\n\nJupiter Island was beaten in his first three races as a four-year-old before winning the Air New Zealand Handicap over one and a half mile at Newmarket Racecourse, beating Keelby Kavalier by a neck. His win meant that he had to carry a seven-pound weight penalty in the Ebor Handicap over ourteen furlongs at York eleven days later. Ridden by Lester Piggott and starting at odds of 9/1, he took the lead in the straight and won easing down by one and a half length from Abdoun. In September Jupiter Island finished second in the Esal Bookmakers Handicap at Doncaster and then won the Coral Autumn Cup at Newbury. After winning another handicap at Newmarket he was moved up in class to contest the Group Three St Simon Stakes at Newbury on 22 October by which time he was being described as \"one of the most improved horses in training\" in the British press. With Piggott booked to ride at Doncaster on the same day, Jupiter Island was ridden by Philip Robinson and started at odds of 3/1. He turned into the straight in seventh place but quickly took the lead and won by two lengths from the filly So True. \n\nJupiter Island's only win in nine starts as a five-year-old came when he won the Listed Aston Park takes at Newmbury in June. He ran well in defeat on several occasions, finishing second in the Jockey Club Stakes and the Hardwicke Stakes and third in the Grand Prix de Deauville. When moved up to the highest level he finished sixth to Teenoso in the Group One King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes at Ascot in July. \n\n1985: six-year-old season\n\nOn his six-year-old debut, Jupiter Island, ridden by Greville Starkey won the Group Three John Porter Stakes at Newbury, beating Ilium and Gay Lemur at odds of 11/2. He was bought back from Threadwell by his breeder Lord Tavistock with the intention of standing him as a breeding stallion but horse remained in training with Brittain. At Royal Ascot in June he started at odds of 85/40 for the Group Two Hardwicke Stakes. Racing on his favoured soft ground, and ridden by Piggott, he won impressively from Seismic Wave and Raft. The ground was firm at Newmarket on 9 July when he finished fourth of the five runners behind Petoski in the Princess of Wales's Stakes. \n\nJupiter Island was injured when finishing unplaced in the Grand Prix de Deauville and did not run again until the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe at Longchamp Racecourse in October. Starting the 99/1 outsider in a field of fifteen runners he finished eighth behind the subsequently disqualified Sagace. Two weeks later, the horse returned to France for the Group Two Prix du Conseil de Paris over the same course and distance. Ridden by Tony Ives, Jupiter Island accelerated clear of his opponents in the straight and won convincingly by three lengths from Baby Turk and Saint Estephe. On what was intended to be his final racecourse appearance, Jupiter Island represented Britain in the 34th running of the Washington, D.C. International Stakes at Laurel Park Racecourse. He was again ridden by Ives and started at odds of 10/1 with Strawberry Road starting favourite after his narrow defeat by Pebbles in the Breeders' Cup Turf. Jupiter Island finished strongly to finish third, beaten a length and a nose by Vanlandingham and Yashgan, with Strawberry Road and the Belmont Stakes winner Creme Fraiche unplaced. \n\n1986: seven-year-old season\n\nPlans to retire Jupiter Island to stud were revised after his run at Laurel Park, and he remained in training as a seven-year-old with the San Juan Capistrano Handicap at Santa Anita Park as his early season objective. Jupiter Island was sent to California in April but sustained a foot injury before the race and finished third behind Dahar and Mountain Bear. \n\nJupiter Island took a long time to recover from his exertions in California and did not race again for six months. He eventually returned in late October in the St Simon Stakes, the race he had won as a four-year-old in 1983. Ridden by Tony Murray, he started at odds of 6/1 and won by one and a half lengths from the three-year-old Verd-Antique. On his final appearance, Jupiter Island was sent to Japan to contest the sixth running of the Japan Cup at Tokyo Racecourse on 23 November. The fourteen runner field included challengers from the United Kingdom, France (Triptych), New Zealand (Waverley Star), Canada and the United States, while the \"home team\" was headed by the Tenno Sho winner Sakura Yutaka O and the 1985 Japanese Champion three-year-old Miho Shinzan. Jupiter Island, who had been flown out two weeks before the race to give him an opportunity to acclimatise to the local conditions, was ridden by Pat Eddery and started at odds of 13.9/1 in front of a crowd of almost 100,000. Jupiter Island was in last place on the turn into the straight, but produced a strong late run to catch the British-trained three-year-old Allez Milord in the final strides and prevailed by a head after a \"desperate finish\". The result was only confirmed after an enquiry by racecourse stewards into possible interference by the winner in the closing stages and an attempted protest by Greville Starkey, the rider of the runner-up. Jupiter Island's victory earned more prize money for his owners than the horse had accumulated in his previous forty starts.\n\nAssessment\n\nThe independent Timeform organisation gave Jupiter Island a rating of 74 in 1981 and 94 in 1982. His improvement in the following year was recognised when he was given a rating of 119 as a four-year-old. He was not included in the official International Classification, but in the British Free Handicap he was rated sixteen pounds inferior to the top-rated older horse Diamond Shoal. In 1984 he was rated 116 by Timeform. Jupiter Island was given his highest Timeform rating of 126 in 1985, placing him ten pounds behind their Horse of the Year Pebbles, before being rated 121 in his final season.\n\nStud record\n\nJupiter Island was retired from racing to become a breeding stallion at Elms Stud in Northamptonshire. He had very little success as a sire of flat race horses but had more impact as a National Hunt stallion. The best of his progeny was probably Mr Cool, who won fourteen races including the Ascot Hurdle in 2003 and the Long Distance Hurdle in 2005. Jupiter Island was pensioned from stud duty in 1997 due to heart problems and was relocated to the Bloomsbury Stud at Woburn Abbey. He died there on 25 July 1998 at the age of 19.\n\nPedigree" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bold Arrangement" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bold arrangement" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "bold arrangement", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Bold Arrangement" }
In which sport did Eric Navet of France become a 1990 world champion?	tc_1483	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Éric_Navet.txt" ], "title": [ "Éric Navet" ], "wiki_context": [ "Éric Navet (born 9 May 1959) is a French equestrian and Olympic medalist. He was born in Bayeux. He won a bronze medal in show jumping at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Open jumping", "Grand Prix show jumping", "Horse jumping", "Showjumper", "Show Jumping", "Stadium jumping", "Show jumping", "Show-jumping", "British Showjumping", "Showjumping", "Show jumper" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "show jumping", "showjumper", "stadium jumping", "horse jumping", "show jumper", "showjumping", "open jumping", "british showjumping", "grand prix show jumping" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "show jumping", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Show Jumping" }
Who won baseball's first World Series of the 70s?	tc_1488	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "World_Series.txt", "1970_World_Series.txt" ], "title": [ "World Series", "1970 World Series" ], "wiki_context": [ "The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win-loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2015, the World Series has been contested 111 times, with the AL winning 64 and the NL winning 47. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best-of-seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner's Trophy. As the series is played in October (and occasionally November), during the autumn season in North America, it is often referred to as the Fall Classic. \n\nThe 2015 World Series took place between the New York Mets and the victorious Kansas City Royals. Five games were played, with the Royals victorious after game five, played in New York. The final score was 7-2; the game went into extra innings after a tied score of 2-2. This was the second World Series won by the franchise and the first in 30 years.\n\nIn the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia/Kansas City/Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York/San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 18 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.\n\nAs of 2015, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1999 and 2000, the longest such duration in Major League Baseball history.\n\nPrecursors to the modern World Series (1857–1902)\n\nThe original World Series\n\nUntil the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871–1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern Series: games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five), and both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.\n\nThe series was promoted and referred to as \"The Championship of the United States\", \"World's Championship Series\", or \"World's Series\" for short.\nIn his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed. \n\nThe 19th-century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th-century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th-century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th-century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. \n(For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists \"Baseball's World Championships 1884–1928\" in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists \"Baseball World Championships 1903–1942\". )\n\n1892–1900: \"The Monopoly Years\"\n\nFollowing the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half-season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893—and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969—the pennant was awarded to the first-place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894–1897, the league champions played the runners-up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900. \n\nIn 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy.\n\nModern World Series (1903–present)\n\nFirst attempt\n\nAfter two years of bitter competition and player raiding (in 1902, the AL and NL champions even went so far as to challenge each other to a tournament in football after the end of the baseball season), the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.\n\nBoycott of 1904\n\nThe 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the \"inferiority\" of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already \"world champions\" since they were the champions of the \"only real major league\". At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.\n\nDuring the winter of 1904–1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the \"Brush Rules\", under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from \"fixing\" early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now-official and compulsory World's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.\n\nWith the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players' strike.\n\nThe list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2–3–2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2–3–2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3–4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions. (The 2–3–2 pattern was used in 1944 because both teams were based in the same home stadium.)\n\n1919 Black Sox Scandal\n\nGambling and game-fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.\n\nThe Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph \"Sport\" Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting .324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).\n\nDuring the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the \"World's Serious\". The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.\n\nThe \"Black Sox\" were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.\n\nThe events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the \"live ball\" era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs are still waiting for their next trophy, and have not appeared in the Fall Classic since 1945, the longest drought of any MLB club.\n\nNew York Yankees dynasty (1920–1964)\n\nThe New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954–1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936–1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.\n\n1947–1964: New York City teams dominate World Series play\n\nIn an 18-year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.\n\nIn the years 1947, 1949, 1951–1953, and 1955–1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.\n\nThe World Series in California\n\nIn 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long-time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.\n\nThe Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.\n\nIn 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972–1974. In 1974, the A's played the Dodgers in the first all-California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).\n\nThe Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A's again went to three straight world series, from 1988–1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all-California series as the A's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (the most-recent all-California series), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).\n\n1969: League Championship Series\n\nPrior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the \"pennant winner\") based on the best win-loss record at the end of the regular season.\n\nA structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.\n\nThe National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2–3–2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home-field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.\n\n1970s\n\n1971: World Series at night\n\nMLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit's Tiger Stadium.)\n\n1972–1978: Three of a kind and The Greatest Game Ever Played\n\nDuring this seven-year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book-ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.\n\nHowever, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the \"amazing\" eight-year-old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers' back-to-back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.\n\nGame 6 of the 1975 World Series is widely regarded as the greatest World Series game ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail-biting turns of events, and a game-winning walk off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 to 6 Red Sox victory.\n\n1976: The Designated Hitter comes to the World Series\n\nThe National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak-hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular-season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even-numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine-man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion's park but not the NL champion's. Thus, the DH rule's use or non-use can help the team that has home-field advantage.\n\n1980s\n\n1984: Anderson becomes first to win in both leagues\n\nThe 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire-to-wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers' skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.\n\n1989: Earthquake\n\nWhen the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5:04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface-wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say \"I'll tell you what, we're having an earth--\" before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four-game sweep.\n\n1990s\n\n1992–1993: The World Series enters Canada\n\nWorld Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come-from-behind homer, after Joe Carter's three-run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8–6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth-inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.\n\n1994: League Division Series\n\nIn 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best-of-five playoff round (the \"division series\"), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second-best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best-of-seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team cannot get home-field advantage.\n\n1994–1995 strike\n\nAfter the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite World War I, the global influenza pandemic of 1918–1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America's involvement in World War II, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.\n\nAs the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus the commissioner, responsible for ensuring the integrity and protecting the welfare of the game, was an interested party rather than a neutral arbiter, and baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without an independent commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.\n\nThe previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74–40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos have never played in a World Series.)\n\nThe labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.\n\nAll-Star Game and home-field advantage (2003–present)\n\nPrior to 2003, home-field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All-Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home-field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All-Star Game. Originally implemented as a two-year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice has been extended indefinitely.\n\nThe American League won every All-Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home-field advantage from 2002, when it also had home-field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011 and 2014 World Series have gone the full seven games.\n\nThis rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home-field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All-Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees' shortstop's final All-Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season. \n\nAs Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:\n\nWith the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.\n\nHowever, in four of the last six seasons, home-field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Four of the Series (most recently in 2015) have been won on the road.\n\nStarting with the San Francisco Giants 2010 World Series victory, which was followed by the Giants victories in the 2012 World Series and the 2014 World Series, The Giants started what many around the sport of baseball consider to be a modern baseball dynasty, as most consider winning three World Series in a 5-year span in baseball today is incredibly difficult and thusly worthy of the dynasty title.\n\nModern World Series appearances by franchise\n\nWorld Series record by team or franchise, 1903–2015\n\nNotes\n\nAmerican League (AL) teams have won 64 of the 111 World Series played (58%). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 24% of all series played and 42% of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series (10%) and 23% of the 47 National League victories.\nAt least one New York team has been in 54 World Series (49%) of Series played.\nWhen the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.\n\nThe number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen \"expansion teams\" joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos/Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45%) in which they have played, which is 9% of all 111 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.\n\nTeam patterns in the World Series\n\nThis information is up to date through the present time:\n\nStreaks and droughts\n\n#Since their first championship in 1923, the New York Yankees have won two or more World Series titles in every decade except the 1980s, when they won none. Additionally, they have won at least one American League pennant in every decade since the 1920s. (They have yet to win a pennant or Series in the 2010s.) The Yankees are the only team in either League to win more than three series in a row, winning in four consecutive seasons from 1936 to 1939, and a still MLB record five consecutive seasons from 1949 to 1953.\n#The New York Giants' four World Series appearances from 1921 to 1924 are the most consecutive appearances for any National League franchise. The Yankees are the only American League franchise to accomplish this.\n#The 1907–1908 Cubs, 1921–1922 Giants and the 1975–1976 Reds are the only National League teams to win back-to-back World Series.\n#The 1907–1909 Detroit Tigers and the 1911–1913 New York Giants are the only teams to lose three consecutive World Series.\n#The Chicago Cubs hold the record for the longest World Series championship drought (still active through 2015), with their last title coming in 1908 (107 years). In fact, they also hold the longest drought without a World Series appearance, not having won the NL pennant since 1945. Even had the Cubs won the 1945 Series, they would still hold the longest World Series title drought, with the second longest World Series drought belonging to the Cleveland Indians, who have not won a World Series since 1948. The team with the longest active pennant drought among AL teams that have played in a World Series at least once is the Baltimore Orioles, who have not reached a World Series since winning their last title in 1983.\n#Twenty-two of the 28 teams to play in the World Series have won it at least once. The only exceptions are: Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s, enfranchised in 1962), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots, 1969), San Diego Padres (1969), Colorado Rockies (1993), Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays, 1998), and Texas Rangers (formerly Washington Senators, 1961). The Padres and Rangers have both lost two World Series; the remaining teams have all lost their only Series appearance. As of the present, all teams to reach the World Series at least three times have won at least one of their appearances.\n#Two teams have never played in the World Series: the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos, established in 1969), and the American League's Seattle Mariners (established in 1977). Both franchises have participated in post-season play and competed in a League Championship Series, but lost all League Championship Series appearances so far.\n#The Red Sox have the most World Series titles before their first World Series loss, winning the championship in their first five appearances—1903, 1912, 1915, 1916, and 1918—before losing in the next series they played, in 1946. The only other teams who have more than one Series victory before their first Series loss are the Cleveland Indians (in 1920 and 1948), the Toronto Blue Jays (in 1992 and 1993), and the Miami Marlins (in 1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins). The Blue Jays and the Marlins have never lost a World Series.\n#The American League's Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993) and National League's Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins) hold the record for most appearances in a Series without ever losing a Series. Two other franchises have won their lone appearance: the National League's Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and American League's Los Angeles Angels (2002).\n#The Pirates, Reds, Red Sox, and Giants are tied with the longest active streak of World Series victories (three) since the last time they lost a series. After losing the 1927 series to the Yankees, the Pirates have emerged victorious in the next three series in which they played (1960, 1971, and 1979). The Reds last series loss prior to their current active streak of three titles (1975, 1976, and 1990) was in 1972. The Red Sox are the American League leaders in this category with three consecutive titles (2004, 2007, and 2013) since their last series loss (1986). The Giants lost in 2002 before winning the next three they appeared in (2010, 2012, and 2014).\n#The Yankees have the most World Series victories (eight) between World Series losses. After losing the 1926 World Series to the Cardinals, the Yankees won their next eight appearances in the series (1927, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, and 1941) before losing in 1942 to the Cardinals again. After this loss, the Yankees went on to win their next seven Series appearances (1943, 1947, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, and 1953) before their next Series loss in 1955 to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Cardinals are the National League leader in this category, with four titles (1944, 1946, 1964, and 1967) between series losses in 1943 and 1968.\n#The Cubs and Dodgers are tied at seven apiece for most World Series losses between World Series victories. The Dodgers lost their first seven appearances in the Fall Classics (1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, and 1953) before winning their first title in 1955. The Cubs' situation is the opposite, as their losing streak is still ongoing: since winning their last title (in 1908), they lost the World Series in 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945. The Cleveland Indians have three World Series losses (1954, 1995, and 1997) since their last crown in 1948, more than any other team in the American League.\n#The longest duration without repeat World Series champions is fifteen years, dating back to the 2000 New York Yankees. The previous record of fourteen years (in between the 1978 New York Yankees' win and the 1993 Toronto Blue Jays' win) was broken when the San Francisco Giants, who won the 2014 World Series, did not qualify for the postseason in 2015.\n\nGame-by-game\n\n#Game 7 was won by the home team in the 9 World Series between 1980 and 2013 that went to seven games (the 1982 St. Louis Cardinals, 1985 Kansas City Royals, 1986 New York Mets, 1987 and 1991 Minnesota Twins, 1997 Florida Marlins, 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks, 2002 Anaheim Angels, and 2011 St. Louis Cardinals) before the Giants won game 7 on the road in 2014. This trend reverses the previous historical trend in which Game 7 had been most often won by the road team, in 1979, 1975, 1972, 1971, 1968, 1967, 1965, and 1962. During the 1960s and 1970s, the home team had won Game 7 only in 1960, 1964, and 1973. Since 2003, when home field advantage started to be awarded to the team representing the league that won the All-Star game, the first Series that reached Game 7 was in 2011. The greatest comeback in World Series history was in 1968, when the Detroit Tigers came back from a 3–1 game disadvantage to win Game 5 after being behind by 3 runs, before winning games 6 and 7 on the road at St. Louis.\n#The 1981 Los Angeles Dodgers are the last team to win a World Series after losing the first two games on the road (against New York). The recent tendency of a team winning the first two games at home and then winning the Series suggests the theoretical advantage to gaining home-field advantage (and the first two games at home) by winning the All-Star Game.\n#The Pittsburgh Pirates have won all five of their World Series championships in seven games.\n#The Minnesota Twins/Washington Senators have won their three World Series championships in seven games.\n#There have been 19 World Series four-game (4–0) sweeps. Nine different teams have swept a World Series at least once, the Yankees having done so most often (8 times). The Red Sox, Reds, and Giants have all done it twice. The Braves, Orioles, White Sox, Dodgers, and Athletics have each swept one Series. Six of these teams (all but the Orioles, Red Sox and White Sox) have also been swept 0–4 in at least one World Series. The Red Sox' two World Series sweeps are the most of any team that has never been swept in one. The Reds and Yankees are the only teams to have swept each other (The Yankees swept the Reds in 1939, while the Reds swept the Yankees in 1976). The Giants are the only team to record World Series sweeps in two different cities: New York (1954) and San Francisco (2012). The 1999 Yankees are the last team to date, and the only one since 1966, to sweep a World Series it began on the road (as well as the last American League champion to date to win a World Series it began on the road). The 1963 Dodgers are the last National League team to date to sweep a World Series it began on the road.\n#The Athletics, Cardinals, Cubs, and Yankees are the only teams to be swept in two World Series. The Athletics and Yankees are the only two of these with at least one World Series sweep to their credit, the other two being among nine teams overall that have never swept a World Series, but have been swept in one (the Tigers, Astros, Indians, Padres, Phillies, Pirates, and Rockies being the others).\n#The Cubs in 1907 and the Giants in 1922 won 4 games to 0, but each of those Series' included a tied game and are not considered to be true sweeps. In 1907, the first game was the tie and the Cubs won four straight after that. In 1922, Game 2 was the tie.\n#The Cincinnati Reds were the only National League team to sweep any World Series between 1963 and 2012, sweeping their last two series appearances to date in 1976 and 1990. When added to their Game 7 victory in 1975, this means that the Reds have won their last 9 consecutive games, making this the current longest winning streak in terms of consecutive World Series games won.\n#Nine World Series have ended with \"walk-off\" hits, i.e., that game and the Series ended when the home team won with a base hit in the bottom of the ninth or in extra innings: 1924, 1929, 1935, 1953, 1960, 1991, 1993, 1997, and 2001. Five of these (marked with a ) were in a deciding Game 7. In addition, the deciding Game 8 (one game had ended in a tie) of the 1912 World Series ended in a walk-off sacrifice fly. Two men have ended a World Series with a walk-off home run: Bill Mazeroski in 1960 and Joe Carter in 1993. Mazeroski's was a solo shot in the bottom of the ninth of Game 7 to win a championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates, while Carter's was a three-run shot in Game 6 that won a championship for the Toronto Blue Jays.\n#One World Series game has ended with a pick-off of a runner. Kolten Wong of the St. Louis Cardinals was picked off of first base in Game 3 of the 2013 World Series by Boston Red Sox closer Koji Uehara. The score was 4-2 and rookie Wong was a pinch runner.\n#The Philadelphia Phillies and the Tampa Bay Rays are the first teams to have an elimination game (or any game) be suspended because of weather, and not have it cancelled. Game 5 (in Philadelphia) was suspended Monday, October 27, 2008 with a 2–2 score, and resumed in the bottom of the sixth on October 29.\n#Both of the Minnesota Twins' World Series titles since relocating to the Twin Cities from Washington, D.C. (where they were the first Washington Senators) were in 7 game series where all games were won by the home team. The Twins accomplished this in 1987, when the Twins defeated the St. Louis Cardinals, then 4 years later in 1991, when the Twins defeated the Atlanta Braves. The Twins victories in both series were in games 1, 2, 6, and 7, while their National League opponents won games 3, 4, and 5. This same scenario also occurred in 2001, when the Arizona Diamondbacks defeated the New York Yankees.\n#Also of note when it comes to the three series where every game was won by the home team, a pitcher was MVP. In the 1987 World Series, Frank Viola was the MVP having pitched games 1, 4, and 7, and finishing with a 2–1 record. In 1991, Jack Morris achieved the same feat pitching games 1, 4, and 7 with a 2–0 record and a no decision in game 4, and winning MVP honors. However, Morris's MVP came on the heels of pitching 10 shutout innings in game 7. Finally, in 2001, Curt Schilling and Randy Johnson took MVP honors by being the reason the Arizona Diamondbacks were in position to win the series.\n#The Boston Red Sox have lost 4 World Series, all in 7 games. (1946, 1967, 1975, & 1986)\n#Four World Series ended with teams clinching the championship in the final game of the series which was not a Game 7 and went into extra innings. The title was won this way in 1939, 1992, 2012, and 2015.\n#As aforementioned, the home team has not won a deciding game of a World Series since 2013, and has been so in four of the last six seasons.\n\nLocal rivalries\n\nWhen two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already-existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.\n\nCross-town Series\n\nThe first city to host an entire World Series is Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.\n\nFourteen \"Subway Series\" have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically \"subway series\" since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California, and an all-NY Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.\n\nThe last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 \"Streetcar Series\" between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman's Park.\n\nThe 1989 World Series, sometimes called the \"Bay Bridge Series\" or the \"BART Series\" (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A's swept the Giants in four games.\n\nCross-state rivalries\n\nThe historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics-Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants' series against the then-Anaheim Angels in 2002.\n\nOther than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I-70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.\n\nPennants won in different cities\n\n# The Braves are the only team to have both won and lost a World Series in three different home cities (Boston, Milwaukee, and Atlanta).\n# The Athletics have had three different home cities (Philadelphia, Kansas City, and Oakland), but have appeared in the World Series (both winning and losing) while based in only two of them (Philadelphia and Oakland).\n# Three other teams have both won and lost the Fall Classic in two different home cities: The Dodgers (Brooklyn and Los Angeles), the Giants (New York and San Francisco), and the Twins (the Twin Cities and Washington, D.C., as the first Senators).\n# The Orioles are the only other team to have played in the World Series in two different home cities (Baltimore and St. Louis, as the Browns), but all three of their titles (and three of their four losses) have come while based in Baltimore.\n\nThe original sixteen teams\n\nAt the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the \"original sixteen\".\n\n#Every original team has won at least two World Series titles. The Philadelphia Phillies (National League) were the last of the original teams to win their first Series, in . They were also the last to win at least two, with their second Series victory in . The Cubs were the first team to win the series twice, in 1907 and 1908. They have not won another World Series since.\n#The last original American League team to win its first World Series was the Baltimore Orioles (former St. Louis Browns,originally the Milwaukee Brewers), winning in .\n#The Orioles were also the last original team in the majors to make their first World Series appearance, as the St. Louis Browns in . Although they never won another American League pennant while in St. Louis, they have won three World Series in six appearances since moving to Baltimore. The St. Louis Cardinals were the last original National League team to make its modern World Series debut, with its victory in . They have subsequently won more World Series than any other National League club: 11 championships through 2014.\n#The New York Yankees have defeated all eight original NL teams in a World Series. Conversely, they have lost at least one World Series to six of the original NL teams, never losing to the Chicago Cubs or the Philadelphia Phillies. The Boston Red Sox have played at least one Series against every original National League team except the (Boston, Milwaukee and Atlanta) Braves, with whom they shared a home city through 1953.\n#The St. Louis Cardinals are currently the only club of the National League's original eight that holds an overall Series lead over the Yankees, 3 to 2, taking that lead in 1964. The Giants won their first two Series over the Yankees (1921 and 1922), but the Yankees have faced the Giants five times since then and have won all five, taking the overall lead over the Giants in 1937. The Pittsburgh Pirates and Yankees have faced each other twice (1927 and 1960), with the Yankees winning in 1927 and the Pirates winning in 1960, making the two teams .500 against each other.\n#Since the two leagues expanded beyond eight teams apiece in 1961, only two of the original 16 teams have not won a World Series against the larger field of competitors: the American League Cleveland Indians, who have not won a Series since 1948 (defeating the Boston Braves), and the National League Chicago Cubs, who last won a Series in 1908 (defeating the Detroit Tigers).\n#The 2015 World Series was the first ever World Series to not feature any of the original sixteen teams.\n\nExpansion teams (after 1960)\n\n#The 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks won their first pennant and World Series in fewer seasons than any other expansion team (both attained in their 4th season). The 1997 World Series Champion Florida Marlins achieved these milestones in the second-fewest number of seasons (fifth season). The fastest AL expansion franchise to win a pennant was the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008 (11th season) and the fastest AL expansion franchise to win a World Series was the Toronto Blue Jays in 1992 (16th season).\n#While the New York Mets (NL) were the first expansion team to win or appear in the World Series (1969), the American League would have to wait until 1980 for its first expansion-team World Series appearance, and until 1985 for its first expansion-team win. Both were by the Kansas City Royals. The AL also had two expansion teams appear in the World Series (the Milwaukee Brewers being the second, in 1982) before the National League's second expansion team to appear—the San Diego Padres in 1984.\n#12 expansion teams have now contested at least one Series. Until 2015, all World Series matchups featured at least one of the 16 teams established by 1903. As of the end of the 2014 edition, expansion teams were 9–12 in the World Series, with three teams (the New York Mets, Toronto Blue Jays and Miami Marlins) each winning two. The Kansas City Royals, the then-Anaheim Angels and the Arizona Diamondbacks had each won one Series by the end of the 2014 season. With the New York Mets defeating the Chicago Cubs in a four-game sweep in the 2015 National League Championship Series, the 2015 World Series was guaranteed to be the first ever World Series matchup in which both teams were expansion teams, where the Mets (whose first season occurred in 1962) faced off against the Kansas City Royals (whose first season occurred in 1969). \n# Six expansion teams have appeared in the World Series without ever winning a championship: twice for the Texas Rangers (formerly the second Washington Senators) and San Diego Padres, and once each for the Houston Astros (formerly Colt .45s), Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots), Colorado Rockies, and Tampa Bay Rays (formerly Devil Rays).\n# Two expansion teams have not yet won a league pennant (and therefore also have not appeared in a World Series): the American League's Seattle Mariners and the National League's Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos). Both teams have competed in postseason play and appeared in their respective League Championship Series at least once, but have no League Championship Series victories.\n# The Toronto Blue Jays (1992 and 1993), Miami Marlins (1997 and 2003 as the Florida Marlins), Arizona Diamondbacks (2001) and Los Angeles Angels (2002) have never lost a World Series appearance.\n# The 2015 World Series—in which the Kansas City Royals (enfranchised by the American League in 1969) defeated the New York Mets (NL, 1962) in five games—was the first between two expansion teams.\n\nOther notes\n\n#The team with the better regular season winning percentage has won the World Series 53 times, or 48.62% (53 of 109) of the time. Three World Series featured teams with identical records (1949, 1958, 2013).\n#The Toronto Blue Jays are the only non-U.S. team ever to win a pennant or a World Series, doing both twice, in 1992 and 1993.\n#The Chicago Cubs are the only team with a World Series title to have never clinched one at home.\n#Three series have matched up the previous two World Champions, with the New York Yankees winning all three. The 1928 World Series was contested by the 1926 champion Cardinals and 1927 champion Yankees; the Yankees won the series 4-0. In 1943, the 1941 champion Yankees met the 1942 champion Cardinals, which the Yankees won 4-1. In the 1958 World Series, the 1956 champion Yankees faced the 1957 champion Milwaukee Braves; the Yankees won this series 4-3. The 2012 National League Championship Series also matched up the previous two World Champions: the 2010 champion Giants and the 2011 champion Cardinals. The Giants won this series 4-3.\n#The 2015 World Series game 1 between the New York Mets and the Kansas City Royals was the longest game 1 in history at 5 hours and 9 minutes.\n\nTelevision coverage and ratings\n\nWhen the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City, New York; Philadelphia; Schenectady, New York; Washington, D.C.; and environs surrounding these cities. In , games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By , World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By , World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color. \n\nInternational participation\n\nDespite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major-league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as \"world champions of baseball\". \n\nThe United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.\n\nBy the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America's high-salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half-century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time \"post\" them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player's request.\n\nSeveral tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball, uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The International Baseball Federation also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. But as these teams do not feature the best talent from each nation, the public generally does not give much weight to the result of these tournaments. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.\n\nImage gallery\n\nImage:WorldSeries1903-640.jpg\|Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston\nImage:West Side Park 1906 World Series.JPG\|Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all-Chicago World Series to date)\nImage:Wamby19201010UATP.JPG\|Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920\nImage:1924worldseries.jpg\|Washington's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)", "The 1970 World Series matched the American League champion Baltimore Orioles (108-54 in the regular season) against the National League champion Cincinnati Reds (102-60), with the Orioles winning in five games.\n\nIn this series Emmett Ashford became the first African American to umpire in the Fall Classic. It also featured the first World Series games to be played on artificial turf, as Games 1 and 2 took place at Cincinnati's first-year Riverfront Stadium.\n\nThis was the last World Series in which all games were played in the afternoon. Also this was the third time in a World Series where a team leading 3-0 in the series would fail to complete the sweep by losing game 4 but still win game 5 to win the series. 1910 and 1937 were the others.\n\nBackground\n\nThe Baltimore Orioles won the American League East division by 15 games over the New York Yankees and the Cincinnati Reds won the National League West division by games over the Los Angeles Dodgers.\n\nComing into the World Series, the Orioles had won 14 straight including the final 11 during the regular season then defeated the Minnesota Twins, three games to none, in the American League Championship Series for the second straight year. The Reds went 32-30 in their last 62 regular season games, but swept the Pittsburgh Pirates, three games to none, in the National League Championship Series.\n\nThe World Series set up to as a classic matchup of a pair of teams laden with all-star players.\n\nThe 1970 Cincinnati Reds squad was the first edition of the \"Big Red Machine.\" Sparky Anderson's first year as a major league manager produced 102 wins and the first of four NL pennants. The Reds featured a heavy-hitting lineup that included future Hall of Famers in catcher Johnny Bench (45 home runs, 148 RBI and .293 batting average) and third baseman Tony Pérez (40, 129, .317), as well as all-time hits leader Pete Rose (15, 52, .316) in right field, NL stolen base leader Bobby Tolan (16, 80, .316) in center field and power-hitting first baseman Lee May (34, 94, .253). The Reds led the National League in batting average and finished third in runs scored. Cincinnati pitching, however, would be a weak spot throughout the Series. Two-time 20-game winner Jim Maloney could only make three starts during the regular season and was shelved. Two 1970 All Star game representatives, Jim Merritt (20–12) and rookie Wayne Simpson (14–3), were suffering arm injuries. Merritt, who won 20 games by the end of August, pitched less than four regular season innings after September 4. Merritt started Game 5 against Baltimore, but was unable to get through the second inning. Simpson started 8–1 and had 14 wins by July 26, but was shelved thereafter. He did not pitch in the post season. Right-hander Gary Nolan (18-7, 3.26 ERA) would assume the ace role for the Reds.\n\nBy contrast, pitching was a strength for the Baltimore Orioles as manager Earl Weaver had three, healthy 20-game winners. Mike Cuellar (24–8, 3.48 ERA), Dave McNally (24–9, 3.22) and future Hall of Famer Jim Palmer (20–10, 2.71) were all well-rested and ready for the Series. Weaver balanced good pitching with the hitting of 1970 AL MVP Boog Powell (35, 114, .297), Merv Rettenmund (18, 58, .322), as well as future Hall of Famers Frank Robinson (25, 78, .306) and Brooks Robinson (18, 94, .276). The Orioles led the AL in most runs scored (792), fewest runs allowed (574), complete games by starting pitchers (60), lowest team earned run average (3.15) and they were second in the AL in fielding percentage (.981) establishing themselves as the most dominant Orioles team in the modern era.\n\nThe 1970 World Series appearance by Baltimore was the second of what would be three-straight World Series appearances. The Reds would go on to amass four WS appearances in a seven-year stretch (1970, '72, '75 & '76, winning the last two).\n\nThis was the only World Series in which Earl Weaver managed the Orioles to a win.\n\nSummary\n\nMatchups\n\nGame 1\n\nSaturday, October 10, 1970 at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati, Ohio\n\nThe Reds got off to a fast start, taking a 3–0 lead off Jim Palmer on a first-inning RBI single by Johnny Bench and a third-inning two-run homer by Lee May. The Orioles' offense answered with a two-run homer by Boog Powell in the fourth off Reds starter Gary Nolan. Elrod Hendricks tied it with a homer in the fifth, and Brooks Robinson hit the game-winning homer in the seventh. In the sixth, Robinson made a spectacular backhanded grab of a hard grounder down the line by May before spinning to throw him out. It was one of several spectacular plays the Gold Glove third baseman would make in the series.\n\nThe game turned in the sixth inning on a controversial call by home-plate umpire Ken Burkhart. The Reds had Bernie Carbo on third and Tommy Helms on first when Ty Cline, batting for Woody Woodward, hit a high chopper in front of the plate. Burkhart positioned himself in front of the plate to call the ball fair or foul as Carbo sped home. O's catcher Hendricks fielded the ball and turned to tag Carbo with Burkhart blocking the way. Hendricks tagged the sliding Carbo with his glove hand while holding the ball in his other hand; all the while, Burkhart was knocked to the ground and had his back to the play. When Burkhart turned around, he saw Carbo out of the baseline away from the plate as Hendricks held the ball. Burkhart signaled Carbo out without asking for help from the other umpires. Carbo and Sparky Anderson vehemently argued the call, but to no avail. \n\nRobinson's home run put the O's ahead for the first time, while Palmer settled into a groove on the mound. Palmer allowed no hits in his final innings of work. After he walked Pete Rose with two outs in the ninth, Pete Richert relieved Palmer and got Bobby Tolan to line out to shortstop Mark Belanger to end the game.\n\nThe Jackson 5 performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" prior to the game, which almost became an embarrassment when the group realized shortly before their performance that they weren't familiar with the lyrics. The Jackson brothers were able to quickly prepare themselves in transit to the stadium and performed the song adequately.\n\nGame 2\n\nSunday, October 11, 1970 at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati, Ohio\n\nAgain, another fast start by the Reds fell by the wayside. The Reds scored three in the first on a two-run double by Lee May, who went to third when Orioles center fielder Paul Blair bobbled the ball. Hal McRae squeeze-bunted May home for the third run. They pushed the lead to 4–0 on a homer by Bobby Tolan in the third.\n\nThe Orioles began their comeback innocently enough on a Boog Powell solo homer in the fourth. In the fifth, the floodgates opened. With one out, Reds' starter Jim McGlothlin gave up successive singles to pinch-hitter Chico Salmon and Don Buford. Paul Blair singled home Salmon, chasing McGlothlin and bringing in Milt Wilcox. Wilcox gave up RBI singles to Powell and Brooks Robinson and the crushing blow, a two-run double to Elrod Hendricks.\n\nThe Reds would get back one run in the sixth on a Johnny Bench home run, but that was it.\n\nGame 3\n\nTuesday, October 13, 1970 at Memorial Stadium in Baltimore, Maryland\n\nLeft-hander Dave McNally had a banner day, pitching a complete game, scattering nine hits, while also connecting for a grand slam in the sixth inning off reliever Wayne Granger to break the game open. McNally became the first and only pitcher to hit a World Series grand slam.\n\nBaltimore third baseman Brooks Robinson added to his highlight reel with a spectacular display of fielding. After Pete Rose and Bobby Tolan led the game off with consecutive hits, Robinson made a sensational, leaping grab of Tony Pérez's hopper, stepped on third and fired to first for a double play. In the second inning, Robinson snagged a slow grounder hit by Tommy Helms and threw out the sprinting second baseman. And in the sixth, Robinson made a diving catch of a line drive by Johnny Bench. The Memorial Stadium fans gave Robinson a standing ovation as he came to bat in the bottom of the sixth. He responded by doubling to left.\n\nGame 4\n\nWednesday, October 14, 1970 at Memorial Stadium in Baltimore, Maryland\n\nThe Reds staved off a Series sweep thanks to clutch hitting by Lee May and stellar relief pitching by rookie Don Gullett and veteran Clay Carroll.\n\nWith a 2–1 lead in the third, Reds' starter Gary Nolan gave up two-out RBI singles to Frank Robinson and Brooks Robinson. Gullett relieved Nolan and surrendered another RBI single to Elrod Hendricks. The Reds crept back in the fifth on a homer by Pete Rose.\n\nGullett gave up an unearned run in the sixth when Hendricks singled Brooks Robinson to third and Robinson scored when Rose's attempted throw from right field sailed past Tony Pérez at third.\n\nIn the eighth, Perez walked and Johnny Bench singled. Lee May then slammed a three-run homer on the first pitch he saw from Orioles' reliever Eddie Watt to put the Reds ahead. Carroll, who had entered in the seventh, made the lead stand up. Gullett and Carroll combined to pitch innings, giving up four hits and one unearned run, allowing the Reds to claw back on May's heroics. The Reds' victory snapped Baltimore's 17-game winning streak. It also ended Cincinnati's six-game World Series losing streak including the last three games in the 1961 World Series.\n\nGame 5\n\nThursday, October 15, 1970 at Memorial Stadium in Baltimore, Maryland\n\nRain showers threatened to delay Game 5, but it only kept the Memorial Stadium crowd from being less than capacity. Seemingly re-energized from their Game 4 win, the Reds rocked Orioles starter Mike Cuellar for three runs in the first on an RBI single by Johnny Bench and a two-run double by Hal McRae. Cuellar, a notoriously slow starter, stayed in the game and got Tommy Helms to ground out to Mark Belanger for the final out. The Orioles scored two runs in the bottom of the first against Reds' 20-game winner Jim Merritt, who had been battling a sore arm and had not pitched in 10 days. Merritt allowed more two runs in the second inning before being lifted.\n\nFrank Robinson hit a two-run home run, Merv Rettenmund also had a homer and two RBI, and Davey Johnson had two RBI to pace the Orioles' attack. After the rocky first inning, Cuellar settled down and allowed no runs and two hits in the final eight innings for a complete-game victory.\n\nBrooks Robinson won the World Series Most Valuable Player Award hitting .429, broke the record for total bases in a five-game series with 17, tied the record for most hits in one game with four, and tied teammate Paul Blair for most hits in a five-game Series with nine. Total Baseball described Brooks Robinson's fielding with, \"other-worldly defense at third (which) gave Reds right-handed hitters nightmares through the Series.\" Upon hearing that Robinson won the MVP award and a new car from Toyota, Reds' catcher Johnny Bench said, \"If we had known he wanted a car that badly, we'd all have chipped in and bought him one.\"\n\nThe victory was redemption for Baltimore, which lost to the underdog New York Mets in the 1969 World Series.\n\nThe game was the last in the majors for Ashford, who became the first black umpire to make it to the top level of baseball when he was hired by the American League in 1966. Ashford reached MLB's then-mandatory retirement age of 55 in late 1969, but was allowed by AL president Joe Cronin to come back for 1970, giving him the opportunity to break the World Series color barrier for umpires. A black umpire did not call balls and strikes in a World Series game until 1993, when the NL's Charlie Williams worked the plate in Game 4.\n\n[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/baseballs_best/mlb_bb_gamepage.jsp?story_page=bb_70ws_gm5_cinbal mlb.com coverage of Game 5]\n----\n\nComposite box\n\n1970 World Series (4–1): Baltimore Orioles (A.L.) over Cincinnati Reds (N.L.)\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Orioles Roster", "List of Baltimore Orioles captains", "Baltimore Orioles", "Milwaukee Brewers (1901)", "Baltimore Orioles roster", "Baltimore O's", "O's", "BAL Orioles", "Fighting Showalters", "The O's", "Baltimore Orioles Roster", "Milwaukee Brewers (1894–1901)", "Baltimore Orioles (sports)", "Baltimore Os", "The Bird (baseball mascot)", "The Baltimore Orioles", "Balimore Orioles" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "balimore orioles", "milwaukee brewers 1901", "fighting showalters", "orioles roster", "bal orioles", "baltimore os", "baltimore o s", "list of baltimore orioles captains", "baltimore orioles", "baltimore orioles roster", "milwaukee brewers 1894–1901", "baltimore orioles sports", "bird baseball mascot", "o s" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "baltimore orioles", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Baltimore Orioles" }
What was the original name of the Kansas City Chiefs?	tc_1489	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Kansas_City_Chiefs.txt", "History_of_the_Kansas_City_Chiefs.txt" ], "title": [ "Kansas City Chiefs", "History of the Kansas City Chiefs" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Chiefs compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded in 1960 as the Dallas Texans by businessman Lamar Hunt and was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). In 1963, the team relocated to Kansas City and assumed their current name. The Chiefs joined the NFL as a result of the merger in 1970. The team is valued at just under $1 billion.\n\nThe Chiefs have won three AFL championships, in 1962, 1966, and 1969 and became the second AFL team (after the New York Jets) to defeat an NFL team in an AFL–NFL World Championship Game, when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV. The team's victory on January 11, 1970, remains the club's last championship game victory and appearance to date, and occurred in the final such competition prior to the leagues' merger coming into full effect. The Chiefs were also the second team, after the Green Bay Packers, to appear in more than one Super Bowl (and the first AFL team to do so) and the first to appear in the championship game in two different decades. In the 2015 AFC Wild-Card playoff game, held at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas on January 9, 2016, the Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 30–0 to earn their first NFL playoff win in 23 seasons, dating back to the 1993–94 NFL playoffs. The Chiefs' Wild-Card playoff victory ended what was at the time the third-longest drought in the NFL, and it also ended an NFL record eight-game playoff losing streak. \n\nAs of 2016, the Chiefs are the only NFL team based in Missouri, as a result of the St. Louis Rams' relocation back to Los Angeles. \n\nFranchise history\n\n1960s\n\nIn 1959, Lamar Hunt began discussions with other businessmen to establish a professional football league that would rival the National Football League. Hunt's desire to secure a football team was heightened after watching the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the New York Giants and Baltimore Colts. After unsuccessful attempts to purchase and relocate the NFL's Chicago Cardinals to his hometown of Dallas, Texas, Hunt went to the NFL and asked to create an expansion franchise in Dallas. The NFL turned him down, so Hunt then established the American Football League and started his own team, the Dallas Texans, to begin play in 1960. Hunt hired a little-known assistant coach from the University of Miami football team, Hank Stram, to be the team's head coach after the job offer was declined by Bud Wilkinson and Tom Landry.\n\nAlso hired was Don Klosterman as head scout, credited by many for bringing a wealth of talent to the Texans after luring it away from the NFL, often hiding players and using creative means to land them.\n\nThe Texans shared the Cotton Bowl with the NFL's cross-town competition Dallas Cowboys for three seasons. The Texans were to have exclusive access to the stadium until the NFL put an expansion team, The Dallas Cowboys, there. While the team averaged a league-best 24,500 at the Cotton Bowl, the Texans gained less attention due to the AFL's relatively lower profile compared to the NFL. In the franchise's first two seasons, the team managed only a 14–14 record. In their third season, the Texans strolled to an 11–3 record and a berth in the team's first American Football League Championship Game, against the Houston Oilers. The game was broadcast nationally on ABC and the Texans defeated the Oilers 20–17 in double overtime. The game lasted 77 minutes and 54 seconds, which still stands as the longest championship game in professional football history.\n\nIt turned out to be the last game the team would play as the Dallas Texans. Despite competing against a Cowboys team that managed only a 9–28–3 record in their first three seasons, Hunt decided that the Dallas–Fort Worth media market could not sustain two professional football franchises. He considered moving the Texans to either Atlanta, Georgia or Miami, Florida for the 1963 season. However, he was ultimately swayed by an offer from Kansas City Mayor Harold Roe Bartle. Bartle promised to triple the franchise's season ticket sales and expand the seating capacity of Municipal Stadium to accommodate the team.\n\nHunt agreed to relocate the franchise to Kansas City on May 22, 1963, and on May 26 the team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs. Hunt and head coach Hank Stram initially planned to retain the Texans name, but a fan contest determined the new \"Chiefs\" name in honor of Mayor Bartle's nickname that he acquired in his professional role as Scout Executive of the St. Joseph and Kansas City Boy Scout Councils and founder of the Scouting Society, the Tribe of Mic-O-Say. A total of 4,866 entries were received with 1,020 different names being suggested, including a total of 42 entrants who selected \"Chiefs.\" The two names that received the most popular votes were \"Mules\" and \"Royals\" (which, 6 years later, would be the name of the city's Major League Baseball expansion franchise in 1969, after the Athletics left Kansas City for Oakland following the 1967 season).\n\nThe franchise became one of the strongest teams in the now thriving American Football League, with the most playoff appearances for an AFL team (tied with the Oakland Raiders), and the most AFL Championships (3). The team's dominance helped Lamar Hunt become a central figure in negotiations with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to agree on an AFL–NFL merger. In the meetings between the two leagues, a merged league championship game was agreed to be played in January 1967 following the conclusion of the leagues' respective 1966 seasons. Hunt insisted on calling the game the \"Super Bowl\" after seeing his children playing with a popular toy at the time, a Super Ball. While the first few games were designated the \"AFL–NFL World Championship Game,\" the Super Bowl name became its officially licensed title in years to come.\n\nThe Chiefs cruised to an 11–2–1 record in 1966, and defeated the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills in the AFL Championship Game. The Chiefs were invited to play the NFL's league champion Green Bay Packers in the first AFL–NFL World Championship Game. Kansas City and Green Bay played a close game for the first half, but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters, winning the game by a score of 35–10. The Chiefs lost the game but gained the respect of several Packers opponents following the game. The Chiefs' interleague match-up with the Packers was not the last time that they would face an NFL opponent, especially on the championship stage. The following August, Kansas City hosted the NFL's Chicago Bears in the 1967 preseason and won the game 66–24.\n\nDespite losing to the division rival Oakland Raiders twice in the regular season in 1969, the two teams met for a third time in the AFL Championship Game where Kansas City won 17–7. Backup quarterback Mike Livingston led the team in a six-game winning streak after Len Dawson suffered a leg injury which kept him out of most of the season's games. While getting plenty of help from the club's defense, Dawson returned from the injury and led the Chiefs to Super Bowl IV. Against the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings, who were favored by 12½, the Chiefs dominated the game 23–7 to claim the team's first Super Bowl championship. Dawson was named the game's Most Valuable Player after completing 12-of-17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown, with 1 interception. The following season, the Chiefs and the rest of the American Football League merged with the National Football League after the AFL–NFL merger became official. The Chiefs were placed in the American Football Conference's West Division.\n\nFrom 1960 to 1969, the Chiefs/Texans won 87 games, which is the most in the 10-year history of the AFL. \n\n1970s\n\nIn 1970, the Chiefs won only seven games in their first season in the NFL and missed the playoffs. The following season, the Chiefs tallied a 10–3–1 record and won the AFC West Division. Head coach Hank Stram considered his 1971 Chiefs team as his best, but they failed to capture their championship dominance from 1969. Most of the pieces of the team which won Super Bowl IV two years earlier were still in place for the 1971 season. The Chiefs tied with the Miami Dolphins for the best record in the AFC, and both teams met in a Christmas Day playoff game which the Chiefs lost 27–24 in double overtime. The Dolphins outlasted the Chiefs with a 37-yard field goal. The game surpassed the 1962 AFL Championship Game as the longest ever at 82 minutes and 40 seconds. The game was also the final football game at Kansas City's Municipal Stadium.\n\nIn 1972, the Chiefs moved into the newly constructed Arrowhead Stadium at the Truman Sports Complex outside of Downtown Kansas City. The team's first game at Arrowhead was against the St. Louis Cardinals, a preseason game which the Chiefs won 24–14. Linebacker Willie Lanier and quarterback Len Dawson won the NFL Man of the Year Award in 1972 and 1973, respectively. The Chiefs would not return to the post-season for the remainder of the 1970s, and the 1973 season was the team's last winning effort for seven years. Hank Stram was fired following a 5–9 season in 1974, and many of the Chiefs' future Hall of Fame players would depart by the middle of the decade. From 1975 to 1988, the Chiefs had become a laughing stock of the NFL and provided Chiefs fans with nothing but futility. Five head coaches struggled to achieve the same success as Stram, compiling an 81–121–1 record.\n\n1980–1988\n\nIn 1980, Coach Marv Levy cut future Hall of Fame Kicker Jan Stenerud for little known Nick Lowery, who would become the most accurate kicker in NFL History over the next 14 years. In 1981, running back Joe Delaney rushed for 1,121 yards and was named the AFC Rookie of the Year. The Chiefs finished the season with a 9–7 record and entered the 1982 season with optimism. However, the NFL Players Association strike curbed the Chiefs' chances of returning to the postseason for the first time in over a decade. The Chiefs tallied a 3–6 record and in the off-season, Joe Delaney died while trying to save several children from drowning in a pond near his home in Louisiana. \n\nThe Chiefs made a mistake in drafting quarterback Todd Blackledge over future greats such as Jim Kelly and Dan Marino in the 1983 NFL Draft. Blackledge never started a full season for Kansas City while Kelly and Marino played Hall of Fame careers. While the Chiefs struggled on offense in the 1980s, the Chiefs had a strong defensive unit consisting of Pro Bowlers such as Bill Maas, Albert Lewis, Art Still and Deron Cherry.\n\nJohn Mackovic took over head coaching duties for the 1983 season after Marv Levy was fired. Over the next four seasons, Mackovic coached the Chiefs to a 30–34 record, but took the team to its first post-season appearance in 15 years in the 1986 NFL playoffs. Following the team's loss to the New York Jets in the playoffs, Mackovic was fired. Frank Gansz served as head coach for the next two seasons, but won only eight of 31 games.\n\n1989–2008 \n\nOn December 19, 1988, owner Lamar Hunt hired Carl Peterson as the team's new president, general manager, and chief executive officer. Peterson fired head coach Frank Gansz two weeks after taking over and hired Marty Schottenheimer as the club's seventh head coach. In the 1988 and 1989 NFL Drafts, the Chiefs selected both defensive end Neil Smith and linebacker Derrick Thomas, respectively. The defense that Thomas and Smith anchored in their seven seasons together was a big reason why the Chiefs reached the postseason in six straight years. \n\nIn Schottenheimer's tenure as head coach, (1989–1998), the Chiefs became a perennial playoff contender, featuring offensive players including Steve DeBerg, Christian Okoye, Stephone Paige and Barry Word, a strong defense, anchored by Thomas, Smith, Albert Lewis and Deron Cherry, and on special teams, Nick Lowery, most accurate kicker in NFL History. The team recorded a 101–58–1 record, and clinched seven playoff berths. The Chiefs' 1993 season was the franchise's most successful in 22 years. With newly acquired quarterback Joe Montana and running back Marcus Allen—two former Super Bowl champions and MVPs—the Chiefs further strengthened their position in the NFL. The 11–5 Chiefs defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Houston Oilers on their way to the franchise's first and to date only AFC Championship Game appearance against the Buffalo Bills. The Chiefs were overwhelmed by the Bills and lost the game by a score of 30–13. The Chiefs' victory on January 14, 1994, against the Oilers remained the franchise's last post-season victory for 21 years until their 30–0 victory over the Houston Texans on January 9, 2016.\n\nIn the 1995 NFL playoffs, the 13–3 Chiefs hosted the Indianapolis Colts in a cold, damp night game at Arrowhead Stadium. Kansas City lost the game 10–7 against the underdog Colts, after kicker Lin Elliot missed three field goal attempts and quarterback Steve Bono threw three interceptions. The Chiefs selected tight end Tony Gonzalez with the 13th overall selection in the 1997 NFL Draft, a move which some considered to be a gamble being that Gonzalez was primarily a basketball player at California. During a 1997 season full of injuries to starting quarterback Elvis Grbac, backup quarterback Rich Gannon took the reins of the Chiefs' offense as the team headed to another 13–3 season. Head coach Marty Schottenheimer chose Grbac to start the playoff game against the Denver Broncos despite Gannon's successes in previous weeks. Grbac's production in the game was lacking, and the Chiefs lost to the Broncos 14–10. Denver went on to capture their fifth AFC Championship by defeating Pittsburgh, and then defeated the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII.\n\nCoach Schottenheimer announced his resignation from the Chiefs following the 1998 season, and defensive coordinator Gunther Cunningham took over coaching duties for the next two seasons, compiling a 16–16 record. By the end of the Chiefs' decade of regular-season dominance, Gannon had signed with the Oakland Raiders, Neil Smith signed with the Denver Broncos, and Derrick Thomas was paralyzed from a car accident on January 23, 2000. Thomas died from complications of his injury weeks later. After allegedly reading online that he would be relieved of duties, head coach Gunther Cunningham was fired. \n\nLooking to change the Chiefs' game plan which relied on a tough defensive strategy for the past decade, Carl Peterson contacted Dick Vermeil about the Chiefs' head coaching vacancy for the 2001 season. Vermeil previously led the St. Louis Rams to a victory in Super Bowl XXXIV. Vermeil was hired on January 12. The Chiefs then traded a first round draft pick in the 2001 NFL Draft to St. Louis for quarterback Trent Green and signed free agent running back Priest Holmes to be the team's cornerstones on offense.\n\nIn 2003, Kansas City began the season with nine consecutive victories, a franchise record. They finished the season with a 13–3 record and the team's offense led the NFL in several categories under the direction of USA Today's Offensive Coach of the Year honoree, Al Saunders. Running back Priest Holmes surpassed Marshall Faulk's single-season touchdown record by scoring his 27th rushing touchdown against the Chicago Bears in the team's regular season finale. The team clinched the second seed in the 2004 NFL playoffs and hosted the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional Playoffs. In a game where neither team punted, the Chiefs lost the shoot-out 38–31. It was the third time in nine seasons that the Chiefs went 8–0 at home in the regular season, and earned home field advantage throughout the playoffs, only to lose their post-season opener at Arrowhead.\n\nAfter a disappointing 7–9 record in 2004, the 2005 Chiefs finished with a 10–6 record but no playoff berth. They were the fourth team since 1990 to miss the playoffs with a 10–6 record. Running back Larry Johnson started in place of the injured Priest Holmes and rushed for 1,750 yards in only nine starts. Prior to the Chiefs' final game of the season, head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement. The Chiefs won the game 37–3 over the playoff-bound Cincinnati Bengals.\n\nWithin two weeks of Vermeil's resignation, the Chiefs returned to their defensive roots with the selection of its next head coach. The team introduced Herman Edwards, a former Chiefs scout and head coach of the New York Jets, as the team's tenth head coach after trading a fourth-round selection in the 2006 NFL Draft to the Jets. Quarterback Trent Green suffered a severe concussion in the team's season opener to the Cincinnati Bengals which left him out of play for eight weeks. Backup quarterback Damon Huard took over in Green's absence and led the Chiefs to a 5–3 record.\n\nKansas City was awarded a Thanksgiving Day game against the Denver Broncos in response to owner Lamar Hunt's lobbying for a third Thanksgiving Day game. The Chiefs defeated the Broncos 19–10 in the first Thanksgiving Day game in Kansas City since 1969. Hunt was hospitalized at the time of the game and died weeks later on December 13 due to complications with prostate cancer. The Chiefs honored their owner for the remainder of the season, as did the rest of the league.\n\nTrent Green returned by the end of the season, but struggled in the final stretch, and running back Larry Johnson set an NFL record with 416 carries in a season. Kansas City managed to clinch their first playoff berth in three seasons with a 9–7 record and a bizarre sequence of six losses from other AFC teams on New Year's Eve, culminating with a Broncos loss to the 49ers. The Indianapolis Colts hosted the Chiefs in the Wild Card playoffs and defeated Kansas City 23–8.\n\nIn 2007, Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins leaving the door open for either Damon Huard or Brodie Croyle to become the new starting quarterback. After starting the season with a 4–3 record, the Chiefs lost the remaining nine games when running back Larry Johnson suffered a season-ending foot injury and the quarterback position lacked stability with Huard and Croyle. Despite the team's 4–12 record, tight end Tony Gonzalez broke Shannon Sharpe's NFL record for touchdowns at the position (63) and defensive end Jared Allen led the NFL in quarterback sacks with 15.5.\n\nThe Chiefs began their 2008 season with the youngest team in the NFL. The starting lineup had an average of 25.5 years of age. By releasing several veteran players such as cornerback Ty Law and wide receiver Eddie Kennison and trading defensive end Jared Allen, the Chiefs began a youth movement. The Chiefs had a league-high thirteen selections in the 2008 NFL Draft and chose defensive tackle Glenn Dorsey and offensive lineman Branden Albert in the first round. Analysts quickly called Kansas City's selections as the best of the entire draft. Entering the season, the Chiefs were unsure if injury-prone quarterback Brodie Croyle, who was the incumbent starter, could be their quarterback in the long-term. Croyle was injured in the team's first game of the season and Damon Huard started in Croyle's absence. Tyler Thigpen become the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games for a start against the Atlanta Falcons. After a poor performance by Thigpen, in which he threw three interceptions against the Falcons defense, Huard was retained as the starting quarterback. The Chiefs struggled off the field as much as on as tight end Tony Gonzalez demanded a trade and running back Larry Johnson was involved in legal trouble. \n\nCroyle returned for the Chiefs' game against the Tennessee Titans, but both he and Damon Huard suffered season-ending injuries in the game. The Chiefs reorganized their offense to a new spread offense game plan focused around Tyler Thigpen. The Chiefs' new offense was implemented to help Thigpen play to the best of his abilities and also following the absence of Larry Johnson, who was suspended for his off-field conduct. The Chiefs made a huge gamble by using the spread offense, as most in the NFL believe that it cannot work in professional football, and also head coach Herman Edwards was traditionally in favor of more conservative, run-oriented game plans.\n\n2009–2012 \n\nThe 2008 season ended with a franchise worst 2–14 record, where the team suffered historic blowout defeats nearly week-in and week-out. a 34–0 shut-out to the Carolina Panthers, and allowed a franchise-high 54 points against the Buffalo Bills. The team's general manager, chief executive officer, and team president Carl Peterson resigned at the end of the season, and former New England Patriots vice president of player personnel Scott Pioli was hired as his replacement for 2009. Upon his arrival, Pioli made an effort to bring in coaches and administrators from his successful past with the New England Patriots, where he won three Super Bowl titles.\n\nOn January 23, 2009, Herman Edwards was fired as head coach, and two weeks later Todd Haley signed a four-year contract to become Edwards' successor. Haley had a background with Pioli, which made him an attractive hire for Pioli's first coach in Kansas City.\n\nIn April 2009 Tony Gonzalez was traded to the Atlanta Falcons after failed trade attempts over the previous two seasons. Notably, head coach Todd Haley fired offensive coordinator Chan Gailey just weeks before the start of the 2009 season and chose to take on the coordinator duties himself. Throughout 2009 the Chiefs acquired veterans to supplement the Chiefs' young talent including Matt Cassel, Mike Vrabel, Bobby Engram, Mike Brown, Chris Chambers, and Andy Alleman. The team finished with a 4–12 record, just a two-game improvement upon their record from the 2008 season.\n\nFor the 2010 season, the Chiefs made significant hires for their coaching staff, bringing on former Patriots assistant coaches Charlie Weis and Romeo Crennel to coach the offense and defense, respectively. The coaching additions proved to be very successful, as the Chiefs would go on to secure their first AFC West title since 2003. Their ten victories in the 2010 season combined for as many as the team had won in their previous three seasons combined.\n\nOn January 9, 2011, the Chiefs lost their home Wild Card playoff game to the Baltimore Ravens 30–7. Six players were chosen for the Pro Bowl: Dwayne Bowe, Jamaal Charles, Brian Waters, Tamba Hali, Matt Cassel and rookie safety Eric Berry. Jamaal Charles won the FEDEX ground player of the year award and Dwayne Bowe led the NFL in Touchdown Receptions.\n\nFor their first pick in the 2011 NFL draft, and 26th overall, the team selected Jonathan Baldwin, Wide Receiver from Pitt. After a poor start, Haley was relieved of duties as Head Coach on December 12. Clark Hunt made note of \"bright spots at different points this season,\" but felt that overall the Chiefs were not progressing. The highest point of the 2011 season was an upset win against the Packers, who at that time, were undefeated with a 13–0 record.\n\nThe Chiefs became the first team since the 1929 Buffalo Bisons to not lead in regulation through any of their first nine games. The Chiefs tied their franchise worst record of 2–14 and clinched the No. 1 overall pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. It is the first time in franchise history they have held the first overall pick. \n\n2013–2014 \n\nFollowing the 2012 season, the Chiefs fired head coach Romeo Crennel and general manager Scott Pioli. Former Philadelphia Eagles head coach Andy Reid was brought in as head coach to work with new general manager John Dorsey, a former Green Bay Packers head scout.\n\nThe Chiefs acquired quarterback Alex Smith from the San Francisco 49ers for the Chiefs' second-round pick, 34th overall, in the 2013 draft and a conditional pick in 2014 draft. Matt Cassel was released shortly after. The Chiefs selected Eric Fisher with the first overall pick of the 2013 NFL Draft.\n\nThe Chiefs started 9–0 for the second time in team history. They would lead their wildcard game against the Indianapolis Colts 38–10 shortly after halftime, but they would collapse late and lose, 45–44.\n\n2015\n\nAfter a promising win for the Chiefs against Houston in Week 1, Kansas City went on a five-game losing streak culminating in a 16–10 loss to Minnesota and the loss of Jamaal Charles to a torn ACL. However, they managed one of the most improbable season comebacks in the NFL and won ten straight to improve their record from 1–5 to 11–5. The team clinched a playoff berth after a 17–13 win over Cleveland in Week 16 to become only the second NFL team to do so after the merger.\n\nThe streak achieved by the Chiefs broke a franchise record for 9 straight (2003, 2013) and second under Reid. After a Week 17 win over Oakland 23–17, the Chiefs achieved their longest winning streak in franchise history at ten games. They qualified for the playoffs, and started out by beating the Houston Texans in the AFC Wild-Card round, 30–0. It was their first playoff win since 1994, and incidentally, in the same city as their last playoff win. Riddled with injuries, they were defeated by the New England Patriots 27–20 in the AFC Divisional Round.\n\nSeason-by-season records \n\nThis is a partial list of the last five seasons (2011–15) completed by the Chiefs. For the full season-by-season franchise results, see List of Kansas City Chiefs seasons.\n\nNote: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.\n\nRecord as of the end of the 2015 NFL season\n\nLogos and uniforms\n\nWhen the Texans began playing in 1960, the team's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas. Originally, Hunt chose Columbia blue and orange for the Texans' uniforms, but Bud Adams chose Columbia blue and scarlet for his Houston Oilers franchise. Hunt reverted to red and gold for the Texans' uniforms, which even after the team relocated to Kansas City, remain as the franchise's colors to this day.\n\nThe state of Texas on the team's helmet was replaced by an arrowhead design originally sketched by Lamar Hunt on a napkin. Hunt's inspiration for the interlocking \"KC\" design was the \"SF\" inside of an oval on the San Francisco 49ers helmets. Unlike the 49ers' logo, Kansas City’s overlapping initials appear inside a white arrowhead instead of an oval and are surrounded by a thin black outline. From 1960 to 1973, the Chiefs had grey facemask bars on their helmets, but changed to white bars in 1974, making them one of the first teams in the NFL to use a non-gray facemask.\n\nThe Chiefs' uniform design has essentially remained the same throughout the club's history. It consists of a red helmet, and either red or white jerseys with the opposite color numbers and names. White pants were used with both jerseys from 1960 to 1967 and 1989 to 1999. Beginning in 2009, during the Pioli/Haley era, the team has alternated between white and red pants for road games during the season. Prior to September 15, 2013, the Chiefs always wore white pants with their red jerseys. The Chiefs have never worn an alternate jersey in a game, although custom jerseys are sold for retail.\n\nThe Chiefs wore their white jerseys with white pants at home for the 2006 season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals. The logic behind the uniform selection that day was that the Bengals would be forced to wear their black uniforms on a day that forecasted for steamy temperatures. The only other time the Chiefs wore white at home was throughout the 1980 season under Marv Levy.\n\nIn 2007, the Kansas City Chiefs honored Lamar Hunt and the AFL with a special patch. It features the AFL's logo from the 1960s with Hunt's \"LH\" initials inside the football. In 2008, the patch became permanently affixed to the left chest of both Kansas City's home and away jerseys.\n\nIn select games for the 2009 season, the Chiefs, as well as the other founding teams of the American Football League, wore \"throwback\" uniforms to celebrate the AFL's 50th anniversary. \n\nFor the first time in team history, the Chiefs wore their red jersey with red pants forming an all red combo in their home opener against the Dallas Cowboys on September 15, 2013.\n\nArrowhead Stadium\n\nArrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 76,416, which makes it the sixth-largest stadium in the NFL. The stadium underwent a $375 million renovation, completed in mid-2010, which included new luxury boxes, wider concourses and enhanced amenities. The stadium renovation was paid for by $250 million in taxpayer money and $125 million from the Hunt Family. The stadium cost $53 million to build in 1972, and an average ticket in 2009 costs $81. Centerplate serves as the stadium's concession provider and Sprint Nextel, Anheuser-Busch and Coca-Cola are major corporate sponsors.\n\nDating back to the Chiefs' home opener in 1991 to mid-2009, the Chiefs had 155 consecutive sellout games. The streak ended with the final home game of the 2009 season against the Cleveland Browns, resulting in the first local TV blackout in over 19 years.\n Arrowhead has been called one of the world's finest stadiums and has long held a reputation for being one of the toughest and loudest outdoor stadiums for opposing players to play in. All noise is directly attributed to its fans and was once measured at 116 decibels by the Acoustical Design Group of Mission, Kansas. By way of comparison, take-off of aircraft may lead to a sound level of 106 decibels at the ground. Sports Illustrated named Arrowhead Stadium the \"toughest place to play\" for opposing teams in 2005. The tailgate party environment outside the stadium on gameday has been compared to a \"college football\" atmosphere. Arrowhead Stadium features frequent fly-overs from a B-2 Spirit stealth bomber from nearby Whiteman Air Force Base. Since the 1994 NFL season, the stadium has had a natural grass playing surface. From 1972 to 1993, the stadium had an artificial AstroTurf surface.\n\nDuring the game against the Oakland Raiders on October 13, 2013, Arrowhead Stadium once again became the loudest stadium in the world when the fans set the Guinness Book of World Records record for loudest crowd in an outdoor stadium (137.5 dB), breaking the record set by the Seattle Seahawks just four weeks prior. A few weeks after, Seattle re-gained the record by reaching a noise level of 137.6 decibels. Chiefs fans have reclaimed the record once again; on September 29, 2014, on Monday Night Football against the New England Patriots, the fans recorded a sound reading of 142.2 decibels. As of the end of the 2014 season, the Chiefs are unbeaten at Arrowhead against the Arizona Cardinals (4–0) and Washington Redskins (3–0), but winless there against the Baltimore Ravens (0–3).\n\nTraining camp and practice facility\n\nWhen the franchise was based in Dallas, the team conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. They moved camp to Southern Methodist University, owner Lamar Hunt's alma mater, for 1961 and continued to practice there until 1965. From 1966 to 1971, the Chiefs practiced in Swope Park in Kansas City, and from 1972 to 1991 held camp at William Jewell College in Clay County, Missouri–where Lamar Hunt had extensive business dealings including Worlds of Fun, Oceans of Fun and SubTropolis.\n\nFrom 1991 to 2009 the Chiefs conducted summer training camp at the University of Wisconsin–River Falls in River Falls, Wisconsin. The Chiefs' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO/NFL Films documentary reality television series, Hard Knocks. Following the passage of a $25 million state tax credit proposal, the Chiefs moved their training camp to Missouri Western State University in St. Joseph, Missouri, in 2010. The bulk of the tax credits went for improvements to Arrowhead Stadium with $10 million applied to the move to Missouri Western. A climate-controlled, 120-yard NFL regulation grass indoor field, and office space for the Chiefs was constructed at Missouri Western adjacent to the school's Spratt Stadium before the 2010 season. \n\nOutside of training camp and during the regular season, the Chiefs conduct practices at their own training facility nearby Arrowhead Stadium. The facility is located near the Raytown Road entrance to the Truman Sports Complex just east of Interstate 435 and features three outdoor fields (two grass and one artificial turf) as well as an indoor facility with its own full-size field.\n\nMascots and cheerleaders\n\nThe Chiefs' first mascot was Warpaint, a nickname given to several different breeds of pinto horse. Warpaint served as the team's mascot from 1963 to 1988. The first Warpaint (born in 1955, died in 1992) was ridden bareback by rider Bob Johnson who wore a full Native American headdress. Warpaint circled the field at the beginning of each Chiefs home game and performed victory laps following each Chiefs touchdown. On September 20, 2009, a new Warpaint horse was unveiled at the Chiefs' home opener against the Oakland Raiders. Warpaint is now ridden by a cheerleader, Susie. \n\nIn the mid-1980s, the Chiefs featured a short-lived unnamed \"Indian man\" mascot which was later scrapped in 1988. Since 1989 the cartoon-like K. C. Wolf, portrayed by Dan Meers in a wolf costume, has served as the team's mascot. The mascot was named after the Chiefs' \"Wolfpack,\" a group of rabid fans from the team's days at Municipal Stadium. K. C. Wolf is one of the most popular NFL mascots and was the league's first mascot inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame in 2006. \n\nThe Chiefs have employed a cheerleading squad since the team's inception in 1960. In the team's early days, the all-female squad was referred to as the Chiefettes. In addition to the Cheerleaders, in the early 1970s, there was also a dance/drill team that performed for pre-game and halftime. From 1986 to 1992, the cheerleader squad featured a mix of men and women. Since 1993, the all-female squad has been known as the Chiefs Cheerleaders. \n\nNotable players\n\nRoster\n\nRetired numbers\n\nPro Football Hall of Fame enshrinees\n\nChiefs Hall of Fame\n\nThe Chiefs are one of 16 organizations that honor their players, coaches and contributors with a team Hall of Fame or Ring of Honor. Established in 1970, the Chiefs Hall of Fame has inducted a new member in an annual ceremony with the exception of the 1983 season. Several of the names were featured at Arrowhead Stadium in the stadium's architecture prior to renovations in 2009. The requirements for induction are that a player, coach, or contributor must have been with the Chiefs for four seasons and been out of the NFL for four seasons at the time of induction. There are some exceptions, such as Joe Delaney and Derrick Thomas, Delaney was with the team for only two seasons before his death, Thomas was inducted 1 year after his death in January 2000 (2 years after his final season). The Chiefs have the second-most enshrinees of any NFL team in their team hall of fame behind the Green Bay Packers, who have enshrined over 100 players and team contributors over the years in the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame.\n\n;1970s\n1970: Lamar Hunt, team founder and owner\n1971: #36 Mack Lee Hill, RB\n1972: #75 Jerry Mays, DT\n1973: #84 Fred Arbanas, TE\n1974: #42 Johnny Robinson, S\n1975: #88 Chris Burford, WR\n1976: #55 E.J. Holub, C/LB\n1977: #77 Jim Tyrer, OT\n1978: #21 Mike Garrett, RB\n1979: #16 Len Dawson, QB\n\n;1980s\n1980: #78 Bobby Bell, LB\n1981: #86 Buck Buchanan, DT\n1982: #89 Otis Taylor, WR\n1983: No induction\n1984: #71 Ed Budde, G\n1985: #63 Willie Lanier, LB\n1986: #18 Emmitt Thomas, CB\n1987: Hank Stram, Coach\n1988: #44 Jerrel Wilson, P\n1989: #14 Ed Podolak, RB\n\n;1990s\n1990: #51 Jim Lynch, LB\n1991: #28 Abner Haynes, RB\n1992: #3 Jan Stenerud, K\n1993: #69 Sherrill Headrick, LB\n1994: #58 Jack Rudnay, C\n1995: #32 Curtis McClinton, RB\n1996: #20 Deron Cherry, S\n1997: #73 Dave Hill, OT\n1998: #67 Art Still, DE\n1999: #34 Lloyd Burruss, S\n\n;2000s\n2000: #35 Christian Okoye, RB\n2001: #58 Derrick Thomas, LB\n2002: #76 John Alt, OT\n2003: #59 Gary Spani, LB\n2004: #37 Joe Delaney, RB\n2005: Jack Steadman, team administrator\n2006: #90 Neil Smith, DE\n2007: #29 Albert Lewis, CB\n2008: #61 Curley Culp, DT\n2009: #8 Nick Lowery, K\n\n;2010s\n2010: Marty Schottenheimer, Coach\n2011: #31 Kevin Ross, CB\n2012: #68 Will Shields, OG\n2013: #26 Gary Barbaro, S\n2014: #31 Priest Holmes, RB\n2015: #24 Gary Green, CB\n\nHead coaches\n\nThirteen head coaches have served the Texans/Chiefs franchise since their first season in 1960. Hank Stram, the team's first head coach, led the Chiefs to three AFL championship victories and two appearances in the Super Bowl. Stram was the team's longest-tenured head coach, holding the position from 1960 to 1974. Marty Schottenheimer was hired in 1989 and led Kansas City to seven playoff appearances in his 10 seasons as head coach. Schottenheimer had the best winning percentage (.634) of all Chiefs coaches. Gunther Cunningham was on the Chiefs' coaching staff in various positions from 1995 to 2008, serving as the team's head coach in between stints as the team's defensive coordinator. Dick Vermeil coached the team to a franchise-best 9–0 start in the 2003 season. Of the ten Chiefs coaches, Hank Stram and Marv Levy have been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Herman Edwards served as the team's head coach from 2006 to 2008, compiling a 15–33 record and a franchise worst 6–26 record over a two-year span. Todd Haley compiled a 19–26 record with the team from 2009–2011, including an AFC West division title in 2010. Haley was fired with three games left in the 2011 season. Romeo Crennel was named interim coach, and was promoted to full-time coach in January 2012. Crennel was fired on Monday, December 31, 2012, after finishing the 2012 season with a 2–14 record. On January 5, 2013, the Chiefs hired Andy Reid to be their next head coach. In Reid's first season with the Chiefs, they started the season with a 9–0 record while having the No. 1 defense in the league.\n\nOwnership and administration\n\nThe franchise was founded in 1959 by Lamar Hunt after a failed attempt by Hunt to purchase an NFL franchise and relocate them to Texas. Hunt purchased the franchise for $25,000 in 1960 and remained the team's owner until his death in 2006. The Hunt family kept ownership of the team following Lamar's death and Clark Hunt, Lamar's son, represents the family's interests. While Hunt's official title is Chairman of the Board, he serves as the franchise's de facto owner. In 2010, Hunt assumed role as CEO alongside his role as Chairman of the Board. According to Forbes, the team is valued at just under $1 billion and ranks 20th among NFL teams in 2010.\n\nOwner Lamar Hunt served as the team's president from 1960 to 1976. Because of Lamar Hunt's contributions to the NFL, the AFC Championship trophy is named after him. He promoted general manager Jack Steadman to become the team's president in 1977. Steadman held the job until Carl Peterson was hired by Hunt in 1988 to replace him. Peterson resigned the title as team president in 2008. Denny Thum became the team's interim president following Peterson's departure and was officially given the full position in May 2009. Thum resigned from his position on September 14, 2010. \n\nDon Rossi served as the team's general manager for half of the 1960 season, resigning in November 1960. Jack Steadman assumed duties from Rossi and served in the position until 1976. Steadman was promoted to team president in 1976 and despite being relieved of those duties in 1988, he remained with the franchise until 2006 in various positions. Jim Schaaf took over for Steadman as general manager until being fired in December 1988. Carl Peterson was hired in 1988 to serve as the team's general manager, chief executive officer and team president. Peterson remained in the position for 19 years until he announced his resignation from the team in 2008. Denny Thum served as interim general manager until January 13, 2009, when the Chiefs named New England Patriots executive Scott Pioli the team's new general manager. \nPioli was released in early January after the hiring of Andy Reid, and was replaced by John Dorsey. Pioli's record as the Chief's general manager was 23–41.\n\nStaff\n\nMedia\n\nRadio and television\n\nSince 1989, KCFX, a.k.a. \"101 The Fox\", has broadcast all Chiefs games on FM radio under the moniker of [http://www.kcchiefsradio.com/ The Chiefs Fox Football Radio Network.] Since 1994, Mitch Holthus has served as play-by-play announcer and former Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson serves as color commentator. Former Chiefs longsnapper Kendall Gammon serves as the field reporter. Former Chiefs broadcaster Bob Gretz also contributes to the broadcasts. KCFX holds broadcast rights to Chiefs games through the 2009 season. The Chiefs and KCFX hold the distinction of being the longest FM radio broadcast partnering tenure in the NFL. The Chiefs Radio Network extends throughout the six-state region of Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, with 61 affiliate stations.\n\nKCTV Channel 5 (CBS) broadcasts most Chiefs regular season games, with exceptions as following. KCTV also broadcasts all Chiefs pre-season games. WDAF Channel 4 (Fox) broadcasts games in which the Chiefs host an NFC opponent. KSHB Channel 41 (NBC) broadcasts all games in which the Chiefs play on NBC Sunday Night Football or NBC's NFL playoffs coverage. KMBC Channel 9 (ABC) has aired Monday Night Football games locally since 1970.\n\nPrior to the 1994 season, WDAF was the primary station for the Chiefs as an NBC affiliate (they aired on KMBC when ABC had the AFL package through 1964), since NBC had the AFC package. The inter-conference home games aired on KCTV starting in 1973 (when the NFL allowed local telecasts of home games). After week one of the 1994 season, WDAF switched to Fox (which got the NFC package), and has aired the Chiefs' inter-conference home games since. The bulk of the team's games moved to KSHB through the end of the 1997 season. Since that time, they have aired on KCTV, save for the 2015 Week 17 game vs. the Oakland Raiders, which aired on WDAF when the NFL cross-flexed the game from CBS to FOX. \n\nAs of the 2015 preseason, the Chiefs preseason broadcasters were Paul Burmeister who serves as the play-by-play announcer, former Chiefs quarterback Trent Green serves as the color commentator, and KCChiefs.com insider B.J. Kissel is the sideline reporter.\n\nRadio affiliates\n\nChiefs games are broadcast in Missouri and Kansas as well as parts of Iowa, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Arkansas, and South Dakota. Stations in major cities are listed below.\n\nPreseason game affiliates\n\nCulture\n\nFan base\n\nThe Chiefs boast one of the most loyal fan bases in the NFL. Kansas City is the sixth-smallest media market with an NFL team, but they have had the second-highest attendance average over the last decade. Studies by Bizjournals in 2006 gave the Chiefs high marks for consistently drawing capacity crowds in both good seasons and bad. The Chiefs averaged 77,300 fans per game from 1996 to 2006, second in the NFL behind the Washington Redskins. The franchise has an official fan club called Chiefs Kingdom which gives members opportunities to ticket priority benefits and VIP treatment. \n\nAt the end of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before home games, many Chiefs fans intentionally yell out \"CHIEFS!\" rather than singing \"brave\" as the final word. In 1996, general manager Carl Peterson said \"We all look forward, not only at Arrowhead, but on the road, too, to when we get to that stanza of the National Anthem... Our players love it.\" After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Chiefs fans refrained from doing so in honor of those who lost their lives in the tragedy and continued to do so for the remainder of the 2001 season. At the Chiefs' September 23, 2001, home game against the New York Giants, fans gave the opposing Giants a standing ovation. \n\nAfter every Chiefs touchdown at home games, fans chant while pointing in the direction of the visiting team and fans, \"We're gonna beat the hell outta you...you...you, you, you, you!\" over the song \"Rock and Roll Part 2.\" The chant starts after the third \"hey!\" in the song. The original version of the song by Gary Glitter was previously used until the NFL banned his music from its facilities in 2006 following the British rocker's conviction on sexual abuse charges in Vietnam. A cover version of the song played by Tube Tops 2000 has been played since 2006 at every home game. Chiefs fans also occasionally carry on a tradition that began at Florida State University in the mid 1980s by using the Seminole WarChant as a rallying cry during key moments in their football games. \n\nThe Chiefs' fan base has expanded across the world like many other NFL teams. However, there is a Twitter account dedicated to Chiefs fans in the UK and has been recognized by the Kansas City Chiefs and is their official UK fan page. They have many dedicated fans writing articles and interviewing players of the team such as Tamba Hali. \n\nArrowhead Stadium is also recognized by Guinness World Records as having the loudest outdoor stadium in the world. This was achieved on September 29, 2014 in a Monday Night Football game against the New England Patriots when the crowd achieved a roar of 142.2 decibels which is comparable to standing 100 feet from a jet engine, which even with short term exposure, can cause permanent damage. \n\nTony DiPardo\n\nFrom various periods between 1963 and the 2008 season, trumpeter Tony DiPardo and The T.D. Pack Band played live music at every Chiefs home game. The band was known as The Zing Band when the team was located at Municipal Stadium. DiPardo was honored by head coach Hank Stram in 1969 with a Super Bowl ring for the team's victory in Super Bowl IV. When his health was declining, DiPardo took a leave of absence from the band from 1983 to 1988. DiPardo's daughter took over as bandleader in 1989, by which time DiPardo returned to the band by popular demand. For the 2009 season, due to renovations at Arrowhead Stadium, the band did not return to perform at the stadium.\n\nDiPardo died on January 27, 2011, at age 98. He had been hospitalized since December 2010 after suffering a brain aneurysm.", "The following is a detailed history of the Kansas City Chiefs, a professional American football franchise that began play in 1960 as the Dallas Texans. The team was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL), and now is currently part of the National Football League (NFL).\n\nThe Texans won the AFL Championship in 1962, and the team relocated to Kansas City, Missouri the following year. In 1966, the Chiefs won their second AFL title and appeared in the inaugural AFL-NFL World Championship game. In 1969, the Chiefs won the final AFL title and went on to defeat the NFL's heavily favored Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV. The Texans/Chiefs were the most victorious franchise in AFL history, compiling an 87-48-5 record from 1960 to 1969. However, their victory on January 11, 1970 remains the franchise's only Super Bowl title to date.\n\nAFL origins\n\nIn 1959, Lamar Hunt, son of oil tycoon H. L. Hunt, began discussions with other businessmen in establishing an American football organization that would rival that of the National Football League. Since as early as 1958, Hunt had the interest of purchasing an NFL franchise and moving them to Dallas, Texas. His desire to secure a professional football franchise was further heightened after watching the historic 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants. The team that Hunt was most interested in buying was the Chicago Cardinals. \n\nThe NFL convinced Hunt to contact Cardinals owner Violet Bidwill Wolfner, and her husband Walter Wolfner eventually agreed to sell Hunt 20 percent of the Cardinals franchise. Hunt declined the opportunity. He then conceived the concept of forming a second league. \"Why wouldn’t a second league work\", Hunt recalled. \"There was an American and National League in baseball, why not football?\" Hunt contacted several other individuals who had expressed interest in the Cardinals franchise—Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, Max Winter and Bill Boyer—and gauged their interest in forming a second league.\n\nOn August 14, the first meeting of the new league was held in Chicago. Charter memberships were issued to six original cities — Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles and Minneapolis. The league was officially christened the American Football League on August 22. Ralph Wilson was extended the league's seventh franchise on October 28 and Billy Sullivan became the league's eighth team's owner on November 22. Minneapolis withdrew its franchise from the AFL in November after receiving an offer for a team in the NFL, and Oakland, California instead joined the AFL as the Oakland Raiders.\n\nEarly years in Dallas\n\nFor the Texans' inaugural season, team owner Lamar Hunt pursued both legendary University of Oklahoma coach Bud Wilkinson and New York Giants defensive assistant Tom Landry to lead his Texans franchise. Wilkinson opted to stay at Oklahoma, while Landry was destined to coach the NFL's franchise in Dallas. In Mid-December 1959 Hunt settled on a relatively unknown assistant coach from the University of Miami, Hank Stram. \"One of the biggest reasons I hired Hank was that he really wanted the job\", Hunt explained. \"It turned out to be a very lucky selection on my part.\"\n\nThe Texans were very fortunate to have Don Klosterman as their head talent man. Klosterman had a penchant for luring star talent away from the NFL, and for finding talent otherwise undiscovered.\n\nReserved seats at the Cotton Bowl cost USD $4, general admission USD $2 and high school students paid USD $.90 that initial season. Don Rossi served as the team's General Manager until November when he was succeeded by Jack Steadman. The team was headquartered in the Mercantile National Bank Building. The AFL was also headquartered in Dallas.\n\nThe Texans conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. The club embarked on a whirlwind pre-season barnstorming tour that featured road games in Oakland, Tulsa, Boston, Abilene and Little Rock. An announced crowd of 51,000 at the Cotton Bowl witnessed a 24-3 victory against Houston on September 2 as the club concluded a perfect 6-0 preseason record.\n\nIn their early years, the Texans had a strong home-state identity with quarterback Cotton Davidson from Baylor, linebacker Sherrill Headrick from TCU and running back Abner Haynes from North Texas. Haynes led the league with 875 rushing yards and nine TDs, as well as combined net yards (2,100) and punt return average (15.4). The Texans also had a flashy, high-scoring club which finished the year at 8-6 as three close losses kept the squad from challenging for the division title. The Texans averaged 24,500 for their home games, the highest average in the league. In one attempt to draw more fans to their games, the Texans would offer free tickets to anyone who brought a ticket stub from the previous Friday's high school football game, to counter the NFL Cowboys' playing their home games on Friday night.\n\nIn 1961, the Texans and the NFL's Dallas Cowboys both drafted linebacker E.J. Holub from Texas Tech, described by many scouts as \"the best football player in America.\" Holub decided to play for the Texans, joining three future franchise Hall of Famers—Jerry Mays, Fred Arbanas and Jim Tyrer—as part of the club's draft class. The club moved its training camp to Lamar Hunt's alma mater of Southern Methodist University and started the regular season at 3-1 before hitting a six-game losing skid, the longest such streak of Stram's tenure with the franchise. The Texans rebounded to claim wins in three of its final four contests to finish 6-8, marking the club's second straight finish behind the San Diego Chargers in the AFL Western Conference standings.\n\nIn 1962, head coach Hank Stram was named AFL Coach of the Year and running back Curtis McClinton was named the AFL Rookie of the Year. Haynes became the franchise's first 1,000-yard rusher, concluding the season with 1,049 yards and an AFL-high 13 rushing touchdowns.\n\nThe Texans clinched their initial AFL Western Division Championship in November and finished with an 11-3 regular season record. The team won the 1962 AFL Championship when kicker Tommy Brooker connected on a 25-yard field goal during the second overtime of the title game, giving the Texans a 20-17 victory against the Houston Oilers. Spanning an elapsed time of 77:54, the game stands as the third-longest contest in pro football history. Until a Christmas Day playoff game in 1971 between the Chiefs and Dolphins, the game was the longest ever played.\n\nThe move to Kansas City\n\nAfter three seasons in Dallas, Texas, it was apparent that Dallas couldn’t support two teams. Hunt investigated opportunities to move his team to several cities for the 1963 season, including Miami, Atlanta, Seattle and New Orleans. Hunt wanted to find a city to which he could commute easily from Dallas, and when he was unable to secure Tulane Stadium because the university didn’t want its football program to compete with a pro team, he turned to Kansas City, Missouri, where Mayor H. Roe Bartle persuaded him to move to the Midwest.\n\nThe negotiations in Kansas City were conducted in secrecy. On several occasions Hunt and Jack Steadman were in Kansas City and met with businessmen, without the general public's knowledge. Bartle introduced Hunt as \"Mr. Lamar\" in all the meetings with other Kansas City businessmen. Steadman was introduced as \"Jack X.\" \n\nThe support the team received from the Kansas City community before the team announced the move was extraordinary. Hunt made the move dependent upon the ability of Mayor Bartle and the Kansas City community to guarantee him 35,000 in season ticket sales. Hunt had set this number, being that it was the Texans' average attendance at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas. An ambitious campaign took shape to deliver on Bartle's guarantee to Hunt of tripling the season-ticket base the Texans had enjoyed in Dallas. Kansas City's mayor also promised to add 3,000 permanent seats to Municipal Stadium, as well as 11,000 temporary bleacher seats. Along with Bartle, a number of other prominent Kansas Citians stepped forward to aid in the efforts, putting together more than 1,000 workers to sell season tickets.\n\nBartle called to his office 20 business leaders and called upon them to form an association later known as \"The Gold Coats\", whose sole objective was to sell and take down payments on the 35,000 season tickets required. \"The Gold Coats\" had to sell season tickets to people without knowing the team name, where it was coming from, who the owner was, which football league they would play in, who the players or coaches were, when the team would play its first game in Kansas City, or where it would play. Hunt gave Bartle a four-month deadline to accomplish the sales. Bartle and \"The Gold Coats\" made good in only 8 weeks. Later, Hunt admitted he was really only hoping for 20,000, for which he still would have moved the franchise. On May 22, Hunt announced he was moving the franchise to Kansas City, Missouri. \n\nHunt, with a roster replete with players who had played college football in Texas, wanted to maintain a lineage to the team's roots and wanted to name the club the Kansas City Texans. \"The Lakers stayed the Lakers when they moved from Minnesota to California\", he reasoned. \"But Jack Steadman convinced me that wasn’t too smart. It wouldn’t sell.\" The team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs—one of the most popular suggestions Hunt received in a name-the-team contest. A name also considered at the time for the team was the Kansas City Mules.\n\nThe name, \"Chiefs\" is not only derived from a fan contest, but also from Mayor Bartle, who 35 years prior, founded the Native American-based honor society known as The Tribe of Mic-O-Say within the Boy Scouts of America organization, which earned him the nickname, \"The Chief.\"\n\nThe Chiefs moved into Municipal Stadium, located at 22nd and Brooklyn, which opened in 1923 and had 49,002 seats. The Chiefs shared the facilities with the Kansas City Athletics of Major League Baseball. The first appearance of the Chiefs in Municipal Stadium attracted just 5,721 fans for a 17-13 pre-season victory against Buffalo on August 9.\n\nThe Chiefs' inaugural season in Kansas City began with owner Lamar Hunt's trade of starting quarterback Cotton Davidson to the Oakland Raiders, which landed the number one overall selection in the AFL Draft (which they used to select Buck Buchanan). Ironically, the Raiders would later select Gene Upshaw in 1967 for the express purpose of blocking Buchanan. The Chiefs also selected guard Ed Budde from Michigan State with their other first round pick, and Bobby Bell from Minnesota in the seventh round. Buchanan, Budde and Bell all became starters on their way to a combined 526 games with the team and all three of them played their entire careers with the Chiefs.\n\nTragedy struck the club when rookie running back Stone Johnson, who was a sprinter in the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome, suffered a fractured vertebra in his neck in a pre-season game against Oakland on August 30 in Wichita, Kansas. He died 10 days later on September 8 and his jersey number 33 was subsequently retired. The Chiefs finished their first season in Kansas City with a 5-7-2 record and failed to reappear in the AFL Championship game for a consecutive year.\n\nBuilding a champion, 1964-69\n\nIn 1964, the Chiefs began the year with a 2-1 mark before dropping three consecutive games as several of the team's best players, including E.J. Holub, Fred Arbanas and Johnny Robinson missed numerous games with injuries. Arbanas missed the final two games of the year after undergoing surgery to his left eye, in which he suffered almost total loss of vision. Running back Mack Lee Hill, who signed with the club as a rookie free agent and received a mere $300 signing bonus, entered the starting lineup and earned a spot in the AFL All-Star Game. The club rounded out the season with two consecutive wins to close the season at 7-7, finishing second in the AFL Western Conference behind the San Diego Chargers. An average of just 18,126 fans attended each home game at Municipal Stadium, prompting discussion at the AFL owners’ meeting about the Chiefs future in Kansas City.\n\nFor the 1965 season, the Chiefs were once again caught in the middle of the AFL and NFL's bidding wars for college talent. Kansas City made running back Gale Sayers from the University of Kansas their first-round draft pick, but Sayers eventually signed with the Bears for less money. Running back Mack Lee Hill suffered torn ligaments in his right knee in the second to last regular season game of the year at Buffalo on December 12. Following what was expected to be a routine surgery on December 14 at Menorah Hospital in Kansas City, Hill died from what was termed \"a sudden and massive embolism.\" Hunt called Hill's death \"the worst shock possible.\" Beginning the following year, the club annually bestowed the Mack Lee Hill Award on its top rookie or first-year performer in Hill's honor. Just days after Hill's unexpected death, the mourning Chiefs defeated the Denver Broncos on December 19 to finish the year with a 7-5-2 record.\n\nIn 1966, the Chiefs were beginning to lay the groundwork for a return to the AFL Championship game and eventual dominance in the later years of the AFL. Team owner Lamar Hunt was publicly negotiating with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle about a possible merger of the two leagues. Defensive end Aaron Brown was highly coveted by many clubs, including the NFL's Steelers, who intended to select him. The Steelers couldn’t locate Brown on draft day since he was already aboard a flight with Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt, who carried out the first mid-air signing in team history. The Chiefs signed Heisman Trophy-winning running back Mike Garrett in the 20th round of the 1966 AFL Draft. Garrett went on to earn AFL Rookie of the Year honors for the 1966 season.\n\nThe Chiefs started the season at 3-0. A crowd of 43,885 attended the Chiefs home opener against the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills on October 2, the largest ever to witness a sports event in Kansas City at the time. The Chiefs dropped a 29-14 decision to the Bills, but after the contest, Chiefs coach Hank Stram and Buffalo head coach Joe Collier negotiated a trade in the middle of the field. Kansas City received placekicker Mike Mercer for a fifth-round pick. Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson led the league in passing, while Otis Taylor became the first 1,000-yard receiver in franchise history, registering 1,297 yards. The Chiefs finished three games in front of Oakland to claim an AFL Western Conference title with an 11-2-1 record, setting the stage for the franchise's second trip to the AFL Championship Game.\n\nUsing a dazzling I-formation offense and a smothering defense, the Chiefs claimed a dominating 31-7 victory in the AFL title game at Buffalo on New Year's Day, 1967. That victory propelled Kansas City to the first AFL-NFL World Championship Game, later known as the Super Bowl. At the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Chiefs met Vince Lombardi's powerful Green Bay Packers of the National Football League on January 15, 1967. The Chiefs played the Packers close for a half, trailing 14-10, but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters, winning the game by a score of 35-10.\n\nFor 1967, the club's special teams got a boost with the addition of kicker Jan Stenerud, and kick returner Noland \"Super Gnat\" Smith. The Chiefs' first regular season game against an NFL team resulted in a commanding 66-24 Chiefs victory against the Chicago Bears at Municipal Stadium on August 23. Injuries again hit the club hard during the regular season as the Chiefs clawed their way to a 9-5 record.\n\nInterest in the team skyrocketed following the team's appearance in the AFL-NFL Championship Game, forcing an increase in seating capacity at Municipal Stadium from 40,000 to 47,000. In June, Jackson County voters approved a $43 million bond issue for construction of a sports complex to be completed by 1972. Eastern Jackson County was chosen as the site of the Chiefs and Royals' new stadiums, and groundbreaking ceremonies took place in July with plans calling for a unique \"rolling roof\" design (which was later scrapped).\n\nThe 1968 Chiefs defense allowed a franchise-low 170 points (12.1 ppg). The nucleus of the defensive unit was in its prime, producing six AFL All-Stars, including all three of the squad's linebackers. Offensively, quarterback Len Dawson led the AFL in passing for the fourth time. The Chiefs began the season with a 7-1 record and rattled off five straight victories to close the regular season at 12-2, sharing the AFL Western Conference title with the Oakland Raiders and setting up a one-game playoff between the two teams. Kansas City lost a 41-6 decision at Oakland on December 22 as the Raiders advanced to the 1968 AFL Championship Game against the New York Jets. The loss to Oakland is considered to be the beginning of the Chiefs' rivalry with the Raiders, one of the NFL's most bitter feuds.\n\nThe Chiefs used the momentum they built during the 1968 campaign by posting a perfect 6-0 record during pre-season play for 1969. The team began the regular season with four consecutive road games for the only time in team history. After a decisive 27-9 win at San Diego on September 14, the club posted a 31-0 shutout at Boston on September 21. During the game, quarterback Len Dawson sustained a knee injury which would sideline him for the following two months.\n\nThe once-optimistic picture for the Chiefs went from bad to worse the following week when back-up quarterback Jacky Lee went down with a broken ankle in a 24-19 loss at Cincinnati on September 28. That injury left the team's most crucial position in the hands of second-year quarterback Mike Livingston, who took just five snaps as a rookie in 1968. However, Livingston engineered a five-game winning streak, while getting plenty of help from the club's defense. The team's home opener was played in a day-long deluge referred to as a \"frog-strangler\" by Chiefs radio broadcaster Bill Grigsby. The Chiefs and Houston Oilers combined for 14 fumbles in a 24-0 Kansas City victory on October 12. Len Dawson returned to the starting lineup in a 27-3 win against San Diego on November 9 and guided the club to three wins in the season's next four games.\n\nThe Chiefs defeated the Denver Broncos 31-17 on Thanksgiving Day. Trailing 24-17 late in the game, Denver attempted an onside kick that was recovered by linebacker Bobby Bell, who promptly returned that kick for a 53-yard touchdown. Mike Livingston started the following week against Buffalo on December 7 for an again-injured Dawson, who returned for the regular season finale at Oakland on December 13. A 10-6 loss against the Raiders gave the Chiefs an 11-3 record, good for second in the AFC Western Conference behind Oakland (12-1-1).\n\nIn an AFL Divisional Playoff Game at New York, Kansas City rode its dominating defense which produced a crucial goal-line stand en route to a 13-6 win over the defending Super Bowl champion Jets to set up a rematch with the Raiders in the final AFL Championship Game. Looking for retribution of the previous losses in the regular season and in the 1968 playoffs, the Chiefs became the league's only three-time champions, defeating the Raiders by a 17-7 count at Oakland on January 4, 1970.\n\nDuring the days preceding Kansas City's clash with the heavily favored Minnesota Vikings of the NFL, unsubstantiated media reports associating Len Dawson with a known gambler hounded the Chiefs quarterback. Dawson was later revealed to be mistaken for another man with the same last name. The night before Super Bowl IV, Ed Sabol of NFL Films approached Vikings coach Bud Grant about being wired for sound for the game. Grant declined, but Chiefs coach Hank Stram accepted. As both the Chiefs and the cameras rolled, Stram clamored for his team to run \"65 toss power trap\" and to \"keep matriculating the ball down the field.\" Stram became the first-ever coach to be wired for NFL Films, and ironically, as a coach in the rival AFL.\n\nThe Chiefs used the game as a crusade for the American Football League and wore \"AFL-10\" patches honoring the league's 10-year existence. The Chiefs used three field goals from Jan Stenerud and a rushing touchdown from Mike Garrett to take a 16-0 halftime lead. A dynamic 46-yard TD pass from Len Dawson to Otis Taylor in the third quarter sealed the victory as Dawson was named the game's Most Valuable Player. Perhaps the grittiest performance of the day came from safety Johnny Robinson, who registered two interceptions and a fumble recovery despite playing with three broken ribs. At approximately 5:20 PM, the final seconds ticked off the clock at Tulane Stadium as the Chiefs were crowned World Champions by claiming a 23-7 victory in the final game between the AFL and NFL. A victory parade ensued upon the club's triumphant return the following day in downtown Kansas City. As of 2014, Super Bowl IV remains as the last championship won by the Chiefs.\n\nAlignment to the NFL\n\nFall from glory, 1970-77\n\nFollowing their championship win, the NFL-AFL merger placed the Chiefs in the newly created AFC West division with the Chargers, Raiders, and Broncos. The team traded running back Mike Garrett to San Diego in 1970 and replaced him in the lineup with Ed Podolak. Despite a 44-24 win against Baltimore on September 28 in just the second-ever telecast of ABC's Monday Night Football package, the Chiefs owned a 3-3-1 record at the season's midpoint. The Chiefs and the Raiders tied a game at 17-17 on November 1 following a controversial play from Oakland. The Chiefs were ahead 17-14 when Len Dawson apparently sealed the win, running for a first down which would have allowed Kansas City to run out the clock. While on the ground, Dawson was speared by Raiders defensive end Ben Davidson in an infamous incident that cost the Chiefs a victory and further inflamed the already heated Chiefs-Raiders rivalry. Wide receiver Otis Taylor retaliated and a bench-clearing brawl ensued. Offsetting penalties were called, nullifying Dawson's first down. The Chiefs were forced to punt and Raiders kicker George Blanda booted a game-tying field goal with eight seconds remaining. That tie ultimately cost the Chiefs the opportunity to split the AFC West division title with Oakland as Kansas City finished the year with a 7-5-2 record, while the Raiders went 8-4-2 and reached the conference championship.\n\nIn 1971, the Chiefs were regarded by many as the finest squad ever assembled by the franchise, including team owner Lamar Hunt. The team featured a franchise record 11 Pro Bowlers. Offensively, wide receiver Otis Taylor led the league with 1,110 receiving yards. In just his third pro season, Ed Podolak surpassed Abner Haynes as the all-time leading rusher in team history. The longstanding linebacking trio of Willie Lanier, Bobby Bell and Jim Lynch was the league's best. The offensive line was headlined by guard Ed Budde and tackle Jim Tyrer, while the defensive front featured a pair of Pro Bowlers in tackles Buck Buchanan and Curley Culp. Both placekicker Jan Stenerud and punter Jerrel Wilson represented the squad in the Pro Bowl, as well.\n\nAfter bolting to a 5-1-1 start, the club went 5-2 during the second half of the season to finish the year at 10-3-1. A 16-14 victory against Oakland on December 12 gave the franchise its initial AFC West title. The great promise of the 1971 campaign ended dramatically in the longest game in NFL history, an AFC Divisional Playoff Game played on Christmas Day against the Miami Dolphins. It took 82:40 to finish the contest, but a 37-yard field goal from Dolphins kicker Garo Yepremian finally ended this epic as Miami claimed a 27-24 double overtime win in the final football contest played at Kansas City's Municipal Stadium. Chiefs' running back Ed Podolak accounted for 350 combined net yards, a figure that remains an NFL post-season record. The baton of power in the AFC was officially passed to the Dolphins, who went on to appear in three consecutive Super Bowls. It would be the Chiefs last playoff appearance for 15 years, effectively signaling the conclusion of the franchise's glory days.\n\nIn 1972, the last original member of the 1960 Dallas Texans team departed when safety Johnny Robinson announced his retirement at training camp. Meanwhile, starting quarterback Len Dawson ended speculation about his retirement by signing a two-year contract. Franchise owner Lamar Hunt became the first AFL figure to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on July 29.\n\nAfter two different construction strikes and a myriad of other delays, Arrowhead Stadium was officially dedicated on August 12 when the Chiefs registered a 24-14 victory against the St. Louis Cardinals. Running back Ed Podolak scored the first touchdown in the facility. Regular season ticket prices for the team's first season at Arrowhead were USD$8 for box seats and $7 for reserved seating.\n\nOn September 17, the Chiefs lost a 20-10 decision against Miami in the first regular season game at Arrowhead in front of a crowd of 79,829. A standing-room-only crowd of 82,094 fans was in attendance for a 27-14 victory against Oakland on November 5, the largest \"in-house\" attendance total for an NFL contest in Arrowhead's history. After a 5-3 start, a three-game losing streak effectively eliminated the club from playoff contention, including an embarrassing home loss to the winless Philadelphia Eagles. An 8-6 record was good enough for only a second-place finish in the AFC West behind Oakland. Linebacker Willie Lanier became the first Chiefs player to receive the prestigious NFL Man of the Year Award in the offseason.\n\nFor 1973, quarterback Mike Livingston started in a 23-13 Opening Day loss against Los Angeles, but Len Dawson returned to rally the club for three consecutive wins to get the club off to a 3-1 start for a third consecutive year. The aging Len Dawson made his final start of the year in a 23-14 loss at Buffalo on October 29 on Monday Night Football and was replaced for the remainder of the year by Livingston, beginning a string of three straight seasons in which both players split time at the position. Livingston led the club to another three straight wins, putting the team in first place in mid-November with a 6-3-1 record. A 1-2-1 ledger over the season's final month ended the club's post-season aspirations as the team finished the year in a second-place tie with Denver at 7-5-2. Len Dawson became the second Chiefs player in as many years to win the NFL Man of the Year Award. Following Super Bowl VIII, The AFC-NFC Pro Bowl was held at Arrowhead Stadium on January 20 with the AFC claiming a 15-13 win thanks to five field goals from Miami placekicker Garo Yepremian.\n\nWhile the club's sparkling new facility at Arrowhead Stadium was drawing rave reviews, the Chiefs roster was beginning to show its age in 1974. The result was the team's first losing season in 11 years as the club was unable to string together consecutive victories during the year, a first in franchise history. Most of the team's starters were advancing in age: Len Dawson was 39, Jim Tyrer was 35, Bobby Bell, Buck Buchanan, and Ed Budde were 34, Dave Hill was 33 and Otis Taylor was 32.\n\nOne of the year's few bright spots in the 5-9 season was cornerback Emmitt Thomas, who led the league with a franchise-record 12 interceptions. The final game of the 1974 campaign marked the final time all five of Kansas City's future Hall of Fame players from the club's AFL championship era took the field together with coach Hank Stram. Including Lamar Hunt and five future Minnesota Vikings Hall of Famers, an amazing total of 12 Hall of Fame inductees were involved in that 1974 season finale game. That 35-15 loss against Super Bowl-bound Minnesota provided an anticlimactic conclusion to Hank Stram's illustrious coaching career in Kansas City. Stram, the only head coach in franchise history was relieved of his duties on December 27 after compiling a 124-76-10 regular season record with the club.\n\nSan Francisco 49ers defensive coordinator Paul Wiggin was named the second head coach in franchise history on January 23, 1975. Wiggin inherited the unenviable task of rebuilding a squad whose pool of talent had been largely depleted due to age and a number of ill-considered trades that had left the club devoid of first-round draft choices in 1973 and 1975. After an 0-3 start to the season, Wiggin directed the Chiefs to three straight wins, beginning with a convincing 42-10 victory against the Raiders. The highlight of the season was a 34-31 upset win at Dallas on Monday Night Football. The club could not maintain the early success; owning a 5-5 record heading into the home stretch of the season, injuries to a number of key players crippled the team. The team dropped its final four contests of the year to finish at 5-9 for the second consecutive season. The regular season finale at Oakland marked the final games in the Hall of Fame careers of Len Dawson and Buck Buchanan.\n\nBy 1976, many of the Chiefs' championship players were on their way out of Kansas City. Buck Buchanan announced his retirement in February, while Dawson announced his own departure on May 1. Off the field, Jack Steadman was promoted to team president and Jim Schaaf was named general manager in August. On the field, Kansas City's fortunes didn’t improve in the second year of the Wiggin regime. The club dropped three straight home games, including a 27-17 loss to a New Orleans Saints team coached by Stram, before suffering a 50-17 setback at Buffalo on October 3, opening the season at 0-4 for the first time in team history. The team registered a 3-1 record during a successful midseason stretch, but like most of the previous seasons, could not maintain that momentum.\n\nAfter lingering in Len Dawson's shadow for eight seasons, Mike Livingston was firmly entrenched as the team's starting quarterback, becoming the first QB to start every regular season game since Dawson in 1968. Although Livingston played well and rallied the squad for wins in two of the season's final three games, the Chiefs still ended the year with their third consecutive 5-9 record. Running back MacArthur Lane was the club's top offensive threat, becoming the only player at the time in franchise history to lead the league in receptions (66).\n\nOn the field, the Chiefs suffered their worst season ever in 1977, winning just twice and undergoing a mid-season coaching change. Following three consecutive 5-9 seasons, the team finished with a league worst 2-12 record. An 0-5 start doomed the squad with a 44-7 loss at Cleveland, where Wiggin starred as a defensive lineman during the Browns' glory days, effectively sealing the coach's fate. Wiggin was relieved of his duties on Halloween, marking the only in-season coaching switch in team history. Defensive backs coach Tom Bettis was named interim coach and claimed a 20-10 victory against Green Bay in the club's initial contest under his direction, but it was the only victory of his brief head coaching tenure.\n\nBettis and the remainder of the coaching staff assembled by Wiggin were relieved on December 19, one day after a 21-20 loss at Oakland in the regular season finale. Marv Levy, the former head coach of the Canadian Football League's Montreal Alouettes, was named the fourth head coach in franchise history the following day. The heart and soul of the Chiefs once-vaunted defense departed when Willie Lanier and Jim Lynch retired following the season.\n\nSigns of improvement, 1978–1982\n\nFor 1978, Marv Levy's systematic restocking of a relatively barren defensive roster began with a 1978 draft class that included defensive end Art Still and linebacker Gary Spani. Running back Ed Podolak, who was the club's all-time leading rusher at the time, retired in the offseason on June 15.\n\nPerhaps Levy's most unconventional tactic in rebuilding the Chiefs was installing the \"Wing-T offense\". \"It was a situation where we took over a team that had the worst defensive record in the history of the National Football League\", Levy explained. \"We wanted to keep that defense off the field, so we ran the ball 60 times a game.\" The 1978 Chiefs team ran and ran often, posting franchise records with 663 rushing attempts and 2,986 ground yards. Levy's squad ran the ball a staggering 69 times in a 24-23 Opening Day win at Cincinnati on September 3, the most rushing attempts in an NFL contest since 1948. Five different players had 100-yard rushing games during the year, including running back Tony Reed, who finished the season with 1,053 yards to become the team's first 1,000-yard back since 1967. Despite the squad's Opening Day success, the club lost 10 of its next 11 games, including a pair of overtime decisions. However, the team showed signs of improvement with the defense recording a 23-0 shutout against San Diego on November 26 as the club concluded its first 16-game schedule with a 4-12 mark.\n\nIn 1979, Kansas City owned a pair of picks in the first round of the Draft, selecting defensive end Mike Bell and quarterback Steve Fuller. By the season's third game, Fuller had supplanted Mike Livingston as the club's starter.\n\nWith Fuller at the helm, the Chiefs owned a 4-2 record after six games, but a five-game mid-season losing stretch sullied that effort. Despite finishing fifth in the AFC West for a second straight season, Kansas City's 7-9 record was a notable accomplishment considering the fact that the division's other four clubs all posted winning records for a second consecutive season. The Chiefs lost a 3-0 decision at Tampa Bay on December 16 in one of the most water-logged contests in franchise annals. As both clubs struggled to move the ball under monsoon-like conditions, a late, fourth-quarter field goal by the Buccaneers averted the NFL's first scoreless tie since 1943.\n\nIn 1980, the Chiefs selected guard Brad Budde in the first round of the Draft, the son of former Chiefs guard Ed Budde, as the team's first-round draft choice, making the Buddes the first father-son combination to become first-round draftees of the same team in NFL history. In a then-controversial move on August 26, the Chiefs released placekicker Jan Stenerud, who at the time was club's all-time leading scorer. He was replaced by journeyman Nick Lowery, who had been cut 11 times by eight different teams himself.\n\nAfter enduring an 0-4 start, the club rebounded to post a four-game winning streak, starting with a 31-17 victory in Oakland, in which Raiders quarterback Dan Pastorini broke his leg and was replaced by Jim Plunkett, who guided the team to the Super Bowl XV championship. After Steve Fuller was sidelined with a knee injury late in the season, former Miami 12th-round draft choice Bill Kenney became the team's starting quarterback. He was so anonymous that when he appeared in that contest, the name on the back of his jersey was inadvertently misspelled \"Kenny.\" Kenney went on to lead the club to a 31-14 victory against Denver on December 7 in his initial NFL start. The defense continued to evolve as defensive end Art Still and safety Gary Barbaro became the first Chiefs defensive players to be elected to the Pro Bowl in five seasons. The Chiefs finished the year at 8-8, the club's highest victory tally since 1972.\n\nBill Kenney began the 1981 season as the club's starting quarterback and directed the Chiefs to a 6-2 start, including a 37-33 win over the Steelers on Opening Day. Second-round draft choice, running back Joe Delaney electrified the club's offense by rushing for 1,121 yards, a team single-season record at the time. He was named the AFC's Rookie of the Year and became the first running back to represent the franchise in the Pro Bowl. Delaney registered a 193-yard performance in a 23-10 victory against the Oilers on November 15, the best single-game total ever amassed by a Kansas City rookie.\n\nOwning an 8-4 record with four games remaining, the Chiefs were poised to make the playoffs for the first time in 10 years. However, a three-game losing streak ended the anticipation. Bill Kenney missed the club's final three contests due to injury as Steve Fuller temporarily reclaimed the starting QB position and guided the club to a 10-6 win at Minnesota, in the final contest played at Metropolitan Stadium. With the Chiefs winning the game, Vikings fans began dismembering the stadium as early as the second half—taking seats, pieces of the scoreboard and even chunks of sod as souvenirs. The victory assured the Chiefs of a 9-7 record, the club's first winning mark since 1973 as coach Marv Levy increased the club's victory total for a third consecutive year. Inspired by the Washington Redskins's \"Hail to the Redskins\", Levy penned a fight song for the Chiefs (\"Give a Cheer for Kansas City\"), but much like the team's Wing-T offense, the concept never really caught on.\n\nIn 1982, running back Joe Delaney underwent surgery to repair a detached retina in his eye, a radical procedure at the time. Optimism abounded at Arrowhead thanks to the club's promising 9-7 record from 1981, but swelling labor unrest from NFL players spelled doom for both the Chiefs and Levy in 1982. The Chiefs split their first two games of the year before a 57-day strike by the NFL Players Association began at midnight on September 20. The strike concluded on November 17 after six games were canceled and one was rescheduled, but the Chiefs would never recover, dropping four straight games after their return to the field. Center Jack Rudnay, who had been one of the franchise's most durable and decorated offensive performers over the past decade, announced on December 20 that he would retire after the season. Despite wins in two of the season's final three games, the Levy era concluded as the club finished the strike-shortened campaign at 3-6.\n\nUnbalanced chemistry, 1983-88\n\n1983\n\nTo begin 1983, the Chiefs fired head coach Marv Levy on January 4 after compiling a 31-42 record. Dallas Cowboys quarterbacks coach John Mackovic was named the fifth head coach in team history on February 2. The 39-year-old Mackovic became the youngest individual ever to hold that post for the club. The Chiefs held the seventh overall pick in the quarterback-laden 1983 NFL Draft and selected Todd Blackledge. The five other signal-callers selected in the first round that year included John Elway, Jim Kelly, Tony Eason, Ken O'Brien and Dan Marino.\n\nTragedy struck the club on June 29 when Joe Delaney drowned trying to save the lives of three youngsters in Monroe, Louisiana. Delaney was posthumously awarded the Presidential Citizen's Medal by Ronald Reagan on July 13. Linebacker Bobby Bell became the first Chiefs player to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on July 30, providing some solace for the mourning Chiefs fan base following Joe Delaney's death.\n\nWith Kenney and Blackledge both on the roster, starting QB Steve Fuller was traded to the Los Angeles Rams on August 19. Kenney earned a Pro Bowl berth after racking up a franchise-record 4,348 passing yards, while wide receiver Carlos Carson hauled in 80 passes for 1,351 yards. Despite the team's high-flying passing game, head coach John Mackovic had trouble finding a suitable replacement for Joe Delaney and the running back position. The highest scoring contest in franchise history took place as the Chiefs and Seattle Seahawks combined for 99 points in a wild, 51-48 overtime loss at the Kingdome. A meager crowd of 11,377 attended the club's season-ending 48-17 win against Denver on December 18, the smallest attendance figure ever for a Chiefs game at Arrowhead as the club finished the year at 6-10.\n\n1984\n\nPro Bowl safety Gary Barbaro became the most notable Chiefs player to defect to the rival United States Football League, signing with the New Jersey Generals on February 2 after sitting out the entire 1983 campaign in a contract dispute. Barbaro's departure and the trade of cornerback Gary Green began a youth movement that produced the most vaunted secondary in team history. Cornerbacks Kevin Ross and Albert Lewis, and safeties Deron Cherry and Lloyd Burruss accounted for a combined 13 Pro Bowl appearances for the Chiefs in the years to come.\n\nAll-America defensive tackle Bill Maas and offensive tackle John Alt were both selected in the first round of the 1984 NFL Draft. Maas was named NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year, while Alt eventually became the cornerstone of the club's offensive line later in the decade. Kansas City's defense registered a team-record 11.0 sacks in a 10-6 win against Cleveland on September 30, coming one sack shy of the NFL single-game record.\n\nQuarterback Bill Kenney suffered a broken thumb during the preseason and was sidelined until the season's seventh week. Second year back-up QB Todd Blackledge opened the first six contests of the season and had the club at 3-3. Kenney returned to the starting lineup against the New York Jets on October 21, but inconsistency marked the rest of the season as the club dropped four of first five contests after his return. However, the team rattled off three consecutive wins to conclude the year at 8-8.\n\n1985\n\nThe Chiefs got off to a flying start in 1985 with a 47-27 win at New Orleans, while safety Deron Cherry tied an NFL record by registering four interceptions in a 28-7 win against Seattle on September 29 as the club boasted a 3-1 record four games into the season. The club was then confronted with a seven-game losing streak that wasn’t snapped until QB Todd Blackledge was installed as the starter against Indianapolis on November 24. The team rebounded to win three of its final five contests of the year with Blackledge under center, further inflaming a quarterback controversy that continued into the 1986 season.\n\nOne of the few remaining bright spots in a disappointing 6-10 season came in the regular season finale against San Diego when wide receiver Stephone Paige set an NFL record with 309 receiving yards in a 38-34 win, breaking the previous mark of 303 yards set by Cleveland's Jim Benton in 1945. Paige's mark was subsequently surpassed by a 336-yard effort by Flipper Anderson (L.A. Rams) in 1989.\n\n1986\n\nFormer linebacker Willie Lanier was enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame on August 2. On the field, the pieces started coming together for head coach John Mackovic. His offense displayed plenty of scoring punch, while the club's defense and special teams became increasingly effective. With the team sitting at 3-3, Bill Kenney replaced Todd Blackledge for the second half of the season in a game against San Diego, guiding the club to a 42-41 victory. That win was the first of four consecutive triumphs with Kenney at the helm, the club's longest winning streak since 1980. Poised with a 7-3 record after 10 games, three straight losses in November put the Chiefs playoff chances in jeopardy. Two December wins gave Kansas City a 9-6 mark, putting the Chiefs on the verge of their first postseason berth in 15 years.\n\nThe defining moment of the season came in the regular season finale at Pittsburgh on December 21. Despite being outgained in total yardage by a 515-to-171-yard margin, the Chiefs were able to notch a 24-19 victory as all of the team's points came via special teams on a blocked punt return, a field goal, a kickoff return and a blocked field goal return. With a 10-6 record the Chiefs earned an AFC Wild Card berth, winning a tiebreaker with Seattle. Bill Kenney was injured in the fourth quarter of the Steelers contest, meaning Todd Blackledge would draw the starting assignment for the club's first playoff contest since 1971, a 35-15 loss at New York.\n\n1987\n\nOne of the most tumultuous weeks in franchise history took place following the club's playoff loss against the Jets. Assistant head coach and special teams coach Frank Gansz, resigned his position on January 7 in order to pursue opportunities as an NFL offensive coordinator. The following day, the Chiefs announced in an impromptu press conference that John Mackovic was relieved of his duties as head coach on January 8. A popular figure among Chiefs players, Gansz was reinstated on January 10 and was named the sixth head coach in franchise history.\n\nFormer quarterback Len Dawson became the third Chiefs player inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on August 8, while injuries forced the retirement of the club's all-time leading tackler Gary Spani. A duo of rookies made a splash in a 20-13 win on Opening Day against San Diego as running back Paul Palmer returned a kickoff for a TD and Christian Okoye dashed for 105 yards. A 24-day players strike began on September 22, effectively canceling the club's contest against Minnesota. Replacement players participated in games for the next three weeks. Much like Marv Levy five years earlier, Gansz's grip on the club's coaching reins was crippled by the labor unrest.\n\nKansas City's replacement squad consisted primarily of players cut in training camp. One of the few bright spots among this motley crew was running back Jitter Fields, who remained on the active roster following the strike. The Chiefs strike squad received an ominous welcome in Los Angeles when in the early morning hours of October 4, the day prior to a contest against the Raiders, an earthquake rattled Southern California. The shaken Chiefs lost a 35-17 decision later that day. The low point of the year came the following week at Miami in the first regular season game played at what then was known as Joe Robbie Stadium. Chiefs replacement QB Matt Stevens was injured early in the contest, forcing into duty QB Alex Espinoza, a player who had never taken an NFL snap. The result was a 42-0 Dolphins victory, setting the stage for an 0-3 performance by Kansas City's replacement unit, giving the Chiefs a 1-4 record before the club's regular roster returned at San Diego on October 25. Five straight losses followed, giving the Chiefs a team-record nine-game losing skid. For the only time in team history, five different players started games at quarterback for the club. Behind Kenney, Kansas City won two of its last three games to conclude the strike-shortened 4-11 campaign.\n\n1988\n\nThe spring was marked by several notable trades as the club jockeyed to improve on its 4-11 finish in 1987. Todd Blackledge was traded to Pittsburgh on March 29 and 12-year veteran quarterback Steve DeBerg was acquired from Tampa Bay on March 31. The Chiefs moved up one spot in the first round of the draft to select defensive end Neil Smith with the third overall pick. Bill Kenney opened the team's initial two games at quarterback, but was replaced by DeBerg for the second half against Seattle. DeBerg guided the team to a 20-13 win against Denver in his initial start as a member of the Chiefs. However, six losses and a tie followed as Kenney and DeBerg jostled for the QB job.\n\nAs the season drew to a close, it became apparent the winds of change were blowing across the organization. President Jack Steadman resigned on December 8, while general manager Jim Schaaf was relieved of his duties the same day. Steadman was later named Chairman of the Board. On the field, the Chiefs finished the year at 4-11-1 as questions swirled regarding Gansz's future and who would fill the club's leadership void. One day after the season's conclusion, former Philadelphia Eagles and USFL executive Carl Peterson was named the club's President/General Manager and Chief Operating Officer on December 19.\n\nA change of face\n\n\"Martyball\", 1989–2000\n\nAfter compiling an 8-22-1 record in two seasons, Frank Gansz was relieved of his duties as head coach on January 5, 1989. General manager Carl Peterson's selection as Gansz's successor would be former Cleveland Browns head coach Marty Schottenheimer, who was named the seventh head coach in Chiefs history on January 24. The first draft choice of the Peterson era set the tone for the next decade as the club selected linebacker Derrick Thomas with the fourth overall selection. Thomas paired with defensive end Neil Smith to form one of the most feared pass-rushing duos in NFL history, compiling a combined 212.5 sacks during their illustrious Chiefs careers. The Peterson-Schottenheimer era got off to an inauspicious start in a 34-20 loss at Denver on September 10 as quarterback Steve DeBerg's first pass attempt was intercepted and returned for a TD. The club won just four times in its next 10 games as former Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Ron Jaworski and Steve Pelluer, who was acquired in a trade from Dallas, each opened three games apiece during that span. DeBerg regained the starting job for the final five weeks of the season, generating four wins that put the Chiefs just out of post-season qualification at 8-7-1. A 34-0 shutout win against Houston highlighted the club's stretch run. Running back Christian Okoye became the first Chief to lead the NFL in rushing with 1,480 yards, while Derrick Thomas won consensus NFL Rookie of the Year honors.\n\n1990\n\nThe foundation for the club's formidable offensive line of the 1990s gathered two key ingredients when center Tim Grunhard and guard Dave Szott were acquired in the 1990 NFL Draft. Construction began on the club's indoor practice facility at the Truman Sports Complex, giving the Chiefs an 80-yard indoor field and weight room facilities upon its completion. Former defensive tackle Buck Buchanan was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on August 4. In the pre-season, The Chiefs made their initial overseas appearance, losing a 19-3 American Bowl decision against the Los Angeles Rams at Olympic Stadium in Berlin, Germany. Schottenheimer's club got out of the starting gate quickly, winning three of their first four games. The club then struggled, splitting its next six contests. \n\nFree agent running back Barry Word produced a team-record 200-yard rushing outburst in a 43-24 victory against Detroit on October 14. Kansas City led the NFL with a franchise-record 60.0 sacks, including a team-record 20.0 by Derrick Thomas. Thomas established an NFL single-game record with 7.0 sacks in an inspiring Veterans Day performance against Seattle, a game the Seahawks miraculously won, 17-16, on a last-second, 25-yard TD pass to wide receiver Paul Skansi. That loss brought on the furious stretch run which saw the club record victories in six of its last seven outings. Behind DeBerg's offensive leadership (23 TD passes with just four interceptions) Kansas City finished the year with a franchise-best +26 turnover differential. The Chiefs clinched their first post-season berth since 1986 with a 24-21 win at San Diego and finished the year at 11-5, marking the franchise's best finish since 1969. The Chiefs suffered a heart-breaking, 17-16 loss at Miami on January 5, 1991 in an AFC Wild Card Game as placekicker Nick Lowery's potential game-winning 52-yard field goal fell short with 0:56 remaining.\n\n1991\n\nOn July 27, former placekicker Jan Stenerud became the first of his position to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Chiefs moved their training camp to the University of Wisconsin–River Falls after spending the previous 28 summers at William Jewell College in Liberty, Missouri. On September 1, the Chiefs defeated the Atlanta Falcons 14-3 in front of a sold-out crowd at Arrowhead Stadium.\n\nThe Chiefs were featured on Monday Night Football three times, including a 33-6 victory over the defending AFC Champion Buffalo Bills before a raucous crowd at Arrowhead on October 7, marking the club's first home Monday Night Football contest in eight years. The club finished the regular season at 10-6, marking the first time since 1968–69 that the franchise had qualified for the playoffs in consecutive seasons. A 27-21 victory against the Los Angeles Raiders in the regular season finale gave the Chiefs the right to host the Raiders just six days later in the inaugural post-season game in Arrowhead's history, and the Chiefs' first home playoff game in 20 years. Thanks to six Los Angeles turnovers, the Chiefs registered their first post-season victory since Super Bowl IV with a 10-6 win in an AFC Wild Card Game on December 28. The following week, the Chiefs lost a 37-14 decision at Buffalo on January 5, 1992 in an AFC Divisional Playoff match-up as the Buffalo Bills' dynamic offense proved to be too much for the Chiefs.\n\n1992\n\nA longtime nemesis with Seattle, \"Plan B\" free agent quarterback Dave Krieg was signed as the club's starter on March 19. A melancholy off-season awaited the Chiefs, who mourned the passing of Player Personnel Director Whitey Dovell on May 22 and Hall of Fame defensive tackle Buck Buchanan on July 16. Both Dovell and Buchanan lost courageous battles with cancer. Six-time Pro Bowl safety Deron Cherry announced his retirement in July after registering 50 interceptions in 11 seasons with the franchise. The Chiefs retired the jerseys of former players Buck Buchanan (#86), Willie Lanier (#63) and Jan Stenerud (#3) in a ceremony prior to a pre-season contest against Buffalo.\n\nFirst-round draft pick, cornerback Dale Carter won the Bert Bell Trophy as the NFL's Rookie of the Year. The very first time Carter touched the ball in an NFL contest, he registered a 46-yard punt return touchdown in a 24-10 win at San Diego on September 6. Running back Christian Okoye surpassed Ed Podolak as the all-time leading rusher in team history against Seattle on September 13. Injuries eventually made the 1992 campaign Okoye's last with the Chiefs after he compiled 4,897 rushing yards with the franchise. The club got off to a 3-1 start, but was faced with a 4-4 record at the season's midpoint. Despite four consecutive victories, the club's post-season hopes still came down to the season's final contest. Owning a 9-6 record and needing one more victory to secure a playoff berth, the Chiefs defense tallied three touchdowns, while Dave Krieg tossed a pair of scoring passes as Kansas City claimed a 42-20 win against Denver to finish the season at 10-6. Despite the big win against Denver, the Chiefs made a quick exit from the playoffs as Krieg was sacked 7 times in a 17-0 AFC Wild Card loss at San Diego on January 2, 1993.\n\n1993\n\nThe Chiefs spent the off-season installing the \"West Coast offense\" under the direction of new offensive coordinator Paul Hackett, who at one time served as quarterbacks coach to Joe Montana in San Francisco. On April 20, the Chiefs traded for Joe Montana, who directed the 49ers to four Super Bowl victories in the previous decade. Guard Will Shields was selected with the club's third-round draft choice, rounding out the \"law firm\" of Grunhard, Szott and Shields which anchored the interior of Chiefs offensive line for most of the decade.\n\nOn June 9, the club signed unrestricted free agent running back Marcus Allen, who had spent 11 seasons tormenting the Chiefs as a member of the rival Los Angeles Raiders. Montana and Allen made their debuts in a 27-3 win at Tampa Bay on September 5, marking Montana's first Opening Day appearance since 1990. Shields initiated a franchise-record streak of 175 consecutive starts the following week at Houston. Thanks to a pair of Monday Night Football wins at Arrowhead, the club owned a 6-2 mid-season record. Before taking the field in a Sunday night contest at Minnesota on December 26, the team learned it had clinched its first AFC West title since 1971 thanks to a Raiders loss earlier in the day. The team finished the season with an 11-5 regular season record, marking the club's fourth consecutive year with a double-digit victory tally. Linebacker Derrick Thomas was named the NFL's Man of the Year following the season. Thomas, who founded \"The Third and Long Foundation\", received the honor in large part due to his efforts in promoting children's literacy.\n\nKansas City got its first true taste of \"Montana Magic\" as the Hall of Fame passer engineered a brilliant comeback in a 27-24 OT win in an AFC Wild Card thriller against Pittsburgh on January 8, 1994. Next, the Chiefs traveled to the Astrodome to face the red-hot Oilers, who had won 11 straight games to conclude the regular season. The heavily favored Oilers opened up a 13-7 lead in the fourth quarter, but once again, Montana conjured a comeback, guiding the club to a 28-20 victory. The Chiefs playoff journey ended as the club made its initial AFC Championship Game appearance at Buffalo on January 23. Montana was knocked out of the contest early in the second half as Buffalo claimed its record fourth straight AFC title by a score of 30-13.\n\n1994\n\nWhile the previous off-season saw the Chiefs stockpile several key free agents, a number of familiar faces departed following the 1993 season, most notably cornerbacks Albert Lewis and Kevin Ross, as well as placekicker Nick Lowery. Quarterback Steve Bono was acquired in a trade with San Francisco on May 2 to serve as Joe Montana's backup, a job he previously held when both were with the 49ers. A grass playing field was installed at Arrowhead Stadium, replacing the previous AstroTurf surface. The club made its second American Bowl appearance in the pre-season, meeting Minnesota in Tokyo, Japan.\n\nOn September 11, Steve Young and the San Francisco 49ers came to Arrowhead to play against Joe Montana and the Chiefs in a highly anticipated matchup. The Chiefs prevailed over the 49ers and Montana's successor by a 24-17 count before a crowd of 79,907, the second-largest \"in-house\" attendance in Arrowhead history. After starting the season 3-0, the Chiefs dropped back-to-back games before snapping an 11-game losing streak against Denver at Mile High Stadium on October 17 in a memorable Monday night contest. Montana orchestrated a masterful comeback, connecting with WR Willie Davis for a five-yard TD with 0:08 remaining to give the Chiefs a 31-28 triumph. A late-season, three-game losing skid put the club's playoff hopes in jeopardy. The Chiefs found themselves at 8-7 faced with a do-or-die regular season finale against the Raiders in the final NFL contest (to date) played at the Los Angeles Coliseum and in Los Angeles as of 2013. Marcus Allen had his finest game as a Chief, ironically against his former team, rushing 33 times for 132 yards en route to a 19-9 win. At 9-7, Kansas City qualified for the playoffs for a fifth straight season. However, the Chiefs made a rapid departure from the playoffs in Montana's final professional contest at Miami on New Year's Eve. Montana and Dolphins quarterback Dan Marino conducted a masterful first-half duel that ended deadlocked at 17-17, but Miami eventually prevailed by a 27-17 count.\n\n1995\n\nJoe Montana announced his retirement from football after 16 years in the NFL on April 18 and Steve Bono was promoted to the starting job. Immediately, so-called media experts predicted much gloom and doom for the 1995 Chiefs under Bono, leading Schottenheimer to quip during training camp that his club had been picked \"sixth in a five-team division.\" Led by Bono, who merited a Pro Bowl berth, Kansas City posted an NFL-best 13-3 record with unblemished 8-0 marks in the AFC West and at Arrowhead. The Chiefs led the NFL in rushing offense (138.9 ypg), scoring defense (15.1 ppg) and turnover ratio (+12). A 24-3 win at Arizona on October 1 featured a surreal, 76-yard TD run on a bootleg by Bono as the Chiefs initiated a seven-game winning streak, the franchise's longest since 1969. In a Monday Night Football classic against San Diego on October 9, wide receiver Tamarick Vanover returned a punt for an 86-yard TD to provide the winning points in a 29-23 victory, the team's third straight home win in overtime.\n\nThe club's defense began to flex its muscle, beginning with a 21-7 win at Denver on October 22. The contest, played in a Rocky Mountain snowstorm, featured the 100th rushing TD of Marcus Allen's career. The Chiefs won a home game for the third time on a last-second return score that concluded in Arrowhead's west end zone when cornerback Mark Collins scooped up a fumble for a 20-13 win against Houston. Kansas City clinched a division title with a 29-23 victory at Oakland on December 3 en route to a franchise-best 13-3 regular season record and a team-record sixth consecutive postseason berth. The Chiefs were represented by seven players in the Pro Bowl, more than any other AFC team. In the playoffs, the Chiefs dropped an AFC Divisional Playoff Game against the underdog Indianapolis Colts on January 7—a blustery afternoon with the temperature at 11 degrees and a wind chill of -9. Three interceptions and three missed field goals from placekicker Lin Elliot contributed to the 10-7 loss at Arrowhead.\n\n1996\n\nKansas City entered the 1996 campaign with essentially the same lineup as the club boasted in 1995 and were featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated along with Green Bay as pre-season Super Bowl favorites. Kansas City made its third American Bowl appearance, this time against Dallas in Monterrey, Mexico. The club started the season with a 4-0 record for the first time in team history, but the season's lofty expectations came crashing down as the squad lost three of its next four games. A three-game winning streak, including a victory over the eventual Super Bowl champion Packers, put the club back in post-season contention at 8-3.\n\nThat rosy picture quickly crumbled in a 28-14 loss against San Diego on November 24 as Steve Bono was relieved in the second half by back-up quarterback Rich Gannon. Gannon assumed the starting reins for a 28-24 win in a Thanksgiving Day game at Detroit as Marcus Allen registered his 111th career rushing TD to surpass Walter Payton as the NFL's all-time leader in that department, a mark that was later broken by Emmitt Smith. Needing just one more win to qualify for the playoffs, the Chiefs dropped their next two games as an injury-hampered Gannon was sidelined for good in the second quarter of a 24-19 loss against Indianapolis. Faced with a must-win situation in a frigid regular season finale at Buffalo, the club's post-season hopes hinged on Bono. Despite a 20-9 loss to the Bills, the Chiefs still had a shot to slip into the playoffs if Atlanta could secure a win at Jacksonville. However, Atlanta placekicker Morten Andersen's 30-yard field goal attempt went wide left with 0:04 remaining, preserving a 19-17 win and the AFC's final Wild Card spot for the Jaguars, who won a tiebreaker with Kansas City. The Chiefs finished with a 9-7 record, missing the postseason for the first time since 1989.\n\n1997\n\nKansas City dramatically retooled its roster in 1997, beginning with the signing of free agent quarterback Elvis Grbac on March 17. In addition to Grbac, the Chiefs lineup featured 11 new starters, including wide recevier Andre Rison, who won team MVP honors after becoming the club's first Pro Bowl receiver in a decade. On defense, the club's top four picks from the 1996 Draft, safeties Jerome Woods and Reggie Tongue, defensive end John Browning and linebacker Donnie Edwards, all emerged as starters.\n\nTackle John Alt announced his retirement at training camp in River Falls, Wisconsin on July 21. All the new faces quickly formed a cohesive unit as the Chiefs posted a 13-3 record, an 8-0 Arrowhead record and their second AFC West title in three years. The club engineered several dramatic finishes, the first of which came in a Monday Night Football thriller at Oakland on September 8 when Elvis Grbac connected with Andre Rison on an improbable 32-yard TD pass with just 0:03 remaining to cap a 28-27 win. Six days later, Kansas City's defense produced a remarkable goal-line stand to preserve a 22-16 victory at Arrowhead vs. Buffalo. After posting a 6-2 record during the season's first half, Kansas City's good fortune appeared to run out against Pittsburgh when Grbac suffered a broken clavicle. However, Rich Gannon led the team to a 5-1 mark in their next six outings.\n\nPlacekicker Pete Stoyanovich provided one of the year's most memorable moments, connecting on a line-drive 54-yard field as time expired to give Kansas City a 24-22 win against Denver on November 16. San Francisco entered Arrowhead boasting an 11-game winning streak, the team departed after suffering a 44-9 defeat. The Chiefs' vaunted defensive unit pitched a 30-0 shutout vs. Oakland on December 7. The Chiefs led the NFL in scoring defense, allowing a mere 14.5 points per game. The 232 total points permitted by the Chiefs in 1997 were the lowest tally ever allowed in a 16-game season in team history. Kansas City also broke a 63-year-old mark owned by the 1934 Detroit Lions by not permitting a second-half TD in 10 consecutive games. Grbac returned for the regular season finale against New Orleans on December 21 as the squad finished the year with six consecutive victories, a first in team history.\n\nThe Chiefs' 13-3 record gave them home field advantage throughout the AFC Playoffs. However, their playoff run was short-lived, as Kansas City lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos 14-10 in the Divisional round.\n\n1998\n\nThe following year, with Elvis Grbac back at the helm, the Chiefs fell to 7-9 in 1998. Marty Schottenheimer took much of the blame for his failed attempts in the playoffs and conservative style of coaching (\"Martyball\"), and resigned following the 1998 season.\n\n1999\n\nSchottenheimer left as head coach, replaced by his defensive coach Gunther Cunningham. In two years, Cunningham showed little improvement, going 9-7 and 7-9. After the loss of Derrick Thomas, the collapse of the defense was unmistakable. The Chiefs' wins were mostly made by a high scoring offense rather than a powerful defense.\n\nAn explosive offense, 2001-05\n\n2001\n\nAfter coaching the St. Louis Rams to the Super Bowl and retiring, Dick Vermeil was lured out of retirement and took over as head coach in 2001. It was noted that Vermeil would have the team ready for the Super Bowl \"within three years\", while in fact Vermail would stay in Kansas City for the next five.\n\nThe first move the team made was forced after quarterback Elvis Grbac voided his contract, forgoing an 11 million dollar bonus, leaving to lead the Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens. Vermeil replaced him with his primary pick for the Rams' quarterback, Trent Green.\n\nAnother notable replacement was Priest Holmes at running back, who had served as back-up to Baltimore's Jamal Lewis in their Super Bowl season. Additions to the offensive line, including left tackle Willie Roaf from New Orleans, Casey Wiegmann at center, Brian Waters at guard, and John Welbourn from Philadelphia helped create the Chiefs' high powered offense. Holmes would go on to break Marshall Faulk's record of 26 touchdowns in a season on December 27, 2003.\n\nVermeil brought many elements of \"The Greatest Show on Turf\" from St. Louis to Kansas City's own offense, but much like the Schottenheimer era in the 1990s, the offense didn't win any playoff games.\n\n2003\n\nThe Chiefs went 13-3 in 2003 and their offense, considered by many as one of the most powerful of all time, helped make Kansas City again a favorite to win Super Bowl XXXVIII. After starting 9-0, the Chiefs lost to the Cincinnati Bengals in their tenth game following a \"guarantee\" by Bengals wide receiver Chad Johnson. The Chiefs' dream season of 2003 began to lose momentum by November, but they still managed to gain the number two seed in the 2004 playoffs. The mighty homefield advantage of Arrowhead Stadium and their high-powered offense wouldn't lead the Chiefs to glory and the Chiefs lost to the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional playoffs in an offensive shootout in which neither team punted, an NFL playoffs first. The Chiefs' defense came under fire immediately after the loss, and Greg Robinson, the team's defensive coordinator, resigned after the season.\n\n2004\n\nAs with the loss to the Broncos in 1997, this loss led to a poor following season. The Chiefs managed to finish the 2004 season with a 7-9 record. In 2004, Gunther Cunningham was brought back as the defensive coordinator. However, the defense showed little improvement. The offense, unable to record the same high scores as the previous year, was unable to bring in the wins as they had the previous year.\n\n2005\n\nFor their 2005 campaign, the Chiefs brought in several new players to boost a defense that had finished among the worst units the past three years. The year also saw Larry Johnson start at running back in place of an injured Priest Holmes. But despite winning ten games, the Chiefs became just the fourth team in NFL history to go 10-6 and not reach the playoffs.\n\nRebuilding a contender, 2006–present\n\n2006\n\nA tearful head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement before the final game of the 2005 season. Within two weeks, then-New York Jets head coach Herman Edwards had signed a new 4-year contract to coach the Chiefs. The 2006 Chiefs returned to the playoffs for the first time in three seasons, only to lose 23-8 in the Wild Card round against their playoff nemesis, the Indianapolis Colts.\n\nMeanwhile, Chiefs owner and founder Lamar Hunt died on December 13, 2006 due to complications brought on by a ten-year battle with prostate cancer. Hunt was remembered throughout the remainder of the 2006 season all throughout the NFL with moments of silence and ceremonies in Kansas City.\n\n2007\n\nThe Chiefs' 2007 off-season began with turmoil over the contract of Tony Gonzalez, and the long-term career of Trent Green in Kansas City. Backup quarterback Damon Huard was signed to a three-year contract in February and Green was not only asked to restructure his contract but offered in trades to other teams.\n\nOn June 5, the Chiefs agreed to trade Green to the Miami Dolphins for a conditional fifth round pick in the 2008 NFL Draft, pending a physical from Green. \n\nThe Chiefs' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO/NFL Films documentary reality television series, Hard Knocks: Training Camp with the Kansas City Chiefs The series premiered on August 8, 2007.\n\nAfter a strong 4-3 start, the Chiefs' offensive woes slowed the team down. Five different running backs were used after Larry Johnson was injured in week 9 against Green Bay. The team also had no stability at quarterback with Huard and Brodie Croyle, while their offensive line depleted in the absence of their former Pro Bowl guard Will Shields.\n\nThe season ended with a nine-game losing streak, the team's first since 1987, and a 4-12 record. It was the Chiefs' first season with twelve losses since 1978.\n\nHead coach Herman Edwards continued to build upon the Chiefs' roster with young players, mostly on defense, and attempted stabilize a once record-setting offensive line. The Chiefs continue to rebuild a defense that may quietly creep its way back to respectability. \n\nTo honor their late owner Lamar Hunt, the Chiefs wore a special American Football League patch on their uniforms with the initials \"LH\" emblazoned inside the logo's football.\n\n2008–present\n\nIn the 2008 season opener at New England, Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was hit in the leg by Chiefs safety Bernard Pollard, tearing his ACL and removing him from action for the rest of the year. Other than that, there was little else of note about the season, which saw Kansas City fall to a franchise-worst 2-14 record.\n\nDuring the next offseason, the team made news by acquiring quarterback Matt Cassel (who had filled in for Brady during the previous year) and veteran linebacker Mike Vrabel from New England for a second-round draft pick, which was used to obtain LSU defensive end Tyson Jackson. The Chiefs were also awarded the 256th and last player in the draft for the first time since 1970, South Carolina kicker Ryan Succop. Also, Scott Pioli was hired as general manager, yet another acquisition from New England.\n\nThere was little apparent sign of improvement as the Chiefs began 2009 by losing five games in a row before a victory over the Washington Redskins in Week 6. However, the team did manage to inflict an overtime defeat on the defending Super Bowl Champion Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 11, and closed out the year with a 4-12 record by overpowering Denver and preventing the Broncos from going to the playoffs. In that game, second-year running back Jamaal Charles set a franchise record by rushing for 259 yards.\n\nThe Chiefs got off to a 3-0 start in 2010, first by beating San Diego 21-14 on Monday Night Football. This was their first MNF win in a decade, in addition to their first home win over the Chargers since 2006. They followed up the next week with a 16-14 win in Cleveland, followed by a 31-10 thrashing of the San Francisco 49ers at home. The Chiefs entered their bye week as the only remaining undefeated team, but as most experts predicted, fell to Indianapolis 19-9 in Week 5. They lost a close game with the Houston Texans (35-31) in Week 6, beat Jacksonville in Week 7, and then won a razor-thin game against the winless Buffalo Bills. After going into overtime with a 10-10 score, neither team was able to score anything until Ryan Succop kicked a 35-yard field goal just as the clock reached 0:00 and avoiding a tie. Then came losses to Oakland and Denver, three straight wins over Seattle, Arizona, and Denver, a loss in San Diego, and wins over St. Louis and Tennessee. Losing the final game at home versus Oakland, the Chiefs finished 10-6 and won their first division title since 2003. However, the team's lack of postseason experience showed up as they were buried 30-7 by the Baltimore Ravens in the wild card round of the playoffs.\n\nKansas City began 2011 by losing its first three games, including blowout losses at home against Buffalo and at Detroit, where the Chiefs lost Jamaal Charles for the remainder of the season due to a torn ACL. However, the Chiefs were able to rebound from the slow start, winning their next four contests, including a thrilling overtime victory over San Diego on Monday Night Football. Unfortunately, the Chiefs would lose all momentum the following week when they were stunned at Arrowhead by the winless Miami Dolphins, losing quarterback Matt Cassel for the season with a hand injury. After losing four of the next five, the Chiefs fired head coach Todd Haley less than one year removed from a division title. With interim head coach Romeo Crennel and recently acquired quarterback Kyle Orton at the helm, the Chiefs were able to knock off then-undefeated Green Bay, and at 6-8, still had a shot at the division crown. The Chiefs would fall just short, however, losing 16-13 in overtime to arch-rival Oakland. The Chiefs would finish the 2011 season with a road win versus eventual AFC West champion Denver, finishing the season at 7-9.\n\nThe Chiefs hit rock bottom in 2012, with a passing game that was one of the worst of all time. Cassel was benched twice in favor of Brady Quinn, but neither quarterback could get the job done. Despite having a roster that produced five Pro Bowlers and a 1,500-yard rushing season from Charles, the Chiefs stumbled to a 2-14 record. Romeo Crennel was fired one day after the conclusion of the season, and on January 4, 2013, the Chiefs parted ways with GM Scott Pioli and officially named Andy Reid as the next Chiefs head coach.\n\nKansas City's 2012 season took a tragic and bizarre turn on December 1 when linebacker Jovan Belcher murdered his girlfriend in an argument. He then drove to Arrowhead Stadium, where he got into a confrontation with Crennel and several other Chiefs employees in the parking lot. They attempted to calm him down, after which Belcher thanked them and immediately shot himself dead.\n\nWith the team scheduled to play against Carolina the next day, there was considerable controversy as to whether the game should go on, but in the end it was decided not to move or cancel it. In a half-empty stadium, the Chiefs won the emotional match 27-21.\n\nChiefs quarterbacks\n\nThroughout the Chiefs' near five-decade existence, there have been twelve starting quarterbacks to lead the team. Among the most prolific include Hall of Famers Len Dawson and Joe Montana, as well as quarterbacks like Trent Green.\n\nIn the past few decades, the Chiefs have relied on veteran quarterbacks to lead their team. The last quarterback to be drafted by Kansas City that later went on to claim the starting position was Bill Kenney in 1980. Since Kenney's retirement in 1988. the Chiefs never drafted their own quarterback to develop until Brodie Croyle, whom started some games in 2007 and 2008, was drafted in 2006. When head coach Herman Edwards arrived in 2006, he stated that he was looking towards implementing younger players into his gameplan, and he was arguably looking to start at the quarterback position. The Chiefs acquired Matt Cassel in a trade with the New England Patriots in the 2009 offseason after a breakout performance with the Patriots in 2008 in place of the injured Tom Brady. Cassel is widely expected to be the team's franchise quarterback and is an intricate part of the teams current rebuilding process.\n\nThe Chiefs have also had a repeated history of backup quarterbacks that steal the spotlight. Mike Livingston led the Chiefs to the playoffs in their 1969 season after starting quarterback Len Dawson was injured for the majority of the year. Most recently, Rich Gannon took over for the injured Elvis Grbac in the 1997 season, but was revoked of the job in favor of Grbac's return for the playoffs. The Chiefs lost in the playoffs to the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos. A similar incident occurred in the 2006 season and playoffs when Trent Green and the Chiefs' offense failed to get a first down in the first forty-two minutes of the game. Backup quarterback Damon Huard, who led the Chiefs on a 5-2 record in Green's absence, never played a down in the playoff loss to—coincidentally—the eventual Super Bowl champion Indianapolis Colts. \n\nHead coaches\n\n† = Interim head coach" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Dallas Texans", "Dallas Texans (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dallas texans", "dallas texans disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dallas texans", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Dallas Texans" }
In 1988 who won the tennis Grand Slam and Olympic gold?	tc_1493	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Tennis.txt", "Grand_Slam_(tennis).txt" ], "title": [ "Tennis", "Grand Slam (tennis)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to play the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.\n\nTennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society and at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as \"lawn tennis\". It had close connections both to various field (\"lawn\") games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport of real tennis. During most of the 19th century, in fact, the term \"tennis\" referred to real tennis, not lawn tennis: for example, in Disraeli's novel Sybil (1845), Lord Eugene De Vere announces that he will \"go down to Hampton Court and play tennis.\" \n\nThe rules of tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line call of a point.\n\nTennis is played by millions of recreational players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. The four Grand Slam tournaments (also referred to as the \"Majors\") are especially popular: the Australian Open played on hard courts, the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US Open played also on hard courts.\n\nHistory\n\nPredecessors\n\nHistorians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand. Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de paume (\"game of the palm\"), which evolved into real tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris \"around the end of the 13th century\". In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning. Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name. Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre Palace. \n\nIt wasn't until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called \"tennis\", from the Old French term tenez, which can be translated as \"hold!\", \"receive!\" or \"take!\", an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis. During the 18th century and early 19th century, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England.\n\nFurther, the patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is strongly believed to have been the catalyst, world-wide, for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. \n\nOrigins of the modern game\n\nBetween 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of racquets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, England, United Kingdom. In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club in Leamington Spa.\n\nIn December 1873, British army officer Major Walter Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game ;– which he called sphairistikè (, meaning \"ball-playing\"), and was soon known simply as \"sticky\" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan, Wales. According to R. D. C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, \"Sports historians all agree that [Wingfield] deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.\" According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield \"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game -- and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874.\" The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon Championships, were first played in London in 1877.[http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/tennis/06/14/tennis.wimbledon.125th.anniversary.museum/index.html \"125 years of Wimbledon: From birth of lawn tennis to modern marvels\"]. CNN. Retrieved 21 September 2011 The first Championships culminated a significant debate on how to standardize the rules.\n\nIn the U.S. in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda with a sphairistikè set. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating Canadian I. F. Hellmuth. There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize competitions. The U.S. National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island. The U.S. National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia. \n\nTennis also became popular in France, where the French Championships dates to 1891 although until 1925 it was open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs. Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open, and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis. Together these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball). \n\nThe comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the International Lawn Tennis Federation, now known as the International Tennis Federation (ITF), have remained largely stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tiebreak system designed by Jimmy Van Alen. That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988. \n\nThe Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900. The analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. \n\nIn 1926, promoter C. C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences. The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen. Once a player turned pro he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.\n\nIn 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis. With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). \n\nIn 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island. The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Each year, a grass court tournament and an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are hosted on its grounds.\n\nEquipment\n\nPart of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only a racket and balls.\n\nRackets\n\nThe components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability.\n\nUnder modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; \n* The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be flat and generally uniform.\n* The frame of the hitting area may not be more than 29 inches (73.66 cm) in length and 12.5 inches (31.75 cm) in width.\n* The entire racket must be of a fixed shape, size, weight, and weight distribution. There may not be any energy source built into the rackets.\n* The rackets must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the match.\nThe rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81.28 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (73.66 cm). \n\nMany companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are some of the more commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist. The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become more well known by the public.\n\nBalls\n\nTennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers. Modern tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight, deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 inches). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 grams (1.975–2.095 ounces). Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in the Far East. The relocation is due to cheaper labour costs and materials in the region. \n\nMiscellaneous\n\nAdvanced players improve their performance through a number of accoutrements. Vibration dampeners may be interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for improved feel. Racket handles may be customized with absorbent or rubber-like materials to improve the players' grip. Players often use sweat bands on their wrists to keep their hands dry and head bands or bandanas to keep the sweat out of their eyes as well. Finally, although the game can be played in a variety of shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, flat soles for stability and a built-up front structure to avoid excess wear.\n\nManner of play\n\nFor individual terms see: Glossary of tennis\n\nCourt\n\nTennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.23 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (10.97 m) for doubles matches. Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a metal cable or cord that can be no more than 0.8 cm (1/3 inch). The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.067 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.914 m) high in the center. The net posts are 3 feet (0.914 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.914 m) outside the singles court on each side.\n\nThe modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield who, in 1873, patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle. \n\nTennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces. Grass, clay, and hardcourts of concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used. Artificial turf courts can also be found.\n\nLines\n\nThe lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines. These are the boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the center of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve. \n\nThe line dividing the service line in two is called the center line or center service line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one of these when serving. A ball is out only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its first bounce. All the lines are required to be between 1 and in width. The baseline can be up to 4 in wide.\n\nPlay of a single point\n\nThe players (or teams) start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and the opposing player is the receiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players (or teams). For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server.\n\nIn a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a \"foot fault\", which occurs when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the center mark before the ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server double faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.\n\nA legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the server's court. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel past the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is still considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point.\n\nScoring\n\nGame, set, match\n\nGame\n\nA game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as \"love\", \"fifteen\", \"thirty\", and \"forty\", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at forty apiece, the score is not called out as \"forty-forty\", but rather as \"deuce\". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is \"advantage\" for the player in the lead. During informal games, \"advantage\" can also be called \"ad in\" or \"van in\" when the serving player is ahead, and \"ad out\" or \"van out\" when the receiving player is ahead.\n\nThe score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., \"fifteen-love\") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score.\n\nSet\n\nA set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game, a tie-break is played. A tie-break, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A \"love\" set means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a 'jam donut' in the USA. In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. \"6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5\".\n\nMatch\n\nA match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or five sets system. Recreational players may agree to play any number of sets, depending upon time availability or stamina. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of the Olympic Games and best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match. Only in the final sets of matches at the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, the Olympic Games, Davis Cup (until 2015), and Fed Cup are tie-breaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, leading to some remarkably long matches.\n\nIn tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the well-known phrase \"Game, set, match\" followed by the winning person's or team's name.\n\nSpecial point terms\n\nGame point\n\nA game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40-love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.\n\nBreak point\n\nA break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance because serving is generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love-40) consecutive chances to win the game has break point, double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to have converted their break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called a failure to convert. Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to as breaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, or broken the natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to as breaking back. Except where tie-breaks apply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set.\n\nRule variations\n\n* No ad\nFrom 'No advantage'. Scoring method created by Jimmy Van Alen. The first player or doubles team to win four points wins the game, regardless of whether the player or team is ahead by two points. When the game score reaches three points each, the receiver chooses which side of the court (advantage court or deuce court) the service is to be delivered on the seventh and game-deciding point. Utilized by World Team Tennis professional competition, ATP tours, WTA tours, ITF Pro Doubles and ITF Junior Doubles. \n\n* Pro set\nInstead of playing multiple sets, players may play one \"pro set\". A pro set is first to 8 (or 10) games by a margin of two games, instead of first to 6 games. A 12-point tie-break is usually played when the score is 8–8 (or 10–10). These are often played with no-ad scoring.\n\n* Match tie-break\nThis is sometimes played instead of a third set. A match tie-break (also called super tie-break) is played like a regular tie-break, but the winner must win ten points instead of seven. Match tie-breaks are used in the Hopman Cup, Grand Slams (excluding Wimbledon) and the Olympic Games for mixed doubles; on the ATP (since 2006), WTA (since 2007) and ITF (excluding four Grand Slam tournaments and the Davis Cup) tours for doubles and as a player's choice in USTA league play.\n\nAnother, however informal, tennis format is called Canadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body.\n\n\"Australian doubles\", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to the Canadian doubles style, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve.\n\nWheelchair tennis can be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as \"one-up, one-down\"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only.\n\nOfficials\n\nIn most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chair umpire (usually referred to as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made.\n\nIn some tournaments, line judges who would be calling the serve, were assisted by electronic sensors that beeped to indicate the serve was out. This system was called \"Cyclops\". Cyclops has since largely been replaced by the Hawk-Eye system. In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tie-break to challenge close line calls by means of an electronic review. The US Open, Miami Masters, US Open Series, and World Team Tennis started using this challenge system in 2006 and the Australian Open and Wimbledon introduced the system in 2007. In clay-court matches, such as at the French Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface.\n\nThe referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair).\n\nBall boys and girls may be employed to retrieve balls, pass them to the players, and hand players their towels. They have no adjudicative role. In rare events (e.g., if they are hurt or if they have caused a hindrance), the umpire may ask them for a statement of what actually happened. The umpire may consider their statements when making a decision. In some leagues, especially junior leagues, players make their own calls, trusting each other to be honest. This is the case for many school and university level matches. The referee or referee's assistant, however, can be called on court at a player's request, and the referee or assistant may change a player's call. In unofficiated matches, a ball is out only if the player entitled to make the call is sure that the ball is out.\n\nJunior tennis\n\nIn tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments.\n\nThe International Tennis Federation (ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or Women's Tennis Association (WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however, such as Australian Lleyton Hewitt and Frenchman Gaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments.\n\nIn 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally. Junior tournaments do not offer prize money except for the Grand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A.\n\nLeading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in the Junior Fed Cup and Davis Cup competitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions.\n\nMatch play\n\nContinuity\n\nA tennis match is intended to be continuous. Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point. This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets. Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be determined to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of \"point\", \"game\", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit. \n\nIn the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and the players at the same end of the court when rain halted play, or at the same position (north or south) if play is resumed on a different court.\n\nBall changes\n\nBalls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, in ATP and WTA tournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up. As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. However, in ITF tournaments like Fed Cup, the balls are changed in a 9–11 style. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes.\n\nOn-court coaching\n\nA recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match. This has been introduced in women's tennis for WTA Tour events in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set. \n\nShots\n\nA competent tennis player has eight basic shots in his or her repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob.\n\nGrip\n\nA grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The \"Handshake Grip\"), Eastern (Can be either semi-eastern or full eastern. Usually used for backhands.), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip. \n\nServe\n\nA serve (or, more formally, a \"service\") in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity. If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a \"let\" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared. If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box.\n\nExperienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise. \n\nSome servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an \"ace\".\n\nForehand\n\nFor a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are various grips for executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the western. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s player Bill Johnston was considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using a western grip. Few top players used the western grip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, the western forehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American player Pancho Segura used a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such as Monica Seles or France's Fabrice Santoro and Marion Bartoli are also notable players known for their two-handed forehands. \n\nBackhand\n\nFor right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either an eastern or a continental grip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich, but they were lonely exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s as Björn Borg, Chris Evert, Jimmy Connors, and later Mats Wilander and Marat Safin used it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, including Rafael Nadal and Serena Williams. \n\nTwo hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball. Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notably Monica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides.\n\nOther shots\n\nA volley is a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. The half volley is made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground. The swinging volley is hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley.\n\nFrom a poor defensive position on the baseline, the lob can be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit an overhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point.\n\nA difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play.\n\nIf an opponent is deep in his court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected drop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \"skid\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return.\n\nInjuries\n\nMuscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis. When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle which can result in the occurrence of muscle strain. Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occur which resulted in redness, pain and swelling. Overuse is also common in tennis players from all level. Muscle, cartilage, nerves, bursae, ligaments and tendons may be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recover in the most common case among the injury.\n\nTournaments\n\nTournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include the Orange Bowl and Les Petits As junior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such as wheelchair tennis and deaf tennis. In the four Grand Slam tournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender.\n\nMost large tournaments seed players, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, the United States Tennis Association administers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale.\n\nGrand Slam tournaments\n\nThe four Grand Slam tournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open. Apart from the Olympic Games, Davis Cup, Fed Cup, and Hopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by the International Tennis Federation (ITF). The ITF's national associations, Tennis Australia (Australian Open), the Fédération Française de Tennis (French Open), the Lawn Tennis Association (Wimbledon) and the United States Tennis Association (US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events.\n\nAside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, the Masters 1000 (men) and Premier events (women). Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations through wild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami Masters.\n\nCurrently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that have mixed doubles contests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments and junior tennis competitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white. Andre Agassi chose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code. Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets. \n\n* The international tournament began in 1925\n\nMen's tournament structure\n\nMasters 1000\n\nThe ATP World Tour Masters 1000 is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When the ATP, led by Hamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of the Grand Slam events, as \"Super 9\" events. In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in the ATP World Tour Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in London, England. \n\nIn August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the \"Masters 1000\", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and the Monte Carlo Masters remains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. The Hamburg Masters has been downgraded to a 500-point event. The Madrid Masters moved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament in Shanghai took over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine \"1000\" level tournaments are combined ATP and WTA events. \n\n250 and 500 Series\n\n \nThe third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are formed by the ATP World Tour 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and the ATP World Tour 250 series with 40 tournaments. Like the ATP World Tour Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the amount of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament. The Dubai Tennis Championships offer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012). These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open.\n\nChallenger Tour and Futures tournaments\n\nThe Challenger Tour for men is the lowest level of tournament administered by the ATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events. The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings. Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings. The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000.\n\nBelow the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on the ITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player's ATP rankings points. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000. Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year.\n\nWomen's tournament structure\n\nPremier events\n\nPremier events for women form the most prestigious level of events on the Women's Tennis Association Tour after the Grand Slam tournaments. These events offer the largest rewards in terms of points and prize money. Within the Premier category are Premier Mandatory, Premier 5, and Premier tournaments. The Premier events were introduced in 2009 replacing the previous Tier I and II tournament categories. Currently four tournaments are Premier Mandatory, five tournaments are Premier 5, and twelve tournaments are Premier. The first tiering system in women's tennis was introduced in 1988. At the time of its creation, only two tournaments, the Lipton International Players Championships in Florida and the German Open in Berlin, comprised the Tier I category.\n\nInternational events\n\nInternational tournaments are the second main tier of the WTA tour and consist of 31 tournaments, with a prize money for every event at U.S.$220,000, except for the year-ending Commonwealth Bank Tournament of Champions in Bali, which has prize money of U.S.$600,000.\n\nPlayers\n\nProfessional players\n\nProfessional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such as golf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain money.\n\nIn recent years, some controversy has surrounded the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players' grunting.\n\nGrand Slam tournament winners\n\nThe following players have won at least five singles titles at Grand Slam tournaments:\n\n;Female\n* Margaret Court (24)\n* Serena Williams (22)\n* Steffi Graf (22)\n* Helen Wills Moody (19)\n* Chris Evert (18)\n* Martina Navratilova (18)\n* Billie Jean King (12)\n* Maureen Connolly Brinker (9)\n* Monica Seles (9)\n* Molla Bjurstedt Mallory (8)\n* Suzanne Lenglen (8)\n* Dorothea Lambert Chambers (7)\n* Maria Bueno (7)\n* Evonne Goolagong Cawley (7)\n* Venus Williams (7)\n* Justine Henin (7)\n* Blanche Bingley Hillyard (6)\n* Doris Hart (6)\n* Margaret Osborne duPont (6)\n* Nancye Wynne Bolton (6)\n* Louise Brough Clapp (6)\n* Lottie Dod (5)\n* Charlotte Cooper Sterry (5)\n* Daphne Akhurst Cozens (5)\n* Helen Jacobs (5)\n* Alice Marble (5)\n* Pauline Betz Addie (5)\n* Althea Gibson (5)\n* Martina Hingis (5)\n* Maria Sharapova (5)\n\n;Male\n* Roger Federer (17)\n* Pete Sampras (14)\n* Rafael Nadal (14)\n* Roy Emerson (12)\n* Novak Djokovic (12)\n* Rod Laver (11)\n* Björn Borg (11)\n* Bill Tilden (10)\n* Fred Perry (8)\n* Ken Rosewall (8)\n* Jimmy Connors (8)\n* Ivan Lendl (8)\n* Andre Agassi (8)\n* William Renshaw (7)\n* Richard Sears (7)\n* William Larned (7)\n* Henri Cochet (7)\n* René Lacoste (7)\n* John Newcombe (7)\n* John McEnroe (7)\n* Mats Wilander (7)\n* Lawrence Doherty (6)\n* Anthony Wilding (6)\n* Donald Budge (6)\n* Jack Crawford (6)\n* Boris Becker (6)\n* Stefan Edberg (6)\n* Frank Sedgman (5)\n* Tony Trabert (5)\n\nGreatest male players\n\nA frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, an Associated Press poll in 1950 named Bill Tilden as the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century. From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles at Wimbledon three times and the U.S. Championships seven times. In 1938, however, Donald Budge became the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, the Grand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge \"the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived.\" And in his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer said that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever. Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Tony Trabert has said that of the players he saw before the start of the open era, Kramer was the best male champion. \n\nBy the latter half of the 1950s and 1960s, Budge and others had added Pancho Gonzales and Lew Hoad to the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever. Gonzales said about Hoad, \"When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique.\" \n\nDuring the open era, first Rod Laver and then more recently Björn Borg and Pete Sampras were regarded by many of their contemporaries as among the greatest ever. Andre Agassi, the first of two male players in history to have achieved a Career Golden Slam in singles tennis (followed by Rafael Nadal), has been called the best service returner in the history of the game. He is the first man to win slams on all modern surfaces (previous holders of all slams played in an era of grass and clay only), and is regarded by a number of critics and fellow players to be among the greatest players of all time. \n\nRoger Federer is now considered by many observers to have the most \"complete\" game in modern tennis. He has won 17 grand slam titles and 6 world tour finals, the most for any male player. Many experts of tennis, former tennis players and his own tennis peers believe Federer is the greatest player in the history of the game. Federer's biggest rival Rafael Nadal is regarded as the greatest competitor in tennis history by some former players and is regarded to have the potential to be the greatest of all time. Nadal is regarded as the greatest clay court player of all time. \n\nGreatest female players\n\nAs with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time with Steffi Graf, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams being the three players most often nominated.\n\nIn March 2012 the TennisChannel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all time. It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed by Martina Navratilova (4th place) and Margaret Court (8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel.\n\nSportwriter John Wertheim of Sports Illustrated stated in an article in July 2010 that Serena Williams is the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that \"Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.\". In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot. This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time. \n\nSteffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player. Billie Jean King said in 1999, \"Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all time.\" Martina Navratilova has included Graf on her list of great players. In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by the Associated Press. Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his book The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova. \n\nTennis magazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005. Tennis historian and journalist Bud Collins has called Navratilova \"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\" Billie Jean King said about Navratilova in 2006, \"She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\" \n\nIn popular culture\n\n* David Foster Wallace, an amateur tennis player himself at Urbana High School in Illinois, included tennis in many of his works of nonfiction and fiction including \"Tennis Player Michael Joyce's Professional Artistry as a Paradigm of Certain Stuff about Choice, Freedom, Discipline, Joy, Grotesquerie, and Human Completeness,\" the autobiographical piece \"Derivative Sport in Tornado Alley,\" and Infinite Jest, which is partially set at the fictional \"Enfield Tennis Academy\" in Massachusetts.\n* Japanese Manga series The Prince of Tennis revolves around the tennis prodigy Echizen Ryoma and tennis matches between rival schools. \n* The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) features Richie Tenenbaum (Luke Wilson), a tennis pro who suffers from depression and has a breakdown on court in front of thousands of fans. \n* Wimbledon (2004) is a film about a discouraged pro tennis player (Paul Bettany) who meets a young woman on the women's tennis circuit (Kirsten Dunst) who helps him find his drive to go and win Wimbledon. \n* In The Squid and the Whale (2005), Joan (Laura Linney) has an affair with her kids' tennis coach, Ivan (William Baldwin). In a symbolic scene, Joan's ex-husband, Bernard (Jeff Daniels), loses a tennis match against Ivan in front of the kids. \n* Woody Allen's Match Point (2005) features a love affair between a former tennis pro (Jonathan Rhys Meyers) and his best friend's fiance (Scarlett Johansson). \n* Confetti (2006) is a mockumentary which sees three couples competing to win the title of \"Most Original Wedding of the Year\". One competing couple (Meredith MacNeill and Stephen Mangan) are a pair of hyper-competitive professional tennis players holding a tennis-themed wedding. \n* There are several tennis video games including Mario Tennis, the TopSpin series, Wii Sports, and Grand Slam Tennis.", "The Grand Slam tournaments, also called majors, are the four most important annual tennis events. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and greater number of \"best of\" sets for men. The Grand Slam itinerary consists of the Australian Open in mid January, the French Open in May and June, Wimbledon in June and July, and the US Open in August and September. Each tournament is played over a period of two weeks. The Australian and United States tournaments are played on hard courts, the French on clay, and Wimbledon on grass. Wimbledon is the oldest, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891, and the Australian in 1905. However, of these four, only Wimbledon was a major before 1924/25, the time when all four became designated Grand Slam tournaments.\n\nThe term Grand Slam also, and originally, refers to the achievement of winning all four major championships in a single calendar year within one of the five events: men's and women's singles; men's, women's, and mixed doubles. In doubles, one team may accomplish a Grand Slam playing together or one player may achieve it with different partners. The term \"Grand Slam\" without qualification refers to winning the four majors in a single calendar year. \n\nWinning the four majors in consecutive tournaments but not in the same year is known as a Non-Calendar Year Grand Slam, while winning all four majors at any point during the course of a career is known as a Career Grand Slam. Winning the gold medal at the Summer Olympic Games in addition to the four majors in a one calendar year is known as a \"Golden Grand Slam\" or more commonly the \"Golden Slam\". Also, winning the Year-End Championship (known as ATP World Tour Finals for men's singles and doubles disciplines, and WTA Tour Championships for both women's disciplines) in the same period is known as a \"Super Slam\". Together, all four Majors in all three disciplines (singles, doubles, and mixed doubles) are called a \"boxed set\" of Grand Slam titles. No male or female player has won all twelve events in one calendar year, although a \"career boxed set\" has been achieved by three female players.\n\nOrigin of the term \"Grand Slam\"\n\nThe term slam for winning all of the tricks in the whist family card games (see also whist terms) is attested from early in the 17th century. Grand slam for all of the tricks, in contrast to small slam or little slam for all but one, dates from early in the 19th century. This use was inherited by contract bridge, a modern development of whist defined in 1925 that became very popular in Britain and America by 1930.\n\nGrand slam has been used in golf since 1930, when Bobby Jones won the four major championships, two British and two American. Although John F. Kieran is widely credited with first applying the term \"grand slam\" to tennis, to describe the winning of all four major tennis tournaments in a calendar year, sports columnist Alan Gould had used the term in that connection almost two months before Kieran. \n\nHistory\n\nThe possibility of being the reigning champion of all the current four Majors did not exist until 1924/25, when the International Lawn Tennis Federation designated the Australasian, French (before 1925 only open to members of French tennis clubs), British and American championship tournaments as the four Majors. Before that time only three events: Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships (held in Paris & once in Brussels) and the World Covered Court Championships (held in various locations) were considered the premier international tennis events by the ILTF. Tony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of those earlier majors in one year – 1913. It has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925. It was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French opens due to the Second World War, the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles, and 1986 when there was no Australian Open at all.\n\nThe first definitive Grand Slam, of the current four majors, was accomplished when Don Budge won all four men's singles Majors in 1938. To date, 17 players have completed a Grand Slam, though only six in the most prestigious singles titles. Of these players, three have won multiple Grand Slams: Rod Laver accomplished the feat twice in men's singles; Margaret Court accomplished the feat three times, in two different disciplines – once in women's singles and twice in mixed doubles; and Esther Vergeer completed a grand slam twice in Women's wheelchair doubles.\n\nThe four Junior disciplines, boys' and girls' singles and doubles, provide limited opportunities to achieve a Grand Slam. Players are only eligible from age 13 to 18, with 18-year-olds likely to hold a physical advantage. Only Stefan Edberg has completed the Grand Slam in a Junior discipline.\n\nTournament details\n\nAustralian Open\n* Dates: last fortnight of January\n* Venue: Melbourne Park, Melbourne \n* Current Men's Singles champion: Novak Djokovic\n* Current Women's Singles champion: Angelique Kerber\n\nFrench Open\n* Dates: fortnight of late May / early June\n* Venue: Stade Roland Garros, Paris\n* Current Men's Singles champion: Novak Djokovic\n* Current Women's Singles champion: Garbiñe Muguruza\n\nWimbledon Championships\n* Dates: fortnight of late June / early July\n* Venue: All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, London\n* Current Men's Singles champion: Andy Murray\n* Current Women's Singles champion: Serena Williams\n\nUS Open\n* Dates: fortnight of late August / early September \n* Venue: USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, New York City\n* Current Men's Singles champion: Novak Djokovic\n* Current Women's Singles champion: Flavia Pennetta\n\nWinners\n\nGrand Slam champions\n\n;Per discipline (all-time)\n\n* List of Grand Slam men's singles champions\n* List of Grand Slam women's singles champions\n* List of Grand Slam men's doubles champions\n* List of Grand Slam women's doubles champions\n* List of Grand Slam mixed doubles champions\n\n* List of Grand Slam boys' singles champions\n* List of Grand Slam boys' doubles champions\n* List of Grand Slam girls' singles champions\n* List of Grand Slam girls' doubles champions\n* List of Wheelchair Tennis Champions\n\n;Per tournament (Open Era only)\n* List of Australian Open champions\n* List of French Open champions\n* List of Wimbledon Open Era champions\n* List of US Open (tennis) champions\n\nChampions who completed the Grand Slam\n\nChronological\n\nPer player\n\nNon-calendar year Grand Slam\n\nIn 1982 the International Tennis Federation (ITF) broadened the definition of the Grand Slam as meaning any four consecutive major victories, including the ones spanning two calendar years. As defined in the constitution of the ITF: \"The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam\". As this definition differs from the original definition of the Grand Slam as restricted to a single calendar year, there has been some controversy in the tennis world as regards this redefinition. Subsequently, the ITF has distanced itself from the 1982 decision, reverting to the traditional calendar-year definition (when Martina Navratilova won the 1984 French Open to become the reigning champion of all four women's singles, the ITF awarded her $1 million Grand Slam bonus in recognition of her achievement). However subsequently, the ITF abandoned recognizing non-calendar year grand slams.\n\nCombining the Grand Slam and non-calendar year Grand Slam, the total number of times that players achieved the feat (of being the reigning champion in all four majors) expands to 18.\n\nNovak Djokovic is the only male singles player to accomplish the Grand Slam by this definition during the Open Era — winning the four majors consecutively starting with Wimbledon 2015, through the French Open 2016. Prior to the Open Era, Don Budge was in that same position at the French Championships in 1938 when he completed the Grand Slam that began with Wimbledon 1937, then won the remaining majors in 1938 – Wimbledon and the U.S. Championships – making Budge, with six in a row, the only male to ever win more than four consecutive major tournaments. The Bryan brothers (Bob and Mike) were the last to achieve this in men's doubles. Several players and teams came up one title short. Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde, known collectively as The Woodies, reached the final of the 1997 French Open holding all the other three titles, but lost to Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Daniel Vacek. In singles, Pete Sampras lost the 1994 French Open quarterfinal to fellow countryman Jim Courier, having won the previous three Majors. Roger Federer in 2006 and 2007 and Novak Djokovic in 2012 repeated this, both ultimately losing the French Open final to Rafael Nadal. Nadal himself was prevented from achieving this feat by his own countryman David Ferrer, who defeated him in the quarterfinal of the Australian Open 2011, with Nadal previously having won the French Open, Wimbledon and US Open in 2010.\n\nMen's singles\n\n* Novak Djokovic (2015–16)\n*Four consecutive major titles from 2015 Wimbledon to 2016 French Open.\n\nWomen's singles\n\n Martina Navratilova (1983–84)\n** Six consecutive major titles from 1983 Wimbledon to US Open 1984.\n: Note: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n* Steffi Graf (1993–94)\n** Four consecutive major titles from 1993 French Open to the 1994 Australian Open.\n* Serena Williams (2002–03, 2014–15)\n Four consecutive major titles from 2002 French Open to the 2003 Australian Open.\n Four consecutive major titles from 2014 US Open to 2015 Wimbledon.\n\nMen's doubles\n\n* Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan (2012–13)\n** Four consecutive major titles from 2012 US Open to 2013 Wimbledon.\n\nWomen's doubles\n\n* Louise Brough (1949–50)\n** Four consecutive major titles from the 1949 French Championships to 1950 Australian Championships (three times with Margaret Osborne duPont and the 1950 Australian Championships won with Doris Hart).\n* Pam Shriver and Martina Navratilova (1986–87)\n Four consecutive major titles from 1986 Wimbledon to the 1987 French Open.\n Navratilova also won the 1986 French Open with Andrea Temesvári, totaling 5 consecutive major titles for her.\n* Gigi Fernández and Natasha Zvereva (1992–93)\n** Six consecutive major titles from the 1992 French Open to 1993 Wimbledon.\n* Natasha Zvereva (1996–97)\n** Four consecutive major titles from the 1996 US Open to 1997 Wimbledon (three times with Gigi Fernández and the 1997 Australian Open won with Martina Hingis).\n* Serena Williams and Venus Williams (2009–2010)\n** Four consecutive titles from 2009 Wimbledon to the 2010 French Open.\n\nMixed doubles\n\n* Billie Jean King (1967–68)\n** Four consecutive major titles from 1967 French Championships to the 1968 Australian Championships (three times with Owen Davidson and the 1968 Australian Championships won with Dick Crealy).\n\nMen's wheelchair doubles\n\nStéphane Houdet (2009–2010)\n* Five consecutive titles from the 2009 French Open to 2010 French Open (the first two with Michaël Jeremiasz, the 2009 US Open won with Stefan Olsson and the last two with Shingo Kunieda)\nShingo Kunieda (2014–2015)\n* Four consecutive titles from the 2014 Wimbledon to 2015 French Open (the first three with Stéphane Houdet and the 2015 French Open with Gordon Reid)\n\nCareer Grand Slam\n\nThe career achievement of all four major championships in one discipline is termed a Career Grand Slam in that discipline. Dozens of players have accomplished that (column two) and 17 have doubled it: won a second championship in each of the four majors in one discipline (column three). Two or more career championships in all four majors is sometimes called a \"Multiple Slam Set\". Three players have Multiple Slam Sets in two disciplines, one in three disciplines, so 22 players are counted in the table (column three). Their achievements are tabulated below.\n\nEight men and ten women have won Career Grand Slams in singles play (rows one and two); among them two men and five women have at least two Career Grand Slams in singles (column three). Since the beginning of the open era, five men and six women have achieved this (Rod Laver, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic; Margaret Court, Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova).\n\nSeveral singles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam:\n\nAustralian Open: René Lacoste, Henri Cochet, Helen Wills, Althea Gibson, Tony Trabert and Margaret Osborne duPont\nFrench Open: Frank Sedgman, Ashley Cooper, Louise Brough Clapp, Virginia Wade, Arthur Ashe, Pete Sampras, John Newcombe, Jimmy Connors, Boris Becker, Stefan Edberg, Martina Hingis, and Lindsay Davenport\nWimbledon: Ken Rosewall, Hana Mandlíková, Ivan Lendl, Monica Seles, Guillermo Vilas, Mats Wilander and Justine Henin\nUS Open: Jean Borotra, Jack Crawford, Lew Hoad and Evonne Goolagong Cawley\n\nSeveral doubles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam:\n\nAustralian Open: John Van Ryn, Helen Wills, Elizabeth Ryan, Margaret Osborne duPont, Darlene Hard, Billie Jean King, Betty Stöve, Robert Seguso, Mahesh Bhupathi and Lindsay Davenport\nFrench Open: John Bromwich, Nancy Richey, Arantxa Sánchez Vicario and Sania Mirza\nWimbledon: Vic Seixas, Ashley Cooper, Virginia Wade, Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez\nUS Open: Jean Borotra, Jacques Brugnon, Jack Crawford, Althea Gibson and Rod Laver\n\nOnly six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles, one male (Roy Emerson) and five female (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams). Court, Hart and Navratilova are the only three players to have completed a \"Career Boxed Set\", winning all four titles in singles, doubles and mixed doubles; this has never been done by a male player.\n\nThe remainder of this section is a complete list, by discipline, of all players who have won the Career Grand Slam. Players are ordered chronologically by their completion of the Slam.\n\nMen's singles\n \n\nEight men have won the four grand slam tournaments. Two of the eight men achieved a double career Slam. Originally, the grand slams were held on grass (Australian, Wimbledon, and US Open) and clay (French) and the first four players achieved their grand slams on two surfaces. The US Open changed its surface from grass to clay in 1975 and then clay to hard court in 1978. The Australian Open changed from grass to hard court in 1988. The last four players (Agassi, Federer, Nadal, Djokovic) achieved their grand slam on three different surfaces: hard court, clay, and grass.\n\nWomen's singles\n \n\nEach woman's \"first wins\" in the four Majors are listed chronologically and their ages upon completion of the Slam are given in brackets. Five of the ten women achieved at least two career Slams, two of the ten have achieved three careers slams and Steffi Graf is the only player to achieve four career Slams.\n\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nMen's doubles\n \n\nAt Men's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam including fourteen who \"slammed\" with one partner. The latter are listed first, as seven teams, ignoring any major wins with other partners. Five of the 21 men achieved at least a double career Slam at Men's Doubles, led by Roy Emerson and John Newcombe with triple Slams.\n\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nWomen's doubles\n \n\nAt Women's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam including ten who \"slammed\" with one partner. Eight of the 22 achieved at least a double career Slam at Women's Doubles, led by Martina Navratilova with seven or more titles in each Major.\n\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nMixed doubles\n \n\nAt Mixed Doubles, a total of 17 players have won the career Slam, including seven who \"slammed\" as a pair (won all four with same partner) — an odd number because Margaret Court has accomplished a career Grand Slam separately with Ken Fletcher and Marty Riessen. The other four of the seven are Doris Hart, Frank Sedgman, Leander Paes and Martina Hingis. Also three of the 15 players have accomplished multiple career Grand Slams in mixed doubles, led by Margaret Court's quadruple Slam.\n\nBoy's singles\n\n* Stefan Edberg (1983)\n\nBoy's doubles\n\n* Mark Kratzmann (1983 French Open, Wimbledon & US Open; 1984 Australian Open)\n\nMen's wheelchair doubles\n\nWheelchair tennis Grand Slams are possible only in men's doubles and women's doubles. \n\nWomen's wheelchair doubles\n\nWheelchair tennis Grand Slams are possible only in men's doubles and women's doubles.\n\nMost consecutive Grand Slam tournament titles\n\nMen's singles\n\n* 6: Don Budge (from the 1937 Wimbledon to the 1938 U.S. Championships).\n\nWomen's singles\n\n* 6: Maureen Connolly (from the 1952 Wimbledon to the 1953 U.S. Championships).\n* 6: Margaret Court (from the 1969 US Open to the 1971 Australian Open).\n* 6: Martina Navratilova (from the 1983 Wimbledon to the 1984 US Open).\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nMen's doubles\n\nTeam:\n* 7: Ken McGregor and Frank Sedgman (from the 1951 Australian Championships to the 1952 Wimbledon)\n\nPlayer:\n* 8: Frank Sedgman (from the 1950 U.S. Championships to the 1952 Wimbledon)\n\nWomen's doubles\n\nTeam and Player:\n* 8: Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver (from the 1983 Wimbledon to the 1985 French Open)\n\nMixed doubles\n\nTeam:\n* 6: Margaret Court and Ken Fletcher (from the 1963 Australian Championships to the 1964 French Championships)\n\nPlayer:\n* 7: Margaret Court (from the 1962 US Championships to the 1964 French Championships)\n\nMen's wheelchair singles\n\n* 13: Shingo Kunieda (from the 2007 Australian Open to the 2011 French Open)\n\nWomen's wheelchair singles\n\n* 13: Esther Vergeer (from the 2005 French Open to the 2009 US Open)\n* 7: Esther Vergeer (from the 2010 French Open to the 2012 Wimbledon)\n\nMen's wheelchair doubles\n\nPlayer:\n* 5: Stéphane Houdet (from the 2009 French Open to the 2010 French Open)\n* 5: Stéphane Houdet (from the 2014 Australian Open to the 2015 Australian Open)\n\nWomen's wheelchair doubles\n\nTeam:\n* 7: Esther Vergeer and Sharon Walraven (from the 2010 Wimbledon to 2012 Australian Open)\n\nPlayer:\n* 14: Esther Vergeer (from the 2005 French Open to the 2009 US Open)\n* 8: Esther Vergeer (from the 2010 French Open to the 2012 French Open)\n\nMost consecutive Grand Slam singles finals\n\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nMost Grand Slam singles titles in a row (non-consecutive)\n\nHelen Wills Moody won all 16 of the Grand Slam singles tournaments she played beginning with the 1924 U.S. Championships and extending to the 1933 Wimbledon Championships (not counting her defaults in the 1926 French and Wimbledon Championships). The first 15 of those were won without losing a set. During this period, she won 6 Wimbledons, 4 French Championships, and 6 U.S. Championships. She also won the 1924 Summer Olympics during this period. Moody never entered the Australian Championships.\n\nMost Grand Slam mixed doubles titles in a row (non-consecutive)\n\nDoris Hart won all 13 of the Grand Slam mixed doubles tournaments she played beginning with the 1951 French Championships and extending to the 1955 U.S. Championships. During this period, she won 5 Wimbledons, 3 French Championships, and 5 U.S. Championships.\n\nGolden Slam\n\nTennis was an Olympic sport from the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics through the 1924 Games, then was dropped for the next 64 years (except as a demonstration sport in 1968 and 1984) before returning in 1988. As there were only three Major championships designated by the International Lawn Tennis Federation before 1925, none of the tennis players who participated in the Olympics between 1896 and 1924 had a chance to complete a Golden Grand Slam. However although it didn't occur, there was a possibility to complete a Career Golden Grand Slam by winning the 1920 Olympics or 1924 Olympics plus each of the four grand slams, all of which were present from 1925 onwards. The term Golden Slam (initially \"Golden Grand Slam\") was coined in 1988. \n\nOnly one player has completed the Golden Slam: \nSteffi Graf (1988 Australian Open, 1988 French Open, 1988 Wimbledon Championships, 1988 US Open, and 1988 Olympic gold medal)\n\nNon-calendar year Golden Slam\n\nWinning four consecutive Grand Slam tournaments and Olympic event in the period of twelve months, although not in one year is called a Non-calendar year Golden Slam. Only Bob and Mike Bryan have achieved this by winning the 2012 Olympics, 2012 US Open, 2013 Australian Open, 2013 French Open and 2013 Wimbledon Championships. After they won the final at Wimbledon, this was coined the \"Golden Bryan Slam\". \n\nNote: Although Serena Williams held all four majors (winning consecutively all four majors from the 2014 US Open to the 2015 Wimbledon) and the 2012 Olympic Gold at the same time, it isn't considered a non-calendar year Golden Slam because she won her gold medal three years prior to the 12-month period where she held all four majors.\n\nCareer Golden Slam\n\nA player who wins all four Grand Slam tournaments and the Olympic gold medal during his or her career is said to have achieved a Career Golden Slam. Serena Williams is the only player to have achieved a Career Golden Slam in both singles and doubles. \n\nSuper Slam\n\nIn 1970 a tournament was created to reunite the top male players of the season, which is today called the ATP World Tour Finals. In 1972 the women's tour introduced the same concept, now known as the WTA Tour Championships. Both are contested at the end of the year and are the last official competitions of the ATP and WTA seasons. Winning this event along with the four Grand Slams and the Olympic gold medal is known as completing the Super Slam., and achievement which has only been possible since 1988, when tennis returned to the Olympic calendar.\n\nNo player has ever completed the Super Slam in one season.\n\nNon-calendar year Super Slam\n\nOnly one player has completed the Super Slam in the period of twelve months:\nSteffi Graf (1987 WTA Tour Championships, 1988 Australian Open, 1988 French Open, 1988 Wimbledon Championships, 1988 US Open & 1988 Olympic gold medal)\n\nNote: Although Serena Williams held all four majors (winning consecutively all four majors from the 2014 US Open to the 2015 Wimbledon), the 2012 Olympic Gold and the 2014 WTA Tour Championships at the same time, it is not considered a non-calendar year Super Slam because it was not accomplished in a 12-month period.\n\nCareer Super Slam\n\nThe following players have completed the Super Slam during their career:\n\nThree Major tournament titles in a year\n\nPlayers who have won three of the four Grand Slam tournaments in the same year. Jack Crawford, Lew Hoad, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams won the first three events, but lost the last grand slam tournament. Crawford, an asthmatic, won two of the first three sets of the 1933 U.S. Championships final against Fred Perry, then tired in the heat and lost the last two sets and the match. \n\n;Men's singles\n\n;Women's singles\n\n;Men's doubles\n\nnote: UR=Unknown Result. Please help us find this information.\n\n;Women's doubles\n\n;Mixed doubles\n\n;Boys' singles\n Mark Kratzmann\n: 1984: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n* Nicolás Pereira\n: 1988: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n* Gaël Monfils\n: 2004: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n\n;Boys' doubles\n* Mark Kratzmann\n: 1983: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\nSimon Youl\n: 1983: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n* Jason Stoltenberg\n: 1988: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\nTodd Woodbridge\n: 1988: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n* Ben Ellwood\n: 1994: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n* Brendan Evans\n: 2004: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n* Scott Oudsema\n: 2004: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n\n;Girls' singles\n* Natalia Zvereva\n: 1987: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n* Magdalena Maleeva\n: 1990: Australian Open, French Open, US Open\n\n;Girls' doubles\n* Beth Herr\n: 1982: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n* Corina Morariu\n: 1995: Australian Open, French Open, US Open\n* Ludmilla Varmuzova\n: 1995: Australian Open, French Open, US Open\n* Victoria Azarenka\n: 2005: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n* Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova\n: 2006: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n* Urszula Radwańska\n: 2007: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n\n;Men's wheelchair singles \n\n;Men's wheelchair doubles\n\n;Women's wheelchair singles\n\n;Women's wheelchair doubles\n\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nTriple Crown\n\nWinning singles, doubles and mixed doubles titles at one Grand Slam event is called a Triple Crown. It has become a rare accomplishment in tennis. This is partly because the final match in all three disciplines often takes place concurrently in the same day if not in consecutive days. Doris Hart for example attained her first Triple Crown after playing three Wimbledon final matches held in one single day.\n\nNotes:\nThis list excludes the 1909 triple crown of Jeanne Matthey and the 1920, 1921, 1922 and 1923 triple crown wins of Suzanne Lenglen. The French Championship tennis tournament at the time was a domestic competition not recognized as an international major. At the time the major clay court event (actual precursor of the French Open in its current international format) was the World Hard Court Championships, where Suzanne Lenglen also attained triple championship in 1921 and 1922).\nAlso the 1941 triple championship of Alice Weiwers is not listed due to its disputed official status: French championships held in Vichy France from 1941 to 1945 are currently not recognized by Fédération Française de Tennis.\n\n;Men\n\n;Women\n\nBoxed Set\n\nAnother Grand Slam-related accomplishment is winning a \"boxed set\" of Grand Slam titles – which is at least one of every possible type of Major championship available to a player: the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles at all four Grand Slam events of the year. This has never been accomplished within a year or consecutively across two calendar years.\n\nCareer Boxed Set\n\nThe Career Boxed Set refers to winning one of every possible grand slam title (singles, doubles, mixed) over the course of an entire career. No male player has completed this, although Frank Sedgman came close. He only missed out on the French Open singles title. Men who participate in top/elite level singles have played comparatively few doubles, and very few mixed doubles. So far, only three women have completed the boxed set during their careers:\n\nCourt is not only unique in having two boxed sets, but is also unique in the timing of her accomplishments. Her first boxed set was completed before the start of the open era, and she has a boxed set achieved solely within the open era.\n\nMartina Hingis has come closer than any other currently active player to joining this elite group. She just needs the French Open singles, having reached the final in 1997 and 1999. Prior to Hingis, it was Billie Jean King who came close at completing a career boxed set. She only needed the Australian Open women's doubles title and although she reached the final twice (in 1965 and 1969), she failed to win the title.\n\nMultiple Career Grand Slams\n\nOf the many players who have managed to win a full set of four majors, there is a small number who have gone on to win all four majors a second or more times. The completion of \"Multiple Career Grand Slams\" or sometimes called \"multiple slam sets\" (MSS) has been achieved by only 22 unique players up to the end of the 2015 Wimbledon. MSS players can be found in each of the five tennis disciplines: men's or women's singles, men's or women's doubles, mixed doubles. It can also be found in women's wheelchair doubles. Of these, five players have completed MSS in more than one discipline: Roy Emerson, Martina Navratilova, Frank Sedgman and Serena Williams have MSS in two disciplines, Margaret Court has MSS in three disciplines.\n\nThis table shows each multiple occurrence of a complete MSS for each of the players who have accomplished multiple slams in a particular tennis discipline. The year shown for each of the four majors is the year that particular major win was repeated as part of that player's achievement of their second (all 22 players) and third (8 players) and fourth (4 players) and fifth through seventh (Martina Navratilova, in women's doubles) complete slam set of Major wins.\n\nFor example, the fourth row shows that Margaret Court completed her third career slam set in Women's Singles—winning each of the four majors three times—during the 1970 Wimbledon Championships (bold). More specific, she won: Australian open 11 times, the third in 1962; French Open five times, the third in 1969; Wimbledon three times (determines the maximum of sets), the third in 1970 and finally US Open five times, the third in 1969. Grey background shades lesser achievements by the same player in the same discipline (e.g., Court in the eighth row); yellow highlights the greatest achievement in the discipline (e.g., Graf in the third row).\n\nBy discipline (numbers of players and table entries)\n* Men's Singles (2 people; 2 entries)\n* Women's Singles (5 people; 9 entries)\n* Men's Doubles (8 people; 10 entries)\n* Women's Doubles (9 people; 17 entries)\n* Mixed Doubles (4 people, 6 entries)\n* Men's Wheelchair Doubles (2 people; 3 entries)\n* Women's Wheelchair Doubles (3 people; 4 entries)\n\nPro Slam\n\nBefore the Open Era began in 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four majors. Many male top players \"went pro\" in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completely different events. From 1927 through 1967, the three oldest pro events were considered \"majors\" of the pro tour: the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships, French Pro Championship and Wembley Championships. A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered to achieve a \"Professional Grand Slam\", or \"Pro Slam\". The feat was accomplished twice:\nKen Rosewall in 1963; \nRod Laver in 1967. \nThree other players won those three major trophies during their pro careers: Ellsworth Vines, Hans Nüsslein and Don Budge. The pro slams did not have a women's draw." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Peter Graf", "Stephanie Maria Graf", "Steffie graf", "Steffi Graf", "Stefanie Graf", "Steffi Graff", "Steffie Graf", "Stefi Graf" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "stefi graf", "steffi graf", "peter graf", "steffie graf", "stephanie maria graf", "steffi graff", "stefanie graf" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "steffi graf", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Steffi Graf" }
Who was the first boxer to twice regain the world heavyweight title?	tc_1498	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Boxing.txt" ], "title": [ "Boxing" ], "wiki_context": [ "Boxing is a martial art and combat sport in which two people wearing protective gloves throw punches at each other for a predetermined set of time in a boxing ring.\n\nAmateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth sport and is a common fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds. The result is decided when an opponent is deemed incapable to continue by a referee, is disqualified for breaking a rule, resigns by throwing in a towel, or is pronounced the winner or loser based on the judges' scorecards at the end of the contest. In the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, the fight is considered a draw (professional boxing). In Olympic boxing, due to the fact that a winner must be declared, in the case of a draw - the judges use technical criteria to choose the most deserving winner of the bout.\n\nWhile people have fought in hand-to-hand combat since before the dawn of history, the origin of boxing as an organized sport may be its acceptance by the ancient Greeks as an Olympic game in BC 688. Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century, again initially in Great Britain and later in the United States.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient history\n\nSee also Ancient Greek boxing\n\nThe earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from the 3rd millennium BCE Later depictions from the 2nd millennium BC are found in reliefs from the Mesopotamian nations of Assyria and Babylonia, and in Hittite art from Asia Minor. The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete (c.1650–1400 BCE), and on Sardinia, if we consider the boxing statues of Prama mountains (c. 2000–1000 BC).\n\nBoxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists. Eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon. The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus which then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex ('limb piercer'). Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events. However, especially in later times, purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities, and their lives were not given up without due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle marked on the floor. This is where the term ring came from. In AD 393, during the Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality. It was not until the late 17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London.\n\nEarly London prize ring rules\n\nRecords of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or \"Fist Fighting\".\n\nAs the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719. This is also the time when the word \"boxing\" first came to be used. It should be noted, that this earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling. On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica) engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize.\n\nEarly fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham, 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, a successful Wrestler from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today. \n\nThe first boxing rules, called the Broughton's rules, were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton encouraged the use of 'mufflers', a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in 'jousting' or sparring sessions in training, and in exhibition matches.\n\nThese rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered \"unmanly\" and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the Boxers. Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to preserve their hands, because the head was a common target to hit full out. Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows. \n\nMarquess of Queensberry rules (1867)\n\nIn 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them.\n\nThere were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be \"a fair stand-up boxing match\" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down, and wrestling was banned.\nThe introduction of gloves of \"fair-size\" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. \nThe gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face.\n\nLate 19th and early 20th centuries\n\nThrough the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police. Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics.\n\nThe English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.\n\nThe first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was \"Gentleman Jim\" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans. \n\nThe first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada, where it was legal at the time.\n\nThroughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy. They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan.\n\nRules\n\nThe Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.\n\nA boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds. A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls.\n\nUp to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches that connect, defense, knockdowns, and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one or both fighters believe they have been \"robbed\" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more \"seconds\" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signaled end of each round.\n\nA bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to \"go the distance\". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out ; such bouts are said to have ended \"inside the distance\". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue.\n\nShould the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled \"knocked out\" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A \"technical knock-out\" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a \"three-knockdown rule\", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A \"standing eight\" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that he feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if he is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown.\n\nIn general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the neck or head (called a \"rabbit-punch\") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between).\n\nIf a \"clinch\" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to \"punch out\" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue.\n\nViolations of these rules may be ruled \"fouls\" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a \"no contest\" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed.\n\nUnheard of these days, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a \"newspaper decision (NWS)\" might be made after a no decision bout had ended. A \"no decision\" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications. Officially, however, a \"no decision\" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report.\n\nProfessional vs. amateur boxing\n\nThroughout the 17th to 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts. Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career.\n\nAmateur boxing\n\nAmateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games, and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds.\n\nCompetitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle. There are cases however, where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn. The white end just is a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits. Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves. Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless, the fighters weigh under 165 pounds, thus allowing them to wear 10 ounce gloves. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced. Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as \"RSC\" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH).\n\nProfessional boxing\n\nProfessional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts, especially in Australia. Through the early twentieth century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the twentieth century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds.\n\nHeadgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted. At any time, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare-chested. \n\nBoxing styles\n\nDefinition of style\n\n\"Style\" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout. No two fighters' styles are alike, as it is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes. Three main styles exist in boxing: outside fighter (\"boxer\"), brawler (or \"slugger\"), and Inside fighter (\"swarmer\"). These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as counter puncher, etc. The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage over one, but disadvantage over the other one. It follows the rock-paper-scissors scenario - boxer beats brawler, brawler beats swarmer, and swarmer beats boxer. \n\nBoxer/out-fighter\n\nA classic \"boxer\" or stylist (also known as an \"out-fighter\") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler. Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.\n\nNotable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe Wilfredo Gómez, \nSalvador Sanchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney, Ezzard Charles, Willie Pep, Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo Lopez, Floyd Mayweather, Roy Jones, Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vazquez, Sergio \"Maravilla\" Martínez, Vitali Klitschko, Wladimir Klitschko, and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed.\n\nBoxer-puncher\n\nA boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter), but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style.\n\nNotable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Wladimir Klitschko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis, Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar de la Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón, Alexis Argüello, Erik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed and Thomas Hearns.\n\nCounter puncher\n\nCounter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one's attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork.\n\nNotable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Vitali Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd Mayweather, Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Gabriel Martinez and Guillermo Rigondeaux.\n\nCounter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches. The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in. The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense. This style can be incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off. They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents. A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike. As such, knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style.\n\nBrawler/slugger\n\nA brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Mainly Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, Mexican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment. However, not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García.\n\nA brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio Cesar Chavez, Roberto Duran, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Jake Lamotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy. This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and James \"Clubber\" Lang.\n\nBrawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other fighting styles because they train to take punches very well. They often have a higher chance than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks. Oftentimes they place focus on training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance. They also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a punch.\n\nSwarmer/in-fighter\n\nIn-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called \"pressure fighters\") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. A successful in-fighter often needs a good \"chin\" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting.\n\nThe essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters utilize their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts where they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his hard \"chin\", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents. Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving.\n\nNotable in-fighters include Julio César Chávez, Miguel Cotto, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Saúl Álvarez, Rocky Marciano, Jack Dempsey, Wayne McCullough, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb, David Tua, Ricky Hatton and Gennady Golovkin.\n\nCombinations of styles\n\nAll fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge. For example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches.\n\nStyle matchups\n\nThere is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock-paper-scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that \"styles make fights.\"\n\nBrawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout \"The Sunshine Showdown\".\n\nAlthough in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime.\n\nThe boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers.\n\nAn example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick Taylor). The match was nicknamed \"Thunder Meets Lightning\" as an allusion to punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the \"Mexican\" style of boxing. Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points. Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor. Coming into the later rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage. While there was little doubt that Taylor had solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would survive the final quarter. Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards of two of the three judges. Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend. However, Taylor did not stay away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez. As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could knock him out.\nWith about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots. Finally, with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him. Suddenly Chávez stepped around Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from Chávez' desperate final flurry. Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that dropped the younger man. By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count. Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer. Steele then concluded that Taylor was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout.\n\nEquipment\n\nSince boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. Both sides are allowed to inspect the wraps and gloves of the opponent to help ensure both are within agreed upon specifications and no tampering has taken place.\n\nA mouth guard is important to protect the teeth and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet. While older boxing boots more commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts.\n\nBoxers practice their skills on two basic types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped \"speed bag\" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical \"heavy bag\" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also utilize sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.\n\nBoxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes attached to posts rising in each corner. The term \"ring\" has come to be used as a metaphor for many aspects of prize fighting in general.\n\nTechnique\n\nStance\n\nThe modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson.\n\nFile:attitude_droite1.jpg\|Upright stance\nFile:attitude_semi-enroulée1.jpg\|Semi-crouch\nFile:attitude_enroulée1.jpg\|Full crouch\n\nIn a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step in front of the lead man. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist (for most penetration power). Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly off-center. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the \"textbook\" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents.\n\nLeft-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand.\n\nNorth American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots.\n\nModern boxers can sometimes be seen tapping their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). Boxers are taught to push off with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.\n\nPunches\n\nThere are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. Any punch other than a jab is considered a power punch. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer.\n\nFile:jab7.jpg\|Jab\nFile:Drop3.jpg\|Cross - in counter-punch with a looping\nFile:crochet1.jpg\|Hook\nFile:uppercut2.jpg\|Uppercut\n\n* Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face.\n** The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or 'wear down' their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko.\n* Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical plane. \n** Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross is also called a \"straight\" or \"right\", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab.\n* Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target.\n** At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the \"rip\" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Notable left hookers include Joe Frazier , Roy Jones Jr. and Mike Tyson.\n\n* Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso.\n** At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to \"lift\" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift the opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out.\n\nThese different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or \"combos.\" The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the \"one-two combo.\" This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully.\n\nA large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a \"roundhouse,\" \"haymaker,\" or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard.\n\nWide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in.\n\nAnother unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm.\n\nAn illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch.\n\nDefense\n\nThere are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below.\n\nFile:slip1.jpg\|Slipping\nFile:slip2.jpg\|Bobbing\nFile:blocage1.jpg\|Blocking (with the arms)\nFile:protection passive1.jpg\|Cover-Up (with the gloves)\nFile:neutraliser1.jpg\|Clinching\nFile:pas de retrait.jpg\|Footwork\nFile:retrait2.jpg\|Pulling away\n\n* Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to \"slip\" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson.\n* Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called \"rolling with the punch\" or \" Riding The Punch\".\n* Duck or break – To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head glances or misses entirely.\n* Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer \"weaves\" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the outside\". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the inside\". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving.\n* Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A \"palm\", \"catch\", or \"cuff\" is a defense which intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove.\n* The cover-up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches \"roll\" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below.\n* The clinch – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or \"tie up\" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing.\n\nLess common strategies\n\n* The \"rope-a-dope\" strategy : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 \"the Rumble in the Jungle\" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as he would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target. Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy while conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Recently, however, eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown.\n* Bolo punch : Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilan. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch.\n\nFile:contre_bolo1.jpg\| Bolo punch\nFile:drop1.jpg\| Overhand (overcut)\n\n* Overhand right : The overhand right is a punch not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the right cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand right has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over the shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko. The overhand right has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking.\n* Check hook : A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport. Floyd Mayweather, Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down.\n\nRing corner\n\nIn boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds for 1 minute and where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts and blood. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts that threaten the boxer's eyes.\n\nIn addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase \"to throw in the towel\", meaning to give up, derives from this practice). This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal.\n\nMedical concerns\n\nKnocking a person unconscious or even causing concussion may cause permanent brain damage. There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person. Since 1980, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters have died due to ring or training injuries. In 1983, editorials in the Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an \"obscenity\" that \"should not be sanctioned by any civilized society.\" Since then, the British, Canadian and Australian Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing.\n\nSupporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: \"It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing.\" Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for \"injury\". They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches winning rounds scored 10-9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many other sports where concussions are much more prevalent. \n\nIn 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage, and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage. The Gothenburg study analyzed temporary levels of neurofiliment light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside. More comprehensive studies of neurologiocal function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University and accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council show amateur boxing is a comparatively safe sport.\n\nIn 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing. \n\nProfessional boxing is forbidden in Iceland, Iran, Saudi Arabia and North Korea. It was banned in Sweden until 2007 when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed. It was banned in Albania from 1965 till the fall of Communism in 1991; it is now legal there. Norway legalized professional boxing in December 2014.\n\nBoxing Hall of Fame\n\nThe sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the World Boxing Hall of Fame (WBHF), with the IBHOF being the more widely recognized boxing hall of fame. In 2013, The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas opened in Las Vegas, NV founded by Steve Lott, former assistant manager for Mike Tyson \n\nThe WBHF was founded by Everett L. Sanders in 1980. Since its inception the WBHOF has never had a permanent location or museum, which has allowed the more recent IBHOF to garner more publicity and prestige. Among the notable names in the WBHF are Ricardo \"Finito\" Lopez, Gabriel \"Flash\" Elorde, Michael Carbajal, Khaosai Galaxy, Henry Armstrong, Jack Johnson, Roberto Durán, George Foreman, Ceferino Garcia and Salvador Sanchez. Boxing's International Hall of Fame was inspired by a tribute an American town held for two local heroes in 1982. The town, Canastota, New York, (which is about 15 mi east of Syracuse, via the New York State Thruway), honored former world welterweight/middleweight champion Carmen Basilio and his nephew, former world welterweight champion Billy Backus. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute which inspired the idea of creating an official, annual hall of fame for notable boxers.\n\nThe International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures include Salvador Sanchez, Jose Napoles, Roberto \"Manos de Piedra\" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel \"Flash\" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event. The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself.\n\nThe Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas features the $75 million ESPN Classic Sports fight film and tape library and radio broadcast collection. The collection includes the fights of all the great champions including: Muhammad Ali, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Roberto Duran, Marvin Hagler, Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Joe Frazier, Rocky Marciano and Sugar Ray Robinson. It is this exclusive fight film library that will separate the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas from the other halls of fame which do not have rights to any video of their sports. The inaugural inductees included Muhammad Ali, Henry Armstrong, Tony Canzoneri, Ezzard Charles, Julio Cesar Chavez Sr., Jack Dempsey, Roberto Duran, Joe Louis, and Sugar Ray Robinson \n\nGoverning and sanctioning bodies\n\n; Governing Bodies\n* British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC)\n* European Boxing Union\n* Nevada State Athletic Commission\n\n; Major Sanctioning Bodies\n* International Boxing Federation (IBF)\n* World Boxing Association (WBA)\n* World Boxing Council (WBC)\n* World Boxing Organization (WBO)\n\n;Amateur\n* International Boxing Association (AIBA; now also professional)\n\nBoxer rankings\n\nThere are various organizations and websites, that rank boxers in both weight class and pound-for-pound manner.\n* BoxRec ([http://boxrec.com/ratings.php ratings])\n* The Ring ([http://ringtv.craveonline.com/ratings ratings])\n* ESPN ([http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/boxing/columns/story?columnistrafael_dan&id\n6402207 ratings])\n* Transnational Boxing Rankings Board ([http://www.tbrb.org/all-rankings/ ratings])" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Float like a butter fly sting like a bee", "Louisville lip", "Ali shuffle", "Float like a butterfly and sting like a bee", "Cassius Marcellus Clay Junior", "Muhummad Ali", "Maryum Ali", "Cassius X", "Cassius Marcellus Clay, Junior", "Louisville Lip", "Muhammad Ali", "Muhammud Ali", "Khalilah 'Belinda' Ali", "Cassius Clay Junior", "Float like a butterfly sting like a bee", "Muhammad Ali (boxer)", "Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr.", "Sonji Roi", "Ale Muhammad", "Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr", "Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.", "Cassius Marcellus Clay (Muhammad Ali)", "Cassius Clay, Junior", "Mohammed Alì", "Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr", "Muhamad Ali", "Yolanda Williams", "I am the greatest!", "Ali, Muhammad", "Cassius Clay", "Muhammet ali", "Yolanda 'Lonnie' Ali", "I am the greatest", "Cassius Clay, Jr.", "Muhammed Ali", "Cassius Clay Jr", "Cassius clay", "Lonnie Ali", "Cassius Clay, Jr", "May May" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "muhammud ali", "louisville lip", "ali muhammad", "float like butter fly sting like bee", "khalilah belinda ali", "i am greatest", "float like butterfly sting like bee", "cassius marcellus clay muhammad ali", "mohammed alì", "lonnie ali", "sonji roi", "yolanda lonnie ali", "cassius clay junior", "maryum ali", "cassius x", "cassius marcellus clay jr", "muhammad ali", "muhammad ali boxer", "muhummad ali", "yolanda williams", "muhamad ali", "muhammed ali", "ale muhammad", "may may", "cassius clay", "float like butterfly and sting like bee", "cassius clay jr", "ali shuffle", "muhammet ali", "cassius marcellus clay junior" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "muhammad ali", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Muhammad Ali" }
Which Robin was the first yachtsman to sail non-stop around the world?	tc_1503	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Sunday_Times_Golden_Globe_Race.txt" ], "title": [ "Sunday Times Golden Globe Race" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Sunday Times Golden Globe Race was a non-stop, single-handed, round-the-world yacht race, held in 1968–1969, and was the first round-the-world yacht race. The race was controversial due to the failure by most competitors to finish the race and because of the suicide of one entrant; however, it ultimately led to the founding of the BOC Challenge and Vendée Globe round-the-world races, both of which continue to be successful and popular.\n\nThe race was sponsored by the British Sunday Times newspaper and was designed to capitalise on a number of individual round-the-world voyages which were already being planned by various sailors; for this reason, there were no qualification requirements, and competitors were offered the opportunity to join and permitted to start at any time between 1 June and 31 October 1968. The Golden Globe trophy was offered to the first person to complete an unassisted, non-stop single-handed circumnavigation of the world via the great capes, and a separate £5,000 prize was offered for the fastest single-handed circumnavigation.\n\nNine sailors started the race; four retired before leaving the Atlantic Ocean. Of the five remaining, Chay Blyth, who had set off with absolutely no sailing experience, sailed past the Cape of Good Hope before retiring; Nigel Tetley sank with 1100 nmi to go while leading; Donald Crowhurst, who, in desperation, attempted to fake a round-the-world voyage to avoid financial ruin, began to show signs of mental illness, and then committed suicide; and Bernard Moitessier, who rejected the philosophy behind a commercialised competition, abandoned the race while in a strong position to win and kept sailing non-stop until he reached Tahiti after circling the globe one and a half times. Robin Knox-Johnston was the only entrant to complete the race, becoming the first person to sail single-handed and non-stop around the world. He was awarded both prizes, and later donated the £5,000 to a fund supporting Crowhurst's family.\n\nGenesis of the race\n\nLong-distance single-handed sailing has its beginnings in the nineteenth century, when a number of sailors made notable single-handed crossings of the Atlantic. The first single-handed circumnavigation of the world was made by Joshua Slocum, between 1895 and 1898, and many sailors have since followed in his wake, completing leisurely circumnavigations with numerous stopovers. However, the first person to tackle a single-handed circumnavigation as a speed challenge was Sir Francis Chichester, who, in 1960, had co-founded the Observer Single-handed Trans-Atlantic Race (OSTAR).\n\nIn 1966, Chichester set out to sail around the world by the clipper route, starting and finishing in England with a stop in Sydney, in an attempt to beat the speed records of the clipper ships in a small boat. His voyage was a great success, as he set an impressive round-the-world time of nine months and one day — with 226 days of sailing time — and, soon after his return to England on 28 May 1967, was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II. Even before his return, however, a number of other sailors had turned their attention to the next logical challenge — a non-stop single-handed circumnavigation of the world.\n\nPlans laid\n\nIn March 1967, a 28-year-old British merchant marine officer, Robin Knox-Johnston, realised that a non-stop solo circumnavigation was \"about all there's left to do now\". Knox-Johnston had a 32 foot wooden ketch, Suhaili, which he and some friends had built in India to the William Atkin Eric design; two of the friends had then sailed the boat to South Africa, and in 1966 Knox-Johnston had single-handedly sailed her the remaining 10000 nmi to London.A World of My Own, Robin Knox-Johnston; pages 1—12. W.H. Norton, 1969. ISBN 0-393-02900-X\n\nKnox-Johnston was determined that the first person to make a single-handed non-stop circumnavigation should be British, and he decided that he would attempt to achieve this feat. To fund his preparations he went looking for sponsorship from Chichester's sponsor, the British Sunday Times. The Sunday Times was by this time interested in being associated with a successful non-stop voyage but decided that, of all the people rumoured to be preparing for a voyage, Knox-Johnston and his old wooden ketch were the least likely to succeed. Knox-Johnston finally arranged sponsorship from the Sunday Mirror. \n\nSeveral other sailors were interested. Bill King, a former Royal Navy submarine commander, built a 42 foot junk-rigged schooner, Galway Blazer II, designed for heavy conditions. He was able to secure sponsorship from the Express newspapers. John Ridgway and Chay Blyth, a British Army captain and sergeant, had rowed a 20 foot boat across the Atlantic Ocean in 1966. They independently decided to attempt the non-stop sail, but despite their rowing achievement were hampered by a lack of sailing experience. They both made arrangements to get boats, but ended up with entirely unsuitable vessels, 30 foot boats designed for cruising protected waters and too lightly built for Southern Ocean conditions. Ridgway managed to secure sponsorship from The People newspaper. \n\nOne of the most serious sailors considering a non-stop circumnavigation in late 1967 was the French sailor and author Bernard Moitessier. Moitessier had a custom-built 39 foot steel ketch, Joshua, named after Slocum, in which he and his wife Françoise had sailed from France to Tahiti. They had then sailed her home again by way of Cape Horn, simply because they wanted to go home quickly to see their children. He had already achieved some recognition based on two successful books which he had written on his sailing experiences. However, he was disenchanted with the material aspect of his fame — he believed that by writing his books for quick commercial success he had sold out what was for him an almost spiritual experience. He hit upon the idea of a non-stop circumnavigation as a new challenge, which would be the basis for a new and better book.The Strange Last Voyage of Donald Crowhurst, by Nicholas Tomalin and Ron Hall; pages 24—25. Hodder & Stoughton Ltd., 2003. ISBN 0-07-141429-0 \n\nThe birth of the race\n\nBy January 1968, word of all these competing plans was spreading. The Sunday Times, which had profited to an unexpected extent from its sponsorship of Chichester, wanted to get involved with the first non-stop circumnavigation, but had the problem of selecting the sailor most likely to succeed. King and Ridgway, two likely candidates, already had sponsorship, and there were several other strong candidates preparing. \"Tahiti\" Bill Howell, an Australian cruising sailor, had made a good performance in the 1964 OSTAR, Moitessier was also considered a strong contender, and there may have been other potential circumnavigators already making preparations.\n\nThe Sunday Times did not want to sponsor someone for the first non-stop solo circumnavigation only to have them beaten by another sailor, so the paper hit upon the idea of a sponsored race, which would cover all the sailors setting off that year. To circumvent the possibility of a non-entrant completing his voyage first and scooping the story, they made entry automatic: anyone sailing single-handed around the world that year would be considered in the race.\n\nThis still left them with a dilemma in terms of the prize. A race for the fastest time around the world was a logical subject for a prize, but there would obviously be considerable interest in the first person to complete a non-stop circumnavigation, and there was no possibility of persuading the possible candidates to wait for a combined start. The Sunday Times therefore decided to award two prizes: the Golden Globe trophy for the first person to sail single-handed, non-stop around the world; and a £5,000 prize (a considerable sum then, equivalent to £58,100 in 2005 ) for the fastest time. \n\nThis automatic entry provision had the drawback that the race organisers could not vet entrants for their ability to take on this challenge safely. This was in contrast to the OSTAR, for example, which in the same year required entrants to complete a solo 500-nautical mile (930 km) qualifying passage. The one concession to safety was the requirement that all competitors must start between 1 June and 31 October, in order to pass through the Southern Ocean in summer. \n\nTo make the speed record meaningful, competitors had to start from England. However Moitessier, the most likely person to make a successful circumnavigation, was preparing to leave from Toulon, in France. When the Sunday Times went to invite him to join the race, he was horrified, seeing the commercialisation of his voyage as a violation of the spiritual ideal which had inspired it. A few days later, Moitessier relented, thinking that he would join the race and that if he won, he would take the prizes and leave again without a word of thanks. In typical style, he refused the offer of a free radio to make progress reports, saying that this intrusion of the outside world would taint his voyage; he did, however, take a camera, agreeing to drop off packages of film if he got the chance.The Long Way, by Bernard Moitessier; page 5. Sheridan House, 1995. ISBN 0-924486-84-8\n\nThe race declared\n\nThe race was announced on 17 March 1968, by which time King, Ridgway, Howell (who later dropped out), Knox-Johnston, and Moitessier were declared competitors. Chichester, despite expressing strong misgivings about the preparedness of some of the interested parties, was to chair the panel of judges.\n\nFour days later, British electronics engineer Donald Crowhurst announced his intention to take part. Crowhurst was the manufacturer of a modestly successful radio navigation aid for sailors, who impressed many people with his apparent knowledge of sailing. With his electronics business failing, he saw a successful adventure, and the attendant publicity, as the solution to his financial troubles — essentially the mirror opposite of Moitessier, who saw publicity and financial rewards as inimical to his adventure. \n\nCrowhurst planned to sail in a trimaran. These boats were starting to gain a reputation, still very much unproven, for speed, along with a darker reputation for unseaworthiness; they were known to be very stable under normal conditions, but extremely difficult to right if knocked over, for example by a rogue wave. Crowhurst planned to tackle the deficiencies of the trimaran with a revolutionary self-righting system, based on an automatically inflated air bag at the masthead. He would prove the system on his voyage, then go into business manufacturing it, thus making trimarans into safe boats for cruisers. \n\nBy June, Crowhurst had secured some financial backing, essentially by mortgaging the boat, and later his family home. Crowhurst's boat, however, had not yet been built; despite the lateness of his entry, he pressed ahead with the idea of a custom boat, which started construction in late June. Crowhurst's belief was that a trimaran would give him a good chance of the prize for the fastest circumnavigation, and with the help of a wildly optimistic table of probable performances, he even predicted that he would be first to finish — despite a planned departure on 1 October. \n\nThe race\n\nThe start (1 June to 28 July)\n\nGiven the design of the race, there was no organised start; the competitors set off whenever they were ready, over a period of several months. On 1 June 1968, the first allowable day, John Ridgway sailed from Inishmore, Ireland, in his weekend cruiser English Rose IV. Just a week later, on 8 June, Chay Blyth followed suit — despite having absolutely no sailing experience. On the day he set sail, he had friends rig the boat Dytiscus for him and then sail in front of him in another boat to show him the correct manoeuvres. \n\nKnox-Johnston got underway from Falmouth soon after, on 14 June. He was undisturbed by the fact that it was a Friday, contrary to the common sailors' superstition that it is bad luck to begin a voyage on a Friday. Suhaili, crammed with tinned food, was low in the water and sluggish, but the much more seaworthy boat soon started gaining on Ridgway and Blyth. \n\nIt soon became clear to Ridgway that his boat was not up to a serious voyage, and he was also becoming affected by loneliness. On 17 June, at Madeira, he made an arranged rendezvous with a friend to drop off his photos and logs, and received some mail in exchange. While reading a recent issue of the Sunday Times that he had just received, he discovered that the rules against assistance prohibited receiving mail — including the newspaper in which he was reading this — and so he was technically disqualified. While he dismissed this as overly petty, he continued the voyage in bad spirits. The boat continued to deteriorate, and he finally decided that it would not be able to handle the heavy conditions of the Southern Ocean. On 21 July he put into Recife, Brazil, and retired from the race. \n\nEven with the race underway, other competitors continued to declare their intention to join. On 30 June, Royal Navy officer Nigel Tetley announced that he would race in the trimaran he and his wife lived aboard. He obtained sponsorship from Music for Pleasure, a British budget record label, and started preparing his boat, Victress, in Plymouth, where Moitessier, King, and Frenchman Loïck Fougeron were also getting ready. Fougeron was a friend of Moitessier, who managed a motorcycle company in Casablanca, and planned to race on Captain Browne, a 30 foot steel gaff cutter. Crowhurst, meanwhile, was far from ready — assembly of the three hulls of his trimaran only began on 28 July at a boatyard in Norfolk.Trimaran Solo, by Nigel Tetley; pages 15—17. Nautical Publishing Co., 1970. ISBN 0-245-59950-9 \n\nAttrition begins (29 July to 31 October)\n\nBlyth and Knox-Johnston were well down the Atlantic by this time. Knox-Johnston, the experienced seaman, was enjoying himself, but Suhaili had problems with leaking seams near the keel. However, Knox-Johnston had managed a good repair by diving and caulking the seams underwater. \n\nBlyth was not far ahead, and although leading the race, he was having far greater problems with his boat, which was suffering in the hard conditions. He had also discovered that the fuel for his generator had been contaminated, which effectively put his radio out of action. On 15 August, Blyth went in to Tristan da Cunha to pass a message to his wife, and spoke to crew from an anchored cargo ship, Gillian Gaggins. On being invited aboard by her captain, a fellow Scot, Blyth found the offer impossible to refuse and went aboard, while the ship's engineers fixed his generator and replenished his fuel supply.\n\nBy this time he had already shifted his focus from the race to a more personal quest to discover his own limits; and so, despite his technical disqualification for receiving assistance, he continued sailing towards Cape Town. His boat continued to deteriorate, however, and on 13 September he put into East London. Having successfully sailed the length of the Atlantic and rounded Cape Agulhas in an unsuitable boat, he decided that he would take on the challenge of the sea again, but in a better boat and on his own terms. \n\nDespite the retirements, other racers were still getting started. On Thursday, 22 August, Moitessier and Fougeron set off, with King following on Saturday (none of them wanted to leave on a Friday). With Joshua lightened for a race, Moitessier set a fast pace — more than twice as fast as Knox-Johnston over the same part of the course. Tetley sailed on 16 September, and on 23 September, Crowhurst's boat, Teignmouth Electron, was finally launched in Norfolk. Under severe time pressure, Crowhurst planned to sail to Teignmouth, his planned departure point, in three days; but although the boat performed well downwind, the struggle against headwinds in the English Channel showed severe deficiencies in the boat's upwind performance, and the trip to Teignmouth took 13 days. \n\nMeanwhile, Moitessier was making excellent progress. On 29 September he passed Trindade in the south Atlantic, and on 20 October he reached Cape Town, where he managed to leave word of his progress. He sailed on east into the Southern Ocean, where he continued to make good speed, covering 188 nmi on 28 October. \n\nOthers were not so comfortable with the ocean conditions. On 30 October, Fougeron passed Tristan da Cunha, with King a few hundred nautical miles ahead. The next day — Halloween — they both found themselves in a severe storm. Fougeron hove-to, but still suffered a severe knockdown. King, who allowed his boat to tend to herself (a recognised procedure known as lying ahull), had a much worse experience; his boat was rolled and lost its foremast. Both men decided to retire from the race. \n\nThe last starters (31 October to 23 December)\n\nFour of the starters had decided to retire at this point, at which time Moitessier was 1100 nmi east of Cape Town, Knox-Johnston was 4000 nmi ahead in the middle of the Great Australian Bight, and Tetley was just nearing Trindade. However, 31 October was also the last allowable day for racers to start, and was the day that the last two competitors, Donald Crowhurst and Alex Carozzo, got under way. Carozzo, a highly regarded Italian sailor, had competed in (but not finished) that year's OSTAR. Considering himself unready for sea, he \"sailed\" on 31 October, to comply with the race's mandatory start date, but went straight to a mooring to continue preparing his boat without outside assistance. Crowhurst was also far from ready — his boat, barely finished, was a chaos of unstowed supplies, and his self-righting system was unbuilt. He left anyway, and started slowly making his way against the prevailing winds of the English Channel. \n\nBy mid-November Crowhurst was already having problems with his boat. Hastily built, the boat was already showing signs of being unprepared, and in the rush to depart, Crowhurst had left behind crucial repair materials. On 15 November, he made a careful appraisal of his outstanding problems and of the risks he would face in the Southern Ocean; he was also acutely aware of the financial problems awaiting him at home. Despite his analysis that Teignmouth Electron was not up to the severe conditions which she would face in the Roaring Forties, he pressed on. \n\nCarozzo retired on 14 November, as he had started vomiting blood due to a peptic ulcer, and put into Porto, Portugal, for medical attention. Two more retirements were reported in rapid succession, as King made Cape Town on 22 November, and Fougeron stopped in Saint Helena on 27 November. This left four boats in the race at the beginning of December: Knox-Johnston's Suhaili, battling frustrating and unexpected headwinds in the south Pacific Ocean, Moitessier's Joshua, closing on Tasmania, Tetley's Victress, just passing the Cape of Good Hope, and Crowhurst's Teignmouth Electron, still in the north Atlantic.\n\nTetley was just entering the Roaring Forties, and encountering strong winds. He experimented with self-steering systems based on various combinations of headsails, but had to deal with some frustrating headwinds. On 21 December he encountered a calm and took the opportunity to clean the hull somewhat; while doing so, he saw a 7 foot shark prowling around the boat. He later caught it, using a shark hook baited with a tin of bully beef (corned beef), and hoisted it on board for a photo. His log is full of sail changes and other such sailing technicalities and gives little impression of how he was coping with the voyage emotionally; still, describing a heavy low on 15 December he hints at his feelings, wondering \"why the hell I was on this voyage anyway\". \n\nKnox-Johnston was having problems, as Suhaili was showing the strains of the long and hard voyage. On 3 November, his self-steering gear had failed for the last time, as he had used up all his spares. He was also still having leak problems, and his rudder was loose. Still, he felt that the boat was fundamentally sound, so he braced the rudder as well as he could, and started learning to balance the boat in order to sail a constant course on her own. On 7 November, he dropped mail off in Melbourne, and on 19 November he made an arranged meeting off the Southern Coast of New Zealand with a Sunday Mirror journalist from Otago, New Zealand. \n\nCrowhurst's false voyage (6 December to 23 December)\n\nOn 10 December, Crowhurst reported that he had had some fast sailing at last, including a day's run on 8 December of 243 nmi, a new 24-hour record. Francis Chichester was sceptical of Crowhurst's sudden change in performance, and with good reason — on 6 December, Crowhurst had started creating a faked record of his voyage, showing his position advancing much faster than it actually was. The creation of this fake log was an incredibly intricate process, involving working celestial navigation in reverse. \n\nThe motivation for this initial deception was most likely to allow him to claim an attention-getting record prior to entering the doldrums. However, from that point on, he started to keep two logs — his actual navigation log, and a second log in which he could enter a faked description of a round-the-world voyage. This would have been an immensely difficult task, involving the need to make up convincing descriptions of weather and sailing conditions in a different part of the world, as well as complex reverse navigation. He tried to keep his options open as long as possible, mainly by giving only extremely vague position reports; but on 17 December he sent a deliberately false message indicating that he was over the Equator, which he was not. From this point his radio reports — while remaining ambiguous — indicated steadily more impressive progress around the world; but he never left the Atlantic, and it seems that after December the mounting problems with his boat had caused him to give up on ever doing so. \n\nChristmas at sea (24 December to 25 December)\n\nChristmas Day 1968 was a strange day for the four racers, who were very far from friends and family. Crowhurst made a radio call to his wife on Christmas Eve, during which he was pressed for a precise position, but refused to give one. Instead, he told her he was \"off Cape Town\", a position far in advance of his plotted fake position, and even farther from his actual position, 20 nmi off the easternmost point in Brazil, just 7 degrees (480 nmi) south of the equator. \n\nLike Crowhurst, Tetley was depressed. He had a lavish Christmas dinner of roast pheasant, but was suffering badly from loneliness. Knox-Johnston, thoroughly at home on the sea, treated himself to a generous dose of whisky and held a rousing solo carol service, then drank a toast to the Queen at 3pm. He managed to pick up some radio stations from the USA, and heard for the first time about the Apollo 8 astronauts, who had just made the first orbit of the Moon. Moitessier, meanwhile, was sunbathing in a flat calm, deep in the roaring forties south-west of New Zealand. \n\nRounding the Horn (26 December to 18 March)\n\nBy January, concern was growing for Knox-Johnston. He was having problems with his radio transmitter and nothing had been heard since he had passed south of New Zealand. He was actually making good progress, rounding Cape Horn on 17 January 1969. Elated by this successful climax to his voyage, he briefly considered continuing east, to sail around the Southern Ocean a second time, but soon gave up the idea and turned north for home. \n\nCrowhurst's deliberately vague position reporting was also causing consternation for the press, who were desperate for hard facts. On 19 January, he finally yielded to the pressure and stated himself to be 100 nmi south-east of Gough Island in the south Atlantic. He also reported that due to generator problems he was shutting off his radio for some time. His position was misunderstood on the receiving end to be 100 nmi south-east of the Cape of Good Hope; the high speed this erroneous position implied fuelled newspaper speculation in the following radio silence, and his position was optimistically reported as rapidly advancing around the globe. Crowhurst's actual position, meanwhile, was off Brazil, where he was making slow progress south, and carefully monitoring weather reports from around the world to include in his fake log. He was also becoming increasingly concerned about Teignmouth Electron, which was starting to come apart, mainly due to slapdash construction. \n\nMoitessier also had not been heard from since New Zealand, but he was still making good progress and coping easily with the conditions of the \"furious fifties\". He was carrying letters from old Cape Horn sailors describing conditions in the Southern Ocean, and he frequently consulted these to get a feel for chances of encountering ice. He reached the Horn on 6 February, but when he started to contemplate the voyage back to Plymouth he realised that he was becoming increasingly disenchanted with the race concept. \n\nAs he sailed past the Falkland Islands he was sighted, and this first news of him since Tasmania caused considerable excitement. It was predicted that he would arrive home on 24 April as the winner (in fact, Knox-Johnston finished on 22 April). A huge reception was planned in Britain, from where he would be escorted to France by a fleet of French warships for an even more grand reception. There was even said to be a Légion d'honneur waiting for him there. \n\nMoitessier had a very good idea of this, but throughout his voyage he had been developing an increasing disgust with the excesses of the modern world; the planned celebrations seemed to him to be yet another example of brash materialism. After much debate with himself, and many thoughts of those waiting for him in England, he decided to continue sailing — past the Cape of Good Hope, and across the Indian Ocean for a second time, into the Pacific. Unaware of this, the newspapers continued to publish \"assumed\" positions progressing steadily up the Atlantic, until, on 18 March, Moitessier fired a slingshot message in a can onto a ship near the shore of Cape Town, announcing his new plans to a stunned world: \n\nOn the same day, Tetley rounded Cape Horn, becoming the first to accomplish the feat in a multihull sailboat. Badly battered by his Southern Ocean voyage, he turned north with considerable relief. \n\nRe-establishing contact (19 March to 22 April)\n\nTeignmouth Electron was also battered and Crowhurst badly wanted to make repairs, but without the spares that had been left behind he needed new supplies. After some planning, on 8 March he put in to the tiny settlement of Río Salado, in Argentina, just south of the Río de la Plata. Although the village turned out to be the home of a small coastguard station, and his presence was logged, he got away with his supplies and without publicity. He started heading south again, intending to get some film and experience of Southern Ocean conditions to bolster his false log. \n\nThe concern for Knox-Johnston turned to alarm in March, with no news of him since New Zealand; aircraft taking part in a NATO exercise in the North Atlantic mounted a search operation in the region of the Azores. However, on 6 April he finally managed to make contact with a British tanker using his signal lamp, which reported the news of his position, 1200 nmi from home. This created a sensation in Britain, with Knox-Johnston now clearly set to win the Golden Globe trophy, and Tetley predicted to win the £5,000 prize for the fastest time. \n\nCrowhurst re-opened radio contact on 10 April, reporting himself to be \"heading\" towards the Diego Ramirez Islands, near Cape Horn. This news caused another sensation, as with his projected arrival in the UK at the start of July he now seemed to be a contender for the fastest time, and (very optimistically) even for a close finish with Tetley. Once his projected false position approached his actual position, he started heading north at speed. \n\nTetley, informed that he might be robbed of the fastest-time prize, started pushing harder, despite that his boat was having significant problems — he made major repairs at sea in an attempt to stop the port hull of his trimaran falling off, and kept racing. On 22 April, he crossed his outbound track, one definition of a circumnavigation. \n\nThe finish (22 April to 1 July)\n\nOn the same day, 22 April, Knox-Johnston completed his voyage where it had started, in Falmouth. This made him the winner of the Golden Globe trophy, and the first person to sail single-handed and non-stop around the world, which he had done in 312 days. This left Tetley and Crowhurst apparently fighting for the £5,000 prize for fastest time.\n\nHowever, Tetley knew that he was pushing his boat too hard. On 20 May he ran into a storm near the Azores and began to worry about the boat's severely weakened state. Hoping that the storm would soon blow over, he lowered all sail and went to sleep with the boat lying ahull. In the early hours of the next day he was awoken by the sounds of tearing wood. Fearing that the bow of the port hull might have broken off, he went on deck to cut it loose, only to discover that in breaking away it had made a large hole in the main hull, from which Victress was now taking on water too rapidly to stop. He sent a Mayday, and luckily got an almost immediate reply. He abandoned ship just before Victress finally sank and was rescued from his liferaft that evening, having come to within 1100 nmi of finishing what would have been the most significant voyage ever made in a multi-hulled boat. \n\nCrowhurst was left as the only person in the race, and — given his high reported speeds — virtually guaranteed the £5,000 prize. This would, however, also guarantee intense scrutiny of himself, his stories, and his logs by genuine Cape Horn veterans such as the sceptical Chichester. Although he had put great effort into his fabricated log, such a deception would in practice be extremely difficult to carry off, particularly for someone who did not have actual experience of the Southern Ocean; something of which he must have been aware at heart. Although he had been sailing fast — at one point making over 200 nmi in a day — as soon as he learned of Tetley's sinking, he slowed down to a wandering crawl. \n\nCrowhurst's main radio failed at the beginning of June, shortly after he had learned that he was the sole remaining competitor. Plunged into unwilling solitude, he spent the following weeks attempting to repair the radio, and on 22 June was finally able to transmit and receive in morse code. The following days were spent exchanging cables with his agent and the press, during which he was bombarded with news of syndication rights, a welcoming fleet of boats and helicopters, and a rapturous welcome by the British people. It became clear that he could not now avoid the spotlight.\n\nUnable to see a way out of his predicament, he plunged into abstract philosophy, attempting to find an escape in metaphysics, and on 24 June he started writing a long essay to express his ideas. Inspired (in a misguided way) by the work of Einstein, whose book Relativity: The Special and General Theory he had aboard, the theme of Crowhurst's writing was that a sufficiently intelligent mind can overcome the constraints of the real world. Over the following eight days, he wrote 25,000 words of increasingly tortured prose, drifting farther and farther from reality, as Teignmouth Electron continued sailing slowly north, largely untended. Finally, on 1 July, he concluded his writing with a garbled suicide note and, it is assumed, jumped overboard. \n\nMoitessier, meanwhile, had concluded his own personal voyage more happily. He had circumnavigated the world and sailed almost two-thirds of the way round a second time, all non-stop and mostly in the roaring forties. Despite heavy weather and a couple of severe knockdowns, he contemplated rounding the Horn again. However, he decided that he and Joshua had had enough and sailed to Tahiti, where he and his wife had set out for Alicante. He thus completed his second personal circumnavigation of the world (including the previous voyage with his wife) on 21 June 1969. He started work on his book. \n\nAftermath of the race\n\nKnox-Johnston, as the only finisher, was awarded both the Golden Globe trophy and the £5,000 prize for fastest time. He continued to sail and circumnavigated three more times. He was awarded a CBE in 1969 and was knighted in 1995. His book, A World of My Own, tells the story of his trip in typically down-to-earth, blunt style.\n\nIt is impossible to say that Moitessier would have won if he had completed the race, as he would have been sailing in different weather conditions than Knox-Johnston did, but based on his time from the start to Cape Horn being about 77% of that of Knox-Johnston, it would have been extremely close. His book, The Long Way, tells the story of his voyage as a spiritual journey as much as a sailing adventure and is still regarded as a classic of sailing literature. Joshua was beached, along with many other yachts, by a storm at Cabo San Lucas in December 1982; with a new boat, Tamata, Moitessier sailed back to Tahiti from the San Francisco Bay. He died in 1994. \n\nWhen Teignmouth Electron was discovered drifting and abandoned in the Atlantic on 10 July, a fund was started for Crowhurst's wife and children; Knox-Johnston donated his £5,000 prize to the fund, and more money was added by press and sponsors. The news of his deception, mental breakdown, and suicide, as chronicled in his surviving logbooks, was made public a few weeks later, causing a sensation. Nicholas Tomalin and Ron Hall, two of the journalists connected with the race, wrote a 1970 book on Crowhurst's voyage, The Strange Last Voyage of Donald Crowhurst, described by Hammond Innes in its Sunday Times review as \"fascinating, uncomfortable reading\" and a \"meticulous investigation\" of Crowhurst's downfall. \n\nTetley found it impossible to adapt to his old way of life after his adventure. He was awarded a consolation prize of £1,000, with which he decided to build a new trimaran for a round-the-world speed record attempt. His 60 foot boat Miss Vicky was built in 1971, but his search for sponsorship to pay for fitting-out met with consistent rejection. His book, Trimaran Solo, sold poorly. Although he outwardly seemed to be coping, the repeated failures must have taken their toll. In February 1972, he went missing from his home in Dover. His body was found in nearby woods hanging from a tree three days later. His death was originally believed to be a suicide. At the inquest, it was revealed that the body had been discovered wearing lingerie and the hands were bound. The attending pathologist suggested the likelihood of masochistic sexual activity. Finding no evidence to suggest that Tetley had killed himself, the coroner recorded an open verdict. Tetley was cremated; Knox-Johnson and Blyth were among the mourners in attendance. \n\nBlyth devoted his life to the sea and to introducing others to its challenge. In 1970–1971 he sailed a sponsored boat, British Steel, single-handedly around the world \"the wrong way\", against the prevailing winds. He subsequently took part in the Whitbread Round the World Yacht Race and founded the Global Challenge race, which allows amateurs to race around the world. His old rowing partner, John Ridgway, followed a similar course; he started an adventure school in Scotland, and circumnavigated the world twice under sail: once in the Whitbread Round the World Yacht Race, and once with his wife. King finally completed a circumnavigation in Galway Blazer II in 1973. \n\nSuhaili was sailed for some years more, including a trip to Greenland, and spent some years on display at the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich. However, her planking began to shrink because of the dry conditions and, unwilling to see her deteriorate, Knox-Johnston removed her from the museum and had her refitted in 2002. She was returned to the water and is now based at the National Maritime Museum Cornwall.\n\nTeignmouth Electron was sold to a tour operator in Jamaica and eventually ended up damaged and abandoned on Cayman Brac, where she lies to this day. \n\nAfter being driven ashore during a storm at Cabo San Lucas, the restored Joshua was acquired by the maritime museum in La Rochelle, France, where it serves as part of a cruising school. \n\nGiven the failure of most starters and the tragic outcome of Crowhurst's voyage, considerable controversy was raised over the race and its organisation. No follow-up race was held for some time. However, in 1982 the BOC Challenge race was organised; this single-handed round-the-world race with stops was inspired by the Golden Globe and has been held every four years since. In 1989, Philippe Jeantot founded the Vendée Globe race, a non-stop, single-handed, round-the-world race. Essentially the successor to the Golden Globe, this race is also held every four years and has attracted public following for the sport.\n\n2018 Golden Globe Race\n\nIn 2015 it was announced that there would be a Golden Globe Race held in 2018, the 50th anniversary of the first race. This race would also start from Falmouth, on 14 June, the same day Knox-Johnston set out. The prize purse has been confirmed as £75,000, with all sailors that finish before 15:25 on 22 April 2019 winning their entry fee back. The organizers announced in August 2015 that 50 skippers have expressed their interest, and 18 of them have paid the provisional entry fee. \n\nCompetitors\n\nNine competitors participated in the race. Most of these had at least some prior sailing experience, although only Carozzo had competed in a major ocean race prior to the Golden Globe Race. The following table lists the entrants in order of starting, together with their prior sailing experience, and achievements in the race:" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Knox-Johnson" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "knox johnson" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "knox johnson", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Knox-Johnson" }
Warren Beatty was offered full college scholarships in which sport?	tc_1505	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Warren_Beatty.txt" ], "title": [ "Warren Beatty" ], "wiki_context": [ "Henry Warren Beatty ( ;CMU pronouncing dictionary [http://dictionary.infoplease.com/beatty Random House Unabridged Dictionary] and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,939844,00.html Time magazine], but according to the [http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict?in=warren+beatty CMU Pronouncing Dictionary]. born March 30, 1937) is an American actor and filmmaker. He has been nominated for fourteen Academy Awards – four for Best Actor, four for Best Picture, two for Best Director, three for Original Screenplay, and one for Adapted Screenplay – winning Best Director for Reds (1981). Beatty is the first and only person to have been twice nominated for acting in, directing, writing and producing the same film – first with Heaven Can Wait (1978), and again with Reds.\n\nIn 1999, he was awarded the Academy's highest honor, the Irving G. Thalberg Award. Beatty has been nominated for eighteen Golden Globe Awards, winning six, including the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award, which he was honored with in 2007. Among his Golden Globe-nominated films are Splendor in the Grass (1961), Bonnie and Clyde (1967), Shampoo (1975), Dick Tracy (1990), Bugsy (1991), and Bulworth (1998).\n\nEarly life\n\nHenry Warren Beaty was born in Richmond, Virginia. His mother, Kathlyn Corinne (née MacLean), who was Canadian, was a teacher from Nova Scotia, and his father, Ira Owens Beaty, had a PhD in educational psychology, was a public school administrator, and dealt in real estate. Beatty's grandparents were also educators. The family was Baptist. In 1945, the family moved from Richmond to Arlington, Virginia. During the 1950s, the family resided in the Dominion Hills section of Arlington. Beatty's elder sister is the actress, dancer and writer Shirley MacLaine. His uncle, by marriage, was Canadian politician A. A. MacLeod. Beatty is not related to actor Ned Beatty (who was also born in 1937).\n\nEducation\n\nBeatty was a star football player at Washington-Lee High School in Arlington. Encouraged to act by the success of his sister, who had recently established herself as a Hollywood star, he decided to work as a stagehand at the National Theatre in Washington, D.C. during the summer before his senior year. He was reportedly offered ten football scholarships to college, but rejected them to study liberal arts at Northwestern University (1954–55), where he joined the Sigma Chi fraternity. After his first year, he left college to move to New York City, where he studied acting under Stella Adler at the Stella Adler Studio of Acting. \n\nMilitary service\n\nBeatty enlisted in the California Air National Guard on February 11, 1960 under his original name, Henry W. Beaty. On January 1, 1961, Beatty was discharged from the Air National Guard due to physical disability. He was simultaneously discharged from the United States Air Force Reserve, and served on inactive duty only. \n\nCareer\n\n1950s and 1960s\n\nBeatty started his career making appearances on television shows such as Studio One (1957), Kraft Television Theatre (1957), and Playhouse 90 (1959). He was a semi-regular on The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis during its first season (1959–60). His performance in William Inge's A Loss of Roses on Broadway garnered him a 1960 Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Play and a 1960 Theatre World Award. It was his sole appearance on Broadway. He made his film debut in Elia Kazan's Splendor in the Grass (1961), opposite Natalie Wood. The film was a critical and box office success and Beatty was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor, and received the award for New Star of the Year – Actor. \n\nHe followed his initial film with Tennessee Williams' The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1961), with Vivien Leigh and Lotte Lenya, directed by Jose Quintero; All Fall Down (1962), with Angela Lansbury, Karl Malden and Eva Marie Saint, directed by John Frankenheimer; Lilith (1963), with Jean Seberg and Peter Fonda, directed by Robert Rossen; Promise Her Anything (1964), with Leslie Caron, Bob Cummings and Keenan Wynn, directed by Arthur Hiller; Mickey One (1965), with Alexandra Stewart and Hurd Hatfield, directed by Arthur Penn; and Kaleidoscope (1966), with Susannah York and Clive Revill, directed by Jack Smight.\n\nIn 1967, when he was 29 years old, he produced and acted in Bonnie and Clyde. He assembled a team that included the writers Robert Benton and David Newman and the director Arthur Penn, chose Faye Dunaway, Gene Hackman and Estelle Parsons for lead roles, oversaw the script and spearheaded the delivery of the film. It was a critical and commercial success, and was nominated for ten Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor, and seven Golden Globe Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor.\n\n1970s and 1980s\n\nAfter Bonnie and Clyde, Beatty acted with Elizabeth Taylor in The Only Game in Town (1970), directed by George Stevens; McCabe & Mrs. Miller (1971), directed by Robert Altman; Dollars (1971), directed by Richard Brooks; The Parallax View (1974), directed by Alan Pakula; and The Fortune (1975), directed by Mike Nichols. Beatty produced, co-wrote and acted in Shampoo (1975), directed by Hal Ashby, which was nominated for four Academy Awards, including Best Original Screenplay, as well as five Golden Globe Awards, including Best Motion Picture and Best Actor. In 1978, Beatty directed, produced, wrote and acted in Heaven Can Wait (1978) (sharing co-directing credit with Buck Henry). The film was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Director, Actor, and Adapted Screenplay. It also won three Golden Globe Awards, including Best Motion Picture and Best Actor.\n\nBeatty's next film was Reds (1981), an historical epic about American Communist journalist John Reed who observed the Russian October Revolution – a project Beatty had begun researching and filming for as far back as 1970. It was a critical and commercial success, despite being an American film about an American Communist made and released at the height of the Cold War. It received twelve Academy Award nominations – including four for Beatty (for Best Picture, Director, Actor, and Original Screenplay), winning three; Beatty won for Best Director, Maureen Stapleton won for Best Supporting Actress (playing anarchist Emma Goldman), and Vittorio Storaro won for Best Cinematography. The film received seven Golden Globe nominations, including Best Motion Picture, Director, Actor and Screenplay. Beatty won the Golden Globe Award for Best Director. Following Reds, Beatty did not appear in a film for five years until 1987's Ishtar, written and directed by Elaine May. Following severe criticism in press reviews by the new British studio chief David Puttnam just prior to its release, the film received mixed reviews and was commercially unsuccessful. Puttnam attacked several other over-budget U.S. films greenlit by his predecessor, and was fired shortly thereafter. \n\n1990s and 2000s\n\nBeatty next produced, directed and played the title role as comic strip based detective Dick Tracy in the 1990 film of the same name. The film received critical acclaim and was one of the highest grossing of the year. It received seven Academy Award nominations, winning three for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup, and Best Original Song. It also received four Golden Globe Award nominations, including Best Motion Picture. \n\nIn 1991, he produced and starred as the real-life gangster Bugsy Siegel in the critically and commercially acclaimed Bugsy, directed by Barry Levinson, which was nominated for ten Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor; it later won two of the awards for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. The film also received eight Golden Globe Award nominations, including Best Motion Picture and Best Actor, winning for Best Motion Picture. Beatty's next film, Love Affair (1994), directed by Glenn Gordon Caron, received mixed reviews and was unimpressive commercially. \n\nIn 1998, he wrote, produced, directed and starred in the political satire Bulworth, which was critically acclaimed and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The film also received three Golden Globe Award nominations, for Best Motion Picture, Best Actor, and Best Screenplay. Beatty has appeared briefly in numerous documentaries, including Madonna: Truth or Dare (1991) and One Bright Shining Moment: The Forgotten Summer of George McGovern (2005).\n\nFollowing the disastrous box office performance of Town & Country (2001), in which Beatty starred, he did not appear in or direct another film until Rules Don't Apply. The latter movie is slated for release in 2016.\n\n2010s\n\nIn 2010, Beatty directed and reprised his role as Dick Tracy in a 30-minute comedy film titled Dick Tracy Special, which premiered on TCM. The short metafiction film stars Dick Tracy and film critic and historian Leonard Maltin, the latter of whom discusses the history and creation of Tracy. Tracy talks about how he admired Ralph Byrd and Morgan Conway who portrayed him in several films, but says he didn't care much for Beatty's portrayal of him or his film. \nIn April 2016, at an event honoring producer Arnon Milchan, Beatty said he is \"very serious\" about making a Dick Tracy sequel with Milchan producing. \n\nIn the mid-1970s, Beatty signed a contract with Warner Bros. to star, produce, write, and possibly direct a film about Howard Hughes. It was also during this period that Beatty approached Paul Schrader to write a script on Hughes' life, which he declined. However, the project was put on hold when Beatty began Heaven Can Wait. Initially, Beatty planned to film the life story of John Reed and Hughes back-to-back, but as he was getting deeper into the project, he eventually focused primarily on the John Reed film Reds. After years of being away from the camera, in June 2011, it was reported that Beatty would produce, write, direct and star in a film about Hughes, focusing on an affair he had with a younger woman in the final years of his life. During this period, Beatty approached actors to star in his ensemble cast. He met with Andrew Garfield, Alec Baldwin, Owen Wilson, Justin Timberlake, Shia La Beouf, Jack Nicholson, Evan Rachel Wood, Rooney Mara, his wife Annette Bening, and his personal choice for the female lead, Felicity Jones. After Paramount Pictures exited the film, Regency Enterprises picked up the film in September 2011. \n\nThe film, Rules Don't Apply, began principal photography in February 2014 and wrapped in June of the same year. Some have said that Beatty's film is 40 years in the making. It is scheduled to be released on November 23, 2016. \n\nHonors\n\nBeatty has received the Eleanor Roosevelt Award from the Americans for Democratic Action, the Brennan Legacy Award from the Brennan Center for Justice at the New York University School of Law, the Phillip Burton Public Service Award from the Foundation for Taxpayer and Consumer Rights, and the Spirit of Hollywood Award from the Associates for Breast and Prostate Cancer Studies. Beatty was a founding board member of the Center for National Policy, a founding member of the Progressive Majority, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, has served as the Campaign Chair for the Permanent Charities Committee, and has participated in the World Economic Forum at Davos, Switzerland. He served on the Board of Trustees at the Scripps Research Institute, and the Board of Directors of the Motion Picture and Television Fund Foundation. He was named Honorary Chairman of the Stella Adler Studio of Acting in 2004. \n\nThe National Association of Theatre Owners awarded him with the Star of the Year Award in 1975, and in 1978 the Director of the Year Award and the Producer of the Year Award. He received the Alan J. Pakula Memorial Award from the National Board of Review in 1998. He received the Akira Kurosawa Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002 from the San Francisco International Film Festival. He has received the Board of Governors Award from the American Society of Cinematographers, the Distinguished Director Award from the Costume Designers Guild, the Life Achievement Award from the Publicists Guild, and the Outstanding Contribution to Cinematic Imagery Award from the Art Directors Guild. In 2004, he received the Kennedy Center Honors in Washington, D.C., and the Milestone Award from the Producers Guild of America. He was honored with the American Film Institute's Life Achievement Award in 2008. In March 2013, he was inducted into the California Hall of Fame. \n\nBeatty has received a number of international awards: in 1992, he was made a Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters (France); in 1998, he was nominated for a Golden Lion for Best Film (Bulworth), and received a Career Golden Lion from the Venice Film Festival; in 2001, he received the Donostia Lifetime Achievement Award from the San Sebastián International Film Festival; in 2002, he received the British Academy Fellowship from BAFTA; and in 2011, he was awarded the Stanley Kubrick Britannia Award. \n\nPersonal life\n\nBeatty has been married to actress Annette Bening since 1992. They have four children: Stephen (born January 8, 1992), Benjamin (born August 23, 1994), Isabel (born January 11, 1997) and Ella (born April 8, 2000). \n\nPrior to marrying Bening, Beatty was well known for his high-profile romantic relationships that received generous media coverage. He had relationships with Madonna, Cher, Serena, Twiggy, Iman, Natalie and Lana Wood, Michelle Phillips, Diane Keaton, Julie Christie, Leslie Caron, Isabelle Adjani, Mary Tyler Moore, Goldie Hawn, Kate Jackson, Joan Collins, Diane Sawyer, Connie Chung, Britt Ekland, Melanie Griffith, Barbara Hershey, Jacqueline Onassis, Maya Plisetskaya, Pat Cleveland, Vanessa Redgrave, Dewi Sukarno, Princess Margaret, Jessica Savitch, Susan Strasberg, Brigitte Bardot, Janice Dickinson, \nChristine Kaufmann, Jane Fonda, Daryl Hannah, Barbara Minty, Margaux Hemingway, Mamie Van Doren, Raquel Welch, Bebe Buell, Barbara Harris, Elizabeth Hubbard, Princess Elizabeth of Yugoslavia, Joni Mitchell, Linda McCartney, Inger Stevens, Dayle Haddon, Carol Alt, Maria Callas, Brooke Hayward, Juliet Prowse, Joyce Hyser, Carole Mallory, Liv Ullmann, Diane von Furstenberg, Elle Macpherson, and Stephanie Seymour. Singer-songwriter Carly Simon also dated Beatty, and confirmed in November 2015 that she wrote a verse in her hit song \"You're So Vain\" about him. \n\nBeatty is a longtime supporter of the Democratic Party. In 1972, Beatty was part of the \"inner circle\" of Senator George McGovern's presidential campaign. He traveled extensively and was instrumental in organizing fundraising. \n\nIn May 2005, Beatty sued Tribune Media, claiming he still maintained the rights to Dick Tracy. On March 25, 2011, U.S. District Judge Dean Pregerson ruled in Beatty's favor. \n\nFilmography\n\nUnmade films\n\nUntitled Dick Tracy Sequel - Warren Beatty is currently developing this project at Disney, as of 2016. He has been talking about doing a sequel ever since the original was released in 1990.\nOcean of Storms - Beatty was set to produce and star in this aging astronaut love story. Annette Benning was set to co-star. The script was written by Tony Bill & Ben Young Mason with revisions by Wesley Strick, Robert Towne, Lawrence Wright, Stephen Harrigan and Aaron Sorkin. Martin Scorsese was at one point attached to direct. The project was in development from 1989 until around 2000. \nMermaid - Warren Beatty was attached to star in this love story about a sailboat racer who falls in love with a mermaid. The script was in development in the early 1980s from Robert Towne. \nThe Duke of Deception - Warren Beatty was attached to star in this Steven Zaillian scripted and directed adaptation of the book by Geoffrey Wolff. He was attached to the project from 2000 til about 2005. Eventually the project was shelved after Beatty continued to procrastinate on his decision to star in it.\nMegalopolis - Warren Beatty was attached to co-star in Francis Ford Coppola's epic during the late 90's and early 2000's, but the project was eventually shelved. \nThe Killing of a Chinese Bookie (Remake) - Brett Ratner tried for several years to convince Warren Beatty to star in the remake of this project during the late 1990s." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "FOOTBALL", "History of football", "Games called football", "FootBall", "Football games", "Modern codes of football", "Football", "Footbal", "Foot ball", "Foot Ball", "Foot-ball", "Football move", "Football's", "Football rules", "History of football games", "Football code", "Foot-Ball", "Football (Group of Sports)", "Football (elliptical)", "Football codes" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "football move", "foot ball", "footbal", "football", "football rules", "modern codes of football", "football codes", "history of football", "football games", "history of football games", "football elliptical", "football code", "games called football", "football s", "football group of sports" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "football", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Football" }
Billy Crystal had a full college scholarship in which sport?	tc_1506	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Billy_Crystal.txt" ], "title": [ "Billy Crystal" ], "wiki_context": [ "William Edward \"Billy\" Crystal (born March 14, 1948)On page 17 of his book 700 Sundays, Crystal displays his birth announcement, which gives his first two names as \"William Edward\", not \"William Jacob\" is an American actor, writer, producer, director, comedian and television host. He gained prominence in the 1970s for playing Jodie Dallas on the ABC sitcom Soap and became a Hollywood film star during the late 1980s and 1990s, appearing in the critical and box office successes When Harry Met Sally... (1989), City Slickers (1991), and Analyze This (1999) and providing the voice of Mike Wazowski in the Monsters, Inc. franchise.\n\nHe has hosted the Academy Awards 9 times, beginning in 1990 and most recently in 2012.\n\nEarly life\n\nCrystal was born at Doctors Hospital on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, and initially raised in The Bronx. As a toddler, he moved with his family to 549 East Park Avenue in Long Beach, New York, on Long Island. He and his older brothers Joel and Richard, nicknamed Rip, were the sons of Helen (née Gabler), a housewife, and Jack Crystal, who owned and operated the Commodore Music Store, founded by Helen's father, Julius Gabler. Jack Crystal was also a jazz promoter, a producer, and an executive for an affiliated jazz record label, Commodore Records, founded by Helen's brother, musician and songwriter Milt Gabler. Crystal is Jewish (his family emigrated from Austria and Russia). The three young brothers would entertain by reprising comedy routines from the likes of Bob Newhart, Rich Little and Sid Caesar records their father would bring. Jazz artists such as Arvell Shaw, Pee Wee Russell, Eddie Condon, and Billie Holiday were often guests in the home. With the decline of Dixieland jazz circa 1963, Crystal's father lost his business, and died later that year at the age of 54 after suffering a heart attack while bowling. His mother, Helen Crystal, died in 2001.\n\nAfter graduation from Long Beach High School in 1965, Crystal attended Marshall University in Huntington, West Virginia on a baseball scholarship, having learned the game from his father, who pitched for St. John's University. Crystal never played baseball at Marshall because the program was suspended during his first year. He did not return to Marshall as a sophomore, instead deciding to stay in New York to be close to his future wife. He attended Nassau Community College with Janice, and later transferred to New York University, where he was a film and television directing major. He graduated from NYU in 1970 with a BFA from its School of Fine Arts, not yet named for the Tisch family. One of his instructors was Martin Scorsese while Oliver Stone and Christopher Guest were among his classmates.Crystal, in \n\nCareer\n\nTelevision\n\nCrystal returned to New York City and performed regularly at The Improv and Catch a Rising Star. In 1976, Crystal appeared on an episode of All in the Family. He was on the dais for The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast of Muhammad Ali on February 19, 1976, where he did impressions of both Ali and sportscaster Howard Cosell. He was scheduled to appear on the first episode of NBC Saturday Night (later renamed Saturday Night Live) (October 11, 1975), but his sketch was cut. He did perform on episode 17 of that first season, doing a monologue of an old jazz man capped by the line \"Can you dig it? I knew that you could.\" Host Ron Nessen introduced him as \"Bill Crystal.\" Crystal was a guest on the first and the last episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, which concluded February 6, 2014 after 22 seasons on the air. Crystal also made game show appearances such as The Hollywood Squares, All Star Secrets and The $20,000 Pyramid.To this day, he holds the Pyramid franchise's record for getting his contestant partner to the top of the pyramid in winner's circle in the fastest time, 26 seconds. \n\nCrystal's earliest prominent role was as Jodie Dallas on Soap, one of the first unambiguously homosexual characters in the cast of an American television series. He continued in the role during the series' entire 1977–1981 run.\n\nIn 1982, Billy Crystal hosted his own variety show, The Billy Crystal Comedy Hour on NBC. When Crystal arrived to shoot the fifth episode, he learned it had been canceled after only the first two aired. After hosting Saturday Night Live twice, on March 17, 1984 and the show's ninth season finale on May 5, he joined the regular cast for the 1984-85 season. His most famous recurring sketch was his parody of Fernando Lamas, a smarmy talk-show host whose catchphrase, \"You look... mahvelous!,\" became a media sensation. Crystal subsequently released an album of his stand-up material titled Mahvelous! in 1985, as well as the single \"You Look Marvelous\", which peaked at No. 58 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US, and No. 17 in Canada. Also in the 1980s, Crystal starred in an episode of Shelley Duvall's Faerie Tale Theatre as the smartest of the three little pigs.\n\nIn 1996, Crystal was the guest star of the third episode of Muppets Tonight and hosted three Grammy Awards Telecasts: the 29th Grammys; the 30th Grammys; and the 31st Grammys.\n\nIn 2015, Crystal co-starred alongside Josh Gad on the FX comedy series The Comedians, which ran for just one season before being canceled. \n\nActing in film and hosting the Oscars\n\nCrystal's first film role was in Joan Rivers' 1978 film Rabbit Test.\n\nCrystal appeared briefly in the Rob Reiner \"rockumentary\" This Is Spinal Tap (1984) as Morty The Mime, a waiter dressed as a mime at one of Spinal Tap's parties. He shared the scene with a then-unknown, non-speaking Dana Carvey, stating famously that \"Mime is money.\" He later starred in the action comedy Running Scared (1986) and was directed by Reiner again in The Princess Bride (1987), in a comedic supporting role as \"Miracle Max.\" Reiner got Crystal to accept the part by saying, \"How would you like to play Mel Brooks?\" Reiner also allowed Crystal to ad-lib, and his parting shot, \"Have fun storming the castle!\" is a frequently-quoted line.\n\nReiner directed Crystal for a third time in the romantic comedy When Harry Met Sally... (1989), in which Crystal starred alongside Meg Ryan and for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe. The film has since become an iconic classic for the genre and is Crystal's most celebrated film. Crystal then starred in the award-winning buddy comedy City Slickers (1991), which proved very successful both commercially and critically and for which Crystal was nominated for his second Golden Globe. The film was followed by a sequel, which was less successful. In 1992, he narrated Dr. Seuss Video Classics: Horton Hatches the Egg.\n\nFollowing the significant success of these films, Crystal wrote, directed, and starred in Mr. Saturday Night (1992) and Forget Paris (1995). In the former, Crystal played a serious role in aging makeup, as an egotistical comedian who reflects back on his career, although the character was from his SNL days. Though some of his subsequent films were not as well received as his earlier hits, Crystal had another success alongside Robert De Niro in Harold Ramis' mobster comedy Analyze This (1999). More recent performances include roles in America's Sweethearts (2001), the sequel Analyze That (2002), and Parental Guidance (2012).\n\nHe directed the made-for-television movie 61* (2001) based on Roger Maris's and Mickey Mantle's race to break Babe Ruth's single-season home run record in 1961. This earned Crystal an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special.\n\nCrystal was originally asked to voice Buzz Lightyear in Toy Story (1995) but turned it down, a decision he later regretted due to the popularity of the series. Crystal later went on to provide the voice of Mike Wazowski in the blockbuster Pixar film Monsters, Inc. (2001), and reprised his voice role in the prequel, Monsters University, which was released in June 2013. Crystal also provided the voice of Calcifer in the English version of Hayao Miyazaki's Howl's Moving Castle (2004).\n\nCrystal hosted the Academy Awards broadcast in 1990–1993, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2004 and 2012. His hosting was critically praised, resulting in two Emmy wins for hosting and writing the 63rd Academy Awards and an Emmy win for writing the 64th Academy Awards. He returned recently as the host for the 2012 Oscar ceremony, after Eddie Murphy resigned from hosting. His nine times as the M.C. is second only to Bob Hope's 18 in most ceremonies hosted. At the 83rd Academy Awards ceremony in 2011, he appeared as a presenter for a digitally inserted Bob Hope and before doing so was given a standing ovation. Film critic Roger Ebert said when Crystal came onstage about two hours into the show, he got the first laughs of the broadcast. Crystal's hosting gigs have regularly included an introductory video segment in which he comedically inserts himself into scenes of that year's nominees in addition to a song following his opening monologue.\n\nBroadway\n\nCrystal won the 2005 Tony Award for Best Special Theatrical Event for 700 Sundays, a two-act, one-man play, which he conceived and wrote about his parents and his childhood growing up on Long Island. He toured throughout the US with the show in 2006 and then Australia in 2007.\n\nFollowing the initial success of the play, Crystal wrote the book 700 Sundays for Warner Books, which was published on October 31, 2005. In conjunction with the book and the play that also paid tribute to his uncle, Milt Gabler, Crystal produced two CD compilations: Billy Crystal Presents: The Milt Gabler Story, which featured his uncle's most influential recordings from Billie Holiday's \"Strange Fruit\" to \"Rock Around the Clock\" by Bill Haley & His Comets; and Billy Remembers Billie featuring Crystal's favorite Holiday recordings.\n\nIn the fall of 2013, he brought the show back to Broadway for a two-month run at the Imperial Theatre. HBO filmed the January 3–4, 2014 performances for a special, which debuted on their network on April 19, 2014. \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nIn 1986, Crystal started hosting Comic Relief on HBO with Robin Williams and Whoopi Goldberg. Founded by Bob Zmuda, Comic Relief raises money for homeless people in the United States.\n\nOn September 6, 2005, on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Crystal and Jay Leno were the first celebrities to sign a Harley-Davidson motorcycle to be auctioned off for Gulf Coast relief. \n\nCrystal has participated in the Simon Wiesenthal Center Museum of Tolerance in Los Angeles. Portraying himself in a video, Crystal introduces museum guests to the genealogy wing of the museum.\n\nSports\n\nOn March 12, 2008, Crystal signed a one-day minor league contract to play with the New York Yankees, and was invited to the team's major league spring training. He wore uniform number 60 in honor of his upcoming 60th birthday. On March 13, in a spring training game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, Crystal led off as the designated hitter. He managed to make contact, fouling a fastball up the first base line, but was eventually struck out by Pirates pitcher Paul Maholm on six pitches and was later replaced in the batting order by Johnny Damon. He was released on March 14, his 60th birthday. \n\nCrystal's boyhood idol was Yankee Hall of Fame legend Mickey Mantle who had signed a program for him when Crystal attended a game where Mantle had hit a home run. Years later on The Dinah Shore Show, in one of his first television appearances, Crystal met Mantle in person and had Mantle re-sign the same program. Crystal would be good friends with Mickey Mantle until Mantle's death in 1995. He and Bob Costas together wrote the eulogy Costas read at Mantle's funeral, and George Steinbrenner then invited Crystal to emcee the unveiling of Mantle's monument at Yankee Stadium. In his 2013 memoir Still Foolin' 'Em, Crystal writes that after the ceremony, near the Yankee clubhouse, he was punched in the stomach by Joe DiMaggio, who was angry at Crystal for not having introduced him to the crowd as the \"Greatest living player.\"\n\nCrystal also was well known for his impressions of Yankee Hall of Famer turned broadcaster Phil Rizzuto. Rizzuto, known for his quirks calling games, did not travel to Anaheim, California in 1996 to call the game for WPIX. Instead, Crystal joined the broadcasters in the booth and pretended to be Rizzuto for a few minutes during the August 31 game.\n\nAlthough a lifelong Yankee fan, he is a part-owner of the Arizona Diamondbacks, even earning a World Series ring in 2001 when the Diamondbacks beat his beloved Yankees. \n\nIn City Slickers, Crystal wears a New York Mets baseball cap. In the 1986 film Running Scared, his character is an avid Chicago Cubs fan, wearing a Cubs' jersey in several scenes. In the 2012 film Parental Guidance, his character is the announcer for the Fresno Grizzlies, a Minor League Baseball team, and aspires to announce for their Major League affiliate, the San Francisco Giants.\n\nCrystal is also a longtime Los Angeles Clippers fan. \n\nPersonal life\n\nCrystal and his wife Janice (née Goldfinger) married in June 1970, have two daughters, actress Jennifer and producer Lindsay, and are grandparents. \nThey reside in Pacific Palisades, California. \n\nFilmography\n\nBibliography\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\nAwards and nominations" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Baseball game", "Baseball players", "Baseball player", "Basebasll", "American baseball", "Béisbol", "Baseball team", "Baseball Player", "Base Ball", "Beisbol", "Baseball", "America's pasttime", "America's past time", "The transformation of baseball", "Baseball Sign", "Basebol", "Base-Ball", "Baseballer", "BaseBall", "Simplified baseball rules", "America's past-time", "Base-ball", "Globalization of baseball", "Basebal", "Base ball", "American rounders" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "globalization of baseball", "american rounders", "baseball player", "baseball team", "america s pasttime", "beisbol", "basebol", "base ball", "simplified baseball rules", "baseball sign", "basebal", "transformation of baseball", "baseball", "america s past time", "baseball players", "béisbol", "baseballer", "baseball game", "basebasll", "american baseball" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "baseball", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Baseball" }
Who beat Jim Brown's rushing yards total of 12,312 yards in the 1980s?	tc_1507	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jim_Brown.txt" ], "title": [ "Jim Brown" ], "wiki_context": [ "James Nathaniel Brown (born February 17, 1936) is a former professional American football player and actor. He is best known for his record-setting nine-year career as a fullback for the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League (NFL) from 1957 through 1965. In 2002, he was named by Sporting News as the greatest professional football player ever. \n\nEarly life\n\nBrown was born in St. Simons, Georgia, to Swinton Brown, a professional boxer, and his wife, Theresa, a homemaker. \n\nAt Manhasset Secondary School, Brown earned 13 letters playing football, lacrosse, baseball, basketball, and running track.Holden, Stephen. \"[http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res\n9A04E1D71138F931A15750C0A9649C8B63 FILM REVIEW; Jim Brown as Football Legend, Sex Symbol and Husband]\", The New York Times, March 22, 2002. Retrieved October 15, 2007.\n\nHe averaged a then-Long Island record 38 points per game for his basketball team. That record was later broken by future Boston Red Sox star Carl Yastrzemski of Bridgehampton. \n\nCollege sports career\n\nAs a sophomore at Syracuse University (1954), Brown was the second leading rusher on the team. As a junior, he rushed for 666 yards (5.2 per carry). In his senior year, Brown was a unanimous first-team All-American. He finished fifth in the Heisman Trophy voting, and set school records for highest season rush average (6.2) and most rushing touchdowns in a single game (6). He ran for 986 yards—third most in the country despite Syracuse playing only eight games—and scored 14 touchdowns. In the regular-season finale, a 61–7 rout of Colgate, he rushed for 197 yards, scored six touchdowns and kicked seven extra points for 43 points (another school record). Then in the Cotton Bowl, he rushed for 132 yards, scored three touchdowns and kicked three extra points. But a blocked extra point after Syracuse's third touchdown was the difference as TCU won 28–27. \n\nBrown is a member of The Pigskin Club of Washington, D.C. National Intercollegiate All-American Football Players Honor Roll.\n\nPerhaps more impressive was his success as a multi-sport athlete. In addition to his football accomplishments, he excelled in basketball, track, and especially lacrosse. As a sophomore, he was the second leading scorer for the basketball team (15 ppg), and earned a letter on the track team. His junior year, he averaged 11.3 points in basketball, and was named a second-team All-American in lacrosse. His senior year, he was named a first-team All-American in lacrosse (43 goals in 10 games to rank second in scoring nationally). \n\nProfessional football career\n\nBrown was taken in the first round of the 1957 NFL draft by the Cleveland Browns, the sixth overall selection. After only nine years in the NFL, he departed as the NFL record holder for both single-season (1,863 in 1963) and career rushing (12,312 yards), as well as the all-time leader in rushing touchdowns (106), total touchdowns (126), and all-purpose yards (15,549). He was the first player ever to reach the 100-rushing-touchdowns milestone, and only a few others have done so since, despite the league's expansion to a 16-game season in 1978 (Brown's first four seasons were only 12 games, and his last five were 14 games).\n\nBrown's record of scoring 100 touchdowns in only 93 games stood until LaDainian Tomlinson did it in 89 games during the season. Brown holds the record for total seasons leading the NFL in all-purpose yards (5: 1958–1961, 1964), and is the only rusher in NFL history to average over 100 yards per game for a career. In addition to his rushing, Brown was a superb receiver out of the backfield, catching 262 passes for 2,499 yards and 20 touchdowns, while also adding another 628 yards returning kickoffs.\n\nEvery season he played, Brown was voted into the Pro Bowl, and he left the league in style by scoring three touchdowns in his final Pro Bowl game. Perhaps the most amazing feat is that he accomplished these records despite not playing past 29 years of age. Brown's 6 games with at least 4 touchdowns remains an NFL record. Tomlinson and Marshall Faulk both have five games with 4 touchdowns.\n\nBrown led the league in rushing a record eight times.\n\nBrown's 1,863 rushing yards in the 1963 season remain a Cleveland franchise record. It is currently the oldest franchise record for rushing yards out of all 32 NFL teams. His average of 133 yards per game that season is exceeded only by O.J. Simpson's 1973 season. While others have compiled more prodigious statistics, when viewing Brown's standing in the game, his style of running must be considered along with statistical measures. He was very difficult to tackle (shown by his leading 5.2 yards per carry), often requiring more than one defender to bring him down. \n\nBrown retired in July 1966, after only nine seasons as the NFL's all-time leading rusher. He held the record of 12,312 yards until it was broken by Walter Payton on October 7, 1984, during Payton's 10th NFL season. Brown is still the Cleveland Browns all-time leading rusher. Currently Jim Brown is ninth on the all-time rushing list. \n\nDuring Brown's career, Cleveland won the NFL championship in 1964 and were runners-up in 1957 and 1965, his rookie and final season, respectively.\n\nActing career\n\nBrown began an acting career before the 1964 season, playing a Buffalo Soldier in a western action film called Rio Conchos. The film premiered at Cleveland's Hippodrome theater on October 23, with Brown and many of his teammates in attendance. The reaction was lukewarm. Brown, one reviewer said, was a serviceable actor, but the movie's overcooked plotting and implausibility amounted to \"a vigorous melodrama for the unsqueamish.\"\n\nIn early 1966, Brown was shooting his second film in London. The Dirty Dozen cast Brown as Robert Jefferson, one of twelve convicts sent to France during World War II to assassinate German officers meeting at a castle near Rennes in Brittany before the D-Day invasion. Production delays due to bad weather meant he would miss at least the first part of training camp on the campus of Hiram College, which annoyed Cleveland Browns owner Art Modell, who threatened to fine Brown $1,500 for every week of camp he missed. Brown, who had previously said that 1966 would be his last season, the final year of a three-year contract, announced his retirement instead. At the end of his nine-year career, Brown held records for most rushing yards in a game, a season and a career. He also owned the record for all-purpose yards in a career and best average per carry for a running back at 5.22 yards, a mark that still stands. \n\nBrown went on to play a villain in a 1967 episode of I Spy called \"Cops and Robbers\", and appeared in the 1970 movie ...tick...tick...tick..., as well as in numerous other features. Biographer Mike Freeman credits Brown with becoming \"the first black action star\", thanks to roles like the Marine captain he portrayed in the hit 1968 film Ice Station Zebra. \n\nIn 1969, Brown starred in 100 Rifles with Burt Reynolds and Raquel Welch. The film was one of the first to feature an interracial love scene. Raquel Welch reflects on the scene in Spike Lee's Jim Brown: All-American. Brown acted with Fred Williamson in films such as 1974's Three the Hard Way, 1975's Take a Hard Ride, 1982's One Down, Two to Go, 1996's Original Gangstas and 2002's On the Edge. He also guest-starred in a handful of television episodes of various programs with Williamson. In 1998, he voiced Butch Meathook in the film Small Soldiers.\n\nPerhaps Brown's most memorable roles were as Robert Jefferson in The Dirty Dozen, and in Keenen Ivory Wayans' 1988 comedy I'm Gonna Git You Sucka. Brown also acted in 1987's The Running Man, an adaptation of a Stephen King story, as Fireball. He played a defensive coach, Montezuma Monroe, in Any Given Sunday, and also appeared in Sucker Free City and Mars Attacks!. Brown appeared in some TV shows including Knight Rider in the season 3 premiere episode \"Knight of the Drones\". Brown appeared alongside football hero Joe Namath on The A-Team episode \"Quarterback Sneak\". Brown also appeared on ChiPs, episode 1 and 2, in season 3, as a pickpocket on roller skates.\n\nFilmography\n\nOther post-football activities\n\nBrown served as a color analyst on NFL telecasts for CBS in 1978, teaming with Vin Scully and George Allen.\n\nIn 1983, seventeen years after retiring from professional football, Brown mused about coming out of retirement to play for the Los Angeles Raiders when it appeared that Pittsburgh Steelers running back Franco Harris would break his all-time rushing record. Brown disliked Harris' style of running, criticizing the Steeler running back's tendency to run out of bounds, a marked contrast to Brown's approach of fighting for every yard and taking on the oncoming tackler. Eventually, Walter Payton of the Chicago Bears broke the record on October 7, 1984, with Brown having ended thoughts of a comeback. Harris himself, who retired after the 1984 season after playing eight games with the Seattle Seahawks, fell short of Brown's mark. Following Harris's last season, in that January a challenge between Brown and Harris in a 40-yard dash was nationally televised. Brown, at 48-years old was certain he could beat Harris even though Harris was only 34-years old and just ending his elite career. Harris clocked in at 5.16 seconds, and Brown in at 5.72 seconds. Youth prevailed, and Brown said \"Franco beat me fair and square\".\n\nBrown's autobiography was published in 1989 by Zebra Books. It was titled Out of Bounds and was co-written with Steve Delsohn. He was a subject of the book Jim: The Author's Self-Centered Memoir of the Great Jim Brown, by James Toback.\n\nIn 1993, Brown was hired as a color commentator for the Ultimate Fighting Championship, a role he occupied for the first six pay-per-view events.\n\nIn 1988 Brown founded the Amer-I-Can Program. He currently works with kids caught up in the gang scene in Los Angeles and Cleveland through this Amer-I-Can program. It is a life management skills organization that operates in inner cities and prisons.\n\nBrown was convicted of misdemeanor vandalism in 1999 for damaging the automobile of his wife, Monique. Rather than participate in domestic violence counseling, community service, and probation, Brown chose instead to serve several months in jail, because, he said, \"The conditions of my sentence were ridiculous.\" \n\nIn 2002, film director Spike Lee released the film Jim Brown: All-American, a retrospective on Brown's professional career and personal life.\n\nIn 2008, Brown initiated a lawsuit against Sony and EA Sports for using his likeness in the Madden NFL video game series. He claimed that he \"never signed away any rights that would allow his likeness to be used\". \n\nAs of 2008, Brown was serving as an Executive Advisor to the Cleveland Browns, assisting to build relationships with the team's players and to further enhance the NFL's wide range of sponsored programs through the team's player programs department. \n\nOn May 29, 2013, Brown was named as a Special Advisor to the Browns.\n\nBrown is also a part owner of the New York Lizards of Major League Lacrosse, joining a group of investors in the purchase of the team in 2012. \n\nFootball accolades\n\nBrown's memorable professional career led to his induction into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1971, while The Sporting News selected him as the greatest football player of all time. Brown's football accomplishments at Syracuse garnered him a berth in the College Football Hall of Fame. Brown also earned a spot in the Lacrosse Hall of Fame, giving him a rare triple crown of sorts. Brown, Ted Williams, and Cal Hubbard are the only athletes to be inducted into the Halls of Fame of more than one professional sport.\n\nBrown's claim to the title of greatest running back of all time is supported by statistics. In 118 career games, Brown averaged 104.3 yards per game and 5.2 yards per carry. None of the NFL's career rushing leaders come close to these spectacular totals. For example, Walter Payton averaged only 88 yards per game during his career with a 4.4 yards-per-carry average. Emmitt Smith averaged only 81.2 yards per game with a 4.2 yards-per-carry average. Brown has famously said on the subject: \"When running backs get in a room together, they don't argue about who is the best.\"\n\nThe only top-ten all-time rusher who even approaches Brown's totals, Barry Sanders, posted a career average of 99.8 yards per game and 5.0 yards per carry. However, Barry Sanders' father, William, was frequently quoted as saying that Jim Brown was \"the best I've ever seen.\" \n\nBrown currently holds NFL records for most games with 24 or more points in a career (6), highest career touchdowns per game average (1.068), most career games with 3 or more touchdowns (14), most games with 4 or more touchdowns in a career (6), most seasons leading the league in rushing attempts (6), most seasons leading league in rushing yards (8), highest career rushing yards per game average (104.3), most seasons leading the league in touchdowns (5), most seasons leading the league in yards from scrimmage (6), highest average yards from scrimmage per game in a career (125.52), most seasons leading the league in combined net yards (5).\n\nOn November 4, 2010, Brown was chosen by NFL Network's NFL Films production The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players as the second-greatest player in NFL history, behind only Jerry Rice." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Walter and Connie Payton Foundation", "Walter Peyton", "Sweetness (football player)", "Walter Payton Foundation", "Walter Payton", "Walter Eliot Peyton", "Walter Jerry Payton" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "walter peyton", "walter payton foundation", "walter eliot peyton", "walter and connie payton foundation", "walter payton", "walter jerry payton", "sweetness football player" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "walter payton", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Walter Payton" }

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